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diff --git a/8195-h/8195-h.htm b/8195-h/8195-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e2fb04 --- /dev/null +++ b/8195-h/8195-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5698 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, April 9, 1881</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 275, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 275 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8195] +Release Date: May, 2005 +First Posted: June 30, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 275 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src= +"images/1a_th.png" alt=""></a></p> + + + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 275</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, APRIL 9, 1881</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XI, No. 275.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Various Modes of +Transmitting Power to a Distance. (Continued from No. 274.) By +ARTHUR ARCHARD. of Geneva.--II. Compressed Air.--III. Transmission +by Pressure Water.--IV. Transmission by Electricity.--General +Results</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">The Hotchkiss Revolving Gun</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Floating Pontoon Dock. 2 figures.--Improved +floating pontoon dock</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#4">TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Wheat and Wheat Bread. +By H. MEGE MOURIES.--Color in bread.--Anatomical structure and +chemical composition of wheat.--Embryo and coating of the embryo.-- +Cerealine--Phosphate of calcium.--1 figure, section of a grain of +wheat, magnified.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Origin of New Process Milling.--Special report to +the Census Bureau. By ALBERT HOPPIN.--Present status of milling +structures and machinery in Minneapolis by Special Census Agent C. +W. JOHNSON.--Communication from GEORGE T. SMITH.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">Tap for Effervescing Liquids. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">London Chemical Society.--Notes.--Pentathionic +acid, Mr. VIVIAN LEWES.--Hydrocarbons from Rosin Spirit. Dr. +ARMSTRONG.--On the Determination of the Relative Weight of Single +Molecules. E. VOGEL.--On the Synthetical Production of Ammonia by +the Combination of Hydrogen and Nitrogen in the Presence of Heated +Spongy Platinum, G. S. JOHNSON.--On the Oxidation of Organic Matter +in Water, A. DOWNS.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Rose Oil, or Otto of Roses. By CHAS. G. WARNFORD +LOCK.--Sources of rose oil.--History--Where rose gardens are now +cultivated for oil.--Methods of cultivation.--Processes of +distillation.--Adulterations</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">A New Method of Preparing Metatoluidine. By OSCAR +WIDMAN.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#10">AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Guenon Milk +Mirror. 1 figure. Escutcheon of the Jersey Bull Calf, Grand +Mirror.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">Two Good Lawn Trees</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">Cutting Sods for Lawns</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">Horticultural Notes: New apples, pears, grapes, +etc.--Discussion on Grapes. Western New York Society.--New +peaches.--Insects affecting horticulture.--Insect +destroyers.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. By +DAVID S. JORDAN and CHARLES B. GILBERT. Valuable census +report.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#15">LIGHT, ELECTRICITY ETC.--Relation between +Electricity and Light. Dr. O. T. Lodge's lecture before the London +Institute.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Interesting Electrical Researches by Dr. Warren +de La Rue and Dr. Hugo Miller.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">Telephony by Thermic Currents</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">The Telectroscope. By Moxs. SENLECQ. 5 figures. A +successful apparatus for transmitting and reproducing camera +pictures by electricity.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#19">HYGIENE, MEDICINE, ETC.--Rapid Breathing as a +Pain Obtunde in Minor Surgery, Obstetrics, the General Practice of +Medicine, and of Dentistry. Dr. W. G. A. Bonwill's paper before the +Philadelphia County Medical Society. 8 figures. Sphygmographic +tracings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#20">ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Artist's Homes. No. 11. +"Weirleigh." Residence of Harrison Weir. Perspective and +plans.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>WHEAT AND WHEAT BREAD.</h2> + +<h3>By H. MÈGE-MOURIÈS.</h3> + +<p>In consequence of the interest that has been recently excited on +the subject of bread reform, we have, says the London +<i>Miller</i>, translated the interesting contribution of H. +Mège-Mouriès to the Imperial and Central Society of +Agriculture of France, and subsequently published in a separate +form in 1860, on "Wheat and Wheat Bread," with the illustration +prepared by the author for the contribution. The author says: "I +repeat in this pamphlet the principal facts put forth in the notes +issued by me, and in the reports furnished by Mr. Chevreul to the +Academy of Science, from 1853 up to 1860."</p> + +<p>The study of the structure of the wheat berry, its chemical +composition, its alimentary value, its preservation, etc., is not +alone of interest to science, agriculture, and industry, but it is +worthy of attracting the attention of governments, for this study, +in its connection to political economy, is bound up with the fate +and the prosperity of nations. Wheat has been cultivated from time +immemorial. At first it was roughly crushed and consumed in the +form of a thick soup, or in cakes baked on an ordinary hearth. Many +centuries before the Christian era the Egyptians were acquainted +with the means of making fermented or leavened bread; afterwards +this practice spread into Greece, and it is found in esteem at Rome +two centuries B.C.; from Rome the new method was introduced among +the Gauls, and it is found to-day to exist almost the same as it +was practiced at that period, with the exception, of course, of the +considerable improvements introduced in the baking and +grinding.</p> + +<p>Since the fortunate idea was formed of transforming the wheat +into bread, this grain has always produced white bread, and dark or +brown bread, from which the conclusion was drawn that it must +necessarily make white bread and brown bread; on the other hand, +the flours, mixed with bran, made a brownish, doughy, and badly +risen bread, and it was therefore concluded that the bran, by its +color, produced this inferior bread. From this error, accepted as a +truth, the most contradictory opinions of the most opposite +processes have arisen, which are repeated at the present day in the +art of separating as completely as possible all the tissues of the +wheat, and of extracting from the grain only 70 per cent of flour +fit for making white bread. It is, however, difficult for the +observer to admit that a small quantity of the thin yellow envelope +can, by a simple mingling with the crumb of the loaf, color it +brown, and it is still more difficult to admit that the actual +presence of these envelopes can without decomposition render bread +doughy, badly raised, sticky, and incapable of swelling in water. +On the other hand, although some distinguished chemists deny or +exalt the nutritive properties of bran, agriculturists, taking +practical observation as proof, attribute to that portion of the +grain a physiological action which has nothing in common with +plastic alimentation, and prove that animals weakened by a too long +usage of dry fodder, are restored to health by the use of bran, +which only seems to act by its presence, since the greater portion +of it, as already demonstrated by Mr. Poggiale, is passed through +with the excrement.</p> + +<p>With these opinions, apparently so opposed, it evidently results +that there is an unknown factor at the bottom of the question; it +is the nature of this factor I wish to find out, and it was after +the discovery that I was able to explain the nature of brown bread, +and its <i>role</i> in the alimentation of animals. We have then to +examine the causes of the production of brown bread, to state why +white bread kills animals fed exclusively on it, while bread mixed +with bran makes them live. We have to explain the phenomena of +panification, the operations of grinding, and to explain the means +of preparing a bread more economical and more favorable to health. +To explain this question clearly and briefly we must first be +acquainted with the various substances forming the berry, their +nature, their position, and their properties. This we shall do with +the aid of the illustration given.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1b.png"><img src= +"images/1b_th.png" alt= +"SECTION OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT MAGNIFIED."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SECTION OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT MAGNIFIED.</p> + +<p>EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM.</p> + +<pre> +1.--Superficial Coating of the Epidermis, severed at the Crease of the Kernel. +2.--Section of Epidermis, Averages of the Weight of the Whole Grain, ½ %. +3.--Epicarp, do. do. do. 1 %. +4.--Endocarp, do. do. do. 1 ½ %. +5.--Testa or Episperm, do. do. do. 2 %. +6.--Embryo Membrane (with imaginary spaces in white on both sides to make it distinct). +7.\ / Glutonous Cells \ +8. > Endosperm < containing > do. do. 90 %. +9./ \ Farinaccous Matter / +</pre> + +<h3>ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WHEAT.</h3> + +<p>The figure represents the longitudinal cut of a grain of wheat; +it was made by taking, with the aid of the microscope and of +photography, the drawing of a large quantity of fragments, which, +joined together at last, produced the figure of the entire cut. +These multiplied results were necessary to appreciate the insertion +of the teguments and their nature in every part of the berry; in +this long and difficult work I have been aided by the co-operation +of Mr. Bertsch, who, as is known, has discovered a means of fixing +rapidly by photography any image from the microscope. I must state, +in the first place, that even in 1837 Mr. Payen studied and +published the structure and the composition of a fragment of a +grain of wheat; that this learned chemist, whose authority in such +matters is known, perfectly described the envelopes or coverings, +and indicated the presence of various immediate principles +(especially of azote, fatty and mineral substances which fill up +the range of contiguous cells between them and the periphery of the +perisperm, to the exclusion of the gluten and the starchy +granules), as well as to the mode of insertion of the granules of +starch in the gluten contained in the cells, with narrow divisions +from the perisperm, and in such a manner that up to the point of +working indicated by the figure 1 this study was complete. However, +I have been obliged to recommence it, to study the special facts +bearing on the alimentary question, and I must say that all the +results obtained by Mr. Bertsch, Mr. Trécul, and myself +agree with those given by Mr. Payen.</p> + +<h3>ENVELOPES OF THE BERRY.</h3> + +<p>No. 1 represents a superficial side of the crease.</p> + +<p>No. 2 indicates the epidermis or cuticle. This covering is +extremely light, and offers nothing remarkable; 100 lb. of wheat +contain ½ lb. of it.</p> + +<p>No. 3 indicates the epicarp. This envelope is distinguished by a +double row of long and pointed vessels; it is, like the first one, +very light and without action; 100 lb. of wheat contain 1 lb. of +it.</p> + +<p>No. 4 represents the endocarp, or last tegument of the berry; +the sarcocarp, which should be found between the numbers 2 and 3, +no longer exists, having been absorbed. The endocarp is remarkable +by its row of round and regular cells, which appear in the cut like +a continuous string of beads; 100 lb. of wheat contain 1½ +lb. of it.</p> + +<p>These three envelopes are colorless, light, and spongy; their +elementary composition is that of straw; they are easily removed +besides with the aid of damp and friction. This property has given +rise to an operation called decortication, the results of which we +shall examine later on from an industrial point of view. The whole +of the envelopes of the berry of wheat amount to 3 lb. in 100 lb. +of wheat.</p> + +<h3>ENVELOPES AND TISSUES OF THE BERRY PROPER.</h3> + +<p>No. 5 indicates the testa or episperm. This external tegument of +the berry is closer than the preceding ones; it contains in the +very small cells two coloring matters, the one of a palish yellow, +the other of an orange yellow, and according as the one or the +other matter predominates, the wheat is of a more or less intense +yellow color; hence come all the varieties of wheat known in +commerce as white, reddish, or red wheats. Under this tegument is +found a very thin, colorless membrane, which, with the testa or +episperm, forms two per cent. of the weight of the wheat.</p> + +<p>No. 6 indicates the embryous membrane, which is only an +expansion of the germ or embryo No. 10. This membrane is seen +purposely removed from its contiguous parts, so as to render more +visible its form and insertions. Under this tissue is found with +the Nos. 7, 8, and 9, the endosperm or perisperm, containing the +gluten and the starch; soluble and insoluble albuminoids, that is +to say, the flour.</p> + +<p>The endosperm and the embryous membrane are the most interesting +parts of the berry; the first is one of the depots of the plastic +aliments, the second contains agents capable of dissolving these +aliments during the germination, of determining their absorption in +the digestive organs of animals, and of producing in the dough a +decomposition strong enough to make dark bread. We shall proceed to +examine separately these two parts of the berry.</p> + +<h3>ENDOSPERM OR FLOURY PORTION, NOS. 7, 8, 9.</h3> + +<p>This portion is composed of large glutinous cells, in which the +granules of starch are found. The composition of these different +layers offers a particular interest; the center, No. 9, is the +softest part; it contains the least gluten and the most starch; it +is the part which first pulverizes under the stone, and gives, +after the first bolting, the fine flour. As this flour is poorest +in gluten, it makes a dough with little consistency, and incapable +of making an open bread, well raised. The first layer, No. 8, which +surrounds the center, produces small white middlings, harder and +richer in gluten than the center; it bakes very well, and weighs 20 +lb. in 100, and it is these 20 parts in 100 which, when mixed with +the 50 parts in the center, form the finest quality flour, used for +making white bread.</p> + +<p>The layer No. 7, which surrounds the preceding one, is still +harder and richer in gluten; unfortunately in the reduction it +becomes mixed with some hundredth parts of the bran, which render +it unsuitable for making bread of the finest quality; it produces +in the regrinding lower grade and dark flours, together weighing 7 +per cent. The external layer, naturally adhering to the membrane, +No. 6, becomes mixed in the grinding with bran, to the extent of +about 20 per cent., which renders it unsuitable even for making +brown bread; it serves to form the regrindings and the offals +destined for the nourishment of animals; this layer is, however, +the hardest, and contains the largest quantity of gluten, and it is +by consequence the most nutritive. We now see the endosperm +increasing from the center, formed of floury layers, which augment +in richness in gluten, in proportion as they are removed from the +center. Now, as the flours make more bread in proportion to the +quantity of gluten they contain, and the gluten gives more bread in +proportion to its being more developed, or having more consistence, +it follows that the flour belonging to the parts of the berry +nearest the envelopes or coverings should produce the greatest +portion of bread, and this is what takes place in effect. The +product of the different layers of the endosperm is given below, +and it will be seen that the quantity of bread increases in a +proportion relatively greater than that of the gluten, which proves +once more that the gluten of the center or last formation has less +consistence than that of the other layers of older formation.</p> + +<p>The following are the results obtained from the same wheat:</p> + +<pre> + Gluten. Bread. +100 parts of flour in center contain.. 8 and produce 128 + " " first layer " .. 9,2 " 136 + " " second " " .. 11 " 140 + " " external " " .. 13 " 145 +</pre> + +<p>On the whole, it is seen, according to the composition of the +floury part of the grain, that the berry contains on an average 90 +parts in 100 of flour fit for making bread of the first quality, +and that the inevitable mixing in of a small quantity of bran +reduces these 90 to 70 parts with the ordinary processes; but the +loss is not alone there, for the foregoing table shows that the +best portion of the grain is rejected from the food of man that +brown or dark bread is made of flour of very good quality, and that +the first quality bread is made from the portion of the endosperm +containing the gluten in the smallest quantity and in the least +developed form.</p> + +<p>This is a consideration not to be passed over lightly; assuredly +the gluten of the center contains as much azote as the gluten of +the circumference, but it must not be admitted in a general way +that the alimentary power of a body is in connection with the +amount of azote it contains, and without entering into +considerations which would carry us too wide of the subject, we +shall simply state that if the flesh of young animals, as, for +instance, the calf, has a debilitating action, while the developed +flesh of full-grown animals--of a heifer, for example--has really +nourishing properties, although the flesh of each animal contains +the same quantity of azote, we must conclude that the proportion of +elements is not everything, and that the azotic or nitrogenous +elements are more nourishing in proportion as they are more +developed. This is why the gluten of the layers nearest the bran is +of quite a special interest from the point of view of alimentation +and in the preparation of bread.</p> + +<h3>THE EMBRYO AND THE COATING OF THE EMBRYO.</h3> + +<p>To be intelligible, I must commence by some very brief remarks +on the tissues of vegetables. There are two sorts distinguished +among plants; some seem of no importance in the phenomena of +nutrition; others, on the contrary, tend to the assimilation of the +organic or inorganic components which should nourish and develop +all the parts of the plant. The latter have a striking analogy with +ferments; their composition is almost similar, and their action is +increased or diminished by the same causes.</p> + +<p>These tissues, formed in a state of repose in vegetables as in +grain, have special properties; thus the berry possesses a pericarp +whose tissues should remain foreign to the phenomena of +germination, and these tissues show no particularity worthy of +remark, but the coating of the embryo, which should play an active +part, possesses, on the contrary, properties that may be compared +to those of ferments. With regard to these ferments, I must further +remark that I have not been able, nor am I yet able, to express in +formula my opinion of the nature of these bodies, but little known +as yet; I have only made use of the language mostly employed, +without wishing to touch on questions raised by the effects of the +presence, and by the more complex effects of living bodies, which +exercise analogous actions.</p> + +<p>With these reservations I shall proceed to examine the tissues +in the berry which help toward the germination.</p> + +<p>THE EMBRYO (10, see woodcut) is composed of the root of the +plant, with which we have nothing to do here. This root of the +plant which is to grow is embedded in a mass of cells full of fatty +bodies. These bodies present this remarkable particularity, that +they contain among their elements sulphur and phosphorus. When you +dehydrate by alcohol 100 grammes of the embryo of wheat, obtained +by the same means as the membrane (a process indicated later on), +this embryo, treated with ether, produces 20 grammes of oils +composed elementarily of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, azote, sulphur, +and phosphorus. This analysis, made according to the means +indicated by M. Fremy, shows that the fatty bodies of the embryo +are composed like those of the germ of an egg, like those of the +brain and of the nervous system of animals. It is necessary for us +to stop an instant at this fact: in the first place, because it +proves that vegetables are designed to form the phosphoric as well +as the nitrogenous and ternary aliments, and finally, because it +indicates how important it is to mix the embryo and its dependents +with the bread in the most complete manner possible, seeing that a +large portion of these phosphoric bodies always become decomposed +during the baking.</p> + +<p>COATING OF THE EMBRYO.--This membrane (6), which is only an +expansion of the embryo, surrounds the endosperm; it is composed of +beautiful irregular cubic cells, diminishing according as they come +nearer to the embryo. These cells are composed, first, of the +insoluble cellular tissue; second, of phosphate of chalk and fatty +phosphoric bodies; third, of soluble cerealine. In order to study +the composition and the nature of this tissue, it must be +completely isolated, and this result is obtained in the following +manner.</p> + +<p>The wheat should be damped with water containing 10 parts in 100 +of alcoholized caustic soda; at the expiration of one hour the +envelopes of the pericarp, and of the testa Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, should +be separated by friction in a coarse cloth, having been reduced by +the action of the alkali to a pulpy state; each berry should then +be opened separately to remove the portion of the envelope held in +the fold of the crease, and then all the berries divided in two are +put into three parts of water charged with one-hundredth of caustic +potash. This liquid dissolves the gluten, divides the starch, and +at the expiration of twenty-four hours the parts of the berries are +kneaded between the fingers, collected in pure water, and washed +until the water issues clear; these membranes with their embryos, +which are often detached by this operation, are cast into water +acidulated with one-hundredth of hydrochloric acid, and at the end +of several hours they should be completely washed. The product +obtained consists of beautiful white membranes, insoluble in +alkalies and diluted acids, which show under the microscope +beautiful cells joined in a tissue following the embryo, with which +it has indeed a striking analogy in its properties and composition. +This membrane, exhausted by the alcohol and ether, gives, by an +elementary analysis, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and azote. +Unfortunately, under the action of the tests this membrane has been +killed, and it no longer possesses the special properties of active +tissues. Among these properties three may be especially +mentioned:</p> + +<p>1st. Its resistance to water charged with a mineral salt, such +as sea salt for instance</p> + +<p>2d. Its action through its presence.</p> + +<p>3d. Its action as a ferment.</p> + +<p>The action of saltwater is explained as follows: When the berry +is plunged into pure water it will be observed that the water +penetrates in the course of a few hours to the very center of the +endosperm, but if water charged or saturated with sea salt be used, +it will be seen that the liquid immediately passes through the +teguments Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, and stops abruptly before the embryo +membrane No. 6, which will remain quite dry and brittle for several +days, the berry remaining all the time in the water. Should the +water penetrate further after several days, it can be ascertained +that the entrance was gained through the part No 10 free of this +tissue, and this notwithstanding the cells are full of fatty +bodies. This membrane alone produces this action, for if the +coatings Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 be removed, the resistance to the +liquid remains the same, while if the whole, or a portion of it, be +divided, either by friction between two millstones or by simple +incisions, the liquid penetrates the berry within a few hours. This +property is analogous to that of the radicules of roots, which take +up the bodies most suitable for the nourishment of the plant. It +proves, besides, that this membrane, like all those endowed with +life, does not obey more the ordinary laws of permeability than +those of chemical affinity, and this property can be turned to +advantage in the preservation of grain in decortication and +grinding.</p> + +<p>To determine the action of this tissue through its presence, +take 100 grammes of wheat, wash it and remove the first coating by +decortication; then immerse it for several hours in lukewarm water, +and dry afterwards in an ordinary temperature. It should then be +reduced in a small coffee mill, the flour and middlings separated +by sifting and the bran repassed through a machine that will crush +it without breaking it; then dress it again, and repeat the +operation six times at least. The bran now obtained is composed of +the embryous membrane, a little flour adhering to it, and some +traces of the teguments Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5. This coarse +tissue-weighs about 14 grammes, and to determine its action through +its presence, place it in 200 grammes of water at a temperature of +86°; afterwards press it. The liquid that escapes contains +chiefly the flour and cerealine. Filter this liquid, and put it in +a test glass marked No. 1, which will serve to determine the action +of the cerealine.</p> + +<p>The bran should now be washed until the water issues pure, and +until it shows no bluish color when iodized water and sulphuric +acid are added; when the washing is finished the bran swollen by +the water is placed under a press, and the liquid extracted is +placed, after being filtered, in a test tube. This test tube serves +to show that all cerealine has been removed from the blades of the +tissue. Finally, these small blades of bran, washed and pressed, +are cast, with 50 grammes of lukewarm water, into a test tube, +marked No. 3; 100 grammes of diluted starch to one-tenth of dry +starch are then added in each test tube, and they are put into a +water bath at a temperature of 104° Fahrenheit, being stirred +lightly every fifteen minutes. At the expiration of an hour, or at +the most an hour and a half, No. 1 glass no longer contains any +starch, as it has been converted into dextrine and glucose by the +cerealine, and the iodized water only produces a purple color. No. +2 glass, with the same addition, produces a bluish color, and +preserves the starch intact, which proves that the bran was well +freed from the cerealine contained. No. 3 glass, like No. 1, shows +a purple coloring, and the liquid only contains, in place of the +starch, dextrine and glucose, <i>i. e</i>, the tissue has had the +same action as the cerealine deprived of the tissue, and the +cerealine as the tissue freed from cerealine. The same membrane +rewashed can again transform the diluted starch several times. This +action is due to the presence of the embryous membrane, for after +four consecutive operations it still preserves its original weight. +As regards the remains of the other segments, they have no +influence on this phenomenon, for the coating Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, +separated by the water and friction, have no action whatever on the +diluted starch. Besides its action through its presence, which is +immediate, the embryous membrane may also act as a ferment, active +only after a development, varying in duration according to the +conditions of temperature and the presence or absence of ferments +in acting.</p> + +<p>I make a distinction here as is seen, between the action through +being present, and the action of real ferments, but it is not my +intention to approve or disapprove of the different opinions +expressed on this subject. I make use of these expressions only to +explain more clearly the phenomena I have to speak of, for it is +our duty to bear in mind that the real ferments only act after a +longer or shorter period of development, while, on the other hand, +the effects through presence are immediate.</p> + +<p>I now return to the embryous membrane. Various causes increase +or decrease the action of this tissue, but it may be said in +general that all the agents that kill the embryous membrane will +also kill the cerealine. This was the reason why I at first +attributed the production of dark bread exclusively to the latter +ferment, but it was easy to observe that during the baking, +decompositions resulted at over 158° Fah., while the cerealine +was still coagulated, and that bread containing bran, submitted to +212° of heat, became liquefied in water at 104°. It was now +easy to determine that dark flours, from which the cerealine had +been removed by repeated washings, still produced dark bread. It +was at this time, in remembering my experiences with organic +bodies, I determined the properties of the insoluble tissue, +deprived of the soluble cerealine, with analogous properties, but +distinguished not alone by its solid organization and state of +insolubility, but also by its resistance to heat, which acts as on +yeast. There exists, in reality, I repeat, a resemblance between +the embryous membrane and the yeast; they have the same immediate +composition; they are destroyed by the same poisons, deadened by +the same temperatures, annihilated by the same agents, propagated +in an analogous manner, and it might be said that the organic +tissues endowed with life are only an agglomeration of fixed cells +of ferments. At all events, when the blades of the embryous +membrane, prepared as already stated, are exposed to a water bath +at 212°, this tissue, in contact with the diluted starch, +produces the same decomposition; the contact, however, should +continue two or three hours in place of one. If, instead of placing +these membranes in the water bath, they are enveloped in two pounds +of dough, and this dough put in the oven, after the baking the +washed membranes produce the same results, which especially proves +that this membrane can support a temperature of 212° Fah. +without disorganization. We shall refer to this property in +speaking of the phenomena of panification.</p> + +<p>CEREALINE.--The cells composing the embryous membrane contain, +as already stated, the cerealine, but after the germination they +contain cerealine and diastase, that is to say, a portion of the +cerealine changed into diastase, with which it has the greatest +analogy. It is known how difficult it is to isolate and study +albuminous substances. The following is the method of obtaining and +studying cerealine. Take the raw embryous membrane, prepared as +stated, steep it for an hour in spirits of wine diluted with twice +its volume of water, and renew this liquid several times until the +dextrine, glucose, coloring matters, etc., have been completely +removed. The membranes should now be pressed and cast into a +quantity of water sufficient to make a fluid paste of them, squeeze +out the mixture, filter the liquid obtained, and this liquid will +contain the cerealine sufficiently pure to be studied in its +effects. Its principal properties are: The liquid evaporated at a +low temperature produces an amorphous, rough mass nearly colorless, +and almost entirely soluble in distilled water; this solution +coagulates between 158° and 167° Fah., and the coagulum is +insoluble in acids and weak alkalies; the solution is precipitated +by all diluted acids, by phosphoric acid at all the degrees of +hydration, and even by a current of carbonic acid. All these +precipitates redissolve with an excess of acid, sulphuric acid +excepted. Concentrated sulphuric acid forms an insoluble downy +white precipitate, and the concentrated vegetable acids, with the +exception of tannic acid, do not determine any precipitate. +Cerealine coagulated by an acid redissolves in an excess of the +same acid, but it has become dead and has no more action on the +starch. The alkalies do not form any precipitate, but they kill the +cerealine as if it had been precipitated The neutral rennet does +not make any precipitate in a solution of cerealine--5 centigrammes +of dry cerealine transform in twenty-five minutes 10 grammes of +starch, reduced to a paste by 100 grammes of water at 113° Fah. +It will be seen that cerealine has a grand analogy with albumen and +legumine, but it is distinguished from them by the action of the +rennet, of the heat of acids, alcohol, and above all by its +property of transforming the starch into glucose and dextrine.</p> + +<p>It may be said that some albuminous substances have this +property, but it must be borne in mind that these bodies, like +gluten, for example, only possess it after the commencement of the +decomposition. The albuminous matter approaching nearest to +cerealine is the diastase, for it is only a transformation of the +cerealine during the germination, the proof of which may be had in +analyzing the embryous membrane, which shows more diastase and less +cerealine in proportion to the advancement of the germination: it +differs, however, from the diastase by the action of heat, alcohol, +etc. It is seen that in every case the cerealine and the embryous +membrane act together, and in an analogous manner; we shall shortly +examine their effects on the digestion and in the phenomena of +panification.</p> + +<p>PHOSPHATE OF CALCIUM.--Mr. Payen was the first to make the +observation that the greatest amount of phosphate of chalk is found +in the teguments adjoining the farinaceous or floury mass. This +observation is important from two points of view; in the first +place, it shows us that this mineral aliment, necessary to the life +of animals, is rejected from ordinary bread; and in the next place, +it brings a new proof that phosphate of chalk is found, and ought +to be found, in everyplace where there are membranes susceptible of +exercising vital functions among animals as well as vegetables.</p> + +<p>Phosphate of chalk is not in reality (as I wished to prove in +another work) a plastic matter suitable for forming bones, for the +bones of infants are three times more solid than those of old men, +which contain three times as much of it. The quantity of phosphate +of chalk necessary to the constitution of animals is in proportion +to the temperature of those animals, and often in the inverse ratio +of the weight of their bones, for vegetables, although they have no +bones, require phosphate of chalk. This is because this salt is the +natural stimulant of living membranes, and the bony tissue is only +a depot of phosphate of chalk, analogous to the adipose tissue, the +fat of which is absorbed when the alimentation coming from the +exterior becomes insufficient. Now, as we know all the parts +constituting the berry of wheat, it will be easy to explain the +phenomena of panification, and to conclude from the present moment +that it is not indifferent to reject from the bread this embryous +membrane where the agents of digestion are found, viz., the +phosphoric bodies and the phosphate of chalk.