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diff --git a/8145-h/8145-h.htm b/8145-h/8145-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..31becd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/8145-h/8145-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,33058 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Life and Times of Washington, by John F. Schroeder and Benson John Lossing</title> + +<style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; text-align: justify;} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + .side { float: right; font-size: 75%; width: 25%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; margin-left: 0.8em; text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> +</head> +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Life And Times Of Washington, Volume 2, by John Frederick Schroeder and Benson John Lossing</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Life And Times Of Washington, Volume 2</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John Frederick Schroeder and Benson John Lossing</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Commentator: Edward C. Towne</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 19, 2003 [eBook #8145]<br /> +[Most recently updated: December 10, 2023]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon, Marvin A. Hodges, Charles Franks, the Online Distributed Proofreading Team and David Widger</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE AND TIMES OF WASHINGTON ***</div> + + <h1> + LIFE AND TIMES OF WASHINGTON + </h1> + <h3> + VOLUME II + </h3> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By John F. Schroeder and Benson John Lossing + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="middle"> + <p> + {Editorial note: The title page of the 1903 source for this e-text + identifies the author only as "Schroeder-Lossing" without first names or + other identification. The available evidence indicates the work was + begun by John Frederick Schroeder (1800-1857) and after his death was + completed by Benson John Lossing (1813-1891).} + </p> + <br /> + <p> + Revised, Enlarged, And Enriched: And With A Special Introduction By + Edward C. Towne, B.A. + </p> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_TOC"> TABLE OF CONTENTS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> <b>VOLUME II. PART IV. Washington Continental + Commander-in-Chief. 1775-1783.</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER X. — WASHINGTON OUT-GENERALS HOWE. + 1777. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER XI. — WASHINGTON HOLDS HOWE IN + CHECK. 1777. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER XII. — BURGOYNE'S INVASION OF NEW + YORK PUNISHED BY SCHUYLER AND GATES. 1777. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER XIII. — WASHINGTON AT VALLEY FORGE. + 1777, 1778. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER XIV. — MONMOUTH. 1778. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER XV. — WASHINGTON DIRECTS A DESCENT + ON RHODE ISLAND. 1778. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER XVI. — WASHINGTON PREPARES TO + CHASTISE THE INDIANS. 1778. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER XVII. — WASHINGTON'S OPERATIONS IN + THE NORTHERN STATES. 1779. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER XVIII. — CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH—ARNOLD'S TREASON. 1780. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER XIX. — OPERATIONS AT THE SOUTH. + 1780. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XX. — PREPARATIONS FOR THE + CAMPAIGN. 1781. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XXI. — THE CAMPAIGN AT THE SOUTH. + 1781. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XXII. — THE CAMPAIGN AT THE SOUTH + CONCLUDED. 1781. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XXIII. — WASHINGTON CAPTURES + CORNWALLIS. 1781. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XXIV. — CLOSE OF THE WAR. + 1782-1783. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PART"> <b>PART V. WASHINGTON A PRIVATE CITIZEN.</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER I. — WASHINGTON'S RETURN TO PRIVATE + LIFE. 1783-1784. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER II. — WASHINGTON PRESIDES AT THE + FORMATION OP THE CONSTITUTION. 1785-1788. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PART2"> <b>PART VI. — WASHINGTON AS PRESIDENT AND IN + RETIREMENT.</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER I. — THE ELECTION. 1789. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER II. — THE ADMINISTRATION FORMED. + 1789. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER III. — THE PUBLIC CREDIT + ESTABLISHED. 1789-1790. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER IV. — THE NATIONAL BANK + ESTABLISHED. 1790. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER V. — POLITICAL PARTIES DEVELOPED. + 1791-1792. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER VI. — WASHINGTON INAUGURATES THE + SYSTEM OF NEUTRALITY. 1793. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER VII. — WASHINGTON SENDS JAY TO + ENGLAND. 1793-1794. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER VIII. — WASHINGTON QUELLS THE + WESTERN INSURRECTION. 1794. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER IX. — WASHINGTON SIGNS JAY'S + TREATY. 1794-1795. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER X. — WASHINGTON MAINTAINS THE + TREATY-MAKING POWER OF THE EXECUTIVE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XI. — WASHINGTON RETIRES FROM THE + PRESIDENCY. 1796-1797. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER XII. — WASHINGTON APPOINTED + LIEUTENANT-GENERAL. 1797-1798. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XIII. — LAST ILLNESS, DEATH, AND + CHARACTER OF WASHINGTON. 1799. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_TOC" id="link2H_TOC"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + </h2> + <p> + VOLUME II. PART IV. Washington Continental Commander-in-Chief. <br /> + 1775-1783. <br /> CHAP. X. Lord Howe Outgeneraled by Washington <br /> XI. + Washington Holds Howe in Check <br /> XII. Burgoyne's Defeat and Surrender + <br /> XIII. Washington at Valley Forge <br /> XIV. The Battle of Monmouth + <br /> XV. Washington Directs a Descent on Rhode Island <br /> XVI. + Washington Prepares to Chastise the Indians <br /> XVII. Washington's + Operations in the Northern States <br /> XVIII. Campaign in the North—Arnold's + Treason <br /> XIX. Operations at the South <br /> XX. Preparations for a + New Campaign <br /> XXI. The Campaign at the South <br /> XXII. Continuation + of the Campaign at the South <br /> XXIII. Washington Captures Cornwallis + <br /> XXIV. Final Events of the Revolution <br /> * * * * * <br /> PART V. + Washington, a Private Citizen. 1783-1788. <br /> CHAP. <br /> I. + Washington's Return to Private Life <br /> II. Washington President of the + Constitutional Convention <br /> * * * * * <br /> PART VI. Washington as + President and in Retirement. 1789-1799. <br /> I. Washington Elected First + President of the United States <br /> II. Washington's Inauguration and + First Administration Formed <br /> III. Measures for Establishing the + Public Credit <br /> IV. Establishment of a National Bank <br /> V. + Political Parties Developed <br /> VI. Washington Inaugurates the System of + Neutrality <br /> VII. Washington Sends Jay to England <br /> VIII. + Washington Quells the Western Insurrection <br /> IX. Washington Signs + Jay's Treaty <br /> X. Washington Maintains the Treaty-Making Power of the + Executive <br /> XI. Washington Retires from the Presidency <br /> XII. + Washington Appointed Lieutenant-General <br /> XIII. Last Illness, Death, + and Character of Washington <br /> * * * * * <br /> LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + Vol. II. <br /> WASHINGTON AS PRESIDENT <br /> VALLEY FORGE—WASHINGTON + AND LAFAYETTE <br /> WASHINGTON AT TRENTON <br /> MAJOR-GENERAL BARON + STEUBEN <br /> PHILIP SCHUYLER <br /> HORATIO GATES <br /> BATTLE OF + GERMANTOWN <br /> TREASON OF ARNOLD <br /> ROBERT MORRIS <br /> LEE'S CAVALRY + SKIRMISHING AT THE BATTLE OF GUILFORD <br /> GENERAL FRANCIS MARION <br /> + MAJOR-GENERAL NATHANAEL GREENE <br /> ALEXANDER HAMILTON <br /> ROBERT R. + LIVINGSTON <br /> WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL TO HIS OFFICERS <br /> LAFAYETTE + <br /> JOHN JAY <br /> INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON <br /> THE FIRST CABINET + <br /> JOHN HANCOCK <br /> JOHN ADAMS <br /> WASHINGTON AND FAMILY AT MOUNT + VERNON <br /> CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MARSHALL <br /> THOMAS JEFFERSON <br /> + HENRY LAURENS <br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VOLUME II. PART IV. Washington Continental Commander-in-Chief. 1775-1783. + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. — WASHINGTON OUT-GENERALS HOWE. 1777. + </h2> + <p> + Among the many perplexing subjects which claimed the attention of + Washington during the winter (1776-1777), while he was holding his + headquarters among the hills at Morristown, none gave him more annoyance + than that of the treatment of American prisoners in the hands of the + enemy. Among the civilized nations of modern times prisoners of war are + treated with humanity and principles are established on which they are + exchanged. The British officers, however, considered the Americans as + rebels deserving condign punishment and not entitled to the sympathetic + treatment commonly shown to the captive soldiers of independent nations. + They seem to have thought that the Americans would never be able, or would + never dare, to retaliate. Hence their prisoners were most infamously + treated. Against this the Americans remonstrated, and, on finding their + remonstrances disregarded, they adopted a system of retaliation which + occasioned much unmerited suffering to individuals. Col. Ethan Allen, who + had been defeated and made prisoner in a bold but rash attempt against + Montreal, was put in irons and sent to England as a traitor. In + retaliation, General Prescott, who had been taken at the mouth of the + Sorel, was put in close confinement for the avowed purpose of subjecting + him to the same fate which Colonel Allen should suffer. + </p> + <p> + Both officers and privates, prisoners to the Americans, were more + rigorously confined than they would otherwise have been, and, that they + might not impute this to wanton harshness and cruelty, they were + distinctly told that their own superiors only were to blame for any severe + treatment they might experience. + </p> + <p> + The capture of General Lee became the occasion of embittering the + complaints on this subject, and of aggravating the sufferings of the + prisoners of war. Before that event something like a cartel for the + exchange of prisoners had been established between Generals Howe and + Washington, but the captivity of General Lee interrupted that arrangement. + The general, as we have seen, had been an officer in the British army, but + having been disgusted had resigned his commission, and, at the beginning + of the troubles, had offered his services to Congress, which were readily + accepted. General Howe affected to consider him as a deserter, and ordered + him into close confinement. Washington had no prisoner of equal rank, but + offered six Hessian field officers in exchange for him, and required that, + if that offer should not be accepted, General Lee should be treated + according to his rank in the American army. General Howe replied that + General Lee was a deserter from his majesty's service, and could not be + considered as a prisoner of war nor come within the conditions of the + cartel. A fruitless discussion ensued between the Commanders-in-Chief. + Congress took up the matter and resolved that General Washington be + directed to inform General Howe, that should the proffered exchange of six + Hessian field officers for General Lee not be accepted, and his former + treatment continued, the principle of retaliation shall occasion five of + the Hessian field officers, together with Lieut. Col. Archibald Campbell, + or any other officers that are or shall be in possession of equivalent in + number or quality, to be detained, in order that the treatment which + General Lee shall receive may be exactly inflicted upon their persons. + Congress also ordered a copy of their resolution to be transmitted to the + Council of Massachusetts Bay, and that they be desired to detain + Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell, and keep him in close custody till the + further orders of Congress, and that a copy be also sent to the committee + of Congress, in Philadelphia, and that they be desired to have the + prisoners, officers, and privates lately taken properly secured in some + safe place. + </p> + <p> + Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell of the Seventy-first Regiment, with about 270 + of his men, had been made prisoner in the bay of Boston, while sailing for + the harbor, ignorant of the evacuation of the town by the British. + Hitherto the colonel had been civilly treated; but, on receiving the order + of Congress respecting him, the Council of Massachusetts Bay, instead of + simply keeping him in safe custody, according to order, sent him to + Concord jail, and lodged him in a filthy and loathsome dungeon, about + twelve or thirteen feet square. He was locked in by double bolts and + expressly prohibited from entering the prison yard on any consideration + whatever. A disgusting hole, fitted up with a pair of fixed chains, and + from which a felon had been removed to make room for his reception, was + assigned him as an inner apartment. The attendance of a servant was denied + him, and no friend was allowed to visit him. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Campbell naturally complained to Howe of such unworthy treatment, + and Howe addressed Washington on the subject. The latter immediately wrote + to the Council of Massachusetts Bay, and said, "You will observe that + exactly the same treatment is to be shown to Colonel Campbell and the + Hessian officers that General Howe shows to General Lee, and as he is only + confined to a commodious house, with genteel accommodation, we have no + right or reason to be more severe to Colonel Campbell, whom I wish to be + immediately removed from his present situation and put into a house where + he may live comfortably." + </p> + <p> + The historian (Gordon), who wrote at the time, gives a very graphic + account of the sufferings of the American prisoners in New York, which, + dreadful as it seems, is confirmed by many contemporary authorities. He + says: "Great complaints were made of the horrid usage the Americans met + with after they were captured." + </p> + <p> + The garrison of Fort Washington surrendered by capitulation to General + Howe, the 16th of November. The terms were that the fort should be + surrendered, the troops be considered prisoners of war, and that the + American officers should keep their baggage and sidearms. These articles + were signed and afterwards published in the New York papers. Major Otho + Holland Williams, of Rawling's Rifle Regiment, in doing his duty that day, + unfortunately fell into the hands of the enemy. The haughty deportment of + the officers, and the scurrility of the soldiers of the British army, he + afterward said, soon dispelled his hopes of being treated with lenity. + Many of the American officers were plundered of their baggage and robbed + of their sidearms, hats, cockades, etc., and otherwise grossly + ill-treated. Williams and three companions were, on the third day, put on + board the Baltic-Merchant, a hospital ship, then lying in the sound. The + wretchedness of his situation was in some degree alleviated by a small + pittance of pork and parsnip which a good-natured sailor spared him from + his own mess. The fourth day of their captivity, Rawlings, Hanson, + M'Intire, and himself, all wounded officers, were put into one common + dirt-cart and dragged through the city of New York as objects of derision, + reviled as rebels, and treated with the utmost contempt. + </p> + <p> + From the cart they were set down at the door of an old wastehouse, the + remains of Hampden Hall, near Bridewell, which, because of the openness + and filthiness of the place, he had a few months before refused as + barracks for his privates, but now was willing to accept for himself and + friends, in hopes of finding an intermission of the fatigue and + persecution they had perpetually suffered. Some provisions were issued to + the prisoners in the afternoon of that day, what quantity he could not + declare, but it was of the worst quality he ever, till then, saw made use + of. He was informed the allowance consisted of six ounces of pork, one + pound of biscuit, and some peas per day for each man, and two bushels and + a half of sea coal per week for the officers to each fireplace. These were + admitted on parole, and lived generally in wastehouses. The privates, in + the coldest season of the year, were close confined in churches, + sugar-houses, and other open buildings (which admitted all kinds of + weather), and consequently were subjected to the severest kind of + persecution that ever unfortunate captives suffered. + </p> + <p> + Officers were insulted and often struck for attempting to afford some of + the miserable privates a small relief. In about three weeks Colonel + Williams was able to walk, and was himself a witness of the sufferings of + his countrymen. He could not describe their misery. Their constitutions + were not equal to the rigor of the treatment they received and the + consequence was the death of many hundreds. The officers were not allowed + to take muster-rolls, nor even to visit their men, so that it was + impossible to ascertain the numbers that perished; but from frequent + reports and his own observations, he verily believed, as well as had heard + many officers give it as their opinion, that not less than 1,500 prisoners + perished in the course of a few weeks in the city of New York, and that + this dreadful mortality was principally owing to the want of provisions + and extreme cold. If they computed too largely, it must be ascribed to the + shocking brutal manner of treating the dead bodies, and not to any desire + of exaggerating the account of their sufferings. + </p> + <p> + When the King's commissary of prisoners intimated to some of the American + officers General Howe's intention of sending the privates home on parole, + they all earnestly desired it, and a paper was signed expressing that + desire; the reason for signing was, they well knew the effects of a longer + confinement, and the great numbers that died when on parole justified + their pretensions to that knowledge. In January almost all the officers + were sent to Long Island on parole, and there billeted on the inhabitants + at $2 per week. + </p> + <p> + The filth in the churches (in consequence of fluxes) was beyond + description. Seven dead have been seen in one of them at the same time, + lying among the excrements of their bodies. The British soldiers were full + of their low and insulting jokes on those occasions, but less malignant + than the Tories. The provision dealt out to the prisoners was not + sufficient for the support of life, and was deficient in quantity, and + more so in quality. The bread was loathsome and not fit to be eaten, and + was thought to have been condemned. The allowance of meat was trifling and + of the worst sort. The integrity of these suffering prisoners was hardly + credible. Hundreds submitted to death rather than enlist in the British + service, which they were most generally pressed to do. It was the opinion + of the American officers that Howe perfectly understood the condition of + the private soldiers, and they from thence argued that it was exactly such + as he and his council intended. After Washington's success in the Jerseys, + the obduracy, and malevolence of the Royalists subsided in some measure. + The surviving prisoners were ordered to be sent out as an exchange, but + several of them fell down dead in the streets while attempting to walk to + the vessels. + </p> + <p> + Washington wrote to General Howe in the beginning of April: "It is a fact + not to be questioned that the usage of our prisoners while in your + possession, the privates at least, was such as could not be justified. + This was proclaimed by the concurrent testimony of all who came out. Their + appearance justified the assertion, and melancholy experience in the + speedy death of a large part of them, stamped it with infallible + certainty." + </p> + <p> + The cruel treatment of the prisoners being the subject of conversation + among some officers captured by Sir Guy Carleton, General Parsons, who was + of the company, said, "I am very glad of it." They expressed their + astonishment and desired him to explain himself. He thus addressed them: + "You have been taken by General Carleton, and he has used you with great + humanity, would you be inclined to fight against him?" The answer was, + "No." "So," added Parsons, "would it have been, had the troops taken by + Howe been treated in like manner, but now through this cruelty we shall + get another army." + </p> + <p> + The Hon. William Smith, learning how the British used the prisoners, and + concluding it would operate to that end by enraging the Americans, applied + to the committee of New York State for leave to go into the city and + remonstrate with the British upon such cruel treatment, which he doubted + not but that he should put a stop to. The committee, however, either from + knowing what effect the cruelties would have in strengthening the + opposition to Britain, or from jealousies of his being in some other way + of disservice to the American cause or from these united, would not grant + his request. + </p> + <p> + Washington, at the beginning of 1777, determined to have the army + inoculated for the smallpox, which had made fearful ravages in the ranks. + It was carried forward as secretly and carefully as possible, and the + hospital physicians in Philadelphia were ordered at the same time to + inoculate all the soldiers who passed through that city on their way to + join the army. The same precautions were taken in the other military + stations, and thus the army was relieved from an evil which would have + materially interfered with the success of the ensuing campaign. The + example of the soldiery proved a signal benefit to the entire population, + the practice of inoculation became general, and, by little and little, + this fatal malady disappeared almost entirely. + </p> + <p> + In the hope that something might be effected at New York, Washington + ordered General Heath, who was in command in the Highlands, to move down + towards the city with a considerable force. Heath did so, and in a rather + grandiloquent summons called upon Fort Independence to surrender. The + enemy, however, stood their ground, and Heath, after a few days, + retreated, having done nothing, and exposed himself to ridicule for not + having followed up his words with suitable deeds. + </p> + <p> + While Washington was actively employed in the Jerseys in asserting the + independence of America, Congress could not afford him much assistance, + but that body was active in promoting the same cause by its enactments and + recommendations. Hitherto the Colonies had been united by no bond but that + of their common danger and common love of liberty. Congress resolved to + render the terms of their union more definite, to ascertain the rights and + duties of the several Colonies, and their mutual obligations toward each + other. A committee was appointed to sketch the principles of the union or + confederation. + </p> + <p> + This committee presented a report in thirteen Articles of Confederation + and perpetual Union between the States, and proposed that, instead of + calling themselves the United Colonies, as they had hitherto done, they + should assume the name of the United States of America; that each State + should retain its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, + jurisdiction, and right, which is not by the confederation expressly + delegated to the United States in Congress assembled; that they enter into + a firm league for mutual defense; that the free inhabitants of any of the + States shall be entitled to the privileges and immunities of free citizens + in any other State; that any traitor or great delinquent fleeing from one + State and found in another shall be delivered up to the State having + jurisdiction of his offense; that full faith and credit shall be given in + each of the States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of every + other State; that delegates shall be annually chosen in such manner as the + legislature of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first + Monday of November, with power to each State to recall its delegates, or + any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their + stead; that no State shall be represented in Congress by less than two or + more than seven members, and no person shall be a delegate for more than + three out of six years, nor shall any delegate hold a place of emolument + under the United States; that each State shall maintain its own delegates; + that in Congress each State shall have only one vote; that freedom of + speech shall be enjoyed by the members, and that they shall be free from + arrest, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace; that no State, + without the consent of Congress, shall receive any ambassador, or enter + into any treaty with any foreign power; that no person holding any office + in any of the United States shall receive any present, office, or title + from any foreign State, and that neither Congress nor any of the States + shall grant any titles of nobility; that no two or more of the States + shall enter into any confederation whatever without the consent of + Congress; that no State shall impose any duties which may interfere with + treaties made by Congress; that in time of peace no vessels of war or + military force shall be kept up in any of the States but by the authority + of Congress, but every State shall have a well-regulated and disciplined + militia; that no State, unless invaded, shall engage in war without the + consent of Congress, nor shall they grant letters of marque or reprisal + till after a declaration of war by Congress; that colonels and inferior + officers shall be appointed by the Legislature of each State for its own + troops; that the expenses of war shall be defrayed out of a common + treasury, supplied by the several States according to the value of the + land in each; that taxes shall be imposed and levied by authority and + direction of the several States within the time prescribed by Congress; + that Congress has the sole and exclusive right of deciding on peace and + war, of sending and receiving ambassadors, and entering into treaties; + that Congress shall be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and + differences between two or more of the States; that Congress have the sole + and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin + struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States, fixing + the standard of weights and measures, regulating the trade, establishing + post-offices, appointing all officers of the land forces in the service of + the United States, except regimental officers, appointing all the officers + of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the + service of the United States, making rules for the government and + regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their + operations; that Congress have authority to appoint a committee to sit + during their recess, to be dominated a Committee of the States, and to + consist of one delegate from each State; that Congress shall have power to + ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the + United States, and to appropriate and apply the same, to borrow money or + emit bills on the credit of the United States, to build and equip a navy, + to fix the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State + for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such + State; that the consent of nine States shall be requisite to any great + public measure of common interest; that Congress shall have power to + adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United + States, but the adjournment not to exceed six months, and that they shall + publish their proceedings monthly, excepting such parts relating to + treaties, alliances, or military operations, as in their judgment require + secrecy; that the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State shall, if + required, be entered on the journal, and extracts granted; that the + Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall, during the recess of + Congress, exercise such powers as Congress shall vest them with; that + Canada, if willing, shall be admitted to all the advantages of the union; + but no other colony shall be admitted, unless such admission shall be + agreed to by nine States; that all bills of credit emitted, moneys + borrowed, or debts contracted by Congress before this confederation, shall + be charges on the United States; that every State shall abide by the + determinations of Congress on all questions submitted to them by this + confederation; that the articles of it shall be inviolably observed by + every State, and that no alteration in any of the articles shall be made, + unless agreed to by Congress, and afterward confirmed by the legislature + of every State. + </p> + <p> + Such was the substance of this confederation or union. After much + discussion, at thirty-nine sittings, the articles were approved by + Congress, transmitted to the several State Legislatures, and, meeting with + their approbation, were ratified by all the delegates on the 15th of + November, 1778. + </p> + <p> + Congress maintained an erect posture, although its affairs then wore the + most gloomy aspect. It was under the provisions of this confederation that + the war was afterward carried on, and, considered as a first essay of + legislative wisdom, it discovers a good understanding, and a respectable + knowledge of the structure of society. Had peace been concluded before the + settlement of this confederation, the States would probably have broken + down into so many independent governments, and the strength of the Union + been lost in a number of petty sovereignties. + </p> + <p> + It is not hazarding much to say that, considering all the circumstances, + it was the best form of government which could have been framed at that + time. Its radical defect arose from its being a confederation of + independent States, in which the central government had no direct recourse + to the people. It required all grants of men or money to be obtained from + the State governments, who were often, during the war, extremely dilatory + in complying with the requisitions of Congress. This defect was strongly + felt by Washington, who was often compelled to exert his personal + influence, which, in all the States, was immense, to obtain the supplies + which Congress had no power to exact. We shall see hereafter, that in + forming the new constitution, a work in which Washington took a leading + part, this defect was remedied. + </p> + <p> + While Congress was beginning to form these articles of confederation, and + Washington was giving a new aspect to the war in New Jersey, the people of + Great Britain, long accustomed to colonial complaints and quarrels, and + attentive merely to their own immediate interests, paid no due regard to + the progress of the contest or to the importance of the principles in + which it originated. Large majorities in both houses of parliament + supported the ministry in all their violent proceedings, and although a + small minority, including several men of distinguished talents, who + trembled for the fate of British liberty if the court should succeed in + establishing its claims against the colonists, vigorously opposed the + measures of administration, yet the great body of the people manifested a + loyal zeal in favor of the war, and the ill success of the Colonists in + the campaign of 1776, gave that zeal additional energy. + </p> + <p> + But amidst all the popularity of their warlike operations, the + difficulties of the ministry soon began to multiply. In consequence of + hostilities with the American provinces, the British West India islands + experienced a scarcity of the necessaries of life. About the time when the + West India fleet was about to set sail, under convoy, on its homeward + voyage, it was discovered that the negroes of Jamaica meditated an + insurrection. By means of the draughts to complete the army in America, + the military force in that island had been weakened, and the ships of war + were detained to assist in suppressing the attempts of the negroes. By + this delay the Americans gained time for equipping their privateers. After + the fleet sailed it was dispersed by stormy weather and many of the ships, + richly laden, fell into the hands of the American cruisers who were + permitted to sell their prizes in the ports of France, both in Europe and + in the West Indies. + </p> + <p> + The conduct of France was now so openly manifested that it could no longer + be winked at, and it drew forth a remonstrance from the British cabinet. + The remonstrance was civilly answered, and the traffic in British prizes + was carried on somewhat more covertly in the French ports in Europe; but + it was evident that both France and Spain were in a state of active + preparation for war. The British ministry could no longer shut their eyes + against the gathering storm, and began to prepare for it. About the middle + of October (1776) they put sixteen additional ships into commission, and + made every exertion to man them. + </p> + <p> + On the 31st of October the parliament met and was opened by a speech from + the throne, in which his majesty stated that it would have given him much + satisfaction if he had been able to inform them that the disturbances in + the revolted Colonies were at an end, and that the people of America, + recovering from their delusion, had returned to their duty; but so + mutinous and determined was the spirit of their leaders that they had + openly abjured and renounced all connection and communication with the + mother country and had rejected every conciliatory proposition. Much + mischief, he said, would accrue not only to the commerce of Great Britain + but to the general system of Europe if this rebellion were suffered to + take root. The conduct of the Colonists would convince every one of the + necessity of the measures proposed to be adopted, and the past success of + the British arms promised the happiest results; but preparations must be + promptly made for another campaign. A hope was expressed of the general + continuance of tranquility in Europe, but that it was thought advisable to + increase the defensive resources at home. + </p> + <p> + The addresses to the speech were in the usual form, but amendments were + moved in both houses of parliament; in the Commons by Lord John Cavendish + and in the Lords by the Marquis of Rockingham. After an animated debate + the amendment was rejected, in the House of Commons by 242 against 87, and + in the Lords by 91 against 26. During the session of parliament some other + attempts were made for adopting conciliatory measures, but the influence + of ministry was so powerful that they were all completely defeated, and + the plans of administration received the approbation and support of + parliament. + </p> + <p> + During the winter (1776-1777), which was very severe, the British troops + at Brunswick and Amboy were kept on constant duty and suffered + considerable privations. The Americans were vigilant and active, and the + British army could seldom procure provisions or forage without fighting. + But although in the course of the winter the affairs of the United States + had begun to wear a more promising aspect, yet there were still many + friends of royalty in the provinces. By their open attachment to the + British interest, numbers had already exposed themselves to the hostility + of the patriotic party; and others, from affection to Britain or distrust + of the American cause, gave their countenance and aid to General Howe. + Early in the season a considerable number of these men joined the royal + army, and were embodied under the direction of the Commander-in-Chief with + the same pay as the regular troops, besides the promise of an allotment of + land at the close of the disturbances. Governor Tryon, who had been + extremely active in engaging and disciplining them, was promoted to the + rank of major-general of the Loyal Provincialists. {1} + </p> + <p> + The campaign opened on both sides by rapid predatory incursions and bold + desultory attacks. At Peekskill, on the North river, about fifty miles + above New York, the Americans had formed a post, at which, during the + winter, they had collected a considerable quantity of provisions and + camp-equipage to supply the stations in the vicinity as occasion might + require. + </p> + <p> + The most mountainous part of the district, named the Manor of Courland, + was formed into a kind of citadel, replenished with stores, and Peekskill + served as a port to it. On the 23d of March (1777), as soon as the river + was clear of ice, Howe, who thought Peekskill of more importance than it + really was, detached Colonel Bird, with about 500 men, under convoy of a + frigate and some armed vessels, against that post. General M'Dougal, who + commanded there, had then only about 250 men in the place. He had timely + notice of Colonel Bird's approach, and, sensible that his post was + untenable, he exerted himself to remove the stores to the strong grounds + about two miles and a half in his rear; but before he had made much + progress in the work the British appeared, when he set fire to the stores + and buildings and retreated. Colonel Bird landed and completed the + destruction of the stores which he was unable to remove. On the same day + he re-embarked, and returned to New York. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of April (1777), says Gordon, Congress concluded upon the + erection of a monument to the memory of General Warren in the town of + Boston, and another to the memory of General Mercer in Fredericksburg, in + Virginia, and that the eldest son of General Warren, and the youngest son + of General Mercer, be educated from henceforward at the expense of the + United States. They conveyed in a few words the highest eulogium on the + characters and merits of the deceased. Through inattention, General + Warren, who fell on Breed's Hill, had not been properly noted when + Congress passed their resolve respecting General Montgomery: the proposal + for paying due respect to the memory of Mercer led to the like in regard + to Warren. + </p> + <p> + On the 13th of April Lord Cornwallis and General Grant, with about 2,000 + men, attempted to surprise and cut off General Lincoln, who, with 500 men, + was posted at Bound Brook, seven miles from Brunswick, and nearly + succeeded in their enterprise. But by a bold and rapid movement Lincoln, + when almost surrounded, forced his way between the British columns and + escaped, with the loss of sixty men, his papers, three field pieces, and + some baggage. + </p> + <p> + At that early period of the campaign Howe attempted no grand movement + against the main body of the army under Washington at Morristown, but he + made several efforts to interrupt his communications, destroy his stores, + and impede his operations. He had received information that the Americans + had collected a large quantity of stores in the town of Danbury and in + other places on the borders of Connecticut. These he resolved to destroy, + and appointed Major-General Tryon of the Provincials, who panted for glory + in his newly-acquired character, to command an expedition for that + purpose, but prudently directed Generals Agnew and Sir William Erskine to + accompany him. + </p> + <p> + On the 25th of April (1777) the fleet appeared off the coast of + Connecticut, and in the evening the troops were landed without opposition + between Fairfield and Norwalk. General Silliman, then casually in that + part of the country, immediately dispatched expresses to assemble the + militia. In the meantime Tryon proceeded to Danbury which he reached about + 2 the next day. On his approach Colonel Huntingdon, who had occupied the + town with about 150 men, retired to a neighboring height, and Danbury, + with the magazines it contained, was consumed by fire. + </p> + <p> + General Arnold, who was also in the State superintending the recruiting + service, joined General Silliman at Reading, where that officer had + collected about 500 militia. General Wooster, who had resigned his + commission in the Continental service, and been appointed major-general of + the militia, fell in with them at the same place, and they proceeded in + the night through a heavy rain to Bethel, about eight miles from Danbury. + Having heard next morning that Tryon, after destroying the town and + magazines, was returning, they divided their troops, and General Wooster, + with about 300 men, fell in his rear, while Arnold, with about 500, + crossing the country, took post in his front at Ridgefield. Wooster came + up with his rear about 11 in the morning, attacked it with great + gallantry, and a sharp skirmish ensued in which he was mortally wounded, + {2} and his troops were repulsed. + </p> + <p> + Tryon then proceeded to Ridgefield where he found Arnold already + entrenched on a strong piece of ground, and prepared to dispute his + passage. A warm skirmish ensued, which continued nearly an hour. Arnold + was at length driven from the field after which he retreated to Paugatuck, + about three miles east of Norwalk. + </p> + <p> + At break of day next morning, after setting Ridgefield on fire, the + British resumed their march. About 11 in the forenoon, April 28th (1777), + they were again met by Arnold, whose numbers increased during the day to + rather more than 1,000 men, among whom were some Continental troops. A + continued skirmishing was kept up until 5 in the afternoon, when the + British formed on a hill near their ships. The Americans attacked them + with intrepidity, but were repulsed and broken. Tryon, availing himself of + this respite, re-embarked his troops and returned to New York. + </p> + <p> + The loss of the British amounted to about 170 men. {3} That of the + Americans was represented by Tryon as being much more considerable. By + themselves it was not admitted to exceed 100. In this number, however, + were comprehended General Wooster, Lieutenant-Colonel Gould, and another + field officer, killed, and Colonel Lamb wounded. Several other officers + and volunteers were killed. Military and hospital stores to a considerable + amount, which were greatly needed by the army, were destroyed in the + magazines at Danbury, but the loss most severely felt was rather more than + 1,000 tents which had been provided for the campaign about to open. + </p> + <p> + Not long afterward this enterprise was successfully retaliated. A British + detachment had been for some time employed in collecting forage and + provisions on the eastern end of Long Island. Howe supposed this part of + the country to be so completely secured by the armed vessels which + incessantly traversed the Sound, that he confided the protection of the + stores deposited at a small port called Sag Harbor to a schooner with + twelve guns and a company of infantry. + </p> + <p> + General Parsons, who commanded a few recruits at New Haven, thinking it + practicable to elude the cruisers in the bay, formed the design of + surprising this party and other adjacent posts, the execution of which was + entrusted to Lieutenant-Colonel Meigs, a gallant officer who had + accompanied Arnold in his memorable march to Quebec. He embarked with + about 230 men on board 13 whale-boats, and proceeded along the coast to + Guilford, where he was to cross the Sound. With about 170 of his + detachment, under convoy of two armed sloops, he proceeded (May 23, 1777) + across the Sound to the north division of the island near Southhold in the + neighborhood of which a small foraging party against which the expedition + was in part directed, was supposed to lie, but they had marched two days + before to New York. The boats were conveyed across the land, a distance of + about fifteen miles, into a bay which deeply intersects the eastern end of + Long Island, where the troops re-embarked. Crossing the bay they landed at + 2 in the morning, about four miles from Sag Harbor, which they completely + surprised and carried with charged bayonets. At the same time a division + of the detachment secured the armed schooner and the vessels laden with + forage, which were set on fire and entirely consumed. Six of the enemy + were killed and ninety taken prisoners. A very few escaped under cover of + the night. + </p> + <p> + The object of his expedition being effected without the loss of a man, + Colonel Meigs returned to Guilford with his prisoners. "Having," as was + stated in the letter to General Parsons, "moved with such uncommon + celerity as to have transported his men by land and water 90 miles in 25 + hours." Congress directed a sword to be presented to him, and passed a + resolution expressing the high sense entertained of his merit, and of the + prudence, activity, and valor displayed by himself and his party. + </p> + <p> + The exertions made by Washington through the winter to raise a powerful + army for the ensuing campaign had not been successful. The hopes + respecting its strength, which the flattering reports made from every + quarter had authorized him to form, were cruelly disappointed, and he + found himself not only unable to carry into effect the offensive + operations he had meditated, but unequal even to defensive warfare. That + steady and persevering courage, however, which had supported himself and + the American cause through the gloomy scenes of the preceding year did not + forsake him, and that sound judgment which applies to the best advantage + those means which are attainable, however inadequate they may be, still + remained. His plan of operations was adapted to that which he believed his + enemy had formed. He was persuaded either that General Burgoyne, who was + then at Quebec, would endeavor to take Ticonderoga and to penetrate to the + Hudson, in which event General Howe would cooperate with him by moving up + that river, and attempting to possess himself of the forts and high + grounds commanding its passage, or that Burgoyne would join the grand army + at New York by sea, after which the combined armies would proceed against + Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + To counteract the designs of the enemy, whatever they might be, to defend + the three great points, Ticonderoga, the Highlands of New York, and + Philadelphia, against two powerful armies so much superior to him in arms, + in numbers, and in discipline, it was necessary to make such an + arrangement of his troops as would enable the parts reciprocally to aid + each other without neglecting objects of great and almost equal magnitude, + which were alike threatened, and were far asunder. To effect these + purposes, the troops of New England and New York were divided between + Ticonderoga and Peekskill, while those from Jersey to North Carolina + inclusive, were directed to assemble at the camp to be formed in Jersey. + The more southern troops remained in that State for its protection. + </p> + <p> + These arrangements being made and the recruits collected, the camp at + Morristown was broken up, the detachments called in, and the army + assembled at Middlebrook (May 28, 1777), just behind a connected ridge of + strong and commanding heights north of the road leading to Philadelphia, + and about ten miles from Brunswick. + </p> + <p> + This camp, the approaches to which were naturally difficult, Washington + took care to strengthen still further by entrenchments. The heights in + front commanded a prospect of the course of the Raritan, the road to + Philadelphia, the hills about Brunswick, and a considerable part of the + country between that place and Amboy, so as to afford him a full view of + the most interesting movements of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The force brought into the field by the United States required all the aid + which could be derived from strong positions and unremitting vigilance. On + the 20th of May (1777) the army in Jersey, excluding cavalry and + artillery, amounted to only 8,378 men, of whom upwards of 2,000 were sick. + The effective rank and file were only 5,738. + </p> + <p> + Had this army been composed of the best disciplined troops, its + inferiority in point of numbers must have limited its operations to + defensive war, and have rendered it incompetent to the protection of any + place whose defense would require a battle in the open field. But more + than half the troops were unacquainted with the first rudiments of + military duty, and had never looked an enemy in the face. As an additional + cause of apprehension, a large proportion of the soldiers, especially from + the middle States, were foreigners, in whose attachment to the American + cause full confidence could not be placed. + </p> + <p> + Washington, anticipating a movement by land toward Philadelphia, had taken + the precaution to give orders for assembling on the western bank of the + Delaware an army of militia strengthened by a few Continental troops, the + command of which was given to General Arnold who was then in Philadelphia + employed in the settlement of his accounts. + </p> + <p> + The first and real object of the campaign on the part of Howe was the + acquisition of Philadelphia. He intended to march through Jersey, and + after securing the submission of that State to cross the Delaware on a + portable bridge constructed in the winter for the purpose and proceed by + land to that city. If, in the execution of this plan, the Americans could + be brought to a general action on equal ground, the advantages of the + royal army must insure a victory. But should Washington decline an + engagement and be again pressed over the Delaware the object would be as + certainly obtained. + </p> + <p> + Had Howe taken the field before the Continental troops were assembled this + plan might probably have been executed without any serious obstruction, + but the tents and camp equipage expected from Europe did not arrive until + Washington had collected his forces and taken possession of the strong + post on the Heights of Middlebrook. It would be dangerous to attack him on + such advantageous ground, for, although his camp might be forced, victory + would probably be attended with such loss as to disable the victor from + reaping its fruits. + </p> + <p> + If it was deemed too hazardous to attack the strong camp at Middlebrook, + an attempt to cross the Delaware in the face of an army collected on its + western bank, while that under Washington remained unbroken in his rear, + was an experiment of equal danger. It suited the cautious temper of Howe + to devise some other plan of operation to which he might resort should he + be unable to seduce Washington from his advantageous position. + </p> + <p> + The two great bays of Delaware and Chesapeake suggested the alternative of + proceeding by water, should he be unable to maneuver Washington out of his + present encampment. + </p> + <p> + The plan of the campaign being settled and some small reinforcements with + the expected camp equipage being received from Europe, Howe, leaving a + garrison in New York and a guard in Amboy, assembled his army at + Brunswick, and gave strong indications of an intention to penetrate + through the country to the Delaware and reach Philadelphia by land. + </p> + <p> + Believing this to be his real design Washington (June 13, 1777) placed a + select corps of riflemen under the command of Colonel Morgan, who had + distinguished himself in the unfortunate attempt to storm Quebec, and in + whom those particular qualities which fit a man for the command of a + partisan corps, designed to act on the lines of a formidable enemy, were + eminently united. + </p> + <p> + He was ordered to take post at Vanvighton's bridge on the Raritan, just + above its confluence with the Millstone river, to watch the left flank of + the British army and seize every occasion to harass it. + </p> + <p> + Early in the morning of the 14th, Howe, leaving 2,000 men under the + command of General Matthews at Brunswick, advanced in two columns toward + the Delaware. The front of the first, under Cornwallis, reached Somerset + Court House, nine miles from Brunswick, by the appearance of day, and the + second, commanded by General de Heister, reached Middlebush about the same + time. + </p> + <p> + This movement was made with the view of inducing Washington to quit his + fortified camp and approach the Delaware, in which event, Howe expected to + bring on an engagement on ground less disadvantageous than that now + occupied by the American army. But Washington understood the importance of + his position too well to abandon it. + </p> + <p> + On the first intelligence that the enemy was in motion, he drew out his + whole army, and formed it to great advantage on the heights in front of + his camp. This position was constantly maintained. The troops remained in + order of battle during the day, and in the night slept on the ground to be + defended. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime the Jersey militia, with alacrity theretofore unexampled + in that State, took the field in great numbers. They principally joined + General Sullivan, who had retired from Princeton, behind the Sourland + hills toward Flemington, where an army of some extent was forming, which + could readily cooperate with that under the immediate inspection of + Washington. + </p> + <p> + The settled purpose of Washington was to defend his camp, but not to + hazard a general action on other ground. He had therefore determined not + to advance from the heights he occupied into the open country, either + towards the enemy or the Delaware. + </p> + <p> + The object of Howe was, by acting on his anxiety for Philadelphia, to + seduce him from the strong ground about Middlebrook, and tempt him to + approach the Delaware in the hope of defending its passage. Should he + succeed in this, he had little doubt of being able to bring on an + engagement, in which he counted with certainty on victory. + </p> + <p> + The considerations which restrained Howe from attempting to march through + Jersey, leaving the American army in full force in his rear, had + determined Washington to allow him to proceed to the Delaware, if such + should be his intention. In that event, he had determined to throw those + impediments only in the way of the hostile army which might harass and + retard its march, and maintaining the high and secure grounds north of the + road to be taken by the enemy, to watch for an opportunity of striking + some important blow with manifest advantage. + </p> + <p> + Washington was not long in penetrating Howe's designs. "The views of the + enemy," he writes to General Arnold in a letter of the 17th (June, 1777), + "must be to destroy this army and get possession of Philadelphia. I am, + however, clearly of opinion, that they will not move that way until they + have endeavored to give a severe blow to this army. The risk would be too + great to attempt to cross a river when they must expect to meet a + formidable opposition in front and would have such a force as ours in + their rear. They might possibly be successful, but the probability would + be infinitely against them. Should they be imprudent enough to make the + attempt, I shall keep close upon their heels and will do everything in my + power to make the project fatal to them." + </p> + <p> + "But, besides the argument in favor of their intending, in the first + place, a stroke at this army, drawn from the policy of the measure, every + appearance contributes to conform the opinion. Had their design been for + the Delaware in the first instance, they would probably have made a + secret, rapid march for it, and not have halted so as to awaken our + attention, and give us time to prepare for obstructing them. Instead of + that they have only advanced to a position necessary to facilitate an + attack on our right, the part in which we are most exposed. In addition to + this circumstance, they have come out as light as possible, leaving all + their baggage, provisions, boas, and bridges at Brunswick. This plainly + contradicts the idea of their intending to push for the Delaware." + </p> + <p> + Finding the American army could not be drawn from its strong position Howe + determined to waste no more time in threatening Philadelphia by land, but + to withdraw from Jersey and to embark his army as expeditiously as + possible for the Chesapeake or the Delaware. On the night of the 19th of + June (1777), he returned to Brunswick, and on the 22d to Amboy, from which + place the heavy baggage and a few of his troops passed into Staten Island + on the bridge which had been designed for the Delaware. {2} + </p> + <p> + Washington had expected this movement from Brunswick and had made + arrangements to derive some advantage from it. General Greene was detached + with three brigades to annoy the British rear, and Sullivan and Maxwell + were ordered to cooperate with him. In the meantime the army paraded on + the Heights of Middlebrook, ready to act as circumstances might require. + </p> + <p> + About sunrise, Colonel Morgan drove in a picket-guard, soon after which + that division commenced its march to Amboy. Some sharp skirmishing took + place between this party and Morgan's regiment, but the hope of gaining + any important advantage was entirely disappointed, and the retreat to + Amboy was effected with inconsiderable loss. + </p> + <p> + In order to cover his light parties, which still hung on the British flank + and rear, Washington advanced six or seven miles to Quibbletown on the + road to Amboy, and Lord Stirling's division was pushed still further, to + the neighborhood of the Metucking Meeting House, for the purpose of + co-operating with the light parties should the retreat to Staten Island + afford an opportunity of striking at the rear. + </p> + <p> + Believing it now practicable to bring on an engagement and probably hoping + to turn the left of the American army and gain the heights in its rear, + Howe, in the night of the 25th, recalled the troops from Staten Island, + and early next morning (June 26, 1777) made a rapid movement in two + columns, towards Westfield. The right, under the command of Cornwallis + took the route by Woodbridge to the Scotch plains, and the left, led by + Howe in person, marched by Metucking Meeting House to fall into the rear + of the right column. It was intended that the left should take a separate + road soon after this junction and attack the left flank of the American + army at Quibbletown, while Cornwallis should gain the heights on the left + of the camp at Middlebrook. Four battalions with six pieces of cannon were + detached to Bonhamtown. + </p> + <p> + About Woodbridge the right column fell in with one of the American parties + of observation, which gave notice of this movement. Washington discerned + his danger, put the whole army instantly in motion, and regained the camp + at Middlebrook. Cornwallis fell in with Lord Stirling and a sharp skirmish + ensued, in which the Americans were driven from their ground with the loss + of three field-pieces and a few men. They retreated to the hills about the + Scotch Plains and were pursued as far as Westfield. Perceiving the passes + in the mountains on the left of the American camp to be guarded, and the + object of this skilful maneuver to be, consequently, unattainable, + Cornwallis returned through Rahway to Amboy, and the whole army crossed + over to Staten Island. Washington was now again left to his conjectures + respecting the plan of the campaign. The very next day (June 27), after + Howe had finally evacuated the Jerseys, intelligence was received of the + appearance of Burgoyne on Lake Champlain, and that Ticonderoga was + threatened. This intelligence strengthened the opinion that the design of + Howe must be to seize the passes in the mountains on the Hudson, secure + the command of that river, and effect a junction between the two armies. + Yet Washington could not permit himself to yield so entirely to this + impression, as to make a movement which might open the way by land to + Philadelphia. His army, therefore, maintained its station at Middlebrook, + but arrangements were made to repel any sudden attack on the posts which + defended the Hudson. + </p> + <p> + Some changes made in the stations of the British ships and troops having + relieved Washington from his apprehensions of a sudden march to + Philadelphia, he advanced Sullivan's division to Pompton Plains, on the + way to Peekskill, and proceeded with the main body of his army to + Morristown, thus approaching the Highlands of New York without removing so + far from Middlebrook as to be unable to regain that camp should Howe + indicate an intention to seize it. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Howe prosecuted diligently his plan of embarkation, which was + necessarily attended with circumstances indicating a much longer voyage + than one up the North river. These circumstances were immediately + communicated to the Eastern States, and Congress was earnestly pressed to + strengthen the fortifications on the Delaware, and to increase the + obstructions in that river. + </p> + <p> + In the midst of these appearances certain intelligence was received that + Burgoyne was in great force on the lakes, and was advancing against + Ticonderoga. This intelligence confirmed the opinion that the main object + of Howe must be to effect a junction with Burgoyne on the North river. + Under this impression Washington ordered Sullivan to Peekskill, and slowly + advanced himself, first to Pompton Plains, and afterward to the Clove, + where he determined to remain until the views of the enemy should be + disclosed. + </p> + <p> + While Washington thus anxiously watched the movements of his adversary, an + agreeable and unexpected piece of intelligence was received from New + England. The command of the British troops in Rhode Island had devolved on + General Prescot. Thinking himself perfectly secure in an island, the water + surrounding which was believed to be entirely guarded by his cruisers, and + at the head of an army greatly superior to any force then collected in + that department, he indulged himself in convenient quarters rather distant + from camp, and was remiss with respect to the guards about his person. + Information of this negligence was communicated to the main, and a plan + was formed to surprise him. This spirited enterprise was executed with + equal courage and address by Lieutenant-Colonel Barton of the Rhode Island + militia. + </p> + <p> + On the night of the 10th (June, 1777) he embarked on board four + whale-boats at Warwick Neck, with a party consisting of about forty + persons, including Captains Adams and Philips, and several other officers. + After proceeding about ten miles by water unobserved by the British guard + boats, although several ships of war lay in that quarter, he landed on the + west of the island, about midway between Newport and Bristol Ferry, and + marching a mile to the quarters of Prescot, dexterously seized the + sentinel at his door, and one of his aids. The general himself was taken + out of bed and conveyed to a place of safety. + </p> + <p> + The success of this intrepid enterprise diffused the more joy throughout + America, because it was supposed to secure the liberation of General Lee + by enabling Washington to offer an officer of equal rank in exchange for + him. + </p> + <p> + Congress expressed a high sense of the gallant conduct of Colonel Barton + and his party, and presented him with a sword as a mark of approbation. + </p> + <p> + As the fleet fell down toward Sandy Hook, Washington withdrew slowly from + the Clove, and disposed his army in different divisions, so as to march to + any point which might be attacked. + </p> + <p> + At length the embarkation was completed and the fleet put to sea. Still, + its destination was uncertain. It might be going to the south, or it might + return to New York and ascend the Hudson. Soon, however, Washington + received intelligence that it had been seen off the capes of the Delaware. + It was of course expected to come up the Delaware and attack Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + Washington ordered the army to march to Germantown, and himself hastened + forward to Chester. The fleet of the British had disappeared again. It + might have returned to New York, or it might have sailed to New England, + with a view to joining Burgoyne as he was advancing on Ticonderoga. + </p> + <p> + During this period of suspense and conjecture, Washington was for several + days in Philadelphia consulting on public measures with the committees and + members of Congress. Here he first met Lafayette. This young nobleman, + whose name has since become so dear to every American heart, was born at + Auvergne, in France, on the 6th of September, 1757. His family was of + ancient date and of the highest rank among the French nobility. He was + left an orphan at an early age, heir to an immense estate, and exposed to + all the temptations of "the gayest and most luxurious city on earth at the + period of its greatest corruption. He escaped unhurt." Having completed + his college education, he married at the age of sixteen the daughter of + the Duke D'Ayen, of the family of Noailles. She was younger than himself + and was always "the encourager of his virtues, and the heroic partner of + his sufferings, his great name, and his honorable grave." {3} + </p> + <p> + In the summer of 1776 (says Mr. Everett), and just after the American + declaration of independence, Lafayette was stationed at Metz, a garrisoned + town on the road from Paris to the German frontier with the regiment to + which he was attached as a captain of dragoons, not then nineteen years of + age. The Duke of Gloucester, the brother of the King of England happened + to be on a visit to Metz, and a dinner was given to him by the commandant + of the garrison. Lafayette was invited with other officers to the + entertainment. Dispatches had just been received by the duke from England + relating to American affairs—the resistance of the Colonists, and + the strong measures adopted by the ministers to crush the rebellion. Among + the details stated by the Duke of Gloucester was the extraordinary fact + that these remote, scattered, and unprotected settlers of the wilderness + had solemnly declared themselves an independent people. That word decided + the fortunes of the enthusiastic listener, and not more distinctly was the + great declaration a charter of political liberty to the rising States, + than it was a commission to their youthful champion to devote his life to + the same cause. + </p> + <p> + The details which he heard were new to him. The American contest was known + to him before but as a rebellion—a tumultuary affair in a remote + transatlantic colony. He now, with a promptness of perception which, even + at this distance of time, strikes us as little less than miraculous, + addressed a multitude of inquiries to the Duke of Gloucester on the + subject of the contest. His imagination was kindled at the idea of a + civilized people struggling for political liberty. His heart was warmed + with the possibility of drawing his sword in a good cause. Before he left + the table his course was mentally resolved on, and the brother of the King + of England (unconsciously, no doubt) had the singular fortune to enlist, + from the French court and the French army, this gallant and fortunate + champion in the then unpromising cause of the colonial Congress. + </p> + <p> + He immediately repaired to Paris to make further inquiries and + arrangements toward the execution of his great plan. He confided it to two + young friends, officers like himself, the Count de Ségur and Viscount de + Noailles, and proposed to them to join him. They shared his enthusiasm, + and determined to accompany him, but on consulting their families, they + were refused permission. But they faithfully kept Lafayette's secret. + Happily—shall I say—he was an orphan, independent of control, + and master of his own fortune, amounting to near $40,000 per annum. + </p> + <p> + He next opened his heart to the Count de Broglie, a marshal in the French + army. To the experienced warrior, accustomed to the regular campaigns of + European service, the project seemed rash and quixotic, and one that he + could not countenance. Lafayette begged the count at least not to betray + him, as he was resolved (notwithstanding his disapproval of the subject) + to go to America. This the count promised, adding, however, "I saw your + uncle fall in Italy, and I witnessed your father's death at the battle of + Minden, and I will not be accessory to the ruin of the only remaining + branch of the family." He then used all the powers of argument which his + age and experience suggested to him, to dissuade Lafayette from the + enterprise, but in vain. Finding his determination unalterable, he made + him acquainted with the Baron De Kalb, who the count knew was about to + embark for America—an officer of experience and merit who, as is + well known, fell at the battle of Camden. + </p> + <p> + The Baron de Kalb introduced Lafayette to Silas Deane, then agent of the + United States in France, who explained to him the state of affairs in + America, and encouraged him in his project. Deane was but imperfectly + acquainted with the French language, and of manners somewhat repulsive. A + less enthusiastic temper than that of Lafayette might, perhaps, have been + chilled by the reception that he met with from Deane. He had, as yet, not + been acknowledged in any public capacity, and was beset by the spies of + the British ambassador. For these reasons it was judged expedient that the + visit of Lafayette should not be repeated, and their further negotiations + were conducted through the intervention of Mr. Carmichael, an American + gentleman at that time in Paris. The arrangement was at length concluded, + in virtue of which Deane took upon himself, without authority, but by a + happy exercise of discretion, to engage Lafayette to enter the American + service with the rank of major-general. A vessel was about to be + dispatched with arms and other supplies for the American army, and in this + vessel it was settled that he should take passage. + </p> + <p> + At this juncture the news reached France of the evacuation of New York, + the loss of Fort Washington, the calamitous retreat through New Jersey, + and other disasters of the campaign of 1776. The friends of America in + France were in despair. The tidings, bad in themselves, were greatly + exaggerated in the British gazettes. The plan of sending an armed vessel + with munitions was abandoned. The cause, always doubtful, was now + pronounced desperate, and Lafayette was urged by all who were privy to his + project, to give up an enterprise so wild and hopeless. Even our + commissioners (for Deane had been joined by Dr. Franklin and Arthur Lee) + told him they could not in conscience urge him to proceed. His answer was: + "My zeal and love of liberty have perhaps hitherto been the prevailing + motive with me, but now I see a chance of usefulness which I had not + anticipated. These supplies I know are greatly wanted by Congress. I have + money; I will purchase a vessel to convey them to America, and in this + vessel my companions and myself will take passage." + </p> + <p> + His purpose was opposed by the government, and he was obliged to escape + into Spain and sail from that country. He landed near Georgetown in South + Carolina, and in company with the Baron de Kalb, the companion of his + voyage, proceeded to Charleston, where they were received with enthusiasm + by the magistrates and the people. + </p> + <p> + As soon as possible they proceeded by land to Philadelphia. On his arrival + there, with the eagerness of a youth anxious to be employed upon his + errand, he sent his letters to Mr. Lovell, chairman of the committee of + foreign relations. He called the next day at the hall of Congress, and + asked to see this gentleman. Mr. Lovell came out to him, stated that so + many foreigners offered themselves for employment in the American army + that Congress was greatly embarrassed to find them commands; that the + finances of the country required the most rigid economy, and that he + feared, in the present case, there was little hope of success. Lafayette + perceived that the worthy chairman had made up his report without looking + at the papers; he explained to him that his application, if granted, would + lay no burden upon the finances of Congress, and addressed a letter to the + president, in which he expressed a wish to enter the American army on the + condition of serving without pay or emolument, and on the footing of a + volunteer. These conditions removed the chief obstacles alluded to in + reference to the appointment of foreign officers; the letters brought by + Lafayette made known to Congress his high connections, and his large means + of usefulness, and without an hour's delay he received from them a + commission of major-general in the American army, a month before he was + twenty years of age. + </p> + <p> + Washington was at headquarters when Lafayette reached Philadelphia, but he + was daily expected in the city. The introduction of the youthful stranger + to the man on whom his career depended was therefore delayed a few days. + It took place in a manner peculiarly marked with the circumspection of + Washington, at a dinner party, where Lafayette was one among several + guests of consideration. Washington was not uninformed of the + circumstances connected with his arrival in the country. He knew what + benefit it promised the cause if his character and talents were adapted to + the cause he had so boldly struck out, and he knew also how much it was to + be feared that the very qualities which had prompted him to embark in it, + would make him a useless and even a dangerous auxiliary. We may well + suppose that the piercing eye of the Father of his Country was not idle + during the repast. But that searching glance, before which pretense or + fraud never stood undetected, was completely satisfied. When they were + about to separate, Washington took Lafayette aside, spoke to him with + kindness, paid a just tribute to the noble spirit which he had shown, and + the sacrifices he had made in the American cause, invited him to make the + headquarters of the army his home, and to regard himself at all times as + one of the family of the Commander-in-Chief. + </p> + <p> + Such was the reception given to Lafayette by the most sagacious and + observant of men, and the personal acquaintance thus commenced ripened + into an intimacy, a confidence, and an affection without bounds, and never + for one moment interrupted. If there lived a man whom Washington loved it + was Lafayette. The proofs of this are not wanted by those who have read + the history of the Revolution, but the private correspondence of these two + great men, hitherto unpublished, discloses the full extent of the mutual + regard and affection which united them. It not only shows that Washington + entertained the highest opinion of the military talent, the personal + probity, and the general prudence and energy of Lafayette, but that he + regarded him with the tenderness of a father, and found in the affection + which Lafayette bore to him in return one of the greatest comforts and + blessings of his own life. Whenever the correspondence of Washington and + Lafayette shall be published, the publication will do what perhaps nothing + else can—raise them both in the esteem and admiration of mankind. + </p> + <p> + Our readers will pardon this somewhat lengthened quotation respecting the + bosom friend of Washington. We now return to our narrative of events. + </p> + <p> + Late in the month of August (1777), Washington was relieved from his + suspense in regard to the movements of Howe. He received intelligence that + the British fleet had sailed up Chesapeake Bay, and that he was landing + his army at the head of Elk river, now Elkton. It was at length clearly + apparent that his object was the capture of Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + At the place of debarkation the British army was within a few days' march + of Philadelphia; no great rivers were in its way, and there was no very + strong position of which the enemy could take possession. On landing, + General Howe issued a proclamation promising that private property should + be respected, and offering pardon and protection to all who should submit + to him, but, as the American army was at hand, the proclamation produced + little effect. + </p> + <p> + Washington distinctly understood the nature of the contest in which he was + engaged, and, sensible of the inferiority of his raw and disorderly army + to the veteran troops under Howe, he wished to avoid a general engagement, + but aware of the effect which the fall of Philadelphia would produce on + the minds of the people, determined to make every effort in order to + retard the progress and defeat the aim of the royal army. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, he marched to meet General Howe, who, from want of horses, + many of which had perished in the voyage, and from other causes, was + unable to proceed from the head of the Elk before the 3d of September + (1777). On the advance of the royal array, Washington retreated across + Brandywine creek, which falls into the Delaware at Wilmington. He took + post with his main body opposite Chad's ford, where it was expected the + British would attempt the passage, and ordered General Sullivan, with a + detachment, to watch the fords above. He sent General Maxwell with about + 1,000 light troops, to occupy the high ground on the other side of the + Brandywine, to skirmish with the British, and retard them in their + progress. + </p> + <p> + On the morning of the 11th of September, the British army advanced in two + columns; the right, under General Knyphausen, marched straight to Chad's + ford; the left, under Cornwallis, accompanied by Howe and Generals Grey, + Grant, and Agnew, proceeded by a circuitous route toward a point named the + Forks, where the two branches of the Brandywine unite, with a view to turn + the right of the Americans and gain their rear. General Knyphausen's van + soon found itself opposed to the light troops under General Maxwell. A + smart conflict ensued. General Knyphausen reinforced his advanced guard, + and drove the Americans across the rivulet to shelter themselves under + their batteries on the north bank. General Knyphausen ordered some + artillery to be placed on the most advantageous points, and a cannonade + was carried on with the American batteries on the heights beyond the ford. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the left wing of the British crossed the fords above the Forks. + Of this movement General Washington had early notice, but the information + which he received from different quarters, through his raw and unpracticed + scouts, was confused and contradictory, and consequently his operations + were embarrassed. After passing the fords, Cornwallis took the road to + Dilworth, which led him on the American right. General Sullivan, who had + been appointed to guard that quarter, occupied the heights above + Birmingham Church, his left extending to the Brandywine, his artillery + judiciously placed, and his right flank covered by woods. About four in + the afternoon Cornwallis formed the line of battle and began the attack: + for some time the Americans sustained it with intrepidity, but at length + gave way. When Washington heard the firing in that direction he ordered + General Greene, with a brigade, to support General Sullivan. General + Greene marched four miles in forty-two minutes, but, on reaching the scene + of action, he found General Sullivan's division defeated, and in + confusion. He covered the retreat, and, after some time, finding an + advantageous position, he renewed the battle, and arrested the progress of + the pursuing enemy. + </p> + <p> + General Knyphausen, as soon as he heard the firing of Cornwallis's + division, forced the passage of Chad's ford, attacked the troops opposed + to him, and compelled them to make a precipitate and disorderly retreat. + General Washington, with the part of his army which he was able to keep + together, retired with his artillery and baggage to Chester, where he + halted within eight miles of the British army, till next morning, when he + retreated to Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + Among the foreign officers engaged in this battle besides Lafayette, who + was wounded in the leg during the action, were General Deborre, a French + officer; {6} General Conway, an Irishman, who had served in France; Capt. + Louis Fleury, a French engineer, and Count Pulaski, a Polish nobleman, + subsequently distinguished as a commander of cavalry. + </p> + <p> + As must ever be the case in new-raised armies, unused to danger and from + which undeserving officers have not been expelled, their conduct was not + uniform. Some regiments, especially those which had served the preceding + campaign, maintained their ground with the firmness and intrepidity of + veterans, while others gave way as soon as they were pressed. The author + of a very correct history of the war, speaking of this action, says: "A + part of the troops, among whom were particularly numbered some Virginia + regiments, and the whole corps of artillery, behaved exceedingly well in + some of the actions of this day, exhibiting a degree of order, firmness, + and resolution, and preserving such a countenance in extremely sharp + service, as would not have discredited veterans. Some other bodies of + their troops behaved very badly." + </p> + <p> + The official letter of Sir William Howe stated his loss at rather less + than 100 killed and 400 wounded, and this account was accepted at the time + as true. A late discovery shows its falsehood. Mr. Headley, in his recent + "Life of Washington," notices the finding of a document which settles the + question. + </p> + <p> + It was found, he says, among Gen. James Clinton's papers, carefully filed + away and indorsed by himself. On the back, in his own handwriting, is + inscribed: "Taken from the enemy's ledgers, which fell into the hands of + General Washington's army at the action of Germantown." + </p> + <p> + Within is the following statement: "State of the British troops and + position they were in when they made the attack at Brandywine, the 11th of + September, 1777. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The upper ford, under the command of Lieutenant + Lord Cornwallis: + + Killed and + Second Regiment, British Guards; Second wounded. + Regiment, Light Infantry 1,740 612 + Second Brigade, British Foot 2,240 360 + First Division, Hessians 800 70 + Ferguson's Riflemen 80 46 + ______ _____ + Totals 4,860 1,088 +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Middle ford, under the command of Major-General + Gray: +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Second Battalion, Guards 500 + Second Battalion, Second Highlanders 700 + Second Battalion, Seventieth Highlanders 700 + ____ + Total 1,900 +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Lower ford, under the command of Lieutenant-General + Knyphausen: + + Second Brigade, consisting of the Fourth, Killed and + Fifth, Tenth, Fifteenth, Twenty-third, wounded. + Twenty-seventh, Twenty-eighth, Fortieth, + Forty-fourth, and Fifty-fifth Regiments 2,240 580 + Hessians to the amount of 800 28 + Queen's Rangers 480 290 + ________ _____ + + Total 3,520 898 + 1,900 + 4,860 1,088 + ________ ______ + + The whole British force 10,280 1,986 + 1,986 + ________ + 8,294" +</pre> + <p> + The estimate, says Mr. Headley, of the total force which the British had + on the field, makes the two armies actually engaged about equal. The heavy + loss here given seems, at first sight, almost incredible, and puts an + entirely different aspect on the battle. Of the authenticity and accuracy + of this document I think there can be no doubt. + </p> + <p> + From the ardor with which Washington had inspired his troops before this + action, it is probable that the conflict would have been more severe had + the intelligence respecting the movement on the left of the British army + been less contradictory. Raw troops, changing their ground in the moment + of action, and attacked in the agitation of moving, are easily thrown into + confusion. This was the critical situation of a part of Sullivan's + division, and was the cause of its breaking before Greene could be brought + up to support it, after which it was impossible to retrieve the fortune of + the day. But had the best disposition of the troops been made at the time, + which subsequent intelligence would suggest, the action could not have + terminated in favor of the Americans. Their inferiority in numbers, in + discipline, and in arms was too great to leave them a probable prospect of + victory. A battle, however, was not to be avoided. The opinion of the + public and of Congress demanded it. The loss of Philadelphia, without an + attempt to preserve it, would have excited discontent throughout the + country, which might be productive of serious mischief, and action, though + attended with defeat, provided the loss be not too great, must improve an + army in which not only the military talents, but even the courage of + officers, some of them of high rank, remained to be ascertained. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Brandywine was not considered as decisive by Congress, the + general, or the army. The opinion was carefully cherished that the British + had gained only the ground, and that their loss was still more + considerable than had been sustained by the Americans. Congress appeared + determined to risk another battle for the metropolis of America. Far from + discovering any intention to change their place of session, they passed + vigorous resolutions for reinforcing the army, and directed Washington to + give the necessary orders for completing the defenses of the Delaware. + </p> + <p> + From Chester the army marched through Darby, over the Schuylkill bridge to + its former ground near the falls of that river. Greene's division, which, + having been less in action, was more entire than any other, covered the + rear, and the corps of Maxwell remained at Chester until the next day as a + rallying point for the small parties and straggling soldiers who might yet + be in the neighborhood. + </p> + <p> + Having allowed his army one day for repose and refreshment, Washington + recrossed the Schuylkill and proceeded on the Lancaster road, with the + intention of risking another engagement. + </p> + <p> + Sir William Howe passed the night of the 11th on the field of battle. On + the succeeding day he detached Major-General Grant with two brigades to + Concord Meeting House, and on the 13th (September, 1777), Lord Cornwallis + joined General Grant, and marched toward Chester. Another detachment took + possession of Wilmington, to which place the sick and wounded were + conveyed. + </p> + <p> + To prevent a sudden movement to Philadelphia by the lower road the bridge + over the Schuylkill was loosened from its moorings, and General Armstrong + was directed, with the Pennsylvania militia, to guard the passes over that + river. + </p> + <p> + On the fifteenth the American army, intending to gain the left of the + British, reached the Warren tavern, on the Lancaster road, twenty-three + miles from Philadelphia. Intelligence was received early next morning that + Howe was approaching in two columns. It being too late to reach the ground + he had intended to occupy Washington resolved to meet and engage him in + front. + </p> + <p> + Both armies prepared with great alacrity for battle. The advanced parties + had met, and were beginning to skirmish, when they were separated by a + heavy rain, which, becoming more and more violent, rendered the retreat of + the Americans a measure of absolute necessity. The inferiority of their + arms never brought them into such imminent peril as on this occasion. + Their gun-locks not being well secured, their muskets soon became unfit + for use. Their cartridge-boxes had been so badly constructed as not to + protect their ammunition from the tempest. Their cartridges were soon + damaged, and this mischief was the more serious, because very many of the + soldiers were without bayonets. + </p> + <p> + The army being thus rendered unfit for action the design of giving battle + was reluctantly abandoned by Washington and a retreat commenced. It was + continued all the day and great part of the night, through a cold and most + distressing rain and very deep roads. A few hours before day (September + 17th), the troops halted at the Yellow Springs, where their arms and + ammunition were examined, and the alarming fact was disclosed that + scarcely a musket in a regiment could be discharged and scarcely one + cartridge in a box was fit for use. This state of things suggested the + precaution of moving to a still greater distance in order to refit their + arms, obtain a fresh supply of ammunition, and revive the spirits of the + army. Washington therefore retired to Warwick Furnace on the south branch + of French creek, where ammunition and muskets might be obtained in time to + dispute the passage of the Schuylkill and make yet another effort to save + Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + The extreme severity of the weather had entirely stopped the British army. + During two days Howe made no other movement than to unite his columns. + </p> + <p> + From French creek General Wayne was detached with his division into the + rear of the British with orders to join General Smallwood, and, carefully + concealing himself and his movements, to seize every occasion which this + march might offer of engaging them to advantage. Meanwhile, General + Washington crossed the Schuylkill at Parker's Ferry, and encamped on both + sides of Perkyomen creek. + </p> + <p> + General Wayne lay in the woods near the entrance of the road from Darby + into that leading to Lancaster, about three miles in the rear of the left + wing of the British troops encamped at Trydruffin, where he believed + himself to be perfectly secure. But the country was so extensively + disaffected that Howe received accurate accounts of his position and of + his force. Major-General Gray was detached to surprise him, and + effectually accomplished his purpose. About 11 in the night of the 20th + his pickets, driven in with charged bayonets, gave the first intimation of + Gray's approach. Wayne instantly formed his division, and, while his right + sustained a fierce assault, directed a retreat by the left, under cover of + a few regiments, who, for a short time, withstood the violence of shock. + In his letter to Washington, he says that they gave the assailants some + well-directed fires, which must have done considerable execution, and + that, after retreating from the ground on which the engagement commenced, + they formed again, at a small distance from the scene of action, but that + both parties drew off without renewing the conflict. He states his loss at + about 150 killed and wounded. The British accounts admit, on their part, a + loss of only 7. + </p> + <p> + When the attack commenced, General Smallwood, who was on his march to join + Wayne, a circumstance entirely unexpected by General Gray, was within less + than a mile of him, and, had he commanded regulars, might have given a + very different turn to the night. But his militia thought only of their + own safety, and, having fallen in with a party returning from the pursuit + of Wayne, fled in confusion, with the loss of only one man. + </p> + <p> + Some severe animadversions on this unfortunate affair having been made in + the army, General Wayne demanded a court-martial, which, after + investigating his conduct, was unanimously of opinion, "that he had done + everything to be expected from an active, brave, and vigilant officer," + and acquitted him with honor. + </p> + <p> + Having secured his rear, by compelling Wayne to take a greater distance, + Howe marched along the valley road to the Schuylkill and encamped on the + bank of that river, from the Fatland ford up to French creek, along the + front of the American army. To secure his right from being turned, + Washington again changed his position and encamped with his left near, but + above, the British right. + </p> + <p> + Howe now relinquished his plan of bringing Washington to another battle, + and thinking it advisable, perhaps, to transfer the seat of war to the + neighborhood of his ships, determined to cross the Schuylkill and take + possession of Philadelphia. In the afternoon he ordered one detachment to + cross at Fatland ford, which was on his right, and another to cross at + Gordon's ford, on his left, and to take possession of the heights + commanding them. These orders were executed without much difficulty, and + the American troops placed to defend these fords were easily dispersed. + </p> + <p> + This service being effected, the whole army marched by its right, about + midnight, and crossing at Fatland without opposition, proceeded a + considerable distance toward Philadelphia, and encamped with its left near + Sweed's ford and its right on the Manatawny road, having Stony Run in its + course. + </p> + <p> + It was now apparent that only immediate victory could save Philadelphia + from the grasp of the British general whose situation gave him the option + of either taking possession of that place or endeavoring to bring on + another engagement. If, therefore, a battle must certainly be risked to + save the capital it would be necessary to attack the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Public opinion, which a military chief finds too much difficulty in + resisting, and the opinion of Congress, required a battle; but, on a + temperate consideration of circumstances, Washington came to the wise + decision of avoiding one for the present. + </p> + <p> + His reasons for this decision were conclusive. Wayne and Smallwood had not + yet joined the army. The Continental troops ordered from Peekskill, who + had been detained for a time by an incursion from New York, were + approaching, and a reinforcement of Jersey militia, under General + Dickenson, was also expected. + </p> + <p> + To these powerful motives against risking an engagement, other + considerations of great weight were added, founded on the condition of his + soldiers. An army, maneuvering in an open country, in the face of a very + superior enemy, is unavoidably exposed to excessive fatigue and extreme + hardship. The effect of these hardships was much increased by the + privations under which the American troops suffered. While in almost + continual motion, wading deep rivers, and encountering every vicissitude + of the seasons, they were without tents, newly without shoes, or winter + clothes, and often without food. + </p> + <p> + A council of war concurred in the opinion Washington had formed, not to + march against the enemy, but to allow his harassed troops a few days for + repose and to remain on his present ground until the expected + reinforcements should arrive. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after the battle of Brandywine, the distressed situation of + the army had been represented to Congress, who had recommended the + executive of Pennsylvania to seize the cloths and other military stores in + the warehouses of Philadelphia, and, after granting certificates + expressing their value, to convey them to a place of safety. The + executive, being unwilling to encounter the odium of this strong measure, + advised that the extraordinary powers of the Commander-in-Chief should be + used on the occasion. Lieut. Col. Alexander Hamilton, one of the General's + aides, already in high estimation for his talents and zeal, was employed + on this delicate business. "Your own prudence," said the General, in a + letter to him while in Philadelphia, "will point out the least + exceptionable means to be pursued; but remember, delicacy and a strict + adherence to the ordinary mode of application must give place to our + necessities. We must, if possible, accommodate the soldiers with such + articles as they stand in need of or we shall have just reason to + apprehend the most injurious and alarming consequences from the + approaching season." + </p> + <p> + All the efforts, however, of this very active officer could not obtain a + supply in any degree adequate to the pressing and increasing wants of the + army. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Hamilton was also directed to cause the military stores which had + been previously collected to a large amount in Philadelphia, and the + vessels which were lying at the wharves, to be removed up the Delaware. + This duty was executed with so much vigilance that very little public + property fell, with the city, into the hands of the British general, who + entered it on the 26th of September (1777). The members of Congress + separated on the 18th, in the evening, and reassembled at Lancaster on the + 27th of the same month. From thence they subsequently adjourned to + Yorktown, where they remained eight months, till Philadelphia was + evacuated by the British. + </p> + <p> + From the 25th of August, when the British army landed at the head of Elk, + until the 26th of September, when it entered Philadelphia, the campaign + had been active, and the duties of the American general uncommonly + arduous. + </p> + <p> + Some English writers bestow high encomiums on Sir William Howe for his + military skill and masterly movements during this period. At Brandywine + especially, Washington is supposed to have been "out-generaled, more + out-generaled than in any action during the war." If all the operations of + this trying period be examined, and the means in possession of both be + considered, the American chief will appear in no respect inferior to his + adversary, or unworthy of the high place assigned to him in the opinions + of his countrymen. With an army decidedly inferior, not only in numbers, + but in every military requisite except courage, in an open country, he + employed his enemy near thirty days in advancing about sixty miles. In + this time he fought one general action, and, though defeated, was able to + reassemble the same undisciplined, unclothed, and almost unfed army; and, + the fifth day afterward, again to offer battle. When the armies were + separated by a storm which involved him in the most distressing + circumstances, he extricated himself from them, and still maintained a + respectable and imposing countenance. + </p> + <p> + The only advantage he is supposed to have given was at the battle of + Brandywine, and that was produced by the contrariety and uncertainty of + the intelligence received. A general must be governed by his intelligence, + and must regulate his measures by his information. It is his duty to + obtain correct information, and among the most valuable traits of a + military character is the skill to select those means which will obtain + it. Yet the best-selected means are not always successful; and, in a new + army, where military talent has not been well tried by the standard of + experience, the general is peculiarly exposed to the chance of employing + not the best instruments. In a country, too, which is covered with wood + precise information of the numbers composing different columns is to be + gained with difficulty. + </p> + <p> + Taking into view the whole series of operations, from the landing of Howe + at the Head of Elk to his entering Philadelphia, the superior generalship + of Washington is clearly manifest. Howe, with his numerous and + well-appointed army, performed a certain amount of routine work and + finally gained the immediate object which he had in view—the + possession of Philadelphia—when, by every military rule, he should + have gone up the Hudson to cooperate with Burgoyne. Washington, with his + army, composed almost entirely of raw recruits and militia, kept his + adversary out of Philadelphia a month, still menaced him with an imposing + front in his new position, and subsequently held him in check there while + Gates was defeating and capturing Burgoyne. + </p> + <p> + We shall see, in the ensuing chapter, that although Howe had attained his + first object in gaining possession of Philadelphia, he had still many new + difficulties and dangers to encounter at the hands of his daring and + persevering opponent before he could comfortably establish himself in + winter quarters. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: About this time the Royalists in the counties of Somerset and + Worcester, in the province of Maryland, became so formidable that an + insurrection was dreaded. And it was feared that the insurgents would, in + such a case, be joined by a number of disaffected persons in the county of + Sussex, in the Delaware State. Congress, to prevent this evil, recommended + the apprehension and removal of all persons of influence, or of desperate + characters, within the counties of Sussex, Worcester, and Somerset, who + manifested a disaffection to the American cause, to some remote place + within their respective States, there to be secured. From appearances, + Congress had also reason to believe that the Loyalists in the New England + governments and New York State, had likewise concerted an insurrection. + See Gordon's "History of the American Revolution," vol. II, pp. 461, 462. + By the same authority we are informed that General Gates wrote to General + Fellowes for a strong military force, for the prevention of plots and + insurrection in the provinces of New England and New York. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Congress voted a monument to his memory. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Stedman, the British historian of the Revolution, + acknowledges a loss of 200, including 10 officers. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: Lieutenant-Colonel Palfrey, formerly an aide-de-camp to + General Washington, and now paymaster-general, wrote to his friend: "I was + at Brunswick just after the enemy had left it. Never let the British + troops upbraid the Americans with want of cleanliness, for such + dog-kennels as their huts were my eyes never beheld. Mr. Burton's house, + where Lord Cornwallis resided, stunk so I could not bear to enter it. The + houses were torn to pieces, and the inhabitants as well as the soldiers + have suffered greatly for want of provisions."—Gordon, "History of + the American Revolution." + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Eulogy on Lafayette. See "Orations and Speeches on Various + Occasions," by Edward Everett, vol. I, p. 462. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: Deborre's brigade broke first; and, on an inquiry into his + conduct being directed, he resigned. A misunderstanding existed between + him and Sullivan, on whose right he was stationed. + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: All English writers do not concur in this view of the matter. + The British historian, Stedman, gives the following sharp criticism on + Howe's conduct in the affair of the Brandywine: + </p> + <p> + "The victory does not seem to have been improved in the degree which + circumstances appeared to have admitted. When the left column of the + British had turned Washington's right flank, his whole army was hemmed in:—General + Knyphausen and the Brandywine in front; Sir William Howe and Lord + Cornwallis on his right; the Delaware in his rear; and the Christiana + river on his left. He was obliged to retreat twenty-three miles to + Philadelphia, when the British lay within eighteen miles of it. Had the + Commander-in-Chief detached General Knyphausen's column in pursuit early + next morning, General Washington might with ease have been intercepted, + either at the Heights of Crum Creek, nine miles; at Derby, fourteen; or at + Philadelphia, eighteen miles, from the British camp; or, the Schuylkill + might have been passed at Gray's Ferry, only seventy yards over, and + Philadelphia, with the American magazines, taken, had not the pontoons + been improvidently left at New York as useless. Any one of these + movements, it was thought, might have been attended with the total + destruction of the American army. For some reason, however, which it is + impossible to divine, the Commander-in-Chief employed himself for several + days in making slight movements which could not by any possibility produce + any important benefits to the British cause." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. — WASHINGTON HOLDS HOWE IN CHECK. 1777. + </h2> + <p> + Washington seems to have been by no means disheartened at the loss of + Philadelphia. On the contrary he justly regarded the circumstance of the + enemy holding that city as one which might, as in the sequel it actually + did, turn to the advantage of the American cause. Writing to General + Trumbull on the 1st of October (1777), he says: "You will hear, before + this gets to hand, that the enemy have at length gained possession of + Philadelphia. Many unavoidable difficulties and unlucky accidents which we + had to encounter helped to promote this success. This is an event which we + have reason to wish had not happened, and which will be attended with + several ill consequences, but I hope it will not be so detrimental as many + apprehend, and that a little time and perseverance will give us some + favorable opportunity of recovering our loss, and of putting our affairs + in a more flourishing condition. Our army has now had the rest and + refreshment it stood in need of, and our soldiers are in very good + spirits." + </p> + <p> + Philadelphia being lost Washington sought to make its occupation + inconvenient and insecure by rendering it inaccessible to the British + fleet. With this design works had been erected on a low, marshy island in + the Delaware, near the junction of the Schuylkill, which, from the nature + of its soil, was called Mud Island. On the opposite shore of Jersey, at + Red Bank, a fort had also been constructed which was defended with heavy + artillery. In the deep channel between, or under cover of these batteries, + several ranges of <i>chevaux-de-frise</i> had been sunk. These were so + strong and heavy as to be destructive of any ship which might strike + against them, and were sunk in such a depth of water as rendered it + equally difficult to weigh them or cut them through; no attempt to raise + them, or to open the channel in any manner, could be successful until the + command of the shores on both sides should be obtained. + </p> + <p> + Other ranges of <i>chevaux-de-frise</i> had been sunk about three miles + lower down the river, and some considerable works were in progress at + Billingsport on the Jersey side, which were in such forwardness as to be + provided with artillery. These works were further supported by several + galleys mounting heavy cannon, together with two floating batteries, a + number of armed vessels, and some fire ships. + </p> + <p> + The present relative situation of the armies gave a decisive importance to + these works. Cutting off the communication of Howe with his brother's + fleet, they prevented his receiving supplies by water. While the American + vessels in the river above Fort Mifflin, the name given to the fort on Mud + Island, rendered it difficult to forage in Jersey, Washington hoped to + render his supplies on the side of Pennsylvania so precarious as to compel + him to evacuate Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + The advantages of this situation were considerably diminished by the + capture of the Delaware frigate. + </p> + <p> + The day after Cornwallis entered Philadelphia three batteries were + commenced for the purpose of acting against any American ships which might + appear before the town. While yet incomplete they were attacked by two + frigates, assisted by several galleys and gondolas. The Delaware, being + left by the tide while engaged with the battery, grounded and was + captured, soon after which the smaller frigate and the other vessels + retired under the guns of the fort. This circumstance was the more + unfortunate as it gave the British general the command of the ferry, and + consequently free access to Jersey, and enabled him to intercept the + communication between the forts below and Trenton, from which place the + garrisons were to have drawn their military stores. + </p> + <p> + All the expected reinforcements, except the State regiment and militia + from Virginia, being arrived, and the detached parties being called in, + the effective strength of the army amounted to 8,000 Continental troops + and 3,000 militia. With this force Washington determined to approach the + enemy and seize the first favorable moment to attack him. In pursuance of + this determination the army took a position on the Skippack road, + September 30th (1777), about twenty miles from Philadelphia and sixteen + from Germantown—a village stretching on both sides the great road + leading northward from Philadelphia, which forms one continued street + nearly two miles in length. The British line of encampment crossed this + village at right angles near the center, and Cornwallis, with four + regiments of grenadiers, occupied Philadelphia. The immediate object of + General Howe being the removal of the obstructions in the river, Colonel + Stirling, with two regiments, had been detached to take possession of the + fort at Billingsport, which he accomplished without opposition. This + service being effected, and the works facing the water destroyed, Colonel + Stirling was directed to escort a convoy of provisions from Chester to + Philadelphia. Some apprehensions being entertained for the safety of this + convoy, another regiment was detached from Germantown, with directions to + join Colonel Stirling. + </p> + <p> + This division of the British force appeared to Washington to furnish a + fair opportunity to engage Sir William Howe with advantage. Determining to + avail himself of it, he formed a plan for surprising the camp at + Germantown. This plan consisted, in its general outline, of a night march + and double attack, consentaneously made, on both flanks of the enemy's + right wing, while a demonstration, or attack, as circumstances should + render proper, was to be directed on the western flank of his left wing. + With these orders and objects the American army began its march from + Skippack creek at 7 o'clock in the evening of the 3d of October (1777), in + two columns—the right, under Sullivan and Wayne, taking the Chestnut + Hill road, followed by Stirling's division in reserve; the left, composed + of the divisions of Greene and Stephen, with M'Dougal's brigade and 1,400 + Maryland and Jersey militia taking the Limekiln and old York roads, while + Armstrong's Pennsylvania militia advanced by the Ridge road. Washington + accompanied the right wing, and at dawn of day, next morning, attacked the + royal army. After a smart conflict he drove in the advance guard, which + was stationed at the head of the village, and with his army divided into + five columns prosecuted the attack, but Lieutenant-Colonel Musgrave, of + the Fortieth regiment, which had been driven in, and who had been able to + keep five companies of the regiment together, threw himself into a large + stone house in the village, belonging to Mr. Chew, which stood in front of + the main column of the Americans, and there almost a half of Washington's + army was detained for a considerable time. Instead of masking Chew's house + with a sufficient force and advancing rapidly with their main body, the + Americans attacked the house, which was obstinately defended. The delay + was very unfortunate, for the critical moment was lost in fruitless + attempts on the house; the royal troops had time to get under arms and be + in readiness to resist or attack, as circumstances required. General Grey + came to the assistance of Colonel Musgrave; the engagement for some time + was general and warm; at length the Americans began to give way and + effected a retreat with all their artillery. The morning was very foggy, a + circumstance which had prevented the Americans from combining and + conducting their operations as they otherwise might have done, but which + now favored their retreat by concealing their movements. + </p> + <p> + In this engagement the British had 600 men killed or wounded; among the + slain were Brigadier-General Agnew and Colonel Bird, officers of + distinguished reputation. The Americans lost an equal number in killed and + wounded, besides 400 who were taken prisoners. General Nash, of North + Carolina, was among those who were killed. After the battle Washington + returned to his encampment at Skippack creek. + </p> + <p> + The plan of attack formed by Washington for the battle of Germantown was + fully justified by the result. The British camp was completely surprised, + and their army was on the point of being entirely routed, when the + continued fog led the American soldiers to mistake friends for foes, and + caused a panic which threw everything into confusion and enabled the enemy + to rally. + </p> + <p> + Washington, writing to his brother John Augustine, says: "If it had not + been for a thick fog, which rendered it so dark at times that we were not + able to distinguish friend from foe at the distance of thirty yards, we + should, I believe, have made a decisive and glorious day of it. But + Providence designed it otherwise, for, after we had driven the enemy a + mile or two, after they were in the utmost confusion and flying before us + in most places, after we were upon the point, as it appeared to everybody, + of grasping a complete victory, our own troops took fright and fled with + precipitation and disorder. How to account for this I know not, unless, as + I before observed, the fog represented their own friends to them for a + reinforcement of the enemy, as we attacked in different quarters at the + same time, and were about closing the wings of our army when this + happened. One thing, indeed, contributed not a little to our misfortune, + and that was a want of ammunition on the right wing, which began the + engagement, and in the course of two hours and forty minutes, which time + it lasted, had, many of them, expended the forty rounds that they took + into the field. After the engagement we removed to a place about twenty + miles from the enemy to collect our forces together, to take care of our + wounded, get furnished with necessaries again, and be in a better posture + either for offensive or defensive operations. We are now advancing toward + the enemy again, being at this time within twelve miles of them." + </p> + <p> + Writing to the President of Congress (October 7, 1777) he still imputes + the disaster to the fog: "It is with much chagrin and mortification I add + that every account confirms the opinion I at first entertained, that our + troops retreated at the instant when victory was declaring herself in our + favor. The tumult, disorder, and even despair, which, it seems, had taken + place in the British army, were scarcely to be paralleled; and it is said, + so strongly did the idea of a retreat prevail, that Chester was fixed on + as their rendezvous. I can discover no other cause for not improving this + happy opportunity, than the extreme haziness of the weather." + </p> + <p> + Much controversy has arisen among writers as to the cause of failure at + Germantown, but Washington's means of observation were certainly not + inferior to those of any other person whatever, and in the above extracts + the whole matter is clearly explained. He does not refer to the delay at + Chew's house as the cause of failure. Panic struck as the British were, + they would have been defeated, notwithstanding the delay at that impromptu + fortress, if the fog had not occasioned the American soldiers to believe + that the firing on their own side proceeded from the enemy, and that they + were about to be surrounded. Hence the recoil and retreat. It was + apparently a great misfortune, but it was the destiny of Washington to + achieve greatness in spite of severe and repeated misfortunes. + </p> + <p> + The same opinion respecting the fog is expressed in the following extract + from a letter from General Sullivan to the President of New Hampshire: "We + brought off all our cannon and all our wounded. Our loss in the action + amounts to less than 700, mostly wounded. We lost some valuable officers, + among whom were the brave General Nash, and my two aides-de-camp, Majors + Sherburne and White, whose singular bravery must ever do honor to their + memories. Our army rendezvoused at Paulen's Mills, and seems very desirous + of another action. The misfortunes of this day were principally owing to a + thick fog which, being rendered still more so by the smoke of the cannon + and musketry, prevented our troops from discovering the motions of the + enemy, or acting in concert with each other. I cannot help observing that + with great concern I saw our brave commander exposing himself to the + hottest fire of the enemy in such a manner that regard for my country + obliged me to ride to him and beg him to retire. He, to gratify me and + some others, withdrew a small distance, but his anxiety for the fate of + the day soon brought him up again, where he remained till our troops had + retreated." + </p> + <p> + Congress unanimously adopted the following resolution on hearing of the + battle of Germantown: + </p> + <p> + "<i>Resolved,</i> That the thanks of Congress be given to General + Washington, for his wise and well-concerted attack upon the enemy's army + near Germantown, on the 4th instant, and to the officers and soldiers of + the army for their brave exertions on that occasion; Congress being well + satisfied, that the best designs and boldest efforts may sometimes fail by + unforeseen incidents, trusting that, on future occasions, the valor and + virtue of the army will, by the blessing of Heaven, be crowned with + complete and deserved success." + </p> + <p> + The attention of both armies was now principally directed to the forts + below Philadelphia. These it was the great object of Howe to destroy, and + of Washington to defend and maintain. + </p> + <p> + The loss of the Delaware frigate, and of Billingsport, greatly discouraged + the seamen by whom the galleys and floating batteries were manned. + Believing the fate of America to be decided, an opinion strengthened by + the intelligence received from their connections in Philadelphia, they + manifested the most alarming defection, and several officers as well as + sailors deserted to the enemy. This desponding temper was checked by the + battle of Germantown, and by throwing a garrison of Continental troops + into the fort at Red Bank, called Fort Mercer, the defense of which had + been entrusted to militia. This fort commanded the channel between the + Jersey shore and Mud Island, and the American vessels were secure under + its guns. The militia of Jersey were relied on to reinforce its garrison, + and also to form a corps of observation which might harass the rear of any + detachment investing the place. + </p> + <p> + To increase the inconvenience of Howe's situation by intercepting his + supplies Washington ordered 600 militia, commanded by General Potter, to + cross the Schuylkill and scour the country between that river and Chester, + and the militia on the Delaware, above Philadelphia, were directed to + watch the roads in that vicinity. + </p> + <p> + The more effectually to stop those who were seduced by the hope of gold + and silver to supply the enemy at this critical time, Congress passed a + resolution subjecting to martial law and to death all who should furnish + them with provisions, or certain other enumerated articles, who should be + taken within thirty miles of any city, town, or place in Jersey, + Pennsylvania, or Delaware, occupied by British troops. + </p> + <p> + These arrangements being made to cut off supplies from the country, + Washington took a strong position at White Marsh, within fourteen miles of + Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile General Howe was actively preparing to attack Fort Mifflin from + the Pennsylvania shore. He erected some batteries at the mouth of the + Schuylkill, in order to command Webb's Ferry, which were attacked by + Commodore Hazlewood and silenced; but the following night a detachment + crossed over Webb's Ferry into Province Island, and constructed a slight + work opposite Fort Mifflin, within two musket shots of the blockhouse, + from which they were enabled to throw shot and shells into the barracks. + When daylight discovered this work three galleys and a floating battery + were ordered to attack it and the garrison surrendered. While the boats + were bringing off the prisoners, a large column of British troops were + seen marching into the fortress, upon which the attack on it was renewed, + but without success, and two attempts made by Lieutenant-Colonel Smith to + storm it failed. {1} + </p> + <p> + In a few nights works were completed on the high ground of Province + Island, which enfiladed the principal battery of Fort Mifflin, and + rendered it necessary to throw up some cover on the platform to protect + the men who worked the guns. + </p> + <p> + The aid expected from the Jersey militia was not received. "Assure + yourself," said Lieutenant-Colonel Smith, in a letter pressing earnestly + for a reinforcement of Continental troops, "that no dependence is to be + put on the militia; whatever men your Excellency determines on sending, no + time is to be lost." The garrison of Fort Mifflin was now reduced to 156 + effectives, and that of Red Bank did not much exceed 200. + </p> + <p> + In consequence of these representations Washington ordered Col. + Christopher Greene, of Rhode Island, with his regiment, to Red Bank, and + Lieut.-Col. John Greene, of Virginia, with about 200 men, to Fort Mifflin. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after the battle of Brandywine Admiral Howe had sailed for the + Delaware, where he expected to arrive in time to meet and cooperate with + the army in and about Philadelphia. But the winds were so unfavorable, and + the navigation of the Bay of Delaware so difficult, that his van did not + get into the river until the 4th of October. The ships of war and + transports which followed came up from the 6th to the 8th, and anchored + from New Castle to Reddy Island. + </p> + <p> + The frigates, in advance of the fleet, had not yet succeeded in their + endeavors to effect a passage through the lower double row of <i>chevaux-de-frise</i>. + Though no longer protected by the fort at Billingsport, they were defended + by the water force above, and the work was found more difficult than had + been expected. It was not until the middle of October that the impediments + were so far removed as to afford a narrow and intricate passage through + them. In the meantime the fire from the Pennsylvania shore had not + produced all the effect expected from it, and it was perceived that + greater exertions would be necessary for the reduction of the works than + could safely be made in the present relative situation of the armies. + Under this impression, General Howe, soon after the return of the American + army to its former camp on the Skippack, withdrew his troops from + Germantown into Philadelphia, as preparatory to a combined attack by land + and water on Forts Mercer and Mifflin. + </p> + <p> + After effecting a passage through the works sunk in the river at + Billingsport, other difficulties still remained to be encountered by the + ships of war. Several rows of <i>chevaux-de-frise</i> had been sunk about + half a mile below Mud Island, which were protected by the guns of the + forts, as well as by the movable water force. To silence these works, + therefore, was a necessary preliminary to the removal of these + obstructions in the channel. + </p> + <p> + On the 21st of October (1777) a detachment of Hessians, amounting to 1,200 + men, commanded by Col. Count Donop, crossed the Delaware at Philadelphia + with orders to storm Fort Mercer, at Red Bank. The fortifications + consisted of extensive outer works, within which was an entrenchment eight + or nine feet high, boarded and fraized. Late in the evening of the 22d + Count Donop appeared before the fort and attacked it with great + intrepidity. It was defended with equal resolution by the brave garrison + of Rhode Island Continentals, under command of Col. Christopher Greene. + The outer works being too extensive to be manned by the troops in the + fort, were used only to gall the assailants while advancing. On their near + approach the garrison retired within the inner entrenchment, whence they + poured upon the Hessians a heavy and destructive fire. Colonel Donop + received a mortal wound, and Lieutenant-Colonel Mengerode, the second in + command, fell about the same time. {2} + </p> + <p> + Lieutenant-Colonel Linsing, the oldest remaining officer, drew off his + troops and returned next day to Philadelphia. The loss of the assailants + was estimated by the Americans at 400 men. The garrison was reinforced + from Fort Mifflin, and aided by the galleys which flanked the Hessians in + their advance and retreat. The American loss, in killed and wounded, + amounted to only thirty-two men. + </p> + <p> + The ships having been ordered to cooperate with Count Donop, the Augusta, + with four smaller vessels, passed the lower line of <i>chevaux-de-frise</i>, + opposite to Billingsport, and lay above it, waiting until the assault + should be made on the fort. The flood tide setting in about the time the + attack commenced they moved with it up the river. The obstructions sunk in + the Delaware had in some degree changed its channel, in consequence of + which the Augusta and the Merlin grounded a considerable distance below + the second line of <i>chevaux-de-frise</i>, and a strong wind from the + north so checked the rising of the tide that these vessels could not be + floated by the flood. Their situation, however, was not discerned that + evening, as the frigates which were able to approach the fort, and the + batteries from the Pennsylvania shore, kept up an incessant fire on the + garrison, till night put an end to the cannonade. Early next morning it + was recommenced in the hope that, under its cover, the Augusta and the + Merlin might be got off. The Americans, on discovering their situation, + sent four fire ships against them, but without effect. Meanwhile a warm + cannonade took place on both sides, in the course of which the Augusta + took fire, and it was found impracticable to extinguish the flames. Most + of the men were taken out, the frigates withdrawn, and the Merlin set on + fire, after which the Augusta blew up, and a few of the crew were lost in + her. + </p> + <p> + This repulse inspired Congress with flattering hopes for the permanent + defense of the posts on the Delaware. That body expressed its high sense + of the merits of Colonel Greene, of Rhode Island, who had commanded in + Fort Mercer; of Lieutenant-Colonel Smith, of Maryland, who had commanded + in Fort Mifflin; and of Commodore Hazlewood, who commanded the galleys; + and presented a sword to each of these officers, as a mark of the + estimation in which their services were held. + </p> + <p> + The situation of these forts was far from justifying this confidence of + their being defensible. That on Mud Island had been unskillfully + constructed and required at least 800 men fully to man the lines. The + island is about half a mile long. Fort Mifflin was placed at the lower + end, having its principal fortifications in front for the purpose of + repelling ships coming up the river. The defenses in the rear consisted + only of a ditch and palisade, protected by two blockhouses, the upper + story of one of which had been destroyed in the late cannonade. Above the + fort were two batteries opposing those constructed by the British on + Province and Carpenter's Islands, which were separated from Mud Island + only by a narrow passage between 400 and 500 yards wide. + </p> + <p> + The garrison of Fort Mifflin consisted of only 300 Continental troops, who + were worn down with fatigue and incessant watching, under the constant + apprehension of being attacked from Province Island, from Philadelphia, + and from the ships below. + </p> + <p> + Having failed in every attempt to draw the militia of New Jersey to the + Delaware, Washington determined to strengthen the garrison by further + drafts from his army. Three hundred Pennsylvania militia were detached to + be divided between the two forts, and a few days afterward General Varnum + was ordered, with his brigade, to take a position above Woodbury, near Red + Bank, and to relieve and reinforce the garrisons of both forts as far as + his strength would permit. Washington hoped that the appearance of so + respectable a Continental force might encourage the militia to assemble in + greater numbers. + </p> + <p> + Aware of the advantage to result from a victory over the British army + while separated from the fleet, Washington had been uniformly determined + to risk much to gain one. He had, therefore, after the battle of + Germantown, continued to watch assiduously for an opportunity to attack + his enemy once more to advantage. The circumspect caution of General Howe + afforded none. After the repulse at Red Bank his measures were slow but + certain, and were calculated to insure the possession of the forts without + exposing his troops to the hazard of an assault. + </p> + <p> + In this state of things intelligence was received of the successful + termination of the northern campaign, in consequence of which great part + of the troops who had been employed against Burgoyne, might be drawn to + the aid of the army in Pennsylvania. But Washington had just grounds to + apprehend that before these reinforcements could arrive Howe would gain + possession of the forts and remove the obstructions to the navigation of + the Delaware. This apprehension furnished a strong motive for vigorous + attempts to relieve Fort Mifflin. But the relative force of the armies, + the difficulty of acting offensively against Philadelphia, and, above all, + the reflection that a defeat might disable him from meeting his enemy in + the field even after the arrival of the troops expected from the north, + determined Washington not to hazard a second attack under existing + circumstances. + </p> + <p> + To expedite the reinforcements for which he waited, Washington dispatched + Colonel Hamilton to General Gates, with directions to represent to him the + condition of the armies in Pennsylvania, and to urge him, if he + contemplated no other service of more importance, immediately to send the + regiments of Massachusetts and New Hampshire to aid the army of the middle + department. These orders were not peremptory, because it was possible that + some other object (as the capture of New York) still more interesting than + the expulsion of General Howe from Philadelphia might be contemplated by + Gates; and Washington meant not to interfere with the accomplishment of + such object. + </p> + <p> + On reaching General Putnam, Colonel Hamilton found that a considerable + part of the northern army had joined that officer, but that Gates had + detained four brigades at Albany for an expedition intended to be made in + the winter against Ticonderoga. Having made such arrangements with Putnam + as he supposed would secure the immediate march of a large body of + Continental troops from that station, Colonel Hamilton proceeded to Albany + for the purpose of remonstrating with General Gates against retaining so + large and valuable a part of the army unemployed at a time when the most + imminent danger threatened the vitals of the country. Gates was by no + means disposed to part with his troops. He could not believe that an + expedition then preparing at New York was designed to reinforce General + Howe; and insisted that, should the troops then embarked at that place, + instead of proceeding to the Delaware, make a sudden movement up the + Hudson, it would be in their power, should Albany be left defenseless, to + destroy the valuable arsenal which had been there erected, and the + military stores captured with Burgoyne, which had been chiefly deposited + in that town. + </p> + <p> + Having, after repeated remonstrances, obtained an order directing three + brigades to the Delaware, Hamilton hastened back to Putnam and found the + troops which had been ordered to join Washington, still at Peekskill. The + detachment from New York had suggested to Putnam the possibility of taking + that place; and he does not appear to have made very great exertions to + divest himself of a force he deemed necessary for an object, the + accomplishment of which would give so much splendor to his military + character. In addition to this circumstance, an opinion had gained ground + among the soldiers that their share of service for the campaign had been + performed, and that it was time for them to go into winter quarters. Great + discontents, too, prevailed concerning their pay, which the government had + permitted to be more than six months in arrear; and in Poor's brigade a + mutiny broke out in the course of which a soldier who was run through the + body by his captain, shot the captain dead before he expired. Colonel + Hamilton came in time to borrow money from the Governor, George Clinton, + of New York, to put the troops in motion; and they proceeded by brigades + to the Delaware. But these several delays retarded their arrival until the + contest for the forts on that river was terminated. + </p> + <p> + The preparations of Sir William Howe being completed, a large battery on + Province Island of twenty-four and thirty-two pounders and two howitzers + of eight inches each opened, early in the morning of the 10th of November, + upon Fort Mifflin, at the distance of 500 yards, and kept up an incessant + fire for several successive days. The blockhouses were reduced to a heap + of ruins; the palisades were beaten down, and most of the guns dismounted + and otherwise disabled. The barracks were battered in every part, so that + the troops could not remain in them. They were under the necessity of + working and watching the whole night to repair the damages of the day, and + to guard against a storm, of which they were in perpetual apprehension. + If, in the days, a few moments were allowed for repose, it was taken on + the wet earth, which, in consequence of heavy rains, had become a soft + mud. The garrison was relieved by General Varnum every forty-eight hours, + but his brigade was so weak that half the men were constantly on duty. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Smith was decidedly of opinion, and General Varnum concurred with + him, that the garrison could not repel an assault, and ought to be + withdrawn; but Washington still cherished the hope that the place might be + maintained until he should be reinforced from the northern army. Believing + that an assault would not be attempted until the works were battered down, + he recommended that the whole night should be employed in making repairs. + His orders were that the place should be defended to the last extremity; + and never were orders more faithfully executed. + </p> + <p> + Several of the garrison were killed and among them Captain Treat, a + gallant officer, who commanded the artillery. Colonel Smith received a + contusion on his hip and arm which compelled him to give up the command + and retire to Red Bank. Major Fleury, a French officer of distinguished + merit, who served as engineer, reported to Washington that, although the + blockhouses were beaten down, all the guns in them, except two, disabled, + and several breaches made in the walls, the place was still defensible; + but the garrison was so unequal to the numbers required by the extent of + the lines, and was so dispirited by watching, fatigue, and constant + exposure to the cold rains, which were almost incessant, that he dreaded + the event of an attempt to carry the place by storm. Fresh troops were + ordered to their relief from Varnum's brigade, and the command was taken, + first by Colonel Russell, and afterward by Major Thayer. The artillery, + commanded by Captain Lee, continued to be well served. The besiegers were + several times thrown into confusion, and a floating battery, which opened + on the morning of the 14th, was silenced in the course of the day. + </p> + <p> + The defense being unexpectedly obstinate, the assailants brought up their + ships (November 15, 1777) as far as the obstructions in the river + permitted and added their fire to that of the batteries, which was the + more fatal as the cover for the troops had been greatly impaired. The + brave garrison, however, still maintained their ground with unshaken + firmness. In the midst of this stubborn conflict, the Vigilant and a + sloop-of-war were brought up the inner channel, between Mud and Province + Islands, which had, unobserved by the besieged, been deepened by the + current in consequence of the obstructions in the main channel, and, + taking a station within 100 yards of the works, not only kept up a + destructive cannonade, but threw hand-grenades into them, while the + musketeers from the round-top of the Vigilant killed every man that + appeared on the platform. + </p> + <p> + Major Thayer applied to the Commodore to remove these vessels, and he + ordered six galleys on the service, but, after reconnoitering their + situation, the galleys returned without attempting anything. Their report + was that these ships were so covered by the batteries on Province Island + as to be unassailable. + </p> + <p> + It was now apparent to all that the fort could be no longer defended. The + works were in ruins. The position of the Vigilant rendered any further + continuance on the island a prodigal and useless waste of human life; and + on the 16th, about 11 at night, the garrison was withdrawn. + </p> + <p> + A second attempt was made to drive the vessels from their stations, with a + determination, should it succeed, to repossess the island, but the galleys + effected nothing, and a detachment from Province Island soon occupied the + ground which had been abandoned. + </p> + <p> + The day after, receiving intelligence of the evacuation of Fort Mifflin, + Washington deputed Generals De Kalb and Knox to confer with General Varnum + and the officers at Fort Mercer on the practicability of continuing to + defend the obstructions in the channel, to report thereon, and to state + the force which would be necessary for that purpose. Their report was in + favor of continuing the defense. A council of the navy officers had + already been called by the Commodore in pursuance of a request of the + Commander-in-Chief, made before the evacuation had taken place, who were + unanimously of opinion that it would be impracticable for the fleet, after + the loss of the island, to maintain its station or to assist in preventing + the <i>chevaux-de-frise</i> from being weighed by the ships of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + General Howe had now completed a line of defense from the Schuylkill to + the Delaware, and a reinforcement from New York had arrived at Chester. + These two circumstances enabled him to form an army in the Jerseys, + sufficient for the reduction of Fort Mercer, without weakening himself so + much in Philadelphia as to put his lines in hazard. Still, deeming it of + the utmost importance to open the navigation of the Delaware completely, + he detached Lord Cornwallis, about 1 in the morning of the 17th (1777), + with a strong body of troops to Chester. From that place his lordship + crossed over to Billingsport, where he was joined by the reinforcement + from New York. + </p> + <p> + Washington received immediate intelligence of the march of this + detachment, which he communicated to General Varnum, with orders that Fort + Mercer should be defended to the last extremity. With a view to military + operations in that quarter he ordered one division of the army to cross + the river at Burlington, and dispatched expresses to the northern troops + who were marching on by brigades, directing them to move down the Delaware + on its northern side until they should receive further orders. + </p> + <p> + General Greene was selected for this expedition. A hope was entertained + that he would be able not only to protect Fort Mercer, but to obtain some + decisive advantage over Lord Cornwallis, as the situation of the fort, + which his lordship could not invest without placing himself between Timber + and Manto creeks, would expose the assailants to great peril from a + respectable force in their rear. But, before Greene could cross the + Delaware, Cornwallis approached with an army rendered more powerful than + had been expected by the junction of the reinforcement from New York, and + Fort Mercer was evacuated. A few of the smaller galleys escaped up the + river, and the others were burnt by their crews. + </p> + <p> + Washington still hoped to recover much of what had been lost. A victory + would restore the Jersey shore, and this object was deemed so important + that General Greene's instructions indicated the expectation that he would + be in a condition to fight Cornwallis. + </p> + <p> + Greene feared the reproach of avoiding an action less than the just + censure of sacrificing the real interests of his country by engaging the + enemy on disadvantageous terms. The numbers of the British exceeded his, + even counting his militia as regulars, and he determined to wait for + Glover's brigade, which was marching from the north. Before its arrival, + Cornwallis took post on Gloucester point, a point of land making deep into + the Delaware, which was entirely under cover of the guns of the ships, + from which place he was embarking his baggage and the provisions he had + collected for Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + Believing that Cornwallis would immediately follow the magazines he had + collected, and that the purpose of Howe was, with his united forces, to + attack the American army while divided, General Washington ordered Greene + to re-cross the Delaware and join the army. + </p> + <p> + Thus, after one continued struggle of more than six weeks, in which the + Continental troops displayed great military virtues, the army in + Philadelphia secured itself in the possession of that city by opening a + free communication with the fleet. + </p> + <p> + While Lord Cornwallis was in Jersey, and General Greene on the Delaware + above him, the reinforcements from the north being received, an attack on + Philadelphia was strongly pressed by several officers high in rank, and + was, in some measure, urged by that torrent of public opinion, which, if + not resisted by a very firm mind, overwhelms the judgment, and by + controlling measures not well comprehended may frequently produce, + especially in military transactions, the most disastrous effects. The + officers who advised this measure were Lord Stirling, Generals Wayne, + Scott, and Woodford. The considerations urged upon Washington in its + support were: That the army was now in greater force than he could expect + it to be at any future time; that being joined by the troops who had + conquered Burgoyne, his own reputation, the reputation of his army, the + opinion of Congress and of the nation required some decisive blow on his + part; and that the rapid depreciation of the paper currency, by which the + resources for carrying on the war were dried up, rendered indispensable + some grand effort to bring it to a speedy termination. + </p> + <p> + Washington reconnoitered the enemy's lines with great care and took into + serious consideration the plan of attack proposed. The plan proposed was + that General Greene should embark 2,000 men at Dunks' ferry, and + descending the Delaware in the night land in the town just before day, + attack the enemy in the rear, and take possession of the bridge over the + Schuylkill; that a strong corps should march down on the west side of that + river, occupy the heights enfilading the works of the enemy, and open a + brisk cannonade upon them, while a detachment from it should march down to + the bridge and attack in front at the same instant that the party + descending the river should commence its assault on the rear. + </p> + <p> + Not only the Commander-in-Chief, but some of his best officers—those + who could not be impelled by the clamors of the ill-informed to ruin the + public interests—were opposed to this mad enterprise. The two + armies, they said, were now nearly equal in point of numbers, and the + detachment under Lord Cornwallis could not be supposed to have so weakened + Sir William Howe as to compensate for the advantages of his position. His + right was covered by the Delaware, his left by the Schuylkill, his rear by + the junction of those two rivers, as well as by the city of Philadelphia, + and his front by a line of redoubts extending from river to river and + connected by an abatis and by circular works. It would be indispensably + necessary to carry all these redoubts, since to leave a part of them to + play on the rear of the columns while engaged in front with the enemy in + Philadelphia would be extremely hazardous. Supposing the redoubts carried + and the British army driven into the town, yet all military men were + agreed on the great peril of storming a town. The streets would be + defended by an artillery greatly superior to that of the Americans, which + would attack in front, while the brick houses would be lined with + musketeers, whose fire must thin the ranks of the assailants. + </p> + <p> + A part of the plan, on the successful execution of which the whole + depended, was that the British rear should be surprised by the corps + descending the Delaware. This would require the concurrence of too many + favorable circumstances to be calculated on with any confidence. As the + position of General Greene was known, it could not be supposed that Sir + William Howe would be inattentive to him. It was probable that not even + his embarkation would be made unnoticed, but it was presuming a degree of + negligence which ought not to be assumed to suppose that he could descend + the river to Philadelphia undiscovered. So soon as his movement should be + observed, the whole plan would be comprehended, since it would never be + conjectured that Greene was to attack singly. + </p> + <p> + If the attack in front should fail, which was not even improbable, the + total loss of the 2,000 men in the rear must follow, and General Howe + would maintain his superiority through the winter. + </p> + <p> + The situation did not require these desperate measures. The British + general would be compelled to risk a battle on equal terms or to manifest + a conscious inferiority to the American army. The depreciation of paper + money was the inevitable consequence of immense emissions without + corresponding taxes. It was by removing the cause, not by sacrificing the + army, that this evil was to be corrected. + </p> + <p> + Washington possessed too much discernment to be dazzled by the false + brilliant presented by those who urged the necessity of storming + Philadelphia in order to throw lustre round his own fame and that of his + army, and too much firmness of temper, too much virtue and real patriotism + to be diverted from a purpose believed to be right, by the clamors of + faction or the discontents of ignorance. Disregarding the importunities of + mistaken friends, the malignant insinuations of enemies, and the + expectations of the ill-informed, he persevered in his resolution to make + no attempt on Philadelphia. He saved his army and was able to keep the + field in the face of his enemy, while the clamor of the moment wasted in + air and was forgotten. + </p> + <p> + About this time Washington learnt, by a letter from General Greene, that + his young friend Lafayette, although hardly recovered from the wound + received at Brandywine, had signalized his spirit and courage by an attack + on Cornwallis' picket guard at Gloucester point, below Philadelphia. "The + Marquis," writes Greene, "with about 400 militia and the rifle corps, + attacked the enemy's picket last evening, killed about 20, wounded many + more, and took about 20 prisoners. The Marquis is charmed with the + spirited behavior of the militia and rifle corps; they drove the enemy + about half a mile and kept the ground till