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ORIGIN OF NEW PROCESS MILLING.</h2> + +<p>The following article was written by Albert Hoppin, editor of +the <i>Northwestern Miller</i>, at the request of Special Agent +Chas. W. Johnson, and forms a part of his report to the census +bureau on the manufacturing industries of Minneapolis.</p> + +<p>"The development of the milling industry in this city has been +so intimately connected with the growth and prosperity of the city +itself, that the steps by which the art of milling has reached its +present high state of perfection are worthy of note, especially as +Minneapolis may rightly claim the honor of having brought the +improvements, which have within the last decade so thoroughly +revolutionized the art of making flour, first into public notice, +and of having contributed the largest share of capital and +inventive skill to their full development. So much is this the case +that the cluster of mills around the Falls of St. Anthony is to-day +looked upon as the head-center of the milling industry not only of +this country, but of the world. An exception to this broad +statement may possibly be made in favor of the city of Buda Pest, +in Austro-Hungary, from the leading mills in which the millers in +this country have obtained many valuable ideas. To the credit of +American millers and millwrights it must, however, be said that +they have in all cases improved upon the information they have thus +obtained.</p> + +<p>"To rightly understand the change that has taken place in +milling methods during the last ten years, it is necessary to +compare the old way with the new, and to observe wherein they +differ. From the days of Oliver Evans, the first American mechanic +to make any improvement in milling machinery, until 1870, there +was, if we may except some grain cleaning or smut machines, no very +strongly marked advance in milling machinery or in the methods of +manufacturing flour. It is true that the reel covered with +finely-woven silk bolting cloth had taken the place of the muslin +or woolen covered hand sieve, and that the old granite millstones +have given place to the French burr; but these did not affect the +essential parts of the <i>modus operandi</i>, although the quality +of the product was, no doubt, materially improved. The processes +employed in all the mills in the United States ten years ago were +identical, or very nearly so, with those in use in the Brandywine +Mills in Evans's day. They were very simple, and may be divided +into two distinct operations.</p> + +<p>"First. Grinding (literally) the wheat.</p> + +<p>"Second. Bolting or separating the flour or interior portion of +the berry from the outer husk, or bran. It may seem to some a rash +assertion, but this primitive way of making flour is still in vogue +in over one-half of the mills of the United States. This does not, +however, affect the truth of the statement that the greater part of +the flour now made in this country is made on an entirely different +and vastly-improved system, which has come to be known to the trade +as the new process.</p> + +<p>"In looking for a reason for the sudden activity and spirit of +progress which had its culmination in the new process, the +character of the wheat raised in the different sections of the +Union must be taken into consideration. Wheat may be divided into +two classes, spring and winter, the latter generally being more +starchy and easily pulverized, and at the same time having a very +tough bran or husk, which does not readily crumble or cut to pieces +in the process of grinding. It was with this wheat that the mills +of the country had chiefly to do, and the defects of the old system +of milling were not then so apparent. With the settlement of +Minnesota, and the development of its capacities as a wheat-growing +State, a new factor in the milling problem was introduced, which +for a time bid fair to ruin every miller who undertook to solve it. +The wheat raised in this State was, from the climatic conditions, a +spring wheat, hard in structure and having a thin, tender, and +friable bran. In milling this wheat, if an attempt was made to +grind it as fine as was then customary to grind winter wheat, the +bran was ground almost as fine as the flour, and passed as readily +through the meshes of the bolting reels or sieves, rendering the +flour dark, specky, and altogether unfit to enter the Eastern +markets in competition with flour from the winter wheat sections. +On the other hand, if the grinding was not so fine as to break up +the bran, the interior of the berry being harder to pulverize, was +not rendered sufficiently fine, and there remained after the flour +was bolted out a large percentage of shorts or middlings, which, +while containing the strongest and best flour in the berry, were so +full of dirt and impurities as to render them unfit for any further +grinding except for the very lowest grade of flour, technically +known as 'red dog.' The flour produced from the first grinding was +also more or less specky and discolored, and, in everything but +strength, inferior to that made from winter wheat, while the +'yield' was so small, or, in other words, the amount of wheat which +it took to make a barrel of flour was so large, that milling in +Minnesota and other spring wheat sections was anything but +profitable.</p> + +<p>"The problem which ten years since confronted the millers of +this city was how to obtain from the wheat which they had to grind +a white, clear flour, and to so increase the yield as to leave some +margin for profit. The first step in the solution of this problem +was the invention by E. N. La Croix of the machine which has since +been called the purifier, which removed the dirt and light +impurities from the refuse middlings in the same manner that dust +and chaff are removed from wheat by a fanning mill. The middlings +thus purified were then reground, and the result was a much whiter +and cleaner flour than it had been possible to obtain under the old +process of low close grinding. This flour was called 'patent' or +'fancy,' and at once took a high position in the market. The first +machine built by La Croix was immediately improved by George T. +Smith, and has since then been the subject of numberless +variations, changes, and improvements; and over the principles +embodied in its construction there has been fought one of the +longest and most bitter battles recorded in the annals of patent +litigation in this country. The purifier is to-day the most +important machine in use in the manufacture of flour in this +country, and may with propriety be called the corner-stone of new +process milling. The earliest experiments in its use in this +country were made in what was then known as the 'big mill' in this +city, owned by Washburn, Stephens & Co., and now known as the +Washburn Mill B.</p> + +<p>"The next step in the development of the new process, also +originating in Minneapolis, was the abandonment of the old system +of cracking the millstone, and substituting in its stead the use of +smooth surfaces on the millstones, thus in a large measure doing +away with the abrasion of the bran, and raising the quality of the +flour produced at the first grinding. So far as we know, Mr. E. R. +Stephens, a Minneapolis miller, then employed in the mill owned by +Messrs. Pillsbury, Crocker & Fish, and now a member of the +prominent milling firm of Freeman & Stephens, River Falls, +Wisconsin, was the first to venture on this innovation. He also +first practiced the widening of the furrows in the millstones and +increasing their number, thus adding largely to the amount of +middlings made at the first grinding, and raising the percentage of +patent flour. He was warmly supported by Amasa K. Ostrander, since +deceased, the founder and for a number of years the editor of the +<i>North-Western Miller</i>, a trade newspaper. The new ideas were +for a time vigorously combated by the millers, but their worth was +so plain that they were soon adopted, not only in Minneapolis, but +by progressive millers throughout the country. The truth was the +'new process' in its entirety, which may be summarized in four +steps--first, grinding or, more properly, granulating the berry; +second, bolting or separating the 'chop' or meal into first flour, +middlings, and bran; third, purifying the middlings, fourth, +regrinding and rebolting the middlings to produce the higher grade, +or 'patent' flour. This higher grade flour drove the best winter +wheat flours out of the Eastern markets, and placed milling in +Minnesota upon a firm basis. The development of the 'new process' +cannot be claimed by any one man. Hundreds of millers all over the +country have contributed to its advance, but the millers of +Minneapolis have always taken the lead.</p> + +<p>"Within the past two or three years what may be distinctively +called the 'new process' has, in the mills of Minneapolis and some +few other leading mills in the country, been giving place to a new +system, or rather, a refinement of the processes above described. +This latest system is known to the trade as the 'gradual reduction' +or high-grinding system, as the 'new process' is the medium +high-grinding system, and the old way is the low or close grinding +system. In using the gradual reduction in making flour the +millstones are abandoned, except for finishing some of the inferior +grades of flour, and the work is done by means of grooved and plain +rollers, made of chilled iron or porcelain. In some cases disks of +chilled iron, suitably furrowed, are used, and in others concave +mills, consisting of a cylinder running against a concave plate. In +Minneapolis the chilled iron rolls take the precedence of all other +means.</p> + +<p>"The system of gradual reduction is much more complicated than +either of those which preceded it; but the results obtained are a +marked advance over the 'new process.' The percentage of high-grade +flour is increased, several grades of different degrees of +excellence being produced, and the yield is also greater from a +given quantity of wheat. The system consists in reducing the wheat +to flour, not at one operation, as in the old system, nor in two +grindings, as in the 'new process,' but in several successive +reductions, four, five, or six, as the case may be. The wheat is +first passed through a pair of corrugated chilled iron rollers, +which merely split it open along the crease of the berry, +liberating the dirt which lies in the crease so that it can be +removed by bolting. A very small percentage of low-grade flour is +also made in this reduction. After passing through what is +technically called a 'scalping reel' to remove the dirt and flour, +the broken wheat is passed through a second set of corrugated +rollers, by which it is further broken up, and then passes through +a second separating reel, which removes the flour and middlings. +This operation is repeated successively until the flour portion of +the berry is entirely removed from the bran, the necessary +separation being made after each reduction. The middlings from the +several reductions are passed through the purifiers, and, after +being purified, are reduced to flour by successive reductions on +smooth iron or porcelain rollers. In some cases, as stated above, +iron disks and concave mills are substituted for the roller mill, +but the operation is substantially the same. One of the principal +objects sought to be attained by this high-grinding system is to +avoid all abrasion of the bran, another is to take out the dirt in +the crease of the berry at the beginning of the process, and still +another to thoroughly free the bran from flour, so as to obtain as +large a yield as possible. Incidental to the improved methods of +milling, as now practiced in this country, is a marked improvement +in the cleaning of the grain and preparing it for flouring. The +earliest grain-cleaning machine was the 'smutter,' the office of +which was to break the smut balls, and scour the outside of the +bran to remove any adhering dust, the scouring machine being too +harsh in its action, breaking the kernels of wheat, and so +scratching and weakening the bran that it broke up readily in the +grinding. The scouring process was therefore lessened, and was +followed by brush machines, which brushed the dirt, loosened up and +left by the scourer, from the berry. Other machines for removing +the fuzzy and germ ends of the berry have also been introduced, and +everything possible is done to free the grain from extraneous +impurities before the process of reduction is commenced. In all the +minor details of the mill there has been the same marked change, +until the modern merchant mill of to-day no more resembles that of +twenty-five years ago than does the modern cotton mill the +old-fashioned distaff. The change has extended into the winter +wheat sections, and no mill in the United States can hope to hold +its place in the markets unless it is provided with the many +improvements in machinery and processes which have resulted from +the experiments begun in this city only ten years since, and which +have made the name of Minneapolis and the products of her many +mills famous throughout the world. The relative merits of the flour +made by the new process and the old have been warmly discussed, but +the general verdict of the great body of consumers is that the +patent or new process flour is better in every way for bread making +purposes, being clearer, whiter, more evenly granulated, and +possessing more strength. Careful chemical analysis has confirmed +this. As between winter and spring wheat flours made by the new +process and gradual reduction systems, it maybe remarked that the +former contain more starch and are whiter in color, while the +latter, having more gluten, excel in strength. In milling all +varieties of wheat, whether winter or spring, the new processes are +in every way superior to the old, and, in aiding their inception +and development, the millers of Minneapolis have conferred a +lasting benefit on the country.</p> + +<p>"Minneapolis, Minn., December 1, 1880."</p> + +<h3>THE MILLING STRUCTURES AND MACHINERY.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Johnson added the following, showing the present status of +the milling industry in Minneapolis:</p> + +<p>"The description of the process of the manufacture of flour so +well given above, conveys no idea of the extent and magnitude of +the milling structures, machinery, and buildings employed in the +business. Many of the leading millers and millwrights have +personally visited and studied the best mills in England, France, +Hungary, and Germany, and are as familiar with their theory, +methods, and construction as of their own, and no expense or labor +has been spared in introducing the most approved features of the +improvements in the foreign mills. Experimenting is constantly +going on, and the path behind the successful millers is strewn with +the wrecks of failures. A very large proportion of the machinery is +imported, though the American machinists are fast outstripping +their European rivals in the quality and efficiency of the +machinery needed for the new mills constantly going up.</p> + +<p>"There are twenty-eight of these mills now constructed and at +work, operating an equivalent of 412 runs of stone, consuming over +sixteen million bushels of wheat, and manufacturing over three +million barrels of flour annually. Their capacities range from 250 +to 1,500 barrels of flour per day. Great as these capacities are, +there is now one in process of construction, the Pillsbury A Mill, +which at the beginning of the harvest of 1881 will have a capacity +of 4,000 barrels daily. The Washburn A Mill, whose capacity is now +1,500 barrels, is being enlarged to make 8,500 barrels a day, and +the Crown Roller Mill, owned by Christian Bros. & Co., is also +being enlarged to produce 3,000 barrels a day. The largest mill in +Europe has a daily capacity of but 2,800 barrels, and no European +mill is fitted with the exquisite perfection of machinery and +apparatus to be found in the mills of this city.</p> + +<p>"The buildings are mainly built of blue limestone, found so +abundant in the quarries of this city, range and line work, and +rest on the solid ledge. The earlier built mills are severely +plain, but the newer ones are greatly improved by the taste of the +architect, and are imposing and beautiful in appearance."</p> + +<h3>DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE.</h3> + +<p>The flour of Minneapolis, holding so high a rank in the markets +of the world, is always in active demand, especially the best +grades, and brings from $1.00 to $1.60 per barrel more than flour +of the best qualities of southern, eastern, or foreign wheat. +During the year nearly a million barrels were shipped direct to +European and other foreign ports, on through bills of lading, and +drawn for by banks here having special foreign exchange +arrangements, at sight, on the day of shipment. This trade is +constantly increasing, and the amount of flour handled by eastern +commission men is decreasing in proportion.</p> + +<hr> +<p>Referring to the foregoing, the following letter from Mr. Geo. +T. Smith to the editor of the <i>London Miller</i> is of +interest:</p> + +<p>SIR: I find published in the <i>North-western Miller</i> of +December 24, 1880, extracts from an article on the origin of new +process milling, prepared by Albert Hoppin, Esq., editor of the +above-named journal, for the use of one of the statistical +divisions of the United States census, which is so at variance, in +at least one important particular, with the facts set forth in the +paper read by me before the British and Irish millers, at their +meeting in May last, that I think I ought to take notice of its +statements, more especially as the <i>North-Western Miller</i> has +quite a circulation on this side of the water.</p> + +<p>As stated in the paper read by me above-mentioned, I was engaged +in February, 1871, by Mr. Christian, who was then operating the +"big," or Washburn Mill at Minneapolis, to take charge of the +stones in that mill. At this time Mr. Christian was very much +interested in the improvement of the quality of his flour, which in +common with the flour of Minneapolis mills, without exception, was +very poor indeed. For some time previous to this I had insisted to +him most strenuously that the beginning of any improvement must be +found in smooth, true, and well balanced stones, and it was because +he was at last convinced that my ideas were at least worthy of a +practical test I was placed in charge of his mill. Nearly two +months were consumed in truing and smoothing the stone, as all +millers in the mill had struck at once when they became acquainted +with the character of the changes I proposed to make.</p> + +<p>I remained with Mr. Christian until the latter part of 1871, in +all about eight months. During this time the flour from the +Washburn Mill attained a celebrity that made it known and sought +after all over the United States. It commanded attention as an +event of the very greatest importance, from the fact that it was +justly felt that if a mill grinding spring wheat exclusively was +capable of producing a flour infinitely superior in every way to +the best that could be made from the finest varieties of winter +wheats, the new North Western territory, with its peculiar +adaptation to the growing of spring grain, and its boundless +capacity for production, must at once become one of the most +important sections of the country.</p> + +<p>Mr. Christian's appreciation of the improvements I had made in +his mill was attested by doubly-locked and guarded entrances, and +by the stringent regulations which were adopted to prevent any of +his employes carrying information with regard to the process to his +competitors.</p> + +<p>All this time other Minneapolis mills were doing such work and +only such as they had done previously. Ought not the writer of an +article on the origin of new process milling--which article is +intended to become historical, and to have its authenticity +indorsed by the government--to have known whether Mr. Christian, in +the Washburn Mill, did or did not make a grade of flour which has +hardly been excelled since for months before any other Minneapolis +mill approached his product in any degree? And should he not be +well enough acquainted with the milling of that period--1871-2--to +know that such results as were obtained in the Washburn Mill could +only be secured by the use of <i>smooth</i> and <i>true</i> stones? +Mr. Stephens--whom I shall mention again presently--did <i>not</i> +work in the Washburn Mill while I was in charge of it.</p> + +<p>In the fall of 1871 I entered into a contract with Mr. C. A. +Pillsbury, owner of the Taylor Mill and senior partner in the firm +by whom the Minneapolis Mill was operated, to put both those mills +into condition to make the same grade of flour as Mr. Christian was +making. The consideration in the contract was 5,000 dols. At the +above mills I met to some extent the same obstruction in regard to +millers striking as had greeted me at Mr. Christian's mill earlier +in the year; but among those who did not strike at the Minneapolis +Mill I saw, for the first time, Mr. Stephens--then still in his +apprenticeship--whom Mr. Hoppin declares to have been, "so far as I +know," the first miller to use smooth stones. If Mr. Hoppin is +right in his assertion, perhaps he will explain why, during the +eight months I was at the Washburn Mill, Mr. Stephens did not make +a corresponding improvement in the product of the Minneapolis Mill. +That he did not do this is amply proved by the fact of Mr. +Pillsbury giving me 5,000 dols. to introduce improvements into his +mills, when, supposing Mr. Hoppin's statement to be correct, he +might have had the same alterations carried out under Mr. Stephens' +direction at a mere nominal cost. As a matter of fact, the stones +in both the Taylor and Minneapolis Mills were as rough as any in +the Washburn Mill when I took charge of them.</p> + +<p>Thus it appears (1) that the flour made by the mill in which +Stephens was employed was not improved in quality, while that of +the Washburn Mill, where he was not employed, became the finest +that had ever been made in the United States at that time. That (2) +the owner of the mill in which Mr. Stephens was employed, as he was +not making good flour, engaged me at a large cost to introduce into +his mills the alterations by which only, both Mr. Hoppin and myself +agree, could any material improvement in the milling of that period +be effected, .viz., smooth, true, and well-balanced stones.--GEO. +T. SMITH.</p> + +<hr> +<p>For breachy animals do not use barbed fences. To see the +lacerations that these fences have produced upon the innocent +animals should be sufficient testimony against them. Many use pokes +and blinders on cattle and goats, but as a rule such things fail. +The better way is to separate breachy animals from the lot, as +others will imitate their habits sooner or later, and then, if not +curable, <i>sell them</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>THE GUENON MILK-MIRROR.</h2> + +<p>The name of the simple Bordeaux peasant is, and should be, +permanently associated with his discovery that the milking +qualities of cows were, to a considerable extent, indicated by +certain external marks easily observed. We had long known that +capacious udders and large milk veins, combined with good digestive +capacity and a general preponderance of the alimentary over the +locomotive system, were indications that rarely misled in regard to +the ability of a cow to give much milk; but to judge of the amount +of milk a cow would yield, and the length of time she would hold +out in her flow, two or three years before she could be called a +cow--this was Guenon's great accomplishment, and the one for which +he was awarded a gold medal by the Agricultural Society of his +native district. This was the first of many honors with which he +was rewarded, and it is much to say that no committee of +agriculturists who have ever investigated the merits of the system +have ever spoken disparagingly of it. Those who most closely study +it, especially following Guenon's original system, which has never +been essentially improved upon, are most positive in regard to its +truth, enthusiastic in regard to its value.</p> + +<p>The fine, soft hair upon the hinder part of a cow's udder for +the most part turns upward. This upward-growing hair extends in +most cases all over that part of the udder visible between the hind +legs, but is occasionally marked by spots or mere lines, usually +slender ovals, in which the hair grows down. This tendency of the +hair to grow upward is not confined to the udder proper; but +extends out upon the thighs and upward to the tail. The edges of +this space over which the hair turns up are usually distinctly +marked, and, as a rule, the larger the area of this space, which is +called the "mirror" or "escutcheon," the more milk the cow will +give, and the longer she will continue in milk.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4a.png"><img src= +"images/4a_th.png" alt= +"ESCUTCHEON OF THE JERSEY BULL-CALF, GRAND MIRROR, 4,904."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ESCUTCHEON OF THE JERSEY BULL-CALF, GRAND MIRROR, +4,904.</p> + +<p>That portion of the escutcheon which covers the udder and +extends out on the inside of each thigh, has been designated as the +udder or mammary mirror; that which runs upward towards the setting +on of the tail, the rising or placental mirror. The mammary mirror +is of the greater value, yet the rising mirror is not to be +disregarded. It is regarded of especial moment that the mirror, +taken as a whole, be symmetrical, and especially that the mammary +mirror be so; yet it often occurs that it is far otherwise, its +outline being often very fantastical--exhibiting deep <i>bays</i>, +so to speak, and islands of downward growing hair. There are also +certain "ovals," never very large, yet distinct, which do not +detract from the estimated value of an escutcheon; notably those +occurring on the lobes of the udder just above the hind teats. +These are supposed to be points of value, though for what reason it +would be hard to tell, yet they do occur upon some of the very best +milch cows, and those whose mirrors correspond most closely to +their performances.</p> + +<p>Mr. Guenon's discovery enables breeders to determine which of +their calves are most promising, and in purchasing young stock it +affords indications which rarely fail as to their comparative milk +yield. These indications occasionally prove utterly fallacious, and +Mr. Guenon gives rules for determining this class, which he calls +"bastards," without waiting for them to fail in their milk. The +signs are, however, rarely so distinct that one would be willing to +sell a twenty-quart cow, whose yield confirmed the prediction of +her mirror at first calving, because of the possibility of the +going dry in two months, or so, as indicated by her bastardy +marks.</p> + +<p>It is an interesting fact that the mirrors of bulls (which are +much like those of cows, but less extensive in every direction) are +reflected in their daughters. This gives rise to the dangerous +custom of breeding for mirrors, rather than for milk. What the +results may be after a few years it is easy to see. The mirror, +being valued for its own sake--that is, because it sells the +heifers--will be likely to lose its practical significance and +value as a <i>milk</i> mirror.</p> + +<p>We have a striking photograph of a young Jersey bull, the +property of Mr. John L. Hopkins, of Atlanta, Ga., and called "Grand +Mirror." This we have caused to be engraved and the mirror is +clearly shown. A larger mirror is rarely seen upon a bull. We hope +in a future number to exhibit some cows' mirrors of different forms +and degrees of excellence.--<i>Rural New Yorker</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>TWO GOOD LAWN TREES.</h2> + +<p>The negundo, or ash-leaved maple, as it is called in the Eastern +States, better known at the West as a box elder, is a tree that is +not known as extensively as it deserves. It is a hard maple, that +grows as rapidly as the soft maple; is hardy, possesses a beautiful +foliage of black green leaves, and is symmetrical in shape. Through +eastern Iowa I found it growing wild, and a favorite tree with the +early settlers, who wanted something that gave shade and protection +to their homes quickly on their prairie farms. Brought east, its +growth is rapid, and it loses none of the characteristics it +possessed in its western home. Those who have planted it are well +pleased with it. It is a tree that transplants easily, and I know +of no reason why it should not be more popular.</p> + +<p>For ornamental lawn planting, I give pre-eminence to the +cut-leaf weeping birch. Possessing all the good qualities of the +white birch, it combines with them a beauty and delicate grace +yielded by no other tree. It is an upright grower, with slender, +drooping branches, adorned with leaves of deep rich green, each +leaf being delicately cut, as with a knife, into semi-skeletons. It +holds its foliage and color till quite late in the fall. The bark, +with age, becomes white, resembling the white birch, and the beauty +of the tree increases with its age. It is a free grower, and +requires no trimming. Nature has given it a symmetry which art +cannot improve.</p> + +<p>H.T.J.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>CUTTING SODS FOR LAWNS.</h2> + +<p>I am a very good sod layer, and used to lay very large +lawns--half to three-quarters of an acre. I cut the sods as +follows: Take a board eight to nine inches wide, four, five, or six +feet long, and cut downward all around the board, then turn the +board over and cut again alongside the edge of the board, and so on +as many sods as needed. Then cut the turf with a sharp spade, all +the same lengths. Begin on one end, and roll together. Eight inches +by five feet is about as much as a man can handle conveniently. It +is very easy to load them on a wagon, cart, or barrow, and they can +be quickly laid. After laying a good piece, sprinkle a little with +a watering pot, if the sods are dry; then use the back of the spade +to smooth them a little. If a very fine effect is wanted, throw a +shovelful or two of good earth over each square yard, and smooth it +with the back of a steel rake.</p> + +<p>F.H.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[COUNTRY GENTLEMAN.]</p> + +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>HORTICULTURAL NOTES.</h2> + +<p>The Western New York Society met at Rochester, January 26.</p> + +<p><i>New Apples, Pears, Grapes, etc.</i>--Wm. C Barry, secretary +of the committee on native fruits, read a full report. Among the +older varieties of the apple, he strongly recommended Button +Beauty, which had proved so excellent in Massachusetts, and which +had been equally successful at the Mount Hope Nurseries at +Rochester; the fine growth of the tree and its great productiveness +being strongly in its favor. The Wagener and Northern Spy are among +the finer sorts. The Melon is one of the best among the older +sorts; the fruit being quite tender will not bear long shipment, +but it possesses great value for home use, and being a poor grower, +it had been thrown aside by nurserymen and orchardists. It should +be top-grafted on more vigorous sorts. The Jonathan is another fine +sort of slender growth, which should be top-grafted.</p> + +<p>Among new pears, Hoosic and Frederic Clapp were highly commended +for their excellence. Some of the older peaches of fine quality had +of late been neglected, and among them Druid Hill and Brevoort.</p> + +<p>Among the many new peaches highly recommended for their early +ripening, there was great resemblance to each other, and some had +proved earlier than Alexander.</p> + +<p>Of the new grapes, Lady Washington was the most promising. The +Secretary was a failure. The Jefferson was a fine sort, of high +promise.</p> + +<p>Among the new white grapes, Niagara, Prentiss, and Duchess stood +pre-eminent, and were worthy of the attention of cultivators. The +Vergennes, from Vermont, a light amber colored sort, was also +highly commended. The Elvira, so highly valued in Missouri, does +not succeed well here. Several facts were stated in relation to the +Delaware grape, showing its reliability and excellence.</p> + +<p>Several new varieties of the raspberry were named, but few of +them were found equal to the best old sorts. If Brinckle's Orange +were taken as a standard for quality, it would show that none had +proved its equal in fine quality. The Caroline was like it in +color, but inferior in flavor. The New Rochelle was of second +quality. Turner was a good berry, but too soft for distant +carriage.</p> + +<p>Of the many new strawberries named, each seemed to have some +special drawback. The Bidwell, however, was a new sort of +particular excellence, and Charles Downing thinks it the most +promising of the new berries.</p> + +<p><i>Discussion on Grapes.</i>--C. W. Beadle, of Ontario, in +allusion to Moore's Early grape, finds it much earlier than the +Concord, and equal to it in quality, ripening even before the +Hartford. S. D. Willard, of Geneva, thought it inferior to the +Concord, and not nearly so good as the Worden. The last named was +both earlier and better than the Concord, and sold for seven cents +per pound when the Concord brought only four cents. C. A. Green, of +Monroe County, said the Lady Washington proved to be a very fine +grape, slightly later than Concord. P. L. Perry, of Canandaigua, +said that the Vergennes ripens with Hartford, and possesses +remarkable keeping qualities, and is of excellent quality and free +from pulp. He presented specimens which had been kept in good +condition. He added, in relation to the Worden grape, that some +years ago it brought 18 cents per pound in New York when the +Concord sold three days later for only 8 cents. [In such +comparisons, however, it should be borne in mind that new varieties +usually receive more attention and better culture, giving them an +additional advantage.]</p> + +<p>The Niagara grape received special attention from members. A. C. +Younglove, of Yates County, thought it superior to any other white +grape for its many good qualities. It was a vigorous and healthy +grower, and the clusters were full and handsome. W. J. Fowler, of +Monroe County, saw the vine in October, with the leaves still +hanging well, a great bearer and the grape of fine quality. C. L. +Hoag, of Lockport, said he began to pick the Niagara on the 26th of +August, but its quality improved by hanging on the vine. J. Harris, +of Niagara County, was well acquainted with the Niagara, and +indorsed all the commendation which had been uttered in its favor. +T. C. Maxwell said there was one fault--we could not get it, as it +was not in market. W. C. Barry, of Rochester, spoke highly of the +Niagara, and its slight foxiness would be no objection to those who +like that peculiarity. C. L. Hoag thought this was the same quality +that Col. Wilder described as "a little aromatic." A. C. Younglove +found the Niagara to ripen with the Delaware. Inquiry being made +relative to the Pockington grape, H. E. Hooker said it ripened as +early as the Concord. C. A. Green was surprised that it had not +attracted more attention, as he regarded it as a very promising +grape. J. Charlton, of Rochester, said that the fruit had been cut +for market on the 29th of August, and on the 6th of September it +was fully ripe; but he has known it to hang as late as November. J. +S. Stone had found that when it hung as late as November it became +sweet and very rich in flavor.</p> + +<p><i>New Peaches.</i>--A. C. Younglove had found such very early +sorts as Alexander and Amsden excellent for home use, but not +profitable for market. The insects and birds made heavy +depredations on them. While nearly all very early and high-colored +sorts suffer largely from the birds, the Rivers, a white peach, +does not attract them, and hence it may be profitable for market if +skillfully packed; rough and careless handling will spoil the +fruit. He added that the Wheatland peach sustains its high +reputation, and he thought it the best of all sorts for market, +ripening with Late Crawford. It is a great bearer, but carries a +crop of remarkably uniform size, so that it is not often necessary +to throw out a bad specimen. This is the result of experience with +it by Mr. Rogers at Wheatland, in Monroe County, and at his own +residence in Vine Valley. S. D. Willard confirmed all that Mr. +Younglove had said of the excellence of the Rivers peach. He had +ripened the Amsden for several years, and found it about two weeks +earlier than the Rivers, and he thought if the Amsden were properly +thinned, it would prevent the common trouble of its rotting; such +had been his experience. E. A. Bronson, of Geneva, objected to +making very early peaches prominent for marketing, as purchasers +would prefer waiting a few days to paying high prices for the +earliest, and he would caution people against planting the Amsden +too largely, and its free recommendation might mislead. May's +Choice was named by H. E. Hooker as a beautiful yellow peach, +having no superior in quality, but perhaps it may not be found to +have more general value than Early and Late Crawford. It is +scarcely distinguishable in appearance from fine specimens of Early +Crawford. W. C. Barry was called on for the most recent experience +with the Waterloo, but said he was not at home when it ripened, but +he learned that it had sustained its reputation. A. C. Younglove +said that the Salway is the best late peach, ripening eight or ten +days after the Smock. S. D. Willard mentioned an orchard near +Geneva, consisting of 25 Salway trees, which for four years had +ripened their crop and had sold for $4 per bushel in the +Philadelphia market, or for $3 at Geneva--a higher price than for +any other sort--and the owner intends to plant 200 more trees. W. +C. Barry said the Salway will not ripen at Rochester. Hill's Chili +was named by some members as a good peach for canning and drying, +some stating that it ripens before and others after Late Crawford. +It requires thinning on the tree, or the fruit will be poor. The +Allen was pronounced by Mr. Younglove as an excellent, intensely +high-colored late peach.</p> + +<p><i>Insects Affecting Horticulture</i>.--Mr. Zimmerman spoke of +the importance of all cultivators knowing so much of insects and +their habits as to distinguish their friends from their enemies. +When unchecked they increase in an immense ratio, and he mentioned +as an instance that the green fly (<i>Aphis</i>) in five +generations may become the parent of six thousand million +descendants. It is necessary, then, to know what other insects are +employed in holding them in check, by feeding on them. Some of our +most formidable insects have been accidentally imported from +Europe, such as the codling moth, asparagus beetle, cabbage +butterfly, currant worm and borer, elm-tree beetle, hessian fly, +etc.; but in nearly every instance these have come over without +bringing their insect enemies with them, and in consequence they +have spread more extensively here than in Europe. It was therefore +urged that the Agricultural Department at Washington be requested +to import, as far as practicable, such parasites as are positively +known to prey on noxious insects. The cabbage fly eluded our keen +custom-house officials in 1866, and has enjoyed free citizenship +ever since. By accident, one of its insect enemies (a small black +fly) was brought over with it, and is now doing excellent work by +keeping the cabbage fly in check.</p> + +<p>The codling moth, one of the most formidable fruit destroyers, +may be reduced in number by the well-known paper bands; but a more +efficient remedy is to shower them early in the season with Paris +green, mixed in water at the rate of only one pound to one hundred +gallons of water, with a forcing pump, soon after blossoming. After +all the experiments made and repellents used for the plum curculio, +the jarring method is found the most efficient and reliable, if +properly performed. Various remedies for insects sometimes have the +credit of doing the work, if used in those seasons when the insects +happen to be few. With some insects, the use of oil is +advantageous, as it always closes up their breathing holes and +suffocates them. The oil should be mixed with milk, and then +diluted as required, as the oil alone cannot be mixed with the +water. As a general remedy, Paris green is the strongest that can +be applied. A teaspoonful to a tablespoonful, in a barrel of water, +is enough. Hot water is the best remedy for house plants. Place one +hand over the soil, invert the pot, and plunge the foliage for a +second only at a time in water heated to from 150° to +200°F, according to the plants; or apply with a fine rose. The +yeast remedy has not proved successful in all cases.</p> + +<p>Among beneficial insects, there are about one hundred species of +lady bugs, and, so far as known, all are beneficial. Cultivators +should know them. They destroy vast quantities of plant lice. The +ground beetles are mostly cannibals, and should not be destroyed. +The large black beetle, with coppery dots, makes short work with +the Colorado potato beetles; and a bright green beetle will climb +trees to get a meal of canker worms. Ichneumon flies are among our +most useful insects. The much-abused dragon flies are perfectly +harmless to us, but destroy many mosquitoes and flies.</p> + +<p>Among insects that attack large fruits is the codling moth, to +be destroyed by paper bands, or with Paris green showered in water. +The round-headed apple-tree borer is to be cut out, and the eggs +excluded with a sheet of tarred paper around the stem, and slightly +sunk in the earth. For the oyster-shell bark louse, apply linseed +oil. Paris green, in water, will kill the canker worm. Tobacco +water does the work for plant lice. Peach-tree borers are excluded +with tarred or felt paper, and cut out with a knife. Jar the grape +flea beetle on an inverted umbrella early in the morning. Among +small-fruit insects, the strawberry worms are readily destroyed +with hellebore, an ounce to a gallon of warm water. The same remedy +destroys the imported currant worm.</p> + +<p><i>Insect Destroyers</i>.--Prof. W. Saunders, of the Province of +Ontario, followed Mr. Zimmerman with a paper on other departments +of the same general subject, which contained much information and +many suggestions of great value to cultivators. He had found Paris +green an efficient remedy for the bud-moth on pear and other trees. +He also recommends Paris green for the grapevine flea beetle. +Hellebore is much better for the pear slug than dusting with sand, +as these slugs, as soon as their skin is spoiled by being sanded, +cast it off and go on with their work of destruction as freely as +ever, and this they repeat. He remarked that it is a common error +that all insects are pests to the cultivator. There are many +parasites, or useful ones, which prey on our insect enemies. Out of +7,000 described insects in this country, only about 50 have proved +destructive to our crops. Parasites are much more numerous. Among +lepidopterous insects (butterflies, etc.), there are very few +noxious species; many active friends are found among the +Hymenoptera (wasps, etc.), the ichneumon flies pre-eminently so; +and in the order Hemiptera (bugs proper) are several that destroy +our enemies. Hence the very common error that birds which destroy +insects are beneficial to us, as they are more likely to destroy +our insect friends than the fewer enemies. Those known as +<i>flycatchers</i> may do neither harm nor good; so far as they eat +the wheat-midge and Hessian fly they confer a positive benefit; in +other instances they destroy both friends and enemies. Birds that +are only partly insectivorous, and which eat grain and fruit, may +need further inquiry. Prof. S. had examined the stomachs of many +such birds, and particularly of the American robin, and the only +curculio he ever found in any of these was a single one in a whole +cherry which the bird had bolted entire. Robins had proved very +destructive to his grapes, but had not assisted at all in +protecting his cabbages growing alongside his fruit garden. These +vegetables were nearly destroyed by the larvae of the cabbage fly, +which would have afforded the birds many fine, rich meals. This +comparatively feeble insect has been allowed by the throngs of +birds to spread over the whole continent. A naturalist in one of +the Western States had examined several species of the thrush, and +found they had eaten mostly that class of insects known as our +friends.</p> + +<p>Prof. S. spoke of the remedies for root lice, among which were +hot water and bisulphide of carbon. Hot water will get cold before +it can reach the smaller roots, however efficient it may be +showered on leaves. Bisulphide of carbon is very volatile, +inflammable, and sometimes explosive, and must be handled with +great care. It permeates the soil, and if in sufficient quantity +may be effective in destroying the phylloxera; but its cost and +dangerous character prevent it from being generally +recommended.</p> + +<p>Paris green is most generally useful for destroying insects. As +sold to purchasers, it is of various grades of purity. The highest +in price is commonly the purest, and really the cheapest. A +difficulty with this variable quality is that it cannot be properly +diluted with water, and those who buy and use a poor article and +try its efficacy, will burn or kill their plants when they happen +to use a stronger, purer, and more efficient one. Or, if the +reverse is done, they may pronounce it a humbug from the resulting +failure. One teaspoonful, if pure, is enough for a large pail of +water; or if mixed with flour, there should be forty or fifty times +as much. Water is best, as the operator will not inhale the dust. +London purple is another form of the arsenic, and has very variable +qualities of the poison, being merely refuse matter from +manufactories. It is more soluble than Paris green, and hence more +likely to scorch plants. On the whole, Paris green is much the best +and most reliable for common use.</p> + +<p>At the close of Prof. Saunders' remarks some objections were +made by members present to the use of Paris green on fruit soon +after blossoming, and Prof. S. sustained the objection, in that the +knowledge that the fruit had been showered with it would deter +purchasers from receiving it, even if no poison could remain on it +from spring to autumn. A man had brought to him potatoes to analyze +for arsenic, on which Paris green had been used, and although it +was shown to him that the poison did not reach the roots beneath +the soil, and if it did it was insoluble and could not enter them, +he was not satisfied until a careful analysis was made and no +arsenic at all found in them. A member said that in mixing with +plaster there should be 100 or 150 pounds of plaster to one of the +Paris green, and that a smaller quantity, by weight, of flour would +answer, as that is a more bulky article for the same weight.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>OBSERVATIONS ON THE SALMON OF THE PACIFIC.</h2> + +<h3>By DAVID S. JORDAN and CHAS. H. GILBERT.</h3> + +<p>During the most of the present year, the writers have been +engaged in the study of the fishes of the Pacific coast of the +United States, in the interest of the U.S. Fish Commission and the +U.S. Census Bureau. The following pages contain the principal facts +ascertained concerning the salmon of the Pacific coast. It is +condensed from our report to the U.S. Census Bureau, by permission +of Professor Goode, assistant in charge of fishery +investigations.</p> + +<p>There are five species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) in the waters of +the North Pacific. We have at present no evidence of the existence +of any more on either the American or the Asiatic side.</p> + +<p>These species may be called the quinnat or king salmon, the +blue-back salmon or red-fish, the silver salmon, the dog salmon, +and the hump-back salmon, or <i>Oncorhynchus chouicha, nerka, +kisutch, keta</i>, and <i>gorbuscha</i>. All these species are now +known to occur in the waters of Kamtschatka as well as in those of +Alaska and Oregon.</p> + +<p>As vernacular names of definite application, the following are +on record:</p> + +<p>a. Quinnat--Chouicha, king salmon, e'quinna, saw-kwey, Chinnook +salmon, Columbia River salmon, Sacramento salmon, tyee salmon, +Monterey salmon, deep-water salmon, spring salmon, ek-ul-ba +("ekewan") (fall run).</p> + +<p>b. Blue-bock--krasnaya ryba, Alaska red-fish, Idaho red fish, +sukkegh, Frazer's River salmon, rascal, oo-chooy-ha.</p> + +<p>c. Silver salmon--kisutch, winter salmon, hoopid, skowitz, coho, +bielaya ryba, o-o-wun.</p> + +<p>d. Dog salmon--kayko, lekai, ktlawhy, qualoch, fall salmon, +o-le-a-rah. The males of <i>all</i> the species in the fall are +usually known as dog salmon, or fall salmon.</p> + +<p>e. Hump-back--gorbuscha, haddo, hone, holia, lost salmon, Puget +Sound salmon, dog salmon (of Alaska).</p> + +<p>Of these species, the blue-back predominates in Frazer's River, +the silver salmon in Puget Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and +the Sacramento, and the silver salmon in most of the small streams +along the coast. All the species have been seen by us in the +Columbia and in Frazer's River; all but the blue-back in the +Sacramento, and all but the blue-back in waters tributary to Puget +Sound. Only the quinnat has been noticed south of San Francisco, +and its range has been traced as far as Ventura River, which is the +southernmost stream in California which is not muddy and alkaline +at its mouth.</p> + +<p>Of these species, the quinnat and blue-back salmon habitually +"run" in the spring, the others in the fall. The usual order of +running in the rivers is as follows: <i>nerka, chouicha, kisutch, +gorbuscha, keta</i>.</p> + +<p>The economic value of the spring running salmon is far greater +than that of the other species, because they can be captured in +numbers when at their best, while the others are usually taken only +after deterioration.</p> + +<p>The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied. +Quinnat and silver salmon of every size are taken with the seine at +almost any season in Puget Sound. The quinnat takes the hook freely +in Monterey bay, both near the shore and at a distance of six or +eight miles out. We have reason to believe that these two species +do not necessarily seek great depths, but probably remain not very +far from the mouth of the rivers in which they were spawned.</p> + +<p>The blue-back and the dog salmon probably seek deeper water, as +the former is seldom or never taken with the seine in the ocean, +and the latter is known to enter the Straits of Fuca at the +spawning season.</p> + +<p>The great majority of the quinnat salmon and nearly all +blue-back salmon enter the rivers in the spring. The run of both +begins generally the last of March; it lasts, with various +modifications and interruptions, until the actual spawning season +in November; the time of running and the proportionate amount of +each of the subordinate runs, varying with each different river. In +general, the runs are slack in the summer and increase with the +first high water of autumn. By the last of August only straggling +blue-backs can be found in the lower course of any stream, but both +in the Columbia and the Sacramento the quinnat runs in considerable +numbers till October at least. In the Sacramento the run is +greatest in the fall, and more run in the summer than in spring. In +the Sacramento and the smaller rivers southward, there is a winter +run, beginning in December.</p> + +<p>The spring salmon ascend only those rivers which are fed by the +melting snows from the mountains, and which have sufficient volume +to send their waters well out to sea. Such rivers are the +Sacramento, Rogue, Klamath, Columbia, and Frazer's rivers.</p> + +<p>Those salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults +(supposed to be at least three years old). Their milt and spawn are +no more developed than at the same time in others of the same +species which will not enter the rivers until fall. It would appear +that the contact with cold fresh water, when in the ocean, in some +way caused them to turn toward it and to "run," before there is any +special influence to that end exerted by the development of the +organs of generation.</p> + +<p>High water on any of these rivers in the spring is always +followed by an increased run of salmon. The canners think, and this +is probably true, that salmon which would not have run till later +are brought up by the contact with the cold water. The cause of +this effect of cold fresh water is not understood. We may call it +an instinct of the salmon, which is another way of expressing our +ignorance. In general, it seems to be true that in those rivers and +during those years when the spring run is greatest, the fall run is +least to be depended on.</p> + +<p>As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these two +species (quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and in +the fall these young specimens are very numerous. We have thus far +failed to notice any gradations in size or appearance of these +young fish by which their ages could be ascertained. It is, +however, probable that some of both sexes reproduce at the age of +one year. In Frazer's River, in the fall, quinnat male grilse of +every size, from eight inches upward, were running, the milt fully +developed, but usually not showing the hooked jaws and dark colors +of the older males. Females less than eighteen inches in length +were rare. All, large and small, then in the river, of either sex, +had the ovaries or milt well developed.</p> + +<p>Little blue-backs of every size down to six inches are also +found in the Upper Columbia in the fall, with their organs of +generation fully developed. Nineteen twentieths of these young fish +are males, and some of them have the hooked jaws and red color of +the old males.</p> + +<p>The average weight of the quinnat in the Columbia in the spring +is twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento about sixteen. Individuals +weighing from forty to sixty pounds are frequently found in both +rivers, and some as high as eighty pounds are reported. It is +questioned whether these large fishes are:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>.) Those which, of the same age, have grown more +rapidly;</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>.) Those which are older but have, for some reason, +failed to spawn; or,</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>.) Those which have survived one or more spawning +seasons.</p> + +<p>All of these origins may be possible in individual cases; we +are, however, of the opinion that the majority of these large fish +are those which have hitherto run in the fall and so may have +survived the spawning season previous.</p> + +<p>Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their +ascent until death or the spawning season overtakes them. Probably +none of them ever return to the ocean, and a large proportion fail +to spawn. They are known to ascend the Sacramento as far as the +base of Mount Shasta, or to its extreme head-waters, about four +hundred miles. In the Columbia they are known to ascend as far as +the Bitter Root Mountains, and as far as the Spokan Falls, and +their extreme limit is not known. This is a distance of six to +eight hundred miles.</p> + +<p>At these great distances, when the fish have reached the +spawning grounds, besides the usual changes of the breeding season, +their bodies are covered with bruises on which patches of white +fungus develop. The fins become mutilated, their eyes are often +injured or destroyed; parasitic worms gather in their gills, they +become extremely emaciated, their flesh becomes white from the loss +of the oil, and as soon as the spawning act is accomplished, and +sometimes before, all of them die. The ascent of the Cascades and +the Dalles probably causes the injury or death of a great many +salmon.</p> + +<p>When the salmon enter the river they refuse bait, and their +stomachs are always found empty and contracted. In the rivers they +do not feed, and when they reach the spawning grounds their +stomachs, pyloric coeca and all, are said to be no larger than +one's finger. They will sometimes take the fly, or a hook baited +with salmon roe, in the clear waters of the upper tributaries, but +there is no other evidence known to us that they feed when there. +Only the quinnat and blue-back (then called red-fish) have been +found in the fall at any great distance from the sea.</p> + +<p>The spawning season is probably about the same for all the +species. It varies for all in different rivers and in different +parts of the same river, and doubtless extends from July to +December.</p> + +<p>The manner of spawning is probably similar for all the species, +but we have no data for any except the quinnat. In this species the +fish pair off, the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad +shallow "nest" in the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, +at a depth of one to four feet; the female deposits her eggs in it, +and after the exclusion of the milt, they cover them with stones +and gravel. They then float down the stream tail foremost. A great +majority of them die. In the head-waters of the large streams all +die, unquestionably. In the small streams, and near the sea, an +unknown percentage probably survive. The young hatch in about sixty +days, and most of them return to the ocean during the high water of +the spring.</p> + +<p>The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted or +not according to the species, and with the mouth about equally +symmetrical in both sexes.</p> + +<p>As the spawning season approaches the female loses her silvery +color, becomes more slimy, the scales on the back partly sink into +the skin, and the flesh changes from salmon red and becomes +variously paler, from the loss of the oil, the degree of paleness +varying much with individuals and with inhabitants of different +rivers.</p> + +<p>In the lower Sacramento the flesh of the quinnat in either +spring or fall is rarely pale. In the Columbia, a few with pale +flesh are sometimes taken in spring, and a good many in the fall. +In Frazer's River the fall run of the quinnat is nearly worthless +for canning purposes, because so many are white meated. In the +spring very few are white meated, but the number increases towards +fall, when there is every variation, some having red streaks +running through them, others being red toward the head and pale +toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be distinguished +externally, and the color is dependent neither on age nor sex. +There is said to be no difference in the taste, but there is no +market for canned salmon not of the conventional orange color.</p> + +<p>As the season advances, the differences between the males and +the females become more and more marked, and keep pace with the +development of the milt, as is shown by dissection.</p> + +<p>The males have: (<i>a</i>.) The premaxillaries and the tip of +the lower jaw more and more prolonged; both of them becoming +finally strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either +they shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth +cannot be closed. (<i>b</i>.) The front teeth become very long and +canine-like, their growth proceeding very rapidly, until they are +often half an inch long. (<i>c</i>.) The teeth on the vomer and +tongue often disappear. (<i>d</i>.) The body grows more compressed +and deeper at the shoulders, so that a very distinct hump is +formed; this is more developed in <i>0. gorbuscha</i>, but is found +in all. (<i>e</i>.) The scales disappear, especially on the back, +by the growth of spongy skin. (<i>f</i>.) The color changes from +silvery to various shades of black and red or blotchy, according to +the species. The blue-back turns rosy red, the dog salmon a dull, +blotchy red, and the quiunat generally blackish.</p> + +<p>These distorted males are commonly considered worthless, +rejected by the canners and salmon-salters, but preserved by the +Indians. These changes are due solely to influences connected with +the growth of the testes. They are not in any way due to the action +of fresh water. They take place at about the same time in the adult +males of all species, whether in the ocean or in the rivers. At the +time of the spring runs all are symmetrical. In the fall, all males +of whatever species are more or less distorted. Among the dog +salmon, which run only in the fall, the males are hooked-jawed and +red-blotched when they first enter the Straits of Fuca from the +outside. The hump-back, taken in salt water about Seattle, shows +the same peculiarities. The male is slab-sided, hook-billed, and +distorted, and is rejected by the canners. No hook-jawed +<i>females</i> of any species have been seen.</p> + +<p>It is not positively known that any hook-jawed male survives the +reproductive act. If any do, their jaws must resume the normal +form.</p> + +<p>On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing: +they always head toward the current, and this "playing" may be +simply due to facing the flood tide. Afterwards they enter the +deepest parts of the stream and swim straight up, with few +interruptions. Their rate of travel on the Sacramento is estimated +by Stone at about two miles per day; on the Columbia at about three +miles per day.</p> + +<p>As already stated, the economic value of any species depends in +great part on its being a "spring salmon." It is not generally +possible to capture salmon of any species in large numbers until +they have entered the rivers, and the spring salmon enter the +rivers long before the growth of the organs of reproduction has +reduced the richness of the flesh. The fall salmon cannot be taken +in quantity until their flesh has deteriorated: hence the "dog +salmon" is practically almost worthless, except to the Indians, and +the hump-back salmon is little better. The silver salmon, with the +same breeding habits as the dog salmon, is more valuable, as it is +found in Puget Sound for a considerable time before the fall rains +cause the fall runs, and it may be taken in large numbers with +seines before the season for entering the rivers. The quinnat +salmon, from its great size and abundance, is more valuable than +all other fishes on our Pacific coast together. The blue back, +similar in flesh but much smaller and less abundant, is worth much +more than the combined value of the three remaining species.</p> + +<p>The fall salmon of all species, but especially the dog salmon, +ascend streams but a short distance before spawning. They seem to +be in great anxiety to find fresh water, and many of them work +their way up little brooks only a few inches deep, where they soon +perish miserably, floundering about on the stones. Every stream, of +whatever kind, has more or less of these fall salmon.</p> + +<p>It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some +special instinct which leads them to return to spawn in the same +spawning grounds where they were originally hatched. We fail to +find any evidence of this in the case of the Pacific coast salmon, +and we do not believe it to be true. It seems more probable that +the young salmon, hatched in any river, mostly remain in the ocean +within a radius of twenty, thirty, or forty miles of its mouth. +These, in their movements about in the ocean, may come into contact +with the cold waters of their parent rivers, or perhaps of any +other river, at a considerable distance from the shore. In the case +of the quinnat and the blue-back, their "instinct" leads them to +ascend these fresh waters, and in a majority of cases these waters +will be those in which the fishes in question were originally +spawned. Later in the season the growth of the reproductive organs +leads them to approach the shore and to search for fresh waters, +and still the chances are that they may find the original stream. +But undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend, streams +in which no salmon was ever hatched.</p> + +<p>It is said of the Russian River and other California rivers, +that their mouths in the time of low water in summer generally +become entirely closed by sand bars, and that the salmon, in their +eagerness to ascend them, frequently fling themselves entirely out +of water on the beach. But this does not prove that the salmon are +guided by a marvelous geographical instinct which leads them to +their parent river. The waters of Russian River soak through these +sand bars, and the salmon "instinct," we think, leads them merely +to search for fresh waters.</p> + +<p>This matter is much in need of further investigation; at +present, however, we find no reason to believe that the salmon +enter the Rogue River simply because they were spawned there, or +that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas River is any the more likely +on that account to return to the Clackamas than to go up the +Cowlitz or the Deschutes.</p> + +<p>"At the hatchery on Rogue River, the fish are stripped, marked +and set free, and every year since the hatchery has been in +operation some of the marked fish have been re-caught. The young +fry are also marked, but none of them have been recaught."</p> + +<p>This year the run of silver salmon in Frazer's River was very +light, while on Puget Sound the run was said by the Indians to be +greater than ever known before. Both these cases may be due to the +same cause, the dry summer, low water, and consequent failure of +the salmon to find the rivers. The run in the Sound is much more +irregular than in the large rivers. One year they will abound in +one bay and its tributary stream and hardly be seen in another, +while the next year the condition will be reversed. At Cape +Flattery the run of silver salmon for the present year was very +small, which fact was generally attributed by the Indians to the +birth of twins at Neah Bay.</p> + +<p>In regard to the diminution of the number of salmon on the +coast. In Puget's Sound, Frazer's River, and the smaller streams, +there appears to be little or no evidence of this. In the Columbia +River the evidence appears somewhat conflicting; the catch during +the present year (1880) has been considerably greater than ever +before (nearly 540,000 cases of 48 lb. each having been packed), +although the fishing for three or four years has been very +extensive. On the other hand, the high water of the present spring +has undoubtedly caused many fish to become spring salmon which +would otherwise have run in the fall. Moreover, it is urged that a +few years ago, when the number caught was about half as great as +now, the amount of netting used was perhaps one-eighth as much. +With a comparatively small outfit the canners caught half the fish, +now with nets much larger and more numerous, they catch them all, +scarcely any escaping during the fishing season (April 1 to August +1). Whether an actual reduction in the number of fish running can +be proven or not, there can be no question that the present rate of +destruction of the salmon will deplete the river before many years. +A considerable number of quinnat salmon run in August and +September, and some stragglers even later; these now are all which +keep up the supply of fish in the river. The non-molestation of +this fall run, therefore, does something to atone for the almost +total destruction of the spring run.</p> + +<p>This, however, is insufficient. A well-ordered salmon hatchery +is the only means by which the destruction of the salmon in the +river can be prevented. This hatchery should be under the control +of Oregon and Washington, and should be supported by a tax levied +on the canned fish. It should be placed on a stream where the +quinnat salmon actually come to spawn.</p> + +<p>It has been questioned whether the present hatchery on the +Clackamas River actually receives the quinnat salmon in any +numbers. It is asserted, in fact, that the eggs of the silver +salmon and dog salmon, with scattering quinnat, are hatched there. +We have no exact information as to the truth of these reports, but +the matter should be taken into serious consideration.</p> + +<p>On the Sacramento there is no doubt of the reduction of the +number of salmon; this is doubtless mainly attributable to +over-fishing, but in part it may be due to the destruction of +spawning beds by mining operations and other causes.</p> + +<p>As to the superiority of the Columbia River salmon, there is no +doubt that the quinnat salmon average larger and fatter in the +Columbia than in the Sacramento and in Puget Sound. The difference +in the canned fish is, however, probably hardly appreciable. The +canned salmon from the Columbia, however, bring a better price in +the market than those from elsewhere. The canners there generally +have had a high regard for the reputation of the river, and have +avoided canning fall fish or species other than the quinnat. In the +Frazer's River the blue-back is largely canned, and its flesh being +a little more watery and perhaps paler, is graded below the +quinnat. On Puget Sound various species are canned; in fact, +everything with red flesh. The best canners on the Sacramento +apparently take equal care with their product with those of the +Columbia, but they depend largely on the somewhat inferior fall +run. There are, however, sometimes salmon canned in San Francisco, +which have been in the city markets, and for some reason remaining +unsold, have been sent to the canners; such salmon are unfit for +food, and canning them should be prohibited.</p> + +<p>The fact that the hump-back salmon runs only on alternate years +in Puget Sound (1875, 1877, 1879, etc.) is well attested and at +present unexplained. Stray individuals only are taken in other +years. This species has a distinct "run," in the United States, +only in Puget Sound, although individuals (called "lost salmon") +are occasionally taken in the Columbia and in the +Sacramento.--<i>American Naturalist.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>THE RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRICITY AND LIGHT.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A lecture by Dr. O. J. Lodge, delivered at the London +Institution on December 16, 1880.]</p> + +<p>Ever since the subject on which I have the honor to speak to you +to-night was arranged, I have been astonished at my own audacity in +proposing to deal in the course of sixty minutes with a subject so +gigantic and so profound that a course of sixty lectures would be +quite inadequate for its thorough and exhaustive treatment.</p> + +<p>I must indeed confine myself carefully to some few of the +typical and most salient points in the relation between electricity +and light, and I must economize time by plunging at once into the +middle of the matter without further preliminaries.</p> + +<p>Now, when a person is setting off to discuss the relation +between electricity and light, it is very natural and very proper +to pull him up short with the two questions: What do you mean by +electricity? and What do you mean by light? These two questions I +intend to try briefly to answer. And here let me observe that in +answering these fundamental questions, I do not necessarily assume +a fundamental ignorance on your part of these two agents, but +rather the contrary; and must beg you to remember that if I repeat +well-known and simple experiments before you, it is for the purpose +of directing attention to their real meaning and significance, not +to their obvious and superficial characteristics; in the same way +that I might repeat the exceedingly familiar experiment of dropping +a stone to the earth if we were going to define what we meant by +gravitation.</p> + +<p>Now, then, we will ask first, What is electricity? and the +simple answer must be, We don't know. Well, but this need not +necessarily be depressing. If the same question were asked about +matter, or about energy, we should have likewise to reply, No one +knows.</p> + +<p>But then the term Matter is a very general one, and so is the +term Energy. They are heads, in fact, under which we classify more +special phenomena.</p> + +<p>Thus, if we were asked, What is sulphur? or what is selenium? we +should at least be able to reply, A form of matter; and then +proceed to describe its properties, <i>i. e.</i>, how it affected +our bodies and other bodies.</p> + +<p>Again, to the question, What is heat? we can reply, A form of +energy; and proceed to describe the peculiarities which distinguish +it from other forms of energy.</p> + +<p>But to the question. What is electricity? we have no answer pat +like this. We can not assert that it is a form of matter, neither +can we deny it; on the other hand, we certainly can not assert that +it is a form of energy, and I should be disposed to deny it. It may +be that electricity is an entity <i>per se</i>, just as matter is +an entity <i>per se</i>.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, I can tell you what I mean by electricity by +appealing to its known behavior.</p> + +<p>Here is a battery, that is, an electricity pump; it will drive +electricity along. Prof. Ayrtou is going, I am afraid, to tell you, +on the 20th of January next, that it <i>produces</i> electricity; +but if he does, I hope you will remember that that is exactly what +neither it nor anything else can do. It is as impossible to +generate electricity in the sense I am trying to give the word, as +it is to produce matter. Of course I need hardly say that Prof. +Ayrton knows this perfectly well; it is merely a question of words, +<i>i. e.</i>, of what you understand by the word electricity.</p> + +<p>I want you, then, to regard this battery and all electrical +machines and batteries as kinds of electricity pumps, which drive +the electricity along through the wire very much as a water-pump +can drive water along pipes. While this is going on the wire +manifests a whole series of properties, which are called the +properties of the current.</p> + +<p>[Here were shown an ignited platinum wire, the electric arc +between two carbons, an electric machine spark, an induction coil +spark, and a vacuum tube glow. Also a large nail was magnetized by +being wrapped in the current, and two helices were suspended and +seen to direct and attract each other.]</p> + +<p>To make a magnet, then, we only need a current of electricity +flowing round and round in a whirl. A vortex or whirlpool of +electricity is in fact a magnet; and <i>vice versa</i>. And these +whirls have the power of directing and attracting other previously +existing whirls according to certain laws, called the laws of +magnetism. And, moreover, they have the power of exciting fresh +whirls in neighboring conductors, and of repelling them according +to the laws of diamagnetism. The theory of the actions is known, +though the nature of the whirls, as of the simple stream of +electricity, is at present unknown.</p> + +<p>[Here was shown a large electro-magnet and an induction-coil +vacuum discharge spinning round and round when placed in its +field.]</p> + +<p>So much for what happens when electricity is made to travel +along conductors, <i>i. e.</i>, when it travels along like a stream +of water in a pipe, or spins round and round like a whirlpool.</p> + +<p>But there is another set of phenomena, usually regarded as +distinct and of another order, but which are not so distinct as +they appear, which manifest themselves when you join the pump to a +piece of glass, or any non-conductor, and try to force the +electricity through that. You succeed in driving some through, but +the flow is no longer like that of water in an open pipe; it is as +if the pipe were completely obstructed by a number of elastic +partitions or diaphragms. The water can not move without straining +and bending these diaphragms, and if you allow it, these strained +partitions will recover themselves, and drive the water back again. +[Here was explained the process of charging a Leyden jar.] The +essential thing to remember is that we may have electrical energy +in two forms, the static and the kinetic; and it is, therefore, +also possible to have the rapid alternation from one of these forms +to the other, called vibration.</p> + +<p>Now we will pass to the second question: What do you mean by +light? And the first and obvious answer is, Everybody knows. And +everybody that is not blind does know to a certain extent. We have +a special sense organ for appreciating light, whereas we have none +for electricity. Nevertheless, we must admit that we really know +very little about the intimate nature of light--very little more +than about electricity. But we do know this, that light is a form +of energy, and, moreover, that it is energy rapidly alternating +between the static and the kinetic forms--that it is, in fact, a +special kind of energy of vibration. We are absolutely certain that +light is a periodic disturbance in some medium, periodic both in +space and time; that is to say, the same appearances regularly +recur at certain equal intervals of distance at the same time, and +also present themselves at equal intervals of time at the same +place; that in fact it belongs to the class of motions called by +mathematicians undulatory or wave motions. The wave motion in this +model (Powell's wave apparatus) results from the simple up and down +motion popularly associated with the term wave. But when a +mathematician calls a thing a wave he means that the disturbance is +represented by a certain general type of formula, not that it is an +up-and-down motion, or that it looks at all like those things on +the top of the sea. The motion of the surface of the sea falls +within that formula, and hence is a special variety of wave motion, +and the term wave has acquired in popular use this signification +and nothing else. So that when one speaks ordinarily of a wave or +undulatory motion, one immediately thinks of something heaving up +and down, or even perhaps of something breaking on the shore. But +when we assert that the form of energy called light is undulatory, +we by no means intend to assert that anything whatever is moving up +and down, or that the motion, if we could see it, would be anything +at all like what we are accustomed to in the ocean. The kind of +motion is unknown; we are not even sure that there is anything like +motion in the ordinary sense of the word at all.</p> + +<p>Now, how much connection between electricity and light have we +perceived in this glance into their natures? Not much, truly. It +amounts to about this: That on the one hand electrical energy may +exist in either of two forms--the static form, when insulators are +electrically strained by having had electricity driven partially +through them (as in the Leyden jar), which strain is a form of +energy because of the tendency to discharge and do work; and the +kinetic form, where electricity is moving bodily along through +conductors or whirling round and round inside them, which motion of +electricity is a form of energy, because the conductors and whirls +can attract or repel each other and thereby do work.</p> + +<p>And, on the other hand, that light is the rapid alternation of +energy from one of these forms to the other--the static form where +the medium is strained, to the kinetic form when it moves. It is +just conceivable, then, that the static form of the energy of light +is <i>electro</i> static, that is, that the medium is +<i>electrically</i> strained, and that the kinetic form of the +energy of light is <i>electro</i>-kinetic, that is, that the motion +is not ordinary motion, but electrical motion--in fact, that light +is an electrical vibration, not a material one.</p> + +<p>On November 5, last year, there died at Cambridge a man in the +full vigor of his faculties--such faculties as do not appear many +times in a century--whose chief work has been the establishment of +this very fact, the discovery of the link connecting light and +electricity; and the proof--for I believe it amounts to a +proof--that they are different manifestations of one and the same +class of phenomena--that light is, in fact, an electro-magnetic +disturbance. The premature death of James Clerk-Maxwell is a loss +to science which appears at present utterly irreparable, for he was +engaged in researches that no other man can hope as yet adequately +to grasp and follow out; but fortunately it did not occur till he +had published his book on "Electricity and Magnetism," one of those +immortal productions which exalt one's idea of the mind of man, and +which has been mentioned by competent critics in the same breath as +the "Principia" itself.</p> + +<p>But it is not perfect like the "Principia;" much of it is +rough-hewn, and requires to be thoroughly worked out. It contains +numerous misprints and errata, and part of the second volume is so +difficult as to be almost unintelligible. Some, in fact, consists +of notes written for private use and not intended for publication. +It seems next to impossible now to mature a work silently for +twenty or thirty years, as was done by Newton two and a half +centuries ago. But a second edition was preparing, and much might +have been improved in form if life had been spared to the +illustrious author.</p> + +<p>The main proof of the electro-magnetic theory of light is this: +The rate at which light travels has been measured many times, and +is pretty well known. The rate at which an electro-magnetic wave +disturbance would travel if such could be generated (and Mr. +Fitzgerald, of Dublin, thinks he has proved that it can not be +generated directly by any known electrical means) can be also +determined by calculation from electrical measurements. The two +velocities agree exactly. This is the great physical constant known +as the ratio V, which so many physicists have been measuring, and +are likely to be measuring for some time to come.</p> + +<p>Many and brilliant as were Maxwell's discoveries, not only in +electricity, but also in the theory of the nature of gases, and in +molecular science generally, I can not help thinking that if one of +them is more striking and more full of future significance than the +rest, it is the one I have just mentioned--the theory that light is +an electrical phenomenon.</p> + +<p>The first glimpse of this splendid generalization was caught in +1845, five and thirty years ago, by that prince of pure +experimentalists, Michael Faraday. His reasons for suspecting some +connection between electricity and light are not clear to us--in +fact, they could not have been clear to him; but he seems to have +felt a conviction that if he only tried long enough and sent all +kinds of rays of light in all possible directions across electric +and magnetic fields in all sorts of media, he must ultimately hit +upon something. Well, this is very nearly what he did. With a +sublime patience and perseverance which remind one of the way +Kepler hunted down guess after guess in a different field of +research, Faraday combined electricity, or magnetism, and light in +all manner of ways, and at last he was rewarded with a result. And +a most out-of-the-way result it seemed. First, you have to get a +most powerful magnet and very strongly excite it; then you have to +pierce its two poles with holes, in order that a beam of light may +travel from one to the other along the lines of force; then, as +ordinary light is no good, you must get a beam of plane polarized +light, and send it between the poles. But still no result is +obtained until, finally, you interpose a piece of a rare and +out-of-the-way material, which Faraday had himself discovered and +made--a kind of glass which contains borate of lead, and which is +very heavy, or dense, and which must be perfectly annealed.</p> + +<p>And now, when all these arrangements are completed, what is seen +is simply this, that if an analyzer is arranged to stop the light +and make the field quite dark before the magnet is excited, then +directly the battery is connected and the magnet called into +action, a faint and barely perceptible brightening of the field +occurs, which will disappear if the analyzer be slightly rotated. +[The experiment was then shown.] Now, no wonder that no one +understood this result. Faraday himself did not understand it at +all. He seems to have thought that the magnetic lines of force were +rendered luminous, or that the light was magnetized; in fact, he +was in a fog, and had no idea of its real significance. Nor had any +one. Continental philosophers experienced some difficulty and +several failures before they were able to repeat the experiment. It +was, in fact, discovered too soon, and before the scientific world +was ready to receive it, and it was reserved for Sir William +Thomson briefly, but very clearly, to point out, and for +Clerk-Maxwell more fully to develop, its most important +consequences. [The principle of the experiment was then illustrated +by the aid of a mechanical model.]</p> + +<p>This is the fundamental experiment on which Clerk-Maxwell's +theory of light is based; but of late years many fresh facts and +relations between electricity and light have been discovered, and +at the present time they are tumbling in in great numbers.</p> + +<p>It was found by Faraday that many other transparent media +besides heavy glass would show the phenomenon if placed between the +poles, only in a less degree; and the very important observation +that air itself exhibits the same phenomenon, though to an +exceedingly small extent, has just been made by Kundt and Rontgen +in Germany.</p> + +<p>Dr. Kerr, of Glasgow, has extended the result to opaque bodies, +and has shown that if light be passed through magnetized +<i>iron</i> its plane is rotated. The film of iron must be +exceedingly thin, because of its opacity, and hence, though the +intrinsic rotating power of iron is undoubtedly very great, the +observed rotation is exceedingly small and difficult to observe; +and it is only by a very remarkable patience and care and ingenuity +that Dr. Kerr has obtained his result. Mr. Fitzgerald, of Dublin, +has examined the question mathematically, and has shown that +Maxwell's theory would have enabled Dr. Kerr's result to be +predicted.</p> + +<p>Another requirement of the theory is that bodies which are +transparent to light must be insulators or non-conductors of +electricity, and that conductors of electricity are necessarily +opaque to light. Simple observation amply confirms this; metals are +the best conductors, and are the most opaque bodies known. +Insulators such as glass and crystals are transparent whenever they +are sufficiently homogeneous, and the very remarkable researches of +Prof. Graham Bell in the last few months have shown that even +<i>ebonite</i>, one of the most opaque insulators to ordinary +vision, is certainly transparent to some kinds of radiation, and +transparent to no small degree.</p> + +<p>[The reason why transparent bodies must insulate, and why +conductors must be opaque, was here illustrated by mechanical +models.]</p> + +<p>A further consequence of the theory is that the velocity of +light in a transparent medium will be affected by its electrical +strain constant; in other words, that its refractive index will +bear some close but not yet quite ascertained relation to its +specific inductive capacity. Experiment has partially confirmed +this, but the confirmation is as yet very incomplete. But there are +a number of results not predicted by theory, and whose connection +with the theory is not clearly made out. We have the fact that +light falling on the platinum electrode of a voltameter generates a +current, first observed, I think, by Sir W. R. Grove--at any rate, +it is mentioned in his "Correlation of Forces"--extended by +Becquerel and Robert Sabine to other substances, and now being +extended to fluorescent and other bodies by Prof. Minchin. And +finally--for I must be brief--we have the remarkable action of +light on selenium. This fact was discovered accidentally by an +assistant in the laboratory of Mr. Willoughby Smith, who noticed +that a piece of selenium conducted electricity very much better +when light was falling upon it than when it was in the dark. The +light of a candle is sufficient, and instantaneously brings down +the resistance to something like one-fifth of its original +value.</p> + +<p>I could show you these effects, but there is not much to see; it +is an intensely interesting phenomenon, but its external +manifestation is not striking--any more than Faraday's heavy glass +experiment was.</p> + +<p>This is the phenomenon which, as you know, has been utilized by +Prof. Graham Bell in that most ingenious and striking invention, +the photophone. By the kindness of Prof. Silvanus Thompson, I have +a few slides to show the principle of the invention, and Mr. +Shelford Bidwell has been kind enough to lend me his home-made +photophone, which answers exceedingly well for short distances.</p> + +<p>I have now trespassed long enough upon your patience, but I must +just allude to what may very likely be the next striking popular +discovery; and that is the transmission of light by electricity; I +mean the transmission of such things as views and pictures by means +of the electric wire. It has not yet been done, but it seems +already theoretically possible, and it may very soon be practically +accomplished.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>INTERESTING ELECTRICAL RESEARCHES.</h2> + +<p>During the last six years Dr. Warren de la Rue has been +investigating, in conjunction with Dr. Hugo Muller, the various and +highly interesting phenomena which accompany the electric +discharge. From time to time the results of their researches were +communicated to the Royal Society, and appeared in its Proceedings. +Early last year Dr. De la Rue being requested to bring the subject +before the members of the Royal Institution, acceded to the +pressing invitation of his colleagues and scientific friends. The +discourse, which was necessarily long postponed on account of the +preparations that had to be made, was finally given on Friday, the +21st of January, and was one of the most remarkable, from the +elaborate nature of the experiments, ever delivered in the theater +of that deservedly famous institution.</p> + +<p>Owing to the great inconvenience of removing the battery from +his laboratory, Dr. de la Rue, despite the great expenditure, +directed Mr. S. Tisley to prepare, expressly for the lecture, a +second series of 14,400 cells, and fit it up in the basement of the +Royal Institution. The construction of this new battery occupied +Mr. Tisley a whole year, while the charging of it extended over a +fortnight.</p> + +<p>The "de la Rue cell," if we may so call one of these elements, +consists of a zinc rod, the lower portion of which is embedded in a +solid electrolyte, viz., chloride of silver, with which are +connected two flattened silver wires to serve as electrodes. When +these are united and the silver chloride moistened, chemical action +begins, and a weak but constant current is generated.</p> + +<p>The electromotive force of such a cell is 1.03 volts, and a +current equivalent to one volt passing through a resistance of one +ohm was found to decompose 0.00146 grain of water in one second. +The battery is divided into "cabinets," which hold from 1,200 to +2,160 small elements each. This facilitates removal, and also the +detection of any fault that may occur.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that in 1808 Sir Humphry Davy constructed +his battery of 2,000 cells, and thus succeeded in exalting the tiny +spark obtained in closing the circuit into the luminous sheaf of +the voltaic arc. He also observed that the spark passed even when +the poles were separated by a distance varying from 1/40 to 1/30 of +an inch. This appears to have been subsequently forgotten, as we +find later physicists questioning the possibility of the spark +leaping over any interpolar distance. Mr. J. P. Gassiot, of +Clapham, demonstrated the inaccuracy of this opinion by +constructing a battery of 3,000 Leclanché cells, which gave +a spark of 0.025 inch; a similar number of "de la Rue" cells gives +an 0.0564 inch spark. This considerable increase in potential is +chiefly due to better insulation.</p> + +<p>The great energy of this battery was illustrated by a variety of +experiments. Thus, a large condenser, specially constructed by +Messrs. Varley, and having a capacity equal to that of 6,485 large +Leyden jars, was almost immediately charged by the current from +10,000 cells. Wires of various kinds, and from 9 inches to 29 +inches in length, were instantly volatilized by the passage of the +electricity thus stored up. The current induced in the secondary +wire of a coil by the discharge of the condenser through the +primary, was also sufficiently intense to deflagrate wires of +considerable length and thickness.</p> + +<p>It was with such power at his command that Dr. De la Rue +proceeded to investigate several important electrical laws. He has +found, for example, that the positive discharge is more +intermittent than the negative, that the arc is always preceded by +a streamer-like discharge, that its temperature is about 16,000 +deg., and its length at the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, +when taken between two points, varies as the square of the number +of cells. Thus, with a battery of 1,000 cells, the arc was 0.0051 +inch, with 11,000 cells it increased to 0.62 inch. The same law was +found to hold when the discharge took place between a point and a +disk; it failed entirely, however, when the terminals were two +disks.</p> + +<p>It was also shown that the voltaic arc is not a phenomenon of +conduction, but is essentially a disruptive discharge, the +intervals between the passage of two successive static sparks being +the time required for the battery to collect sufficient power to +leap over the interposed resistance. This was further confirmed by +the introduction of a condenser, when the intervals were +perceptibly larger.</p> + +<p>Faraday proved that the quantity of electricity necessary to +produce a strong flash of lightning would result from the +decomposition of a single grain of water, and Dr. de la Rue's +experiments confirm this extraordinary statement. He has calculated +that this quantity of electricity would be 5,000 times as great as +the charge of his large condenser, and that a lightning flash a +mile long would require the potential of 3,500,000 cells, that is +to say, of 243 of his powerful batteries.</p> + +<p>In experimenting with "vacuum" tubes, he has found that the +discharge is also invariably disruptive. This is an important +point, as many physicists speak and write of the phenomenon as one +of conduction. Air, in every degree of tenuity, refuses to act as a +conductor of electricity. These experiments show that the +resistance of gaseous media diminishes with the pressure only up to +a certain point, beyond which it rapidly increases. Thus, in the +case of hydrogen, it diminishes up to 0.642 mm., 845 millionths; it +then rises as the exhaustion proceeds, and at 0.00065 mm., 8.6 +millionths, it requires as high a potential as at 21.7 mm., 28.553 +millionths. At 0.00137 mm., 1.8 millionth, the current from 11,000 +cells would not pass through a tube for which 430 cells sufficed at +the pressure of minimum resistance. At a pressure of 0.0055 mm., +0.066 millionth, the highest exhaust obtained in any of the +experiments, even a one-inch spark from an induction coil refused +to pass. It was also ascertained that there is neither condensacian +nor dilatation of the gas in contact with the terminals prior to +the passage of the discharge.</p> + +<p>These researches naturally led to some speculation about the +conditions under which auroral phenomena may occur. Observers have +variously stated the height at which the aurora borealis attains +its greatest brilliancy as ranging between 124 and 281 miles. Dr. +de la Rue's conclusions fix the upper limit at 124 miles, and that +of maximum display at 37 miles, admitting also that the aurora may +sometimes occur at an altitude of a few thousand feet.</p> + +<p>The aurora was beautifully illustrated by a very large tube, in +which the theoretical pressure was carefully maintained, the +characteristic roseate tinge being readily produced and +maintained.</p> + +<p>In studying the stratifications observed in vacuum tubes, Dr. de +la Rue finds that they originate at the positive pole, and that +their steadiness may be regulated by the resistance in circuit, and +that even when the least tremor cannot be detected by the eye, they +are still produced by rapid pulsations which may be as frequent as +ten millions per second.</p> + +<p>Dr. de la Rue concluded his interesting discourse by exhibiting +some of the finest tubes of his numerous and unsurpassed +collection.--<i>Engineering</i></p> + +<hr> +<h2>MEASURING ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.</h2> + +<p>Coulomb's torsion balance has been adapted by M. Baille to the +measurement of low electromotive forces in a very successful +manner, and has been found preferable by him to the delicate +electrometers of Sir W. Thomson. It is necessary to guard it from +disturbances due to extraneous electric influences and the +trembling of the ground. These can be eliminated completely by +encircling the instrument in a metal case connected to earth, and +mounting it on solid pillars in a still place. Heat also has a +disturbing effect, and makes itself felt in the torsion of the +fiber and the cage surrounding the lever. These effects are warded +off by inclosing the instrument in a non-conducting jacket of wood +shavings.</p> + +<p>The apparatus of M. Baille consists of an annealed silver +torsion wire of 2.70 meters long, and a lever 0.50 meter long, +carrying at each extremity a ball of copper, gilded, and three +centimeters in diameter. Similar balls are fixed at the corners of +a square 20.5 meters in the side, and connected in diagonal pairs +by fine wire. The lever placed at equal distances from the fixed +balls communicates, by the medium of the torsion wire, with the +positive pole of a battery, P, the other pole being to earth.</p> + +<p>Owing to some unaccountable variations in the change of the +lever or needle, M. Baille was obliged to measure the change at +each observation. This was done by joining the + pole of the +battery to the needle, and one pair of the fixed balls, and +observing the deflection; then the deflection produced by the other +balls was observed. This operation was repeated several times.</p> + +<p>The battery, X, to be measured consisted of ten similar +elements, and one pole of it was connected to the fixed balls, +while the other pole was connected to the earth. The needle, of +course, remained in contact with the + pole of the charging +battery, P.</p> + +<p>The deflections were read from a clear glass scale, placed at a +distance of 3.30 meters from the needle, and the results worked out +from Coulomb's static formula,</p> + +<p><img src="images/tex1.png" align="middle" alt= +"C a = \frac{4 m m'}{d^2}">, with <img src= +"images/tex2.png" align="middle" alt= +"O = \sqrt{\frac{\sum \frac{p}{g} r^2}{C}}"></p> + +<p>In M. Baillie's experiments, O = 437³, and Σpr²= +32171.6 (centimeter grammes), the needle having been constructed of +a geometrical form.</p> + +<p>The following numbers represent the potential of an element of +the battery--that is to say, the quantity of electricity that the +pole of that battery spreads upon a sphere of one centimeter +radius. They are expressed in units of electricity, the unit being +the quantity of electricity which, acting upon a similar unit at a +distance of one centimeter, produces a repulsion equal to one +gramme:</p> + +<pre> +Volta pile 0.03415 open circuit. +Zinc, sulphate of copper, copper 0.02997 " +Zinc, acidulated water, copper, sulphate of copper 0.03709 " +Zinc, salt water, carbon peroxide of manganese 0.05282 " +Zinc, salt water, platinum, chloride of platinum 0.05027 " +Zinc, acidulated water, carbon nitric acid 0.06285 " +</pre> + +<p>These results were obtained just upon charging the batteries, +and are, therefore, slightly higher than the potentials given after +the batteries became older. The sulphate of copper cells kept about +their maximum value longest, but they showed variations of about 10 +per cent.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>TELEPHONY BY THERMIC CURRENTS.</h2> + +<p>While in telephonic arrangements, based upon the principle of +magnetic induction, a relatively considerable expenditure of force +is required in order to set the tightly stretched membrane in +vibration, in the so-called carbon telephones only a very feeble +impulse is required to produce the differences in the current +necessary for the transmission of sounds. In order to produce +relatively strong currents, even in case of sound-action of a +minimum strength, Franz Kröttlinger, of Vienna, has made an +interesting experiment to use thermo electric currents for the +transmission of sound to a distance. The apparatus which he has +constructed is exceedingly simple. A current of hot air flowing +from below upward is deflected more or less from its direction by +the human voice. By its action an adjacent thermo-battery is +excited, whose current passes through the spiral of an ordinary +telephone, which serves as the receiving instrument. As a source of +heat the inventor uses a common stearine candle, the flame of which +is kept at one and the same level by means of a spring similar to +those used in carriage lamps. On one side of the candle is a sheet +metal voice funnel fixed upon a support, its mouth being covered +with a movable sliding disk, fitted with a suitable number of small +apertures. On the other side a similar support holds a +funnel-shaped thermo-battery. The single bars of metal forming this +battery are very thin, and of such a shape that they may cool as +quickly as possible. Both the speaking-funnel and the battery can +be made to approach, at will, to the stream of warm air rising up +from the flame. The entire apparatus is inclosed in a tin case in +such a manner that only the aperture of the voice-funnel and the +polar clamps for securing the conducting wires appear on the +outside. The inside of the case is suitably stayed to prevent +vibration. On speaking into the mouth-piece of the funnel, the +sound-waves occasion undulations in the column of hot air which are +communicated to the thermo-battery, and in this manner +corresponding differences are produced in the currents in the wires +leading to the receiving +instrument.--<i>Oesterreichische-Ungarische Post.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>THE TELECTROSCOPE.</h2> + +<h3>By MONS. SENLECQ, of Ardres.</h3> + +<p>This apparatus, which is intended to transmit to a distance +through a telegraphic wire pictures taken on the plate of a camera, +was invented in the early part of 1877 by M. Senlecq, of Ardres. A +description of the first specification submitted by M. Senlecq to +M. du Moncel, member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, appeared in +all the continental and American scientific journals. Since then +the apparatus has everywhere occupied the attention of prominent +electricians, who have striven to improve on it. Among these we may +mention MM. Ayrton, Perry, Sawyer (of New York), Sargent (of +Philadelphia), Brown (of London), Carey (of Boston), Tighe (of +Pittsburg), and Graham Bell himself. Some experimenters have used +many wires, bound together cable-wise, others one wire only. The +result has been, on the one hand, confusion of conductors beyond a +certain distance, with the absolute impossibility of obtaining +perfect insulation; and, on the other hand, an utter want of +synchronism. The unequal and slow sensitiveness of the selenium +likewise obstructed the proper working of the apparatus. Now, +without a relative simplicity in the arrangement of the conducting +wires intended to convey to a distance the electric current with +its variations of intensity, without a perfect and rapid +synchronism acting concurrently with the luminous impressions, so +as to insure the simultaneous action of transmitter and receiver, +without, in fine, an increased sensitiveness in the selenium, the +idea of the telectroscope could not be realized. M. Senlecq has +fortunately surmounted most of these main obstacles, and we give +to-day a description of the latest apparatus he has contrived.</p> + +<h3>TRANSMITTER.</h3> + +<p>A brass plate, A, whereon the rays of light impinge inside a +camera, in their various forms and colors, from the external +objects placed before the lens, the said plate being coated with +selenium on the side intended to face the dark portion of the +camera This brass plate has its entire surface perforated with +small holes as near to one another as practicable. These holes are +filled with selenium, heated, and then cooled very slowly, so as to +obtain the maximum sensitiveness. A small brass wire passes through +the selenium in each hole, without, however, touching the plate, on +to the rectangular and vertical ebonite plate, B, Fig. 1, from +under this plate at point, C. Thus, every wire passing through +plate, A, has its point of contact above the plate, B, lengthwise. +With this view the wires are clustered together when leaving the +camera, and thence stretch to their corresponding points of contact +on plate, B, along line, C C. The surface of brass, A, is in +permanent contact with the positive pole of the battery (selenium). +On each side of plate, B, are let in two brass rails, D and E, +whereon the slide hereinafter described works.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src= +"images/8a_th.png" alt="Fig. 1"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1</p> + +<p>Rail, E, communicates with the line wire intended to conduct the +various light and shade vibrations. Rail, D, is connected with the +battery wire. Along F are a number of points of contact +corresponding with those along C C. These contacts help to work the +apparatus, and to insure the perfect isochronism of the transmitter +and receiver. These points of contact, though insulated one from +the other on the surface of the plate, are all connected underneath +with a wire coming from the positive pole of a special battery. +This apparatus requires two batteries, as, in fact, do all +autographic telegraphs--one for sending the current through the +selenium, and one for working the receiver, etc. The different +features of this important plate may, therefore, be summed up +thus:</p> + +<p>FIGURE 1.</p> + +<p>D. Brass rail, grooved and connected with the line wire working +the receiver.</p> + +<p>F. Contacts connected underneath with a wire permanently +connected with battery.</p> + +<p>C. Contacts connected to insulated wires from selenium.</p> + +<p>E. Brass rail, grooved, etc., like D.</p> + +<h3>RECEIVER.</h3> + +<p>A small slide, Fig. 2, having at one of its angles a very narrow +piece of brass, separated in the middle by an insulating surface, +used for setting the apparatus in rapid motion. This small slide +has at the points, D D, a small groove fitting into the brass rails +of plate, B, Fig. 1, whereby it can keep parallel on the two brass +rails, D and E. Its insulator, B, Fig. 2, corresponds to the +insulating interval between F and C, Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>A, Fig. 3, circular disk, suspended vertically (made of ebonite +or other insulating material). This disk is fixed. All round the +inside of its circumference are contacts, connected underneath with +the corresponding wires of the receiving apparatus. The wires +coming from the seleniumized plate correspond symmetrically, one +after the other, with the contacts of transmitter. They are +connected in the like order with those of disk, A, and with those +of receiver, so that the wire bearing the No. 5 from the selenium +will correspond identically with like contact No. 5 of +receiver.</p> + +<p>D, Fig. 4, gutta percha or vulcanite insulating plate, through +which pass numerous very fine platinum wires, each corresponding at +its point of contact with those on the circular disk, A.</p> + +<p>The receptive plate must be smaller than the plate whereon the +light impinges. The design being thus reduced will be the more +perfect from the dots formed by the passing currents being closer +together.</p> + +<p>B, zinc or iron or brass plate connected to earth. It comes in +contact with chemically prepared paper, C, where the impression is +to take place. It contributes to the impression by its contact with +the chemically prepared paper.</p> + +<p>In E, Fig. 3, at the center of the above described fixed plate +is a metallic axis with small handle. On this axis revolves brass +wheel, F, Fig. 5.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/8b.png" alt="FIG. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p> + +<p>On handle, E, presses continuously the spring, H, Fig. 3, +bringing the current coming from the selenium line. The cogged +wheel in Fig. 5 has at a certain point of its circumference the +sliding spring, O, Fig. 5, intended to slide as the wheel revolves +over the different contacts of disk, A, Fig. 3.</p> + +<p>This cogged wheel, Fig. 5, is turned, as in the dial telegraphs, +by a rod working in and out under the successive movements of the +electro-magnet, H, and of the counter spring. By means of this rod +(which must be of a non-metallic material, so as not to divert the +motive current), and of an elbow lever, this alternating movement +is transmitted to a catch, G, which works up and down between the +cogs, and answers the same purpose as the ordinary clock +anchor.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8c.png"><img src= +"images/8c_th.png" alt="FIG. 3"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3</p> + +<p>This cogged wheel is worked by clockwork inclosed between two +disks, and would rotate continuously were it not for the catch, G, +working in and out of the cogs. Through this catch, G, the wheel is +dependent on the movement of electro-magnet. This cogged wheel is a +double one, consisting of two wheels coupled together, exactly +similar one with the other, and so fixed that the cogs of the one +correspond with the void between the cogs of the others. As the +catch, G, moves down it frees a cog in first wheel, and both wheels +begin to turn, but the second wheel is immediately checked by +catch, G, and the movement ceases. A catch again works the two +wheels, turn half a cog, and so on. Each wheel contains as many +cogs as there are contacts on transmitter disk, consequently as +many as on circular disk, A, Fig. 3, and on brass disk within +camera.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8d.png"><img src= +"images/8d_th.png" alt="FIG. 4"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8e.png"><img src= +"images/8e_th.png" alt="FIG. 5"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5</p> + +<p>Having now described the several parts of the apparatus, let us +see how it works. All the contacts correspond one with the other, +both on the side of selenium current and that of the motive +current. Let us suppose that the slide of transmitter is on contact +No. 10 for instance; the selenium current starting from No. 10 +reaches contact 10 of rectangular transmitter, half the slide +bearing on this point, as also on the parallel rail, communicates +the current to said rail, thence to line, from the line to axis of +cogged wheel, from axis to contact 10 of circular fixed disk, and +thence to contact 10 of receiver. At each selenium contact of the +rectangular disk there is a corresponding contact to the battery +and electro-magnet. Now, on reaching contact 10 the intermission of +the current has turned the wheel 10 cogs, and so brought the small +contact, O, Fig. 5, on No. 10 of the fixed circular disk.</p> + +<p>As may be seen, the synchronism of the apparatus could not be +obtained in a more simple and complete mode--the rectangular +transmitter being placed vertically, and the slide being of a +certain weight to its fall from the first point of contact +sufficient to carry it rapidly over the whole length of this +transmitter.</p> + +<p>The picture is, therefore, reproduced almost instantaneously; +indeed, by using platinum wires on the receiver connected with the +negative pole, by the incandescence of these wires according to the +different degrees of electricity we can obtain a picture, of a +fugitive kind, it is true, but yet so vivid that the impression on +the retina does not fade during the relatively very brief space of +time the slide occupies in traveling over all the contacts. A +Ruhmkorff coil may also be employed for obtaining sparks in +proportion to the current emitted. The apparatus is regulated in +precisely the same way as dial telegraphs, starting always from +first contact. The slide should, therefore, never be removed from +the rectangular disk, whereon it is held by the grooves in the +brass rails, into which it fits with but slight friction, without +communicating any current to the line wires when not placed on +points of contact.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 274, page 4368.]</p> + +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>THE VARIOUS MODES OF TRANSMITTING POWER TO A DISTANCE.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A paper lately read before the Institution of +Mechanical Engineers.]</p> + +<h3>By ARTHUR ACHARD, of Geneva.</h3> + +<p>But allowing that the figure of 22 H. P., assumed for this power +(the result in calculating the work with compressed air being 19 H. +P.) may be somewhat incorrect, it is unlikely that this error can +be so large that its correction could reduce the efficiency below +80 per cent. Messrs. Sautter and Lemonnier, who construct a number +of compressors, on being consulted by the author, have written to +say that they always confined themselves in estimating the power +stored in the compressed air, and had never measured the gross +power expended. Compressed air in passing along the pipe, assumed +to be horizontal, which conveys it from the place of production to +the place where it is to be used, experiences by friction a +diminution of pressure, which represents a reduction in the +mechanical power stored up, and consequently a loss of +efficiency.</p> + +<p>The loss of pressure in question can only be calculated +conveniently on the hypothesis that it is very small, and the +general formula, <img src="images/tex3.png" align="middle" +alt="\frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{4L}{D}f(u)">, is employed for +the purpose, where D is the diameter of the pipe, assumed to be +uniform, L the length of the pipe, p<sub>1</sub> the pressure at +the entrance, p the pressure at the farther end, u the velocity at +which the compressed air travels, Δ its specific weight, and +f(u) the friction per unit of length. In proportion as the air +loses pressure its speed increases, while its specific weight +diminishes; but the variations in pressure are assumed to be so +small that u and Δ may be considered constant. As regards the +quantity f(u), or the friction per unit of length, the natural law +which regulates it is not known, audit can only be expressed by +some empirical formula, which, while according sufficiently nearly +with the facts, is suited for calculation. For this purpose the +binomial formula, au + bu², or the simple formula, +b<sub>1</sub> u², is generally adopted; a b and b<sub>1</sub> +being coefficients deduced from experiment. The values, however, +which are to be given to these coefficients are not constant, for +they vary with the diameter of the pipe, and in particular, +contrary to formerly received ideas, they vary according to its +internal surface. The uncertainty in this respect is so great that +it is not worth while, with a view to accuracy, to relinquish the +great convenience which the simple formula, b<sub>1</sub> u², +offers. It would be better from this point of view to endeavor, as +has been suggested, to render this formula more exact by the +substitution of a fractional power in the place of the square, +rather than to go through the long calculations necessitated by the +use of the binomial au + bu². Accordingly, making use of the +formula b<sub>1</sub> u², the above equation becomes, <img +src="images/tex4.png" align="middle" alt= +"\frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{4L}{D} b_1 u^2">; or, introducing +the discharge per second, Q, which is the usual figure supplied, +and which is connected with the velocity by the relation, <img src= +"images/tex5.png" align="middle" alt= +"Q = \frac{\pi D^2 u}{4}">, we have <img src= +"images/tex6.png" align="middle" alt= +"\frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{64 b_1}{\pi^2 D^5} L Q^2">. +Generally the pressure, p<sub>1</sub>, at the entrance is known, +and the pressure, p, has to be found; it is then from p<sub>1</sub> +that the values of Q and Δ are calculated. In experiments +where p<sub>1</sub> and p are measured directly, in order to arrive +at the value of the coefficient b<sub>1</sub>, Q and Δ would +be calculated for the mean pressure ½(p<sub>1</sub> + p). +The values given to the coefficient b<sub>1</sub> vary +considerably, because, as stated above, it varies with the +diameter, and also with the nature of the material of the pipe. It +is generally admitted that it is independent of the pressure, and +it is probable that within certain limits of pressure this +hypothesis is in accordance with the truth.</p> + +<p>D'Aubuisson gives for this case, in his <i>Traité +d'Hydraulique</i>, a rather complicated formula, containing a +constant deduced from experiment, whose value, according to a +calculation made by the author, is approximately b<sub>1</sub> = +0.0003. This constant was determined by taking the mean of +experiments made with tin tubes of 0.0235 meter (15/16 in.), 0.05 +meter (2 in.), and 0.10 meter (4 in.) diameter; and it was +erroneously assumed that it was correct for all diameters and all +substances.</p> + +<p>M. Arson, engineer to the Paris Gas Company, published in 1867, +in the <i>Mémoires de la Société des +Ingénieurs Civils de France</i>, the results of some +experiments on the loss of pressure in gas when passing through +pipes. He employed cast-iron pipes of the ordinary type. He has +represented the results of his experiments by the binomial formula, +au + bu², and gives values for the coefficients a and b, which +diminish with an increase in diameter, but would indicate greater +losses of pressure than D'Aubuisson's formula. M. Deviller, in his +<i>Rapport sur les travaux de percement du tunnel sous les +Alpes</i>, states that the losses of pressure observed in the air +pipe at the Mont Cenis Tunnel confirm the correctness of +D'Aubuisson's formula; but his reasoning applies to too complicated +a formula to be absolutely convincing.</p> + +<p>Quite recently M. E. Stockalper, engineer-in-chief at the +northern end of the St. Gothard Tunnel, has made some experiments +on the air conduit of this tunnel, the results of which he has +kindly furnished to the author. These lead to values for the +coefficient b<sub>1</sub> appreciably less than that which is +contained implicitly in D'Aubuisson's formula. As he experimented +on a rising pipe, it is necessary to introduce into the formula the +difference of level, h, between the two ends; it then becomes <img +src="images/tex7.png" align="middle" alt= +"\frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{64 b_1}{\pi^2 D^5} L Q^2 + h"> . +The following are the details of the experiments: First series of +experiments: Conduit consisting of cast or wrought iron pipes, +joined by means of flanges, bolts, and gutta percha rings. D = 0.20 +m. (8 in.); L = 4,600 m. (15,100 ft,); h= 26.77 m. (87 ft. 10 in.). +1st experiment: Q = 0.1860 cubic meter (6.57 cubic feet), at a +pressure of ½(p<sub>1</sub> + p), and a temperature of +22° Cent. (72° Fahr.); p<sub>1</sub> = 5.60 atm., p =5.24 +atm. Hence p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.36 atm.= 0.36 x 10,334 kilogrammes +per square meter (2.116 lb. per square foot), whence we obtain +b<sub>1</sub>=0.0001697. D'Aubuisson's formula would have given +p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.626 atm.; and M. Arson's would have given +p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.9316 atm. 2d experiment: Q = 0.1566 cubic +meter (5.53 cubic feet), at a pressure of ½(p<sub>1</sub> + +p), and a temperature of 22° Cent. (72° Fahr.); +p<sub>1</sub> = 4.35 atm., p = 4.13 atm. Hence p<sub>1</sub> - p = +0.22 atm. = 0.22 X 10,334 kilogrammes per square meter (2,116 lb. +per square foot); whence we obtain b<sub>1</sub> = 0.0001816. +D'Aubuisson's formula would have given p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.347 +atm; and M. Arson's would have given p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.5382 +atm. 3d experiment: Q = 0.1495 cubic meter (5.28 cubic feet) at a +pressure of ½(p<sub>1</sub> + p) and a temperature 22° +Cent. (72º Fahr.); p<sub>1</sub> = 3.84 atm., p = 3.65 atm. +Hence p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.19 atm. = 0.19 X 10,334 kilogrammes per +square meter (2.116 lb. per square foot); whence we obtain +B<sub>1</sub> = 0.0001966. D'Aubuisson's formula would have given +p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.284 atm., and M. Arson's would have given +p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.4329 atm. Second series of experiments: +Conduit composed of wrought-iron pipes, with joints as in the first +experiments. D = 0.15 meter (6 in.), L - 0.522 meters (1,712 ft.), +h = 3.04 meters (10 ft.) 1st experiments: Q = 0.2005 cubic meter +(7.08 cubic feet), at a pressure of ½(p<sub>1</sub> + p), +and a temperature of 26.5° Cent. (80° Fahr.); p<sub>1</sub> += 5.24 atm., p = 5.00 atm. Hence p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.24 atm. +=0.24 x 10,334 kilogrammes per square meter (2,116 lb. per square +foot); whence we obtain b<sub>1</sub> = 0.3002275. 2nd experiment: +Q = 0.1586 cubic meter (5.6 cubic feet), at a pressure of +½(p<sub>1</sub> + p), and a temperature of 26.5° Cent. +(80° Fahr.); p<sub>1</sub> = 3.650 atm., p = 3.545 atm. Hence +p<sub>1</sub> - p = 0.105 atm. = 0.105 x 10,334 kilogrammes per +square meter (2,116 lb. per square foot); whence we obtain +b<sub>1</sub> = 0.0002255. It is clear that these experiments give +very small values for the coefficient. The divergence from the +results which D'Aubuisson's formula would give is due to the fact +that his formula was determined with very small pipes. It is +probable that the coefficients corresponding to diameters of 0.15 +meter (6 in.) and 0.20 meter (8 in.) for a substance as smooth as +tin, would be still smaller respectively than the figures obtained +above.</p> + +<p>The divergence from the results obtained by M. Arson's formula +does not arise from a difference in size, as this is taken into +account. The author considers that it may be attributed to the fact +that the pipes for the St. Gothard Tunnel were cast with much +greater care than ordinary pipes, which rendered their surface +smoother, and also to the fact that flanged joints produce much +less irregularity in the internal surface than the ordinary spigot +and faucet joints.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the difference in the methods of observation and the +errors which belong to them, must be taken into account. M. +Stockalper, who experimented on great pressures, used metallic +gauges, which are instruments on whose sensibility and correctness +complete reliance cannot be placed; and moreover the standard +manometer with which they were compared was one of the same kind. +The author is not of opinion that the divergence is owing to the +fact that M. Stockalper made his observations on an air conduit, +where the pressure was much higher than in gas pipes. Indeed, it +may be assumed that gases and liquids act in the same manner; and, +as will be [1] explained later on, there is reason to believe that +with the latter a rise of pressure increases the losses of pressure +instead of diminishing them.</p> + +<p>[Transcribers note 1: corrected from 'as will we explained']</p> + +<p>All the pipes for supplying compressed air in tunnels and in +headings of mines are left uncovered, and have flanged joints; +which are advantages not merely as regards prevention of leakage, +but also for facility of laying and of inspection. If a compressed +air pipe had to be buried in the ground the flanged joint would +lose a part of its advantages; but, nevertheless, the author +considers that it would still be preferable to the ordinary +joint.</p> + +<p>It only remains to refer to the motors fed with the compressed +air. This subject is still in its infancy from a practical point of +view. In proportion as the air becomes hot by compression, so it +cools by expansion, if the vessel containing it is impermeable to +heat. Under these conditions it gives out in expanding a power +appreciably less than if it retained its original temperature; +besides which the fall of temperature may impede the working of the +machine by freezing the vapor of water contained in the air.</p> + +<p>If it is desired to utilize to the utmost the force stored up in +the compressed air it is necessary to endeavor to supply heat to +the air during expansion so as to keep its temperature constant. It +would be possible to attain this object by the same means which +prevent heating from compression, namely, by the circulation and +injection of water. It would perhaps be necessary to employ a +little larger quantity of water for injection, as the water, +instead of acting by virtue both of its heat of vaporization and of +its specific heat, can in this case act only by virtue of the +latter. These methods might be employed without difficulty for air +machines of some size. It would be more difficult to apply them to +small household machines, in which simplicity is an essential +element; and we must rest satisfied with imperfect methods, such as +proximity to a stove, or the immersion of the cylinder in a tank of +water. Consequently loss of power by cooling and by incomplete +expansion cannot be avoided. The only way to diminish the relative +amount of this loss is to employ compressed air at a pressure not +exceeding three or four atmospheres.</p> + +<p>The only real practical advance made in this matter is M. +Mékarski's compressed air engine for tramways. In this +engine the air is made to pass through a small boiler containing +water at a temperature of about 120° Cent. (248° Fahr.), +before entering the cylinder of the engine. It must be observed +that in order to reduce the size of the reservoirs, which are +carried on the locomotive, the air inside them must be very highly +compressed; and that in going from the reservoir into the cylinder +it passes through a reducing valve or expander, which keeps the +pressure of admission at a definite figure, so that the locomotive +can continue working so long as the supply of air contained in the +reservoir has not come down to this limiting pressure. The air does +not pass the expander until after it has gone through the boiler +already mentioned. Therefore, if the temperature which it assumes +in the boiler is 100° Cent. (212° Fahr.), and if the +limiting pressure is 5 atm., the gas which enters the engine will +be a mixture of air and water vapor at 100° Cent.; and of its +total pressure the vapor of water will contribute I atm. and the +air 4 atm. Thus this contrivance, by a small expenditure of fuel, +enables the air to act expansively without injurious cooling, and +even reduces the consumption of compressed air to an extent which +compensates for part of the loss of power arising from the +preliminary expansion which the air experiences before its +admission into the engine. It is clear that this same contrivance, +or what amounts to the same thing, a direct injection of steam, at +a sufficient pressure, for the purpose of maintaining the expanding +air at a constant temperature, might be tried in a fixed engine +worked by compressed air with some chance of success.</p> + +<p>Whatever method is adopted it would be advantageous that the +losses of pressure in the pipes connecting the compressors with the +motors should be reduced as much as possible, for in this case that +loss would represent a loss of efficiency. If, on the other hand, +owing to defective means of reheating, it is necessary to remain +satisfied with a small amount of expansion, the loss of pressure in +the pipe is unimportant, and has only the effect of transferring +the limited expansion to a point a little lower on the scale of +pressures. If W is the net disposable force on the shaft of the +engine which works the compressor, v<sub>1</sub> the volume of air +at the compressor, p<sub>1</sub>. given by the compressor, and at +the temperature of the surrounding air, and p<sub>0</sub> the +atmospheric pressure, the efficiency of the compressor, assuming +the air to expand according to Boyle's law, is given by the +well-known formula--<img src="images/tex8.png" align= +"middle" alt="\frac{p_1 v_1 \log \frac{p_1}{p_0}}{W}"> . Let +p<sub>2</sub> be the value to which the pressure is reduced by the +loss of pressure at the end of the conduit, and v<sub>2</sub> the +volume which the air occupies at this pressure and at the same +temperature; the force stored up in the air at the end of its +course through the conduit is p<sub>2</sub> v<sub>2</sub> +log(p<sub>2</sub>/p<sub>0</sub>); consequently, the efficiency of +the conduit is<img src="images/tex9.png" align="middle" +alt= +"\frac{p_2 v_2 \log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}{p_2 v_2 \log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}"> +, a fraction that may be reduced to the simple form<img src= +"images/tex10.png" align="middle" alt= +"\frac{\log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}{\log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}">, if there is no +leakage during the passage of the air, because in that cause +p<sub>2</sub> v<sub>2</sub> = p<sub>1</sub> v<sub>1</sub>. Lastly, +if W<sub>1</sub> is the net disposable force on the shaft of the +compressed air motor, the efficiency of this engine will be, <img +src="images/tex11.png" align="middle" alt= +"\frac{W_1}{p_2 v_2 \log \frac{p_2}{p_0}}"> and the product of +these three partial efficiencies is equal to W<sub>1</sub>/W, the +general efficiency of the transmission.</p> + +<p>III. <i>Transmission by Pressure Water</i>.--As transmission of +power by compressed air has been specially applied to the driving +of tunnels, so transmission by pressure water has been specially +resorted to for lifting heavy loads, or for work of a similar +nature, such as the operations connected with the manufacture of +Bessemer steel or of cast-iron pipes. The author does not propose +to treat of transmissions established for this special purpose, and +depending on the use of accumulators at high pressure, as he has no +fresh matter to impart on this subject, and as he believes that the +remarkable invention of Sir William Armstrong was described for the +first time, in the "Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers." His object is to refer to transmissions applicable to +general purposes.</p> + +<p>The transmission of power by water may occur in another form. +The motive force to be transmitted may be employed for working +pumps which raise the water, not to a fictitious height in an +accumulator, but to a real height in a reservoir, with a channel +from this reservoir to distribute the water so raised among several +motors arranged for utilizing the pressure. The author is not aware +that works have been carried out for this purpose. However, in many +towns a part of the water from the public mains serves to supply +small motors--consequently, if the water, instead of being brought +by a natural fall, has been previously lifted artificially, it +might be said that a transmission of power is here grafted on to +the ordinary distribution of water.</p> + +<p>Unless a positive or negative force of gravity is introduced +into the problem, independently of the force to be transmitted, the +receivers of the water pressure must be assumed to be at the same +level as the forcing pumps, or more correctly, the water discharged +from the receivers to be at the same level as the surface of the +water from which the pumps draw their supply. In this case the +general efficiency of transmission is the product of three partial +efficiencies, which correspond exactly to those mentioned with +regard to compressed air. The height of lift, contained in the +numerator of the fraction which expresses the efficiency of the +pumps, is not to be taken as the difference in level between the +surface of the water in the reservoir and the surface of the water +whence the pumps draw their supply; but as this difference in +level, plus the loss of pressure in the suction pipe, which is +usually very short, and plus the loss in the channel to the +reservoir, which may be very long. A similar loss of initial +pressure affects the efficiency of the discharge channel. The +reservoir, if of sufficient capacity, may become an important store +of power, while the compressed air reservoir can only do so to a +very limited extent.</p> + +<p>Omitting the subject of the pumps, and passing on at once to the +discharge main, the author may first point out that the distinction +between the ascending and descending mains of the system is of no +importance, for two reasons: first, that nothing prevents the +motors being supplied direct from the first alone; and second, that +the one is not always distinct from the other. In fact, the +reservoir may be connected by a single branch pipe with the system +which goes from the pumps to the motors; it may even be placed at +the extreme end of this system beyond the motors, provided always +that the supply pipe is taken into it at the bottom. The same +formula may be adopted for the loss of initial pressure in water +pipes as for compressed air pipes, viz.,<img src= +"images/tex12.png" align="middle" alt= +"\frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{64 b_1}{\pi^2 D^5} L Q^2 \pm h"> ; +h being the difference of level between the two ends of the portion +of conduit of length, L, and the sign + or - being used according +as the conduit rises or falls. The specific weight, δ, is +constant, and the quotients, p<sub>1</sub>/δ and p/δ, +represent the heights, z and z<sub>1</sub>, to which the water +could rise above the pipes, in vertical tubes branching from it, at +the beginning and end of the transit. The values assigned to the +coefficient b<sub>1</sub> in France, are those determined by +D'Arcy. For new cast-iron pipes he gives b<sub>1</sub> - 0.0002535 ++ 1/D 0.000000647; and recommends that this value should be +doubled, to allow for the rust and incrustation which more or less +form inside the pipes during use. The determination of this +coefficient has been made from experiments where the pressure has +not exceeded four atmospheres; within these limits the value of the +coefficient, as is generally admitted, is independent of the +pressure. The experiments made by M. Barret, on the pressure pipes +of the accumulator at the Marseilles docks, seem to indicate that +the loss of pressure would be greater for high pressures, +everything else being equal. This pipe, having a diameter of 0.127 +m. (5 in.), was subjected to an initial pressure of 52 atmospheres. +The author gives below the results obtained for a straight length +320 m. (1050 ft) long; and has placed beside them the results which +D'Arcy's formula would give.</p> + +<pre> + Loss of head, in meters or ft. respectively + per 100 meters or ft. run of pipes. + +-----------------^-------------------+ + | | + Calculated loss. + +-----------^-----------+ + | | +Velocity of flow Actual loss + per second. observed. Old pipes. New pipes. +Meters. Feet. Met. or Ft. Met. or Ft. Met. or Ft. +0.25 0.82 1.5 0.12 0.06 +0.50 1.64 2.5 0.48 0.24 +0.75 2.46 3.7 1.08 0.54 +1.00 3.28 5.5 1.92 0.96 +1.25 4.10 6.1 3.00 1.50 +1.50 4.92 7.3 4.32 2.16 +1.75 5.74 8.0 5.88 2.94 +2.00 6.56 10.2 7.68 3.84 +2.25 7.38 11.7 9.72 4.86 +2.50 8.20 14.0 12.00 6.00 +</pre> + +<p>Moreover, these results would appear to indicate a different law +from that which is expressed by the formula b<sub>1</sub> +u<sup>2</sup>, as is easy to see by representing them graphically. +It would be very desirable that fresh experiments should be made on +water pipes at high pressure, and of various diameters. Of machines +worked by water pressure the author proposes to refer only to two +which appear to him in every respect the most practical and +advantageous. One is the piston machine of M. Albert Schmid, +engineer at Zurich. The cylinder is oscillating, and the +distribution is effected, without an eccentric, by the relative +motion of two spherical surfaces fitted one against the other, and +having the axis of oscillation for a common axis. The convex +surface, which is movable and forms part of the cylinder, serves as +a port face, and has two ports in it communicating with the two +ends of the cylinder. The concave surface, which is fixed and plays +the part of a slide valve, contains three openings, the two outer +ones serving to admit the pressure water, and the middle one to +discharge the water after it has exerted its pressure. The piston +has no packing. Its surface of contact has two circumferential +grooves, which produce a sort of water packing acting by adhesion. +A small air chamber is connected with the inlet pipe, and serves to +deaden the shocks. This engine is often made with two cylinders, +having their cranks at right angles.</p> + +<p>The other engine, which is much less used, is a turbine on +Girard's system, with a horizontal axis and partial admission, +exactly resembling in miniature those which work in the hydraulic +factory of St. Maur, near Paris. The water is introduced by means +of a distributer, which is fitted in the interior of the turbine +chamber, and occupies a certain portion of its circumference. This +turbine has a lower efficiency than Schmid's machine, and is less +suitable for high pressures; but it possesses this advantage over +it, that by regulating the amount of opening of the distributer, +and consequently the quantity of water admitted, the force can be +altered without altering the velocity of rotation. As it admits of +great speeds, it could be usefully employed direct, without the +interposition of spur wheels or belts for driving magneto-electric +machines employed for the production of light, for electrotyping, +etc.</p> + +<p>In compressed air machines the losses of pressure due to +incomplete expansion, cooling, and waste spaces, play an important +part. In water pressure machines loss does not occur from these +causes, on account of the incompressibility of the liquid, but the +frictions of the parts are the principal causes of loss of power. +It would be advisable to ascertain whether, as regards this point, +high or low pressures are the most advantageous. Theoretical +considerations would lead the author to imagine that for a piston +machine low pressures are preferable. In conclusion, the following +table gives the efficiencies of a Girard turbine, constructed by +Messrs. Escher Wyss & Co., of Zurich, and of a Schmid machine, +as measured by Professor Fliegnor, in 1871:</p> + +<pre> + ESCHER WYSS & CO'S TURBINE. +<br> +Effective Head of Water. Revolutions Efficiency. + per minute. +Meters. Feet. Revs. Per cent. + 20.7 67.9 628 68.5 + 20.7 67.9 847 47.4 + 24.1 79.0 645 68.5 + 27.6 90.5 612 65.7 + 27.6 90.5 756 68.0 + 31.0 101.7 935 56.9 + 31.0 101.7 1,130 35.1 +<br> + SCHMID MOTOR. +<br> + 8.3 27.2 226 37.4 + 11.4 37.4 182 67.4 + 14.5 47.6 254 53.4 + 17.9 58.7 157 86.2 + 20.7 67.9 166 89.6 + 20.7 67.9 225 74.6 + 24.1 79.0 238 76.7 + 24.1 79.0 389 64.0 + 27.6 90.5 207 83.9 +</pre> + +<p>It will be observed that these experiments relate to low +pressures; it would be desirable to extend them to higher +pressures.</p> + +<p>IV. <i>Transmission by Electricity.</i>--However high the +efficiency of an electric motor may be, in relation to the chemical +work of the electric battery which feeds it, force generated by an +electric battery is too expensive, on account of the nature of the +materials consumed, for a machine of this kind ever to be employed +for industrial purposes. If, however, the electric current, instead +of being developed by chemical work in a battery, is produced by +ordinary mechanical power in a magneto-electric or dynamo-electric +machine, the case is different; and the double transformation, +first of the mechanical force into an electric current, and then of +that current into mechanical force, furnishes a means for effecting +the conveyance of the power to a distance.</p> + +<p>It is this last method of transmission which remains to be +discussed. The author, however, feels himself obliged to restrict +himself in this matter to a mere summary; and, indeed, it is +English physicists and engineers who have taken the technology of +electricity out of the region of empiricism and have placed it on a +scientific and rational basis. Moreover, they are also taking the +lead in the progress which is being accomplished in this branch of +knowledge, and are best qualified to determine its true bearings. +When an electric current, with an intensity, i, is produced, either +by chemical or mechanical work, in a circuit having a total +resistance, R, a quantity of heat is developed in the circuit, and +this heat is the exact equivalent of the force expended, so long as +the current is not made use of for doing any external work. The +expression for this quantity of heat, per unit of time, is +Ai²R; A being the thermal equivalent of the unit of power +corresponding to the units of current and resistance, in which i +and R are respectively expressed. The product, i²R, is a +certain quantity of power, which the author proposes to call +<i>power transformed into electricity</i>. When mechanical power is +employed for producing a current by means of a magneto-electric or +dynamo-electric machine--or, to use a better expression, by means +of a <i>mechanical generator of electricity</i>--it is necessary in +reality to expend a greater quantity of power than i²R in +order to make up for losses which result either from ordinary +friction or from certain electro magnetic reactions which occur. +The ratio of the quantity, i²R, to the power, W, actually +expended per unit of time is called the efficiency of the +generator. Designating it by K, we obtain, W = i²R/K. It is +very important to ascertain the value of this efficiency, +considering that it necessarily enters as a factor into the +evaluation of all the effects to be produced by help of the +generator in question. The following table gives the results of +certain experiments made early in 1879, with a Gramme machine, by +an able physicist, M Hagenbach, Professor at the University at +Basle, and kindly furnished by him to the author:</p> + +<pre> +Revolutions per minute 935 919.5 900.5 893 +<br> +Total resistance in Siemens' units 2.55 3.82 4.94 6.06 +<br> +Total resistance in absolute units 2.435 3.648 4.718 5.787 + x10^9 x10^9 x10^9 x10^9 +<br> +Intensity in chemical units 17.67 10.99 8.09 6.28 +<br> +Intensity in absolute units 2.828 1.759 1.295 1.005 +<br> +Work done i²R in absolute units 1948.6 1129.2 791.3 584.9 + x10^7 x10^7 x10^7 x10^7 +<br> +Work done i²R in kilogrammes 198.6 115.1 80.66 59.62 +<br> +Power expended in kilogrammes 301.5 141.0 86.25 83.25 +<br> +Efficiency, per cent. 65.9 81.6 93.5 71.6 +</pre> + +<p>M. Hagenbach's dynamometric measurements were made by the aid of +a brake. After each experiment on the electric machine, he applied +the brake to the engine which he employed, taking care to make it +run at precisely the same speed, with the same pressure of steam, +and with the same expansion as during experiment. It would +certainly be better to measure the force expended during and not +after the experiment, by means of a registering dynamometer. +Moreover, M. Hagenbach writes that his measurements by means of the +brake were very much prejudiced by external circumstances; +doubtless this is the reason of the divergences between the results +obtained.</p> + +<p>About the same time Dr. Hopkinson communicated to this +institution the results of some very careful experiments made on a +Siemens machine. He measured the force expended by means of a +registering dynamometer, and obtained very high coefficients of +efficiency, amounting to nearly 90 per cent. M. Hagenbach also +obtained from one machine a result only a little less than unity. +Mechanical generators of electricity are certainly capable of being +improved in several respects, especially as regards their +adaptation to certain definite classes of work. But there appears +to remain hardly any margin for further progress as regards +efficiency. Force transformed into electricity in a generator may +be expressed by i ω M C; ω being the angular velocity +of rotation; M the magnetism of one of the poles, inducing or +induced, which intervenes; and C a constant specially belonging to +each apparatus, and which is independent of the units adopted. This +constant could not be determined except by an integration +practically impossible; and the product, M C, must be considered +indivisible. Even in a magneto-electric machine (with permanent +inducing magnets), and much more in a dynamo-electric machine +(inducing by means of electro-magnets excited by the very current +produced) the product, M C, is a function of the intensity. From +the identity of the expressions, i²R and i ω M C we +obtain the relation M C = IR/ω which indicates the course to +be pursued to determine experimentally the law which connects the +variations of M C with those of i. Some experiments made in 1876, +by M. Hagenbach, on a Gramme dynamo-electric machine, appear to +indicate that the magnetism, M C, does not increase indefinitely +with the intensity, but that there is some maximum value for this +quantity. If, instead of working a generator by an external motive +force, a current is passed through its circuit in a certain given +direction, the movable part of the machine will begin to turn in an +opposite direction to that in which it would have been necessary to +turn it in order to obtain a current in the aforesaid direction. In +virtue of this motion the electro-magnetic forces which are +generated may be used to overcome a resisting force. The machine +will then work as a motor or receiver. Let i be the intensity of +the external current which works the motor, when the motor is kept +at rest. If it is now allowed to move, its motion produces, in +virtue of the laws of induction, a current in the circuit of +intensity, i<sub>1</sub>, in the opposite direction to the external +current; the effective intensity of the current traversing the +circuit is thus reduced to i - i<sub>1</sub>. The intensity of the +counter current is given, like that of the generating current, by +the equation, i<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup>R = i<sub>1</sub> +ω<sub>1</sub> M<sub>1</sub> C<sub>1</sub>, or i<sub>1</sub>R += ω<sub>1</sub> M<sub>1</sub> C<sub>1</sub>, the index, +<sub>1</sub>, denoting the quantities relating to the motor. Here +M<sub>1</sub> C<sub>1</sub> is a function of i - i<sub>1</sub>, not +of i. As in a generator the force transformed into electricity has +a value, i ω M C, so in a motor the force developed by +electricity is (i - i<sub>1</sub>) ω<sub>1</sub> +M<sub>1</sub> C<sub>1</sub>. On account, however, of the losses +which occur, the effective power, that is the disposable power on +the shaft of the motor, will have a smaller value, and in order to +arrive at it a coefficient of efficiency, K<sub>1</sub>, must be +added. We shall then have W<sub>1</sub> = K<sub>1</sub> +(i-i<sub>1</sub>) ω<sub>1</sub> M<sub>1</sub> C<sub>1</sub>. +The author has no knowledge of any experiments having been made for +obtaining this efficiency, K<sub>1</sub>. Next let us suppose that +the current feeding the motor is furnished by a generator, so that +actual transmission by electricity is taking place. The circuit, +whose resistance is R, comprises the coils, both fixed and movable, +of the generator and motor, and of the conductors which connect +them. The intensity of the current which traverses the circuit had +the value, i, when the motor was at rest; by the working of the +motor it is reduced to i - i<sub>1</sub>. The power applied to the +generator is itself reduced to W-[(i-i<sub>1</sub>)ω M C]/K. +The prime mover is relieved by the action of the counter current, +precisely as the consumption of zinc in the battery would be +reduced by the same cause, if the battery was the source of the +current. The efficiency of the transmission is W<sub>1</sub>/W. +Calculation shows that it is expressed by the following +equations:W<sub>1</sub>/W = K K<sub>1</sub> +[(ω<sub>1</sub><sub>1</sub> M<sub>1</sub> +C<sub>1</sub>)/(ω<sub>1</sub> M C)], or = K K<sub>1</sub> +[(ω<sub>1</sub><sub>1</sub> M<sub>1</sub> +C)/(ω<sub>1</sub><sub>1</sub> M<sub>1</sub> C<sub>1</sub> + +(i-i<sub>1</sub>) R)]; expressions in which it must be remembered M +C and M<sub>1</sub> C<sub>1</sub> are really functions of +(i-i<sub>1</sub>). This efficiency is, then, the product of three +distinct factors, each evidently less than unity, namely, the +efficiency belonging to the generator, the efficiency belonging to +the motor, and a third factor depending on the rate of rotation of +the motor and the resistance of the circuit. The influence which +these elements exert on the value of the third factor cannot be +estimated, unless the law is first known according to which the +magnetisms, M C, M<sub>1</sub> C C<sub>1</sub>, vary with the +intensity of the current.</p> + +<h3>GENERAL RESULTS.</h3> + +<p>Casting a retrospective glance at the four methods of +transmission of power which have been examined, it would appear +that transmission by ropes forms a class by itself, while the three +other methods combine into a natural group, because they possess a +character in common of the greatest importance. It may be said that +all three involve a temporary transformation of the mechanical +power to be utilized into potential energy. Also in each of these +methods the efficiency of transmission is the product of three +factors or partial efficiencies, which correspond exactly--namely, +first, the efficiency of the instrument which converts the actual +energy of the prime mover into potential energy; second, the +efficiency of the instrument which reconverts this potential energy +into actual energy, that is, into motion, and delivers it up in +this shape for the actual operations which accomplish industrial +work; third, the efficiency of the intermediate agency which serves +for the conveyance of potential energy from the first instrument to +the second.</p> + +<p>This last factor has just been given for transmission by +electricity. It is the exact correlative of the efficiency of the +pipe in the case of compressed air or of pressure water. It is as +useful in the case of electric transmission, as of any other +method, to be able, in studying the system, to estimate beforehand +what results it is able to furnish, and for this purpose it is +necessary to calculate exactly the factors which compose the +efficiency.</p> + +<p>In order to obtain this desirable knowledge, the author +considers that the three following points should form the aim of +experimentalists: First, the determination of the efficiency, K, of +the principal kinds of magneto-electric, or dynamo-electric +machines working as generators; second, the determination of the +efficiency, K<sub>1</sub>, of the same machines working as motors; +third, the determination of the law according to which the +magnetism of the cores of these machines varies with the intensity +of the current. The author is of opinion that experiments made with +these objects in view would be more useful than those conducted for +determining the general efficiency of transmission, for the latter +give results only available under precisely similar conditions. +However, it is clear that they have their value and must not be +neglected.</p> + +<p>There are, moreover, many other questions requiring to be +elucidated by experiment, especially as regards the arrangement of +the conducting wires: but it is needless to dwell further upon this +subject, which has been ably treated by many English men of +science--for instance, Dr. Siemens and Professor Ayrton. +Nevertheless, for further information the author would refer to the +able articles published at Paris, by M. Mascart, in the <i>Journal +de Physique</i>, in 1877 and 1878. The author would gladly have +concluded this paper with a comparison of the efficiencies of the +four systems which have been examined, or what amounts to the same +thing--with a comparison of the losses of power which they +occasion. Unfortunately, such a comparison has never been made +experimentally, because hitherto the opportunity of doing it in a +demonstrative manner has been wanting, for the transmission of +power to a distance belongs rather to the future than to the +present time. Transmission by electricity is still in its infancy; +it has only been applied on a small scale and experimentally.</p> + +<p>Of the three other systems, transmission by means of ropes is +the only one that has been employed for general industrial +purposes, while compressed air and water under pressure have been +applied only to special purposes, and their use has been due much +more to their special suitableness for these purposes than from any +considerations relative to loss of power. Thus the effective work +of the compressed air used in driving the tunnels through the Alps, +assuming its determination to be possible, was undoubtedly very +low; nevertheless, in the present state of our appliances it is the +only process by which such operations can be accomplished. The +author believes that transmission by ropes furnishes the highest +proportion of useful work, but that as regards a wide distribution +of the transmitted power the other two methods, by air and water, +might merit a preference.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>THE HOTCHKISS REVOLVING GUN.</h2> + +<p>The Hotchkiss revolving gun, already adopted in the French navy +and by other leading European nations, has been ordered for use in +the German navy by the following decree of the German Emperor, +dated January 11 last: "On the report made to me, I approve the +adoption of the Hotchkiss revolving cannon as a part of the +artillery of my navy; and each of my ships, according to their +classification, shall in general be armed with this weapon in such +a manner that every point surrounding the vessel may be protected +by the fire of at least two guns at a minimum range of 200 +meters."</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THALLIUM PAPERS AS OZONOMETERS.</h2> + +<p>Schoene has given the results of an extended series of +experiments on the use of thallium paper for estimating +approximately the oxidizing material in the atmosphere, whether it +be hydrogen peroxide alone, or mixed with ozone, or perhaps also +with other constituents hitherto unknown. The objection to +Schönbein's ozonometer (potassium iodide on starch paper) and +to Houzeau's ozonometer (potassium iodide on red litmus paper) lies +in the fact that their materials are hygroscopic, and their +indications vary widely with the moisture of the air. Since dry +ozone does not act on these papers, they must be moistened; and +then the amount of moisture varies the result quite as much as the +amount of ozone. Indeed, attention has been called to the larger +amount of ozone near salt works and waterfalls, and the erroneous +opinion advanced that ozone is formed when water is finely divided. +And Böttger has stated that ozone is formed when ether is +atomized; the fact being that the reaction he observed was due to +the H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> always present in ether. Direct +experiments with the Schönbein ozonometer and the psychrometer +gave parallel curves; whence the author regards the former as only +a crude hygrometer. These objections do not lie against the +thallium paper, the oxidation to brown oxide by either ozone or +hydrogen peroxide not requiring the presence of moisture, and the +color, therefore, being independent of the hygrometric state of the +air. Moreover, when well cared for, the papers undergo no farther +change of color and may be preserved indefinitely. The author +prepares the thallium paper a few days before use, by dipping +strips of Swedish filtering paper in a solution of thallous +hydrate, and drying. The solution is prepared by pouring a solution +of thallous sulphate into a boiling solution of barium hydrate, +equivalent quantities being taken, the resulting solution of +thallous hydrate being concentrated in vacuo until 100 c.c. +contains 10 grammes Tl(OH). For use the strips are hung in the free +air in a close vessel, preferably over caustic lime, for twelve +hours. Other papers are used, made with a two per cent. solution. +These are exposed for thirty-six hours. The coloration is +determined by comparison with a scale having eleven degrees of +intensity upon it. Compared with Schönbein's ozonometer, the +results are in general directly opposite. The thallium papers show +that the greatest effect is in the daytime, the iodide papers that +it is at night. Yearly curves show that the former generally +indicate a rise when the latter give a fall. The iodide curve +follows closely that of relative humidity, clouds, and rain; the +thallium curve stands in no relation to it. A table of results for +the year 1879 is given in monthly means, of the two thallium +papers, the ozonometer, the relative humidity, cloudiness, rain, +and velocity of wind.--<i>G. F. B., in Ber. Berl. Chem. +Ces.</i></p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE AUDIPHONE IN ENGLAND.</h2> + +<p>The audiphone has been recently tried in the Board School for +Deaf and Dumb at Turin street, Bethnal Green, with very +satisfactory results--so satisfactory that the report will +recommend its adoption in the four schools which the London Board +have erected for the education of the deaf and dumb. Some 20 per +cent. of the pupils in deaf and dumb schools have sufficient power +of hearing when assisted by the audiphone to enable them to take +their places in the classes of the ordinary schools.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>CONDUCTIVITY OF MOIST AIR.</h2> + +<p>Many physical treatises still assert that moist air conducts +electricity, though Silberman and others have proved the contrary. +An interesting experiment bearing on this has been described lately +by Prof. Marangoni. Over a flame is heated some water in a glass +jar, through the stopper of which passes a bent tube to bell-jar +(held obliquely), which thus gets filled with aqueous vapor. The +upper half of a thin Leyden jar charged is brought into the +bell-jar, and held there four or five seconds; it is then found +entirely discharged. That the real cause of this, however, is +condensation of the vapor on the part of the glass that is not +coated with tin foil (the liquid layer acting by conduction) can be +proved; for if that part of the jar be passed several times rapidly +through the flame, so as to heat it to near 100° C., before +inserting in the bell-jar, a different effect will be had; the +Leyden jar will give out long sparks after withdrawal. This is +because the glass being heated no longer condenses the vapor on its +surface, and there is no superficial conduction, as in the previous +case.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>FLOATING PONTOON DOCK.</h2> + +<p>Considerable attention has been given for some years past to the +subject of floating pontoon docks by Mr. Robert Turnbull, naval +architect, of South Shields, Eng., who has devised the ingenious +arrangement which forms the subject of the annexed illustration. +The end aimed at and now achieved by Mr. Turnbull was so to +construct floating docks or pontoons that they may rise and fall in +a berth, and be swung round at one end upon a center post or +cylinder--nautically known as a dolphin--projecting from the ground +at a slight distance from the berth. The cylinder is in deep water, +and, when the pontoon is swung and sunk to the desired depth by +letting in the necessary amount of water, a vessel can be floated +in and then secured. The pontoon, with the vessel on it, is then +raised by pumping out the contained water until she is a little +above the level of the berth. The whole is then swung round over +the berth, the vessel then being high and dry to enable repairs or +other operations to be conducted. For this purpose, one end of the +pontoon is so formed as to enable it to fit around the cylinder, +and to be held to it as to a center or fulcrum, about which the +pontoon can be swung. The pontoon is of special construction, and +has air-chambers at the sides placed near the center, so as to +balance it. It also has chambers at the ends, which are divided +horizontally in order that the operation of submerging within a +berth or in shallow water may be conducted without risk, the upper +chambers being afterwards supplied with water to sink the pontoon +to the full depth before a vessel is hauled in. When the ship is in +place, the pontoon with her is then lifted above the level of the +berth in which it has to be placed, and then swung round into the +berth. In some cases, the pontoon is provided with a cradle, so +that, when in berth, the vessel on the cradle can be hauled up a +slip with rails arranged as a continuation of the cradle-rails of +the pontoon, which can be then furnished with another cradle, and +another vessel lifted.</p> + +<p>It is this latter arrangement which forms the subject of our +illustration, the vessel represented being of the following +dimensions: Length between perpendiculars, 350 feet; breadth, +moulded, 40 feet; depth, moulded, 32 feet; tons, B. M., 2,600; tons +net, 2,000. At A, in fig. 1, is shown in dotted lines a portion of +the vessel and pontoon, the ship having just been hauled in and +centered over the keel blocks. At B, is shown the pontoon with the +ship raised and swung round on to a low level quay. Going a step +further in the operation, we see at C, the vessel hauled on to the +slipways on the high-level quay. In this case the cylinder is +arranged so that the vessel may be delivered on to the rails or +slips, which are arranged radially, taking the cylinder as the +center. There may be any number of slips so arranged, and one +pontoon may be made available for several cylinders at the deep +water parts of neighboring repairing or building yards, in which +case the recessed portion of the pontoon, when arranged around the +cylinder, has stays or retaining bars fitted to prevent it leaving +the cylinder when the swinging is taking place, such as might +happen in a tideway.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11a.png"><img src= +"images/11a_th.png" alt= +"Fig. 1. IMPROVED FLOATING PONTOON DRY DOCK."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1. IMPROVED FLOATING PONTOON DRY DOCK.</p> + +<p>The arrangements for delivering vessels on radial slips is seen +in plan at fig. 2, where A represents the river or deep water; B is +the pontoon with the vessel; C being the cylinder or turning +center; D is the low-level quay on to which the pontoon carrying +the ship is first swung; E is the high-level quay with the +slip-ways; F is an engine running on rails around the radial slips +for drawing the vessels with the cradle off the pontoon, and +hauling them up on to the high-level quay; and G shows the +repairing shops, stores, and sheds. A pontoon attached to a +cylinder may be fitted with an ordinary wet dock; and then the +pontoon, before or after the vessel is upon it, can be slewed round +to suit the slips up which the vessel has to be moved, supposing +the slips are arranged radially. In this case, the pivot end of the +pontoon would be a fixture, so to speak, to the cylinder.</p> + +<p>The pontoon may also be made available for lifting heavy +weights, by fitting a pair of compound levers or other apparatus at +one end, the lifting power being in the pontoon itself. In some +cases, in order to lengthen the pontoon, twenty-five or fifty foot +lengths are added at the after end. When not thus engaged, those +lengths form short pontoons suitable for small +vessels.--<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>WEIRLEIGH, BRENCHLEY, KENT.</h2> + +<p>Some few years since, Mr. Harrison Weir (whose drawings of +natural history are known probably to a wider circle of the general +public than the works of most artists), wishing to pursue his +favorite study of animals and horticulture, erected on the steep +hillside of the road leading from Paddock Wood to Brenchley, a +small "cottage ornée" with detached studio. Afterward +desiring more accommodation, he carried out the buildings shown in +our illustrations. Advantage has been taken of the slope of the +hill on one side, and the rising ground in the rear on the other, +to increase the effect of the buildings and meet the difficulty of +the levels. The two portions--old, etched, and new, shown as +black--are connected together by a handsome staircase, which is +carried up in the tower, and affords access to the various levels. +The materials are red brick, with Bathstone dressings, and +weather-tiling on the upper floors. Black walnut, pitch pine, and +sequoias have been used in the staircase, and joiner's work to the +principal rooms. The principal stoves are of Godstone stone only, +no iron or metal work being used. The architects are Messrs. +Wadmore & Baker, of 35 Great St. Helens, E.C.; the builders, +Messrs. Penn Brothers, of Pembury, Kent.--<i>Building News</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/12a.png"><img src= +"images/12a_th.png" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ARTISTS HOMES<br> +NO 11<br> +"WEIRLEIGH"<br> +BRENCHLEY, KENT.<br> +THE RESIDENCE OF<br> +HARRISON WEIR ESQ'RE<br> +WADMORE & BAKER<br> +ARCHITECTS</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>RAPID BREATHING AS A PAIN OBTUNDER IN MINOR SURGERY, +OBSTETRICS, THE GENERAL PRACTICE OF MEDICINE AND OF DENTISTRY.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read before the Philadelphia County Medical Society, +May 12, 1880, by W. G. A. Bonwill, M.D., D.D.S., Philadelphia.]</p> + +<p>Through the kind invitation of your directors, I am present to +give you the history of "rapid breathing" as an analgesic agent, as +well as my experience therein since I first discovered it. It is +with no little feeling of modesty that I appear before such a +learned and honorable body of physicians and surgeons, and I accept +the privilege as a high compliment. I trust the same liberal spirit +which prompted you to call this subject to the light of +investigation will not forsake you when you have heard all I have +to say and you sit in judgment thereon. Sufficient time has now +elapsed since the first promulgation of the subject for the shafts +of ridicule to be well nigh spent (which is the common logic used +to crush out all new ideas), and it is to be expected that +gentlemen will look upon it with all the charity of a learned body, +and not be too hasty to condemn what they have had but little +chance to investigate; and, of course, have not practiced with that +success which can only come from an intelligent understanding of +its application and <i>modus operandi</i>.</p> + +<p>Knowing the history of past discoveries, I was well prepared for +the crucible. I could not hope to be an exception. But, so far, the +medical profession have extended me more favor than I have received +at the hands of the dental profession.</p> + +<p>My first conception of the analgesic property of a pain obtunder +in contradistinction to its anaesthetic effect, which finally led +to the discovery of the inhalation of common air by "rapid +breathing," was in 1855 or 1856, while performing upon my own teeth +certain operations which gave me intense pain (and I could not +afford to hurt myself) without a resort to ether and chloroform. +These agents had been known so short a time that no one was +specially familiar with their action. Without knowing whether I +could take chloroform administered by myself, and at the same time +perform with skill the excavation of extremely sensitive dentine or +tooth-bone, as if no anaesthetic had been taken, and not be +conscious of pain, was more than the experience of medical men at +that time could assure me. But, having a love for investigation of +the unknown, I prepared myself for the ordeal. By degrees I took +the chloroform until I began to feel very plainly its primary +effects, and knowing that I must soon be unconscious, I applied the +excavator to the carious tooth, and, to my surprise, found no pain +whatever, but the sense of touch and hearing were marvelously +intensified. The small cavity seemed as large as a half bushel; the +excavator more the size of an ax; and the sound was equally +magnified. That I might not be mistaken, I repeated the operation +until I was confident that anaesthetics possessed a power not +hitherto known--that of analgesia. To be doubly certain, I gave it +in my practice, in many cases with the same happy results, which +saved me from the risks incident to the secondary effects of +anaesthetics, and which answered for all the purposes of extracting +from one to four teeth. Not satisfied with any advance longer than +I could find a better plan, I experimented with the galvanic +current (to and fro) by so applying the poles that I substituted a +stronger impression by electricity from the nerve centers or +ganglia to the peripheries than was made from the periphery to the +brain. This was so much of a success that I threw aside chloroform +and ether in removing the living nerve of a tooth with instruments +instead of using arsenic; and for excavating sensitive caries in +teeth, preparatory to filling, as well as many teeth extracted by +it. But this was short-lived, for it led to another step. Sometimes +I would inflict severe pain in cases of congested pulps or from its +hasty application, or pushing it to do too much, when my patient +invariably would draw or inhale the breath <i>very forcibly and +rapidly</i>. I was struck with the repeated coincidence, and was +led to exclaim: "Nature's anaesthetic." This then reminded me of +boyhood's bruises. The involuntary action of every one who has a +finger hurt is to place it to the mouth and draw violently in the +air and hold it for an instant, and again repeat it until the pain +is subdued. The same action of the lungs occurs, except more +powerfully, in young children who take to crying when hurt. It will +be noticed they breathe very rapidly while furiously crying, which +soon allays the irritation, and sleep comes as the sequel. Witness +also when one is suddenly startled, how violently the breath is +taken, which gives relief. The same thing occurs in the lower +animals when pain is being inflicted at the hand of man.</p> + +<p>This was advance No. 3, and so sure was I of this new discovery, +that I at once made an application while removing decay from an +extremely sensitive tooth. To be successful, I found I must make +the patient take the start, and I would follow with a thrust from +the excavator, which move would be accomplished before the lungs +could be inflated. This was repeated for at least a minute, until +the operation was completed, I always following immediately or +synchronously with the inhalation.</p> + +<p>This led to step No. 4, which resulted in its application to the +extracting of teeth and other operations in minor surgery.</p> + +<p>Up to this time I had believed the sole effect of the rapid +inhalation was due to mere diversion of the will, and this was the +only way nature could so violently exert herself--that of +controlling the involuntary action of the lungs to her uses by the +<i>safety valve</i>, or the voluntary movement.</p> + +<p>The constant breathing of the patient for thirty seconds to a +minute left him in a condition of body and mind resembling the +effects of ether and chloroform in their primary stages. I could +but argue that the prolonged breathing each time had done it; and, +if so, then there must be some specific effect over and above the +mere diversion by the will. To what could it be due? To the air +alone, which went in excess into the lungs in the course of a +minute! Why did I not then immediately grasp the idea of its +broader application as now claimed for it? It was too much, +gentlemen, for that hour. Enough had been done in this fourth step +of conception to rest in the womb of time, until by evolution a +higher step could be made at the maturity of the child. Being +self-satisfied with my own baby, I watched and caressed it until it +could take care of itself, and my mind was again free for another +conception.</p> + +<p>The births at first seemed to come at very short intervals; but +see how long it was between the fourth and the fifth birth. It was +soon after that my mind became involved in inventions--a hereditary +outgrowth--and the electric mallet and then the dental engine, the +parent of your surgical engine, to be found in the principal +hospitals of this city, took such possession of my whole soul, that +my air analgesic was left slumbering. It was not until August, +1875--nineteen years after--that it again came up in full force, +without any previous warning.</p> + +<p>This time it was no law of association that revived it; but it +seemed the whispering of some one in the air--some ethereal spirit, +if you please--which instituted it, and advanced the following +problem: "Nitrous oxide gas is composed of the same elements as +ordinary air, with a larger equivalent of oxygen, except it is a +chemical compound, not a mechanical mixture, and its anaesthetic +effects are said to be due to the excess of oxygen. If this be a +fact, then why can you not produce a similar effect by rapid +breathing for a minute, more or less, by which a larger quantity of +oxygen is presented in the lungs for absorption by the blood?"</p> + +<p>This query was soon answered by asking myself another: "If the +rapid inhalation of air into the lungs does not increase the +heart's action and cause it to drive the blood in exact ratio to +the inhalations, then <i>I can</i> produce partial anaesthesia from +this excess of oxygen brought about by the voluntary movements over +their ordinary involuntary action of the lungs." The next question +was: Will my heart be affected by this excess of air in the lungs +to such an extent that there will be a full reciprocity between +them? Without making any trial of it, I argued that, while there is +no other muscular movement than that of the chest as under the +control of the will, and as nature has given to the will the +perfect control over the lungs to supply more or less air, as is +demanded by the pneumogastric nerve for the immediate wants of the +economy, when the <i>involuntary action</i> is not sufficient; and +the heart not being under the control of the will, and its action +never accelerated or diminished except by a specific poison, or +from the general activity of the person in violent running or +working, the blood is forced into the heart faster and must get rid +of it, when a larger supply of oxygen is demanded and rapid +breathing must occur, or asphyxia result. I was not long in +deciding that the heart <i>would not be accelerated</i> but a +trifle--say a tenth--and, under the circumstances, I said: "The air +<i>is</i> an anaesthetic."</p> + +<p>From this rapid course of argument, I was so profoundly +convinced of its truth, that without having first tried it upon my +own person, I would have sat where I was, upon the curbstone, and +had a tooth removed with the perfect expectation of absence of pain +and of still being conscious of touch. While yet walking with my +children, I commenced to breathe as rapidly as possible, and, as +anticipated, found my steps growing shorter and shorter, until I +came to a stand, showing to my mind clearly that my argument in +advance was right, so far as locomotion was concerned; and, upon +referring to my pulse, I found but little acceleration.</p> + +<p>To what other conclusion could I arrive from this argument, with +the foundation laid nineteen years before, when I established on my +own person by experiment the fact of analgesia as induced from +chloroform, with the many experiments in rapid respiration on tooth +bone?</p> + +<p>From this moment until its first application to the extraction +of a tooth you can well imagine my suspense. That I might not fail +in the very first attempt, I compelled myself and others in my +household to breathe rapidly to investigate the phenomenon. This +gave me some idea as to the proper method of proceeding in its +administering.</p> + +<p>The first case soon appeared, and was a perfect success, going +far beyond my anticipations, for the effect was such as to produce +a partial paralysis of the hands and arms to the elbow. Again and +again I tried it in every case of extraction and many other +experiments, doubting my own senses for a long time at a result so +anomalous and paradoxical. I was reminded just here of a phenomenon +which gave me additional proof--that of blowing a dull fire to +revive it. For a minute or so one blows and blows in rapid +succession until, rising from the effort, a sense of giddiness for +a few moments so overcomes that the upright position is with +difficulty maintained. In this condition you are fitted for having +a tooth extracted or an abscess lanced.</p> + +<p>Believing that I had something new to offer which might be of +use to suffering humanity, I read the first article upon it Nov. +17, 1875, before the Franklin Institute. Shortly after I was +invited before the Northern Medical Society of this city to address +them thereon. A number of medical gentlemen have been using it in +their practice, while the bulk of them have spurned it as +"negative" and preposterous, without an effort at trying it, which +I can <i>now</i> very well understand.</p> + +<p>Unless one is aware of the fact that in the use of any agent +which has the power to suspend the volition, it can be taken to +that point where he is still conscious of <i>touch and hearing</i>, +and at the same time not cognizant of pain inflicted, the action of +rapid breathing could not be understood. And I regret to say that +of three-fourths of the medical men I have talked with on the +subject they had not been aware of such a possibility from ether +and chloroform. Until this analgesic state could be established in +their minds it was impossible to convince them that the excess of +oxygen, as obtained by rapid breathing, could be made to produce a +similar effect. <i>I</i> should have been as reluctant as any one +to believe it, had I not personally experienced the effect while +performing an operation which would otherwise have been very +painful. Such a result could not well be reached by any course of +reasoning.</p> + +<p>Has it proven in my practice what has been claimed for it--a +substitute for the powerful anaesthetics in minor operations in +surgery? Most emphatically, yes! So completely has it fulfilled its +humble mission in my office, that I can safely assert there has not +been more than five per cent. of failures. I have given it under +all circumstances of diseased organs, and have seen no other than +the happiest results in its after effects. It may well be asked +just here: Why has it not been more generally and widely used by +the dental profession as well as the medical, if it is really what +is claimed for it? The most satisfactory and charitable answer to +be given is, the failure upon their part to comprehend the +<i>fact</i> as existing in chloroform and ether that there is such +a state as analgesia; or, in other words, that the animal economy +is so organized, while the sense of touch is not destroyed, but +rather increased, the mind of the subject fails to perceive a sense +of pain when anaesthetics are given, and the effects are manifested +in the primary stage. As I before intimated, such is the knowledge +possessed by most of those who administer ether and chloroform. +This was enough to cause nearly every one to look upon it as a +bubble or air castle. Many gentlemen told me they tried it upon +themselves, and, while it affected them very seriously by +giddiness, they still <i>retained consciousness</i>; and, such +being the case, no effect could be produced for obtunding pain. +Others told me they were afraid to continue the breathing alarmed +at the vertigo induced. And the practitioner who has adopted it +more effectively than any other laughed at me when I first told him +of the discovery; but his intimate association with me changed his +views after much explanation and argument between us.</p> + +<p>It was hardly to be expected that without this knowledge of +analgesia, and without any explanation from me as to the <i>modus +operandi</i> of rapid breathing, other than a few suggestions or +directions as to how the effect was induced, even the most liberal +of medical men should be able to make it effective, or have the +least disposition to give it a preliminary trial upon themselves, +and, of course, would not attempt it upon a patient. +Notwithstanding, it found a few adherents, but only among my +personal <i>medical</i> friends, with whom I had an opportunity to +explain what I believed its physiological action, and the cases of +success in my own practice. To this I have submitted as among the +inevitable in the calendar of discoveries of all grades.</p> + +<p>My own profession have attempted to <i>ridicule</i> it out of +its birthright and possible existence, which style of argument is +not resorted to by true logicians.</p> + +<p>To all this I can truly say I have not for one moment faltered. +I could afford to wait. The liberality of this society alone fully +compensates for the seeming indisposition of the past, believing +that it is proper that every advance should be confronted, and, if +in time found worthy, give it God speed.</p> + +<p>From its first conception I have diligently labored to solve its +<i>modus operandi</i>, and the doubt in my own mind as to whether I +could be mistaken in my observations. I asked the opinion of our +best chemical teachers if air could have such effect. One +attributed it to oxygen stimulation, and the other to nitrogen. +Another gentleman told me the medical profession had come to the +conclusion that it was possible for me to thus extract teeth, but +it was due solely to my strong <i>personal magnetism</i> (which +power I was not before aware I possessed).</p> + +<p>Now, from what I have related of the successive and natural +steps which finally culminated in this process or plan of analgesia +induced by an excess of ordinary air taken forcibly into the lungs +above what is necessary for life, and from what I shall state as to +the apparently anomalous or paradoxical effects, with its +physiological action, and the simple tests made upon each of my +patients, I shall trust to so convince you of its plausibility and +possibility that it will be made use of in hundreds of minor +operations where ether and chloroform are now used.</p> + +<p>Aside from my assertion and that of its friends, that the +effects can be produced by air alone, you must have some light shed +upon the causes of its physiological action, which will appeal to +your <i>medical</i> reason.</p> + +<p>To assign an action to any drug is difficult, and in the cases +of ether and the other anaesthetics a quarter of a century still +finds many conflicting opinions. This being true, you will deal +leniently with me for the opinion I hold as to their analgesic +action. Of course it will be objected to, for the unseen is, to a +great extent, unknowable. Enough for my argument, however; it seems +to suit the case very well without looking for another; and while +it was based on the phenomenon resulting from many trials, and not +the trials upon it as a previous theory, I shall be content with it +until a better one can be found.</p> + +<p>What is it I claim as a new discovery, and the facts and its +philosophy?</p> + +<p>I have asserted that I can produce, from rapidly breathing +common air at the rate of a hundred respirations a minute, a +similar effect to that from ether, chloroform, and nitrous oxide +gas, in their primary stages; and I can in this way render patients +sufficiently insensible to acute pain from any operation where the +time consumed is not over twenty to thirty seconds. While the +special senses are in partial action, the sense of pain is +obtunded, and in many cases completely annulled, consciousness and +general sensibility being preserved.</p> + +<p>To accomplish this, each patient must be instructed how to act +and what to expect. As simple as it may seem, there is a proper and +consistent plan to enable you to reach full success. Before the +patient commences to inhale he is informed of the fact that, while +he will be unconscious of pain, he will know full, or partially +well, every touch upon the person; that the inhalation must be +vigorously kept up during the whole operation without for an +instant stopping; that the more energetically and steadily he +breathes, the more perfect the effect, and that if he cease +breathing during the operation, pain will be felt. Fully impress +them with this idea, for the very good reason that they may stop +when in the midst of an operation, and the fullest effects be lost. +It is obligatory to do so on account of its evanescent effects, +which demand that the patient be pushed by the operator's own +energetic appeals to "go on." It is very difficult for any person +to respire more than one hundred times to the minute, as he will +become by that time so exhausted as not to be able to breathe at +all, as is evidenced by all who have thus followed my directions. +For the next minute following the completion of the operation the +subject will not breathe more than once or twice. Very few have +force enough left to raise hand or foot. The voluntary muscles have +nearly all been subjugated and overcome by the undue effort at +forced inhalation of one hundred over seventeen, the normal +standard. It will be more fully understood further on in my +argument why I force patients, and am constantly speaking to them +to go on.</p> + +<p>I further claim that for the past four years, so satisfactory +has been the result of this system in the extracting of teeth and +deadening extremely sensitive dentine, there was no longer any +necessity for chloroform, ether, or nitrous oxide in the dental +office. That such teeth as cannot be extracted by its aid can well +be preserved and made useful, except in a very few cases, who will +not be forced to breathe.</p> + +<p>The anaesthetics, when used in major operations, where time is +needed for the operation, can be made more effective by a lesser +quantity when given in conjunction with "rapid breathing." Drs. +Garrettson and Hews, who have thus tried it, tell me it takes +one-half to three-fourths less, and the after effects are far less +nauseating and unpleasant.</p> + +<p>As an agent in labor where an anaesthetic is indicated, it is +claimed by one who has employed it (Dr. Hews) in nearly every case +for three years, he has used "rapid breathing" solely, and to the +exclusion of chloroform and ether. For this I have his assertion, +and have no doubt of it whatever, for if any agent could break down +the action of the voluntary muscles of the parts involved, which +prevent the involuntary muscles of the uterus from having their +fullest effect, it is this. The very act of rapid breathing so +affects the muscles of the abdomen as to force the contents of the +uterus downward or outward, while the specific effect of the air at +the end of a minute's breathing leaves the subject in a +semi-prostrate condition, giving the uterus full chance to act in +the interim, because free of the will to make any attempt at +withholding the involuntary muscles of the uterus from doing their +natural work. It is self evident; and in this agent we claim here a +boon of inestimable value. And not least in such cases is, there is +no danger of hemorrhage, since the cause of the effect is soon +removed.</p> + +<p>In attestation of many cases where it has been tried, I have +asked the mother, and, in some cases, the attendants, whether +anything else had been given, and whether the time was very +materially lessened, there has been but one response, and that in +its favor.</p> + +<p>Gentlemen, if we are not mistaken in this, you will agree with +me in saying that it is no mean thing, and should be investigated +by intelligent men and reported upon. From my own knowledge of its +effects in my practice, I am bound to believe this gentleman's +record.</p> + +<p>I further claim for it a special application in dislocations. It +has certainly peculiar merits here, as the will is so nearly +subjugated by it as to render the patient quite powerless to resist +your effort at replacing, and at the same time the pain is +subdued.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary I should further continue special +applications; when its <i>modus operandi</i> is understood, its +adaptation to many contingencies will of a sequence follow.</p> + +<p>It is well just here, before passing to the next point of +consideration, to answer a query which may arise at this +juncture:</p> + +<p>What are the successive stages of effects upon the economy from +its commencement until the full effect is observed, and what proof +have I that it was due to the amount of air inhaled?</p> + +<p>The heart's action is not increased more than from seventy (the +average) to eighty and sometimes ninety, but is much enfeebled, or +throwing a lesser quantity of blood. The face becomes suffused, as +in blowing a fire or in stooping, which continues until the +breathing is suspended, when the face becomes paler. (Have not +noticed any purple as from asphyxia by a deprivation of oxygen.) +The vision becomes darkened, and a giddiness soon appears. The +voluntary muscles furthest from the heart seem first to be +affected, and the feet and hands, particularly the latter, have a +numbness at their ends, which increases, until in many cases there +is partial paralysis as far as the elbow, while the limbs become +fixed. The hands are so thoroughly affected that, when open, the +patient is powerless to close them and <i>vice versa</i>. There is +a vacant gaze from the eyes and looking into space without blinking +of the eyelids for a half minute or more. The head seems incapable +of being held erect, and there is no movement of the arms or legs +as is usual when in great pain. There is no disposition on the part +of the patient to take hold of the operator's hand or interfere +with the operation.</p> + +<p>Many go on breathing mechanically after the tooth is removed, as +if nothing had occurred. Some are aware that the tooth has been +extracted, and say they felt it; others could not tell what had +been accomplished. The majority of cases have an idea of what is +being done, but are powerless to resist.</p> + +<p>With the very intelligent, or those who stop to reason, I have +to teach them the peculiarities of being sensible of touch and not +of pain.</p> + +<p>One very interesting case I will state. In extracting seven +teeth for a lady who was very <i>unwilling</i> to believe my +statement as to touch and no pain, I first removed three teeth +after having inhaled for one minute, and when fully herself, she +stated that she could not understand why there was no pain while +she was conscious of each one extracted; it was preposterous to +believe such an effect could be possible, as her reason told her +that there is connected with tooth extracting pain in the part, and +of severe character, admitting, though, she felt no pain. She +allowed one to be removed without anything, and she could easily +distinguish the change, and exclaimed, "It is all the difference +imaginable!" When the other three were extracted, there was perfect +success again as with the first three.</p> + +<p>One of the most marked proofs of the effects of rapid breathing +was that of a boy of eleven years of age for whom I had to extract +the upper and lower first permanent molars on each side. He +breathed for nearly a minute, when I removed in about twenty +seconds all four of the teeth, without a moment's intermission or +the stopping the vigorous breathing; and not a murmur, sigh, or +tear afterward.</p> + +<p>He declared there was no pain, and we needed no such assertion, +for there was not the first manifestation from him that he was +undergoing such a severe operation.</p> + +<p>Another case, the same day, when I had to extract the superior +wisdom teeth on both sides for an intelligent young lady of +eighteen years, where I had to use two pairs of forceps on each +tooth (equivalent to extraction of four teeth), and she was so +profoundly affected afterward that she could; not tell me what had +been done other than that I had touched her four times. She was +overcome from its effects for at least a minute afterward. She was +delighted.</p> + +<p>With such severe tests I fear very little the result in any case +I can have them do as I bid.</p> + +<p>There can be no mistake that there is a <i>specific action</i> +from something. It cannot be personal magnetism or mesmeric +influence exerted by me, for such cases are rare, averaging about +10 per cent, only of all classes. Besides, in mesmeric influence +the time has nothing to do with it; whereas, in my cases, it cannot +last over a half minute or minute at most. It cannot be fear, as +such cases are generally more apt to get hurt the worse. It is not +diversion of mind alone, as we have an effect above it.</p> + +<p>There is no better way of testing whether pain has been felt +than by taking the lacerated or contused gums of the patient +between the index finger and thumb and making a gentle pressure to +collapse the alveolar borders; invariably, they will cry out +lustily, <i>that is pain</i>! This gives undoubted proof of a +specific agent. There is no attempt upon my <i>own</i> part to +exert any influence over my patients in any way other than that +they shall believe what I say in regard to <i>giving</i> them <i>no +pain</i> and in the following of my orders. Any one who knows how +persons become mesmerized can attest that it was not the +<i>operator who forces them under it against their will</i>, but it +is a peculiar state into which any one who has within themselves +this temperament can <i>place</i> themselves where any one who +knows how can have control. It is not the will of the operator. I +therefore dismiss this as unworthy of consideration in connection +with rapid breathing.</p> + +<p>Then you may now ask, To what do I attribute this very singular +phenomenon?</p> + +<p>Any one who followed, in the earlier part of this paper, the +course of the argument in my soliloquy, after twenty years had +elapsed from my observation upon myself of the analgesic effects of +chloroform, can almost give something of an answer.</p> + +<p>That you may the more easily grasp what I shall say, I will ask +you, If it be possible for any human being to make one hundred +inhalations in a minute and the heart's action is not increased +more than ten or twenty pulsations over the normal, what should be +the effect upon the brain and nerve centers?</p> + +<p>If the function of oxygen in common air is to set free in the +blood, either in the capillaries alone, or throughout the whole of +the arterial circulation, carbonic acid gas; and that it cannot +escape from the system unless it do so in the lungs as it passes in +the general current--except a trace that is removed by the skin and +kidneys--and that the quantity of carbonic acid gas set free is in +exact relation to the amount of oxygen taken into the blood, what +effect <i>must be</i> manifested where one hundred respirations in +one minute are made--five or six times the normal number--while the +heart is only propelling the blood a very little faster through the +lungs, and <i>more feebly</i>--say 90 pulsations at most, when to +be in proportion it should be 400 to 100 respirations to sustain +life any length of time?</p> + +<p>You cannot deny the fact that a definite amount of oxygen can be +absorbed and is absorbed as fast as it is carried into the lungs, +even if there be one hundred respirations to the minute, while the +pulsations of the heart are only ninety! Nature has <i>made it</i> +possible to breathe so rapidly to meet any emergency; and we can +well see its beautiful application in the normal action of both the +heart and lungs while one is violently running.</p> + +<p>What would result, and that very speedily, were the act of +respiration to remain at the standard--say 18 or 20--when the heart +is in violent action from this running? Asphyxia would surely end +the matter! And why? The excessive exercise of the whole body is +setting free from the tissues such an amount of excretive matter, +and carbon more largely than all the others, that, without a +relative action of the lungs to admit the air that oxygen may be +absorbed, carbonic acid gas cannot be liberated through the lungs +as fast as the waste carbon of the overworked tissues is being made +by disassimilation from this excess of respiration.</p> + +<p>You are already aware how small a quantity of carbonic acid in +excess in the air will seriously affect life. Even 2 to 3 per cent, +in a short time will prove fatal. In ordinary respiration of 20 to +the minute the average of carbonic acid exhaled is 4.35.</p> + +<p>From experiments long ago made by Vierordt--see Carpenter, p. +524--you will see the relative per cent, of carbonic acid exhaled +from a given number of respirations. When he was breathing six +times per minute, 5.5 per cent of the exhaled air was carbonic +acid; twelve times, 4.2; twenty-four times, 3.3; forty-eight times, +3; ninety-six times, 2.6.</p> + +<p>Remember this is based upon the whole number of respirations in +the minute and not each exhalation--which latter could not be +measured by the most minute method.</p> + +<p>Let us deduct the minimum amount, 2.6 per cent, of carbonic acid +when breathing ninety-six times per minute, from the average, at +twenty per minute, or the normal standard, which is recorded in +Carpenter, p. 524, as 4.35 per minute, and we have retained in the +circulation nearly 2 per cent. of carbonic acid; that, at the +average, would have passed off through the lungs without any +obstruction, and life equalized; but it not having been thrown off +as fast as it should have been, must, of necessity, be left to prey +upon the brain and nerve centers; and as 2 to 3 per cent., we are +told, will so poison the blood, life is imperiled and that +speedily.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary we should argue the point as to whether +oxygen displaces carbonic acid in the tissues proper or the +capillaries. The theory of Lavoisier on this point has been +accepted.</p> + +<p>We know furthermore, as more positive, that tissues placed in an +atmosphere of oxygen will set free carbonic acid, and that carbonic +acid has a paralyzing effect upon the human hand held in it for a +short time. The direct and speedy effects of this acid upon the +delicate nervous element of the brain is so well known that it must +be accepted as law. One of the most marked effects is the +suspension of locomotion of the legs and arms, and the direct loss +of will power which must supervene before voluntary muscular +inactivity, which amounts to partial paralysis in the hands or +feet, or peripheral extremities of the same.</p> + +<p>Now that we have sufficient evidence from the authorities that +carbonic acid can be retained in the blood by excessive breathing, +and enough to seriously affect the brain, and what its effects are +when taken directly into the lungs in excess, we can enter upon +what I have held as the most reasonable theory of the phenomenon +produced by rapid breathing for analgesic purposes; which +<i>theory</i> was not <i>first</i> conceived and the process made +to yield to it, but the phenomenon was long observed, and from the +repetition of the effects and their close relationship to that of +carbonic acid on the economy, with the many experiments performed +upon myself, I am convinced that what I shall now state will be +found to substantiate my discovery. Should it not be found to +coincide with what some may say is physiological truth, it will not +invalidate the discovery itself; for of that I am far more positive +than Harvey was of the discovery of the circulation of the blood; +or of Galileo of the spherical shape of the earth. And I ask that +it shall not be judged by my theory, but from the practice.</p> + +<p>It should have as much chance for investigation as the theory of +Julius Robert Mayer, upon which he founded, or which gave rise to +the establishment of one of the most important scientific +truths--"the conservation of energy," and finally the "correlation +of forces," which theory I am not quite sure was correct, although +it was accepted, and as yet, I have not seen it questioned.</p> + +<p>In all due respect to him I quote it from the sketch of that +remarkable man, as given in the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, as +specially bearing on my discovery:</p> + +<p>"Mayer observed while living in Java, that the <i>venous +blood</i> of some of his patients had a singularly bright red +color. The observation riveted his attention; he reasoned upon it, +and came to the conclusion that the brightness of the color was due +to the fact that a less amount of oxidation was sufficient to keep +up the temperature of the body in a hot climate than a cold one. +The darkness of the venous blood he regarded as the visible sign of +the energy of the oxidation."</p> + +<p>My observation leads me to the contrary, that the higher the +temperature the more rapid the breathing to get clear of the excess +of carbon, and hence more oxygenation of the blood which will +arterialize the venous blood, unless there is a large amount of +carbonized matter from the tissues to be taken up.</p> + +<p>Nor must it be denied because of the reasoning as presented to +my mind by some outside influence in my soliloquy when I first +exclaimed, "Nature's anaesthetic," where the argument as to the +effects of nitrous oxide gas being due to an excess of oxygen was +urged, and that common air breathed in excess would do the same +thing.</p> + +<p>I am not sure that <i>it</i> was correct, for the effects of +nitrous oxide is, perhaps, due to a deprivation of mechanically +mixed air.</p> + +<p>Knowing what I do of theory and practice, I can say with +assurance that there is not a medical practitioner who would long +ponder in any urgent case as to the thousand and one theories of +the action of remedies; but would resort to the <i>practical</i> +experience of others and his own finally. (What surgeon ever stops +to ask how narcotics effect their influence?) After nearly thirty +years of association with ether and chloroform, who can positively +answer as to their <i>modus operandi?</i> It is thus with nearly +the whole domain of medicine. It is not yet, by far, among the +sciences, with immutable laws, such as we have in chemistry. +Experimentation is giving us more specific knowledge, and "practice +alone has tended to make perfect." (Then, gentlemen will not set at +naught my assertion and practical results. When I have stated my +case in full it is for <i>you</i> to disprove both the theory and +practice annunciated. So far as I am concerned I am responsible for +both.)</p> + +<p>You will please bear with me for a few minutes in my attempt at +theory.</p> + +<p>The annulling of pain, and, in some cases, its complete +annihilation, can be accomplished in many ways. Narcotics, +anaesthetics--local and internal--direct action of cold, and +mesmeric or physiological influence, have all their advocates, and +each <i>will surely</i> do its work. There is one thing about +which, I think, we can all agree, as to these agencies; unless the +<i>will</i> is partially and in some cases completely subjugated +there can be no primary or secondary effect. The voluntary muscles +must become wholly or partially paralyzed for the time. Telegraphic +communication must be cut off from the brain, that there be no +reflex action. It is not necessary there should be separate nerves +to convey pleasure and pain any more than there should be two +telegraphic wires to convey two messages.</p> + +<p>If, then, we are certain of this, it matters little as to +whether it was done by corpuscular poisoning and anaemia as from +chloroform or hyperaemia from ether.</p> + +<p>I think we are now prepared to show clearly the causes which +effect the phenomena in "rapid breathing."</p> + +<p>The first thing enlisted is the <i>diversion of the will +force</i> in the act of forced respiration at a moment when the +heart and lungs have been in normal reciprocal action (20 +respirations to 80 pulsations), which act could not be made and +carried up to 100 respirations per minute without such concentrated +effort that ordinary pain could make no impression upon the brain +while this abstraction is kept up.</p> + +<p>Second. There is a specific effect resulting from enforced +respiration of 100 to the minute, due to the <i>excess of carbonic +acid gas set free from the tissues</i>, generated by this enforced +normal act of throwing into the lungs <i>five times</i> the normal +amount of oxygen in one minute demanded, when the heart has not +been aroused to exalted action, which comes from violent exercise +in running or where one is suddenly startled, which excess of +carbonic acid cannot escape in the same ratio from the lungs, since +the heart does not respond to the proportionate overaction of the +lungs.</p> + +<p>Third.--Hyperaemia is the last in this chain of effects, which +is due to the excessive amount of air passing into the lungs +preventing but little more than the normal quantity of blood from +passing from the heart into the arterial circulation, but draws it +up in the brain with its excess of carbonic acid gas to act also +directly upon the brain as well as throughout the capillary and +venous system, and as well upon the heart, the same as if it were +suspended in that gas outside the body.</p> + +<p>These are evident to the senses of any liberal observer who can +witness a subject rapidly breathing.</p> + +<p>Some ask why is not this same thing produced when one has been +running rapidly for a few minutes? For a very good reason: in this +case the rapid inhalations are preceded by the violent throes of +the heart to propel the carbonized blood from the overworked +tissues and have them set free at the lungs where the air is +rushing in at the normal ratio of four to one. This is not an +abnormal action, but is of necessity, or asphyxia would instantly +result and the runner would drop. Such sometimes occurs where the +runner exerts himself too violently at the very outset; and to do +so he is compelled to hold his breath for this undue effort, and +the heart cannot carry the blood fast enough. In this instance +there is an approach to analgesia as from rapid breathing.</p> + +<p>Let me take up the first factor--<i>diversion of will</i>--and +show that nature invariably resorts to a sudden inhalation to +prevent severe infliction of pain being felt. It is the panacea to +childhood's frequent bruises and cuts, and every one will remember +how when a finger has been hurt it is thrust into the mouth and a +violent number of efforts at rapid inhalation is effected until +ease comes. By others it is subdued by a fit of crying, which if +you will but imitate the sobs, will find how frequently the +respirations are made.</p> + +<p>One is startled, and the heart would seem to jump out of the +chest; in quick obedience to nature the person is found making a +number of quick inhalations, which subdue the heart and pacify the +will by diversion from the cause.</p> + +<p>The same thing is observed in the lower animals. I will relate a +case:</p> + +<p>An elephant had been operated upon for a diseased eye which gave +him great pain, for which he was unprepared, and he was wrathy at +the keeper and surgeon. It soon passed off, and the result of the +application was so beneficial to the animal that when brought out +in a few days after, to have another touch of caustic to the part, +he was prepared for them; and, just before the touch, he inflated +the lungs to their fullest extent, which occupied more time than +the effect of the caustic, when he made no effort at resistance and +showed no manifestation of having been pained.</p> + +<p>In many cases of extraction of the temporary teeth of children, +I make them at the instant I grasp the tooth take <i>one</i> very +violent inhalation, which is sufficient. Mesmeric anaesthesia can +well be classified under diversion or subjugation of the will, but +can be effected in but a small percentage of the cases. To rely +upon this first or primary effect, except in instantaneous cases, +would be failure.</p> + +<p>The second factor is the one upon which I can rely in such of +the cases as come into my care, save when I cannot induce them to +make such a number of respirations as is absolutely necessary. The +<i>whole secret of success lies</i> in the greatest number of +respirations that can be effected in from 60 to 90 seconds, and +that without any intermission. If the heart, by the <i>alow method +of respiration</i>, is pulsating in ratio of four to one +respiration, <i>no effect can be induced</i>.</p> + +<p>When the respirations are, say, 100 to the minute, and made with +all the energy the patient can muster, and are kept up while the +operation is going on, there can hardly be a failure in the minor +operations.</p> + +<p>It is upon this point many of you may question the facts. Before +I tried it for the first time upon my own person, I arrived at the +same conclusion from a course of argument, that rapid breathing +would control the heart's action and pacify it, and even reduce it +below the normal standard under my urgent respirations.</p> + +<p>In view of the many applications made I feel quite sure in my +belief that, inasmuch as the heart's action is but slightly +accelerated, though with less force from rapid breathing at the +rate of 100 to the minute, there is such an excess of carbonic acid +gas set free and crowding upon the heart and capillaries of the +brain, without a chance to escape by the lungs, that it is the same +to all intents as were carbonic acid breathed through the lungs in +common air. Look at the result after this has been kept up for a +minute or more? During the next minute the respirations are not +more than one or two, and the heart has fallen really below, in +some cases, the standard beat, showing most conclusively that once +oxygenation has taken place and that the free carbonic acid gas has +been so completely consumed, that there is no involuntary call +through the pneumogastric nerve for a supply of oxygen.</p> + +<p>If any physiological facts can be proven at all, then I feel +quite sure of your verdict upon my side.</p> + +<p>There is no one thing that goes so far to prove the theory of +Lavoisier regarding the action of oxygen in the tissues and +capillaries for converting carbon into carbonic acid gas instead of +the lungs, as held prior to that time, and still held by many who +are not posted in late experiments. At the time I commenced this +practice I must confess I knew nothing of it. The study of my cases +soon led me to the same theory of Lavoisier, as I could not make +the phenomena agree with the old theory of carbonic acid generated +only in the lungs.</p> + +<p>When Vierordt was performing his experiments upon himself in +rapid breathing from six times per minute to ninety-six, I cannot +understand why he failed to observe and record what did certainly +result--an extreme giddiness with muscular prostration and numbness +in the peripheries of the hands and feet, with suffusion of the +face, and such a loss of locomotion as to prevent standing erect +without desiring support. Besides, the very great difference he +found in the amount of carbonic acid retained in the circulation, +the very cause of the phenomena just spoken of.</p> + +<p>One thing comes in just here to account for the lack of +respiration the minute after the violent effort. The residual air, +which in a normal state is largely charged with carbonic acid, has +been so completely exhausted that some moments are consumed before +there is sufficient again to call upon the will for its +discharge.</p> + +<p>As to hyperaemia you will also assent, now that my second factor +is explained; but it is so nearly allied to the direct effect of +excessive respiration that we can well permit it to pass without +argument. If hyperaemia <i>is present</i>, we have a more certain +and rather more lasting effect.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I will attempt to prognosticate the application +of this principle to the cure of many diseases of chronic nature, +and especially tuberculosis; where from a diminished amount of air +going into the lungs for want of capacity, and particularly for +want of energy and inclination to breathe in full or excess, the +tissues cannot get clear of their excrementitious material, and +particularly the carbon, which must go to the lungs, this voluntary +effort can be made frequently during the day to free the tissues +and enable them to take nutritious material for their restoration +to their standard of health.</p> + +<p>Air will be found of far more value than ever before as one of +the greatest of factors in nutrition, and which is as necessary as +proper food, and without which every organization must become +diseased, and no true assimilation can take place without a due +amount of oxygen is hourly and daily supplied by this extra aid of +volition which has been so long overlooked.</p> + +<p>The pure oxygen treatment has certainly performed many cures; +yet, when compared to the mechanical mixture and under the direct +control of the will, at all times and seasons, there is no danger +from excessive oxygenation as while oxygen is given. When every +patient can be taught to rely upon this great safety valve of +nature, there will be less need for medication, and the longevity +of our race be increased with but little dread by mankind for that +terrible monster consumption, which seems to have now unbounded +control.</p> + +<p>When this theory I have here given you to-night is fully +comprehended by the medical world and taught the public, together +with the kind of foods necessary for every one in their respective +occupation, location, and climate, we may expect a vast change in +their physical condition and a hope for the future which will +brighten as time advances.</p> + +<p>I herewith attach the sphygmographic tracings made upon myself +by another, showing the state of the pulse as compared with the +progress of the respiration.</p> + +<h3>ADDENDA.</h3> + +<p>Sphygmographic tracings of the pulse of the essayist. Normal +pulse 60 to the minute. Ten seconds necessary for the slip to pass +under the instrument.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15a.png"><img src= +"images/15a_th.png" alt=""></a></p> + +<pre> +A, A¹, normal pulse. +<br> +B, pulse taken after breathing rapidly for 15 seconds when +20 respirations had been taken. +<br> +C, rapid breathing for 30 seconds, 43 respirations. +<br> +D, " " 45 " 76 " +<br> +E, " " 60 " 96 " +</pre> + +F, pulse taken after rapid breathing for one minute, as in E, where +no respiration had as yet been taken after the essayist had kept it +up for that one minute. This was after 10 seconds had intervened. + +<p>G, the same taken 50 seconds after, and still no respiration had +been taken, the subject having no disposition to inhale, the blood +having been over oxygenated.</p> + +<p>The pulse in E shows after 96 respirations but 14, or 84 per +minute, and the force nearly as in the normal at A, A1.</p> + +<p>The record in B shows the force more markedly, but still normal +in number.</p> + +<p>F and G show very marked diminution in the force, but the number +of pulsations not over 72 per minute; G particularly so, the heart +needing the stimulus of the oxygen for full power.</p> + +<p>The following incident which has but very recently been made +known, gives most conclusive evidence of the truth of the theory +and practice of rapid breathing.</p> + +<p>A Mexican went into the office of a dentist in one of the +Mexican cities to have a tooth extracted by nitrous oxide gas.</p> + +<p>The dentist was not in, and the assistant was about to permit +the patient to leave without removing the tooth, when the wife of +the proprietor exclaimed that she had often assisted her husband in +giving the gas, and that she would do so in this instance if the +assistant would agree to extract the tooth. It was agreed. All +being in readiness, the lady turned on as she supposed the gas, and +the Mexican patient was ordered to breathe as fast as possible to +make sure of the full effect and no doubt of the final success. The +assistant was about to extract, but the wife insisted on his +breathing more rapidly, whereupon the patient was observed to +become very dark or purple in the face, which satisfied the lady +that the full effect was manifested, and the tooth was extracted, +to the great satisfaction of all concerned. While the gas was being +taken by the Mexican the gasometer was noticed to rise higher and +higher as the patient breathed faster, and not to sink as was usual +when the gas had been previously administered. This led to an +investigation of the reason of such an anomalous result, when to +their utter surprise they found the valve was so turned by the wife +that the Mexican had been breathing nothing but common air, and +instead of exhaling into the surrounding air he violently forced it +into the gasometer with the nitrous oxide gas, causing it to rise +and not sink, which it should have done had the valve been properly +turned by the passage of gas into the lungs of the patient.</p> + +<p>No more beautiful and positive trial could happen, and might not +again by accident or inadvertence happen again in a lifetime.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>TAP FOR EFFERVESCING LIQUIDS.</h2> + +<p>When a bottle of any liquor charged with carbonic acid under +strong pressure, such as champagne, sparkling cider, seltzer water, +etc., is uncorked, the contents often escape with considerable +force, flow out, and are nearly all lost. Besides this, the noise +made by the popping of the cork is not agreeable to most persons. +To remedy these inconveniences there has been devised the simple +apparatus which we represent in the accompanying cut, taken from +<i>La Nature</i>. The device consists of a hollow, sharp-pointed +tube, having one or two apertures in its upper extremity which are +kept closed by a hollow piston fitting in the interior of the tube. +This tube, or "tap," as it may be called, is supported on a firm +base to which is attached a draught tube, and a small lever for +actuating the piston. After the tap has been thrust through the +cork of the bottle of liquor the contents may be drawn in any +quantity and as often as wanted by simply pressing down the lever +with the finger; this operation raises the piston so that its +apertures correspond with those in the sides of the top, and the +liquid thus finds access to the draught tube through the interior +of the piston. By removing the pressure the piston descends and +thus closes the vents. By means of this apparatus, then, the +contents of any bottle of effervescing liquids may be as easily +drawn off as are those contained in the ordinary siphon bottles in +use.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15b.png"><img src= +"images/15b_th.png" alt="TAP FOR EFFERVESCING LIQUIDS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">TAP FOR EFFERVESCING LIQUIDS.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>CHEMICAL SOCIETY, LONDON, JAN. 20, 1881.</h2> + +<h3>PROF. H.E. ROSCOE, President, in the Chair.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Vivian Lewes read a paper on "<i>Pentathionic Acid</i>." In +March last the author, at the suggestion of Dr. Debus, undertook an +investigation of pentathionic acid, the existence of which has been +denied. The analyses of the liquid obtained by Wackenroder and +others, by passing sulphureted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide through +water, are based on the assumption that only one acid is present in +the solution, and consequently do not establish the existence of +pentathionic acid; as, for example, a mixture of one molecule of +H<sub>2</sub>S<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> and one molecule of +H<sub>2</sub>S<sub>6</sub>O<sub>6</sub> would give the same +analytical results as H<sub>2</sub>S<sub>5</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. +Moreover, no salt of pentathionic acid has been prepared in a pure +state. The author has succeeded in preparing barium pentathionate +thus: A Wackenroder solution was about half neutralized with barium +hydrate, filtered, and the clear solution evaporated <i>in +vacuo</i> over sulphuric acid. After eighteen days crystals, which +proved to be barium pentathionate + 3 molecules of water, formed. +These crystals were separated, and the liquid further evaporated, +when a second crop was obtained intermediate in composition between +the tetra and pentathionate. These were separated, and the +mother-liquor on standing deposited some oblong rectangular +crystals. These on analysis proved to consist of baric +pentathionate with three molecules of water. This salt dissolves +readily in cold water; the solution is decomposed by strong +potassic hydrate, baric sulphite, hyposulphites, and sulphur being +formed. By a similar method of procedure the author obtained +potassium pentathionate, anhydrous, and with one or two molecules +of water. The author promises some further results with some other +salts of the higher thionates.</p> + +<p>The president said that the society had to thank the author for +a very complete research on the subject of pentathionic acid. He, +however, begged to differ from him as to his statements concerning +the researches of Messrs. Takamatsu and Smith; in his opinion these +authors had proved the existence of pentathionic acid. He hoped +that the crystals (which were very fine) would be measured.</p> + +<p>Dr. Debus said that no one had previously been able to make the +salts of pentathionic acid, and expressed his sense of the great +merit due to the author for his perseverance and success. The paper +opened up some highly interesting theoretical speculations as to +the existence of hexathionic acid. If potassium tetrathionate was +dissolved in water it could be re-crystallized, but potassium +pentathionate under similar circumstances splits into sulphur and +tetrathionate; but a mixture of tetrathionate and pentathionate can +be re-crystallized. It seemed as if the sulphur when eliminated +from the pentathionate combined with the tetrathionate.</p> + +<p>Dr. Dupré asked Dr. Debus how it was that a molecule of +pentathionate could be re-crystallized, whereas two molecules of +pentathionate, which should, when half decomposed, furnish a +molecule of tetra and a molecule of pentathionate, could not.</p> + +<p>Dr. Armstrong then read a <i>"Preliminary Note on some +Hydrocarbons from Rosin Spirit."</i> After giving an account of our +knowledge of rosin spirit, the author described the result of the +examination of the mixture of hydrocarbons remaining after heating +it with sulphuric acid and diluting with half its volume of water +and steam distilling. Thus treated rosin spirit furnishes about +one-fourth of its volume of a colorless mobile liquid, which after +long-continued fractional distillation is resolved into a variety +of fractions boiling at temperatures from 95° to over 180°. +Each of the fractions was treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, +and the undissolved portions were then re-fractionated. The +hydrocarbons dissolved by the acid were recovered by heating under +pressure with hydrochloric acid. Besides a cymene and a toluene, +which have already been shown to exist in rosin spirit, metaxylene +was found to be present. The hydrocarbons insoluble in sulphuric +acid are, apparently, all members of the +C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n</sub> series; they are not, however, true +homologues of ethylene, but hexhydrides of hydrocarbons of the +benzene series. Hexhydro-toluene and probably hex-hydrometaxylene +are present besides the hydrocarbon, C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>20</sub>, +but it is doubtful if an intermediate term is also present. It is +by no means improbable, however, that these hydrocarbons are, at +least in part, products of the action of the sulphuric acid. +Cahours and Kraemer's and Godzki's observations on the higher +fractions of crude wood spirit, in fact, furnish a precedent for +this view. Referring to the results obtained by Anderson, Tilden, +and Renard, the author suggests that rosin spirit perhaps contains +hydrides intermediate in composition between those of the +C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n-6</sub> and C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n</sub> +series, also derived like the latter from hydrocarbons of the +benzene series. Finally, Dr Armstrong mentioned that the volatile +portion of the distillate from the non-volatile product of the +oxidation of oil of turpentine in moist air furnishes ordinary +cymene when treated in the manner above described. The fact that +rosin spirit yields a different cymene is, he considers, an +argument against the view which has more than once been put +forward, that rosin is directly derived from terpene. Probably +resin and turpentine, though genetically related, are products of +distinct processes.</p> + +<p>The next paper was <i>"On the Determination of the Relative +Weight of Single Molecules,"</i> by E. Vogel, of San Francisco. +This paper, which was taken as read, consists of a lengthy +theoretical disquisition, in which the author maintains the +following propositions: That the combining weights of all elements +are one third of their present values; the assumption that equal +volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules does not hold +good; that the present theory of valency is not supported by +chemical facts, and that its elimination would be no small gain for +chemistry in freeing it of an element full of mystery, uncertainty, +and complication; that the distinction between atoms and molecules +will no longer be necessary; that the facts of specific heat do not +lend any support to the theory of valency. The paper concludes as +follows: "The cause of chemical action is undoubtedly atmospheric +pressure, which under ordinary conditions is equal to the weight of +76 cubic centimeters of mercury, one of which equals 6.145 mercury +molecules, so that the whole pressure equals 467 mercury molecules. +This force--which with regard to its chemical effect on molecules +can be multiplied by means of heat--is amply sufficient to bring +about the highest degree of molecular specific gravity by the +reduction of the molecular volumes. To it all molecules are exposed +and subjected unalterably, and if not accepted as the cause of +chemical action, its influence has to be eliminated to allow the +introduction and display of other forces."</p> + +<p>The next communication was <i>"On the Synthetical Production of +Ammonia, by the Combination of Hydrogen and Nitrogen in Presence of +Heated Spongy Platinum (Preliminary Notice),"</i> by G. S. Johnson. +Some experiments, in which pure nitrogen was passed over heated +copper containing occluded hydrogen, suggested to the author the +possibility of the formation of ammonia; only minute traces were +formed. On passing, however, a mixture of pure nitrogen (from +ammonium nitrite) and hydrogen over spongy platinum at a low red +heat, abundant evidence was obtained of the synthesis of ammonia. +The gases were passed, before entering the tube containing the +platinum, through a potash bulb containing Nessler reagent, which +remained colorless. On the contrary, the gas issuing from the +platinum rapidly turned Nessler reagent brown, and in a few minutes +turned faintly acid litmus solution blue; the odor of +NH<sub>3</sub> was also perceptible. In one experiment 0.0144 +gramme of ammonia was formed in two hours and a half. The author +promises further experiment as to the effect of temperature, rate +of the gaseous current, and substitution of palladium for platinum. +The author synthesized some ammonia before the Society with +complete success.</p> + +<p>The President referred to the synthesis of ammonia from its +elements recently effected by Donkin, and remarked that apparently +the ammonia was formed in much larger quantities by the process +proposed by the author of the present paper.</p> + +<p>Mr. Warington suggested that some HCl gas should be +simultaneously passed with the nitrogen and hydrogen, and that the +temperature of the spongy platinum should be kept just below the +temperature at which NH<sub>3</sub> dissociates, in order to +improve the yield of NH<sub>3</sub>.</p> + +<p><i>"On the Oxidation of Organic Matter in Water"</i> by A. +Downes. The author considers that the mere presence of oxygen in +contact with the organic matter has but little oxidizing action +unless lowly organisms, as bacteria, etc. be simultaneously +present. Sunlight has apparently considerable effect in promoting +the oxidation of organic matter. The author quotes the following +experiment: A sample of river water was filtered through paper. It +required per 10,000 parts 0.236 oxygen as permanganate. A second +portion was placed in a flask plugged with cotton wool, and exposed +to sunlight for a week; it then required 0.200. A third portion +after a week, but excluded from light, required 0.231. A fourth was +boiled for five minutes, plugged, and then exposed to sunlight for +a week; required 0.198. In a second experiment with well water a +similar result was obtained; more organic matter was oxidized when +the organisms had been killed by the addition of sulphuric acid +than when the original water was allowed to stand for an equal +length of time. The author also discusses the statement made by Dr. +Frankland that there is less ground for assuming that the organized +and living matter of sewage is oxidized in a flow of twelve miles +of a river than for assuming that dead organic matter is oxidized +in a similar flow.--<i>Chem. News.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>ROSE OIL, OR OTTO OF ROSES.</h2> + +<h3>By CHARLES G. WARNFORD LOCK.</h3> + +<p>This celebrated perfume is the volatile essential oil distilled +from the flowers of some varieties of rose. The botany of roses +appears to be in a transition and somewhat unsatisfactory state. +Thus the otto-yielding rose is variously styled <i>Rosa damascena, +R. sempervirens, R. moschata, R. gallica, R. centifolia, R. +provincialis</i>. It is pretty generally agreed that the kind grown +for its otto in Bulgaria in the damask rose (<i>R. damascena</i>), +a variety induced by long cultivation, as it is not to be found +wild. It forms a bush, usually three to four feet, but sometimes +six feet high; its flowers are of moderate size, semi-double, and +arranged several on a branch, though not in clusters or bunches. In +color, they are mostly light-red; some few are white, and said to +be less productive of otto.</p> + +<p>The utilization of the delicious perfume of the rose was +attempted, with more or less success, long prior to the +comparatively modern process of distilling its essential oil. The +early methods chiefly in vogue were the distillation of rose-water, +and the infusion of roses in olive oil, the latter flourishing in +Europe generally down to the last century, and surviving at the +present day in the South of France. The butyraceous oil produced by +the distillation of roses for making rose-water in this country is +valueless as a perfume; and the real otto was scarcely known in +British commerce before the present century.</p> + +<p>The profitable cultivation of roses for the preparation of otto +is limited chiefly by climatic conditions. The odoriferous +constitutent of the otto is a liquid containing oxygen, the solid +hydrocarbon or stearoptene, with which it is combined, being +absolutely devoid of perfume. The proportion which this inodorous +solid constituents bears to the liquid perfume increases with the +unsuitability of the climate, varying from about 18 per cent. in +Bulgarian oil, to 35 and even 68 per cent. in rose oils distilled +in France and England. This increase in the proportion of +stearoptene is also shown by the progressively heightened +fusing-point of rose oils from different sources: thus, while +Bulgarian oil fuses at about 61° to 64° Fahr., an Indian +sample required 68° Fahr.; one from the South of France, +70° to 73° Fahr.; one from Paris, 84° Fahr.; and one +obtained in making rose-water in London, 86° to 89½° +Fahr. Even in the Bulgarian oil, a notable difference is observed +between that produced on the hills and that from the lowlands.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, not surprising that the culture of roses, and +extraction of their perfume, should have originated in the East. +Persia produced rose-water at an early date, and the town of +Nisibin, north-west of Mosul, was famous for it in the 14th +century. Shiraz, in the 17th century, prepared both rose water and +otto, for export to other parts of Persia, as well as all over +India. The Perso-Indian trade in rose oil, which continued to +possess considerable importance in the third quarter of the 18th +century, is declining, and has nearly disappeared; but the +shipments of rose-water still maintain a respectable figure. The +value, in rupees, of the exports of rose-water from Bushire in +1879, were--4,000 to India, 1,500 to Java, 200 to Aden and the Red +Sea, 1,000 to Muscat and dependencies, 200 to Arab coast of Persian +Gulf and Bahrein, 200 to Persian coast and Mekran, and 1,000 to +Zanzibar. Similar statistics relating to Lingah, in the same year, +show--Otto: 400 to Arab coast of Persian Gulf, and Bahrein; and 250 +to Persian coast and Mekran. And Bahrein--Persian Otto: 2,200 to +Koweit, Busrah, and Bagdad. Rose-water: 200 to Arab coast of +Persian Gulf, and 1,000 to Koweit, Busrah, and Bagdad.</p> + +<p>India itself has a considerable area devoted to rose-gardens, as +at Ghazipur, Lahore, Amritzur, and other places, the kind of rose +being <i>R. damascena</i>, according to Brandis. Both rose-water +and otto are produced. The flowers are distilled with double their +weight of water in clay stills; the rose-water (<i>goolabi +pani</i>) thus obtained is placed in shallow vessels, covered with +moist muslin to keep out dust and flies, and exposed all night to +the cool air, or fanned. In the morning, the film of oil, which has +collected on the top, is skimmed off by a feather, and transferred +to a small phial. This is repeated for several nights, till almost +the whole of the oil has separated. The quantity of the product +varies much, and three different authorities give the following +figures: (<i>a</i>) 20,000 roses to make 1 rupee's weight (176 gr.) +of otto; (<i>b</i>) 200,000 to make the same weight; (<i>c</i>) +1,000 roses afford less than 2 gr. of otto. The color ranges from +green to bright-amber, and reddish. The oil (otto) is the most +carefully bottled; the receptacles are hermetically sealed with +wax, and exposed to the full glare of the sun for several days. +Rose water deprived of otto is esteemed much inferior to that which +has not been so treated. When bottled, it is also exposed to the +sun for a fortnight at least.</p> + +<p>The Mediterranean countries of Africa enter but feebly into this +industry, and it is a little remarkable that the French have not +cultivated it in Algeria. Egypt's demand for rose-water and +rose-vinegar is supplied from Medinet Fayum, south-west of Cairo. +Tunis has also some local reputation for similar products. Von +Maltzan says that the rose there grown for otto is the dog-rose +(<i>R. canina</i>), and that it is extremely fragrant, 20 lb. of +the flower yielding about 1 dr. of otto. Genoa occasionally imports +a little of this product, which is of excellent quality. In the +south of France rose gardens occupy a large share of attention, +about Grasse, Cannes, and Nice; they chiefly produce rose-water, +much of which is exported to England. The essence (otto) obtained +by the distillation of the Provence rose (<i>R. provincialis</i>) +has a characteristic perfume, arising, it is believed, from the +bees transporting the pollen of the orange flowers into the petals +of the roses. The French otto is richer in stearoptene than the +Turkish, nine grammes crystallizing in a liter (1¾ pint) of +alcohol at the same temperature as 18 grammes of the Turkish. The +best preparations are made at Cannes and Grasse. The flowers are +not there treated for the otto, but are submitted to a process of +maceration in fat or oil, ten kilos. of roses being required to +impregnate one kilo. of fat. The price of the roses varies from +50c. to 1 fr. 25c. per kilo.</p> + +<p>But the one commercially important source of otto of roses is a +circumscribed patch of ancient Thrace or modern Bulgaria, +stretching along the southern slopes of the central Balkans, and +approximately included between the 25th and 26th degrees of east +longitude, and the 42d and 43d of north latitude. The chief +rose-growing districts are Philippopoli, Chirpan, Giopcu, +Karadshah-Dagh, Kojun-Tepe, Eski-Sara, Jeni-Sara, Bazardshik, and +the center and headquarters of the industry, Kazanlik (Kisanlik), +situated in a beautiful undulating plain, in the valley of the +Tunja. The productiveness of the last-mentioned district may be +judged from the fact that, of the 123 Thracian localities carrying +on the preparation of otto in 1877--they numbered 140 in 1859--42 +belong to it. The only place affording otto on the northern side of +the Balkans is Travina. The geological formation throughout is +syenite, the decomposition of which has provided a soil so fertile +as to need but little manuring. The vegetation, according to Baur, +indicates a climate differing but slightly from that of the Black +Forest, the average summer temperatures being stated at 82° +Fahr. at noon, and 68° Fahr. in the evening. The rose-bushes +nourish best and live longest on sandy, sun-exposed (south and +south-east aspect) slopes. The flowers produced by those growing on +inclined ground are dearer and more esteemed than any raised on +level land, being 50 per cent. richer in oil, and that of a +stronger quality. This proves the advantage of thorough drainage. +On the other hand, plantations at high altitudes yield less oil, +which is of a character that readily congeals, from an +insufficiency of summer heat. The districts lying adjacent to and +in the mountains are sometimes visited by hard frosts, which +destroy or greatly reduce the crop. Floods also occasionally do +considerable damage. The bushes are attacked at intervals and in +patches by a blight similar to that which injures the vines of the +country.</p> + +<p>The bushes are planted in hedge-like rows in gardens and fields, +at convenient distances apart, for the gathering of the crop. They +are seldom manured. The planting takes place in spring and autumn; +the flowers attain perfection in April and May, and the harvest +lasts from May till the beginning of June. The expanded flowers are +gathered before sunrise, often with the calyx attached; such as are +not required for immediate distillation are spread out in cellars, +but all are treated within the day on which they are plucked. Baur +states that, if the buds develop slowly, by reason of cool damp +weather, and are not much exposed to sun-heat, when about to be +collected, a rich yield of otto, having a low solidifying point, is +the result, whereas, should the sky be clear and the temperature +high at or shortly before the time of gathering, the product is +diminished and is more easily congealable. Hanbury, on the +contrary, when distilling roses in London, noticed that when they +had been collected on fine dry days the rose-water had most +volatile oil floating upon it, and that, when gathered in cool +rainy weather, little or no volatile oil separated.</p> + +<p>The flowers are not salted, nor subjected to any other +treatment, before being conveyed in baskets, on the heads of men +and women and backs of animals, to the distilling apparatus. This +consists of a tinned-copper still, erected on a semicircle of +bricks, and heated by a wood fire; from the top passes a straight +tin pipe, which obliquely traverses a tub kept constantly filled +with cold water, by a spout, from some convenient rivulet, and +constitutes the condenser. Several such stills are usually placed +together, often beneath the shade of a large tree. The still is +charged with 25 to 50 lb. of roses, not previously deprived of +their calyces, and double the volume of spring water. The +distillation is carried on for about l½ hours, the result +being simply a very oily rose-water (<i>ghyul suyu</i>). The +exhausted flowers are removed from the still, and the decoction is +used for the next distillation, instead of fresh water. The first +distillates from each apparatus are mixed and distilled by +themselves, one-sixth being drawn off; the residue replaces spring +water for subsequent operations. The distillate is received in +long-necked bottles, holding about 1¼ gallon. It is kept in +them for a day or two, at a temperature exceeding 59° Fahr., by +which time most of the oil, fluid and bright, will have reached the +surface. It is skimmed off by a small, long-handled, fine-orificed +tin funnel, and is then ready for sale. The last-run rose-water is +extremely fragrant, and is much prized locally for culinary and +medicinal purposes. The quantity and quality of the otto are much +influenced by the character of the water used in distilling. When +hard spring water is employed, the otto is rich in stearoptene, but +less transparent and fragrant. The average quantity of the product +is estimated by Baur at 0.037 to 0.040 per cent.; another authority +says that 3,200 kilos. of roses give 1 kilo. of oil.</p> + +<p>Pure otto, carefully distilled, is at first colorless, but +speedily becomes yellowish; its specific gravity is 0.87 at +72.5° Fahr.; its boiling-point is 444° Fahr.; it solidifies +at 51.8° to 60.8° Fahr., or still higher; it is soluble in +absolute alcohol, and in acetic acid. The most usual and reliable +tests of the quality of an otto are (1) its odor, (2) its +congealing point, (3) its crystallization. The odor can be judged +only after long experience. A good oil should congeal well in five +minutes at a temperature of 54.5° Fahr.; fraudulent additions +lower the congealing point. The crystals of rose-stearoptene are +light, feathery, shining plates, filling the whole liquid. Almost +the only material used for artificially heightening the apparent +proportion of stearoptene is said to be spermaceti, which is easily +recognizable from its liability to settle down in a solid cake, and +from its melting at 122° Fahr., whereas stearoptene fuses at +91.4° Fahr. Possibly paraffin wax would more easily escape +detection.</p> + +<p>The adulterations by means of other essential oils are much more +difficult of discovery, and much more general; in fact, it is said +that none of the Bulgarian otto is completely free from this kind +of sophistication. The oils employed for the purpose are certain of +the grass oils (<i>Andropogon</i> and <i>Cymbopogon spp.</i>) +notably that afforded by <i>Andropogon, Schoenanthus</i> called +<i>idris-yaghi</i> by the Turks, and commonly known to Europeans as +"geranium oil," though quite distinct from true geranium oil. The +addition is generally made by sprinkling it upon the rose-leaves +before distilling. It is largely produced in the neighborhood of +Delhi, and exported to Turkey by way of Arabia. It is sold by Arabs +in Constantinople in large bladder-shaped tinned-copper vessels, +holding about 120 lb. As it is usually itself adulterated with some +fatty oil, it needs to undergo purification before use. This is +effected in the following manner: The crude oil is repeatedly +shaken up with water acidulated with lemon-juice, from which it is +poured off after standing for a day. The washed oil is placed in +shallow saucers, well exposed to sun and air, by which it gradually +loses its objectionable odor. Spring and early summer are the best +seasons for the operation, which occupies two to four weeks, +according to the state of the weather and the quality of the oil. +The general characters of this oil are so similar to those of otto +of roses--even the odor bearing a distant resemblance--that their +discrimination when mixed is a matter of practical impossibility. +The ratio of the adulteration varies from a small figure up to 80 +or 90 per cent. The only safeguard against deception is to pay a +fair price, and to deal with firms of good repute, such as Messrs. +Papasoglu, Manoglu & Son, Ihmsen & Co., and Holstein & +Co. in Constantinople.</p> + +<p>The otto is put up in squat-shaped flasks of tinned copper, +called <i>kunkumas</i>, holding from 1 to 10 lb., and sewn up in +white woolen cloths. Usually their contents are transferred at +Constantinople into small gilded bottles of German manufacture for +export. The Bulgarian otto harvest, during the five years 1867-71, +was reckoned to average somewhat below 400,000 <i>meticals, +miskals</i>, or <i>midkals</i> (of about 3 dwt. troy), or 4,226 lb. +av.; that of 1873, which was good, was estimated at 500,000, value +about £700,000. The harvest of 1880 realized more than +£1,000,000, though the roses themselves were not so valuable +as in 1876. About 300,000 <i>meticals</i> of otto, valued at +£932,077, were exported in 1876 from Philippopolis, chiefly +to France, Australia, America, and Germany.</p> + +<p>--<i>Jour. Soc. of Arts.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW METHOD OF PREPARING METATOLUIDINE.</h2> + +<h3>By OSKAR WIDMAN.</h3> + +<p>The author adds in small portions five parts +metanitro-benzaldehyd to nine parts of phosphorus pentachloride, +avoiding a great rise of temperature. When the reaction is over, +the whole is poured into excess of cold water, quickly washed a few +times with cold water, and dissolved in alcohol. After the first +crystallization the compound melts at 65°, and is perfectly +pure.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. 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