dark. The enemy's picket + consisted of about 300 and were reinforced during the skirmish. The + Marquis is determined to be in the way of danger." + </p> + <p> + The following letter to Washington, cited by Sparks, contains Lafayette's + own account of this affair: "After having spent the most part of the day + in making myself well acquainted with the certainty of the enemy's + motions, I came pretty late into the Gloucester road between the two + creeks. I had 10 light horse, almost 150 riflemen, and 2 pickets of + militia. Colonel Armand, Colonel Laumoy, and the Chevaliers Duplessis and + Gimat were the Frenchmen with me. A scout of my men, under Duplessis, went + to ascertain how near to Gloucester were the enemy's first pickets, and + they found at the distance of two miles and a half from that place a + strong post of 350 Hessians, with field pieces, and they engaged + immediately. As my little reconnoitering party were all in fine spirits I + supported them. We pushed the Hessians more than half a mile from the + place where their main body had been and we made them run very fast. + British reinforcements came twice to them, but, very far from recovering + their ground, they always retreated. The darkness of the night prevented + us from pursuing our advantage. After standing on the ground we had + gained, I ordered them to return very slowly to Haddonfield." + </p> + <p> + The Marquis had only one man killed and six wounded. "I take the greatest + pleasure," he added, "in letting you know that the conduct of our soldiers + was above all praise. I never saw men so merry, so spirited, and so + desirous to go on to the enemy, whatever force they might have, as that + same small party in this little fight." + </p> + <p> + Washington, in a letter to Congress dated November 26, 1777, mentions this + affair with commendation, and suggests, as he had repeatedly done before, + Lafayette's appointment to one of the vacant divisions of the army, and on + the same day that this letter was received Congress voted that such an + appointment would be agreeable to them. Three days afterward Washington + placed Lafayette in command of the division of General Stephen, who had + been dismissed from the army for having been intoxicated, to the great + injury of the public service, on the eventful day of the battle of + Germantown. We shall see that this appointment, by enabling Lafayette to + act occasionally on a separate command, afforded him the opportunity of + rendering essential service to the cause of independence. + </p> + <p> + On the 27th of November (1777), the Board of War was increased from three + to five members, viz.: General Mifflin, formerly aide to Washington and + recently quartermaster-general; Joseph Trumbull, Richard Peters, Col. + Timothy Pickering, of Massachusetts, and General Gates. Gates was + appointed president of the board, with many flattering expressions from + Congress. His recent triumph over Burgoyne had gained him many friends + among the members of Congress and a few among the officers of the army. + His head, naturally not over-strong, had been turned by success, and he + entered into the views of a certain clique which had recently been formed, + whose object was to disparage Washington and put forward rather high + pretensions in favor of the "hero of Saratoga." This clique, called from + the name of its most active member, General Conway, the "Conway Cabal," we + shall notice hereafter. At the time of this change in the constitution of + the Board of War it was in full activity, and its operations were well + known to Washington. In fact, he had already applied the match which + ultimately exploded the whole conspiracy and brought lasting disgrace on + every one of its members. + </p> + <p> + General Howe in the meantime was preparing to attack Washington in his + camp, and, as he confidently threatened, to "drive him beyond the + mountains." + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of December (1777), Captain M'Lane, a vigilant officer on the + lines, discovered that an attempt to surprise the American camp at White + Marsh was about to be made, and communicated the information to + Washington. In the evening of the same day General Howe marched out of + Philadelphia with his whole force, and about 11 at night, M'Lane, who had + been detached with 100 chosen men, attacked the British van at the Three + Mile Run on the Germantown road, and compelled their front division to + change its line of march. He hovered on the front and flank of the + advancing army, galling them severely until 3 next morning, when the + British encamped on Chestnut Hill in front of the American right, and + distant from it about three miles. A slight skirmish had also taken place + between the Pennsylvania militia, under General Irvine, and the advanced + light parties of the enemy, in which the general was wounded and the + militia without much other loss were dispersed. + </p> + <p> + The range of hills on which the British were posted approached nearer to + those occupied by the Americans as they stretched northward. Having passed + the day in reconnoitering the right Howe changed his ground in the course + of the night, and moving along the hills to his right took an advantageous + position about a mile in front of the American left. The next day he + inclined still further to his right, and in doing so approached still + nearer to the left wing of the American army. Supposing a general + engagement to be approaching Washington detached Gist, with some Maryland + militia, and Morgan, with his rifle corps, to attack the flanking and + advanced parties of the enemy. A sharp action ensued in which Major + Morris, of New Jersey, a brave officer in Morgan's regiment was mortally + wounded, and twenty-seven of his men were killed and wounded. A small loss + was also sustained in the militia. The parties first attacked were driven + in, but the enemy reinforcing in numbers and Washington unwilling to move + from the heights and engage on the ground which was the scene of the + skirmish, declining to reinforce Gist and Morgan, they, in turn, were + compelled to retreat. + </p> + <p> + Howe continued to maneuver toward the flank and in front of the left wing + of the American army. Expecting to be attacked in that quarter in full + force Washington made such changes in the disposition of his troops as the + occasion required, and the day was consumed in these movements. In the + course of it Washington rode through every brigade of his army, delivering + in person his orders respecting the manner of receiving the enemy, + exhorting his troops to rely principally on the bayonet, and encouraging + them by the steady firmness of his countenance, as well as by his words, + to a vigorous performance of their duty. The dispositions of the evening + indicated an intention to attack him the ensuing morning, but in the + afternoon of the 8th the British suddenly filed off from their right, + which extended beyond the American left, and retreated to Philadelphia. + The parties detached to harass their rear could not overtake it. {3} + </p> + <p> + The loss of the British in this expedition, as stated in the official + letter of General Howe, rather exceeded 100 in killed, wounded, and + missing, and was sustained principally in the skirmish of the 7th + (December, 1777) in which Major Morris fell. + </p> + <p> + On no former occasion had the two armies met, uncovered by works, with + superior numbers on the side of the Americans. The effective force of the + British was then stated at 12,000 men. Stedman, the historian, who then + belonged to Howe's army, states its number to have been 14,000. The + American army consisted of precisely 12,161 Continental troops and 3,241 + militia. This equality in point of numbers rendered it a prudent + precaution to maintain a superiority of position. As the two armies + occupied heights fronting each other neither could attack without giving + to its adversary some advantage in the ground, and this was an advantage + which neither seemed willing to relinquish. + </p> + <p> + The return of Howe to Philadelphia without bringing on an action after + marching out with the avowed intention of fighting is the best testimony + of the respect which he felt for the talents of his adversary and the + courage of the troops he was to encounter. + </p> + <p> + The cold was now becoming so intense that it was impossible for an army + neither well-clothed nor sufficiently supplied with blankets longer to + keep the field in tents. It had become necessary to place the troops in + winter quarters, but in the existing state of things the choice of winter + quarters was a subject for serious reflection. It was impossible to place + them in villages without uncovering the country or exposing them to the + hazard of being beaten in detachment. + </p> + <p> + To avoid these calamities it was determined to take a strong position in + the neighborhood of Philadelphia, equally distant from the Delaware above + and below that city, and there to construct huts in the form of a regular + encampment which might cover the army during the winter. A strong piece of + ground at Valley Forge, on the west side of the Schuylkill between twenty + and thirty miles from Philadelphia, was selected for that purpose, and + some time before day on the morning of the 11th of December (1777) the + army marched to take possession of it. By an accidental concurrence of + circumstances Lord Cornwallis had been detached the same morning at the + head of a strong corps on a foraging party on the west side of the + Schuylkill. He had fallen in with a brigade of Pennsylvania militia + commanded by General Potter which he soon dispersed, and, pursuing the + fugitives, had gained the heights opposite Matron's ford, over which the + Americans had thrown a bridge for the purpose of crossing the river, and + had posted troops to command the defile called the Gulph just as the front + division of the American army reached the bank of the river. This movement + had been made without any knowledge of the intention of General Washington + to change his position or any design of contesting the passage of the + Schuylkill, but the troops had been posted in the manner already mentioned + for the sole purpose of covering the foraging party. + </p> + <p> + Washington apprehended from his first intelligence that General Howe had + taken the field in full force. He therefore recalled the troops already on + the west side and moved rather higher up the river for the purpose of + understanding the real situation, force, and designs of the enemy. The + next day Lord Cornwallis returned to Philadelphia, and in the course of + the night the American army crossed the river. + </p> + <p> + Here the Commander-in-Chief communicated to his army in general orders the + manner in which he intended to dispose of them during the winter. He + expressed in strong terms his approbation of their conduct, presented them + with an encouraging state of the future prospects of their country, + exhorted them to bear with continuing fortitude the hardships inseparable + from the position they were about to take, and endeavored to convince + their judgments that those hardships were not imposed on them by unfeeling + caprice, but were necessary for the good of their country. + </p> + <p> + The winter had set in with great severity, and the sufferings of the army + were extreme. In a few days, however, these sufferings were considerably + diminished by the erection of logged huts, filled up with mortar, which, + after being dried, formed comfortable habitations, and gave content to men + long unused to the conveniences of life. The order of a regular encampment + was observed, and the only appearance of winter quarters was the + substitution of huts for tents. + </p> + <p> + Stedman, who, as we have already remarked, was in Howe's army, has not + only given a vivid description of the condition of Washington's army, + which agrees in the main with those of our own writers, but he has also + exhibited in contrast the condition and conduct of the British army in + Philadelphia. We transcribe this instructive passage: + </p> + <p> + "The American general determined to remain during the winter in the + position which he then occupied at Valley Forge, recommending to his + troops to build huts in the woods for sheltering themselves from the + inclemency of the weather. And it is perhaps one of the most striking + traits in General Washington's character that he possessed the faculty of + gaining such an ascendancy over his raw and undisciplined followers, most + of whom were destitute of proper winter clothing and otherwise unprovided + with necessaries, as to be able to prevail upon so many of them to remain + with him during the winter in so distressing a situation. With immense + labor he raised wooden huts, covered with straw and earth, which formed + very uncomfortable quarters. On the east and south an entrenchment was + made—the ditch six feet wide and three in depth; the mound not four + feet high, very narrow, and such as might easily have been beat down by + cannon. Two redoubts were also begun but never completed. The Schuylkill + was on his left with a bridge across. His rear was mostly covered by an + impassable precipice formed by Valley creek, having only a narrow passage + near the Schuylkill. On the right his camp was accessible with some + difficulty, but the approach on his front was on ground nearly on a level + with his camp. It is indeed difficult to give an adequate description of + his misery in this situation. His army was destitute of almost every + necessary of clothing, nay, almost naked, and very often on short + allowance of provisions; an extreme mortality raged in his hospitals, nor + had he any of the most proper medicines to relieve the sick. There were + perpetual desertions of parties from him of ten to fifty at a time. In + three months he had not 4,000 men and these could by no means be termed + effective. Not less than 500 horses perished from want and the severity of + the season. He had often not three days' provisions in his camp and at + times not enough for one day. In this infirm and dangerous state he + continued from December to May, during all which time every person + expected that General Howe would have stormed or besieged his camp, the + situation of which equally invited either attempt. To have posted 2,000 + men on a commanding ground near the bridge, on the north side of the + Schuylkill, would have rendered his escape on the left impossible; 2,000 + men placed on a like ground opposite the narrow pass would have as + effectually prevented a retreat by his rear, and five or six thousand men + stationed on the front and right of his camp would have deprived him of + flight on those sides. The positions were such that if any of the corps + were attacked they could have been instantly supported. Under such + propitious circumstances what mortal could doubt of success? But the + British army, neglecting all these opportunities, was suffered to continue + at Philadelphia where the whole winter was spent in dissipation. A want of + discipline and proper subordination pervaded the whole army, and if + disease and sickness thinned the American army encamped at Valley Forge, + indolence and luxury perhaps did no less injury to the British troops at + Philadelphia. During the winter a very unfortunate inattention was shown + to the feelings of the inhabitants of Philadelphia, whose satisfaction + should have been vigilantly consulted, both from gratitude and from + interest. They experienced many of the horrors of civil war. The soldiers + insulted and plundered them, and their houses were occupied as barracks + without any compensation being made to them. Some of the first families + were compelled to receive into their habitations individual officers who + were even indecent enough to introduce their mistresses into the mansions + of their hospitable entertainers. This soured the minds of the + inhabitants, many of whom were Quakers. But the residence of the army at + Philadelphia occasioned distresses which will probably be considered by + the generality of mankind as of a more grievous nature. It was with + difficulty that fuel could be got on any terms. Provisions were most + exorbitantly high. Gaming of every species was permitted and even + sanctioned. This vice not only debauched the mind, but by sedentary + confinement and the want of seasonable repose enervated the body. A + foreign officer held the bank at the game of faro by which he made a very + considerable fortune, and but too many respectable families in Britain had + to lament its baleful effects. Officers who might have rendered honorable + service to their country were compelled, by what was termed a bad run of + luck, to dispose of their commissions and return penniless to their + friends in Europe. The father who thought he had made a provision for his + son by purchasing him a commission in the army ultimately found that he + had put his son to school to learn the science of gambling, not the art of + war. Dissipation had spread through the army, and indolence and want of + subordination, its natural concomitants. For if the officer be not + vigilant the soldier will never be alert. + </p> + <p> + "Sir William Howe, from the manners and religious opinions of the + Philadelphians, should have been particularly cautious. For this public + dissoluteness of the troops could not but be regarded by such people as a + contempt of them, as well as an offense against piety; and it influenced + all the representations which they made to their countrymen respecting the + British. They inferred from it, also, that the commander could not be + sufficiently intent on the plans of either conciliation or subjugation; so + that the opinions of the Philadelphians, whether erroneous or not, + materially promoted the cause of Congress. During the whole of this long + winter of riot and dissipation, General Washington was suffered to + continue with the remains of his army, not exceeding 5,000 effective men + at most, undisturbed at Valley Forge, considerable arrears of pay due to + them; almost in a state of nature for want of clothing; the Europeans in + the American service disgusted and deserting in great numbers, and indeed + in companies, to the British army, and the natives tired of the war. Yet, + under all these favorable circumstances for the British interest, no one + step was taken to dislodge Washington, whose cannon were frozen up and + could not be moved. If Sir William Howe had marched out in the night he + might have brought Washington to action, or if he had retreated, he must + have left his sick, cannon, ammunition, and heavy baggage behind. A + nocturnal attack on the Americans would have had this further good effect: + it would have depressed the spirit of revolt, confirmed the wavering, and + attached them to the British interest. It would have opened a passage for + supplies to the city, which was in great want of provisions for the + inhabitants. It would have shaken off that lethargy in which the British + soldiers had been immerged during the winter. It would have convinced the + well-affected that the British leader was in earnest. If Washington had + retreated the British could have followed. With one of the best-appointed + in every respect and finest armies (consisting of at least 14,000 + effective men) ever assembled in any country, a number of officers of + approved service, wishing only to be led to action, this dilatory + commander, Sir William Howe, dragged out the winter without doing any one + thing to obtain the end for which he was commissioned. Proclamation was + issued after proclamation calling upon the people of America to repair to + the British standard, promising them remission of their political sins and + an assurance of protection in both person and property, but these promises + were confined merely to paper. The best personal security to the + inhabitants was an attack by the army, and the best security of property + was peace, and this to be purchased by successful war. For had Sir William + Howe led on his troops to action victory was in his power and conquest in + his train. During Sir William Howe's stay at Philadelphia a number of + disaffected citizens were suffered to remain in the garrison; these people + were ever upon the watch and communicated to Washington every intelligence + he could wish for." + </p> + <p> + We have copied this passage from Stedman, with a view to show the contrast + between the situation of Washington and Howe and their respective armies, + as exhibited by an enemy to our cause. It is literally the contrast + between virtue and vice. The final result shows that Providence in + permitting the occupation of Philadelphia by the British army was really + promoting the cause of human liberty. + </p> + <p> + Stedman's statement of the numbers of Washington's army is erroneous, even + if it refers only to effective men, and his schemes for annihilating + Washington's army would probably not have been so easily executed as he + imagined. Still the army was very weak. Marshall says that although the + total of the army exceeded 17,000 men (February, 1778), the present + effective rank and file amounted to only 5,012. This statement alone + suggests volumes of misery, sickness, destitution, and suffering. + </p> + <p> + We must now call the reader's attention to the northern campaign of 1777 + which, remote as it was from Washington's immediate scene of action, was + not conducted without his aid and direction. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: This was Lieut.-Col. Samuel Smith, of the Maryland line. + After serving in this perilous post at Fort Mifflin, he was made general, + and in that rank assisted in the defense of Baltimore in the War of 1812. + See Document {A} at the end of this chapter. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Donop was a brave officer. He was found on the battlefield by + Captain Mauduit Duplessis, a talented French engineer, who had assisted + Greene in defense of the fort, and who attended the unfortunate count on + his death-bed till he expired, three days after the battle, at the early + age of thirty-seven. "I die," said he, in his last hour, "a victim of my + ambition, and of the avarice of my sovereign." A fine commentary on the + mercenary system of the German princes. The government of Hesse Cassel + quite recently caused the remains of Count Donop to be removed from Red + Bank, to be interred with distinguished honor in his own country. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Judge Marshall, the biographer of Washington, on whose + account of this affair ours is founded, was present on the occasion. He + served in the army from the beginning of the war; was appointed first + lieutenant in 1776, and captain in 1777. He resigned his commission in + 1778, and, devoting himself to the practice of the law, subsequently rose + to the eminent office of Chief Justice of the United States. He died at + Philadelphia, July 6th, 1836, aged seventy-nine. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. — BURGOYNE'S INVASION OF NEW YORK PUNISHED BY SCHUYLER + AND GATES. 1777. + </h2> + <p> + We have already had occasion to refer to what was passing in the North + during the time when Washington was conducting the arduous campaign in + Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. General Schuyler had held the chief + command of the army operating against Canada since the opening of the war + in 1775. Under his direction the force of Montgomery was sent to Quebec in + the disastrous expedition of which we have already related the history, + and Arnold was acting in a subordinate capacity to Schuyler when he so + bravely resisted the descent of Carleton on the lakes. Schuyler also + performed the best part of the service of resisting the invasion of New + York from Canada, and nearly completed the campaign which terminated in + the surrender of Burgoyne to Gates. To the events of this campaign we now + call the reader's attention. + </p> + <p> + At the commencement of the campaign of 1777 the American army on the + frontier of Canada having been composed chiefly of soldiers enlisted for a + short period only, had been greatly reduced in numbers by the expiration + of their term of service. + </p> + <p> + The cantonments of the British northern army, extending from Isle aux Noix + and Montreal to Quebec, were so distant from each other that they could + not readily have afforded mutual support in case of an attack, but the + Americans were in no condition to avail themselves of this circumstance. + They could scarcely keep up even the appearance of garrisons in their + forts and were apprehensive of an attack on Ticonderoga as soon as the ice + was strong enough to afford an easy passage to troops over the lakes. At + the close of the preceding campaign General Gates had joined the army + under Washington, and the command of the army in the northern department, + comprehending Albany, Ticonderoga, Fort Stanwix, and their dependencies, + remained in the hands of General Schuyler. The services of that + meritorious officer were more solid than brilliant, and had not been duly + valued by Congress, which, like other popular assemblies, was slow in + discerning real and unostentatious merit. Disgusted at the injustice which + he had experienced he was restrained from leaving the army merely by the + deep interest which he took in the arduous struggle in which his country + was engaged, but after a full investigation of his conduct during the + whole of his command, Congress was at length convinced of the value of his + services and requested him to continue at the head of the army of the + northern department. That army he found too weak for the services which it + was expected to perform and ill-supplied with arms, clothes, and + provisions. He made every exertion to organize and place it on a + respectable footing for the ensuing campaign, but his means were scanty + and the new levies arrived slowly. General St. Clair, who had served under + Gates, commanded at Ticonderoga, and, including militia, had nearly 2,000 + men under him, but the works were extensive and would have required 10,000 + men to man them fully. {1} + </p> + <p> + The British ministry had resolved to prosecute the war vigorously on the + northern frontier of the United States, and appointed Burgoyne, who had + served under Carleton in the preceding campaign, to command the royal army + in that quarter. The appointment gave offense to Carleton, then Governor + of Canada, who naturally expected to be continued in the command of the + northern army, and that officer testified his dissatisfaction by tendering + the resignation of his government. But although displeased with the + nomination, he gave Burgoyne every assistance in his power in preparing + for the campaign. + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne had visited England during the winter, concerted with the + ministry a plan of the campaign and given an estimate of the force + necessary for its successful execution. Besides a fine train of artillery + and a suitable body of artillerymen, an army, consisting of more than + 7,000 veteran troops, excellently equipped and in a high state of + discipline, was put under his command. Besides this regular force he had a + great number of Canadians and savages. + </p> + <p> + The employment of the savages had been determined on at the very + commencement of hostilities, their alliance had been courted and their + services accepted, and on the present occasion the British ministry placed + no small dependence on their aid. Carleton was directed to use all his + influence to bring a large body of them into the field, and his exertions + were very successful. General Burgoyne was assisted by a number of + distinguished officers, among whom were Generals Philips, Fraser, Powel, + Hamilton, Riedesel, and Specht. A suitable naval armament, under the + orders of Commodore Lutwych, attended the expedition. + </p> + <p> + After detaching Colonel St. Leger with a body of light troops and Indians, + amounting to about 800 men, by the way of Lake Oswego and the Mohawk + river, to make a diversion in that quarter and to join him when he + advanced to the Hudson, Burgoyne left St. John's on the 16th of June, and, + preceded by his naval armament, sailed up Lake Champlain and in a few days + landed and encamped at Crown Point earlier in the season than the + Americans had thought it possible for him to reach that place. + </p> + <p> + He met his Indian allies and, in imitation of a savage partisan, gave them + a war feast, at which he made them a speech in order to inflame their + courage and repress their barbarous cruelty. He next issued a lofty + proclamation addressed to the inhabitants of the country in which, as if + certain of victory, he threatened to punish with the utmost severity those + who refused to attach themselves to the royal cause. He talked of the + ferocity of the Indians and their eagerness to butcher the friends of + independence, and he graciously promised protection to those who should + return to their duty. The proclamation was so far from answering the + general's intention that it was derided by the people as a model of + pomposity. + </p> + <p> + Having made the necessary arrangements on the 30th of June, Burgoyne + advanced cautiously on both sides of the narrow channel which connects + Lakes Champlain and George, the British on the west and the German + mercenaries on the east, with the naval force in the center, forming a + communication between the two divisions of the army, and on the 1st of + July his van appeared in sight of Ticonderoga. + </p> + <p> + The river Sorel issues from the north end of Lake Champlain and throws its + superfluous waters into the St. Lawrence. Lake Champlain is about eighty + miles long from north to south, and about fourteen miles broad where it is + widest. Crown Point stands at what may properly be considered the south + end of the lake, although a narrow channel, which retains the name of the + lake, proceeds southward and forms a communication with South river and + the waters of Lake George. + </p> + <p> + Ticonderoga is on the west side of the narrow channel, twelve miles south + from Crown Point. It is a rocky angle of land, washed on three sides by + the water and partly covered on the fourth side by a deep morass. On the + space on the northwest quarter, between the morass and the channel, the + French had formerly constructed lines of fortification, which still + remained, and those lines the Americans had strengthened by additional + works. + </p> + <p> + Opposite Ticonderoga on the east side of the channel, which is here + between three and four hundred yards wide, stands a high circular hill + called Mount Independence, which had been occupied by the Americans when + they abandoned Crown Point, and carefully fortified. On the top of it, + which is flat, they had erected a fort and provided it sufficiently with + artillery. Near the foot of the mountain, which extends to the water's + edge, they had raised entrenchments and mounted them with heavy guns, and + had covered those lower works by a battery about half way up the hill. + </p> + <p> + With prodigious labor they had constructed a communication between those + two posts by means of a wooden bridge which was supported by twenty-two + strong wooden pillars placed at nearly equal distances from each other. + The spaces between the pillars were filled up by separate floats, strongly + fastened to each other and to the pillars by chains and rivets. The bridge + was twelve feet wide and the side of it next Lake Champlain was defended + by a boom formed of large pieces of timber, bolted and bound together by + double iron chains an inch and a half thick. Thus an easy communication + was established between Ticonderoga and Mount Independence and the passage + of vessels up the strait prevented. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after passing Ticonderoga the channel becomes wider and, on + the southeast side, receives a large body of water from a stream at that + point called South river, but higher up named Wood creek. From the + southwest come the waters flowing from Lake George, and in the angle + formed by the confluence of those two streams rises a steep and rugged + eminence called Sugar Hill, which overlooks and commands both Ticonderoga + and Mount Independence. That hill had been examined by the Americans, but + General St. Clair, considering the force under his command insufficient to + occupy the extensive works of Ticonderoga and Mount Independence and + flattering himself that the extreme difficulty of the ascent would prevent + the British from availing themselves of it, neglected to take possession + of Sugar Hill. It may be remarked that the north end of Lake George is + between two and three miles above Ticonderoga, but the channel leading to + it is interrupted by rapids and shallows and is unfit for navigation. Lake + George is narrow, but is thirty-five miles long, extending from northeast + to southwest. At the head of it stood a fort of the same name, strong + enough to resist an attack of Indians, but incapable of making any + effectual opposition to regular troops. Nine miles beyond it was Fort + Edward on the Hudson. + </p> + <p> + On the appearance of Burgoyne's van St. Clair had no accurate knowledge of + the strength of the British army, having heard nothing of the + reinforcement from Europe. He imagined that they would attempt to take the + fort by assault and flattered himself that he would easily be able to + repulse them. But, on the 2d of July, the British appeared in great force + on both sides of the channel and encamped four miles from the forts, while + the fleet anchored just beyond the reach of the guns. After a slight + resistance Burgoyne took possession of Mount Hope, an important post on + the south of Ticonderoga, which commanded part of the lines of that fort + as well as the channel leading to Lake George, and extended his lines so + as completely to invest the fort on the west side. The German division + under General Riedesel occupied the eastern bank of the channel and sent + forward a detachment to the vicinity of the rivulet which flows from Mount + Independence. Burgoyne now labored assiduously in bringing forward his + artillery and completing his communications. On the 5th of the month + (July, 1777) he caused Sugar Hill to be examined, and being informed that + the ascent, though difficult, was not impracticable, he immediately + resolved to take possession of it and proceeded with such activity in + raising works and mounting guns upon it that his battery might have been + opened on the garrison next day. + </p> + <p> + These operations received no check from the besieged, because, as it has + been alleged, they were not in a condition to give any. St. Clair was now + nearly surrounded. Only the space between the stream which flows from + Mount Independence and South river remained open, and that was to be + occupied next day. + </p> + <p> + In these circumstances it was requisite for the garrison to come to a + prompt and decisive resolution, either at every hazard to defend the place + to the last extremity or immediately to abandon it. St. Clair called a + council of war, the members of which unanimously advised the immediate + evacuation of the forts, and preparations were instantly made for carrying + this resolution into execution. The British had the command of the + communication with Lake George, and consequently the garrison could not + escape in that direction. The retreat could be effected by the South river + only. Accordingly the invalids, the hospital, and such stores as could be + most easily removed, were put on board 200 boats and, escorted by Colonel + Long's regiment, proceeded, on the night between the 5th and 6th of July, + up the South river towards Skeenesborough. The garrisons of Ticonderoga + and Mount Independence marched by land through Castleton, towards the same + place. The troops were ordered to march out in profound silence and + particularly to set nothing on fire. But these prudent orders were + disobeyed, and, before the rear guard was in motion, the house on Mount + Independence, which General Fermoy had occupied, was seen in flames. That + served as a signal to the enemy, who immediately entered the works and + fired, but without effect, on the rear of the retreating army. + </p> + <p> + The Americans marched in some confusion to Hubbardton whence the main + body, under St. Clair, pushed forward to Castleton. But the English were + not idle. General Fraser, at the head of a strong detachment of grenadiers + and light troops, commenced an eager pursuit by land upon the right bank + of Wood creek: General Riedesel, behind him, rapidly advanced with his + Brunswickers, either to support the English or to act separately as + occasion might require. Burgoyne determined to pursue the Americans by + water. But it was first necessary to destroy the boom and bridge which had + been constructed in front of Ticonderoga. The British seamen and + artificers immediately engaged in the operation, and in less time than it + would have taken to describe their structure, those works which had cost + so much labor and so vast an expense, were cut through and demolished. The + passage thus cleared, the ships of Burgoyne immediately entered Wood creek + and proceeded with extreme rapidity in search of the Americans. All was in + movement at once upon land and water. By three in the afternoon the van of + the British squadron, composed of gunboats, came up with and attacked the + American galleys near Skeenesborough Falls. In the meantime three + regiments which had been landed at South bay, ascended and passed a + mountain with great expedition, in order to turn the retreating army above + Wood creek, to destroy the works at the Falls of Skeenesborough, and thus + to cut off the retreat of the army to Fort Anne. But the Americans eluded + this stroke by the rapidity of their march. The British frigates having + joined the van, the galleys, already hard pressed by the gunboats, were + completely overpowered. Two of them surrendered; three of them were blown + up. The Americans having set fire to their boats, mills, and other works, + fell back upon Fort Anne, higher up Wood creek. All their baggage, + however, was lost and a large quantity of provisions and military stores + fell into the hands of the British. + </p> + <p> + The pursuit by land was not less active. Early on the morning of the 7th + of July (1777) the British overtook the American rear guard who, in + opposition to St. Clair's orders, had lingered behind and posted + themselves on strong ground in the vicinity of Hubbardton. Fraser's troops + were little more than half the number opposed to him, but aware that + Riedesel was close behind and fearful lest his chase should give him the + slip, he ordered an immediate attack. Warner opposed a vigorous + resistance, but a large body of his militia retreated and left him to + sustain the combat alone, when the firing of Riedesel's advanced guard was + heard and shortly after his whole force, drums beating and colors flying, + emerged from the shades of the forest and part of his troops immediately + effected a junction with the British line. Fraser now gave orders for a + simultaneous advance with the bayonet which was effected with such + resistless impetuosity that the Americans broke and fled, sustaining a + very serious loss. St. Clair, upon hearing the firing, endeavored to send + back some assistance, but the discouraged militia refused to return and + there was no alternative but to collect the wrecks of his army and proceed + to Fort Edward to effect a junction with Schuyler. + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne lost not a moment in following up his success at Skeenesborough, + but dispatched a regiment to effect the capture of Fort Anne, defended by + a small party under the command of Colonel Long. This officer judiciously + posted his troops in a narrow ravine through which his assailants were + compelled to pass and opened upon them so severe a fire in front, flank, + and rear, that the British regiments, nearly surrounded, with difficulty + escaped to a neighboring hill, where the Americans attacked them anew with + such vigor that they must have been utterly defeated had not the + ammunition of the assailants given out at this critical moment. No longer + being able to fight Long's troops fell back, and, setting the fort on + fire, also directed their retreat to the headquarters at Fort Edward. + </p> + <p> + While at Skeenesborough, General Burgoyne issued a second proclamation + summoning the people of the adjacent country to send ten deputies from + each township to meet Colonel Skeene at Castleton in order to deliberate + on such measures as might still be adopted to save those who had not yet + conformed to his first and submitted to the royal authority. General + Schuyler, apprehending some effect from this paper, issued a + counter-proclamation, stating the insidious designs of the enemy—warning + the inhabitants by the example of Jersey of the danger to which their + yielding to this seductive proposition would expose them and giving them + the most solemn assurances that all who should send deputies to this + meeting or in any manner aid the enemy, would be considered as traitors + and should suffer the utmost rigor of the law. + </p> + <p> + Nothing, as Botta remarks, {2} could exceed the consternation and terror + which the victory of Ticonderoga and the subsequent successes of Burgoyne + spread through the American provinces nor the joy and exultation they + excited in England. The arrival of these glad tidings was celebrated by + the most brilliant rejoicings at court and welcomed with the same + enthusiasm by all those who desired the unconditional reduction of + America. They already announced the approaching termination of this + glorious war; they openly declared it a thing impossible that the rebels + should ever recover from the shock of their recent losses, as well of men + as of arms and of military stores, and especially that they should ever + regain their courage and reputation, which, in war, always contribute to + success as much, at least, as arms themselves. Even the ancient reproaches + of cowardice were renewed against the Americans and their own partisans + abated much of the esteem they had borne them. They were more than half + disposed to pronounce the Colonists unworthy to defend that liberty which + they gloried in with so much complacency. But it deserves to be noted here + especially that there was no sign of faltering on the part of the people, + no disposition to submit to the invading force. The success of the enemy + did but nerve our fathers to more vigorous resolves to maintain the cause + of liberty even unto death. + </p> + <p> + Certainly the campaign had been opened and prosecuted thus far in a very + dashing style by Burgoyne and had he been able to press forward it is + quite possible that success might have crowned his efforts. But there were + some sixteen miles of forest yet to be traversed; Burgoyne waited for his + baggage and stores, and meanwhile General Schuyler, who was in command of + the American forces, took such steps as would necessarily put a stop to + the rapid approach of the enemy. Trenches were opened, the roads and paths + were obstructed, the bridges were broken up, and in the only practicable + defiles large trees were cut in such a manner on both sides of the road as + to fall across and lengthwise, which, with their branches interwoven, + presented an insurmountable barrier; in a word, this wilderness, of itself + by no means easy of passage, was thus rendered almost absolutely + impenetrable. Nor did Schuyler rest satisfied with these precautions; he + directed the cattle to be removed to the most distant places and the + stores and baggage from Fort George to Fort Edward, that articles of such + necessity for the troops might not fall into the power of the British. He + urgently demanded that all the regiments of regular troops found in the + adjacent States should be sent without delay to join him; he also made + earnest and frequent calls upon the militia of New England and of New + York. He likewise exerted his utmost endeavors to procure himself recruits + in the vicinity of Fort Edward and the city of Albany; the great influence + he enjoyed with the inhabitants gave him in this quarter all the success + he could desire. Finally, to retard the progress of the enemy, he resolved + to threaten his left flank. Accordingly, he detached Colonel Warner, with + his regiment, into the State of Vermont with orders to assemble the + militia of the country and to make incursions toward Ticonderoga. In fact + Schuyler did everything which was possible to be done under the + circumstances, and it is not too much to assert in justice to the good + name of General Schuyler, that the measures which he adopted paved the way + to the victory which finally crowned the American arms at Saratoga. + </p> + <p> + Washington, equally with Congress, supposing that Schuyler's force was + stronger and that of the British weaker than was really the case, was very + greatly distressed and astonished at the disasters which befell the + American cause in the north. He waited, therefore, with no little anxiety, + later and more correct information before he was willing to pronounce + positively upon the course pursued by St. Clair. When that officer joined + Schuyler the whole force did not exceed 4,400 men; about half of these + were militia, and the whole were ill-clothed, badly armed, and greatly + dispirited by the recent reverses. Very ungenerously and unjustly it was + proposed to remove the northern officers from the command and send + successors in their places. An inquiry was instituted by order of + Congress, which resulted honorably for Schuyler and his officers, and + Schuyler, the able commander and zealous-hearted patriot, remained for the + present at the head of the northern department. {3} + </p> + <p> + Washington exerted himself with all diligence to send reinforcements and + supplies to the army of Schuyler. The artillery and warlike stores were + expedited from Massachusetts. General Lincoln, a man of great influence in + New England, was sent there to encourage the militia to enlist. Arnold, in + like manner, repaired thither; it was thought his ardor might serve to + inspire the dejected troops. Colonel Morgan, an officer whose brilliant + valor we have already had occasion to remark, was ordered to take the same + direction with his troop of light horse. All these measures, conceived + with prudence and executed with promptitude, produced the natural effect. + The Americans recovered by degrees their former spirit and the army + increased from day to day. + </p> + <p> + During this interval Burgoyne actively exerted himself in opening a + passage from Fort Anne to Fort Edward. But, notwithstanding the diligence + with which the whole army engaged in the work, their progress was + exceedingly slow, so formidable were the obstacles which nature as well as + art had thrown in their way. Besides having to remove the fallen trees + with which the Americans had obstructed the roads they had no less than + forty bridges to construct and many others to repair; one of these was + entirely of log work, over a morass two miles wide. In short the British + encountered so many impediments in measuring this inconsiderable space + that it was found impossible to reach the banks of the Hudson near Fort + Edward until the 30th of July (1777). The Americans, either because they + were too feeble to oppose the enemy or that Fort Edward was no better than + a ruin, not susceptible of defense, or finally because they were + apprehensive that Colonel St. Leger, after the reduction of Fort Stanwix, + might descend by the left bank of the Mohawk to the Hudson and thus cut + off their retreat, retired lower down to Stillwater where they threw up + entrenchments. At the same time they evacuated Fort George, having + previously burned their boats upon the lake, and in various ways + obstructed the road to Fort Edward. Burgoyne might have reached Fort + Edward much more readily by way of Lake George, but he had judged it best + to pursue the panic-stricken Americans, and, despite the difficulties of + the route, not to throw any discouragements in the way of his troops by a + retrograde movement. + </p> + <p> + At Fort Edward General Burgoyne again found it necessary to pause in his + career, for his carriages, which in the hurry had been made of unseasoned + wood, were much broken down and needed to be repaired. From the + unavoidable difficulties of the case not more than one-third of the + draught horses contracted for in Canada had arrived, and General Schuyler + had been careful to remove almost all the horses and draught cattle of the + country out of his way. Boats for the navigation of the Hudson, + provisions, stores, artillery, and other necessaries for the army were all + to be brought from Fort George, and although that place was only nine or + ten miles from Fort Edward, yet such was the condition of the roads, + rendered nearly impassable by the great quantities of rain that had + fallen, that the labor of transporting necessaries was incredible. + Burgoyne had collected about 100 oxen, but it was often necessary to + employ ten or twelve of them in transporting a single boat. With his + utmost exertions he had on the 15th of August conveyed only twelve boats + into the Hudson and provisions for the army for four days in advance. + Matters began to assume a very serious aspect indeed, and as the further + he removed from the lakes the more difficult it became to get supplies + from that quarter, Burgoyne saw clearly that he must look elsewhere for + sustenance for his army. + </p> + <p> + The British commander was not ignorant that the Americans had accumulated + considerable stores, including live cattle and vehicles of various kinds + at Bennington, about twenty-four miles east of the Hudson. Burgoyne, + easily persuaded that the Tories in that region would aid his efforts, and + thinking that he could alarm the country as well as secure the supplies of + which he began to stand in great need, determined to detach Colonel Baum + with a force of some six or eight hundred of Riedesel's dragoons for the + attack upon Bennington. His instructions to Baum were "to try the + affections of the country, to disconcert the counsels of the enemy, to + mount Riedesel's dragoons, to complete Peters' corps (of Loyalists), and + to obtain large supplies of cattle, horses, and carriages." Baum set off + on the 13th of August on this expedition which was to result so + unfortunately to himself, and which proved in fact the ruin of Burgoyne's + entire plans and purposes. + </p> + <p> + We have spoken of the consternation which filled the minds of men a short + time before this, when Burgoyne seemed to be marching in triumph through + the country. The alarm, however, subsided, and the New England States + resolved to make most vigorous efforts to repel the attack of the enemy. + John Langdon, a merchant of Portsmouth and speaker of the New Hampshire + Assembly, roused the desponding minds of his fellow-members to the need of + providing defense for the frontiers, and with whole-hearted patriotism + thus addressed them: "I have $3,000 in hard money; I will pledge my plate + for $3,000 more. I have seventy hogsheads of Tobago rum which shall be + sold for the most it will bring. These are at the service of the State. If + we succeed in defending our firesides and homes I may be remunerated, if + we do not the property will be of no value to me. Our old friend Stark, + who so nobly sustained the honor of our State at Bunker Hill may be safely + entrusted with the conduct of the enterprise, and we will check the + progress of Burgoyne." That brave son of New Hampshire, General Stark, + conceiving himself aggrieved by certain acts of Congress in appointing + junior officers over his head, had resigned his commission. He was now + prevailed upon to take service under authority from his native State, it + being understood that he was to act independently as to his movements + against the enemy. His popularity speedily called in the militia, who were + ready to take the field under him without hesitation. + </p> + <p> + Soon after Stark proceeded to Manchester, twenty miles north of + Bennington, where Colonel Seth Warner, the former associate of Ethan + Allen, had taken post with the troops under his command. Here he met + General Lincoln, who had been sent by Schuyler to lead the militia to the + west bank of the Hudson. Stark refused to obey Schuyler's orders, and + Congress, on the 19th of August (1777), passed a vote of censure upon his + conduct. But Stark did not know of this, and as his course was clearly + that of sound policy, and his victory two days before the censure cast + upon him showed it to be so, he had the proud satisfaction of knowing that + the Commander-in-Chief approved of his plan of harassing the rear of the + British, and that the victory of Bennington paralyzed the entire + operations of Burgoyne. + </p> + <p> + On the day that Baum set out Stark arrived at Bennington. The progress of + the German troops, at first tolerably prosperous, was soon impeded by the + state of the roads and the weather, and as soon as Stark heard of their + approach he hurried off expresses to Warner to join him, who began his + march in the night. After sending forward Colonel Gregg to reconnoiter the + enemy he advanced to the rencontre with Baum, who, finding the country + thus rising around him, halted and entrenched himself in a strong position + above the Wollamsac river and sent off an express to Burgoyne, who + instantly dispatched Lieutenant-Colonel Breyman with a strong + reinforcement. + </p> + <p> + During the 15th of August (1777) the rain prevented any serious movement. + The Germans and English continued to labor at their entrenchments upon + which they had mounted two pieces of artillery. The following day was + bright and sunny and early in the morning Stark sent forward two columns + to storm the entrenchments at different points, and when the firing had + commenced threw himself on horseback and advanced with the rest of his + troops. As soon as the enemy's columns were seen forming on the hill-side, + he exclaimed, "See, men! there are the red coats; we must beat to-day, or + Molly Stark's a widow." The military replied to this appeal by a + tremendous shout and the battle which ensued, as Stark states in his + official report, "lasted two hours, and was the hottest I ever saw. It was + like one continual clap of thunder." The Indians ran off at the beginning + of the battle; the Tories were driven across the river; and although the + Germans fought bravely they were compelled to abandon the entrenchments, + and fled, leaving their artillery and baggage on the field. + </p> + <p> + As Breyman and his corps approached they heard the firing and hurried + forward to the aid of their countrymen. An hour or two earlier they might + have given a different turn to the affair, but the heavy rain had delayed + their progress. They met and rallied the fugitives and returned to the + field of battle. Stark's troops, who were engaged in plunder, were taken + in great measure by surprise, and the victory might after all have been + wrested from their grasp but for the opportune arrival of Warner's + regiment at the critical moment. The battle continued until sunset when + the Germans, overwhelmed by numbers, at length abandoned their baggage and + fled. Colonel Baum, their brave commander, was killed, and the British + loss amounted to some eight or nine hundred effective troops, in killed + and prisoners. The loss of the Americans was 30 killed and 40 wounded. + Stark's horse was killed in the action. + </p> + <p> + Too much praise, as Mr. Everett well remarks, {4} cannot be bestowed on + the conduct of those who gained the battle of Bennington, officers and + men. It is, perhaps, the most conspicuous example of the performance by + militia of all that is expected of regular, veteran troops. The fortitude + and resolution with which the lines at Bunker Hill were maintained by + recent recruits against the assault of a powerful army of experienced + soldiers have always been regarded with admiration. But at Bennington the + hardy yeomen of New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts, many of them + fresh from the plough and unused to the camp, "advanced," as General Stark + expresses it in his official letter, "through fire and smoke, and mounted + breastworks that were well fortified and defended with cannon." + </p> + <p> + Fortunately for the success of the battle Stark was most ably seconded by + the officers under him; every previous disposition of his little force was + most faithfully executed. He expresses his particular obligations to + Colonels Warner and Herrick, "whose superior skill was of great service to + him." Indeed the battle was planned and fought with a degree of military + talent and science which would have done no discredit to any service in + Europe. A higher degree of discipline might have enabled the general to + check the eagerness of his men to possess themselves of the spoils of + victory, but his ability, even in that moment of dispersion and under the + flush of success, to meet and conquer a hostile reinforcement, evinces a + judgment and resource not often equaled in partisan warfare. + </p> + <p> + In fact it would be the height of injustice not to recognize in this + battle the marks of the master mind of the leader, which makes good + officers and good soldiers out of any materials and infuses its own spirit + into all that surround it. This brilliant exploit was the work of Stark + from its inception to its achievement. His popular name called the militia + together. His resolute will obtained him a separate commission—at + the expense, it is true, of a wise political principle, but on the present + occasion with the happiest effect. His firmness prevented him from being + overruled by the influence of General Lincoln, which would have led him + with his troops across the Hudson. How few are the men who in such a + crisis would not merely not have sought but actually have repudiated a + junction with the main army! How few who would not only have desired, but + actually insisted on taking the responsibility of separate action! Having + chosen the burden of acting alone, he acquitted himself in the discharge + of his duty with the spirit and vigor of a man conscious of ability + proportioned to the crisis. He advanced against the enemy with + promptitude; sent forward a small force to reconnoiter and measure his + strength; chose his ground deliberately and with skill; planned and fought + the battle with gallantry and success. + </p> + <p> + The consequences of this victory were of great moment. It roused the + people and nerved them to the contest with the enemy, and it also + justified the sagacity of Washington, whose words we have quoted on a + previous page. Burgoyne's plans were wholly deranged and instead of + relying upon lateral excursions to keep the population in alarm and obtain + supplies, he was compelled to procure necessaries as best he might. His + rear was exposed, and Stark, acting on his line of policy, prepared to + place himself so that Burgoyne might be hemmed in and be, as soon after he + was, unable to advance or retreat. When Washington heard of Stark's + victory he was in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, whence he wrote to Putnam: + "As there is now not the least danger of General Howe's going to New + England I hope the whole force of that country will turn out and by + following the great stroke struck by General Stark, near Bennington, + entirely crush General Burgoyne, who, by his letter to Colonel Baum, seems + to be in want of almost everything." + </p> + <p> + The defeat at Bennington was not the only misfortune which now fell upon + the British arms. We have noted on a previous page that Burgoyne had + detached Colonel St. Leger with a body of regular troops, Canadians, + Loyalists, and Indians, by the way of Oswego, to make a diversion on the + upper part of the Mohawk river and afterward join him on his way to + Albany. On the 2d of August (1777) St. Leger approached Fort Stanwix, or + Schuyler, a log fortification situated on rising ground near the source of + the Mohawk river, and garrisoned by about 600 Continentals under the + command of Colonel Gansevoort. Next day he invested the place with an army + of sixteen or seventeen hundred men, nearly one-half of whom were Indians, + and the rest British, Germans, Canadians, and Tories. On being summoned to + surrender Gansevoort answered that he would defend the place to the last. + </p> + <p> + On the approach of St. Leger to Fort Schuyler, General Herkimer, who + commanded the militia of Tryon county, assembled about 700 of them and + marched to the assistance of the garrison. On the forenoon of the 6th of + August a messenger from Herkimer found means to enter the fort and gave + notice that he was only eight miles distant and intended that day to force + a passage into the fort and join the garrison. Gansevoort resolved to aid + the attempt by a vigorous sally, and appointed Colonel Willet with upwards + of 200 men to that service. + </p> + <p> + St. Leger received information of the approach of Herkimer, and placed a + large body consisting of the "Johnson Greens," and Brant's Indians in + ambush near Oriskany, on the road by which he was to advance. Herkimer + fell into the snare. The first notice which he received of the presence of + an enemy was from a heavy discharge of musketry on his troops, which was + instantly followed by the war-whoop of the Indians who attacked the + militia with their tomahawks. Though disconcerted by the suddenness of the + attack many of the militia behaved with spirit, and a scene of unutterable + confusion and carnage ensued. The royal troops and the militia became so + closely crowded together that they had not room to use firearms, but + pushed and pulled each other, and using their daggers, fell pierced by + mutual wounds. Some of the militia fled at the first onset; others made + their escape afterwards; about 100 of them retreated to a rising ground + where they bravely defended themselves till a successful sortie from the + fort compelled the British to look to the defense of their own camp. + Colonel Willet in this sally killed a number of the enemy, destroyed their + provisions, carried off some spoil, and returned to the fort without the + loss of a man. Besides the loss of the brave General Herkimer, who was + slain, the number of the killed was computed at 400. St. Leger, imitating + the grandiloquent style of Burgoyne, again summoned the fort to surrender, + but Colonel Gansevoort peremptorily refused. Colonel Willet, accompanied + by Lieutenant Stockwell, having passed through the British camp, eluded + the patrols and the savages and made his way for fifty miles through + pathless woods and dangerous morasses and informed General Schuyler of the + position of the fort and the need of help in the emergency. He determined + to afford it to the extent of his power, and Arnold, who was always ready + for such expeditions, agreed to take command of the troops for the purpose + of relieving the fort. Arnold put in practice an acute stratagem, which + materially facilitated his success. It was this. Among the Tory prisoners + was one Yost Cuyler, who had been condemned to death, but whom Arnold + agreed to spare on consideration of his implicitly carrying out his plan. + Accordingly, Cuyler, having made several holes in his coat to imitate + bullet shots, rushed breathless among the Indian allies of St. Leger and + informed them that he had just escaped in a battle with the Americans who + were advancing on them with the utmost celerity. While pointing to his + coat for proof of his statement, a sachem, also in the plot, came in and + confirmed the intelligence. Other scouts arrived speedily with a report + which probably grew out of the affair at Bennington, that Burgoyne's army + was entirely routed. All this made a deep impression upon the + fickle-minded redmen. + </p> + <p> + Fort Schuyler was better constructed and defended with more courage than + St. Leger had expected, and his light artillery made little impression on + it. His Indians, who liked better to take scalps and plunder than to + besiege fortresses became very unmanageable. The loss which they had + sustained in the encounters with Herkimer and Willet deeply affected them; + they had expected to be witnesses of the triumphs of the British and to + share with them the plunder. Hard service and little reward caused bitter + disappointment, and when they knew that a strong detachment of Americans + was marching against them, they resolved to take safety in flight. St. + Leger employed every argument and artifice to detain them, but in vain; + part of them went off and all the rest threatened to follow if the siege + were persevered in. Therefore, on the 22d of August (1777), St. Leger + raised the siege, and retreated with circumstances indicating great alarm; + the tents were left standing, the artillery was abandoned, and a great + part of the baggage, ammunition, and provisions fell into the hands of the + garrison, a detachment from which harassed the retreating enemy. But the + British troops were exposed to greater danger from the fury of their + savage allies than from the pursuit of the Americans. During the retreat + they robbed the officers of their baggage, and the army generally of their + provisions and stores. Not content with this they first stripped off their + arms, and afterwards murdered with their own bayonets all those who from + inability to keep up, from fear or other cause were separated from the + main body. The confusion, terror, and sufferings of this retreat found no + respite till the royal troops reached the lake on their way to Montreal. + </p> + <p> + Arnold arrived at Fort Schuyler two days after the retreat of the + besiegers, but finding no occasion for his services he soon returned to + camp. The successful defense of Fort Stanwix, or Schuyler, powerfully + cooperated with the defeat of the royal troops at Bennington in raising + the spirits and invigorating the activity of the Americans. The Loyalists + became timid; the wavering began to doubt the success of the royal arms, + and the great body of the people became convinced that nothing but steady + exertion on their part was necessary to ruin that army which a short time + before had appeared to be sweeping every obstacle from its path on the + high road to victory. The decisive victory at Bennington and the retreat + of St. Leger from Fort Schuyler, however important in themselves, were + still more so in their consequences. An army which had spread terror and + dismay in every direction—which had previously experienced no + reverse of fortune was considered as already beaten, and the opinion + became common that the appearance of the great body of the people in arms + would secure the emancipation of their country. It was, too, an advantage + of no inconsiderable importance resulting from this change of public + opinion that the disaffected became timid, and the wavering who, had the + torrent of success continued, would have made a merit of contributing + their aid to the victor were no longer disposed to put themselves and + their fortunes in hazard to support an army whose fate was so uncertain. + </p> + <p> + The barbarities which had been perpetrated by the Indians belonging to the + invading armies excited still more resentment than terror. As the prospect + of revenge began to open their effect became the more apparent, and their + influence on the royal cause was the more sensibly felt because they had + been indiscriminate. + </p> + <p> + The murder of Miss M'Crea passed through all the papers on the continent, + and the story being retouched by the hand of more than one master, excited + a peculiar degree of sensibility. {5} + </p> + <p> + But there were other causes of still greater influence in producing the + events which afterward took place. The last reinforcements of Continental + troops arrived in camp about this time and added both courage and strength + to the army. The harvest, which had detained the northern militia upon + their farms, was over, and General Schuyler, whose continued and eminent + services had not exempted him from the imputation of being a traitor, was + succeeded by General Gates, who possessed a large share of the public + confidence. + </p> + <p> + When Schuyler was directed by Congress to resume the command of the + northern department, Gates withdrew himself from it. When the resolution + passed recalling the general officers who had served in that department, + General Washington was requested to name a successor to Schuyler. On his + expressing a wish to decline this nomination and representing the + inconvenience of removing all the general officers, Gates was again + directed to repair thither and take the command, and their resolution to + recall the brigadiers was suspended until the Commander-in-Chief should be + of opinion that it might be carried into effect with safety. + </p> + <p> + Schuyler retained the command until the arrival of Gates, which was on the + 10th of August (1777), and continued his exertions to restore the affairs + of the department, though he felt acutely the disgrace of being recalled + in this critical and interesting state of the campaign. "It is," said he, + in a letter to the Commander-in-Chief, "matter of extreme chagrin to me to + be deprived of the command at a time when, soon if ever, we shall probably + be enabled to face the enemy; when we are on the point of taking ground + where they must attack to a disadvantage, should our force be inadequate + to facing them in the field; when an opportunity will in all probability + occur in which I might evince that I am not what Congress have too plainly + insinuated by taking the command from me." + </p> + <p> + If error be attributable to the evacuation of Ticonderoga, no portion of + it was committed by Schuyler. His removal from the command was probably + severe and unjust as respected himself, but perhaps wise as respected + America. The frontier towards the lakes was to be defended by the troops + of New England, and however unfounded their prejudices against him might + be, it was prudent to consult them. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the difficulties which multiplied around him Burgoyne + remained steady to his purpose. The disasters at Bennington and on the + Mohawk produced no disposition to abandon the enterprise and save his + army. + </p> + <p> + It had now become necessary for Burgoyne to recur to the slow and toilsome + mode of obtaining supplies from Fort George. Having, with persevering + labor, collected provision for thirty days in advance he crossed the + Hudson on the 13th and 14th of September (1777) and encamped on the + heights and plains of Saratoga, with a determination to decide the fate of + the expedition in a general engagement. + </p> + <p> + Gates, having been joined by all the Continental troops destined for the + northern department and reinforced by large bodies of militia, had moved + from his camp in the islands, and advanced to the neighborhood of + Stillwater. + </p> + <p> + The bridges between the two armies having been broken down by General + Schuyler, the roads being excessively bad and the country covered with + wood, the progress of the British army down the river was slow. On the + night of the 17th of September, Burgoyne encamped within four miles of the + American army and the next day was employed in repairing the bridges + between the two camps. In the morning of the 19th he advanced in full + force toward the American left. Morgan was immediately detached with his + rifle corps to observe the enemy and to harass his front and flanks. He + fell in with a picket in front of the right wing which he attacked with + vivacity and drove in upon the main body. Pursuing with too much ardor he + was met in considerable force, and after a severe encounter was compelled + in turn to retire in some disorder. Two regiments led by Arnold being + advanced to his assistance his corps was rallied, and the action became + more general. The Americans were formed in a wood, with an open field in + front, and invariably repulsed the British corps which attacked them, but + when they pursued those corps to the main body they were in turn driven + back to their first ground. Reinforcements were continually brought up, + and about 4 in the afternoon upward of 3,000 American troops were closely + engaged with the whole right wing of the British army commanded by General + Burgoyne in person. The conflict was extremely severe and only terminated + with the day. At dark the Americans retired to their camp, and the + British, who had found great difficulty in maintaining their ground, lay + all night on their arms near the field of battle. + </p> + <p> + In this action the killed and wounded on the part of the Americans were + between three and four hundred. Among the former were Colonels Colburn and + Adams and several other valuable officers. The British loss has been + estimated at rather more than 500 men. + </p> + <p> + Each army claimed the victory and each believed itself to have beaten near + the whole of the hostile army with only a part of its own force. The + advantage, however, taking all circumstances into consideration, was + decidedly with the Americans. In a conflict which nearly consumed the day, + they found themselves at least equal to their antagonists. In every + quarter they had acted on the offensive, and after an encounter for + several hours had not lost an inch of ground. They had not been driven + from the field, but had retired from it at the close of day to the camp + from which they had marched to battle. Their object, which was to check + the advancing enemy, had been obtained, while that of the British general + had failed. In the actual state of things to fight without being beaten + was on their part victory, while on the part of the British to fight + without a decisive victory was defeat. The Indians who found themselves + beaten in the woods by Morgan, {6} and restrained from scalping and + plundering the unarmed by Burgoyne, saw before them the prospect of hard + fighting without profit, grew tired of the service and deserted in great + numbers. The Canadians and Provincials were not much more faithful, and + Burgoyne soon perceived that his hopes must rest almost entirely on his + European troops. + </p> + <p> + With reason, therefore, this action was celebrated throughout the United + States as a victory and considered as the precursor of the total ruin of + the invading army. The utmost exultation was displayed and the militia + were stimulated to fly to arms and complete the work so happily begun. + </p> + <p> + General Lincoln, in conformity with directions which have been stated, had + assembled a considerable body of New England militia in the rear of + Burgoyne, from which he drew three parties of about 500 men each. One of + these was detached under the command of Colonel Brown to the north end of + Lake George, principally to relieve a number of prisoners who were + confined there, but with orders to push his success, should he be + fortunate, as far as prudence would admit. Colonel Johnson, at the head of + another party, marched towards Mount Independence, and Colonel Woodbury + with a third was detached to Skeenesborough to cover the retreat of both + the others. With the residue, Lincoln proceeded to the camp of Gates. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Brown, after marching all night, arrived at the break of day on + the north end of the lake where he found a small post which he carried + without opposition. The surprise was complete, and he took possession of + Mount Defiance, Mount Hope, the landing place, and about 200 batteaux. + With the loss of only three killed and five wounded, he liberated 100 + American prisoners and captured 293 of the enemy. This success was + joyfully proclaimed through the northern States. It was believed + confidently that Ticonderoga and Mount Independence were recovered, and + the militia were exhorted, by joining their brethren in the army, to + insure that event if it had not already happened. + </p> + <p> + The attempt on those places, however, failed. The garrison repulsed the + assailants, who, after a few days abandoned the siege. On their return + through Lake George in the vessels they had captured the militia made an + attack on Diamond Island, the depot of all the stores collected at the + north end of the lake. Being again repulsed they destroyed the vessels + they had taken and returned to their former station. + </p> + <p> + The day after the battle of Stillwater General Burgoyne took a position + almost within cannon-shot of the American camp, fortified his right, and + extended his left to the river. Directly after taking this ground he + received a letter from Sir Henry Clinton informing him that he should + attack Fort Montgomery about the 20th of September (1777). The messenger + returned with information that Burgoyne was in extreme difficulty and + would endeavor to wait for aid until the 12th of October. {7} + </p> + <p> + Both armies retained their position until the 7th of October (1777). + Burgoyne in the hope of being relieved by Sir Henry Clinton, and Gates in + the confidence of growing stronger every day. + </p> + <p> + Having received no further intelligence from Sir Henry and being reduced + to the necessity of diminishing the ration issued to his soldiers, + Burgoyne determined to make one more trial of strength with his adversary. + In execution of this determination he drew out on his right 1,500 choice + troops whom he commanded in person assisted by Generals Philips, Riedesel, + and Fraser. + </p> + <p> + The right wing was formed within three-quarters of a mile of the left of + the American camp, and a corps of rangers, Indians, and Provincials was + pushed on through secret paths to show themselves in its rear and excite + alarm in that quarter. + </p> + <p> + These movements were perceived by General Gates, who determined to attack + their left and at the same time to fall on their right flank. Poor's + brigade and some regiments from New Hampshire were ordered to meet them in + front, while Morgan with his rifle corps made a circuit unperceived and + seized a very advantageous height covered with wood on their right. As + soon as it was supposed that Morgan had gained the ground he intended to + occupy the attack was made in front and on the left in great force. At + this critical moment Morgan poured in a deadly and incessant fire on the + front and right flank. + </p> + <p> + While the British right wing was thus closely pressed in front and on its + flank, a distinct division of the American troops was ordered to intercept + its retreat to camp, and to separate it from the residue of the army. + Burgoyne perceived the danger of his situation and ordered the light + infantry under General Fraser with part of the Twenty-fourth regiment to + form a second line in order to cover the light infantry of the right and + secure a retreat. While this movement was in progress the left of the + British right was forced from its ground and the light infantry was + ordered to its aid. In the attempt to execute this order they were + attacked by the rifle corps with great effect, and Fraser was mortally + wounded. Overpowered by numbers and pressed on all sides by a superior + weight of fire, Burgoyne with great difficulty and with the loss of his + field pieces and great part of his artillery corps regained his camp. The + Americans followed close in his rear, and assaulted his works throughout + their whole extent. Toward the close of day the entrenchments were forced + on their right, and General Arnold with a few men actually entered their + works, but his horse being killed under him and himself wounded, the + troops were forced out of them, and it being nearly dark they desisted + from the assault. The left of Arnold's division was still more successful. + Jackson's regiment of Massachusetts, then led by Lieutenant-Colonel + Brooks, turned the right of the encampment and stormed the works occupied + by the German reserve. Lieutenant-Colonel Breyman who commanded in them + was killed and the works were carried. The orders given by Burgoyne to + recover them were not executed, and Brooks maintained the ground he had + gained. + </p> + <p> + Darkness put an end to the action and the Americans lay all night with + their arms in their hands about half a mile from the British lines ready + to renew the assault with the return of day. The advantage they had gained + was decisive. They had taken several pieces of artillery, killed a great + number of men, made upwards of 200 prisoners, among whom were several + officers of distinction, and had penetrated the lines in a part which + exposed the whole to considerable danger. + </p> + <p> + Unwilling to risk the events of the next day on the same ground, Burgoyne + changed his position in the course of the night and drew his whole army + into a strong camp on the river heights, extending his right up the river. + This movement extricated him from the danger of being attacked the ensuing + morning by an enemy already in possession of part of his works. The 8th of + October (1777) was spent in skirmishing and cannonading. About sunset the + body of General Fraser, who had been mortally wounded on the preceding day + was, agreeably to his own desire, carried up the hill to be interred in + the great redoubt attended only by the officers who had lived in his + family. Generals Burgoyne, Philips, and Riedesel, in testimony of respect + and affection for their late brave companion in arms joined the mournful + procession which necessarily passed in view of both armies. The incessant + cannonade, the steady attitude and unfaltering voice of the chaplain, and + the firm demeanor of the company, though occasionally covered with the + earth thrown up by the shot from the hostile batteries ploughing the + ground around them, the mute expression of feeling pictured on every + countenance, and the increasing gloom of the evening, all contributed to + give an affecting solemnity to the obsequies. General Gates afterwards + declared that if he had been apprised of what was going on he would at + least have silenced his batteries and allowed the last offices of humanity + to be performed without disturbance, or even have ordered minute-guns to + be fired in honor of the deceased general. + </p> + <p> + Gates perceived the strength of Burgoyne's new position and was not + disposed to hazard an assault. Aware of the critical situation of his + adversary he detached a party higher up the Hudson for the purpose of + intercepting the British army on its retreat, while strong corps were + posted on the other side of the river to guard its passage. + </p> + <p> + This movement compelled Burgoyne again to change his position and to + retire to Saratoga. About 9 at night the retreat was commenced and was + effected with the loss of his hospital, containing about 300 sick, and of + several batteaux laden with provisions and baggage. On reaching the ground + to be occupied he found a strong corps already entrenched on the opposite + side of the river prepared to dispute its passage. From Saratoga, Burgoyne + detached a company of artificers under a strong escort to repair the roads + and bridges toward Fort Edward. Scarcely had this detachment moved when + the Americans appeared in force on the heights south of Saratoga creek and + made dispositions which excited the apprehension of a design to cross it + and attack his camp. The Europeans escorting the artificers were recalled, + and a Provincial corps employed in the same service, being attacked by a + small party, ran away and left the workmen to shift for themselves. No + hope of repairing the roads remaining it became impossible to move the + baggage and artillery. + </p> + <p> + The British army was now almost completely environed by a superior force. + No means remained of extricating itself from difficulties and dangers + which were continually increasing, but fording a river, on the opposite + bank of which a formidable body of troops was already posted, and then + escaping to Fort George through roads impassable by artillery or wagons, + while its rear was closely pressed by a victorious enemy. {8} + </p> + <p> + A council of general officers, called to deliberate on their situation, + took the bold resolution to abandon everything but their arms and such + provisions as the soldiers could carry, and by a forced march in the night + up the river, to extricate themselves from the American army, and crossing + at Fort Edward, or at a ford above it, to press on to Fort George. + </p> + <p> + Gates had foreseen this movement and had prepared for it. In addition to + placing strong guards at the fords of the Hudson he had formed an + entrenched camp on the high grounds between Fort Edward and Fort George. + The scouts sent to examine the route returned with this information and + the plan was abandoned as impracticable. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more hopeless than the condition of the British army, or + more desperate than that of their General, as described by himself. In his + letter to Lord George Germain, Secretary of State for American affairs, he + says: "A series of hard toil, incessant effort, stubborn action, until + disabled in the collateral branches of the army by the total defection of + the Indians; the desertion or timidity of the Canadians and provincials, + some individuals excepted; disappointed in the last hope of any + cooperation from other armies; the regular troops reduced by losses from + the best parts to 3,500 fighting men, not 2,000 of which were British; + only three days' provisions upon short allowance in store; invested by an + army of 16,000 men, and no appearance of retreat remaining—I called + into council all the generals, field officers, and captains commanding + corps, and by their unanimous concurrence and advice I was induced to open + a treaty with Major-General Gates." + </p> + <p> + A treaty was opened with a general proposition stating the willingness of + the British general to spare the further effusion of blood, provided a + negotiation could be effected on honorable terms. This proposition was + answered by a demand that the whole army should ground their arms in their + encampment and surrender themselves prisoners of war. This demand was + instantly rejected with a declaration that if General Gates designed to + insist on it the negotiation must immediately break off and hostilities + recommence. On receiving this decided answer Gates receded from the + rigorous terms at first proposed, and a convention was signed (October 17, + 1777), in which it was agreed that the British army, after marching out of + their encampment with all the honors of war, should lay down their arms + and not serve against the United States till exchanged. They were not to + be detained in captivity, but to be permitted to embark for England. + </p> + <p> + The situation of the armies considered, {9} these terms were highly + honorable to the British general and favorable to his nation. They were + probably more advantageous than would have been granted by Gates had he + entertained no apprehension from Sir Henry Clinton, who was at length + making the promised diversion on the North river, up which he had + penetrated as far as Aesopus. The drafts made from Peekskill for both + armies had left that post in a situation to require the aid of militia for + its security. The requisitions of General Putnam were complied with, but + the attack upon them being delayed, the militia, who were anxious to + attend to their farms, became impatient; many deserted, and Putnam was + induced to discharge the residue. + </p> + <p> + Governor Clinton immediately ordered out half the militia of New York with + assurances that they should be relieved in one month by the other half. + This order was executed so slowly that the forts were carried before the + militia were in the field. + </p> + <p> + Great pains had been taken and much labor employed to render the position + of the American army for guarding the passage up the Hudson secure. The + principal defenses were Forts Montgomery and Clinton. They had been + constructed on the western bank of the Hudson, on very high ground + extremely difficult of access and were separated from each other by a + small creek which runs from the mountains into the river. These forts were + too much elevated to be battered from the water, and the hills on which + they stood were too steep to be ascended by troops landing at the foot of + them. The mountains, which commence five or six miles below them, are so + high and rugged, the defiles, through which the roads leading to them + pass, so narrow and so commanded by the heights on both sides, that the + approaches to them are extremely difficult and dangerous. + </p> + <p> + To prevent ships from passing the forts, <i>chevaux-de-frise</i> had been + sunk in the river and a boom extended from bank to bank, which was covered + with immense chains stretched at some distance in its front. These works + were defended by the guns of the forts and by a frigate and galleys + stationed above them, capable of opposing with an equal fire in front any + force which might attack them by water from below. + </p> + <p> + Fort Independence is four or five miles below Forts Montgomery and Clinton + and on the opposite side of the river on a high point of land, and Fort + Constitution is rather more than six miles above them on an island near + the eastern shore. Peekskill, the general headquarters of the officer + commanding at the station, is just below Fort Independence and on the same + side of the river. The garrisons had been reduced to about 600 men and the + whole force under Putnam did not much exceed 2,000. Yet this force, though + far inferior to that which Washington had ordered to be retained at the + station, was, if properly applied, more than competent to the defense of + the forts against any numbers which could be spared from New York. To + insure success to the enterprise it was necessary to draw the attention of + Putnam from the real object and to storm the works before the garrisons + could be aided by his army. This Sir Henry Clinton accomplished. + </p> + <p> + Between three and four thousand men embarked at New York and landed on the + 5th of October (1777) at Verplanck's Point on the east side of the Hudson, + a short distance below Peekskill, upon which Putnam retired to the heights + in his rear. On the evening of the same day a part of these troops + re-embarked and the fleet moved up the river to Peekskill Neck in order to + mask King's Ferry, which was below them. The next morning at break of day + the troops destined for the enterprise landed on the west side of Stony + Point and commenced their march through the mountains into the rear of + Forts Clinton and Montgomery. This disembarkation was observed, but the + morning was so foggy that the numbers could not be distinguished, and a + large fire, which was afterward perceived at the landing place, suggested + the idea that the sole object of the party on shore was the burning of + some storehouses. In the meantime the maneuvers of the vessels and the + appearance of a small detachment left at Verplanck's Point persuaded + Putnam that the meditated attack was on Fort Independence. + </p> + <p> + His whole attention was directed to this object, and the real designs of + the enemy were not suspected until a heavy firing from the other side of + the river announced the assault on Forts Clinton and Montgomery. Five + hundred men were instantly detached to reinforce the garrisons of those + places, but, before this detachment could cross the river, the forts were + in possession of the British. + </p> + <p> + Having left a battalion at the pass of Thunderhill to keep up a + communication, Sir Henry Clinton had formed his army into two divisions—one + of which, consisting of 900 men, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell, + made a circuit by the forest of Deane, in order to fall on the back of + Fort Montgomery, while the other, consisting of 1,200 men, commanded by + General Vaughan and accompanied by Sir Henry Clinton in person, advanced + slowly against Fort Clinton. + </p> + <p> + Both posts were assaulted about five in the afternoon. The works were + defended with resolution and were maintained until dark, when, the lines + being too extensive to be completely manned, the assailants entered them + in different places. The defense being no longer possible some of the + garrison were made prisoners, while their better knowledge of the country + enabled others to escape. Governor Clinton passed the river in a boat and + Gen. James Clinton, though wounded in the thigh by a bayonet, also made + his escape. Lieutenant-Colonels Livingston and Bruyn and Majors Hamilton + and Logan were among the prisoners. The loss sustained by the garrisons + was about 250 men; that of the assailants was stated by Sir Henry Clinton + at less than 200. Among the killed were Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell and + two other field officers. + </p> + <p> + As the boom and chains drawn across the river could no longer be defended + the Continental frigates and galleys lying above them were burnt to + prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. Fort Independence and + Fort Constitution were evacuated the next day and Putnam retreated to + Fishkill. General Vaughan, after burning Continental village, where stores + to a considerable amount had been deposited, proceeded at the head of a + strong detachment up the river to Aesopus, which he also destroyed. {10} + </p> + <p> + Putnam, whose army had been augmented by reinforcements of militia to + 6,000 men, detached General Parsons with 2,000 to repossess himself of + Peekskill and of the passes in the Highlands, while with the residue he + watched the progress of the enemy up the river. The want of heavy + artillery prevented his annoying their ships in the Hudson. + </p> + <p> + On the capitulation of Burgoyne, near 5,000 men had been detached by Gates + to aid Putnam. Before their arrival General Vaughan had returned to New + York, whence a reinforcement to General Howe was then about to sail. + </p> + <p> + Great as was the injury sustained by the United States from this + enterprise Great Britain derived from it no solid advantage. It was + undertaken at too late a period to save Burgoyne, and though the passes in + the Highlands were acquired, they could not be retained. The British had + reduced to ashes every village and almost every house within their power, + but this wanton and useless destruction served to irritate without tending + to subdue. A keenness was given to the resentment of the injured, which + outlived the contest between the two nations. + </p> + <p> + The army which surrendered at Saratoga exceeded 5,000 men. On marching + from Ticonderoga it was estimated at 9,000. In addition to this great + military force the British lost and the Americans acquired, a fine train + of artillery, 7,000 stand of excellent arms, clothing for 7,000 recruits, + with tents and other military stores to a considerable amount. + </p> + <p> + The thanks of Congress were voted to General Gates and his army, and a + medal of gold in commemoration of this great event was ordered to be + struck and presented to him by the President in the name of the United + States. Colonel Wilkinson, his adjutant-general, whom he strongly + recommended, was appointed brigadier-general by brevet. + </p> + <p> + In the opinion that the British would not immediately abandon the passes + in the Highlands, Congress ordered Putnam to join Washington with a + reinforcement not exceeding 2,500 men, and directed Gates to take command + of the army on the Hudson, with unlimited powers to call for aids of + militia from the New England States as well as from New York and New + Jersey. + </p> + <p> + A proposition to authorize the Commander-in-Chief, after consulting with + General Gates and Governor George Clinton, to increase the detachment + designed to strengthen his army, if he should then be of opinion that it + might be done without endangering the objects to be accomplished by Gates, + was seriously opposed. An attempt was made to amend this proposition so as + to make the increase of the reinforcement to depend on the assent of Gates + and Clinton, but this amendment was lost by a considerable majority and + the original resolution was carried. These proceedings were attended with + no other consequences than to excite some degree of attention to the state + of parties. + </p> + <p> + Soon after the capitulation of Burgoyne, Ticonderoga and Mount + Independence were evacuated and the garrison retired to Isle aux Noix and + St. John's. The effect produced by this event on the British cabinet and + nation was great and immediate. It seemed to remove the delusive hopes of + conquest with which they had been flattered, and suddenly to display the + mass of resistance which must yet be encountered. Previous to the + reception of this disastrous intelligence the employment of savages in the + war had been the subject of severe animadversion. Parliament was assembled + on the 20th of November (1777), and, as usual, addresses were proposed in + answer to the speech from the throne entirely approving the conduct of the + administration. In the House of Lords the Earl of Chatham moved to amend + the address by introducing a clause recommending to his majesty an + immediate cessation of hostilities and the commencement of a treaty of + conciliation, "to restore peace and liberty to America, strength and + happiness to England, security and permanent prosperity to both + countries." In the course of the very animated observations made by this + extraordinary man in support of his motion, he said: "But, my lords, who + is the man that, in addition to the disgraces and mischiefs of war, has + dared to authorize and associate to our arms the tomahawk and + scalping-knife of the savage? to call into civilized alliance the wild and + inhuman inhabitant of the woods? to delegate to the merciless Indian the + defense of disputed rights and to wage the horrors of his barbarous war + against our brethren? My lords, these enormities cry aloud for redress and + punishment. Unless thoroughly done away they will be a stain on the + national character. It is not the least of our national misfortunes that + the strength and character of our army are thus impaired. Familiarized to + the horrid scenes of savage cruelty, it can no longer boast of the noble + and generous principles which dignify a soldier; no longer sympathise with + the dignity of the royal banner nor feel the pride, pomp, and circumstance + of glorious war that makes ambition virtue. What makes ambition virtue? + The sense of honor. But is this sense of honor consistent with the spirit + of plunder or the practice of murder? Can it flow from mercenary motives? + or can it prompt to cruel deeds?" + </p> + <p> + The conduct of the administration, however, received the full approbation + of large majorities, but the triumph these victories in parliament + afforded them was of short duration. The disastrous issue of an expedition + from which the most sanguine expectations had been formed was soon known, + and the mortification it produced was extreme. A reluctant confession of + the calamity was made by the minister and a desire to restore peace on any + terms consistent with the integrity of the empire found its way into the + cabinet. + </p> + <p> + The surrender of Burgoyne was an event of very great importance in a + political point of view as it undoubtedly decided the French government to + form an alliance with the United States, but it was only one of the many + disasters to the British arms which compelled them to acknowledge our + independence. There remained much to be done. Washington was still to + endure greater hardships and mortifications—to have his patriotism + and disinterestedness more severely tried than ever during the coming + campaigns. We must now return to his dreary camp at Valley Forge. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: The weakness of St. Clair's garrison was partly owing to its + having contributed detachments to the support of Washington's army in New + Jersey. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: "History of the War of Independence." vol. II, p. 280. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Washington, writing to General Schuyler, clearly presaged the + great and auspicious change in affairs which was soon to take place: + "Though our affairs have for some days past worn a gloomy aspect, yet I + look forward to a happy change. I trust General Burgoyne's army will meet + sooner or later an effectual check, and, as I suggested before, that the + success he has had will precipitate his ruin. From your accounts, he + appears to be pursuing that line of conduct which, of all others, is most + favorable to us—I mean acting in detachment. This conduct will + certainly give room for enterprise on our part, and expose his parties to + great hazard. Could we be so happy as to cut one of them off, though it + should not exceed four, five, or six hundred men, it would inspirit the + people, and do away much of their present anxiety. In such an event, they + would lose sight of past misfortunes, and urged on at the same time by a + regard for their own security, they would fly to arms, and afford every + aid in their power." + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: "Life of John Stark," p. 58. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Mr. Jones, an officer of the British army, had gained the + affections of Miss M'Crea, a lovely young lady of amiable character and + spotless reputation, daughter of a gentleman attached to the royal cause, + residing near Fort Edward, and they had agreed to be married. In the + course of service, the officer was removed to some distance from his + bride, and became anxious for her safety and desirous of her company. He + engaged some Indians, of two different tribes, to bring her to camp, and + promised a keg of rum to the person who should deliver her safe to him. + She dressed to meet her bridegroom, and accompanied her Indian conductors; + but by the way, the two chiefs, each being desirous of receiving the + promised reward, disputed which of them should deliver her to her lover. + The dispute rose to a quarrel, and, according to their usual method of + disposing of a disputed prisoner, one of them instantly cleft the head of + the lady with his tomahawk. + </p> + <p> + This is the common version of the story found in the histories. Mr. + Lossing, in his Field Book of the Revolution, relying on the traditions in + the neighborhood of the scene, comes to the conclusion that the lady was + accidentally killed by a party of Americans in pursuit of the Indians who + had carried her off. Irving says she was killed by one of the Indians. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: Colonel Morgan, with his regiment of riflemen, had been + recently sent by Washington to join the northern army. Gates, writing to + Washington, May 226, 1777, says: "I cannot sufficiently thank your + Excellency for sending Colonel Morgan's corps to this army; they will be + of the greatest service to it; for, until the late success this way, I am + told the army were quite panic-struck by the Indians, and their Tory and + Canadian assassins in Indian dress. Horrible, indeed, have been the + cruelties they have wantonly committed upon the miserable inhabitants, + insomuch that all is now fair with General Burgoyne, even if the bloody + hatchet he has so barbarously used should find its way into his own head." + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: Letter of Burgoyne. + </p> + <p> + 8. Footnote: Gordon, in his history of the war, states himself to have + received from General Glover an anecdote showing that all these advantages + were on the point of being exposed to imminent hazard: "On the morning of + the 11th, Gates called the general officers together, and informed them of + his having received certain intelligence, which might be depended upon, + that the main body of Burgoyne's army was marched off for Fort Edward with + what they could take; and that the rear guard only was left in the camp, + who, after a while, were to push off as fast as possible, leaving the + heavy baggage behind. On this it was concluded to advance and attack the + camp in half an hour. The officers repaired immediately to their + respective commands. General Nixon's, being the eldest brigade, crossed + the Saratoga creek first. Unknown to the Americans, Burgoyne had a line + formed behind a parcel of brushwood, to support the park of artillery + where the attack was to be made. General Glover was upon the point of + following Nixon. Just as he entered the water, he saw a British soldier + making across, whom he called and examined. This soldier was a deserter, + and communicated the very important fact that the whole British army were + in their encampment. Nixon was immediately stopped, and the intelligence + conveyed to Gates, who countermanded his orders for the assault, and + called back his troops, not without sustaining some loss from the British + artillery." Gordon is confirmed by General Wilkinson, who was + adjutant-general in the American army. The narrative of the General varies + from that of Gordon only in minor circumstances. + </p> + <p> + 9. Footnote: The American army consisted of 9,093 Continental troops. The + number of the militia fluctuated, but amounted, at the signature of the + convention, to 4,129. The sick exceeded 2,500 men. + </p> + <h3> + 10. + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. — WASHINGTON AT VALLEY FORGE. 1777, 1778. + </h2> + <p> + We have already given some details of the sufferings endured by Washington + and his brave soldiers at Valley Forge. One-half the tale is not told—never + will be told; their sufferings were unutterable. A review of this portion + of Washington's life will show that at Valley Forge not only was a great + deal suffered but a great deal was done. Here the army was hardened from + the gristle of youth to the bone and muscle of manhood. It entered the + tents of that dreary encampment a courageous but disorderly rabble; it + left them a disciplined army. But we must not anticipate events. + </p> + <p> + This army, which was under the immediate command of Washington, was + engaged through the winter (1777-1778) in endeavoring to stop the + intercourse between Philadelphia and the country. To effect this object + General Smallwood was detached with one division to Wilmington; Colonel + Morgan, who had been detached from Gates's army, was placed on the lines + on the west side of the Schuylkill, and General Armstrong with the + Pennsylvania militia, was stationed near the old camp at White Marsh. + Major Jameson with two troops of cavalry and M'Lane's infantry, was + directed to guard the east and Capt. Henry Lee with his troop, the west + side of that river. General Count Pulaski, who commanded the horse, led + the residue of the cavalry to Trenton, where he trained them for the + ensuing campaign. + </p> + <p> + One of the first operations meditated by Washington after crossing the + Schuylkill was the destruction of a large quantity of hay which remained + in the islands above the mouth of Darby creek, within the power of the + British. Early in the morning, after his orders for this purpose had been + given (December 22d), Howe marched out in full force and encamped between + Darby and the middle ferry, so as completely to cover the islands while a + foraging party removed the hay. Washington, with the intention of + disturbing this operation, gave orders for putting his army in motion, + when the alarming fact was disclosed that the commissary's stores were + exhausted and that the last ration had been delivered and consumed. + </p> + <p> + Accustomed as were the Continental troops to privations of every sort, it + would have been hazarding too much to move them under these circumstances + against a powerful enemy. In a desert or in a garrison where food is + unattainable, courage, patriotism, and habits of discipline enable the + soldier to conquer wants which, in ordinary situations, would be deemed + invincible. But to perish in a country abounding with provisions requires + something more than fortitude; nor can soldiers readily submit while in + such a country to the deprivation of food. It is not, therefore, + surprising that among a few of the troops some indications of a mutiny + appeared. It is much more astonishing that the great body of the army bore + a circumstance so irritating, and to them so unaccountable, without a + murmur. + </p> + <p> + On receiving intelligence of the fact, Washington ordered the country to + be scoured and provisions for supplying the pressing wants of the moment + to be seized wherever found. In the meantime light parties were detached + to harass the enemy about Darby, where Howe, with his accustomed + circumspection, kept his army so compact and his soldiers so within the + lines that an opportunity to annoy him was seldom afforded even to the + vigilance of Morgan and Lee. After completing his forage he returned, with + inconsiderable loss, to Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + That the American army, while the value still retained by paper bills + placed ample funds in the hands of government, should be destitute of food + in the midst of a State so abounding with provisions as Pennsylvania, is + one of those extraordinary facts which cannot fail to excite attention. A + few words of explanation seem to be needed to account for such a fact. + Early in the war the office of commissary-general had been conferred on + Colonel Trumbull, of Connecticut, a gentleman well fitted for that + important station. Yet, from the difficulty of arranging so complicated a + department, complaints were repeatedly made of the insufficiency of + supplies. The subject was taken up by Congress, but the remedy + administered served only to increase the disease. The system was not + completed till near midsummer, and then its arrangements were such that + Colonel Trumbull refused the office assigned to him. The new plan + contemplated a number of subordinate officers, all to be appointed by + Congress, and neither accountable to nor removable by the head of the + department. This arrangement, which was made in direct opposition to the + opinion of the Commander-in-Chief, drove Colonel Trumbull from the army. + Congress, however, persisted in the system, and its effects were not long + in unfolding themselves. In every military division of the continent loud + complaints were made of the deficiency of supplies. The armies were + greatly embarrassed and their movements suspended by the want of + provisions. The present total failure of all supply was preceded by + issuing meat unfit to be eaten. Representations on this subject had been + made to the Commander-in-Chief and communicated to Congress. That body had + authorized him to seize provisions for the use of his army within seventy + miles of headquarters and to pay for them in money or in certificates. The + odium of this measure was increased by the failure of government to + provide funds to take up these certificates when presented. At the same + time the provisions carried into Philadelphia were paid for in specie at a + fair price. The temptation was too great to be resisted. Such was the + dexterity employed by the inhabitants in eluding the laws that + notwithstanding the vigilance of the troops stationed on the lines they + often succeeded in concealing their provisions from those authorized to + impress for the army and in conveying them to Philadelphia. Washington, + urged on by Congress, issued a proclamation requiring all the farmers + within seventy miles of Valley Forge to thresh out one-half of their grain + by the 1st of February and the rest by the 1st of March, under the penalty + of having the whole seized as straw. Many farmers refused, defended their + grain and cattle with muskets and rifle, and, in some instances, burnt + what they could not defend. + </p> + <p> + It would seem that Washington had a sufficiently heavy burden upon his + shoulders in the harassing cares and anxieties of his position, and that + he might have been spared from trials of another sort to which he was + exposed at this time, but Washington experienced what every great and good + man must expect to meet with in an envious and malicious world. Thus far, + apparently, little else than ill-success had attended the military + exploits of the Commander-in-Chief. He had been compelled to retreat + continually before a powerful enemy. New York and Philadelphia had been + lost, and there was almost nothing of a brilliant or striking character in + what had transpired during the war under Washington's immediate direction. + On the other hand, the victory at Saratoga had thrown a lustre around + Gates' name which far outshone for the time the solid and enduring light + of Washington's noble and patriotic devotion to his country. It was the + first great victory of the war and it was a victory which necessarily had + a most important effect upon the future prospects of the United States. No + wonder, then, that restless and envious men should make invidious + comparisons between the hero of Saratoga and the Commander-in-Chief. No + wonder that Washington should suffer from detraction and the intrigues of + dissatisfied and scheming men, to whom his unsullied virtue, purity, and + integrity were invincible obstacles to every design of theirs to promote + selfish or ambitious ends. + </p> + <p> + A direct and systematic attempt was made to ruin the reputation of + Washington, and from the name of the person principally concerned this + attempt is known by the title of Conway's Cabal. General Gates and General + Mifflin of the army and Samuel Adams and others in Congress had more or + less to do with this matter. Gates and Mifflin had taken offense at not + receiving certain appointments during the siege of Boston, and were at no + time well disposed toward Washington; Conway, a restless, boastful, and + intriguing character, had always been distrusted by Washington, and he + knew it. Some of the New England members do not seem ever to have + cordially liked Washington's appointment as Commander-in-Chief, and now, + when the capture of Burgoyne had been effected by the northern army + without the intervention of Washington the malcontents ventured to assume + a bolder attitude. Anonymous letters were freely circulated, attributing + the ill-success of the American arms to the incapacity or vacillating + policy of Washington and filled with insinuations and exaggerated + complaints against the Commander-in-Chief. {1} + </p> + <p> + Washington was not unaware of what his enemies were attempting, but it was + not till after the victory of Saratoga that the matter assumed a definite + shape. The success of the northern army, which in fact was chiefly due to + Schuyler, so elated Gates that he seemed to adopt the views of those other + members of the cabal who were disposed to favor his aspirations to the + office of commander-in-chief. He even ventured to do what few men ever + dared, to treat Washington with disrespect. After the victory of the 7th + of October (1777) had opened to him the prospect of subduing the army of + Burgoyne, he not only omitted to communicate his success to Washington, + but carried on a correspondence with Conway, in which that officer + expressed great contempt for the Commander-in-Chief. When the purport of + this correspondence, which had been divulged by Wilkinson to Lord + Stirling, became known to Washington, he exploded the whole affair by + sending the offensive expressions directly to Conway, who communicated the + information to Gates. {1} Gates demanded the name of the informer in a + letter to Washington, far from being conciliatory in its terms, which was + accompanied with the very extraordinary circumstance of being passed + through Congress. Washington's answer completely humbled him. + </p> + <p> + It pointed out the inconsistencies and contradictions of Gates' defense + and showed him that Washington had penetrated his whole scheme and + regarded it with lofty contempt. In a subsequent letter Gates besought him + to bury the subject in oblivion. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, Washington's enemies in Congress were bold and active. A new + Board of War was created, of which Gates was appointed the president, and + Mifflin, who was of the party unfriendly to Washington, was one of its + members. Conway, who was probably the only brigadier in the army that had + joined this faction, was appointed Inspector-general and was promoted + above senior brigadiers to the rank of major-general. These were evidences + that if the hold which the Commander-in-Chief had taken of the affections + and confidence of the army and nation could be loosened, the party in + Congress disposed to change their general was far from being contemptible + in point of numbers. But to loosen this hold was impossible. The + indignation with which the idea of such a change was received, even by the + victorious troops who had conquered under Gates, forms the most conclusive + proof of its strength. Even the northern army clung to Washington as the + savior of his country. + </p> + <p> + These machinations to diminish the well-earned reputation of Washington + made no undue impression on his steady mind, nor did they change one of + his measures. His sensibilities seem to have been those of patriotism, of + apprehension for his country, rather than of wounded pride. {2} + </p> + <p> + His desire to remain at the head of the army seemed to flow from the + conviction that his retaining that station would be useful to his country, + rather than from the gratification his high rank might furnish to + ambition. + </p> + <p> + When he unbosomed himself to his private friends, the feelings and + sentiments he expressed were worthy of Washington. To Mr. Laurens, {3} the + President of Congress, and his private friend, who, in an unofficial + letter, had communicated an anonymous accusation made to him, as + President, containing heavy charges against the Commander-in-Chief, he + said. "I cannot sufficiently express the Obligation I feel toward you for + your friendship and politeness upon an occasion in which I am deeply + interested. I was not unapprised that a malignant faction had been for + some time forming to my prejudice, which, conscious as I am of having ever + done all in my power to answer the important purposes of the trusts + reposed in me, could not but give me some pain on a personal account; but + my chief concern arises from an apprehension of the dangerous consequences + which intestine dissensions may produce to the common cause. + </p> + <p> + "As I have no other view than to promote the public good, and am + unambitious of honors not founded in the approbation of my country, I + would not desire in the least degree to suppress a free spirit of inquiry + into any part of my conduct that even faction itself may deem + reprehensible. The anonymous paper handed you exhibits many serious + charges and it is my wish that it may be submitted to Congress. This I am + the more inclined to as the suppression or concealment may possibly + involve you in embarrassment hereafter since it is uncertain how many or + who may be privy to the contents. + </p> + <p> + "My enemies take an ungenerous advantage of me. They know the delicacy of + my situation and that motives of policy deprive me of the defense I might + otherwise make against their insidious attacks. They know I cannot combat + their insinuations, however injurious, without disclosing secrets it is of + the utmost moment to conceal. But why should I expect to be free from + censure, the unfailing lot of an elevated station? Merit and talents which + I cannot pretend to rival have ever been subject to it. My heart tells me + it has been my unremitted aim to do the best which circumstances would + permit. Yet I may have been very often mistaken in my judgment of the + means and may in many instances deserve the imputation of error." + </p> + <p> + While Washington expressed himself in these modest terms to a personal + friend, he assumed a much bolder and higher tone to the dastardly enemies + who were continually thwarting his designs and injuring the public service + by their malignity and incapacity. These were public enemies to be + publicly arraigned. Seizing the occasion to which we have already + referred, when the army was unable to march against the enemy for want of + provisions, he sent to the President of Congress the following letter + which, of course, like the rest of his correspondence, was to be read to + the whole house. It is severer than any he had ever written: "Full as I + was in my representation of the matters in the commissary's department + yesterday, fresh and more powerful reasons oblige me to add that I am now + convinced beyond a doubt that unless some great and capital change + suddenly takes place in that line this army must inevitably be reduced to + one or other of these three things—to starve, dissolve, or disperse + in order to obtain subsistence. Rest assured, sir, that this is not an + exaggerated picture, and that I have abundant reason to suppose what I + say. + </p> + <p> + "Saturday afternoon receiving information that the enemy in force had left + the city and were advancing toward Darby with apparent design to forage + and draw subsistence from that part of the country, I ordered the troops + to be in readiness that I might give every opposition in my power, when, + to my great mortification, I was not only informed but convinced that the + men were unable to stir on account of a want of provisions, and that a + dangerous mutiny begun the night before, and which with difficulty was + suppressed by the spirited exertions of some officers, was still much to + be apprehended from the want this article. + </p> + <p> + "This brought forth the only commissary in the purchasing line in this + camp and with him this melancholy and alarming truth, that he had not a + single hoof of any kind to slaughter and not more than twenty-five barrels + of flour! From hence form an opinion of our situation when I add that he + could not tell when to expect any. + </p> + <p> + "All I could do under these circumstances was to send out a few light + parties to watch and harass the enemy, whilst other parties were instantly + detached different ways to collect, if possible, as much provisions as + would satisfy the pressing wants of the soldiers; but will this answer? + No, sir. Three or four days of bad weather would prove our destruction. + What then is to become of the army this winter? And if we are now as often + without provisions as with them what is to become of us in the spring when + our force will be collected, with the aid perhaps of militia, to take + advantage of an early campaign before the enemy can be reinforced? These + are considerations of great magnitude, meriting the closest attention, and + will, when my own reputation is so intimately connected with and to be + affected by the event, justify my saying that the present commissaries are + by no means equal to the execution of the office, or that the disaffection + of the people surpasses all belief. The misfortune, however, does in my + opinion proceed from both causes, and though I have been tender heretofore + of giving my opinion or of lodging complaints, as the change in that + department took place contrary to my judgment and the consequences thereof + were predicted, yet finding that the inactivity of the army, whether for + want of provisions, clothes, or other essentials is charged to my account, + not only by the common vulgar but by those in power, it is time to speak + plain in exculpation of myself. With truth then I can declare that no man, + in my opinion, ever had his measures more impeded than I have by every + department of the army. Since the month of July we have had no assistance + from the Quartermaster-General, and to want of assistance from this + department the Commissary-General charges great part of his deficiency. To + this I am to add that notwithstanding it is a standing order (often + repeated) that the troops shall always have two days' provision by them, + that they may be ready at any sudden call, yet scarcely any opportunity + has ever offered of taking advantage of the enemy that has not been either + totally obstructed or greatly impeded on this account, and this, the great + and crying evil, is not all. Soap, vinegar, and other articles allowed by + Congress we see none of, nor have we seen them, I believe, since the + battle of Brandywine. The first, indeed, we have little occasion for—few + men having more than one shirt, many only the moiety of one, and some none + at all. In addition to which, as a proof of the little benefit from a + clothier-general, and at the same time as a further proof of the inability + of an army under the circumstances of this to perform the common duties of + soldiers, we have, by a field return this day made, besides a number of + men confined to hospitals for want of shoes and others in farmers' houses + on the same account, no less than 2,898 men now in camp unfit for duty + because they are barefoot and otherwise naked. By the same return it + appears that our whole strength in Continental troops, including the + eastern brigades, which have joined us since the surrender of General + Burgoyne, exclusive of the Maryland troops sent to Wilmington, amounts to + no more than 8,200 in camp fit for duty; notwithstanding which, and that + since the 4th inst., our number fit for duty, from the hardships and + exposures they have undergone, particularly from the want of blankets, + have decreased near 2,000 men, we find, gentlemen, without knowing whether + the army was really going into winter quarters or not (for I am sure no + resolution of mine would warrant the remonstrance), reprobating the + measure as much as if they thought the soldiers were made of stocks or + stones, and equally insensible to frost and snow; and, moreover, as if + they conceived it easily practicable for an inferior army, under the + disadvantages I have described ours to be—which are by no means + exaggerated—to confine a superior one, in all respects well + appointed and provided for a winter's campaign, within the city of + Philadelphia, and to cover from depredation and waste the States of + Pennsylvania, Jersey, etc. But what makes this matter still more + extraordinary in my eye is that these very gentlemen, who were well + apprised of the nakedness of the troops from ocular demonstration, who + thought their own soldiers worse clad than others and advised me near a + month ago to postpone the execution of a plan I was about to adopt, in + consequence of a resolve of Congress for seizing clothes, under strong + assurances that an ample supply would be collected in ten days, agreeably + to a decree of the State (not one article of which, by the by, is yet come + to hand), should think a winter's campaign and the covering of their + States from the invasion of an enemy so easy and practicable a business. I + can assure those gentlemen that it is a much easier and less distressing + thing to draw remonstrances in a comfortable room, by a good fireside, + than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and snow without + clothes or blankets. However, although they seem to have little feeling + for the naked and distressed soldiers, I feel superabundantly for them, + and from my soul pity those miseries which it is not in my power either to + relieve or to prevent." + </p> + <p> + This letter must have convinced Washington's implacable enemies in + Congress that he had no thoughts of conciliating them. He despised and + defied them. Its effect on those who were friendly to him would + necessarily be inspiriting. His bold attitude justified their reliance on + his moral courage and enabled them to demand the enactment of those + measures which were necessary for the preservation of the army and the + successful assertion of the country's independence. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that this letter gave the finishing stroke to the Conway + Cabal. While Gates and Mifflin denied that they had ever desired or aimed + at Washington's removal from the office of Commander-in-Chief and sought + to recover his confidence, Conway himself, who was still + inspector-general, after denying any design to remove Washington, still + maintained an offensive attitude toward him, wrote impertinent letters to + him, and persisted in intriguing against him with Congress. But he found + himself foiled in all his ambitious and factious designs, and he had + become excessively unpopular in the army. He felt at last that he was in a + false position; we shall presently see how his career in this country + terminated. + </p> + <p> + Washington's conduct through the whole period of the Conway Cabal, which + lasted several months, is highly characteristic of the man. While he + regarded it with contempt, so far as he was personally concerned, he felt + annoyed and distressed at the injury which it was inflicting on the public + service. When the moment was come for unmasking the conspirators, by + informing Conway that he was aware of their designs, he applied the match + which was to explode the whole plot and cover its originators with shame + and confusion. This he did in a quiet, business-like way because the + public service required it. Congress, having committed itself by promoting + his enemies, could not at once retract, but the officers themselves made + haste to escape from public indignation by denials and apologies, and the + final effect of the Conway Cabal was to establish Washington more firmly + than ever in the confidence and affection of the whole country. {4} + </p> + <p> + His situation, however, was by no means enviable. His army was much + attached to him, but weakened by disease, and irritated by nakedness and + hunger, it was almost on the point of dissolution. In the midst of the + difficulties and dangers with which he was surrounded Washington displayed + a singular degree of steady perseverance, unshaken fortitude, and + unwearied activity. Instead of manifesting irritable impatience under the + malignant attacks made on his character he behaved with magnanimity, and + earnestly applied to Congress and to the legislative bodies of the several + States for reinforcements to his army in order that he might be prepared + to act with vigor in the ensuing campaign. + </p> + <p> + But to recruit and equip the army was no easy task. The great depreciation + of paper money rendered the pay of the soldiers inadequate to their + support, and consequently it was not likely that voluntary enlistment + would be successful, especially since the patriotic ardor of many had + begun to cool by the continuance of the war, and all knew that great + hardships and dangers were to be encountered by joining the army. The pay + even of the officers, in the depreciated paper currency, was wholly + unequal to the maintenance of their rank. Some of them who had small + patrimonial estates found them melting away, while their lives were + unprofitably devoted to the service of their country, and they who had no + private fortune could not appear in a manner becoming their station. A + commission was a burden, and many considered the acceptance of one as + conferring rather than receiving a favor—a state of things highly + disadvantageous to the service, for the duties of an office scarcely + reckoned worth holding will seldom be zealously and actively discharged. + There was reason to apprehend that many of the most meritorious officers + would resign their commissions, and that they only who were less qualified + for service would remain with the army. + </p> + <p> + Congress, moved by the remonstrances of Washington, and by the complaints + with which they were assailed from every quarter, deputed a committee of + their body to reside in camp during the winter, and in concert with the + general to examine the state of the army and report on the measures + necessary to be taken for placing it in a more respectable condition. The + members of this committee were Francis Dana, General Reed, Nathaniel + Folsom, Charles Carroll, and Governeur Morris. On their arrival at Valley + Forge Washington submitted to them a memoir, filling fifty folio pages, + exhibiting the existing state of the army, the deficiencies and disorders, + and their causes, and suggesting such reforms as he deemed necessary. Upon + this document the plan for improving the efficiency of the army was formed + and communicated to Congress by the committee, who remained in camp nearly + three months. Congress approved of their proceedings and adopted their + plan, but they legislated so slowly that the effect of their proceedings + was hardly felt before the month of April (1778). + </p> + <p> + Among the reforms recommended by the committee, called the "Committee of + Arrangement," who were sent to the camp, none met with so much opposition + in Congress as that which provided for increasing the pay of the officers + and soldiers of the army. Hitherto there had been no provision made for + officers after the war should end, and the pay which they were actually + receiving being in depreciated Continental bills was merely nominal. To + the effect of this state of things in the army we have already adverted. + It was most disastrous. Washington was desirous that Congress should make + provision for giving officers half pay for life, or some other permanent + provision, and increasing the inducements for soldiers to enlist. A party + in Congress opposed this as having the appearance of a standing army, a + pension list, and a privileged order in society. + </p> + <p> + In a letter to Congress Washington said: "If my opinion is asked with + respect to the necessity of making this provision for the officers I am + ready to declare that I do most religiously believe the salvation of the + cause depends upon it, and without it your officers will moulder to + nothing, or be composed of low and illiterate men, void of capacity for + this or any other business. + </p> + <p> + "Personally, as an officer, I have no interest in their decision, because + I have declared, and I now repeat it, that I never will receive the + smallest benefit from the half-pay establishment, but as a man who fights + under the weight of a proscription, and as a citizen, who wishes to see + the liberty of his country established upon a permanent foundation, and + whose property depends upon the success of our arms, I am deeply + interested. But all this apart and justice out of the question, upon the + single ground of economy and public saving, I will maintain the utility of + it, for I have not the least doubt that until officers consider their + commissions in an honorable and interested point of view, and are afraid + to endanger them by negligence and inattention, no order, regularity, or + care either of the men or public property, will prevail." + </p> + <p> + The following passages, from a letter addressed to a delegate in Congress + from Virginia, exhibit the view Washington took at the time of public + affairs and the spirit and eloquence with which he pleaded the cause of + the country and the army. + </p> + <p> + "Before I conclude there are one or two points more upon which I will add + an observation or two. The first is the indecision of Congress and the + delay used in coming to determinations on matters referred to them. This + is productive of a variety of inconveniences, and an early decision, in + many cases, though it should be against the measure submitted, would be + attended with less pernicious effects. Some new plan might then be tried, + but while the matter is held in suspense nothing can be attempted. The + other point is the jealousy which Congress unhappily entertain of the + army, and which, if reports are right, some members labor to establish. + You may be assured there is nothing more injurious or more unfounded. This + jealousy stands upon the commonly received opinion, which under proper + limitations is certainly true, that standing armies are dangerous to a + State. The prejudices in other countries have only gone to them in time of + peace, and these from their not having in general cases any of the ties, + the concerns, or interests of citizens, or any other dependence than what + flowed from their military employ; in short, from their being mercenaries, + hirelings. It is our policy to be prejudiced against them in time of war, + though they are citizens, having all the ties and interests of citizens, + and in most cases property totally unconnected with the military line. + </p> + <p> + "If we would pursue a right system of policy, in my opinion, there should + be none of these distinctions. We should all, Congress and army, be + considered as one people, embarked in one cause, in one interest, acting + on the same principle and to the same end. The distinction, the jealousies + set up, or perhaps only incautiously let out, can answer not a single good + purpose. They are impolitic in the extreme. Among individuals the most + certain way to make a man your enemy is to tell him you esteem him such. + So with public bodies, and the very jealousy which the narrow politics of + some may affect to entertain of the army, in order to a due subordination + to the supreme civil authority, is a likely means to produce a contrary + effect—to incline it to the pursuit of those measures which they may + wish it to avoid. It is unjust because no order of men in the thirteen + States has paid a more sacred regard to the proceedings of Congress than + the army, for without arrogance or the smallest deviation from truth it + may be said that no history now extant can furnish an instance of an + army's suffering such uncommon hardships as ours has done, and bearing + them with the same patience and fortitude. To see men without clothes to + cover their nakedness, without blankets to lie on, without shoes (for the + want of which their marches might be traced by the blood from their feet), + and almost as often without provisions as with them, marching through the + frost and snow, and at Christmas taking up their winter quarters within a + day's march of the enemy, without a house or hut to cover them till they + could be built, and submitting without a murmur, is a proof of patience + and obedience which in my opinion can scarcely be paralleled." + </p> + <p> + Such representations as these could not fail to produce some effect even + on the minds of those who were opposed to the measures which Washington + proposed. Still the action of Congress was, as usual, dilatory. After a + great deal of discussion a vote was passed by a small majority to give the + officers half pay for life. This vote was reconsidered, and it was finally + agreed that the officers should receive half pay for seven years after the + close of the war, or that each noncommissioned officer and soldier, who + should continue in the army till the close of the war, should receive a + bounty of $80. + </p> + <p> + We have anticipated the order of time in order to dispose finally of this + matter which was not terminated till the spring of 1778. + </p> + <p> + During the winter Howe confined his operations to those small excursions + that were calculated to enlarge the comforts of his own soldiers, who, + notwithstanding the favorable dispositions of the neighboring country, + were much distressed for fuel and often in great want of forage and fresh + provisions. The vigilance of the parties on the lines, especially on the + south side of the Schuylkill, intercepted a large portion of the supplies + intended for the Philadelphia market, and corporal punishment was + frequently inflicted on those who were detected in attempting this + infraction of the laws. As Capt. Henry Lee, called in the army "Light + Horse Harry," was particularly active, a plan was formed late in January + to surprise and capture him in his quarters. An extensive circuit was made + by a large body of cavalry who seized four of his patrols without + communicating an alarm. About break of day the British horse appeared, + upon which Captain Lee placed his troopers that were in the house at the + doors and windows, who behaved so gallantly as to repulse the assailants + without losing a horse or man. Only Lieutenant Lindsay and one private + were wounded. The whole number in the house did not exceed ten. That of + the assailants was said to amount to 200. They lost a sergeant and three + men, with several horses killed, and an officer and three men wounded. The + result of this skirmish gave great pleasure to Washington who had formed a + high opinion of Lee's talents as a partisan. He mentioned the affair in + his orders with strong marks of approbation, and in a private letter to + the captain testified the satisfaction he felt. For his merit through the + preceding campaign Congress promoted him to the rank of major and gave him + an independent partisan corps, to consist of three troops of horse. + </p> + <p> + While the deficiency of the public resources, arising from the alarming + depreciation of the bills of credit, manifested itself in all the military + departments, a plan was matured in Congress and in the Board of War, + without consulting the Commander-in-Chief, for a second irruption into + Canada. It was proposed to place the Marquis de Lafayette at the head of + this expedition and to employ Generals Conway and Stark as the second and + third in command. + </p> + <p> + This was a measure planned by those who were not friendly to Washington; + and one of its objects was to detach Lafayette from his best and dearest + friend and bring him over to the Conway party. Lafayette would have + declined the appointment, but Washington advised him to accept it, + probably foreseeing how the affair would terminate. + </p> + <p> + The first intimation to Washington that the expedition was contemplated + was given in a letter from the President of the Board of War of the 24th + of January (1778), enclosing one of the same date to the Marquis, + requiring his attendance on Congress to receive his instructions. + Washington was requested to furnish Colonel Hazen's regiment, chiefly + composed of Canadians, for the expedition, and in the same letter his + advice and opinion were asked respecting it. The northern States were to + furnish the necessary troops. + </p> + <p> + Without noticing the manner in which this business had been conducted and + the marked want of confidence it betrayed, Washington ordered Hazen's + regiment to march toward Albany, and Lafayette proceeded immediately to + the seat of Congress at Yorktown. At his request he was to be considered + as an officer detached from the army of Washington, to remain under his + orders, and Major-General the Baron de Kalb was added to the expedition; + after which Lafayette repaired in person to Albany to take charge of the + troops who were to assemble at that place in order to cross the lakes on + the ice and attack Montreal. + </p> + <p> + On arriving at Albany he found no preparations made for the expedition. + Nothing which had been promised being in readiness, he abandoned the + enterprise as impracticable. Some time afterward Congress also determined + to relinquish it, and Washington was authorized to recall both Lafayette + and De Kalb. + </p> + <p> + While the army lay at Valley Forge the Baron Steuben arrived in camp. This + gentleman was a Prussian officer who came to the United States with ample + recommendations. He had served many years in the armies of the great + Frederick, had been one his aides-de-camp, and had held the rank of + lieutenant-general. He was well versed in the system of field exercise + which the King of Prussia had introduced, and was qualified to each it to + raw troops. He claimed no rank and offered his services as a volunteer. + After holding a conference with Congress he proceeded to Valley Forge. + </p> + <p> + Although the office of inspector-general had been bestowed on Conway, he + had never entered on its duties, and his promotion to the rank of + major-general had given much umbrage to the brigadiers who had been his + seniors. That circumstance, in addition to the knowledge of his being in a + faction hostile to the Commander-in-Chief, rendered his situation in the + army so uncomfortable that he withdrew to Yorktown, in Pennsylvania, which + was then the seat of Congress. When the expedition to Canada was abandoned + he was not directed, with Lafayette and De Kalb, to rejoin the army. + Entertaining no hope of being permitted to exercise the functions of his + new office, he resigned his commission about the last of April and, some + time afterward, returned to France. {6} + </p> + <p> + On his resignation the Baron Steuben, who had, as a volunteer, performed + the duties of inspector-general much to the satisfaction of the + Commander-in-Chief and of the army, was, on the recommendation of + Washington, appointed to that office, with the rank of major-general, + without exciting the slightest murmur. + </p> + <p> + This gentleman was of immense service to the American troops. He + established one uniform system of field exercise, and, by his skill and + persevering industry, effected important improvements through all ranks of + the army during its continuance at Valley Forge. + </p> + <p> + While it was encamped at that place several matters of great interest + engaged the attention of Congress. Among them was the stipulation in the + convention of Saratoga for the return of the British army to England. + Boston was named as the place of embarkation. At the time of the + capitulation the difficulty of making that port early in the winter was + unknown to General Burgoyne. Consequently, as some time must elapse before + a sufficient number of vessels for the transportation of his army could be + collected, its embarkation might be delayed until the ensuing spring. + </p> + <p> + On being apprised of this circumstance, Burgoyne applied to Washington, + desiring him to change the port of embarkation and to appoint Newport, in + Rhode Island, or some other place on the Sound instead of Boston, and, in + case this request should not be complied with, soliciting, on account of + his health and private business, that the indulgence might be granted to + himself and suite. Washington, not thinking himself authorized to decide + on such an application, transmitted it to Congress, which took no notice + of the matter further than to pass a resolution "That General Washington + be directed to inform General Burgoyne that Congress will not receive or + consider any proposition for indulgence or altering the terms of the + convention of Saratoga, unless immediately addressed to their own body." + The application was accordingly made to Congress, who readily complied + with the request in so far as it respected himself personally, but refused + the indulgence to his troops, and ultimately forbade their embarkation. + </p> + <p> + Congress watched with a jealous eye every movement of the convention army + and soon gave public indications of that jealousy. Early in November they + ordered General Heath, who commanded in Boston, "to take the name, rank, + former place of abode, and description of every person comprehended in the + convention of Saratoga, in order that, if afterward found in arms against + the United States, they might be punished according to the law of + nations." Burgoyne showed some reluctance to the execution of this order, + and his reluctance was imputed to no honorable motives. + </p> + <p> + If the troops had been embarked in the Sound they might have reached + Britain early in the winter, where, without any breach of faith, + government might have employed them in garrison duty and been enabled to + send out a corresponding number of troops in time to take an active part + in the next campaign. But if the port of Boston were adhered to as the + place of embarkation, the convention troops could not, it was thought, + sail before the spring, and, consequently, could not be replaced by the + troops whose duties they might perform at home till late in the year 1778. + This circumstance, perhaps, determined Congress to abide by Boston as the + port of embarkation, and in this their conduct was free from blame. But, + by the injuries mutually inflicted and suffered in the course of the war, + the minds of the contending parties were exasperated and filled with + suspicion and distrust of each other. Congress placed no reliance on + British faith and honor, and, on the subject under consideration, gave + clear evidence that on those points they were not over-scrupulous + themselves. + </p> + <p> + On arriving in Boston the British officers found their quarters + uncomfortable. This probably arose from the large number of persons to be + provided for and the scarcity of rooms, fuel, and provisions, arising from + the presence of the whole captured army. But the officers were much + dissatisfied, and, after a fruitless correspondence with Heath, Burgoyne + addressed himself to Gates and complained of the inconvenient quarters + assigned his officers as a breach of the articles of capitulation. + Congress was highly offended at the imputation and considered or affected + to consider the charge as made with a view to justify a violation of the + convention by his army as soon as they escaped from captivity. A number of + transports for carrying off the convention troops was collected in the + Sound sooner than was expected, but that number, amounting only to + twenty-six, the Americans thought insufficient for transporting such a + number of men to Britain in the winter season, and inferred that the + intention could only be to carry them to the Delaware and incorporate them + with Howe's army. They also alleged that a number of cartouche-boxes and + other accoutrements of war belonging to the British army had not been + delivered up, agreeably to the convention, and argued that this violation + on the part of the British released Congress from its obligations to + fulfill the terms of that compact. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of January (1778), Congress resolved "to suspend the + embarkation of the army till a distinct and explicit ratification of the + convention of Saratoga shall be properly notified by the court of Great + Britain to Congress." Afterward the embarkation of the troops was delayed + or refused for various reasons, and that part of the convention remained + unfulfilled. The troops were long detained in Massachusetts; they were + afterward sent to the back parts of Virginia and none of them were + released but by exchange. + </p> + <p> + Mrs. Washington, as usual, visited her illustrious consort in his quarters + at Valley Forge during the winter. Writing from thence to a friend in + Boston, she says: "I came to this place some time about the 1st of + February (1778), where I found the General very well. The General's + apartment is very small; he has had a log cabin built to dine in, which + has made our quarters much more tolerable than they were at first." To + those American citizens who are now reaping the rich fruits of + Washington's toils and sufferings in his country's cause, these few lines + are very suggestive. One cannot help contrasting the luxurious habitations + of the present generation with that log hut of the Father of his Country + at Valley Forge, to which the addition of another log hut to dine in was + considered by his consort a very comfortable appendage. We should remember + these things. + </p> + <p> + The effect of the news of Burgoyne's surrender, which reached Europe in + the autumn of 1777, could not be otherwise than highly favorable to the + cause of American independence. Our envoys in France, Dr. Franklin, Silas + Deane, and Arthur Lee had long been soliciting an alliance with France. + But the cautious ministers of Louis XVI, although secretly favoring our + cause and permitting supplies to be forwarded by Beaumarchais, and the + prizes of our ships to be brought into their ports and sold, had hitherto + abstained from openly supporting us, lest our arms should finally prove + unsuccessful. But the surrender of a large army to Gates and the firm + attitude of Washington's army, besieging Howe in Philadelphia, as they had + previously besieged him in Boston, gave a new turn to French policy and + disposed the ministry of Louis to treat for an alliance with the new + republic. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the British court was in a state of utter + consternation. The war began to assume a more portentous aspect, and the + British ministry, unable to execute their original purpose, lowered their + tone and showed an inclination to treat with the Colonies on any terms + which did not imply their entire independence and complete separation from + the British empire. In order to terminate the quarrel with America before + the actual commencement of hostilities with France, Lord North introduced + two bills into the House of Commons. The first declared that Parliament + would impose no tax or duty whatever, payable within any of the Colonies + of North America, except only such duties as it might be expedient to + impose for the purposes of commerce, the net produce of which should + always be paid and applied to and for the use of the Colonies in which the + same shall be respectively levied, in like manner as other duties + collected under the authority of their respective Legislatures are + ordinarily paid and applied; the second authorized the appointment of + commissioners by the Crown, with power to treat with either the + constituted authorities or with individuals in America, but that no + stipulation entered into should have any effect till approved in + Parliament. It empowered the commissioners, however, to proclaim a + cessation of hostilities in any of the Colonies; to suspend the operation + of the Non-intercourse Act; also to suspend, during the continuance of the + act, so much of all or any of the acts of Parliament which have passed + since the 10th day of February, 1763, as relates to the Colonies; to grant + pardons to any number or description of persons, and to appoint a governor + in any Colony in which his Majesty had heretofore exercised the power of + making such appointment. The duration of the act was limited to the 1st + day of June, 1779. + </p> + <p> + These bills passed both Houses of Parliament, and as about the time of + their introduction ministry received information of the conclusion of the + treaty between France and the Colonies, they sent off copies of them to + America, even before they had gone through the usual formalities, in order + to counteract the effects which the news of the French alliance might + produce. Early in March, the Earl of Carlisle, George Johnstone, and + William Eden, Esqs., were appointed commissioners for carrying the acts + into execution, and the celebrated Dr. Adam Ferguson, then professor of + moral philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, was nominated their + secretary. The commissioners sailed without delay for America. But the + present measure, like every other concession in the course of this + protracted contest, came too late. What was now offered would at one time + have been hailed in America with acclamations of joy and secured the + grateful affection of the Colonists. But circumstances were now changed. + The minds of the people were completely alienated from the parent state + and their spirits exasperated by the events of the war. Independence had + been declared, victory had emblazoned the standards of Congress, and a + treaty of alliance with France had been concluded. + </p> + <p> + On the 16th of December (1777) the preliminaries of a treaty between + France and America were agreed on, and the treaty itself was signed at + Paris on the 6th of February, 1778—an event of which the British + ministry got information in little more than forty-eight hours after the + signatures were affixed. The principal articles of the treaty were: That + if Britain, in consequence of the alliance, should commence hostilities + against France, the two countries should mutually assist each other; that + the independence of America should be effectually maintained; that if any + part of North America still professing allegiance to the Crown of Britain + should be reduced by the Colonies it should belong to the United States; + that if France should conquer any of the British West India Islands they + should be deemed its property; that the contracting parties should not lay + down their arms till the independence of America was formally + acknowledged, and that neither of them should conclude a peace without the + consent of the other. + </p> + <p> + Lord North's conciliatory bills reached America before the news of the + French treaty and excited in Congress considerable alarm. There were a + number of Loyalists in each of the Colonies; many, though not unfriendly + to the American cause, had never entered cordially into the quarrel, and + the heavy pressure of the war had begun to cool the zeal and exhaust the + patience of some who had once been forward in their opposition to Britain. + Congress became apprehensive lest a disposition should prevail to accept + of the terms proposed by the British government, and the great body of the + people be willing to resign the advantages of independence, in order to + escape from present calamity. + </p> + <p> + The bills were referred to a committee, which, after an acute and severe + examination, gave in a report well calculated to counteract the effects + which it was apprehended the terms offered would produce on the minds of + the timid and wavering. They reported as their opinion that it was the + aim of those bills to create divisions in the States; and "that they were + the sequel of that insidious plan, which, from the days of the Stamp Act + down to the present time, hath involved this country in contention and + bloodshed; and that, as in other cases, so in this, although + circumstances may at times force them to recede from their unjustifiable + claims, there can be no doubt but they will, as heretofore, upon the + first favorable occasion, again display that lust of domination which + hath rent in twain the mighty empire of Britain.” They further reported + it as their opinion that any men or body of men who should presume to + make any separate or partial convention or agreement with commissioners + under the Crown of Great Britain should be considered and treated as open + and avowed enemies of the United States. The committee further gave it as + their opinion that the United States could not hold any conference with + the British commissioners unless Britain first withdrew her fleets and + armies, or in positive and express terms acknowledged the independence of + the States. + </p> + <p> +While these things were going on, Mr. Silas Deane arrived from Paris with the +important and gratifying information that treaties of alliance and commerce had +been concluded between France and the United States. This intelligence diffused +a lively joy throughout America and was received by the people as the harbinger +of their independence. The alliance had been long expected, and the delays +thrown in the way of its accomplishment had excited many uneasy apprehensions. +But these were now dissipated, and, to the fond imaginations of the people, all +the prospects of the United States appeared gilded with the cheering beams of +prosperity. + </p> + <p> +Writing to the President of Congress on this occasion (May 4, 1778), Washington +says: “Last night at 11 o’clock I was honored with your dispatches +of the 3d. The contents afford me the most sensible pleasure. Mr. Silas Deane +had informed me by a line from Bethlehem that he was the bearer of the articles +of alliance between France and the States. I shall defer celebrating this happy +event in a suitable manner until I have liberty from Congress to announce it +publicly. I will only say that the army are anxious to manifest their joy upon +the occasion.” + </p> + <p> +On the 7th of May the great event referred to in the preceding extract was +celebrated by the army at Valley Forge with the highest enthusiasm. The +following general orders were issued by Washington on the day before: + </p> + <p> +“It having pleased the Almighty Ruler of the universe to defend the cause of +the United American States, and finally to raise us up a powerful friend among +the princes of the earth, to establish our liberty and independency upon a +lasting foundation, it becomes us to set apart a day for gratefully +acknowledging the Divine goodness and celebrating the important event, which we +owe to his Divine interposition. The several brigades are to be assembled for +this purpose at 9 o’clock to-morrow morning, when their chaplains will +communicate the intelligence contained in the postscript of the ‘Pennsylvania +Gazette’ of the 2d instant, and offer up thanksgiving and deliver a discourse +suitable to the occasion. At half after 10 o’clock a cannon will be fired, +which is to be a signal for the men to be under arms; the brigade inspectors +will then inspect their dress and arms and form the battalions according to the +instructions given them, and announce to the commanding officers of the brigade +that the battalions are formed. + </p> + <p> +“The commanders of brigades will then appoint the field officers to the +battalions, after which each battalion will be ordered to load and ground their +arms. At half-past 11 a second cannon will be fired as a signal for the march, +upon which the several brigades will begin their march by wheeling to the right +by platoons and proceed by the nearest way to the left of their ground by the +new position; this will be pointed out by the brigade inspectors. A third +signal will then be given, on which there will be a discharge of thirteen +cannon, after which a running fire of the infantry will begin on the right of +Woodford’s and continue throughout the front line; it will then be taken upon +the left of the second line and continue to the right. Upon a signal given, the +whole army will huzza, ‘Long live the King of France!’ The artillery then +begins again and fires thirteen rounds; this will be succeeded by a second +general discharge of the musketry in a running fire, and huzza, ‘Long live the +friendly European Powers!’ The last discharge of thirteen pieces of artillery +will be given, followed by a general running fire and huzza, ‘The American +States!’ ” + </p> + <p> +An officer who was present describes the scene as follows: “Last Wednesday +was set apart as a day of general rejoicing, when we had a <i>feu de joie</i> +conducted with the greatest order and regularity. The army made a most +brilliant appearance, after which his Excellency dined in public, with all the +officers of his army, attended with a band of music. I never was present where +there was such unfeigned and perfect joy as was discovered in every +countenance. The entertainment was concluded with a number of patriotic toasts, +attended with huzzas. When the General took his leave there was a universal +clap, with loud huzzas, which continued till he had proceeded a quarter of a +mile, during which time there were a thousand hats tossed in the air. His +Excellency turned round with his retinue and huzzaed several times.” + </p> + <p> +Dr. Thacher, in his “Military Journal,” mentions the presence of “Washington’s +lady and suite, Lord Stirling and the Countess of Stirling, with other general +officers and ladies,” at this fête. Our readers, after passing with us through +the dismal scenes of the preceding winter, will readily sympathize with the +army in the feelings attending this celebration. It is worthy of special notice +that in his general order Washington was careful to give the religious feature +of the scene a prominent place by distinctly acknowledging the Divine +interposition in favor of the country. This was his invariable habit on all +occasions. Religion with him was not merely an opinion, a creed, or a +sentiment. It was a deep-rooted, all-pervading feeling, governing his life and +imparting earnestness, dignity, and power to all his actions. Hence the +reverence and affection which was the voluntary homage of all who knew him. + </p> + <p> +Lord North’s conciliatory bills, as we have seen, were not acceptable to +Congress. Washington’s views in relation to them are given in the following +letter, written to a member of that body two days after he had learned the +terms proposed by the British government: + </p> + <p> +“Nothing short of independence, it appears to me, can possibly do. A peace on +other terms would, if I may be allowed the expression, be a peace of war. The +injuries we have received from the British nation were so unprovoked, and have +been so great and so many, that they can never be forgotten. Besides the feuds, +the jealousies, the animosities that would ever attend a union with them; +besides the importance, the advantages, which we should derive from an +unrestricted commerce, our fidelity as a people, our gratitude, our character +as men, are opposed to a coalition with them but in case of the last extremity. +Were we easily to accede to terms of dependence, no nation, upon future +occasions, let the oppression of Britain be ever so flagrant and unjust, would +interpose for our relief, or, at most, they would do it with a cautious +reluctance and upon conditions most probably that would be hard, if not +dishonorable, to us.” + </p> + <p> +Congress fully agreed in these views and rejected the advances of the British +government, refusing all terms of accommodation which did not begin with the +withdrawal of the British fleets and armies and the acknowledgment of American +independence. At the same time the bills were published, together with the +action of Congress on the subject, and dispersed throughout the country. This +decisive stand was taken before it was known that a treaty had been concluded +with France. + </p> + <p> + The British commissioners, Carlisle, Johnstone, and Eden, charged with + negotiating and reconciliation on the basis of Lord North's bills, did not + arrive until (June, 1778) six weeks after drafts of the bills had been + published by Governor Tryon and rejected by Congress. On their arrival at + New York, Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded Howe as Commander-in-Chief, + requested a passport for Dr. Ferguson, the secretary of the commissioners, + to proceed to Yorktown and lay certain papers before Congress. + </p> + <p> + Washington, not deeming the matter within his province, declined until he + could have the instruction of Congress, who sustained him in refusing the + passport. The commissioners, impatient of delay, sent on the papers + through the ordinary medium of a flag, addressed to the President of + Congress. + </p> + <p> + The commissioners offered in their letter to consent to an immediate + cessation of hostilities by sea and land; to agree that no military force + should be kept up in the Colonies without the consent of Congress, and + also both to give up the right of taxation and to provide for a + representation in Parliament. They promised to sustain and finally pay off + the paper money then in circulation. Every inducement short of the + recognition of independence was held out to lead the Colonists to return + to their allegiance. But if, when relying upon their own strength alone, + they had refused to listen to such overtures, they were not likely to do + so now that they were assured of the support of France. By order of + Congress the President of that body wrote as follows to the commissioners: + "I have received the letter from your Excellencies, dated the 9th instant, + with the enclosures, and laid them before Congress. Nothing but an earnest + desire to spare the further effusion of human blood could have induced + them to read a paper containing expressions so disrespectful to his Most + Christian Majesty, the good and great ally of these States, or to consider + propositions so derogatory to the honor of an independent nation. The acts + of the British Parliament, the commission from your sovereign, and your + letter suppose the people of these States to be subjects of the Crown of + Great Britain and are founded on the idea of dependence, which is utterly + inadmissible. I am further directed to inform your Excellencies that + Congress are inclined to peace, notwithstanding the unjust claims from + which this war originated, and the savage manner in which it hath been + conducted. They will, therefore, be ready to enter upon the consideration + of a treaty of peace and commerce not inconsistent with treaties already + subsisting, when the King of Great Britain shall demonstrate a sincere + disposition for that purpose. The only solid proof of this disposition + will be an explicit acknowledgment of these States or the withdrawing his + fleets and armies." + </p> + <p> + The British commissioners remained several months in the country and made + many and various attempts to accomplish the objects of their mission, but + without success. + </p> + <p> + They were compelled to return to England baffled and disappointed. Thus + the Americans, as an eloquent historian suggests, steady in their + resolutions, chose rather to trust to their own fortune, which they had + already proved, and to the hope they placed in that of France, than to + link themselves anew to the tottering destiny of England; abandoning all + idea of peace, war became the sole object of their solicitude. Such was + the issue of the attempts to effect an accommodation and thus were + extinguished the hopes which the negotiation had given birth to in + England. It was the misfortune of England to be governed by ministers who + were never willing to do justice until they were compelled by main force. + Their present concessions, as on all previous occasions, came too late. + </p> + <p> + We have had frequent occasion to notice the embarrassments and + mortifications to which Washington was subjected by the interference of + Congress in those executive matters which should have been left entirely + under his own control. This was particularly injurious to the public + service in their conduct with respect to the treatment and exchange of + prisoners. Much correspondence on this subject took place between + Washington and Howe during the winter when the army was at Valley Forge, + and whenever the generals were on the eve of arranging an exchange + Congress would interfere and prevent it. Washington had been compelled, by + his sense of justice and humanity, to censure Howe for his treatment of + American prisoners. An order hastily given out by the Board of War exposed + Washington himself, without any fault of his own, to a similar censure + from Howe. The circumstances, as related by Marshall, were these: + </p> + <p> + "General Washington had consented that a quartermaster, with a small + escort, should come out of Philadelphia, with clothes and other comforts + for the prisoners who were in possession of the United States. He had + expressly stipulated for their security, and had given them a passport. + While they were traveling through the country, information was given to + the Board of War that General Howe had refused to permit provisions to be + sent in to the American prisoners in Philadelphia by water. This + information was not correct. General Howe had only requested that flags + should not be sent up or down the river without previous permission + obtained from himself. On this information, however, the board ordered + Lieutenant-Colonel Smith immediately to seize the officers, though + protected by the passport of Washington, their horses, carriages, and the + provisions destined for the relief to the British prisoners, and to secure + them until further orders, either from the Board or from the + Commander-in-Chief. + </p> + <p> + "Washington, on hearing this circumstance, dispatched one of his aids with + orders for the immediate release of the persons and property which had + been confined; but the officers refused to proceed on their journey, and + returned to Philadelphia. {10} + </p> + <p> + "This untoward event was much regretted by Washington. In a letter + received some time afterwards, Howe, after expressing his willingness that + the American prisoners should be visited by deputy commissaries, who + should inspect their situation and supply their wants, required, as the + condition on which this indulgence should be granted, 'that a similar + permit should be allowed to persons appointed by him, which should be + accompanied with the assurance of General Washington, that his authority + will have sufficient weight to prevent any interruption to their progress, + and any insult to their persons.' This demand was ascribed to the + treatment to which officers under the protection of his passport had + already been exposed. + </p> + <p> + "Washington lamented the impediment to the exchange of prisoners, which + had hitherto appeared to be insuperable, and made repeated but ineffectual + efforts to remove it. Howe had uniformly refused to proceed with any + cartel unless his right to claim for all the diseased and infirm, whom he + had liberated, should be previously admitted. + </p> + <p> + "At length, after all hope of inducing him to recede from that high ground + had been abandoned, he suddenly relinquished it of his own accord, and + acceded completely to the proposition of Washington for the meeting of + commissioners, in order to settle equitably the number to which he should + be entitled for those he had discharged in the preceding winter. This + point being adjusted, commissioners were mutually appointed, who were to + meet on the 10th of March (1778), at Germantown, to arrange the details of + a general cartel. + </p> + <p> + "Washington had entertained no doubt of his authority to enter into this + agreement. On the 4th of March, however, he had the mortification to + perceive in a newspaper a resolution of Congress, calling on the several + States for the amounts of supplies furnished the prisoners, that they + might be adjusted according to the rule of the 10th of December, before + the exchange should take place. + </p> + <p> + "On seeing this embarrassing resolution, Washington addressed a letter to + Howe, informing him that particular circumstances had rendered it + inconvenient for the American commissioners to attend at the time + appointed, and requesting that their meeting should be deferred from the + 10th to the 21st of March. The interval was employed in obtaining a repeal + of the resolution. + </p> + <p> + "It would seem probable that the dispositions of Congress, on the subject + of an exchange, did not correspond with those of Washington. From the + fundamental principle of the military establishment of the United States + at its commencement, an exchange of prisoners would necessarily strengthen + the British much more than the American army. The war having been carried + on by troops raised for short times, aided by militia, the American + prisoners, when exchanged, returned to their homes as citizens, while + those of the enemy again took the field. + </p> + <p> + "Washington, who was governed by a policy more just, and more permanently + beneficial, addressed himself seriously to Congress, urging as well the + injury done the public faith and his own personal honor, by this + infraction of a solemn engagement, as the cruelty and impolicy of a system + which must cut off forever all hopes of an exchange, and render + imprisonment as lasting as the war. He represented in strong terms the + effect such a measure must have on the troops on whom they should + thereafter be compelled chiefly to rely, and its impression on the friends + of those already in captivity. These remonstrances produced the desired + effect, and the resolutions were repealed. The commissioners met according + to the second appointment; but, on examining their powers, it appeared + that those given by Washington were expressed to be in virtue of the + authority vested in him, while those given by Howe contained no such + declaration. This omission produced an objection on the part of Congress; + but Howe refused to change the language, alleging that he designed the + treaty to be of a personal nature, founded on the mutual confidence and + honor of the contracting generals, and had no intention either to bind his + government or to extend the cartel beyond the limits and duration of his + own command. + </p> + <p> + "This explanation being unsatisfactory to the American commissioners, and + Howe persisting in his refusal to make the required alteration in his + powers, the negotiation was broken off, and this fair prospect of + terminating the distresses of the prisoners on both sides passed away + without effecting the good it had promised. + </p> + <p> + "Some time after the failure of this negotiation for a general cartel, + Howe proposed that all prisoners actually exchangeable should be sent into + the nearest posts, and returns made of officer for officer of equal rank, + and soldier for soldier, as far as numbers would admit; and that if a + surplus of officers should remain, they should be exchanged for an + equivalent in privates. + </p> + <p> + "On the representations of Washington, Congress acceded to this + proposition so far as related to the exchange of officer for officer and + soldier for soldier, but rejected the part which admitted an equivalent in + privates for a surplus of officers, because the officers captured with + Burgoyne were exchangeable within the powers of Howe. Under this agreement + an exchange took place to a considerable extent; but as the Americans had + lost more prisoners than they had taken, unless the army of Burgoyne + should be brought into computation, many of their troops were still + detained in captivity." + </p> + <p> + The British army held possession of Philadelphia during the winter and the + following spring; but they were watched and checked during the whole time + by the Americans. They were not quite so closely besieged as in Boston, + but they were quite as effectually prevented from accomplishing any + military purpose. They sent out occasional foraging parties, who were + fiercely attacked by Washington's detachments, and almost always purchased + their supplies with blood. But Howe never made an attack on Washington's + camp. Doctor Franklin, when he heard in Paris that General Howe had taken + Philadelphia, corrected his informant very justly. "Say, rather," said the + acute philosopher, "that Philadelphia has taken General Howe." The capture + of Philadelphia, as we have already taken occasion to remark, was + perfectly useless—in fact, worse than useless—to the British + arms. It only provided winter quarters to an army which would have been + more comfortable and secure in New York; and it held them beleaguered at a + remote point when their services were greatly needed to aid Burgoyne and + save his army from capture. In point of fact, Philadelphia did take Howe; + and Washington kept him out of the way and fully employed until Burgoyne + had fallen, and by his fall had paved the way to the French alliance and + to the ruin of the British cause in America. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: The cool contempt expressed in Washington's letter to Conway + is one of the most curious features of this affair. It reads as follows: + "To Brigadier-General Conway: Sir—A letter which I received last + night contained the following paragraph: 'In a letter from General Conway + to General Gates, he says, "Heaven has determined to save your country, or + a weak general and bad counsellors would have ruined it."' "I am, sir, + your humble servant." + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Marshall + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: John Hancock, who succeeded Peyton Randolph as president of + Congress, retired on the 29th of October, 1777. His successor was Henry + Laurens, of South Carolina. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: The correspondence relating to the Conway Cabal is given + entire in the Appendix to the fifth volume of Sparks' "Writings of + Washington." It is very curious and interesting. Among other letters are + anonymous ones addressed to Patrick Henry, Governor of Virginia, and to + Mr. Laurens, President of Congress, full of slanders against Washington. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Previous to this affair, Captain Lee, in his frequent + skirmishes with the enemy, had already captured at least a hundred of + their men. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: General Conway, after his resignation, frequently indulged in + expressions of extreme hostility to the Commander-in-Chief. These + indiscretions were offensive to the gentlemen of the army. In consequence + of them, he was engaged in an altercation with General Caldwalader, which + produced a duel, in which Conway received a wound supposed for some time + to be mortal. While his recovery was despaired of, he addressed the + following letter to General Washington: + </p> + <p> + PHILADELPHIA, July 23d, 1778. + </p> + <p> + SIR—I find myself just able to hold the pen during a few minutes, + and take this opportunity of expressing my sincere grief for having done, + written, or said, any thing disagreeable to your excellency. My career + will soon be over; therefore, justice and truth prompt me to declare my + last sentiments. You are, in my eyes, the great and good man. May you long + enjoy the love, veneration, and esteem of these States, whose liberties + you have asserted by your virtues. I am, with the greatest respect, sir, + </p> + <p> + Your excellency's most obedient humble servant, THS. CONWAY. + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: Gordon says: "May 13, 1778. General Burgoyne landed at + Portsmouth. On his arrival at London, he soon discovered that he was no + longer an object of court favor. He was refused admission to the royal + presence; and from thence experienced all those marks of being in + disgrace, which are so well understood, and so quickly observed by the + retainers and followers of courts." + </p> + <p> + 8. Footnote: As early as the month of April, 1776, Turgot had said to the + ministers of Louis XVI—"The supposition of the absolute separation + between Great Britain and her Colonies seems to me infinitely probable. + This will be the result of it; when the independence of the Colonies shall + be entire and recognized by the English themselves, a total revolution + will follow in the political and commercial relations between Europe and + America; and I firmly believe that every other mother-country will be + forced to abandon all empire over her Colonies, and to leave an entire + freedom of commerce with all nations, to content herself with partaking + with others in the advantages of a free trade, and with preserving the old + ties of friendship and fraternity with her former colonists. If this is an + evil, I believe that there exists no remedy or means of hindering it; that + the only course to pursue is to submit to the inevitable necessity, and + console ourselves as best we may under it. I must also observe, that there + will be a very great danger to all such powers as obstinately attempt to + resist this course of events; that after ruining themselves by efforts + above their means, they will still see their Colonies equally escape from + them, and become their bitter enemies, instead of remaining their allies." + Mémoire de M. Turgot, à l'occasion du Mémoire remis par M. le Compte de + Vergennes sur la manière dont la France at l'Espagne doivent envisager les + suites de la querelle entre la Grande Bretagne et ses Colonies. In + "Politique de tous les Cabinets de l'Europe pendant les Règnes to Louis + XV. et de Louis XVI." Par L.P. Segue l'ainé. + </p> + <p> + 9. Footnote: The commissioners published their final manifesto and + proclamation to the Americans on the 3d of October, and on the 10th. + Congress issued a cautionary declaration in reply. No overtures were made + to the commissioners from any quarter, and not long after they embarked + for England. Thacher, in his "Military Journal," states that "Governor + Johnstone, one of the commissioners, with inexcusable effrontery, offered + a bribe to Mr. Reed, a member of Congress. In an interview with Mrs. + Ferguson at Philadelphia, whose husband was a Royalist, he desired she + would mention to Mr. Reed, that if he would engage his interest to promote + the object of their commission, he might have any office in the Colonies + in the gift of his Britannic majesty, and ten thousand pounds in hand. + Having solicited an interview with Mr. Reed, Mrs. Ferguson made her + communication. Spurning the idea of being purchased, he replied that he + was not worth purchasing, but such as he was, the King of Great Britain + was not rich enough to do it." + </p> + <p> + 10. Footnote: They alleged that their horses had been disabled, and the + clothing embezzled. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. — MONMOUTH. 1778. + </h2> + <p> + For prosecuting the campaign of 1778 Washington had not been provided with + an adequate force. The committee of Congress who visited the army at + Valley Forge had agreed that the army should consist of about 40,000 men, + besides artillery and horse. In May (1778) the army, including the + detachments at different places, was found to amount only to 15,000, with + little prospect of increase. At Valley Forge Washington had 11,800. The + British army at this time numbered 33,000. With such odds the plan of + operations for this season must necessarily be defensive. + </p> + <p> + From the position which Washington had taken at Valley Forge, and from the + activity and vigilance of his patrols, the British army in Philadelphia + was straitened for forage and fresh provisions. A considerable number of + the people of Pennsylvania were well affected to the British cause and + desirous of supplying the troops, while many more were willing to carry + victuals to Philadelphia, where they found a ready market and payment in + gold or silver, whereas the army at Valley Forge could pay only in paper + money of uncertain value. But it was not easy to reach Philadelphia nor + safe to attempt it, for the American parties often intercepted and took + the provisions without payment and not unfrequently chastised those + engaged. The first operations on the part of the British, therefore, in + the campaign of 1778, were undertaken in order to procure supplies for the + army. About the middle of March a strong detachment, under + Lieutenant-Colonel Mawhood, made a foraging excursion for six or seven + days into Jersey, surprised and defeated the American parties at Hancock's + and Quinton's bridges on Always creek, which falls into the Delaware to + the south of Reedy Island, killed or took fifty or sixty of the militia + prisoners, and after a successful expedition returned to Philadelphia with + little loss. + </p> + <p> + A corps of Pennsylvania militia, daily varying in number, sometimes not + exceeding fifty, sometimes amounting to 600, under General Lacey, had + taken post at a place called Crooked Billet, about seventeen miles from + Philadelphia on the road to New York, for the purpose of intercepting the + country people who attempted to carry provisions to the British army. + Early on the morning of the 4th of May, Colonel Abercrombie and Major + Simcoe, with a strong detachment, attempted to surprise this party, but + Lacey escaped with little loss, except his baggage, which fell into the + hands of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of May the British undertook an expedition against the galleys + and other shipping which had escaped up the Delaware after the reduction + of Mud Island, and destroyed upward of forty vessels and some stores and + provisions. The undisputed superiority of the British naval force and the + consequent command of the Delaware gave them great facilities in directing + a suitable armament against any particular point, and the movements of the + militia, on whom Congress chiefly depended for repelling sudden predatory + incursions and for guarding the roads to Philadelphia, were often tardy + and inefficient. The roads were ill guarded, and the British frequently + accomplished their foraging and returned to camp before an adequate force + could be assembled to oppose them. + </p> + <p> + To remedy these evils—to annoy the rear of the British troops in + case they evacuated Philadelphia, which it was now suspected they intended + to do, and also to form an advanced guard of the main army—Lafayette, + with upward of 2,000 chosen men and six pieces of artillery, was ordered + to the east of the Schuylkill, and took post on Barren Hill, seven or + eight miles in advance of the army at Valley Forge. Sir William Howe + immediately got notice of his position and formed a plan to surprise and + cut him off. For that purpose a detachment of 5,000 of the best troops of + the British army, under General Grant, marched from Philadelphia on the + night of the 20th of May and took the road which runs along the Delaware + and consequently does not lead directly to Barren Hill. But after + advancing a few miles the detachment turned to the left, and proceeding by + White Marsh passed at no great distance from Lafayette's left flank and + about sunrise reached a point in his rear where two roads diverged, one + leading to the camp of the marquis, the other to Matson's ford, each about + a mile distant. There General Grant's detachment was first observed by the + Americans, and the British perceived by the rapid movements of some + hostile horsemen that they were seen. Both Lafayette's camp and the road + leading from it to Matson's ford were concealed from the British troops by + intervening woods and high grounds. General Grant spent some time in + making dispositions for the intended attack. That interval was actively + improved by Lafayette, who, although not apprised of the full extent of + his danger, acted with promptitude and decision. He marched rapidly to + Matson's ford, from which he was somewhat more distant than the British + detachment, and reached it while General Grant was advancing against + Barren Hill in the belief that Lafayette was still there. The Americans + hurried through the ford leaving their artillery behind, but on + discovering they were not closely pursued some of them returned and + dragged the field pieces across the river; a small party was also sent + into the woods to retard the progress of the British advanced guard, if it + should approach while the artillery was in the ford. + </p> + <p> + On finding the camp at Barren Hill deserted General Grant immediately + pursued in the track of the retreating enemy toward Matson's ford. His + advanced guard overtook some of the small American party, which had been + sent back to cover the passage of the artillery, before they could recross + the river and took or killed a few of them, but on reaching the ford + General Grant found Lafayette so advantageously posted on the rising + ground on the opposite bank and his artillery so judiciously placed that + it was deemed unadvisable to attack him. Thus the attempt against + Lafayette failed, although the plan was well concerted and on the very + point of success. In the British army sanguine expectations of the + favorable issue of the enterprise were entertained, and in order to insure + a happy result a large detachment, under General Grey, in the course of + the night took post at a ford of the Schuylkill, two or three miles in + front of Lafayette's right flank, to intercept him if he should attempt to + escape in that direction, while the main body of the army advanced to + Chestnut Hill to support the attack, but on the failure of the enterprise + the whole returned to Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + General Grant's detachment was seen by Washington from the camp at Valley + Forge about the time it was discovered by the troops at Barren Hill, alarm + guns were fired by his order to warn Lafayette of his danger, and the + whole army was drawn out to be in readiness to act as circumstances might + require. The escape of the detachment was the cause of much joy and + congratulation in the American and of disappointment and chagrin in the + British army. + </p> + <p> + That a strong detachment of hostile troops should pass at a small distance + from Lafayette's flank and gain his rear unobserved seems to argue a want + of due vigilance on the part of that officer, but a detachment of the + Pennsylvania militia had been posted at a little distance on his left and + he relied on them for watching the roads in that quarter. The militia, + however, had quitted their station without informing him of their + movement, and consequently his left flank and the roads about White Marsh + remained unguarded. + </p> + <p> + This was the last enterprise attempted by Sir William Howe. Soon after he + resigned the command of the army. So far back as the month of October in + the preceding year he had requested to be relieved from the painful + service in which he was engaged. On the 14th of April, 1778, he received + the King's permission to resign, but at the same time he was directed, + while he continued in command, to embrace every opportunity of putting an + end to the war by a due employment of the force under his orders. In the + beginning of June after having received, in a triumphal procession and + festival, a testimony of the approbation and esteem of the army he sailed + for England, leaving the troops under the care of Sir Henry Clinton as his + successor. + </p> + <p> + Sir William Howe has been much blamed for inactivity and for not + overwhelming the Americans, but he was at least as successful as any other + general employed in the course of the war. He was cautious and sparing of + the lives of his men. In his operations he discovered a respectable share + of military science, and he met with no great reverses. They who blame him + for want of energy may look to the history of Generals Burgoyne and + Cornwallis for the fate of more enterprising leaders in America. + </p> + <p> + About the time when Howe resigned the command of the army the British + government ordered the evacuation of Philadelphia. While the British had + an undisputed naval superiority Philadelphia was in some respects a good + military station. Although in all the States a decided majority of the + people gave their support to Congress, yet in every province south of New + England there was a considerable minority friendly to the claims of the + mother country. The occupation of Philadelphia, the principal city of the + confederation, encouraged the latter class of the inhabitants, and the + army there formed a point round which they might rally. But Philadelphia + is more than 100 miles up the Delaware, and as Howe had been unable to + drive Washington from the field he had found some difficulty in subsisting + his army in that city, even when the British ships had the full command of + the sea and could force their way up the great rivers; but when the empire + of the ocean was about to be disputed by the French Philadelphia became a + hazardous post on account of the difficulty and uncertainty of procuring + provisions, receiving communications, or sending aid to such places as + might be attacked. It was accordingly resolved to abandon that city, and + after shipping his cavalry, formed of the German troops and American + Loyalists, his provision train and heavy baggage, on the few vessels that + were in the river, Clinton had to march the remainder of his army through + the Jerseys to New York, where the communication with the ocean is more + easy. + </p> + <p> + The preparations for this movement could not be so secretly made as to + escape the notice of the Americans, and to be in readiness for it was one + reason of detaching Lafayette to Barren Hill, where he had been exposed to + so much danger. Washington called in his detachments and pressed the State + governments to hasten the march of their new levies in order that he might + be enabled to act offensively; but the new levies arrived slowly, and in + some instances the State Legislatures were deliberating on the means of + raising them at the time when they should have been in the field. + </p> + <p> + Although Washington was satisfied of the intention of the British + Commander-in-Chief to evacuate Philadelphia yet it was uncertain in what + way he would accomplish his purpose, but the opinion that he intended to + march through the Jerseys to New York gained ground in the American camp; + and in this persuasion Washington detached General Maxwell with the Jersey + brigade across the Delaware to cooperate with General Dickinson, who was + assembling the Jersey militia, in breaking down the bridges, felling trees + across the roads, and impeding and harassing the British troops in their + retreat, but with orders to be on his guard against a sudden attack. + </p> + <p> + Washington summoned a council of war to deliberate on the measures to be + pursued in that emergency. It was unanimously resolved not to molest the + British army in passing the Delaware, but with respect to subsequent + operations there was much difference of opinion in the council. General + Lee, who had lately joined the army after his exchange, was decidedly + against risking either a general or partial engagement. The British army + he estimated at 10,000 men fit for duty, exclusive of officers, while the + American army did not amount to more than 11,800; he was, therefore, of + opinion that with so near an equality of force it would be criminal to + hazard a battle. He relied much on the imposing attitude in which their + late foreign alliance placed them, and maintained that nothing but a + defeat of the army could now endanger their independence. Almost all the + foreign officers agreed in opinion with General Lee, and among the + American generals only Wayne and Cadwalader were decidedly in favor of + attacking the enemy. Under these circumstances Washington, although + strongly inclined to fight, found himself constrained to act with much + circumspection. + </p> + <p> + Having made all the requisite preparations Sir Henry Clinton, early in the + morning of the 18th of June (1778), led the British army to the confluence + of the Delaware and Schuylkill, where boats and other vessels were ready + to receive them, and so judicious were the arrangements made by Admiral + Lord Howe that all the troops, with the baggage and artillery, were + carried across the Delaware and safely landed on the Jersey side of the + river before 10 in the forenoon. Many of the Loyalists of Philadelphia + accompanied the army, carrying their effects along with them, and such of + them as ventured to remain behind met with little indulgence from their + irritated countrymen. Several of them were tried for their lives and two + Quakers were executed. The Americans entered the city before the British + rear guard had entirely left it. + </p> + <p> + There were two roads leading from Philadelphia to New York—the one + running along the western bank of the Delaware to Trenton Ferry, and the + other along the eastern bank to the same point. The British army had + wisely crossed the river at the point where it was least exposed to + molestation and entered on the last of these two roads. In marching + through a difficult and hostile country Sir Henry Clinton prudently + carried along with him a considerable quantity of baggage and a large + supply of provisions, so that the progress of the army, thus heavily + encumbered, was but slow. It proceeded leisurely through Huddersfield, + Mount Holly, and Crosswick, and reached Allentown on the 24th (June, + 1778), having in seven days marched less than forty miles. This slow + progress made the Americans believe that Sir Henry Clinton wished to be + attacked. General Maxwell, who was posted at Mount Holly, retired on his + approach, and neither he nor General Dickinson was able to give him much + molestation. + </p> + <p> + As the march of the British army till it passed Crosswick was up the + Delaware, and only at a small distance from that river, Washington, who + left Valley Forge on the day that Sir Henry Clinton evacuated + Philadelphia, found it necessary to take a circuitous route and pass the + river higher up at Coryell's Ferry, where he crossed it on the 22d and + took post at Hopewell on the high grounds in that vicinity, and remained + during the 23d in that position. + </p> + <p> + From Allentown there were two roads to New York—one on the left, + passing through South Amboy to the North river; the other on the right, + leading to Sandy Hook. The first of these was somewhat shorter but the + river Raritan lay in the way and it might be difficult and dangerous to + pass it in presence of a hostile force. Sir Henry Clinton, therefore, + resolved to take the road to Sandy Hook by which the Raritan would be + altogether avoided. + </p> + <p> + Although a great majority in the American council of war were averse to + fighting, yet Washington was strongly inclined to attack the British army. + He summoned the council of war a second time and again submitted the + subject to their consideration, but they adhered to their former opinion, + and Washington, still inclined to attack the enemy, determined to act on + his own responsibility. + </p> + <p> + The Jersey militia and a brigade of Continentals, under Generals Dickinson + and Maxwell, hovered on the left flank of the British army; General + Cadwalader, with a Continental regiment and a few militia was in its rear, + and Colonel Morgan, with his rifle regiment 600 strong, was on its right. + These detachments were ordered to harass the enemy as much as possible. + </p> + <p> + As Sir Henry Clinton proceeded on the route toward Sandy Hook Washington + strengthened his advanced guard till it amounted to 5,000 men. General + Lee, from his rank, had a claim to the command of that force, but at first + he declined it and Lafayette was appointed to that service. But General + Lee perceiving the importance of the command solicited the appointment + which he had at first declined, and was accordingly sent forward with a + reinforcement, when, from seniority, the whole of the advanced guard + became subject to his orders. + </p> + <p> + On the evening of the 27th (June, 1778) Sir Henry Clinton took a strong + position on the high grounds about Freehold Court House, in the county of + Monmouth. His right was posted in a small wood; his left was covered by a + thick forest and a morass; he had a wood in front, also a marsh for a + considerable space toward his left, and he was within twelve miles of the + high grounds at Middletown, after reaching which no attempt could be made + upon him with any prospect of success. His position was unassailable, but + Washington resolved to attack his rear in the morning, as soon as it + descended from the high grounds into the plain beyond them and gave orders + accordingly to Lee, who was at Englishtown, three miles in the rear of the + British army and as much in advance of the main body of the Americans. + </p> + <p> + By the strong parties on his flanks and rear Clinton was convinced that + the hostile army was at hand, and suspecting that an attempt on his + baggage was intended on the morning of the 28th he changed his order of + march and put all the baggage under the care of General Knyphausen, who + commanded the van division of his army, in order that the rear division, + consisting of the flower of the troops under Cornwallis, might be + unencumbered and ready to act as circumstances might require. Clinton + remained with the rear division. + </p> + <p> + To avoid pressing on Knyphausen Cornwallis remained on his ground until + about 8, and then descending from the heights of Freehold into an + extensive plain took up his line of march in rear of the front division. + </p> + <p> + General Lee had made dispositions for executing orders given the preceding + evening, and repeated in the morning, and soon after the British rear had + moved from its ground prepared to attack it. General Dickinson had been + directed to detach some of his best troops, to take such a position as to + cooperate with him, and Morgan, with his riflemen, was ordered to act on + the right flank. + </p> + <p> + Lee appeared on the heights of Freehold soon after Cornwallis had left + them, and following the British into the plain ordered General Wayne to + attack the rear of their covering party with sufficient vigor to check it, + but not to press it so closely as either to force it up to the main body + or to draw reinforcements to its aid. In the meantime he intended to gain + the front of this party by a shorter road, and, intercepting its + communication with the line, to bear it off before it could be assisted. + While in the execution of this design an officer in the suite of + Washington came up to gain intelligence and Lee communicated to him his + present object. Before he reached the point of destination, however, there + was reason to believe that the British rear was much stronger than had + been conjectured. The intelligence on this subject being contradictory, + and the face of the country well calculated to conceal the truth, he + deemed it advisable to ascertain the fact himself. + </p> + <p> + Sir Henry Clinton, soon after the rear division was in full march, + received intelligence that an American column had appeared on his left + flank. This, being a corps of militia, was soon dispersed and the march + was continued. When his rear guard had descended from the heights he saw + it followed by a strong corps, soon after which a cannonade was commenced + upon it, and at the same time a respectable force showed itself on each of + his flanks. Suspecting a design on his baggage he determined to attack the + troops in his rear so vigorously as to compel a recall of those on his + flanks, and for this purpose marched back his whole rear division. This + movement was in progress as Lee advanced for the purpose of + reconnoitering. He soon perceived his mistake respecting the force of the + British rear, but still determined to engage on that ground although his + judgment disapproved the measure—there being a morass immediately in + his rear, which would necessarily impede the reinforcements which might be + advancing to his aid and embarrass his retreat should he be finally + overpowered. This was about 10. While both armies were preparing for + action General Scott (as stated by General Lee) mistook an oblique march + of an American column for a retreat, and in the apprehension of being + abandoned left his position and repassed the ravine in his rear. + </p> + <p> + Being himself of opinion that the ground was unfavorable Lee did not + correct the error he ascribed to Scott but ordered the whole detachment to + regain the heights. He was closely pressed and some slight skirmishing + ensued without much loss on either side. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the firing announced the commencement of the action the rear + division of the army advanced rapidly to the support of the front. As they + approached the scene of action, Washington, who had received no + intelligence from Lee giving notice of his retreat, rode forward, and to + his utter astonishment and mortification met the advanced corps retiring + before the enemy without having made a single effort to maintain its + ground. The troops he first saw neither understood the motives which had + governed Lee nor his present design, and could give no other information + than that by his orders they had fled without fighting. + </p> + <p> + Washington rode to the rear of the division where he met Lee, to whom he + spoke in terms of some warmth, implying disapprobation of his conduct. {2} + </p> + <p> + Orders were immediately given to Colonel Stewart and Lieutenant-Colonel + Ramsay to form their regiments for the purpose of checking the pursuit, + and Lee was directed to take proper measures with the residue of his force + to stop the British column on that ground. Washington then rode back to + arrange the rear division of the army. + </p> + <p> + These orders were executed with firmness, and, when forced from his + ground, Lee brought off his troops in good order, and was directed to form + in the rear of Englishtown. + </p> + <p> + This check afforded time to draw up the left wing and second line of the + American army on an eminence covered by a morass in front. Lord Stirling, + who commanded the left wing, brought up a detachment of artillery under + Lieutenant-Colonel Carrington, and some field pieces, which played with + considerable effect on a division of the British which had passed the + morass, and was pressing on to the charge. These pieces, with the aid of + several parties of infantry, effectually stopped the advance of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Finding themselves warmly opposed in front, the British attempted to turn + the left flank of the American army, but were repulsed. They then + attempted the right with as little success. General Greene had advanced a + body of troops with artillery to a commanding piece of ground in his + front, which not only disappointed the design of turning the right, but + enfiladed the party which yet remained in front of the left wing. + </p> + <p> + At this moment General Wayne was advanced with a body of infantry to + engage them in front, who kept up so hot and well-directed a fire that + they soon withdrew behind the ravine to the ground on which the action had + commenced immediately after the arrival of Washington. + </p> + <p> + Lafayette, speaking of this battle, said: "Never was General Washington + greater in war than in this action. His presence stopped the retreat. His + dispositions fixed the victory. His fine appearance on horseback, his calm + courage roused by the animation produced by the vexation of the morning, + gave him the air best calculated to excite enthusiasm." + </p> + <p> + The position now taken by the British army was very strong. Both flanks + were secured by thick woods and morasses, and their front was accessible + only through a narrow pass. The day had been intensely hot, and the + troops were much fatigued. Notwithstanding these circumstances, + Washington resolved to renew the engagement. For this purpose he ordered + Brigadier-General Poor, with his own and the North Carolina brigade, to + gain their right flank, while Woodford with his brigade should turn their + left. At the same time the artillery was ordered to advance and play on + their front. These orders were obeyed with alacrity, but the impediments + on the flanks of the British were so considerable, that before they could + be overcome it was nearly dark. Further operations were therefore + deferred until next morning; and the brigades which had been detached to + the flanks of the British army continued on their ground through night, + and the other troops lay on the field of battle with their arms in their + hands. Washington passed the night in his cloak in the midst of his + soldiers. + </p> + <p> + The British employed the early part of the morning in removing their + wounded, and about midnight marched away in such silence that their + retreat was not perceived until day. + </p> + <p> + As it was certain that they must gain the high grounds about Middletown + before they could be overtaken, as the face of the country afforded no + prospect of opposing their embarkation, and as the battle already fought + had terminated in a manner to make a general impression favorable to the + American arms, Washington decided to relinquish the pursuit. Leaving a + detachment to hover about the British rear, the main body of the army + moved towards the Hudson. + </p> + <p> + Washington was highly gratified with the conduct of his troops in this + action. Their behavior, he said, after recovering from the first surprise + occasioned by the unexpected retreat of the advanced corps, could not be + surpassed. Wayne he particularly mentioned, and spoke of the artillery in + terms of high praise. + </p> + <p> + The loss of the Americans in the battle of Monmouth was 8 officers and 61 + privates killed, and about 160 wounded. Among the slain were + Lieutenant-Colonel Bonner, of Pennsylvania, and Major Dickinson, of + Virginia, both of whom were much regretted. One hundred and thirty were + missing, but a considerable number of these afterward rejoined their + regiments. + </p> + <p> + In his official letter, Sir Henry Clinton states his dead and missing at 4 + officers and 184 privates; his wounded, at 16 officers and 154 privates. + This account, so far as it respects the dead, cannot be correct, as 4 + officers and 245 privates were buried on the field by persons appointed + for the purpose, who made their report to Washington; and some few were + afterward found, so as to increase the number to nearly 300. The uncommon + heat of the day proved fatal to several on both sides. + </p> + <p> + As usual, when a battle has not been decisive, both parties claimed the + victory. In the early part of the day the advantage was certainly with the + British; in the latter part it may be pronounced with equal certainty to + have been with the Americans. They maintained their ground, repulsed the + enemy, were prevented only by the night and by the retreat of the hostile + army from renewing the action, and suffered less in killed and wounded + than their adversaries. + </p> + <p> + It is true that Sir Henry Clinton effected what he states to have been his + principal object—the safety of his baggage. But when it is + recollected that the American officers had decided against hazarding an + action, that this advice must have trammeled the conduct and circumscribed + the views of Washington, he will be admitted to have effected no + inconsiderable object in giving the American arms that appearance of + superiority which was certainly acquired by this engagement. + </p> + <p> + Independent of the loss sustained in the action, the British army was + considerably weakened in its march from Philadelphia to New York. About + 100 prisoners were made, and near 1,000 soldiers, chiefly foreigners, + deserted while passing through Jersey. Many of the soldiers had formed + attachments in Philadelphia, which occasioned their desertion. Clinton's + whole loss, including killed, wounded, prisoners, and deserters, amounted + to at least 2,000 men. + </p> + <p> + The conduct of Lee was generally disapproved. As, however, he had + possessed a large share of the confidence and good opinion of the + Commander-in-Chief, it is probable that explanations might have been made + which would have rescued him from the imputations that were cast on him, + and have restored him to the esteem of the army, could his haughty temper + have brooked the indignity he believed to have been offered him on the + field of battle. Washington had taken no measures in consequence of the + events of that day, and would probably have come to no resolution + concerning them without an amicable explanation, when he received from + Lee a letter expressed in very unbecoming terms, in which he, in the tone + of a superior, required reparation for the injury sustained "from the + very singular expressions" said to have been used on the day of the + action by Washington. + </p> + <p> + This letter was answered (July 30, 1778) by an assurance that, so soon as + circumstances would admit of an inquiry, he should have an opportunity of + justifying himself to the army, to America, and to the world in general; + or of convincing them that he had been guilty of disobedience of orders + and misbehavior before the enemy. On his expressing a wish for a speedy + investigation of his conduct, and for a court-martial rather than a court + of inquiry, he was arrested—first, for disobedience of orders in not + attacking the enemy on the 28th of June, agreeably to repeated + instructions; secondly, for misbehavior before the enemy on the same day, + in making an unnecessary, disorderly, and shameful retreat; and thirdly, + for disrespect to the Commander-in-Chief in two letters. + </p> + <p> + Before this correspondence had taken place, strong and specific charges of + misconduct had been made against General Lee by several officers of his + detachment, and particularly by Generals Wayne and Scott. In these, the + transactions of the day, not being well understood, were represented in + colors much more unfavorable to Lee than facts, when properly explained, + would seem to justify. + </p> + <p> + These representations, most probably, induced the strong language of the + second article in the charge. A court-martial, over which Lord Stirling + presided, after a tedious investigation, found him guilty of all the + charges exhibited against him, and sentenced him to be suspended for one + year. This sentence was afterward, though with some hesitation, approved + almost unanimously by Congress. The court, softened in some degree the + severity of the second charge, by finding him guilty, not in its very + words, but "of misbehavior before the enemy, by making an unnecessary, + and, in some few instances, a disorderly retreat." + </p> + <p> + Lee defended himself with his accustomed ability. He proved that, after + the retreat had commenced, in consequence of General Scott's repassing the + ravine, on the approach of the enemy, he had designed to form on the first + advantageous piece of ground he could find; and that in his own opinion, + and in the opinion of some other officers, no safe and advantageous + position had presented itself until he met Washington, at which time it + was his intention to fight the enemy on the very ground afterwards taken + by Washington himself. He suggested a variety of reasons in justification + of his retreat, which, if they do not absolutely establish its propriety, + give it so questionable a form as to render it probable that a public + examination never would have taken place, could his proud spirit have + stooped to offer explanation instead of outrage to the Commander-in-Chief. + </p> + <p> + His suspension gave general satisfaction through the army. Without judging + harshly of his conduct as a military man, they perfectly understood the + insult offered to their general by his letters; and, whether rightly or + not, believed his object to have been to disgrace Washington and to obtain + the supreme command for himself. So devotedly were all ranks attached to + their general, that the mere suspicion of such a design would have + rendered his continuance in the army extremely difficult. + </p> + <p> + Whatever judgment may be formed on the propriety of his retreat, it is not + easy to justify either the omission to keep the Commander-in-Chief + continually informed of his situation and intentions, or the very rude + letters written after the action was over. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Monmouth gave great satisfaction to Congress. A resolution + was passed unanimously, thanking Washington for the activity with which he + marched from the camp at Valley Forge in pursuit of the enemy; for his + distinguished exertions in forming the line of battle, and for his great + good conduct in the action; and he was requested to signify the thanks of + Congress to the officers and men under his command who distinguished + themselves by their conduct and valor in the battle. + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Monmouth, Washington gave his army one day's repose, + and then (June 30, 1778,) commenced his march toward Brunswick, at which + place he encamped, and remained for several days. Thence he sent out + parties to reconnoiter the enemy's position, and learn his intentions. + Among other persons sent out with this design was Aaron Burr, a + lieutenant-colonel, who had served in Arnold's expedition to Quebec, and + who was destined to become a conspicuous person in American history. + </p> + <p> + Clinton had arrived with his army in the neighborhood of Sandy Hook on the + 30th of June. Here he was met by Lord Howe with the fleet, which had just + arrived from Philadelphia. Sandy Hook having been converted by the winter + storms from a peninsula to an island, Lord Howe caused a bridge of boats + to be constructed, over which Clinton's army passed from the mainland to + the Hook. It was soon afterward distributed into different encampments on + Staten Island, Long Island, and the island of New York. + </p> + <p> + When Washington had learned that the British army was thus situated, he + was satisfied that Clinton had no present intention of passing up the + Hudson, and he halted a few days at Paramus, at which place he received + intelligence of an important event which will claim our attention in the + next chapter. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Spencer, "History of the United States." + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: This interview between Washington and Lee was followed by + such important results that one is naturally curious to know exactly what + passed between them. The interview is described by Lee himself in his + defense before the court-martial: + </p> + <p> + "When I arrived first in his presence, conscious of having done nothing + which could draw on me the least censure, but rather flattering myself + with his congratulation and applause, I confess I was disconcerted, + astonished, and confounded by the words and manner in which his Excellency + accosted me. It was so novel and unexpected from a man, whose discretion, + humanity, and decorum I had from the first of our acquaintance stood in + admiration of, that I was for some time unable to make any coherent answer + to questions so abrupt, and in a great measure to me unintelligible. The + terms, I think, were these: 'I desire to know, sir, what is the reason, + whence arises this disorder and confusion?' The manner in which he + expressed them was much stronger and more severe than the expressions + themselves. When I recovered myself sufficiently, I answered that I saw or + knew of no confusion but what naturally arose from disobedience of orders, + contradictory intelligence, and the impertinence and presumption of + individuals, who were invested with no authority, intruding themselves in + matters above them and out of their sphere; that the retreat in the first + instance was contrary to my intentions, contrary to my orders, and + contrary to my wishes." + </p> + <p> + Washington replied that all this might be true, but that he ought not to + have undertaken the enterprise unless he intended to go through with it. + He then rode away, and ordered some of the retreating regiments to be + formed on the ground which he pointed out. + </p> + <p> + Gordon says that, after the first meeting with Lee, Washington rode on + towards the rear of the retreating troops. He had not gone many yards + before he met his secretary, who told him that the British army were + within fifteen minutes' march of that place, which was the first + intelligence he received of their pushing on so briskly. He remained there + till the extreme rear of the retreating troops got up, when, looking + about, and judging the ground to be an advantageous spot for giving the + enemy the first check, he ordered Colonel Stewart's and Lieutenant-Colonel + Ramsey's battalions to form and incline to their left, that they might be + under cover of a corner of woods, and not be exposed to the enemy's cannon + in front. Lee having been told by one of his aids that Washington had + taken the command, answered, "Then I have nothing further to do," and + turned his horse and rode after his Excellency in front. Washington, on + his coming up, asked, "Will you command on this ground or not? If you + will, I will return to the main body and have them formed upon the next + height." Lee replied, "It is equal with me where I command." Washington + then told him, "I expect you will take proper measures for checking the + enemy," Lee said, "Your orders shall be obeyed, and I will not be the + first to leave the field." Washington then rode to the main army, which + was formed with the utmost expedition on the eminence, with the morass in + front. Immediately upon his riding off, a warm cannonade commenced between + the British and American artillery on the right of Stewart and Ramsay, + between whom and the advanced troops of the British army a heavy fire + began soon after in the skirt of the woods before mentioned. The British + pressed on close; their light horse charged upon the right of the + Americans, and the latter were obliged to give way in such haste, that the + British horse and infantry came out of the wood seemingly mixed with them. + </p> + <p> + The action then commenced between the British and Colonel Livingston's + regiment, together with Varnum's brigade, which had been drawn up by Lee's + order, and lined the fence that stretched across the open field in front + of the bridge over the morass, with the view of covering the retreat of + the artillery and the troops advanced with them. The artillery had timely + retired to the rear of the fence, and from an eminence discharged several + rounds of shot at the British engaged with Livingston's and Varnum's + troops; these were soon broken by a charge of the former, and retired. The + artillery were then ordered off. Prior to the commencement of the last + action, Lee sent orders to Colonel Ogden, who had drawn up in the wood + nearest the bridge to defend that post to the last extremity, thereby to + cover the retreat of the whole over the bridge. Lee was one of the last + that remained on the field, and brought off the rear of the retreating + troops. Upon his addressing General Washington, after passing the morass, + with, "Sir, here are my troops, how is it your pleasure that I should + dispose of them?" he was ordered to arrange them in the rear of + Englishtown. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. — WASHINGTON DIRECTS A DESCENT ON RHODE ISLAND. 1778. + </h2> + <p> + Previous to evacuating Philadelphia, Clinton had received notice from his + government that, in consequence of the alliance between France and the + United States, a new plan of operations had been determined on. The French + were to be attacked in their West Indian possessions by way of diversion + from the main scene of action. Five thousand men were detached from his + army to aid in the execution of this purpose, and 3,000 were sent to + Florida. Clinton was also apprised that a French fleet would probably + appear in the Delaware and thus prevent any possibility of his leaving + Philadelphia by water. Hence his sudden departure from Philadelphia with + the remainder of his forces. He was only just in time to save his army and + Lord Howe's fleet. + </p> + <p> + On the 5th of July (1778), the day on which the British army arrived at + New York, the Count D'Estaing, with a French fleet, appeared on the coast + of Virginia. + </p> + <p> + In the month of March the French ambassador in London, by order of his + government, notified to the British court the treaties entered into + between France and America. In a few days afterward he quitted London + without the ceremony of taking leave, and about the same time the British + ambassador left Paris in a similar manner. This was considered equivalent + to a declaration of war, and although war was not actually declared, yet + both parties diligently prepared for hostilities. + </p> + <p> + The French equipped at Toulon a fleet of twelve sail of the line and six + frigates, and gave the command to Count D'Estaing, who, with a + considerable number of troops on board, sailed on the 13th of April + (1778); but meeting with contrary winds he did not reach the coast of + America till the 5th of July. He expected to find the British army in + Philadelphia and the fleet in the Delaware, and if this expectation had + been realized the consequences to Britain must have been calamitous. But + the British fleet and army were at Sandy Hook or New York before the + French fleet arrived on the coast. Count D'Estaing touched at the capes of + the Delaware on the 5th of July, and on learning that the British had + evacuated Philadelphia, he dispatched one of his frigates up the river + with M. Gerard, the first minister from France to the United States, and + then sailed for Sandy Hook. + </p> + <p> + Washington received intelligence of D'Estaing's arrival in a letter from + the President of Congress while he was at Paramus. The next day he + received a second letter on the same subject, enclosing two resolutions—one + directing him to cooperate with the French admiral and the other + authorizing him to call on the States from New Hampshire to New Jersey, + inclusive, for such aids of militia as he might deem necessary for the + operations of the allied arms. He determined to proceed immediately to + White Plains, whence the army might cooperate with more facility in the + execution of any attempt which might be made by the fleet, and dispatched + Lieutenant-Colonel Laurens, one of his aides-de-camp, with all the + information relative to the enemy, as well as to his own army, which might + be useful to D'Estaing. Lieutenant-Colonel Laurens was authorized to + consult on future conjoint operations, and to establish conventional + signals for the purpose of facilitating the communication of intelligence. + </p> + <p> + The French admiral, on arriving off the Hook, dispatched Major de Choisi, + a gentleman of his family, to Washington for the purpose of communicating + fully his views and his strength. His first object was to attack New York. + If this should be found impracticable, he was desirous of turning his + attention to Rhode Island. To assist in coming to a result on these + enterprises, Washington dispatched Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton, another of + his aides-de-camp, with such further communications as had been suggested + by inquiries made since the departure of Laurens. + </p> + <p> + Fearing that the water on the bar at the entrance of the harbor was not of + sufficient depth to admit the passage of the largest ships of the French + fleet without much difficulty and danger, Washington had turned his + attention to other objects which might be eventually pursued. General + Sullivan, who commanded the troops in Rhode Island, was directed (July 21, + 1778) to prepare for an enterprise against Newport, and Lafayette was + detached with two brigades to join him at Providence. The next day + Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton returned to camp with the final determination + of the Count D'Estaing to relinquish the meditated attack on the fleet in + the harbor of New York, in consequence of the impracticability of passing + the bar. + </p> + <p> + General Greene was immediately ordered to Rhode Island, of which State he + was a native, and Lieutenant-Colonel Laurens was directed to attach + himself to the French admiral and to facilitate all his views by procuring + whatever might give them effect, after which he was to act with the army + under Sullivan. + </p> + <p> + Writing to the President of Congress (August 3, 1778), Washington says: + "As the army was encamped and there was no great prospect of a sudden + removal, I judged it advisable to send General Greene to the eastward on + Wednesday last, being fully persuaded his services, as well in the + quartermaster line as in the field, would be of material importance in the + expedition against the enemy in that quarter. He is intimately acquainted + with the whole of that country, and, besides, he has an extensive interest + and influence in it. And, in justice to General Greene, I take occasion to + observe that the public is much indebted to him for his judicious + management and active exertions in his present department. When he entered + upon it, he found it in a most confused, distracted, and destitute state. + This, by his conduct and industry, has undergone a very happy change and + such as enabled us, with great facility, to make a sudden move, with the + whole army and baggage, from Valley Forge, in pursuit of the enemy, and to + perform a march to this place. In a word, he has given the most general + satisfaction, and his affairs carry much the face of method and system. I + also consider it as an act of justice to speak of the conduct of Colonel + Wadsworth, commissary-general. He has been indefatigable in his exertions + to provide for the army, and, since his appointment, our supplies of + provision have been good and ample." + </p> + <p> + We copy this extract from Washington's correspondence because it does + justice to Greene and gives us information of the favorable change which + had taken place in the condition of the army since its dreary sojourn at + Valley Forge. + </p> + <p> + The resolution being taken to proceed against Rhode Island, the fleet got + under way and on the 25th of July (1778) appeared off Newport and cast + anchor about five miles from that place; soon after which General Sullivan + visited D'Estaing and concerted with him a plan of operations. The fleet + was to enter the harbor and land the French troops on the west side of the + island, a little to the north of Dyer's Island. The Americans were to land + at the same time on the opposite coast under cover of the guns of a + frigate. + </p> + <p> + A delay of several days now took place on account of the tardiness of the + neighboring militia in joining Sullivan's army. + </p> + <p> + As the militia of New Hampshire and Massachusetts approached, Sullivan + joined Greene at Tiverton and it was agreed with the admiral that the + fleet should enter the main channel immediately (August 8th), and that the + descent should be made the succeeding day. The French fleet passed the + British batteries and entered the harbor without receiving or doing any + considerable damage. + </p> + <p> + The militia not arriving precisely at the time they were expected, + Sullivan could not hazard the movement which had been concerted, and + stated to the Count the necessity of postponing it till the next day. + Meanwhile the preparations for the descent being perceived, General Pigot + drew the troops which had been stationed on the north end of the island + into the lines at Newport. + </p> + <p> + On discovering this circumstance the next morning, Sullivan determined to + avail himself of it and to take immediate possession of the works which + had been abandoned. The whole army crossed the east passage and landed on + the north end of Rhode Island. This movement gave great offense to + D'Estaing who resented the indelicacy supposed to have been committed by + Sullivan in landing before the French and without consulting him. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately some difficulties on subjects of mere punctilio had + previously arisen. D'Estaing was a land as well as sea officer, and held + the high rank of lieutenant-general in the service of France. Sullivan + being only a major-general, some misunderstanding on this delicate point + had been apprehended, and Washington had suggested to him the necessity of + taking every precaution to avoid it. This, it was supposed, had been + effected in their first conference, in which it was agreed that the + Americans should land first, after which the French should land to be + commanded by D'Estaing in person. The motives for this arrangement are not + stated. Either his own after-reflections or the suggestions of others + dissatisfied D'Estaing with it and he insisted that the descent should be + made on both sides of the island precisely at the same instant, and that + one wing of the American army should be attached to the French and land + with them. He also declined commanding in person and wished Lafayette to + take charge of the French troops as well as of the Americans attached to + them. + </p> + <p> + It being feared that this alteration of the plan might endanger both its + parts D'Estaing was prevailed on to reduce his demand from one wing of the + American army to 1,000 militia. When afterward Sullivan crossed over into + the island before the time to which he had himself postponed the descent, + and without giving previous notice to the count of this movement, + considerable excitement was manifested. The count refused to answer + Sullivan's letter, and charged Lieutenant-Colonel Fleury, who delivered + it, with being more an American than a Frenchman. + </p> + <p> + At this time a British fleet appeared which, after sailing close into the + land and communicating with General Pigot, withdrew some distance and came + to anchor off Point Judith, just without the narrow inlet leading into the + harbor. + </p> + <p> + After it had been ascertained that the destination of the Count D'Estaing + was America, he was followed by a squadron of twelve ships of the line + under Admiral Byron who was designed to relieve Lord Howe, that nobleman + having solicited his recall. The vessels composing this squadron meeting + with weather unusually bad for the season, and being separated in + different storms, arrived, after lingering through a tedious passage in + various degrees of distress, on different and remote parts of the American + coast. Between the departure of D'Estaing from the Hook on the 23d of July + (1778) and the 30th of that month, four ships of sixty-four and fifty guns + arrived at Sandy Hook. + </p> + <p> + This addition to the British fleet, though it left Lord Howe considerably + inferior to the Count D'Estaing, determined him to attempt the relief of + Newport. He sailed from New York on the 6th of August and on the 9th + appeared in sight of the French fleet before intelligence of his departure + could be received by the admiral. + </p> + <p> + At the time of his arrival the wind set directly into the harbor so that + it was impossible to get out of it, but it shifted suddenly to the + northeast the next morning and the count determined to stand out to sea + and give battle. Previous to leaving port (August 10th) he informed + General Sullivan that on his return he would land his men as that officer + should advise. + </p> + <p> + Not choosing to give the advantage of the weather-gauge Lord Howe also + weighed anchor and stood out to sea. He was followed by D'Estaing, and + both fleets were soon out of sight. + </p> + <p> + The militia were now arrived and Sullivan's army amounted to 10,000 men. + Notwithstanding some objections made by Lafayette to his commencing + operations before the return of D'Estaing, Sullivan determined to commence + the siege immediately. Before this determination could be executed a + furious storm blew down all the tents, rendered the arms unfit for + immediate use, and greatly damaged the ammunition, of which fifty rounds + had just been delivered to each man. The soldiers having no shelter + suffered extremely, and several perished in the storm which continued + three days. On the return of fair weather the siege was commenced and + continued without any material circumstance for several days. + </p> + <p> + As no intelligence had been received from the admiral the situation of the + American army was becoming very critical. On the evening of the 19th their + anxieties were relieved for a moment by the reappearance of the French + fleet. + </p> + <p> + The two admirals, desirous the one of gaining and the other of retaining + the advantage of the wind, had employed two days in maneuvering without + coming to action. Toward the close of the second they were on the point of + engaging when they were separated by the violent storm which had been so + severely felt on shore and which dispersed both fleets. Some single + vessels afterward fell in with each other, but no important capture was + made, and both fleets retired in a very shattered condition, the one to + the harbor of New York and the other to that of Newport. + </p> + <p> + A letter was immediately dispatched by D'Estaing to Sullivan, informing + him that, in pursuance of orders from the King and of the advice of all + his officers, he had taken the resolution to carry the fleet to Boston. + His instructions directed him to sail for Boston should his fleet meet + with any disaster or should a superior British fleet appear on the coast. + </p> + <p> + To be abandoned by the fleet in such critical circumstances and not only + deprived of the brilliant success which they thought within their reach, + but exposed to imminent hazard, caused much disappointment, irritation, + and alarm in the American camp. Lafayette and Greene were dispatched to + D'Estaing to remonstrate with him on the subject and to press his + cooperation and assistance for two days only, in which time they flattered + themselves the most Brilliant success would crown their efforts. But the + count was not popular in the fleet; he was a military officer as well as a + naval commander, and was considered as belonging to the army rather than + to the navy. The officers of the sea service looked on him with a jealous + and envious eye and were willing to thwart him as far as they were able + with safety to themselves. When, on the pressing application of Lafayette + and Greene, he again submitted the matter to their consideration, they + took advantage of the letter of the admiral's instructions and unanimously + adhered to their former resolution, sacrificing the service of their + prince to their own petty jealousies and animosities. D'Estaing, + therefore, felt himself constrained to set sail for Boston. + </p> + <p> + The departure of the French marine force left Sullivan's army in a + critical situation. It was in a firm reliance on the cooperation of the + French fleet that the expedition was undertaken, and its sudden and + unexpected departure not only disappointed the sanguine hopes of speedy + success, but exposed the army to much hazard, for the British troops under + General Pigot might have been reinforced and the fleet might have cut off + Sullivan's retreat. + </p> + <p> + The departure of the French fleet greatly discouraged the American army, + and in a few days Sullivan's force was considerably diminished by + desertion. On the 26th of August he therefore resolved to raise the siege + and retreat to the north end of the island, and took the necessary + precautions for the successful execution of that movement. + </p> + <p> + In the night of the 28th, Sullivan silently decamped and retired + unobserved. Early in the morning the British discovered his retreat and + instantly commenced a pursuit. They soon overtook the light troops who + covered the retreat of the American army, and who continued skirmishing + and retreating till they reached the north end of the island, where the + army occupied a strong position at a place where the British formerly had + a fortified post, the works of which had been strengthened during the two + preceding days. There a severe conflict for about half an hour ensued, + when the combatants mutually withdrew from the field. The loss of the + armies was nearly equal, amounting to between two and three hundred killed + or wounded in the course of the day. + </p> + <p> + On the 30th of August there was a good deal of cannonading, but neither + party ventured to attack the other. The British were expecting + reinforcements, and Sullivan, although he made a show of resolutely + maintaining his post, was busily preparing for the evacuation of the + island. In the evening he silently struck his tents, embarked his army, + with all the artillery, baggage, and stores, on board a great number of + boats and landed safely on the continent before the British suspected his + intention to abandon the post. General Sullivan made a timely escape, for + Sir Henry Clinton was on his way, with 4,000 men, to the assistance of + General Pigot. He was detained four days in the Sound by contrary winds, + but arrived on the day after the Americans left the island. A very short + delay would probably have proved fatal to their army. + </p> + <p> + The most sanguine expectations had been entertained throughout the United + States of the reduction of Rhode Island and the capture of the British + force which defended it, so that the disappointment and mortification on + the failure of the enterprise were exceedingly bitter. The irritation + against the French, who were considered the authors of the miscarriage, + was violent. Sullivan was confident of success; and his chagrin at the + departure of the French fleet made him use some expressions, in a general + order, which gave offense to D'Estaing. + </p> + <p> + Washington foresaw the evils likely to result from the general and mutual + irritation which prevailed, and exerted all his influence to calm the + minds of both parties. He had a powerful coadjutor in Lafayette, who was + as deservedly dear to the Americans as to the French. His first duties + were due to his King and country, but he loved America, and was so devoted + to the Commander-in-Chief of its armies, as to enter into his views and + second his softening conciliatory measures with truly filial affection. + Washington also wrote to General Heath, who commanded at Boston, and to + Sullivan and Greene, who commanded at Rhode Island. In his letter to + General Heath he stated his fears "that the departure of the French fleet + from Rhode Island at so critical a moment, would not only weaken the + confidence of the people in their new allies, but produce such prejudice + and resentment as might prevent their giving the fleet, in its present + distress, such zealous and effectual assistance as was demanded by the + exigency of affairs and the true interests of America;" and added "that it + would be sound policy to combat these effects and to give the best + construction of what had happened; and at the same time to make strenuous + exertions for putting the French fleet, as soon as possible, in a + condition to defend itself and be useful." He also observed as follows: + "The departure of the fleet from Rhode Island is not yet publicly + announced here; but when it is, I intend to ascribe it to necessity + produced by the damage received in the late storm. This, it appears to me, + is the idea which ought to be generally propagated. As I doubt not the + force of these reasons will strike you equally with myself, I would + recommend to you to use your utmost influence to palliate and soften + matters, and to induce those whose business it is to provide succors of + every kind for the fleet, to employ their utmost zeal and activity in + doing it. It is our duty to make the best of our misfortunes and not + suffer passion to interfere with our interest and the public good." + </p> + <p> + Writing to General Sullivan he observed: "The disagreement between the + army under your command and the fleet has given me very singular + uneasiness. The continent at large is concerned in our cordiality, and it + should be kept up by all possible means consistent with our honor and + policy. First impressions are generally longest retained, and will serve + to fix in a great degree our national character with the French. In our + conduct toward them we should remember that they are a people old in war, + very strict in military etiquette, and apt to take fire when others seem + scarcely warmed. Permit me to recommend, in the most particular manner, + the cultivation of harmony and good agreement, and your endeavors to + destroy that ill-humor which may have found its way among the officers. It + is of the utmost importance, too, that the soldier and the people should + know nothing of this misunderstanding; or if it has reached them, that + means may be used to stop its progress and prevent its effects." + </p> + <p> + To General Greene, Washington wrote: "I have not now time to take notice + of the several arguments which were made use of, for and against the + count's quitting the harbor of Newport and sailing for Boston. Right or + wrong, it will probably disappoint our sanguine expectations of success + and which I deem a still worse consequence, I fear it will sow the seeds + of dissension and distrust between us and our new allies, unless the most + prudent measures be taken to suppress the feuds and jealousies that have + already arisen. I depend much on your temper and influence to conciliate + that animosity which, subsists between the American and French officers in + our service. I beg you will take every measure to keep the protest entered + into by the general officers from being made public. Congress, sensible of + the ill consequences that will flow from our differences being known to + the world, have passed a resolve to that purpose. Upon the whole, my dear + sir, you can conceive my meaning better than I can express it; and I + therefore fully depend on your exerting yourself to heal all private + animosities between our principal officers and the French, and to prevent + all illiberal expression and reflections that may fall from the army at + large." + </p> + <p> + Washington also improved the first opportunity of recommencing his + correspondence with Count D'Estaing, in a letter to him, which, without + noticing the disagreements that had taken place, was well calculated to + soothe every unpleasant sensation which might have disturbed his mind. In + the course of a short correspondence, the irritation which threatened + serious mischiefs gave way to returning good understanding and cordiality; + although here and there popular ill-will manifested itself in rather + serious quarrels and disputes with the French sailors and marines. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, in the storm which had separated the fleets of D'Estaing and + Howe when just about to engage, the British fleet had suffered + considerably, but had not sustained so much damage as the French. In a + short time Lord Howe was again ready for sea; and having learned that + D'Estaing had sailed for Boston, he left New York with the intention of + reaching that place before him, or of attacking him there, if he found it + could be done with advantage. But on entering the bay of Boston he + perceived the French fleet in Nantasket Roads, so judiciously stationed + and so well protected by batteries that there was no prospect of attacking + it with success. He therefore returned to New York, where, finding that by + fresh arrivals his fleet was decidedly superior to that of the French, he + availed himself of the permission which he had received some time before + and resigned the command to Admiral Gambier, who was to continue in the + command till the arrival of Admiral Byron, who was daily expected from + Halifax. + </p> + <p> + Sir Henry Clinton, finding that General Sullivan had effected his retreat + from Rhode Island, set out on his return to New York; but that the + expedition might not be wholly ineffectual, he meditated an attack on New + London, situated on a river which falls into the Sound. The wind, however, + being unfavorable to the enterprise, he gave the command of the troops on + board the transports to Maj.-Gen. Sir Charles Grey, with orders to proceed + in an expedition against Buzzard's Bay, and continued his voyage to New + York. {1} + </p> + <p> + In obedience to the orders which he had received, General Grey sailed to + Acushnet river where he landed on the 5th of September (1778), and + destroyed all the shipping in the river, amounting to more than seventy + sail. He burned a great part of the towns of Bedford and Fairhaven, the + one on the west and the other on the east bank, destroying a considerable + quantity of military and naval stores, provisions, and merchandise. He + landed at six in the evening, and so rapid were his movements that the + work of destruction was accomplished and the troops re-embarked before + noon the next day. He then proceeded to the island called Martha's + Vineyard, a resort of privateers, where he took or burned several vessels, + destroyed the salt works, compelled the inhabitants to surrender their + arms, and levied from them a contribution of 1,000 sheep and 300 oxen. + </p> + <p> + Having mercilessly ravaged the seacoast, the hero of the Paoli massacre + returned, heavily laden with plunder, to New York. + </p> + <p> + The return of the British fleet and of the troops under Grey relieved the + Americans from the anxious apprehension of an attack on their allies at + Boston. Under that apprehension, Washington had broken up his camp at + White Plains, and proceeding northward taken a position at Fredericksburg, + thirty miles from West Point near the borders of Connecticut. He detached + Generals Gates and M'Dougall to Danbury, in Connecticut, in order that + they might be in readiness to move as circumstances might require, and he + sent General Putnam to West Point to watch the North river and the + important passes in the Highlands. But the return of the fleet and troops + to New York quieted those apprehensions. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Washington received intelligence that an expedition was + preparing at New York, the object of which was not clearly apparent; but + soon after the return of the troops under Grey the British army advanced + in great force on both sides of the North river. The column on the west + bank, consisting of 5,000 men commanded by Cornwallis, extended from the + Hudson to the Hackensack. The division on the east side consisting of + about 3,000 men under Knyphausen, stretched from the North river to the + Bronx. The communication between them was kept up by flat-bottomed boats, + by means of which the two divisions could have been readily united if the + Americans had advanced against either of them. + </p> + <p> + Washington sent out several detachments to observe the movements of those + columns. Colonel Baylor, who with his regiment of cavalry consisting of + upwards of a hundred men had been stationed near Paramus, crossed the + Hackensack on the morning of the 27th of September and occupied Tappan or + Herringtown, a small village near New Tappan, where some militia were + posted. Of these circumstances Cornwallis received immediate notice and he + formed a plan to surprise and cut off both the cavalry and militia. The + execution of the enterprise against Baylor was entrusted to the + unscrupulous General Grey, and Colonel Campbell with a detachment from + Knyphausen's division was to cross the river and attack the militia at New + Tappan. Colonel Campbell's part of the plan failed by some delay in the + passage of the river, during which a deserter informed the militia of + their danger and they saved themselves by flight. But Grey completely + surprised Baylor's troops and killed, wounded, or took the greater part of + them. Colonel Baylor was wounded and made prisoner. The slaughter on that + occasion which as at the Paoli, was a literal massacre of surprised and + defenseless men excited much indignation and was the subject of loud + complaints throughout the United States. + </p> + <p> + Three days after the surprise of Baylor, Col. Richard Butler with a + detachment of infantry assisted by Maj. Henry Lee with part of his + cavalry, fell in with a party of 15 chasseurs and about 100 yagers under + Captain Donop, on whom they made such a rapid charge that without the loss + of a man, they killed ten of them on the spot and took about twenty + prisoners. + </p> + <p> + The movement of the British army up the North river already mentioned, was + made for the purpose of foraging and also to cover a meditated attack on + Little Egg Harbor, and having accomplished its object it returned to New + York. Little Egg Harbor, situated on the coast of Jersey, was a rendezvous + of privateers, and being so near the entrance to New York ships bound to + that port were much exposed to their depredations. An expedition against + it was therefore planned and the conduct of the enterprise entrusted to + Capt. Patrick Ferguson of the Seventeenth regiment with about 300 men, + assisted by Captain Collins of the navy. He sailed from New York, but + short as the passage was he was detained several days by contrary winds + and did not arrive at the place of his destination till the evening of the + 5th of October (1778). The Americans had got notice of his design and had + sent to sea such of their privateers as were ready for sailing. They had + also hauled the largest of the remaining vessels, which were chiefly + prizes, twenty miles up the river to Chestnut Neck, and had carried their + smaller vessels still further into the country. Ferguson proceeded to + Chestnut Neck, burned the vessels there, destroyed the storehouses and + public works of every sort, and in returning committed many depredations + on private property. + </p> + <p> + Count Pulaski with his legionary corps composed of three companies of foot + and a troop of horse, officered principally by foreigners, had been + detached by Washington into Jersey to check these depredations. He was + ordered toward Little Egg Harbor and lay without due vigilance eight or + ten miles from the coast. One Juliet, a Frenchman, who had deserted from + the British service and obtained a commission in Pulaski's corps + redeserted, joined Captain Ferguson at Little Egg Harbor after his return + from Chestnut Neck and gave him exact information of the strength and + situation of Pulaski's troops. + </p> + <p> + Ferguson and Collins immediately resolved to surprise the Polish nobleman, + and for that purpose, on the 15th of October (1778), they embarked 250 men + in boats, rowed ten miles up the river before daybreak, landed within a + small distance of his infantry, left fifty men to guard their boat, and + with the remainder of their force suddenly fell on the unsuspicious + detachment, killed fifty of them among whom were the Baron de Bosc and + Lieutenant de la Borderie, and retreated with scarcely any loss before + they could be attacked by Pulaski's cavalry. + </p> + <p> + This was another massacre similar to those of the infamous Grey. {2} Only + five prisoners were taken. The commander pretended to have received + information that Pulaski had ordered his men to give no quarter, but this + was false. + </p> + <p> + Admiral Byron reached New York and took command of the fleet about the + middle of September (1778). After repairing his shattered vessels he + sailed for the port of Boston. Soon after his arrival in the bay fortune + disconcerted all his plans. A furious storm drove him out to sea and + damaged his fleet so much that he found it necessary to put into Newport + to refit. This favorable moment was seized by the Count D'Estaing who + sailed on the 3d of November for the West Indies. + </p> + <p> + Thus terminated an expedition from which the most important advantages had + been anticipated. A variety of accidents had defeated plans judiciously + formed which had every probability of success in their favor. + </p> + <p> + Lafayette, ambitious of fame on another theater, was now desirous of + returning to France. Expecting war on the continent of Europe he was + anxious to tender his services to his King and to his native country. + </p> + <p> + From motives of real friendship as well as of policy, Washington was + desirous of preserving the connection of this officer with the army and of + strengthening his attachment to America. He therefore expressed to + Congress his wish that Lafayette, instead of resigning his commission, + might have unlimited leave of absence to return when it should be + convenient to himself, and might carry with him every mark of the + confidence of the government. This policy was adopted by Congress in its + full extent. The partiality of America for Lafayette was well placed. + Never did a foreigner, whose primary attachments to his own country + remained undiminished, feel more solicitude for the welfare of another + than was unceasingly manifested by this young nobleman for the United + States. + </p> + <p> + The French alliance having effected a change in the position of affairs on + the ocean, Congress devoted a good deal of attention to naval matters; + several new vessels were built and others were purchased, and the present + year (1778) gave token of the spirit and ability of some of our earlier + naval officers in contending with a navy usually held to be invincible. + Early in the year Captain Biddle, in the Randolph, a frigate of thirty-six + guns, engaged his majesty's ship the Yarmouth, a sixty-four, but after an + action of twenty minutes the Randolph blew up and Captain Biddle and crew + perished with the exception of only four men who were picked up a few days + after on a piece of wreck. The celebrated Paul Jones made his appearance + on the English coast during this year, and rendered his name a terror by + the bold and daring exploits which he performed. Captain Barry, off the + coast of Maine, behaved in a most gallant manner in an action with two + English ships, sustaining the contest for seven hours, and at last + escaping with his men on shore. Captain Talbot in October of this year + (1778) distinguished himself by a well-planned and successful attack upon + a British vessel off Rhode Island. The schooner Pigot, moored at the mouth + of Seconset river, effectually barred the passage, broke up the local + trade, and cut off the supplies of provisions and reinforcements for that + part of the colony. Talbot, earnestly desirous of relieving the country of + this annoyance, obtained the consent of General Sullivan to make the + attempt. With his usual alacrity he set about the affair and was entirely + successful. The Pigot was captured and carried off in triumph by the + gallant band under Talbot. In the succeeding November Captain Talbot + received a complimentary letter from the President of Congress, together + with a resolve of Congress, presenting him with the commission of + lieutenant-colonel in the army of the United States. + </p> + <p> + There being no prospect of an active winter campaign in the northern or + middle States and the climate admitting of military operations elsewhere, + a detachment from the British army consisting of 5,000 men commanded by + Major-General Grant, sailed early in November under a strong convoy for + the West India islands, and toward the end of the same month another + embarkation was made for the southern parts of the continent. This second + detachment was commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell who was escorted + by Com. Hyde Parker, and was destined to act against the Southern States. + </p> + <p> + As a force sufficient for the defense of New York yet remained the + American army retired into winter quarters (Dec., 1778). The main body was + cantoned in Connecticut, on both sides the North river, about West Point, + and at Middlebrook. Light troops were stationed nearer the lines, and the + cavalry were drawn into the interior to recruit the horses for the next + campaign. In this distribution the protection of the country, the security + of important points, and a cheap and convenient supply of provisions were + consulted. + </p> + <p> + The troops again wintered in huts, but they were used to this mode of + passing that inclement season. Though far from being well clothed their + condition in that respect was so much improved by supplies from France + that they disregarded the inconveniences to which they were exposed. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Campbell, who sailed from the Hook about the last of November, + 1778, escorted by a small squadron commanded by Com. Hyde Parker reached + the Isle of Tybee, near the Savannah, on the 23d of December, and in a few + days the fleet and the transports passed the bar and anchored in the + river. + </p> + <p> + The command of the Southern army, composed of the troops of South Carolina + and Georgia, had been committed to Major-General Robert Howe, who in the + course of the preceding summer had invaded East Florida. The diseases + incident to the climate made such ravages among his raw soldiers that + though he had scarcely seen an enemy he found himself compelled to hasten + out of the country with considerable loss. After this disastrous + enterprise his army, consisting of between six and seven hundred + Continental troops aided by a few hundred militia had encamped in the + neighborhood of the town of Savannah, situated on the southern bank of the + river bearing that name. The country about the mouth of the river is one + track of deep marsh intersected by creeks and cuts of water impassable for + troops at any time of the tide, except over causeways extending through + the sunken ground. + </p> + <p> + Without much opposition Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell effected a landing on + the 29th (December, 1778), about three miles below the town, upon which + Howe formed his line of battle. His left was secured by the river, and + along the whole extent of his front was a morass which stretched to his + right and was believed by him to be impassable for such a distance as + effectually to secure that wing. + </p> + <p> + After reconnoitering the country Colonel Campbell advanced on the great + road leading to Savannah, and about 3 in the afternoon appeared in sight + of the American army. While making dispositions to dislodge it he + accidentally fell in with a negro who informed him of a private path + leading through the swamp round the right of the American lines to their + rear. Determining to avail himself of this path he detached a column under + Sir James Baird which entered the morass unperceived by Howe. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Sir James emerged from the swamp he attacked and dispersed a + body of Georgia militia which gave the first notice to the American + general of the danger which threatened his rear. At the same instant the + British troops in his front were put in motion and their artillery began + to play upon him. A retreat was immediately ordered and the Continental + troops were under the necessity of running across a plain in front of the + corps which had been led to the rear by Sir James Baird who attacked their + flanks with great impetuosity and considerable effect. The few who escaped + retreated up the Savannah, and crossing that river at Zubly's Ferry took + refuge in South Carolina. + </p> + <p> + The victory was complete and decisive in its consequences. About 100 + Americans were either killed in the field or drowned in attempting to + escape through a deep swamp. Thirty-eight officers and 415 privates were + taken. Forty-eight pieces of cannon, twenty-three mortars, the fort, with + all its military stores, a large quantity of provisions collected for the + use of the army, and the capital of Georgia fell into the hands of the + conqueror. These advantages were obtained at the expense of only seven + killed and nineteen wounded. + </p> + <p> + No military force now remained in Georgia except the garrison of Sunbury + whose retreat to South Carolina was cut off. All the lower part of that + State was occupied by the British who adopted measures to secure the + conquest they had made. The inhabitants were treated with a lenity as wise + as it was humane. Their property was spared and their persons protected. + To make the best use of victory and of the impression produced by the + moderation of the victors a proclamation was issued inviting the + inhabitants to repair to the British standard and offering protection to + those who would return to their allegiance. + </p> + <p> + The effect of these measures was soon felt. The inhabitants flocked in + great numbers to the royal standard; military corps for the protection of + the country were formed, and posts were established for a considerable + distance up the river. + </p> + <p> + The northern frontier of Georgia being supposed to be settled into a state + of quiet Colonel Campbell turned his attention toward Sunbury and was + about to proceed against that place when he received intelligence that it + had surrendered to General Prevost. + </p> + <p> + Sir Henry Clinton had ordered that officer from East Florida to cooperate + with Colonel Campbell. On hearing that the troops from the north were off + the coast he entered the southern frontier of Georgia (Jan. 9, 1779) and + invested Sunbury, which, after a slight resistance surrendered at + discretion. Having placed a garrison in the fort he proceeded to Savannah, + took command of the army, and detached Colonel Campbell with 800 regulars + and a few Provincials to Augusta which fell without resistance, and thus + the whole State of Georgia was reduced. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: This officer was the same Grey who had surprised Wayne's + detachment near the Paoli Tavern, in Pennsylvania (Sept. 20, 1777), as + already related in the text. His merciless massacre of Wayne's men, with + the bayonet, will ever be remembered. A monument is erected on the spot + where the massacre took place, consecrated to the memory of the sufferers. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: The British government rewarded Grey for his cruelty by + making him a peer. He was the father of Earl Grey, who became prime + minister of Great Britain. This reward to Colonel Grey was in strict + consistency with the spirit in which the whole war against the United + States was conducted. Fortunately, the cruel and brutal outrages of the + invaders reacted on themselves, and contributed greatly to the final + result. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. — WASHINGTON PREPARES TO CHASTISE THE INDIANS. 1778. + </h2> + <p> + While the events were passing which are recorded in the preceding chapter + a terrible war with the Indians was raging on the western frontier of the + United States. While the British were abundantly able to supply the + Indians with all those articles of use and luxury which they had been + accustomed to receive from the whites, Congress was not in a condition to + do anything of this sort to conciliate them or to secure their neutrality + in the existing war. Stimulated by the presents as well as by the artful + representations of British agents the Indians had consequently become + hostile. Early in 1778 there were many indications of a general + disposition among the savages to make war on the United States, and the + frontiers, from the Mohawk to the Ohio, were threatened with the tomahawk + and the scalping-knife. Every representation from that country supported + Washington's opinion that a war with the Indians should never be defensive + and that to obtain peace it must be carried into their own country. + Detroit was understood to be in a defenseless condition, and Congress + resolved on an expedition against that place. This enterprise was + entrusted to General M'Intosh, who commanded at Pittsburgh, and was to be + carried on with 3,000 men, chiefly militia, to be drawn from Virginia. To + facilitate its success another force was to attack the Senecas, advancing + from the east of the Hudson. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately the acts of the government did not correspond with the vigor + of its resolutions. The necessary preparations were not made and the + inhabitants of the frontiers remained without sufficient protection until + the plans against them were matured and the storm which had been long + gathering burst upon them with a fury which spread desolation wherever it + reached. + </p> + <p> + About 300 white men, commanded by the British Col. John Butler, and about + 500 Indians, led by the Indian Chief Brandt, who had assembled in the + north, marched late in June (1778) against the settlement of Wyoming. + These troops embarked on the Chemung or Tioga and descending the + Susquehanna, landed at a place called the Three Islands, whence they + marched about twenty miles, and crossing a wilderness and passing through + a gap in the mountain, entered the valley of Wyoming near its northern + boundary. At this place a small fort called Wintermoots had been erected, + which fell into their hands without resistance and was burnt. The + inhabitants who were capable of bearing arms assembled on the first alarm + at Forty Fort on the west side of the Susquehanna, four miles below the + camp of the invading army. + </p> + <p> + The regular troops, amounting to about sixty, were commanded by Col. + Zebulon Butler, {1} the militia by Colonel Dennison. Colonel Butler was + desirous of awaiting the arrival of a small reinforcement under Captain + Spalding who had been ordered by Washington to his aid on the first + intelligence of the danger which threatened the settlement, but the + militia generally, believing themselves sufficiently strong to repel the + invading force, urged an immediate battle so earnestly that Colonel Butler + yielded to their remonstrances, and on the 3d of July (1778) marched from + Forty Fort at the head of near 400 men to attack the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The British and Indians were prepared to receive him. Their line was + formed a small distance in front of their camp on a plain thinly covered + with pine, shrub-oaks, and under-growth, and extended from the river about + a mile to a marsh at the foot of the mountain. The Americans advanced in a + single column without interruption until they approached the enemy, when + they received a fire which did not much mischief. The line of battle was + instantly formed and the action commenced with spirit. The Americans + rather gained ground on the right where Colonel Butler commanded, until a + large body of Indians passing through the skirt of the marsh turned their + left flank, which was composed of militia, and poured a heavy and most + destructive fire on their rear. The word "retreat" was pronounced by some + person and the efforts of the officers to check it were unavailing. The + fate of the day was decided, and a flight commenced on the left which was + soon followed by the right. As soon as the line was broken the Indians, + throwing down their rifles and rushing upon them with the tomahawk, + completed the confusion. The attempt of Colonel Butler and of the officers + to restore order was unavailing and the whole line broke and fled in + confusion. The massacre was general and the cries for mercy were answered + by the tomahawk. Rather less than sixty men escaped, some to Forty Fort, + some by swimming the river, and some to the mountain. A very few prisoners + were made, only three of whom were preserved alive, who were carried to + Niagara. + </p> + <p> + Further resistance was impracticable and Colonel Dennison proposed terms + of capitulation which were granted to the inhabitants. It being understood + that no quarter would be allowed to the Continental troops Colonel Butler + with his few surviving soldiers fled from the valley. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants generally abandoned the country and, in great distress, + wandered into the settlements on the Lehigh and the Delaware. The Indians, + according to their usual practice, destroyed the houses and improvements + by fire and plundered the country. After laying waste the whole settlement + they withdrew from it before the arrival of the Continental troops, who + were ordered to meet them. On the 11th of November (1778) 500 Indians and + Loyalists, with a small detachment of regular troops, under the command of + the notorious John Butler, made an irruption into the settlement at Cherry + Valley, in the State of New York, surprised and killed Colonel Allen, + commander of the American force at that place, and ten of his soldiers. + They attacked a fort erected there, but were compelled to retreat. Next + day they left the place, after having murdered and scalped thirty-two of + the inhabitants, chiefly women and children. + </p> + <p> + On the first intelligence of the destruction of Wyoming the regiments of + Hartley and Butler with the remnant of Morgan's corps, commanded by Major + Posey, were detached to the protection of that distressed country. They + were engaged in several sharp skirmishes, made separate incursions into + the Indian settlements, broke up their nearest villages, destroyed their + corn, and, by compelling them to retire to a greater distance, gave some + relief to the inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + While the frontiers of New York and Pennsylvania were thus suffering the + calamities incident to savage warfare, a fate equally severe was preparing + for Virginia. The western militia of that State had made some successful + incursions into the country northwest of the Ohio and had taken some + British posts on the Mississippi. These were erected into the county of + Illinois, and a regiment of infantry with a troop of cavalry was raised + for its protection. The command of these troops was given to Col. George + Rogers Clarke, a gentleman who courage, hardihood, and capacity for Indian + warfare had given repeated success to his enterprises against the savages. + </p> + <p> + This corps was divided into several detachments, the strongest of which + remained with Colonel Clarke at Kaskaskia. Colonel Hamilton, the Governor + of Detroit, was at Vincennes with about 600 men, principally Indians, + preparing an expedition, first against Kaskaskia and then up the Ohio to + Pittsburgh, after which he purposed to desolate the frontiers of Virginia. + Clarke anticipated and defeated his design by one of those bold and + decisive measures, which, whether formed on a great or a small scale, mark + the military and enterprising genius of the man who plans and executes + them. + </p> + <p> + He was too far removed from the inhabited country to hope for support, and + was too weak to maintain Kaskaskia and the Illinois against the combined + force of regulars and Indians by which he was to be attacked as soon as + the season for action should arrive. While employed in preparing for his + defense he received unquestionable information that Hamilton had detached + his Indians on an expedition against the frontiers, reserving at the post + he occupied only about eighty regulars with three pieces of cannon and + some swivels. Clarke instantly resolved to seize this favorable moment. + After detaching a small galley up the Wabash with orders to take her + station a few miles below Vincennes and to permit nothing to pass her, he + marched in the depth of winter with 130 men, the whole force he could + collect, across the country from Kaskaskia to Vincennes. This march + through the woods and over high waters required sixteen days, five of + which were employed in crossing the drowned lands of the Wabash. The + troops were under the necessity of wading five miles in water frequently + up to their breasts. After subduing these difficulties this small party + appeared before the town, which was completely surprised and readily + consented to change its master. + </p> + <p> + Hamilton, after defending the fort a short time, surrendered himself and + his garrison prisoners of war. With a few of his immediate agents and + counselors, who had been instrumental in the savage barbarities he had + encouraged, he was, by order of the Executive of Virginia, put in irons + and confined in a jail. + </p> + <p> + This expedition was important in its consequences. It disconcerted a plan + which threatened destruction to the whole country west of the Allegheny + Mountains, detached from the British interest many of those numerous + tribes of Indians south of the waters immediately communicating with the + Great Lakes, and had most probably considerable influence in fixing the + boundary of the United States. + </p> + <p> + These Indian hostilities on the western border were a subject of extreme + solicitude to Washington, ever alive as he was to the cry of distress and + ever anxious to preserve peace and security to the rural population of the + country. Experience and observation had long since taught him that the + only effectual protection to the inhabitants of the frontier settlements + consisted in carrying the war with severity into the enemy's own country. + Hence we find that from the moment these atrocities of the Indians + commenced in the western country he was engaged in planning that + expedition which, in the next campaign, under the direction of General + Sullivan, carried desolation to their own homes and taught them a lesson + which they could not soon forget. In the following extract of a letter to + Gov. George Clinton of New York, dated March 4, 1779, it will be perceived + that he speaks of his plan as already matured: + </p> + <p> + "The President of Congress has transmitted to me your Excellency's letter + to the delegates of New York, representing the calamitous situation of the + northwestern frontier of that State, accompanied by a similar application + from the Pennsylvania Assembly, and a resolve of the 25th, directing me to + take the most effectual measures for the protection of the inhabitants and + chastisement of the Indians. The resolve has been in some measure + anticipated by my previous dispositions for carrying on offensive + operations against the hostile tribes of savages. It has always been my + intention early to communicate this matter to your Excellency in + confidence, and I take occasion, from the letter above mentioned, to + inform you that preparations have some time since been making, and they + will be conducted to the point of execution at a proper season, if no + unexpected accident prevents, and the situation of affairs on the maritime + frontier justifies the undertaking. + </p> + <p> + "The greatest secrecy is necessary to the success of such an enterprise, + for the following obvious reasons: That, immediately upon the discovery of + our design, the savages would either put themselves in condition to make + head against us, by a reunion of all their force and that of their allies, + strengthened besides by succors from Canada; or elude the expedition + altogether, which might be done at the expense of a temporary evacuation + of forests which we could not possess, and the destruction of a few + settlements which they might speedily re-establish." + </p> + <p> + Washington concludes this letter by calling upon Governor Clinton for an + account of the force which New York can furnish for the contemplated + expedition and describing the kind of men most desirable for this peculiar + service—"active rangers, who are at the same time expert marksmen, + and accustomed to the irregular kind of wood-fighting practiced by the + Indians." He concludes by expressing a desire to have the advantage of any + sentiments or advice the Governor might be pleased to communicate relative + to the expedition. This is but one among many instances which might be + cited of the vigilance and unceasing activity of Washington in everything + connected with the national defense. + </p> + <p> + In addition to this Indian war Washington at this time (1778) had another + cause of deep anxiety continually upon his mind, in the comparatively weak + and inefficient character of the legislative body to whom he must + necessarily look for support and sanction in all measures for the defense + of the country. The Congress of 1774—that Congress whose proceedings + and State papers had elicited the admiration of the illustrious Earl of + Chatham—had comprised the ablest and most influential men in the + country. But most of these men had withdrawn from Congress or had accepted + high offices under their own State governments, and their places had + either not been filled at all or had been filled by incompetent men. For + the year 1778 the average number of members had been between twenty-five + and thirty. Some States were not represented and others had not sent + delegates enough to entitle them to a vote. But small as the number of + delegates in Congress was they were sufficiently numerous to entertain the + fiercest feuds among themselves, and seriously to embarrass the public + service by permitting party considerations to interfere with the measures + most essential to the safety and efficiency of the army and the + preservation of order in the country. + </p> + <p> + Washington was acutely sensible to this disastrous state of things. Full + of disinterested zeal for the public service he could hardly comprehend + the apathy prevailing in the different States, which occasioned their + omitting to fill up their "quotas" of representatives in Congress, and he + was embarrassed and distressed with the weak and inefficient manner in + which the military and civil affairs, under the direction of Congress, + were conducted. In a letter to Benjamin Harrison of Virginia, a member of + the Congress of 1774, he expresses frankly his views on this unpleasant + topic as follows: + </p> + <p> + "It appears as clear to me as ever the sun did in its meridian brightness, + that America never stood in more eminent need of the wise, patriotic, and + spirited exertions of her sons than at this period, and if it is not a + sufficient cause for general lamentation my misconception of the matter + impresses it too strongly upon me that the States, separately, are too + much engaged in their local concerns and have too many of their ablest men + withdrawn from the general council for the good of the commonweal. In a + word I think our political system may be compared to the mechanism of a + clock and that we should derive a lesson from it, for it answers no good + purpose to keep the smaller wheels in order if the greater one, which is + the support and prime mover of the whole, is neglected. How far the latter + is the case it does not become me to pronounce, but as there can be no + harm in a pious wish for the good of one's country, I shall offer it as + mine, that each would not only choose, but absolutely compel their ablest + men to attend Congress, and that they would instruct them to go into a + thorough investigation of the causes that have produced so many + disagreeable effects in the army and country, in a word, that public + abuses should be corrected. Without this it does not in my judgment + require the spirit of divination to foretell the consequences of the + present administration nor to how little purpose the States individually + are framing constitutions, providing laws, and filling offices with the + abilities of their ablest men. These, if the great whole is mismanaged, + must sink in the general wreck, which will carry with it the remorse of + thinking that we are lost by our own folly and negligence or by the + desire, perhaps, of living in ease and tranquility during the + accomplishment of so great a revolution, in the effecting of which the + greatest abilities and the most honest men our American world affords + ought to be employed. + </p> + <p> + "It is much to be feared, my dear sir, that the States in their separate + capacities have very inadequate ideas of the present danger. Many persons + removed far distant from the scene of action and seeing and hearing such + publications only as flatter their wishes, conceive that the contest is at + an end and that to regulate the government and police of their own State + is all that remains to be done, but it is devoutly to be wished that a sad + reverse of this may not fall upon them like a thunderclap that is little + expected. I do not mean to designate particular States. I wish to cast no + reflections upon any one. The public believe (and if they do believe it, + the fact might almost as well be so) that the States at this time are + badly represented and that the great and important concerns of the nation + are horribly conducted for want either of abilities or application in the + members, or through the discord and party views of some individuals. That + they should be so is to be lamented more at this time than formerly, as we + are far advanced in the dispute and, in the opinion of many, drawing to a + happy period; we have the eyes of Europe upon us and I am persuaded many + political spies to watch, who discover our situation and give information + of our weaknesses and wants." + </p> + <p> + We have already seen that Congress, actuated by their wishes rather than + governed by a temperate calculation of the means in their possession, had, + in the preceding winter, planned a second invasion of Canada to be + conducted by Lafayette and that, as the generals only were got in + readiness for this expedition, it was necessarily laid aside. The design, + however, seems to have been suspended, not abandoned. The alliance with + France revived the latent wish to annex that extensive territory to the + United States. That favorite subject was resumed, and toward autumn a plan + was completely digested for a combined attack to be made by the allies on + all the British dominions on the continent and on the adjacent islands of + Cape Breton and Newfoundland. This plan was matured about the time + Lafayette obtained leave to return to his own country and was ordered to + be transmitted by him to Doctor Franklin, the minister of the United + States at the court of Versailles with instructions to induce, if + possible, the French cabinet to accede to it. Some communications + respecting this subject were also made to Lafayette, on whose influence in + securing its adoption by his own government much reliance was placed, and + in October 1778, it was for the first time transmitted to Washington, with + a request that he would enclose it by Lafayette, with his observations on + it, to Doctor Franklin. + </p> + <p> + This very extensive plan of military operations for the ensuing campaign, + prepared entirely in the cabinet without consulting, so far as is known, a + single military man, consisted of many parts. + </p> + <p> + Two detachments, amounting each to 1,600 men, were to march from + Pittsburgh and Wyoming against Detroit and Niagara. A third body of troops + which was to be stationed on the Mohawk during the winter and to be + powerfully reinforced in the spring, was to seize Oswego and to secure the + navigation of Lake Ontario with vessels to be constructed of materials to + be procured in the winter. A fourth corps was to penetrate into Canada by + the St. Francis and to reduce Montreal and the posts on Lake Champlain, + while a fifth should guard against troops from Quebec. + </p> + <p> + Thus far America could proceed unaided by her ally. But Upper Canada being + reduced another campaign would still be necessary for the reduction of + Quebec. This circumstance would require that the army should pass the + winter in Canada, and in the meantime the garrison of Quebec might be + largely reinforced. It was therefore essential to the complete success of + the enterprise that France should be induced to take a part in it. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Quebec and of Halifax was supposed to be an object of so + much importance to France as well as to the United States that her aid + might be confidently expected. + </p> + <p> + It was proposed to request the King of France to furnish four or five + thousand troops, to sail from Brest the beginning of May under convoy of + four ships of the line and four frigates, the troops to be clad as if for + service in the West Indies and thick clothes to be sent after them in + August. A large American detachment was to act with this French army and + it was supposed that Quebec and Halifax might be reduced by the beginning + or middle of October. The army might then either proceed immediately + against New Foundland or remain in garrison until the spring when the + conquest of that place might be accomplished. + </p> + <p> + It had been supposed probable that England would abandon the further + prosecution of the war on the continent of North America, in which case + the government would have a respectable force at its disposal, the + advantageous employment of which had engaged in part the attention of + Washington. He had contemplated an expedition against the British posts in + Upper Canada as a measure which might be eventually eligible and which + might employ the arms of the United States to advantage if their troops + might safely be withdrawn from the sea-board. He had, however, considered + every object of this sort as contingent. Having estimated the difficulties + to be encountered in such an enterprise he had found them so considerable + as to hesitate on the extent which might safely be given to the expedition + admitting the United States to be evacuated by the British armies. + </p> + <p> + In this state of mind Washington received the magnificent plan already + prepared by Congress. He was forcibly struck with the impracticability of + executing that part of it which, was to be undertaken by the United States + should the British armies continue in the country and with the serious + mischief which would result to the common cause as well as from diverting + so considerable a part of the French force from other objects to one which + was, in his opinion, so unpromising as from the ill impression which would + be made on the court and nation by the total failure of the American + government to execute its part of a plan originating with itself—a + failure would most probably sacrifice the troops and ships employed by + France. + </p> + <p> + On comparing the naval force of England with that of France in different + parts of the world, the former appeared to Washington to maintain a + decided superiority and consequently to possess the power of shutting up + the ships of the latter which might be trusted into the St. Lawrence. To + suppose that the British government would not avail itself of this + superiority on such an occasion would be to impute to it a blind + infatuation or ignorance of the plans of its adversary, which could not be + safely assumed in calculations of such serious import. + </p> + <p> + A plan, too, consisting of so many parts to be prosecuted both from Europe + and America by land and by water—which, to be successful, required + such an harmonious cooperation of the whole, such a perfect coincidence of + events—appeared to him to be exposed to too many accidents to risk + upon it interests of such high value. + </p> + <p> + In a long and serious letter to Congress he apologized for not obeying + their orders to deliver the plan with his observations upon it to + Lafayette, and entering into a full investigation of all its parts + demonstrated the mischiefs and the dangers with which it was replete. This + letter was referred to a committee whose report admits the force of the + reasons urged by Washington against the expedition and their own + conviction that nothing important could be attempted unless the British + armies should be withdrawn from the United States and that even in that + event the present plan was far too complex. + </p> + <p> + Men, however, recede slowly and reluctantly from favorite and flattering + projects on which they have long meditated, and the committee in their + report proceeded to state the opinion that the posts held by the British + in the United States would probably be evacuated before the active part of + the ensuing campaign, and that, therefore, eventual measures for the + expedition ought to be taken. + </p> + <p> + This report concludes with recommending, "that the general should be + directed to write to the Marquis de Lafayette on that subject, and also + write to the minister of these States at the court of Versailles very + fully, to the end that eventual measures may be taken in case an armament + should be sent from France to Quebec for co-operating therewith to the + utmost degree which the finances and resources of these States will + admit." + </p> + <p> + This report also was approved by Congress and transmitted to Washington + who felt himself greatly embarrassed by it. While his objections to the + project retained all their force he found himself required to open a + correspondence for the purposes of soliciting the concurrence of France in + an expedition he disapproved, and of promising a cooperation he believed + to be impracticable. In reply to this communication he said: "The earnest + desire I have strictly to comply in every instance with the views and + instructions of Congress cannot but make me feel the greatest uneasiness + when I find myself in circumstances of hesitation or doubt with respect to + their directions. But the perfect confidence I have in the justice and + candor of that honorable body emboldens me to communicate without reserve + the difficulties which occur in the execution of their present order, and + the indulgence I have experienced on every former occasion induces me to + imagine that the liberty I now take will not meet with disapprobation." + </p> + <p> + After reviewing the report of the committee and stating his objections to + the plan and the difficulties he felt in performing the duty assigned to + him, he added: "But if Congress still think it necessary for me to proceed + in the business I must request their more definite and explicit + instructions and that they will permit me, previous to transmitting the + intended dispatches, to submit them to their determination. I could wish + to lay before Congress more minutely the state of the army, the condition + of our supplies and the requisites necessary for carrying into execution + an undertaking that may involve the most serious events. If Congress think + this can be done more satisfactorily in a personal conference I hope to + have the army in such a situation before I can receive their answer as to + afford me an opportunity of giving my attendance." + </p> + <p> + Congress acceded to his request for a personal interview, and on his + arrival in Philadelphia a committee was appointed to confer with him as + well on this particular subject as on the general state of the army and of + the country. + </p> + <p> + The result of these conferences was that the expedition against Canada was + entirely, though reluctantly, given up, and every arrangement recommended + by Washington received that attention which was due to his judgment and + experience and which his opinions were entitled to receive. + </p> + <p> + If anything were necessary to be added to this ridiculous scheme for the + conquest of Canada in order to prove the inefficiency and folly of the + Congress of 1778 we have it in the fact that France was averse to adding + that province to the United States and did not desire to acquire it for + herself. She only sought the independence of this country and its + permanent alliance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Mr. De Sevelinges in his introduction to Botta's History recites the +private instructions to Mr. Gerard on his mission to the United States. +One article was, "to avoid entering into any formal engagement relative +to Canada and other English possessions which Congress proposed to +conquer." Mr. De Sevelinges adds, that "the policy of the cabinet of +Versailles viewed the possession of those countries, especially of +Canada by England as a principle of useful inquietude and vigilance to +the Americans. The neighborhood of a formidable enemy must make +them feel more sensibly the price which they ought to attach to the +friendship and support of the King of France." + + {C.} REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONFER WITH WASHINGTON ON +THE SECOND SCHEME FOR THE CONQUEST OF CANADA, AND ON THE GENERAL STATE +OF THE ARMY AND THE COUNTRY. +</pre> + <p> + "January I, 1779. The committee appointed to confer with the + commander-in-chief on the operations of the next campaign, report that the + plan proposed by Congress for the emancipation of Canada, in cooperation + with an army from France, was the principal subject of the said + conference. That, impressed with a strong sense of the injury and disgrace + which must attend an infraction of the proposed stipulations, on the part + of these States, your committee have taken a general view of our finances, + of the circumstances of our army, of the magazines of clothes, artillery, + arms and ammunition, and of the provisions in store, and which can be + collected in season. + </p> + <p> + "Your committee have also attentively considered the intelligence and + observations communicated to them by the commander-in-chief, respecting + the number of troops and strongholds of the enemy in Canada; their naval + force, and entire command of the water communication with that country; + the difficulties, while they possess such signal advantages, of + penetrating it with an army by land; the obstacles which are to be + surmounted in acquiring a naval superiority; the hostile temper of many of + the surrounding Indian tribes towards these States; and above all, the + uncertainty whether the enemy will not persevere in their system of + harassing and distressing our sea-coast and frontiers by a predatory war. + </p> + <p> + "That on a most mature deliberation, your committee cannot find room for a + well grounded presumption that these States will be able to perform their + part of the proposed stipulations. That in a measure of such moment, + calculated to call forth, and direct to a single object, a considerable + portion of the force of our ally which may otherwise be essentially + employed, nothing else than the highest probability of success could + justify Congress in making the proposition. + </p> + <p> + "Your committee are therefore of opinion, that the negotiation in + question, however desirable and interesting, should be deferred until + circumstances render the cooperation of these States more certain, + practicable, and effectual. + </p> + <p> + "That the minister plenipotentiary of these States at the court of + Versailles, the minister of France in Pennsylvania, and the minister of + France, be respectively informed that the operations of the next campaign + must depend on such a variety of contingencies to arise, as well from our + own internal circumstances and resources as the progress and movements of + our enemy, that time alone can mature and point out the plan which ought + to be pursued. That Congress, therefore, cannot, with a degree of + confidence answerable to the magnitude of the object, decide on the + practicability of their cooperating the next campaign in an enterprise for + the emancipation of Canada; that every preparation in our power will + nevertheless be made for acting with vigor against the common enemy, and + every favorable incident embraced with alacrity to facilitate and hasten + the freedom and independence of Canada, and her union with these States—events + which Congress, from motives of policy with respect to the United States, + as well as of affection to their Canadian brethren, have greatly at + heart." + </p> + <p> + This report is evidently inspired by Washington, from beginning to end. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: This officer was not of the same family with the Tory Butler. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. — WASHINGTON'S OPERATIONS IN THE NORTHERN STATES. + 1779. + </h2> + <p> + We have seen that Washington had gone from his winter quarters near + Middlebrook in the Jerseys to hold a conference with Congress on the + subject of the invasion of Canada. When this matter had been disposed of + there still remained many subjects demanding the joint attention of the + supreme Legislature and the Commander-in-Chief, and accordingly he spent a + considerable part of the winter of 1778-9 at Philadelphia consulting with + Congress on measures for the general defense and welfare of the country. + Washington felt extreme anxiety at the inadequate means at his disposal + for conducting the campaign of 1779. The state of Congress itself, as we + have already shown, was sufficiently embarrassing to him, but there were + other causes of uneasiness in the general aspect of affairs. The French + alliance was considered by the people as rendering the cause of + independence perfectly safe; with little or no exertion on our part + England was supposed to be already conquered in America, and, moreover, + she was threatened with a Spanish war. Hence the States were remiss in + furnishing their quotas of men and money. The currency, consisting of + Continental bills, was so much depreciated that a silver dollar was worth + forty dollars of the paper money. The effect of this last misfortune was + soon apparent in the conduct of the officers of the Jersey brigade. + </p> + <p> + In pursuance of Washington's plan of chastising the Indians, to which we + referred in the last chapter, it was resolved to lead a force into those + villages of the Six Nations which were hostile to the United States and + destroy their settlements. + </p> + <p> + As the army destined for this expedition was about to move alarming + symptoms of discontent appeared in a part of it. The Jersey brigade, which + had been stationed during the winter at Elizabethtown, was ordered early + in May (1779) to march by regiments. This order was answered by a letter + from General Maxwell stating that the officers of the First regiment had + delivered a remonstrance to their colonel, addressed to the Legislature of + the State, declaring that unless their complaints on the subjects of pay + and support should obtain the immediate attention of that body, they were, + at the expiration of three days, to be considered as having resigned, and + requesting the Legislature, in that event, to appoint other officers to + succeed them. They declared, however, their readiness to make every + preparation for obeying the orders which had been given, and to continue + their attention to the regiment until a reasonable time should elapse for + the appointment of their successors. "This," added the letter of General + Maxwell, "is a step they are extremely unwilling to take, but it is such + as I make no doubt they will all take; nothing but necessity—their + not being able to support themselves in time to come and being loaded with + debts contracted in time past—could have induced them to resign at + so critical a juncture." + </p> + <p> + The intelligence conveyed in this letter made a serious impression on + Washington. He was strongly attached to the army and to its interests, had + witnessed its virtues and its sufferings, and lamented sincerely its + present distresses. The justice of the complaints made by the officers + could no more be denied than the measure they had adopted could be + approved. Relying on their patriotism and on his own influence, he + immediately wrote a letter to General Maxwell to be laid before them in + which, mingling the sensibility of a friend with the authority of a + general, he addressed to their understanding and to their love of country, + observations calculated to invite their whole attention to the + consequences which must result from the step they were about to take. + </p> + <p> + "The patience and perseverance of the army," proceeds the letter, "have + been, under every disadvantage, such as to do them the highest honor both + at home and abroad, and have inspired me with an unlimited confidence of + their virtue, which has consoled me amidst every perplexity and reverse of + fortune to which our affairs, in a struggle of this nature, were + necessarily exposed. Now that we have made so great a progress to the + attainment of the end we have in view, so that we cannot fail without a + most shameful desertion of our own interests, anything like a change of + conduct would imply a very unhappy change of principles, and a + forgetfulness as well of what we owe to ourselves as to our country. Did I + suppose it possible this could be the case, even in a single regiment of + the army, I should be mortified and chagrined beyond expression. I should + feel it as a wound given to my own honor, which I consider as embarked + with that of the army at large. But this I believe to be impossible. Any + corps that was about to set an example of the kind would weigh well the + consequences, and no officer of common discernment and sensibility would + hazard them. If they should stand alone in it, independent of other + consequences, what would be their feelings on reflecting that they had + held themselves out to the world in a point of light inferior to the rest + of the army? Or if their example should be followed, and become general, + how could they console themselves for having been the foremost in bringing + ruin and disgrace upon their country? They would remember that the army + would share a double portion of the general infamy and distress, and that + the character of an American officer would become as infamous as it is now + glorious. + </p> + <p> + "I confess the appearances in the present instance are disagreeable, but I + am convinced they seem to mean more than they really do. The Jersey + officers have not been outdone by any others in the qualities either of + citizens or soldiers; and I am confident no part of them would seriously + intend anything that would be a stain on their former reputation. The + gentlemen cannot be in earnest; they have only reasoned wrong about the + means of obtaining a good end, and, on consideration, I hope and flatter + myself they will renounce what must appear to be improper. At the opening + of a campaign, when under marching orders for an important service, their + own honor, duty to the public and to themselves, and a regard to military + propriety, will not suffer them to persist in a measure which would be a + violation of them all. It will even wound their delicacy, coolly to + reflect that they have hazarded a step which has an air of dictating terms + to their country, by taking advantage of the necessity of the moment." + </p> + <p> + This letter did not completely produce the desired effect. The officers + did not recede from their claims. In an address to Washington, they + expressed their unhappiness that any act of theirs should give him pain, + but proceeded to justify the step they had taken. Repeated memorials had + been presented to their Legislature which had been received with promises + of attention, but had been regularly neglected. "At length," said they, + "we have lost all confidence in our Legislature. Reason and experience + forbid that we should have any. Few of us have private fortunes; many have + families, who already are suffering everything that can be received from + an ungrateful country. Are we then to suffer all the inconveniences, + fatigues, and dangers of a military life, while our wives and our children + are perishing for want of common necessaries at home—and that + without the most distant prospect of reward, for our pay is now only + nominal? We are sensible that your Excellency cannot wish nor desire this + from us. We are sorry that you should imagine we meant to disobey orders. + It was and still is our determination to march with our regiment and to do + the duty of officers until the Legislature should have a reasonable time + to appoint others, but no longer. + </p> + <p> + "We beg leave to assure your Excellency that we have the highest sense of + your ability and virtues; that executing your orders has ever given us + pleasure; that we love the service, and we love our country—but when + that country gets so lost to virtue and justice as to forget to support + its servants, it then becomes their duty to retire from its service." + </p> + <p> + This letter was peculiarly embarrassing to Washington. To adopt a stern + course of proceeding might hazard the loss of the Jersey line, an event + not less injurious to the service than painful to himself. To take up the + subject without doing too much for the circumstances of the army would be + doing too little for the occasion. He therefore declined taking any other + notice of the letter than to declare through General Maxwell, that while + they continued to do their duty in conformity with the determination they + had expressed he should only regret the part they had taken and should + hope they would perceive its impropriety. + </p> + <p> + The Legislature of New Jersey, alarmed at the decisive step taken by the + officers, was at length induced to pay some attention to their situation—they + consenting on their part to withdraw their remonstrance. In the meantime + they continued to perform their duty and their march was not delayed by + this unpleasant altercation. + </p> + <p> + In communicating this transaction to Congress Washington took occasion to + remind that body of his having frequently urged the absolute necessity of + some general and adequate provision for the officers of the army. "I shall + only observe," continued the letter, "that the distresses in some corps + are so great, either where they were not until lately attached to any + particular State, or where the State has been less provident, that the + officers have solicited even to be supplied with the clothing destined for + the common soldiery, coarse and unsuitable as it was. I had not power to + comply with the request. + </p> + <p> + "The patience of men animated by a sense of duty and honor will support + them to a certain point, beyond which it will not go. I doubt not Congress + will be sensible of the danger of an extreme in this respect, and will + pardon my anxiety to obviate it." + </p> + <p> + Before the troops destined for the grand expedition were put in motion an + enterprise of less extent was undertaken which was completely successful. + A plan for surprising the towns of the Onondagas, one of the nearest of + the hostile tribes, having been formed by General Schuyler and approved by + Washington, Colonel Van Schaick assisted by Lieutenant-Colonel Willet and + Major Cochran marched from Fort Schuyler on the morning of the 19th of + April at the head of between five and six hundred men and on the third day + reached the point of destination. The whole settlement was destroyed after + which the detachment returned to Fort Schuyler without the loss of a + single man. For this handsome display of talents as a partisan, the thanks + of Congress were voted to Colonel Van Schaick and the officers and + soldiers under his command. + </p> + <p> + The cruelties exercised by the Indians in the course of the preceding year + had given a great degree of importance to the expedition now meditated + against them, and the relative military strength and situation of the two + parties rendered it improbable that any other offensive operations could + be carried on by the Americans in the course of the present campaign. The + army under the command of Sir Henry Clinton, exclusive of the troops in + the southern department, was computed at between sixteen and seventeen + thousand men. The American army, the largest division of which lay at + Middlebrook under the immediate command of Washington, was rather inferior + to that of the British in real strength. The grand total, except those in + the southern and western country, including officers of every description + amounted to about 16,000. Three thousand of these were in New England + under the command of General Gates, and the remaining 13,000 were cantoned + on both sides of the North river. + </p> + <p> + After the destruction of Forts Clinton and Montgomery in 1777, it had been + determined to construct the fortifications intended for the future defense + of the North river at West Point, a position which being more completely + embosomed in the hills was deemed more defensible. The works had been + prosecuted with unremitting industry but were far from being completed. + </p> + <p> + King's Ferry, some miles below West Point, where the great road, the most + convenient communication between the middle and eastern States, crossed + the North river, is completely commanded by two opposite points of land. + That on the west side, a rough and elevated piece of ground, is + denominated Stony Point; and the other, on the east side, a flat neck of + land projecting far into the water, is called Verplanck's Point. The + command of King's Ferry was an object worth the attention of either army, + and Washington had comprehended the points which protect it within his + plan of defense for the Highlands. A small but strong work called Fort + Fayette was completed at Verplanck's and was garrisoned by a company + commanded by Captain Armstrong. The works on Stony Point were unfinished. + As the season for active operations approached Sir Henry Clinton formed a + plan for opening the campaign with a brilliant <i>coup de main</i> up the + North river and toward the latter end of May made preparations for the + enterprise. + </p> + <p> + These preparations were immediately communicated to Washington who was + confident that Clinton meditated an attack on the forts in the Highlands + or designed to take a position between those forts and Middlebrook, in + order to interrupt the communication between the different parts of the + American army, to prevent their reunion and to beat them in detail. + Measures were instantly taken to counteract either of these designs. The + intelligence from New York was communicated to Generals Putnam and + M'Dougal, who were ordered to hold themselves in readiness to march, and + on the 29th of May (1779) the army moved by divisions from Middlebrook + toward the Highlands. On the 30th the British army commanded by Clinton in + person and convoyed by Sir George Collier proceeded up the river, and + General Vaughan at the head of the largest division, landed next morning + about eight miles below Verplanck's. The other division under the + particular command of General Patterson, but accompanied by Clinton, + advancing further up, landed on the west side within three miles of Stony + Point. + </p> + <p> + That place being immediately abandoned, General Patterson took possession + of it on the same afternoon. He dragged some heavy cannon and mortars to + the summit of the hill in the course of the night (June 1, 1779), and at + five next morning opened a battery on Fort Fayette at the distance of + about 1,000 yards. During the following night two galleys passed the fort + and anchoring above it prevented the escape of the garrison by water while + General Vaughan invested it closely by land. No means of defending the + fort or of saving themselves remaining the garrisons became prisoners of + war. Immediate directions were given for completing the works at both + posts and for putting Stony Point in particular in a strong state of + defense. + </p> + <p> + Washington determined to check any further advance of the enemy, and + before Clinton was in a situation to proceed against West Point, General + M'Dougal was so strengthened and the American army took such a position on + the strong grounds about the Hudson that the enterprise became too + hazardous to be further prosecuted. + </p> + <p> + After completing the fortifications on both sides of the river at King's + Ferry, Clinton placed a strong garrison in each fort and proceeded down + the river to Philipsburg. The relative situation of the hostile armies + presenting insuperable obstacles to any grand operation they could be + employed offensively only on detached expeditions. Connecticut, from its + contiguity to New York and its extent of sea coast, was peculiarly exposed + to invasion. The numerous small cruisers which plied in the sound, to the + great annoyance of British commerce, and the large supplies of provisions + drawn from the adjacent country for the use of the Continental army, + furnished great inducements to Clinton to direct his enterprises + particularly against that State. He also hoped to draw Washington from his + impregnable position on the North river into the low country and thus + obtain an opportunity of striking at some part of his army or of seizing + the posts which were the great object of the campaign. With these views he + planned an expedition against Connecticut, the command of which was given + to Governor Tryon, who reached New Haven bay on the 5th of July (1779) + with about 2,600 men. + </p> + <p> + Washington was at the time on the lines examining in person the condition + of the works on Stony and Verplanck's Points, in consequence of which the + intelligence which was transmitted to headquarters that the fleet had + sailed could not be immediately communicated to the Governor of + Connecticut, and the first intimation which that State received of its + danger was given by the appearance of the enemy. The militia assembled in + considerable numbers with alacrity, but the British effected a landing and + took possession of the town. After destroying the military and naval + stores found in the place, they re-embarked and proceeded westward to + Fairfield which was reduced to ashes. The spirited resistance made by the + militia at this place is attested by the apology made by General Tryon for + the wanton destruction of private property which disgraced his conduct. + "The village was burnt," he says, "to resent the fire of the rebels from + their houses and to mask our retreat." + </p> + <p> + From Fairfield the fleet crossed the sound to Huntington bay where it + remained until the 9th (July, 1779), when it recrossed that water. The + troops were landed in the night on a peninsula on the east side of the Bay + of Norwalk. About the same time a much larger detachment from the British + army directed its course towards Horse Neck and made demonstrations of a + design to penetrate into the country in that direction. + </p> + <p> + On the first intelligence that Connecticut was invaded, General Parsons, a + native of that State, had been directed by Washington to hasten to the + scene of action. Placing himself at the head of about 150 Continental + troops who were supported by considerable bodies of militia, he attacked + the British on the morning of the twelfth as soon as they were in motion + and kept up an irregular distant fire throughout the day. But, being too + weak to prevent the destruction of any particular town on the coast, + Norwalk was reduced to ashes, after which the British re-embarked and + returned to Huntington bay there to await for reinforcements. At this + place, however, Tryon received orders to return to Whitestone where in a + conference between Clinton and Sir George Collier it was determined to + proceed against New London with an increased force. + </p> + <p> + On the invasion of Connecticut, Washington was prompt in his exertions to + send Continental troops from the nearest encampments to its aid, but + before they could afford any real service Clinton found it necessary to + recall Tryon to the Hudson. + </p> + <p> + Washington had planned an enterprise against the posts at King's Ferry, + comprehending a double attack to be made at the same time on both. But the + difficulty of a perfect cooperation of detachments, incapable of + communicating with each other, determined him to postpone the attack on + Verplanck's and to make that part of the plan dependent on the success of + the first. His whole attention, therefore, was turned to Stony Point and + the troops destined for this critical service proceeded on it as against a + single object. + </p> + <p> + The execution of the plan was entrusted by Washington to General Wayne who + commanded the light infantry of the army. His daring courage had long + since obtained for him the sobriquet of "Mad Anthony." He accepted the + command with alacrity. Secrecy was deemed so much more essential to + success than numbers that no addition was made to the force already on the + lines. One brigade was ordered to commence its march so as to reach the + scene of action in time to cover the troops engaged in the attack should + any unlooked-for disaster befall them, and Maj. Henry Lee of the light + dragoons, who had been eminently useful in obtaining the intelligence + which led to the enterprise, was associated with Wayne as far as cavalry + could be employed in such a service. The night of the 15th (July, 1779), + and the hour of twelve, were chosen for the assault. + </p> + <p> + Stony Point is a commanding hill projecting far into the Hudson which + washes three-fourths of its base. The remaining fourth was in a great + measure covered by a deep marsh, commencing near the river on the upper + side and continuing into it below. Over this marsh there was only one + crossing place, but at its junction with the river was a sandy beach + passable at low tide. On the summit of this hill stood the fort which was + furnished with heavy ordnance. Several breastworks and strong batteries + were advanced in front of the main work, and about half way down the hill + were two rows of abattis. The batteries were calculated to command the + beach and the crossing place of the marsh, and to rake and enfilade any + column which might be advancing from either of those points toward the + fort. In addition to these defenses several vessels of war were stationed + in the river and commanded the ground at the foot of the hill. The + garrison consisted of about 600 men commanded by Colonel Johnson. + </p> + <p> + Wayne arrived about eight in the evening at Springsteel's, one and a half + miles from the fort and made his dispositions for the assault. + </p> + <p> + It was intended to attack the works on the right and left flanks at the + same instant. The regiments of Febiger and of Meigs with Major Hull's + detachment formed the right column, and Butler's regiment, with two + companies under Major Murfree, formed the left. One hundred and fifty + volunteers led by Lieutenant-Colonel Fleury and Major Posey constituted + the van of the right, and 100 volunteers under Major Stewart composed the + van of the left. At 11:30 the two columns moved to the assault, the van of + each with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets. They were each preceded by + a forlorn hope of twenty men, the one commanded by Lieutenant Gibbon and + the other by Lieutenant Knox. They reached the marsh undiscovered and at + 12:20 commenced the assault. + </p> + <p> + Both columns rushed forward under a tremendous fire of grape-shot and + musketry. Surmounting every obstacle, they entered the works at the point + of the bayonet and without discharging a single musket obtained possession + of the fort. + </p> + <p> + The humanity displayed by the conquerors was not less conspicuous nor less + honorable than their courage. Not an individual suffered after resistance + had ceased. + </p> + <p> + All the troops engaged in this perilous service manifested a degree of + ardor and impetuosity which proved them to be capable of the most + difficult enterprises, and all distinguished themselves whose situation + enabled them to do so. Colonel Fleury, who had distinguished himself in + defense of the forts on the Delaware in 1777, was the first to enter the + fort and strike the British standard. Major Posey mounted the works almost + at the same instant and was the first to give the watch-word, "The fort's + our own." Lieutenants Gibbon and Knox performed the service allotted to + them with a degree of intrepidity which could not be surpassed. Of twenty + men who constituted the party of the former, seventeen were killed or + wounded. {1} Sixty-three of the garrison were killed, including two + officers. The prisoners amounted to 543, among whom were 1 + lieutenant-colonel, 4 captains, and 20 subaltern officers. The military + stores taken in the fort were considerable. + </p> + <p> + The loss sustained by the assailants was not proportioned to the apparent + danger of the enterprise. The killed and wounded did not exceed 100 men. + Wayne, who marched with Febiger's regiment in the right column received a + wound in the head which stunned him. Recovering consciousness, but + believing the wound to be mortal, he said to his aids, "Carry me into the + fort and let me die at the head of my column." Being supported by his aids + he entered the fort with the regiment. Lieutenant-Colonel Hay was also + among the wounded. + </p> + <p> + Although the design upon Fort Fayette had yielded to the desire of + securing the success of the attack on Stony Point it had not been + abandoned. Two brigades under General M'Dougal had been ordered to + approach the works on Verplanck's, in which Colonel Webster commanded, and + be in readiness to attack them the instant Wayne should obtain possession + of Stony Point. That this detachment might not permit the favorable moment + to pass unimproved Wayne had been requested to direct the messenger who + should convey the intelligence of his success to Washington to pass + through M'Dougal's camp and give him advice of that event. He was also + requested to turn the cannon of the fort against Verplanck's and the + vessels in the river. The last orders were executed and a heavy cannonade + was opened on Fort Fayette and on the vessels, which compelled them to + fall down the river. Through some misconception, never explained, the + messenger dispatched by Wayne did not call on M'Dougal, but proceeded + directly to headquarters. Thus, every advantage expected from the first + impression made by the capture of Stony Point was lost, and the garrison + had full leisure to recover from the surprise occasioned by that event and + to prepare for an attack. This change of circumstances made it necessary + to change the plan of operation. Washington ordered General Howe to take + the command of M'Dougal's detachment to which some pieces of heavy + artillery were to be annexed. He was directed, after effecting a breach in + the walls, to make the dispositions for an assault and to demand a + surrender, but not to attempt a storm until it should be dark. To these + orders explicit instructions were added not to hazard his party by + remaining before Verplanck's after the British should cross Croton river + in force. + </p> + <p> + Through some unaccountable negligence in the persons charged with the + execution of these orders the battering artillery was not accompanied with + suitable ammunition, and the necessary entrenching tools were not brought. + These omissions were supplied the next day, but it was then too late to + proceed against Verplanck's. + </p> + <p> + On receiving intelligence of the loss of Stony Point and of the danger to + which the garrison of Fort Fayette was exposed, Sir Henry Clinton + relinquished his views on Connecticut and made a forced march to Dobb's + Ferry. Some troops were immediately embarked to pass up the river and a + light corps was pushed forward to the Croton. This movement relieved Fort + Fayette. + </p> + <p> + The failure of the attempt to obtain possession of Verplanck's Point, + leaving that road of communication still closed, diminished the advantages + which had been expected to result from the enterprise so much that it was + deemed unadvisable to maintain Stony Point. On reconnoitering the ground + Washington believed that the place could not be rendered secure with a + garrison of less than 1,500 men—a number which could not be spared + from the army without weakening it too much for further operations. He + determined, therefore, to evacuate Stony Point and retire to the + Highlands. As soon as this resolution was executed Clinton repossessed + himself of that post, repaired the fortifications, and placed a stronger + garrison in it, after which he resumed his former situation at + Philipsburg. + </p> + <p> + The two armies watched each other for some time. At length, Clinton, + finding himself unable to attack Washington in the strong position he had + taken or to draw him from it, and being desirous of transferring the + theater of active war to the south, withdrew to New York and was + understood to be strengthening the fortifications erected for its defense, + as preparatory to the large detachments he intended making to reinforce + the southern army. + </p> + <p> + Although this movement was made principally with a view to southern + operations, it was in some degree hastened by the opinion that New York + required immediate additional protection during the absence of the fleet, + which was about to sail for the relief of Penobscot. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely had Sir George Collier, who had accompanied Clinton up the Hudson + to take possession of Stony Point, returned to New York, when he was + informed that a fleet of armed vessels with transports and troops had + sailed from Boston to attack a post which General M'Lean was establishing + at Penobscot in the eastern part of the province of Massachusetts bay. He + immediately got ready for sea that part of the naval force which was at + New York, and on the 3d of August sailed to relieve the garrison of + Penobscot. + </p> + <p> + In the month of June (1779) General M'Lean, who commanded the royal troops + in Nova Scotia, arrived in the bay of Penobscot with nearly 700 men, in + order to establish a post which might at once be a means of checking the + incursions of the Americans into Nova Scotia and of supplying the royal + yards at Halifax with ship timber, which abounded in that part of the + country. This establishment alarmed the government of Massachusetts bay, + which resolved to dislodge M'Lean, and, with great promptitude, equipped a + fleet and raised troops for that purpose. The fleet, which consisted of + fifteen vessels of war, carrying from thirty-two to twelve guns each with + transports, was commanded by Commodore Saltonstall; the army, amounting to + between three and four thousand militia, was under the orders of General + Lovell. + </p> + <p> + General M'Lean chose for his post a peninsula on the east side of + Penobscot bay, which is about seven leagues wide and seventeen deep, + terminating at the point where the river Penobscot flows into it. M'Lean's + station was nine miles from the bottom of the bay. As that part of the + country was then an unbroken forest he cleared away the wood on the + peninsula and began to construct a fort in which he was assisted and + protected by the crews of three sloops-of-war which had escorted him + thither. M'Lean heard of the expedition against him on the 21st of July + (1779), when he had made little progress in the erection of his fort. On + the 25th the American fleet appeared in the bay, but, owing to the + opposition of the British sloops-of-war and to the bold and rugged nature + of the shore, the troops did not effect a landing until the 28th. This + interval M'Lean improved with such laborious diligence that his + fortifications were in a state of considerable forwardness. Lovell erected + a battery within 750 yards of the works, and for nearly a fortnight a + brisk cannonade was kept up and preparations were made to assault the + fort. But, on the 13th of August (1779), Lovell was informed that Sir + George Collier with a superior naval force had entered the bay; therefore + in the night he silently embarked his troops and cannon, unperceived by + the garrison, which was every moment in expectation of being assaulted. + </p> + <p> + On the approach of the British fleet the Americans, after some show of + preparation for resistance, betook themselves to flight. A general pursuit + and unresisted destruction ensued. The Warren, a fine new frigate of + thirty-two guns, and fourteen other vessels of inferior force, were either + blown up or taken. The transports fled in confusion and, after having + landed the troops in a wild and uncultivated part of the country, were + burnt. The men, destitute of provisions and other necessaries, had to + explore their way for more than 100 miles through an uninhabited and + pathless wilderness and many of them perished before reaching the settled + country. After this successful exploit Sir George Collier returned to New + York, where he resigned the command of the fleet to Admiral Arbuthnot, who + had arrived from England with some ships of war and with provisions, + stores, and reinforcements for the army. + </p> + <p> + On descending the river, after replacing the garrison of Stony Point, Sir + Henry Clinton encamped above Harlem, with his upper posts at Kingsbridge. + Washington remained in his strong position in the Highlands, but + frequently detached numerous parties on both sides of the river in order + to check the British foragers and to restrain the intercourse with the + Loyalists. Major Lee ("Light Horse Harry"), who commanded one of those + parties, planned a bold and hazardous enterprise against the British post + at Paulus Hook on the Jersey bank of the river, opposite New York. That + post was strongly fortified and of difficult access, and therefore the + garrison thought themselves secure. But Lee determined to make an attempt + on the place and chose the morning of the 20th of August (1779) for his + enterprise, when part of the garrison was absent on a foraging excursion. + Advancing silently at the head of 300 men the sentinel at the gate mistook + his party for that which had marched out the preceding day, and allowed + them to pass unchallenged, and almost in an instant they seized the + blockhouse and two redoubts before the alarm was given. Major Sutherland, + commandant of the post, with sixty Hessians, entered a redoubt and began a + brisk fire on the assailants. This gave an extensive notice of the attack, + and the firing of guns in New York, and by the shipping in the roads, + proved that the alarm was widely spread. In order, therefore, not to + hazard the loss of his party, Lee retreated with the loss of two men + killed and three wounded, carrying along with him about 150 prisoners. + Notwithstanding the difficulties and dangers which he had to encounter, he + effected his retreat. It was not his design to keep possession of the + place, but to carry off the garrison, reflect credit on the American arms, + and encourage a spirit of enterprise in the army. {2} + </p> + <p> + The expedition planned by Washington for chastising the Indians who had + committed such atrocities last year on the frontier and particularly at + Wyoming, was the most important of this campaign. Washington entrusted the + command of it to General Sullivan. The largest division of the army + employed on that service assembled at Wyoming. Another division, which had + wintered on the Mohawk, marched under the orders of Gen. James Clinton and + joined the main body at the confluence of the two great sources of the + Susquehanna. On the 22d. of August (1779), the united force, amounting to + nearly 5,000 men, under the command of General Sullivan, proceeded up the + Cayuga or western branch of the last-named river which led directly into + the Indian country. The preparations for this expedition did not escape + the notice of those against whom it was directed, and the Indians seem + fully to have penetrated Sullivan's plan of operation. Formidable as his + force was they determined to meet him and try the fortune of a battle. + They were about 1,000 strong, commanded by the two Butlers, Guy Johnson, + M'Donald, and Brandt. They chose their ground with judgment and fortified + their camp at some distance above Chemung and within a mile of Newtown. + </p> + <p> + There Sullivan attacked them and, after a short but spirited resistance, + they retreated with precipitation. The Americans had thirty men killed or + wounded; the Indians left only eleven dead bodies on the field, but they + were so discouraged by this defeat that they abandoned their villages and + fields to the unresisted ravages of the victor, who laid waste their towns + and orchards, so that they might have no inducement again to settle so + near the settlements of the whites. + </p> + <p> + The severity of this proceeding has been censured by some writers, but it + requires no apology. Nothing could convince the savages of the injustice + and inhumanity of their usual system of warfare on the frontier so + effectually as to give them a specimen of it, even in a milder form, in + their own country. Sullivan desolated their villages and farms, but we do + not learn that he took any scalps or murdered any women or children, or + tortured any of his prisoners. The measure of retaliation which he dealt + to the miscreants who sacked Wyoming was gentleness and humanity when + compared with their proceedings. It is only to be regretted that his + retaliation could not have been applied to the homes of the British and + Tories who assisted the Indians at Wyoming. Sullivan and his army received + a vote of thanks from Congress, but the general's health failing, he soon + resigned his commission and retired from the service. + </p> + <p> + Sullivan's orders from Washington exculpate him from all blame as to the + mode of punishing the Indians. "Of the expedition," Washington says, in + writing to him, "the immediate objects are the total destruction and + devastation of their settlements and the capture of as many prisoners of + every age and sex as possible." Washington knew that this kind of warfare + was the only possible means of putting an end to Indian wars. Any other + mode of proceeding, he was fully aware, was treachery and cruelty to his + own countrymen. + </p> + <p> + A few days after the surprise of Paulus Hook by Major Lee, the + long-expected fleet from Europe, under the command of Admiral Arbuthnot, + having on board a reinforcement for the British army, arrived at New York. + This reinforcement, however, did not enable Clinton to enter immediately + on that active course of offensive operations which he had meditated. It + was soon followed by the Count D'Estaing, who arrived on the southern + coast of America with a powerful fleet, after which Clinton deemed it + necessary to turn all his attention to his own security. Rhode Island and + the posts up the North river were evacuated and the whole army was + collected in New York, the fortifications of which were carried on with + unremitting industry. + </p> + <p> + The Count D'Estaing and Admiral Byron having sailed about the same time + from the coast of North America, met in the West Indies, where the war was + carried on with various success. St. Lucia surrendered to the British in + compensation for which the French took St. Vincent's and Grenada. About + the time of the capture of the latter island D'Estaing received + reinforcements which gave him a decided naval superiority, after which a + battle was fought between the two hostile fleets, in which the count + claimed the victory and in which so many of the British ships were + disabled that the admiral was compelled to retire into port in order to + refit. + </p> + <p> + Early in May (1779) Sir Henry Clinton had dispatched from New York a + squadron under Sir George Collier with 2,500 troops under General Mathews, + who entered Chesapeake Bay, and, after taking possession of Portsmouth, + sent out parties of soldiers to Norfolk, Suffolk, Gosport, and other + places in the neighborhood, where there were large deposits of provisions + and military and naval stores, and many merchant vessels, some on the + stocks and some laden with valuable cargoes. These were all burnt and the + whole neighborhood subjected to plunder and devastation. This was a severe + blow to the commerce on which Congress placed great dependence for + supplies to the army and for sustaining its own credit. + </p> + <p> + In compliance with the solicitations of General Lincoln and the + authorities of South Carolina, D'Estaing directed his course to the coast + of Georgia with twenty-two ships of the line and eleven frigates having on + board 6,000 soldiers, and arrived so suddenly on the southern coast of + America that the Experiment, of fifty guns, and three frigates, fell into + his hands. A vessel was sent to Charleston with information of his arrival + and a plan was concerted for the siege of Savannah. + </p> + <p> + General Lincoln, who, after the fall of Savannah, had been sent to + Charleston to take command of the southern department of the army, was to + cooperate with D'Estaing's fleet and army in the siege. Instead of + assaulting the place at the earliest practicable moment, they granted + Prevost, the British commander at Savannah, an armistice of twenty-four + hours, during which he received reinforcements and set them at defiance. + They then commenced a siege by regular approaches on land and cannonade + and bombardment from D'Estaing's formidable fleet in the harbor. This + lasted for three weeks. + </p> + <p> + On the 9th of October (1779), without having effected a sufficient breach, + the united French and American forces stormed the works. Great gallantry + was displayed by the assailants. The French and American standards were + both planted on the redoubts. But it was all in vain. They were completely + repulsed, the French losing 700 and the Americans 340 men. Count Pulaski + was among the slain. + </p> + <p> + The loss of the garrison was astonishingly small. In killed and wounded it + amounted only to fifty-five—so great was the advantage of the cover + afforded by their works. After this repulse the Count D'Estaing announced + to General Lincoln his determination to raise the siege. The remonstrances + of that officer were unavailing, and the removal of the heavy ordnance and + stores was commenced. This being accomplished, both armies moved from + their ground on the evening of the 18th of October (1779). The Americans, + recrossing the Savannah at Zubly's Ferry, again encamped in South + Carolina, and the French re-embarked. D'Estaing himself sailed with a part + of his fleet for France; the rest proceeded to the West Indies. + </p> + <p> + Although the issue of this enterprise was the source of severe chagrin and + mortification the prudence of General Lincoln suppressed every appearance + of dissatisfaction, and the armies separated with manifestations of + reciprocal esteem. The hopes which had brought the militia into the field + being disappointed they dispersed, and the affairs of the southern States + wore a more gloomy aspect than at any former period. + </p> + <p> + During the siege of Savannah an ingenious enterprise of partisan warfare + was executed by Colonel White of the Georgia line. Before the arrival of + the French fleet in the Savannah, a British captain with in men had taken + post near the river Ogeeche, twenty-five miles from Savannah. At the same + place were five British vessels, four of which were armed, the largest + with fourteen guns, the least with four, and the vessels were manned with + forty sailors. Late at night, on the 30th of September (1779), White, who + had only six volunteers, including his own servant, kindled a number of + fires in different places so as to exhibit the appearance of a + considerable encampment, practiced several other corresponding artifices, + and then summoned the captain instantly to surrender. That officer, + believing that he was about to be attacked by a superior force and that + nothing but immediate submission could save him and his men from + destruction, made no defense. The stratagem was carried on with so much + address that the prisoners, amounting to 141, were secured and conducted + to the American post at Sunbury, twenty-five miles distant. + </p> + <p> + On receiving intelligence of the situation of Lincoln, Congress passed a + resolution requesting Washington to order the North Carolina troops, and + such others as could be spared from the northern army, to the aid of that + in the South and assuring the States of South Carolina and Georgia of the + attention of government to their preservation, but requesting them, for + their own defense to comply with the recommendations formerly made + respecting the completion of their Continental regiments, and the + government of their militia while in actual service. + </p> + <p> + Washington had already received (November 1779) intelligence of the + disastrous result of D'Estaing and Lincoln's attack on Savannah, and had + formed his plans of operation before Congress sent assurances of aid to + the South. Giving up all expectation of cooperation from the French fleet, + he disbanded the New York and Massachusetts militia and made his + arrangements for the winter. He ordered one division of the army under + General Heath to the Highlands to protect West Point and the posts in that + neighborhood, and with the other division he went into winter quarters + near Morristown, the army being quartered in huts, as at Valley Forge. The + cavalry were sent to Connecticut. + </p> + <p> + Washington had already penetrated the design of the enemy to make the + southern States their principal field of operation, and accordingly he + dispatched to Charleston the North Carolina brigade in November, and the + whole of the Virginia line in December. On the other hand, Clinton and + Cornwallis embarked with a large force in transports convoyed by Admiral + Arbuthnot with a fleet of five ships of the line and several frigates, and + sailed on the 26th of December 1779, for Savannah. Knyphausen was left in + command of the garrison of New York. {3} + </p> + <p> + Washington's own summary of the operations of this campaign (1779) is + contained in a letter to Lafayette in the following terms: "The operations + of the enemy this campaign have been confined to the establishment of + works of defense, taking a post at King's Ferry, and burning the + defenseless towns of New Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk, on the Sound, + within reach of their shipping, where little else was or could be opposed + to them than the cries of distressed women and children; but these were + offered in vain. Since these notable exploits they have never stepped out + of their works or beyond their lines. How a conduct of this kind is to + effect the conquest of America, the wisdom of a North, a Germaine, or a + Sandwich can best decide. It is too deep and refined for the comprehension + of common understandings and the general run of politicians." + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: For their bravery and good conduct at Stony Point, Wayne + received a gold, and Stewart and Fleury silver medals, with the thanks of + Congress. A separate medal was designed and struck for each of them. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Lee, for this exploit at Paulus Hook, was presented with a + gold medal by Congress. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Irving + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. — CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH—ARNOLD'S TREASON. 1780. + </h2> + <p> + During the winter which followed the campaign of 1779, Washington, with + his army hutted on the heights of Morristown, was beset by pressing and + formidable difficulties. The finances of Congress were in a most depressed + condition, and the urgent wants of the army were but ill supplied. The + evils of short enlistment, though distinctly understood and strongly felt, + could not be remedied, and the places of those men who were leaving the + army on the expiration of their stipulated term of service could not + easily be filled up. Besides, the troops were in danger of perishing by + cold and famine. During the preceding year General Greene and Colonel + Wadsworth had been at the head of the quartermaster and commissary + departments, and notwithstanding their utmost exertions, the wants of the + army had been ill supplied. After being put into winter quarters it was in + great danger of being dissolved by want of provisions or of perishing + through famine. The Colonial paper money was in a state of great and + increasing depreciation, and in order to check the alarming evil Congress, + which, like other popular assemblies had in it no small share of ignorance + and self-sufficiency, resolved to diminish the circulation and keep up the + value of their paper currency by withholding the necessary supplies from + the public agents. This foolish resolution threatened the ruin of the + army. Nobody was willing to make contracts with the public and some of + those entered into were not fulfilled. + </p> + <p> + Congress, jealous of the public agents, because ignorant of what was + really necessary, repeatedly changed the form of its engagements with + them, and, at length, by its fluctuating policy, real wants, and imprudent + parsimony, brought matters to such extremities that Washington was + compelled to require the several counties of the State of New Jersey to + furnish his army with certain quantities of provisions within six days in + order to prevent them from being taken by force. Although the province was + much exhausted, yet the people instantly complied with the requisition and + furnished a temporary supply to the army. {1} + </p> + <p> + Soon after Clinton sailed on his expedition against Charleston a frost of + unexampled intensity began. The Hudson, East river, and all the waters + around New York were so completely frozen that an army with its artillery + and wagons might have crossed them in all directions with perfect safety. + New York lost all the advantages of its insular situation and became + easily accessible on every side. The city was fortified by the British, + but on account of its insular situation, several parts being considered of + difficult access were left undefended. By the strength of the ice, + however, every point became exposed, and in that unforeseen emergency, + Knyphausen who commanded in the city with a garrison of 10,000 men took + every prudent precaution for his defense and fortified every vulnerable + part, but the inefficiency of the American army was his best security. + Washington easily perceived the advantages which the extraordinary frost + gave him, but from the destitute state of his army he was unable to avail + himself of them. The army under his immediate command was inferior in + number to the garrison of New York; it was also ill clad, scantily + supplied with provisions, and in no condition to undertake offensive + operations. + </p> + <p> + The British had a post on Staten Island, and as the ice opened a free + communication between the island and the New Jersey coast, Washington, + notwithstanding the enfeebled condition of his army resolved to attack the + garrison, and appointed Lord Stirling to conduct the enterprise. The night + of the 14th of January (1780) was chosen for the attempt, but, though the + Americans used every precaution, the officer commanding on Staten Island + discovered their intention and took effectual measures to defeat it. The + attack was repulsed, but little loss was sustained on either side. + </p> + <p> + The extreme cold occasioned much suffering in New York by want of + provisions and fuel, for as the communication by water was entirely + stopped the usual supplies, were cut off. The demand for fuel in + particular was so pressing that it was found expedient to break up some + old transports, and to pull down some uninhabited wooden houses for the + purpose of procuring that necessary article. As the British paid in ready + money for provisions or firewood carried within the lines many of the + country people, tempted by the precious metals, so rare among them, tried + to supply the garrison. The endeavors of the British to encourage and + protect this intercourse and the exertions of the Americans to prevent it + brought on a sort of partisan warfare in which the former most frequently + had the advantage. In one of the most important of those encounters, early + in February (1780), near White Plains, a captain and 14 men of a + Massachusetts regiment were killed on the spot, 17 were wounded, and 90, + with Colonel Thompson, the officer who commanded the party, were made + prisoners. Washington, writing to General Heath respecting this affair, + says: "It is some consolation that our officers and men appear to have + made a brave resistance. I cannot help suspecting that our officers in + advance quarter too long in a place. By these means the enemy by their + emissaries gain a perfect knowledge of their cantonments and form their + attacks accordingly. Were they to shift constantly the enemy could + scarcely ever attain this knowledge." + </p> + <p> + Congress found itself placed in very difficult circumstances. It always + contained a number of men of talents and manifested no small share of + vigor and activity. Many of the members were skilful in the management of + their private affairs, and having been successful in the world thought + themselves competent to direct the most important national concerns, + although unacquainted with the principles of finance, legislation, or war. + Animated by that blind presumption which generally characterizes popular + assemblies they often entered into resolutions which discovered little + practical wisdom. In pecuniary matters they were dilatory and never + anticipated trying emergencies, or made provision for probable events, + till they were overtaken by some urgent necessity. Hence they were + frequently deliberating about levying troops and supplying the army when + the troops ought to have been in the field, and the army fully equipped + for active service. This often placed Washington in the most trying and + perilous circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Congress had solemnly resolved not to exceed $200,000,000 in Continental + bills of credit. In November, 1779, the whole of that sum was issued and + expended also. The demand on the States to replenish the treasury by taxes + had not been fully complied with, and even although it had been completely + answered would not have furnished a sum adequate to the expenses of + government. Instead of maturely considering and digesting a plan, adhering + to it, and improving it by experience, Congress often changed its + measures, and even in the midst of those distresses which had brought the + army to the verge of dissolution, was busy in devising new and untried + expedients for supporting it. As the treasury was empty and money could + not be raised, Congress, on the 25th of February (1780), resolved to call + on the several States for their proportion of provisions, spirits, and + forage for the maintenance of the army during the ensuing campaign, but + specified no time within which these were to be collected, and + consequently the States were in no haste in the matter. In order to + encourage and facilitate compliance with this requisition it was further + resolved that any State which should have taken the necessary measures for + furnishing its quota, and given notice thereof to Congress, should be + authorized to prohibit any Continental quartermaster or commissary from + purchasing within its limits. + </p> + <p> + Every man who had a practical knowledge of the subject easily perceived + the defective nature and dangerous tendency of this arrangement. It was an + attempt to carry on the war rather by separate provincial efforts than by + a combination of national strength, and if the army received from any + State where it was acting the appointed quantity of necessaries it had no + right, though starving, to purchase what it stood in need of. Besides the + carriage of provisions from distant parts was troublesome, expensive, and + sometimes impracticable. + </p> + <p> + The troops were ill clothed, their pay was in arrear, and that of the + officers, owing to the great depreciation of the paper currency, was + wholly unequal to their decent maintenance. These multiplied privations + and sufferings soured the temper of the men, and it required all the + influence of Washington to prevent many of the officers from resigning + their commissions. The long continuance of want and hardship produced + relaxation of discipline which at length manifested itself in open mutiny. + On the 25th of May (1780) two regiments belonging to Connecticut paraded + under arms, with the avowed intention of returning home, or of obtaining + subsistence at the point of the bayonet. The rest of the soldiers, though + they did not join in the mutiny, showed little disposition to suppress it. + At length the two regiments were brought back to their duty, but much + murmuring and many complaints were heard. While the army was in such want + the inhabitants of New Jersey, where most of the troops were stationed, + were unavoidably harassed by frequent requisitions, which excited + considerable discontent. Reports of the mutinous state of the American + army and of the dissatisfaction of the people of New Jersey, probably much + exaggerated, were carried to General Knyphausen, who, believing the + American soldiers ready to desert their standards and the inhabitants of + New Jersey willing to abandon the Union, on the 6th of June (1780), passed + from Staten Island to Elizabethtown, in Jersey, with 5,000 men. That + movement was intended to encourage the mutinous disposition of the + American troops, and to fan the flame of discontent among the inhabitants + of the province. Early next morning he marched into the country toward + Springfield by the way of Connecticut Farms, a flourishing plantation, so + named because the cultivators had come from Connecticut. But even before + reaching that place which was only five or six miles from Elizabethtown, + the British perceived that the reports which they had received concerning + the discontent of the Americans were incorrect, for on the first alarm the + militia assembled with great alacrity and aided by some small parties of + regular troops, annoyed the British by an irregular but galling fire of + musketry, wherever the nature of the ground presented a favorable + opportunity, and although those parties were nowhere strong enough to make + a stand, yet they gave plain indications of the temper and resolution + which were to be encountered in advancing into the country. At Connecticut + Farms the British detachment halted. The settlers were known to be zealous + in the American cause and therefore with a little spirit of revenge, the + British, among whom was General Tryon, laid the flourishing village, with + its church and the minister's house, in ashes. Here occurred one of those + affecting incidents which being somewhat out of the ordinary course of the + miseries of war make a deep impression on the public mind. Mr. Caldwell, + minister of the place, had withdrawn toward Springfield, but had left his + wife and family behind believing them to be in no danger. The British + advanced to the industrious and peaceful village. Mrs. Caldwell, trusting + to her sex for safety and unsuspicious of harm, was sitting in her house + with her children around her when a soldier came up, leveled his musket at + the window, and shot her dead on the spot in the midst of her terrified + family. On the intercession of a friend the dead body was permitted to be + removed when the house was set on fire. This atrocious deed excited such + general horror and detestation that the British thought proper to disavow + it, and to impute the death of Mrs. Caldwell to a random shot from the + retreating militia, though the militia did not fire a musket in the + village. The wanton murder of the lady might be the unauthorized act of a + savage individual, but can the burning of the house after her death be + accounted for in the same way? Knyphausen was a veteran officer and cannot + be supposed capable of entering into local animosities or of countenancing + such brutality, but Tryon was present and his conduct on other occasions + was not unblemished. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Caldwell had rendered himself particularly obnoxious to the enemy, and + was cordially hated by Tryon for his zealous devotion to the patriotic + cause. He had served as a chaplain in the army, was exceedingly popular + among the patriots of New Jersey, had given up his church to be used as a + hospital, and had exerted himself by eloquent appeals to arouse his + countrymen to unflinching resistance against the enemy. For this Tryon + caused his church to be burnt and did not prevent the soldiers from + shooting his wife. + </p> + <p> + After destroying the Connecticut Farms, Knyphausen advanced toward + Springfield, where the Jersey brigade, under General Maxwell, and a large + body of militia had taken an advantageous position and seemed resolved to + defend it. General Knyphausen, however, had met with a reception so + different from what he expected that without making any attempt on the + American post he withdrew during the night to Elizabethtown. + </p> + <p> + On being informed of the invasion of New Jersey, Washington put his army + in motion early on the morning of the day in which Knyphausen marched from + Elizabethtown and proceeded to the Short hills behind Springfield, while + the British were in the vicinity of that place. Feeble as his army was, he + made the necessary dispositions for fighting, but the unexpected retreat + of Knyphausen rendered a battle unnecessary. The British were followed by + an American detachment, which attacked their rear guard next morning but + was repulsed. Instead of returning to New York, Knyphausen lingered in the + vicinity of Elizabethtown and on Staten Island, and Washington, unwilling + with his inadequate force to hazard an engagement except on advantageous + ground, remained on the hills near Springfield to watch the movements of + the British army. At that time the army under the immediate orders of + Washington did not exceed 4,000 effective men. + </p> + <p> + On the 18th of June (1780), Sir Henry Clinton returned from South Carolina + with about 4,000 men, and after receiving this reinforcement the British + force in New York and its dependencies amounted to 12,000 effective and + regular troops, most of whom could be brought into the field for any + particular service; besides these, the British commander had about 4,000 + militia and refugees for garrison duty. The British army directed on any + one point would have been irresistible; therefore Washington could only + follow a wary policy, occupying strong ground, presenting a bold front, + and concealing the weakness of his army as far as possible. + </p> + <p> + The embarkation of troops by Sir Henry Clinton awakened the apprehensions + of Washington lest he should sail up the Hudson and attack the posts in + the Highlands. Those posts had always been objects of much solicitude to + Washington, and he was extremely jealous of any attack upon them. In order + to be in readiness to resist any such attack, he left General Greene at + Springfield, with 700 Continentals, the Jersey militia, and some cavalry, + and proceeded toward Pompton with the main body of the army. Sir Henry + Clinton, after having perplexed the Americans by his movements, early on + the morning of the 23d of June (1780), rapidly advanced in full force from + Elizabethtown toward Springfield. General Greene hastily assembled his + scattered detachments and apprised Washington of the march of the royal + army, who instantly returned to support Greene's division. The British + marched in two columns—one on the main road leading to Springfield + and the other on the Vauxhall road. Greene scarcely had time to collect + his troops at Springfield and make the necessary dispositions when the + royal army appeared before the town and a cannonade immediately began. A + fordable rivulet, with bridges corresponding to the different roads, runs + in front of the place. Greene had stationed parties to guard the bridges + and they obstinately disputed the passage, but after a smart conflict they + were overpowered and compelled to retreat. + </p> + <p> + Greene then fell back and took post on a range of hills, where he expected + to be again attacked. But the British, instead of attempting to pursue + their advantage, contented themselves with setting fire to the village and + laying the greater part of it in ashes. Discouraged by the obstinate + resistance they had received and ignorant of the weakness of the + detachment which opposed them, they immediately retreated to + Elizabethtown, pursued with the utmost animosity by the militia, who were + provoked at the burning of Springfield. They arrived at Elizabethtown + about sunset, and, continuing their march to Elizabeth Point, began at + midnight to pass over to Staten Island. Before 6 next morning they had + entirely evacuated the Jerseys and removed the bridge of boats which + communicated with Staten Island. + </p> + <p> + In the skirmish at Springfield the Americans had about 20 men killed and + 60 wounded. The British suffered a corresponding loss. Clinton's object in + this expedition seems to have been to destroy the American magazines in + that part of the country. But the obstinate resistance which he met with + at Springfield deterred him from advancing into a district abounding in + difficult passes, where every strong position would be vigorously + defended. He seems also to have been checked by the apprehension of a + fleet and army from France. + </p> + <p> + Washington was informed of Clinton's march soon after the British left + Elizabethtown, but, though he hastily returned, the skirmish at + Springfield was over before he reached the vicinity of that place. + </p> + <p> + After Clinton left the Jerseys, Washington planned an enterprise against a + British post at Bergen point, on the Hudson, opposite New York, garrisoned + by seventy Loyalists. It was intended to reduce the post and also to carry + off a number of cattle on Bergen Neck, from which the garrison of New York + occasionally received supplies of fresh provisions. General Wayne was + appointed to conduct the enterprise. With a respectable force he marched + against the post, which consisted of a blockhouse covered by an abattis + and palisade. Wayne pointed his artillery against the blockhouse, but his + field pieces made no impression on the logs. Galled by the fire from the + loopholes, some of his men rushed impetuously through the abattis and + attempted to storm the blockhouse, but they were repulsed with + considerable loss. Though the Americans, however, failed in their attempt + against the post, they succeeded in driving off most of the cattle. + </p> + <p> + On the commencement of hostilities in Europe, Lafayette, as we have seen, + returned home in order to offer his services to his King, still, however, + retaining his rank in the army of Congress. His ardor in behalf of the + Americans remained unabated and he exerted all his influence with the + court of Versailles to gain its effectual support to the United States. + His efforts were successful and the King of France resolved vigorously to + assist the Americans both by sea and land. Having gained this important + point, and perceiving that there was no need for his military services in + Europe, he obtained leave from his sovereign to return to America and join + his former companions in arms. He landed at Boston toward the end of April + (1780), and, on his way to Congress, called at the headquarters of + Washington and informed him of the powerful succor which might soon be + expected from France. He met with a most cordial reception both from + Congress and Washington on account of his high rank, tried friendship, and + distinguished services. + </p> + <p> + The assistance expected from their powerful ally was very encouraging to + the Americans, but called for corresponding exertions on their part. + Washington found himself in the most perplexing circumstances; his army + was feeble, and he could form no plan for the campaign till he knew what + forces were to be put under his orders. His troops, both officers and + privates, were ill clothed and needed to be decently appareled before they + could be led into the field to cooperate with soldiers in respectable + uniforms, for his half-naked battalions would only have been objects of + contempt and derision to their better-dressed allies. In order to supply + these defects and to get his army in a state of due preparation before the + arrival of the European auxiliaries, Washington made the most pressing + applications to Congress and to the several State Legislatures. Congress + resolved and recommended, but the States were dilatory, and their tardy + proceedings ill accorded with the exigencies of the case or with the + expectations of those who best understood the affairs of the Union. Even + on the 4th of July (1780), Washington had the mortification to find that + few new levies had arrived in camp and some of the States had not even + taken the trouble to inform him of the number of men they intended to + furnish. + </p> + <p> + In the month of June the State of Massachusetts had resolved to send a + reinforcement, but no part of it had yet arrived. About the same time a + voluntary subscription was entered into in Philadelphia for the purpose of + providing bounties to recruits to fill up the Pennsylvania line, and the + President or Vice-President in council was empowered, if circumstances + required it, to put the State under martial law. + </p> + <p> + The merchants and other citizens of Philadelphia, with a zeal guided by + that sound discretion which turns expenditure to the best account, + established a bank, for the support of which they subscribed £315,000, + Pennsylvania money, to be paid, if required, in specie, the principal + object of which was to supply the army with provisions. By the plan of + this bank its members were to derive no emolument whatever from the + institution. For advancing their credit and their money they required only + that Congress should pledge the faith of the Union to reimburse the costs + and charges of the transaction in a reasonable time, and should give such + assistance to its execution as might be in their power. + </p> + <p> + The ladies of Philadelphia, too, gave a splendid example of patriotism by + large donations for the immediate relief of the suffering army. {2} + </p> + <p> + This example was extensively followed, but it is not by the contributions + of the generous that a war can or ought to be maintained. The purse of a + nation alone can supply the expenditures of a nation, and when all are + interested in a contest all ought to contribute to its support. Taxes and + taxes only can furnish for the prosecution of a national war means which + are just in themselves or competent to the object. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these donations the distresses of the army, for clothing + especially, still continued and were the more severely felt when a + cooperation with French troops was expected. So late as the 20th of June + (1780) Washington informed Congress that he still labored under the + painful and humiliating embarrassment of having no shirts for the + soldiers, many of whom were destitute of that necessary article. "For the + troops to be without clothing at any time," he added, "is highly injurious + to the service and distressing to our feelings, but the want will be more + peculiarly mortifying when they come to act with those of our allies. If + it be possible, I have no doubt immediate measures will be taken to + relieve their distress. + </p> + <p> + "It is also most sincerely wished that there could be some supplies of + clothing furnished to the officers. There are a great many whose condition + is still miserable. This is, in some instances, the case with the whole + lines of the States. It would be well for their own sakes and for the + public good if they could be furnished. They will not be able, when our + friends come to cooperate with us, to go on a common routine of duty, and + if they should, they must, from their appearance, be held in low + estimation." + </p> + <p> + This picture presents in strong colors the real patriotism of the American + army. One heroic effort, though it may dazzle the mind with its splendor, + is an exertion most men are capable of making, but continued patient + suffering and unremitting perseverance in a service promising no personal + emolument and exposing the officer unceasingly not only to wants of every + kind, but to those circumstances of humiliation which seem to degrade him + in the eyes of others, demonstrate a fortitude of mind, a strength of + virtue, and a firmness of principle which ought never to be forgotten. + </p> + <p> + Washington was greatly embarrassed by his uncertainty with respect to the + force which he might count upon to cooperate with the expected succors + from France. Writing to Congress on this subject he said: "The season is + come when we have every reason to expect the arrival of the fleet, and + yet, for want of this point of primary consequence, it is impossible for + me to form a system of cooperation. I have no basis to act upon, and, of + course, were this generous succor of our ally now to arrive, I should find + myself in the most awkward, embarrassing, and painful situation. The + general and the admiral, from the relation in which I stand, as soon as + they approach our coast, will require of me a plan of the measures to be + pursued, and there ought of right to be one prepared; but, circumstanced + as I am, I cannot even give them conjectures. From these considerations I + have suggested to the committee, by a letter I had the honor of addressing + them yesterday, the indispensable necessity of their writing again to the + States, urging them to give immediate and precise information of the + measures they have taken and of the result. The interest of the States, + the honor and reputation of our councils, the justice and gratitude due to + our allies, all require that I should, without delay, be enabled to + ascertain and inform them what we can or cannot undertake. There is a + point which ought now to be determined, on the success of which all our + future operations may depend, on which, for want of knowing our prospects, + I can make no decision. For fear of involving the fleet and army of our + allies in circumstances which would expose them, if not seconded by us, to + material inconvenience and hazard, I shall be compelled to suspend it, and + the delay may be fatal to our hopes." + </p> + <p> + While this uncertainty still continued, the expected succors from France, + consisting of a fleet of eight ships of the line, with frigates and other + vessels, under the Chevalier de Ternay, having about 6,000 troops on board + under General the Count de Rochambeau, reached Rhode Island on the evening + of the 10th of July (1780), and in a few days afterward Lafayette arrived + at Newport from Washington's headquarters to confer with his countrymen. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the arrival of the French in Rhode Island, Admiral + Arbuthnot had only four sail of the line at New York, but in a few days + Admiral Graves arrived from England with six sail of the line, which gave + the British a decided superiority over the French squadron, and therefore + Sir Henry Clinton, without delay, prepared for active operations. He + embarked about 8,000 men and sailed with the fleet to Huntington bay, in + Long Island, with the intention of proceeding against the French at + Newport. The militia of Massachusetts and Connecticut were ordered by + Washington to join the French forces in Rhode Island, and the combined + army there thought itself able to give the British a good reception. + </p> + <p> + As the garrison of New York was weakened by the sailing of the armament + under Clinton, Washington, having received considerable reinforcements, + suddenly crossed the North river and advanced toward New York; that + movement brought Clinton back to defend the place and consequently + Washington proceeded no further in his meditated enterprise. + </p> + <p> + The want of money and of all necessaries still continued in the American + camp, and the discontent of the troops, gradually increasing, was matured + into a dangerous spirit of insubordination. The men, indeed, bore + incredible hardships and privations with unexampled fortitude and + patience, but the army was in a state of constant fluctuation; it was + composed, in a great measure, of militia harassed by perpetual service and + obliged to neglect the cultivation of their farms and their private + interests in order to obey the calls of public duty, and of soldiers on + short enlistments, who never acquired the military spirit and habits. + </p> + <p> + In consequence of an appointment, Washington and suite set out to a + conference with Count Rochambeau and Admiral de Ternay, and on the 21st of + September (1780) met them at Hartford, in Connecticut, where they spent a + few days together, and conversed about a plan for the next campaign. + </p> + <p> + The conference was useful in making the respective commanders well + acquainted with each other, and promoting a spirit of harmony between + them; but it led to no settled plan for the next campaign. A plan of + operations for the combined forces, which had been drawn up by Washington + and sent to Rochambeau by Lafayette when he went to Newport, had + contemplated the superiority of the naval force of the French, which had + now ceased to exist in consequence of the arrival of Admiral Graves with a + fleet of six ships of the line. It was consequently agreed that nothing + could be done in the way of offensive movements until the arrival of a + second division of the French fleet and army from Brest, which was + expected, or that of the Count de Guichen from the West Indies. In the + sequel, neither of these arrivals took place. The second French division + was blockaded at Brest, and never came to this country, and de Guichen + sailed direct to France from the West Indies. Meantime Admiral Arbuthnot + blockaded the French fleet at Newport, and Rochambeau's army remained + there for its protection. Both the parties remained watching each other's + movements, and depending on the operations of the British and French + fleets. Washington crossed the Hudson to Tappan and remained there till + winter. + </p> + <p> + Washington did not relinquish without infinite chagrin the sanguine + expectations he had formed of rendering this campaign decisive of the war. + Never before had he indulged so strongly the hope of happily terminating + the contest. In a letter to an intimate friend, this chagrin was thus + expressed: "We are now drawing to a close an inactive campaign, the + beginning of which appeared pregnant with events of a very favorable + complexion. I hoped, but I hoped in vain, that a prospect was opening + which would enable me to fix a period to my military pursuits and restore + me to domestic life. The favorable disposition of Spain, the promised + succor from France, the combined force in the West Indies, the declaration + of Russia (acceded to by other powers of Europe, humiliating the naval + pride and power of Great Britain), the superiority of France and Spain by + sea in Europe, the Irish claims and English disturbances, formed in the + aggregate an opinion in my breast (which is not very susceptible of + peaceful dreams), that the hour of deliverance was not far distant; for + that, however unwilling Great Britain might be to yield the point, it + would not be in her power to continue the contest. But, alas, these + prospects, flattering as they were, have proved delusive, and I see + nothing before us but accumulating distress. We have been half of our time + without provisions and are likely to continue so. We have no magazines nor + money to form them. We have lived upon expedients until we can live no + longer. In a word, the history of the war is a history of false hopes and + temporary devices, instead of system and economy. It is in vain, however, + to look back, nor is it our business to do so. Our case is not desperate + if virtue exists in the people, and there is wisdom among our rulers. But + to suppose that this great revolution can be accomplished by a temporary + army, that this army will be subsisted by State supplies and that taxation + alone is adequate to our wants is in my opinion absurd, and as + unreasonable as to expect an inversion of the order of nature to + accommodate itself to our views. If it were necessary it could be easily + proved to any person of a moderate understanding that an annual army or + any army raised on the spur of the occasion besides being unqualified for + the end designed is, in various ways that could be enumerated, ten times + more expensive than a permanent body of men under good organization and + military discipline, which never was nor will be the case with raw troops. + A thousand arguments, resulting from experience and the nature of things, + might also be adduced to prove that the army, if it is to depend upon + State supplies, must disband or starve, and that taxation alone + (especially at this late hour) cannot furnish the means to carry on the + war. Is it not time to retract from error and benefit by experience? Or do + we want further proof of the ruinous system we have pertinaciously adhered + to?" + </p> + <p> + While the respective armies were in the state of inaction to which we have + just referred, the whole country was astounded by the discovery of + Arnold's treason. The details of this sad affair disclosed traits in the + character of this officer which were previously unknown, and, by the + public generally, unsuspected. + </p> + <p> + The great service and military talents of General Arnold, his courage in + battle and patient fortitude under excessive hardships had secured to him + a high place in the opinion of the army and of his country. Not having + sufficiently recovered from the wounds received before Quebec and at + Saratoga to be fit for active service, and having large accounts to settle + with the government, which required leisure, he was, on the evacuation of + Philadelphia in 1778, appointed to the command in that place. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately that strength of principle and correctness of judgment which + might enable him to resist the various seductions to which his fame and + rank exposed him in the metropolis of the Union, were not associated with + the firmness which he had displayed in the field and in the most adverse + circumstances. Yielding to the temptations of a false pride and forgetting + that he did not possess the resources of private fortune, he indulged in + the pleasures of a sumptuous table and expensive equipage, and soon + swelled his debts to an amount which it was impossible for him to + discharge. Unmindful of his military character, he engaged in speculations + which were unfortunate, and with the hope of immense profits took shares + in privateers which were unsuccessful. His claims against the United + States were great and he looked to them for the means of extricating + himself from the embarrassments in which his indiscretions had involved + him; but the commissioners to whom his accounts were referred for + settlement had reduced them considerably, and on his appeal from their + decision to Congress, a committee reported that the sum allowed by the + commissioners was more than he was entitled to receive. + </p> + <p> + He was charged with various acts of extortion on the citizens of + Philadelphia, and with peculating on the public funds. {3} + </p> + <p> + Not the less soured by these multiplied causes of irritation, from the + reflection that they were attributable to his own follies and vices, he + gave full scope to his resentments, and indulged himself in expressions of + angry reproach against what he termed the ingratitude of his country, + which provoked those around him, and gave great offense to Congress. + Having become peculiarly odious to the government of Pennsylvania, the + executive of that State (President Reed, formerly aid to Washington) + exhibited formal charges against him to Congress, who directed that he + should be arrested and brought before a court-martial. His trial was + concluded late in January, 1779, and he was sentenced to be reprimanded by + the Commander-in-Chief. This sentence was approved by Congress and carried + into execution. {4} + </p> + <p> + From the time the sentence against him was approved, if not sooner, his + proud unprincipled spirit revolted from the cause of his country and + determined him to seek an occasion to make the objects of his resentment + the victims of his vengeance. + </p> + <p> + Turning his eyes on West Point as an acquisition which would give value to + treason and inflict a mortal wound on his former friends, he sought the + command of that fortress for the purpose of gratifying both his avarice + and his hate. + </p> + <p> + To New York the safety of West Point was peculiarly interesting, and in + that State the reputation of Arnold was particularly high. To its + delegation he addressed himself; and one of its members had written a + letter to Washington, suggesting doubts respecting the military character + of General Robert Howe, to whom its defense was then entrusted, and + recommending Arnold for that service. This request was not forgotten. Some + short time afterward General Schuyler mentioned to Washington a letter he + had received from Arnold intimating his wish to join the army, but stating + his inability, in consequence of his wounds, to perform the active duties + of the field. Washington observed that, as there was a prospect of a + vigorous campaign he should be gratified with the aid of General Arnold—that + so soon as the operations against New York should commence, he designed to + draw his whole force into the field, leaving even West Point to the care + of invalids and a small garrison of militia. Recollecting, however, the + former application of a member of Congress respecting this post, he added + that "if, with this previous information, that situation would be more + agreeable to him than a command in the field, his wishes should certainly + be indulged." + </p> + <p> + This conversation being communicated to Arnold, he caught eagerly at the + proposition, though without openly discovering any solicitude on the + subject, and in the beginning of August (1780) repaired to camp, where he + renewed the solicitations which had before been made indirectly. + </p> + <p> + At this juncture Clinton embarked on an expedition he meditated against + Rhode Island, and Washington was advancing on New York. He offered Arnold + the left wing of the army, which he declined under the pretexts mentioned + in his letter to Schuyler. + </p> + <p> + Incapable of suspecting a man who had given such distinguished proofs of + courage and patriotism, Washington was neither alarmed at his refusal to + embrace so splendid an opportunity of recovering the favor of his + countrymen nor at the embarrassment accompanying that refusal. Pressing + the subject no further, he assented to the request which had been made and + invested Arnold with the command of West Point. Previous to his soliciting + this station Arnold had, in a letter to Colonel Robinson, of the British + army, signified his change of principles, and his wish to restore himself + to the favor of his prince by some signal proof of his repentance. This + letter opened the way to a correspondence with Clinton, the immediate + object of which, after obtaining the appointment he had solicited, was to + concert the means of delivering the important post he commanded to the + British general. + </p> + <p> + Major John André, an aide-de-camp of Clinton, and adjutant-general of the + British army, was selected as the person to whom the maturing of Arnold's + treason, and the arrangements for its execution should be entrusted. A + correspondence was carried on between them under a mercantile disguise in + the feigned names of Gustavus and Anderson; and at length, to facilitate + their communications, the Vulture, sloop-of-war, moved up the North river + and took a station convenient for the purpose, but not so near as to + excite suspicion. + </p> + <p> + The time when Washington met Rochambeau at Hartford was selected for the + final adjustment of the plan, and as a personal interview was deemed + necessary André came up the river and went on board the Vulture. The house + of a Mr. Smith, without the American posts, was appointed for the + interview, and to that place both parties repaired in the night—André + being brought under a pass for John Anderson in a boat dispatched from the + shore. While the conference was yet unfinished, daylight approached, and + to avoid discovery Arnold proposed that André should remain concealed + until the succeeding night. They continued together during the day, and + when, in the following night, his return to the Vulture was proposed, the + boatmen refused to carry him because she had shifted her station during + the day, in consequence of a gun which was moved to the shore without the + knowledge of Arnold and brought to bear upon her. This embarrassing + circumstance reduced him to the necessity of endeavoring to reach New York + by land. To accomplish this purpose, he reluctantly yielded to the urgent + representations of Arnold, and laying aside his regimentals, which he had + hitherto worn under a surtout, put on a plain suit of clothes and received + a pass from Arnold, authorizing him, under the name of John Anderson, to + proceed on the public service to White Plains or lower if he thought + proper. + </p> + <p> + With this permit he had passed all the guards and posts on the road + unsuspected and was proceeding to New York in perfect security, when one + of three militiamen{5} who were employed between the lines of the two + armies, springing suddenly from his covert into the road, seized the + reins of his bridle and stopped his horse. Losing his accustomed self + possession, André, instead of producing the pass from Arnold, asked the + man hastily where he belonged. He replied, "To below," a term implying + that he was from New York. "And so," said André, not suspecting + deception, "am I." He then declared himself to be a British officer on + urgent business, and begged that he might not be detained. The appearance + of the other militiamen disclosed his mistake too late to correct it. He + offered a purse of gold and a valuable watch, with tempting promises of + ample reward from his government if they would, permit him to escape; but + his offers were rejected, and his captors proceeded to search him. They + found concealed in his stockings, in Arnold's handwriting, papers + containing all the information which could be important respecting West + Point. When carried before Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson, the officer + commanding the scouting parties on the lines, he maintained his assumed + character and requested Jameson to inform his commanding officer that + Anderson was taken. Jameson dispatched an express with this + communication. On receiving it, Arnold comprehended the full extent of + his danger, and flying from well-merited punishment took refuge on board + the Vulture. + </p> + <p> + When sufficient time for the escape of Arnold was supposed to have + elapsed, André, no longer effecting concealment, acknowledged himself to + be the adjutant-general of the British army. Jameson, seeking to correct + the mischief of his indiscreet communication to Arnold, immediately + dispatched a packet to the Commander-in-Chief containing the papers which + had been discovered, with a letter from André relating the manner of his + capture and accounting for the disguise he had assumed. + </p> + <p> + The express was directed to meet the Commander-in-Chief, who was then on + his return from Hartford, but, taking different roads, they missed each + other, and a delay attended the delivery of the papers, which ensured the + escape of Arnold. + </p> + <p> + Washington, with Generals Lafayette and Knox, had turned from the direct + route in order to visit a redoubt. Colonels Hamilton and M'Henry, the + aides-de-camp of Washington and Lafayette, went forward to request Mrs. + Arnold not to wait breakfast. Arnold received André's billet in their + presence. He turned pale, left them suddenly, called his wife, + communicated the intelligence to her, and left her in a swoon, without the + knowledge of Hamilton and M'Henry. Mounting the horse of his aide-de-camp, + which was ready saddled, and directing him to inform Washington on his + arrival that Arnold was gone to receive him at West Point, he gained the + river shore, and was conveyed in a canoe to the Vulture. + </p> + <p> + Washington, on his arrival, was informed that Arnold awaited him at West + Point. Taking it for granted that this step had been taken to prepare for + his reception he proceeded thither without entering the house, and was + surprised to find that Arnold was not arrived. On returning to the + quarters of that officer he received Jameson's dispatch which disclosed + the whole mystery. + </p> + <p> + Every precaution was immediately taken for the security of West Point, + after which the attention of the Commander-in-Chief was turned to André. A + board of general officers, of which General Greene was president, and + Lafayette and Steuben were members, was called, to report a precise state + of his case, and to determine the character in which he was to be + considered, and the punishment to which he was liable. + </p> + <p> + The frankness and magnanimity with which André had conducted himself from + the time of his appearance in his real character had made a very favorable + impression on all those with whom he had held any intercourse. From this + cause he experienced every mark of indulgent attention which was + compatible with his situation, and, from a sense of justice as well as of + delicacy, was informed, on the opening of the examination that he was at + liberty not to answer any interrogatory which might embarrass his own + feelings. But, as if only desirous to rescue his character from + imputations which he dreaded more than death, he confessed everything + material to his own condemnation, but would divulge nothing which might + involve others. + </p> + <p> + The board reported the essential facts which had appeared, with their + opinion that Major André was a spy and ought to suffer death. The + execution of this sentence was ordered to take place on the day succeeding + that on which it was pronounced. + </p> + <p> + Superior to the terrors of death, but dreading disgrace, André was deeply + affected by the mode of execution which the laws of war decree to persons + in his situation. He wished to die like a soldier not as a criminal. To + obtain a mitigation of his sentence in this respect he addressed a letter + to Washington, replete with the feelings of a man of sentiment and honor. + But the occasion required that the example should make its full + impression, and this request could not be granted. He encountered his fate + with composure and dignity, and his whole conduct interested the feelings + of all who witnessed it. + </p> + <p> + The general officers lamented the sentence which the usages of war + compelled them to pronounce, and never perhaps did the Commander-in-Chief + obey with more reluctance the stern mandates of duty and policy. The + sympathy excited among the American officers by his fate was as universal + as it is unusual on such occasions, and proclaims alike the merit of him + who suffered, and the humanity of those who inflicted the punishment. + </p> + <p> + Great exertions were made by Sir Henry Clinton, to whom André was + particularly dear, first, to have him considered as protected by a flag of + truce, and afterward as a prisoner of war. + </p> + <p> + Even Arnold had the hardihood to interpose. After giving a certificate of + facts tending, as he supposed, to exculpate the prisoner, exhausting his + powers of reasoning on the case, and appealing to the humanity of + Washington, he sought to intimidate that officer by stating the situation + of many of the most distinguished individuals of South Carolina, who had + forfeited their lives, but had hitherto been spared through the clemency + of the British general. This clemency, he said, could no longer be + extended to them should Major André suffer. + </p> + <p> + It may well be supposed that the interposition of Arnold could have no + influence on Washington. He caused Mrs. Arnold to be conveyed to her + husband in New York, and also transmitted his clothes and baggage, for + which he had written, but in every other respect his letters, which were + unanswered, were also unnoticed. + </p> + <p> + The night after Arnold's escape, when his letter respecting André was + received, the general directed one of his aides to wait on Mrs. Arnold, + who was convulsed with grief, and inform her that he had done everything + which depended on him to arrest her husband, but that, not having + succeeded, it gave him pleasure to inform her that her husband was safe. + It is honorable to the American character that, during the effervescence + of the moment, Mrs. Arnold was permitted to go to Philadelphia to take + possession of her effects, and to proceed to New York under the protection + of a flag without receiving the slightest insult. + </p> + <p> + This treatment of Mrs. Arnold by Washington is the more remarkable for its + delicacy when we recollect that she was under very strong suspicions at + the time of being actively concerned in the treason of her husband. + Historians are still divided on the question of her guilt or innocence. + </p> + <p> + The mingled sentiments of admiration and compassion excited in every bosom + for the unfortunate André, seemed to increase the detestation in which + Arnold was held. "André," said General Washington in a private letter, + "has met his fate with that fortitude which was to be expected from an + accomplished man and a gallant officer, but I am mistaken if at this time + Arnold is undergoing the torments of a mental hell. He wants feeling. From + some traits of his character which have lately come to my knowledge, he + seems to have been so hardened in crime, so lost to all sense of honor and + shame, that while his faculties still enable him to continue his sordid + pursuits, there will be no time for remorse." + </p> + <p> + The traits in his character above alluded to, were disclosed in a private + letter from Hamilton, who said: "This man (Arnold) is in every sense + despicable. In addition to the scene of knavery and prostitution during + his command in Philadelphia, which the late seizure of his papers has + unfolded, the history of his command at West Point is a history of little + as well as great villainies. He practiced every dirty act of peculation, + and even stooped to connections with the sutlers to defraud the public." + {6} + </p> + <p> + From motives of policy, or of respect for his engagements, Sir Henry + Clinton conferred on Arnold the commission of a brigadier-general in the + British service, which he preserved throughout the war. Yet it is + impossible that rank could have rescued him from the contempt and + detestation in which the generous, and honorable, and the brave could not + cease to hold him. It was impossible for men of this description to bury + the recollection of his being a traitor—a sordid traitor—first + the slave of his rage, then purchased with gold, and finally secured at + the expense of the blood of one of the most accomplished officers in the + British army. + </p> + <p> + His representations of the discontent of the country and of the army, + concurring with reports from other quarters, had excited the hope that the + Loyalists and the dissatisfied, allured by British gold and the prospect + of rank in the British service, would flock to his standard and form a + corps at whose head he might again display his accustomed intrepidity. + With this hope he published an address to the inhabitants of America in + which he labored to palliate his own guilt, and to increase their + dissatisfaction with the existing state of things. + </p> + <p> + This appeal to the public was followed by a proclamation addressed "To the + officers and soldiers of the Continental army, who have the real interests + of their country at heart, and who are determined to be no longer the + tools and dupes of Congress or of France." + </p> + <p> + The object of this proclamation was to induce the officers and soldiers to + desert the cause they had embraced from principle by holding up to them + the very flattering offers of the British general, and contrasting the + substantial emoluments of the British service with their present + deplorable condition. He attempted to cover this dishonorable proposition + with a decent garb, by representing the base step he invited them to take + as the only measure which could restore peace, real liberty, and happiness + to their country. + </p> + <p> + These inducements did not produce their intended effect. Although the + temper of the army might be irritated by real suffering, and by the + supposed neglect of government, no diminution of patriotism had been + produced. Through all the hardships, irritations, and vicissitudes of the + war Arnold remains the solitary instance of an American officer who + abandoned the side first embraced in this civil contest, and turned his + sword upon his former companions in arms. + </p> + <p> + In the whole course of this affair of Arnold's treason, Washington, + according to the habitually religious turn of his mind, distinctly + recognized the hand of Divine Providence. Writing to Col. John Laurens he + says: "In no instance since the commencement of the war has the + interposition of Providence appeared more remarkably conspicuous than in + the rescue of the post and garrison of West Point from Arnold's villainous + perfidy. How far he meant to involve me in the catastrophe of this place + does not appear by any indubitable evidence, and I am rather inclined to + think he did not wish to hazard the more important object of his treachery + by attempting to combine two events, the less of which might have marred + the greater. A combination of extraordinary circumstances, an + unaccountable deprivation of presence of mind in a man of the first + abilities, and the virtue of three militiamen, threw the adjutant-general + of the British forces, with full proofs of Arnold's treachery, into our + hands. But for the egregious folly, or the bewildered conception, of + Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson, who seemed lost in astonishment and not to + know what he was doing, I should undoubtedly have got Arnold." + </p> + <p> + Arnold, however, had not yet displayed the whole of his character. Savage + revenge and ruthless cruelty were yet to become apparent in his conduct as + an officer in the British service. It seems to have been the design of + Providence that Americans, in all ages, should learn to detest treason by + seeing it exhibited in all its hideous deformity, in the person of + "ARNOLD, THE TRAITOR." {7} + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: While Washington was in winter quarters at Morristown, he + requested Congress to send a committee to the camp, as had been previously + done at Valley Forge, for the purpose of giving effect to the arrangements + for the ensuing campaign, and drawing more expeditiously from the States + their respective quotas of soldiers and supplies. General Schuyler, who + had retired from the army and was then in Congress, was a member of this + committee. He rendered essential service at this time by his judgment and + experience. The committee remained in camp between two and three months. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: It is pleasant to know that Mrs. Washington was at the head + of this movement. Dr. Spencer says: "In all parts of the country the women + displayed great zeal and activity, particularly in providing clothing for + the soldiers. In Philadelphia they formed a society, at the head of which + was Martha Washington, wife of the Commander-in-Chief. This lady was as + prudent in private affairs as her husband was in public. She alone + presided over their domestic finances, and provided for their common + household. Thus it was owing to the talents and virtues of his wife, that + Washington could give himself wholly to the dictates of that patriotism + which this virtuous pair mutually shared and reciprocally invigorated. + Mrs. Washington, Mrs. Reed, Mrs. Bache, the daughter of Dr. Franklin, with + the other ladies who had formed the society, themselves subscribed + considerable sums for the public; and having exhausted their own means, + they exerted their influence, and went from house to house to stimulate + the liberality of others." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: While these charges were hanging over his head, Arnold + courted and married Miss Shippen, a young lady, not yet eighteen, the + daughter of Mr. Edward Shippen, of Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: "Our service,"—such were his words,—"is the + chastest of all. Even the shadow of a fault tarnishes the lustre of our + finest achievements. The least inadvertence may rob us of the public + favor, so hard to be acquired. I reprimand you for having forgotten, that + in proportion as you had rendered yourself formidable to our enemies, you + should have been guarded and temperate in your deportment toward your + fellow-citizens. + </p> + <p> + "Exhibit anew those noble qualities which have placed you on the list of + our most valued commanders. I will myself furnish you, as far as it may be + in my power, with opportunities of gaining the esteem of your country." + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: The names of these militiamen were John Paulding, David + Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: "I am inclined to believe that Arnold was a finished + scoundrel from early manhood to his grave; nor do I believe that he had + any real and true-hearted attachment to the Whig cause. He fought as a + mere adventurer, and took sides from a calculation of personal gain, and + chances of plunder and advancement."—<i>Sabine's "American Loyalists</i>," + p. 131. + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: On the third of November it was resolved, "That Congress have + a high sense of the virtuous and patriotic conduct of John Paulding, David + Williams, and Isaac Van Wart; in testimony whereof, ordered, that each of + them receive annually $200 in specie, or an equivalent in the current + money of these States, during life, and that the Board of War be directed + to procure for each of them a silver medal, on one side of which shall be + a shield, with this inscription—FIDELITY: and on the other, the + following motto—VINCIT AMOR PATIAE, and forward them to the + Commander-in-Chief, who is requested to present the same, with a copy of + this resolution, and the thanks of Congress for their fidelity, and the + eminent service they have rendered their country." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. — OPERATIONS AT THE SOUTH. 1780. + </h2> + <p> + Although Washington was aware that the British were aiming at the conquest + of the southern States he still considered the middle States to be the + main theater of war, and felt the necessity of reserving his main force + for the defense of that portion of the Union. He did not believe that the + possession by the British of a few posts in the South would contribute + much to the purposes of the war, and he sent no more troops to that part + of the country than he could conveniently spare from the main army. + Writing to Lafayette in Paris, after the fall of Savannah (8th March, + 1779), he says: "Nothing of importance has happened since you left us + except the enemy's invasion of Georgia and possession of its capital, + which, though it may add something to their supplies on the score of + provisions, will contribute very little to the brilliancy of their arms; + for, like the defenseless Island of St. Lucia, {1} it only required the + appearance of force to effect the conquest of it, as the whole militia of + the State did not exceed 1,200 men, and many of them disaffected. General + Lincoln is assembling a force to dispossess them, and my only fear is that + he will precipitate the attempt before he is fully prepared for the + execution." + </p> + <p> + As early as September 1778, General Lincoln had been appointed to + supersede Gen. Robert Howe in the command of the southern army. Lincoln + had baffled the attempts of General Prevost on South Carolina, and had + commanded the American forces in the unsuccessful siege of Savannah, + acting in concert with D'Estaing. He was still in command at Charleston + when Clinton, whose departure from New York on an expedition to the South + we have already noticed, made his descent on South Carolina. In this + command at Charleston General Lincoln unfortunately labored under great + disadvantages and discouragements. + </p> + <p> + The failure of the attack on Savannah (in which bombardment 1,000 lives + were lost, Count Pulaski, the Polish patriot, was mortally wounded, and + the simple-hearted Sergeant Jasper died grasping the banner presented to + his regiment at Fort Moultrie), with the departure of the French fleet + from the coast of America, presented a gloomy prospect and was the + forerunner of many calamities to the southern States. By their courage and + vigor the northern provinces had repelled the attacks of the enemy and + discouraged future attempts against them. And although having bravely + defended Sullivan's Island, in 1776, the southern colonists were latterly + less successful than their victorious brethren in the North. The rapid + conquest of Georgia and the easy march of Prevost to the very gates of + Charleston had a discouraging effect and naturally rendered the southern + section vulnerable to attack. In the North the military operations of 1778 + and 1779 had produced no important results, and, therefore, the late + transactions in Georgia and South Carolina more readily attracted the + attention of the British Commander-in-Chief to those States. + </p> + <p> + Savannah, the chief town of Georgia, as we have already seen, was in the + hands of the British troops, and had been successfully defended against a + combined attack of the French and Americans, and therefore Sir Henry + Clinton resolved to gain possession of Charleston also, the capital of + South Carolina, which would give him the command of all the southern parts + of the Union. Having made the necessary preparations he sailed, as we have + seen, from New York on the 26th of December 1779, under convoy of Admiral + Arbuthnot, but did not arrive at Savannah till the end of January (1780). + The voyage was tempestuous; some of the transports and victuallers were + lost, others shattered, and a few taken by the American cruisers. Most of + the cavalry and draught horses perished. One of the transports, which had + been separated from the fleet and captured by the Americans, was brought + into Charleston on the 23d of January, and the prisoners gave the first + certain notice of the destination of the expedition. + </p> + <p> + As soon as it was known that an armament was fitting out at New York many + suspected that the southern States were to be assailed, and such was the + unhappy posture of American affairs at that time, that no sanguine + expectations of a successful resistance could be reasonably entertained. + The magazines of the Union were everywhere almost empty, and Congress had + neither money nor credit to replenish them. The army at Morristown, under + the immediate orders of Washington, was threatened, as we have seen, with + destruction by want of provisions, and consequently could neither act with + vigor in the North, nor send reinforcements to the South. + </p> + <p> + General Lincoln, though aware of his danger,—was not in a condition + to meet it. On raising the siege of Savannah he had sent the troops of + Virginia to Augusta; those of South Carolina were stationed partly at + Sheldoa, opposite Port Royal, between thirty and forty miles north from + Savannah, and partly at Fort Moultrie, which had been allowed to fall into + decay; those of North Carolina were with General Lincoln at Charleston. + All these detachments formed but a feeble force, and to increase it was + not easy, for the Colonial paper money was in a state of great + depreciation; the militia, worn out by a harassing service, were reluctant + again to repair to the standards of their country, and the brave defense + of Savannah had inspired the people of the southern provinces with + intimidating notions of British valor. The patriotism of many of the + Colonists had evaporated; they contemplated nothing but the hardships and + dangers of the contest and recoiled from the protracted struggle. + </p> + <p> + In these discouraging circumstances Congress recommended the people of + South Carolina to arm their slaves, a measure to which they were generally + averse; although, had they been willing to comply with the recommendation, + arms could not have been procured. Washington had, as we have already + seen, ordered the Continental troops of North Carolina and Virginia to + march to Charleston, and four American frigates, two French ships of war; + the one mounting twenty-six and the other eighteen guns, with the marine + force of South Carolina under Commodore Whipple, were directed to + cooperate in the defense of the town. No more aid could be expected; yet, + under these unpromising circumstances, a full house of assembly resolved + to defend Charleston to the last extremity. + </p> + <p> + Although Clinton had embarked at New York on the 26th of December, 1779, + yet, as his voyage had been stormy and tedious, and as some time had been + necessarily spent at Savannah, it was the 11th of February, 1780, before + he landed on John's Island, thirty miles south from Charleston. Had he + even then marched rapidly upon the town he would probably have entered it + without much opposition, but mindful of his repulse in 1776 his progress + was marked by a wary circumspection. He proceeded by the islands of St. + John and St. James, while part of his fleet advanced to blockade the + harbor. He sent for a reinforcement from New York, ordered General Prevost + to join him with 1,100 men from Savannah, and neglected nothing that could + insure success. + </p> + <p> + General Lincoln was indefatigable in improving the time which the slow + progress of the royal army afforded him. Six hundred slaves were employed + in constructing or repairing the fortifications of the town; vigorous + though not very successful measures were taken to bring the militia into + the field; and all the small detachments of regular troops were assembled + in the capital. The works which had been begun on Charleston Neck when + General Prevost threatened the place were resumed. A chain of redoubts, + lines, and batteries was formed between the Cooper and Ashley rivers. In + front of each flank the works were covered by swamps extending from the + rivers; those opposite swamps were connected by a canal; between the canal + and the works were two strong rows of abattis, and a ditch double + picketed, with deep holes at short distances, to break the columns in case + of an assault. Toward the water, works were thrown up at every place where + a landing was practicable. The vessels intended to defend the bar of the + harbor having been found insufficient for that purpose, their guns were + taken out and planted on the ramparts, and the seamen were stationed at + the batteries. One of the ships, which was not dismantled, was placed in + the Cooper river to assist the batteries, and several vessels were sunk at + the mouth of the channel to prevent the entrance of the royal fleet. + Lincoln intended that the town should be defended until such + reinforcements would arrive from the North as, together with the militia + of the State, would compel Clinton to raise the siege. As the regular + troops in the town did not exceed 1,400, a council of war found that the + garrison was too weak to spare detachments to obstruct the progress of the + royal army. Only a small party of cavalry and some light troops were + ordered to hover on its left flank and observe its motions. + </p> + <p> + While these preparations for defense were going on in Charleston the + British army was cautiously but steadily advancing toward the town. As he + proceeded Clinton erected forts and formed magazines at proper stations, + and was careful to secure his communications with those forts and with the + sea. All the horses of the British army had perished in the tedious and + stormy voyage from New York to Savannah, but on landing in South Carolina + Clinton procured others to mount his dragoons, whom he formed into a light + corps, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Tarleton. That officer was + extremely active in covering the left wing of the army and in dispersing + the militia. In one of his excursions he fell in with Lieut.-Col. William + Washington, who commanded the remnant of Baylor's regiment, and who beat + him back with loss. + </p> + <p> + On the 20th of March (1780) the British fleet, under Admiral Arbuthnot, + consisting of 1 ship of 50 guns, 2 of 44 each, 4 of 32 each, and an armed + vessel, passed the bar in front of Rebellion Road, and anchored in Five + Fathom Hole. + </p> + <p> + It being now thought impossible to prevent the fleet from passing Fort + Moultrie, and taking such stations in Cooper river as would enable them to + rake the batteries on shore, and to close that communication between the + town and country, the plan of defense was once more changed, and the armed + vessels were carried into the mouth of Cooper river, and sunk in a line + from the town to Shute's Folly. + </p> + <p> + This was the critical moment for evacuating the town. The loss of the + harbor rendered the defense of the place, if not desperate, so improbable, + that the hope to maintain it could not have been rationally entertained by + a person who was not deceived by the expectation of aids much more + considerable than were actually received. + </p> + <p> + When this state of things was communicated to Washington by + Lieutenant-Colonel Laurens he said in reply: "The impracticability of + defending the bar, I fear, amounts to the loss of the town and garrison. + At this distance it is impossible to judge for you. I have the greatest + confidence in General Lincoln's prudence, but it really appears to me that + the propriety of attempting to defend the town depended on the probability + of defending the bar, and that when this ceased, the attempt ought to have + been relinquished. In this, however, I suspend a definitive judgment, and + wish you to consider what I say as confidential." Unfortunately this + letter did not arrive in time to influence the conduct of the besieged. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of April (1780), Admiral Arbuthnot, taking advantage of a + strong southerly wind and a flowing tide, passed Fort Moultrie {2} and + anchored just without reach of the guns of Charleston. The fort kept up a + heavy fire on the fleet while passing which did some damage to the ships + and killed or wounded twenty-seven men. + </p> + <p> + On the 29th of March the royal army reached Ashley river and crossed it + ten miles above the town without opposition, the garrison being too weak + to dispute the passage. Sir Henry Clinton having brought over his + artillery, baggage, and stores marched down Charleston Neck, and on the + night of the 1st of April, broke ground at the distance of 800 yards from + the American works. The fortifications of Charleston were constructed + under the direction of Mr. Laumoy, a French engineer of reputation in the + American service, and, although not calculated to resist a regular siege, + were by no means contemptible; and Clinton made his approaches in due + form. Meanwhile the garrison received a reinforcement of 700 Continentals + under General Woodford, and, after this accession of strength, amounted to + somewhat more than 2,000 regular troops, besides 1,000 militia of North + Carolina, and the citizens of Charleston. + </p> + <p> + On the 9th of April (1780) Clinton finished his first parallel, forming an + oblique line between the two rivers, from 600 to 1,100 yards from the + American works, and mounted his guns in battery. He then, jointly with the + admiral, summoned Lincoln to surrender the town. Lincoln's answer was + modest and firm: "Sixty days," said he, "have passed since it has been + known that your intentions against this town were hostile, in which time + was afforded to abandon it, but duty and inclination point to the + propriety of supporting it to the last extremity." + </p> + <p> + On receiving this answer Clinton immediately opened his batteries, and his + fire was soon felt to be superior to that of the besieged. Hitherto the + communication with the country north of the Cooper was open and a post was + established to prevent the investiture of the town on that side. After the + summons, Governor Rutledge, with half of his council, left the town for + the purpose of exercising the functions of the executive government in the + State, and in the hope of being able to bring a large body of the militia + to act on the rear or left flank of the besieging army, but the militia + were as little inclined to embody themselves as to enter the town. + </p> + <p> + For the purpose of maintaining the communication with the country north of + the Cooper, of checking the British foragers, and of protecting supplies + on their way to the town, the American cavalry, under General Huger, had + passed the river and taken post at Monk's Corner, thirty miles above + Charleston. Posts of militia were established between the Cooper and + Santee and at a ferry on the last-named river, where boats were ordered to + be collected in order to facilitate the passage of the garrison, if it + should be found necessary to evacuate the town. But Clinton defeated all + these precautions. For as the possession of the harbor rendered the + occupation of the forts to the southward unnecessary, he resolved to call + in the troops which had been employed in that quarter, to close the + communication of the garrison with the country to the northward, and to + complete the investiture of the town. For these purposes, as the fleet was + unable to enter the Cooper river, he deemed it necessary to dislodge the + American posts and employed Tarleton to beat up the quarters of General + Huger's cavalry at Monk's Corner. Conducted during the night by a negro + slave through unfrequented paths, Tarleton proceeded toward the American + post, and, although General Huger had taken the precaution of placing + sentinels a mile in front of his station and of keeping his horses saddled + and bridled, yet Tarleton advanced so rapidly that, notwithstanding the + alarm was given by the outposts, he began the attack before the Americans + could put themselves in a posture of defense, killed or took about thirty + of them, and dispersed the rest. General Huger, Colonel Washington, and + many others made good their retreat through the woods. Such as escaped + concealed themselves for several days in the swamps. The horses taken by + the British fell very seasonably into their hands, as they were not well + mounted. After this decisive blow it was some time before any armed party + of the Americans ventured to show themselves south of the Santee. That + part of the country was laid open to the British, who established posts in + such a way as completely to enclose the garrison. The arrival of 3,000 men + from New York greatly increased the strength of the besiegers. + </p> + <p> + The second parallel was completed, and it daily became more apparent that + the garrison must ultimately submit. An evacuation of the town was + proposed and Lincoln seems to have been favorable to the measure, but the + garrison could scarcely have escaped, and the principal inhabitants + entreated the general not to abandon them to the fury of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The British troops on the north of the Cooper were increased, and + Cornwallis was appointed to command in that quarter. On the 20th April + (1780) General Lincoln again called a council of war to deliberate on the + measures to be adopted. The council recommended a capitulation; terms were + offered, but rejected, and hostilities recommenced. After the besiegers + had begun their third parallel, Colonel Henderson made a vigorous sally on + their right, which was attended with some success; but, owing to the + weakness of the garrison, this was the only attempt of the kind during the + siege. + </p> + <p> + After the fleet passed it, Fort Moultrie became of much less importance + than before, and part of the garrison was removed to Charleston. The + admiral, perceiving the unfinished state of the works on the west side, + prepared to storm it. On the 7th of May, everything being ready for the + assault, he summoned the garrison, consisting of 200 men, who, being + convinced of their inability to defend the place, surrendered themselves + prisoners of war without firing a gun. On the same day the cavalry which + had escaped from Monk's Corner, and which had reassembled under the + command of Colonel White, were again surprised and defeated by Colonel + Tarleton. After Cornwallis had passed the Cooper and made himself master + of the peninsula between that river and the Santee, he occasionally sent + out small foraging parties. Apprised of that circumstance, Colonel White + repassed the Santee, fell in with and took one of those parties, and + dispatched an express to Colonel Buford, who commanded a regiment of new + levies from Virginia, requesting him to cover his retreat across the + Santee at Lanneau's ferry, where he had ordered some boats to be collected + to carry his party over the river. Colonel White reached the ferry before + Buford's arrival, and, thinking himself in no immediate danger, halted to + refresh his party. Cornwallis, having received notice of his incursion, + dispatched Tarleton in pursuit, who, overtaking him a few minutes after he + had halted, instantly charged him, killed or took about thirty of the + party, and dispersed the rest. + </p> + <p> + Charleston was now completely invested, all hopes of assistance had been + cruelly disappointed, and the garrison and inhabitants were left to their + own resources. The troops were exhausted by incessant duty and + insufficient to man the lines. Many of the guns were dismounted, the shot + nearly expended, and the bread and meat almost entirely consumed. The + works of the besiegers were pushed very near the defenses of the town, and + the issue of an assault was extremely hazardous to the garrison and + inhabitants. In these critical circumstances, General Lincoln summoned a + council of war, which recommended a capitulation. Terms were accordingly + proposed, offering to surrender the town and garrison on condition that + the militia and armed citizens should not be prisoners of war, but should + be allowed to return home without molestation. These terms were refused, + hostilities were recommenced, and preparations for an assault were in + progress. The citizens, who had formerly remonstrated against the + departure of the garrison, now became clamorous for a surrender. In this + hopeless state Lincoln offered to give up the place on the terms which + Clinton had formerly proposed. The offer was accepted and the capitulation + was signed on the 12th of May (1780). + </p> + <p> + The town and fortifications, the shipping, artillery, and all public + stores were to be given up as they then were; the garrison, consisting of + the Continental troops, militia, sailors, and citizens who had borne arms + during the siege, were to be prisoners of war; the garrison were to march + out of the town and lay down their arms in front of the works, but their + drums were not to beat a British march, and their colors were not to be + uncased; the Continental troops and sailors were to be conducted to some + place afterward to be agreed on, where they were to be well supplied with + wholesome provisions until exchanged; the militia were to be allowed to go + home on parole; the officers were to retain their arms, baggage, and + servants, and they might sell their horses, but were not permitted to take + them out of Charleston; neither the persons nor property of the militia or + citizens were to be molested so long as they kept their parole. {3} + </p> + <p> + On these terms the garrison of Charleston marched out and laid down their + arms, and General Leslie was appointed by Clinton to take possession of + the town. The siege was more obstinate than bloody. The besiegers had 76 + men killed and 189 wounded; the besieged had 92 killed and 148 wounded; + about 20 of the inhabitants were killed in their houses by random shots. + The number of prisoners reported by Clinton amounted to upward of 5,000, + exclusive of sailors, but in that return all the freemen of the town + capable of bearing arms, as well as the Continental soldiers and militia, + were included. The number of Continental troops in the town amounted only + to 1,777, about 500 of whom were in the hospital. The effective strength + of the garrison was between 2,000 and 3,000 men. The besieging army + consisted of about 9,000 of the best of the British troops. + </p> + <p> + After the British got possession of the town the arms taken from the + Americans, amounting to 5,000 stand, were lodged in a laboratory near a + large quantity of cartridges and loose powder. By incautiously snapping + the muskets and pistols the powder ignited and blew up the house, and the + burning fragments, which were scattered in all directions, set fire to the + workhouse, jail, and old barracks, and consumed them. The British guard + stationed at the place, consisting of fifty men, was destroyed, and about + as many other persons lost their lives on the disastrous occasion. + </p> + <p> + Clinton carried on the siege in a cautious but steady and skilful manner. + Lincoln was loaded with undeserved blame by many of his countrymen, for he + conducted the defense as became a brave and intelligent officer. The error + lay in attempting to defend the town, but, in the circumstances in which + Lincoln was placed, he was almost unavoidably drawn into that course. It + was the desire of the State that the capital should be defended, and + Congress, as well as North and South Carolina, had encouraged him to + expect that his army would be increased to 9,000 men—a force which + might have successfully resisted all the efforts of the royal army. But + neither Congress nor the Carolinas were able to fulfill the promises which + they had made, for the militia were extremely backward in taking the + field, and the expected number of Continentals could not be furnished. + Lincoln, therefore, was left to defend the place with only about one-third + of the force which he had been encouraged to expect. At any time before + the middle of April he might have evacuated the town, but the civil + authority then opposed his retreat, which soon afterward became difficult, + and ultimately impracticable. + </p> + <p> + At General Lincoln's request Congress passed a resolve directing the + Commander-in-Chief to cause an inquiry to be made concerning the loss of + Charleston and the conduct of General Lincoln while commanding in the + southern department. Washington, who knew Lincoln's merit well, determined + to give Congress time for reflection before adopting any measure which had + the least appearance of censure. The following extract from his letter to + the President of Congress (10th July, 1780) points out clearly the + impropriety of the hasty proceedings which had been proposed in regard to + this able and deserving officer: + </p> + <p> + "At this time," Washington writes, "I do not think that the circumstances + of the campaign would admit, at any rate, an inquiry to be gone into + respecting the loss of Charleston, but, if it were otherwise, I do not see + that it could be made so as to be completely satisfactory either to + General Lincoln or to the public, unless some gentlemen could be present + who have been acting in that quarter. This, it seems, would be necessary + on the occasion, and the more so as I have not a single document or paper + in my possession concerning the department, and a copy of the instructions + and orders which they may have been pleased to give General Lincoln from + time to time and of their correspondence. And besides the reasons against + the inquiry at this time, General Lincoln being a prisoner of war, his + situation, it appears to me, must preclude one till he is exchanged, + supposing every other obstacle were out of the question. If Congress think + proper, they will be pleased to transmit to me such papers as they may + have which concern the matters of inquiry, that there may be no delay in + proceeding in the business when other circumstances will permit." + </p> + <p> + The fall of Charleston was matter of much exultation to the British and + spread a deep gloom over the aspect of American affairs. The southern army + was lost, and, although small, it could not soon be replaced. In the + southern parts of the Union there had always been a considerable number of + persons friendly to the claims of Britain. The success of her arms roused + all their lurking partialities, gave decision to the conduct of the + wavering, encouraged the timid, drew over to the British cause all those + who are ever ready to take part with the strongest, and discouraged and + intimidated the friends of Congress. + </p> + <p> + Clinton was perfectly aware of the important advantage which he had + gained, and resolved to keep up and deepen the impression on the public + mind by the rapidity of his movements and the appearance of his troops in + different parts of the country. For that purpose he sent a strong + detachment under Cornwallis over the Santee toward the frontier of North + Carolina. He dispatched an inferior force into the center of the province, + and sent a third up the Savannah to Augusta. These detachments were + instructed to disperse any small parties that still remained in arms, and + to show the people that the British troops were complete masters of South + Carolina and Georgia. + </p> + <p> + Soon after passing the Santee, Cornwallis was informed that Colonel Buford + was lying, with 400 men, in perfect security, near the border of North + Carolina. He immediately dispatched Colonel Tarleton, with his cavalry, + named the Legion, to surprise that party. After performing a march of 104 + miles in fifty-four hours, Tarleton, at the head of 700 men, overtook + Buford on his march, at the Waxhaws, and ordered him to surrender, + offering him the same terms which had been granted to the garrison of + Charleston. On Buford's refusal, Tarleton instantly charged the party, who + were dispirited and unprepared for such an onset. Most of them threw down + their arms and made no resistance, but a few continued firing, and an + indiscriminate slaughter ensued of those who had submitted as well as of + those who had resisted. Many begged for quarter, but no quarter was given. + Tarleton's quarter became proverbial throughout the Union and certainly + rendered some subsequent conflicts more fierce and bloody than they would + otherwise have been. Buford and a few horsemen forced their way through + the enemy and escaped; some of the infantry, also, who were somewhat in + advance, saved themselves by flight, but the regiment was almost + annihilated. Tarleton stated that 113 were killed on the spot, 150 left on + parole, so badly wounded that they could not be removed, and 53 brought + away as prisoners. So feeble was the resistance made by the Americans that + the British had only 12 men killed and 5 wounded. The slaughter on this + occasion excited much indignation in America. The British endeavored to + justify their conduct by asserting that the Americans resumed their arms + after having pretended to submit, but such of the American officers as + escaped from the carnage denied the allegation. For this exploit, Tarleton + was highly praised by Cornwallis. + </p> + <p> + After the defeat of Buford there were no parties in South Carolina or + Georgia capable of resisting the royal detachments. The force of Congress + in those provinces seemed annihilated and the spirit of opposition among + the inhabitants was greatly subdued. Many, thinking it vain to contend + against a power which they were unable to withstand, took the oath of + allegiance to the King or gave their parole not to bear arms against him. + </p> + <p> + In order to secure the entire submission of that part of the country, + military detachments were stationed at the most commanding points, and + measures were pursued for settling the civil administration and for + consolidating the conquest of the provinces. So fully was Clinton + convinced of the subjugation of the country and of the sincere submission + of the inhabitants, or of their inability to resist, that, on the 3d of + June (1780), he issued a proclamation, in which, after stating that all + persons should take an active part in settling and securing his majesty's + government and in delivering the country from that anarchy which for some + time had prevailed, he discharged from their parole the militia who were + prisoners, except those only who had been taken in Charleston and Fort + Moultrie, and restored them to all the rights and duties of inhabitants; + he also declared that such as should neglect to return to their allegiance + should be treated as enemies and rebels. + </p> + <p> + This proclamation was unjust and impolitic. Proceeding on the supposition + that the people of those provinces were subdued rebels, restored by an act + of clemency to the privileges and duties of citizens, and forgetting that + for upward of four years they had been exercising an independent + authority, and that the issue of the war only could stamp on them the + character of patriots or rebels. It might easily have been foreseen that + the proclamation was to awaken the resentment and alienate the affections + of those to whom it was addressed. Many of the Colonists had submitted in + the fond hope of being released, under the shelter of the British + government, from that harassing service to which they had lately been + exposed, and of being allowed to attend to their own affairs in a state of + peaceful tranquility; but the proclamation dissipated this delusion and + opened their eyes to their real situation. Neutrality and peace were what + they desired, but neutrality and peace were denied them. If they did not + range themselves under the standards of Congress, they must, as British + subjects, appear as militia in the royal service. The people sighed for + peace, but, on finding that they must fight on one side or the other, they + preferred the banners of their country and thought they had as good a + right to violate the allegiance and parole which Clinton had imposed on + them as he had to change their state from that of prisoners to that of + British subjects without their consent. They imagined that the + proclamation released them from all antecedent obligations. Not a few, + without any pretense of reasoning on the subject, deliberately resolved to + act a deceitful part and to make professions of submission and allegiance + to the British government so long as they found it convenient, but with + the resolution of joining the standards of their country on the first + opportunity. Such duplicity and falsehood ought always to be reprobated, + but the unsparing rapacity with which the inhabitants were plundered made + many of them imagine that no means of deception and vengeance were + unjustifiable. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto the French fleets and troops had not afforded much direct + assistance to the Americans, but they had impeded and embarrassed the + operations of the British Commander-in-Chief. He had intended to sail + against Charleston so early as the month of September, 1779, but the + unexpected appearance of Count D'Estaing on the southern coast had + detained him at New York till the latter part of December. It was his + intention, after the reduction of Charleston, vigorously to employ the + whole of his force in the subjugation of the adjacent provinces, but + information, received about the time of the surrender of the town, that + Monsieur de Ternay, with a fleet and troops from France, was expected on + the American coast, deranged his plan and induced him to return to New + York with the greater part of his army, leaving Cornwallis at the head of + 4,000 men to prosecute the southern conquests. Clinton sailed from + Charleston on the 5th of June. + </p> + <p> + After the reduction of Charleston and the entire defeat of all the + American detachments in those parts, an unusual calm ensued for six weeks. + Imagining that South Carolina and Georgia were reannexed to the British + empire in sentiment as well as in appearance, Cornwallis now meditated an + attack on North Carolina. Impatient, however, as he was of repose, he + could not carry his purpose into immediate execution. The great heat, the + want of magazines, and the impossibility of subsisting his army in the + field before harvest, compelled him to pause. But the interval was not + lost. He distributed his troops in such a manner in South Carolina and the + upper parts of Georgia as seemed most favorable to the enlistment of young + men who could be prevailed on to join the royal standard; he ordered + companies of royal militia to be formed; and he maintained a + correspondence with such of the inhabitants of North Carolina as were + friendly to the British cause. He informed them of the necessity he was + under of postponing the expedition into their country, and advised them to + attend to their harvest and to remain quiet till the royal army advanced + to support them. Eager, however, to manifest their zeal and entertaining + sanguine hopes of success, certain Tories disregarded his salutary advice + and broke out into premature insurrections, which were vigorously resisted + and generally suppressed by the patriots, who were the more numerous and + determined party. But one band of Tories, amounting to 800 men, under a + Colonel Bryan, marched down the Yadkin to a British post at the Cheraws + and afterward reached Camden. + </p> + <p> + The people of North Carolina were likely to prove much more intractable + than those of South Carolina and Georgia. They were chiefly descendants of + Scotch-Irish settlers—stern Presbyterians and ardent lovers of + liberty. When Tryon was their governor, they had resisted his tyranny + under the name of Regulators, and at Mecklenburg had published a + declaration of independence more than a year before Congress took the same + attitude of defiance. Such were the North Carolinians; and their State was + destined to be the scene of many battles in which the power of Britain was + bravely resisted. + </p> + <p> + Having made the necessary dispositions Cornwallis entrusted the command on + the frontier to Lord Rawdon and returned to Charleston in order to + organize the civil government of the province and to establish such + regulations as circumstances required. But Cornwallis showed himself more + a soldier than a politician, and more a tyrant than either. Instead of + endeavoring to regain, by kindness and conciliation, the good will of a + people whose affections were alienated from the cause in which he was + engaged, Cornwallis attempted to drive them into allegiance by harshness + and severity. Indeed, many of the British officers viewed the Americans + merely in the light of rebels and traitors, whose lives it was indulgence + to spare; treated them not only with injustice, but with insolence and + insult more intolerable than injustice itself; and exercised a rigor which + greatly increases the miseries without promoting the legitimate purposes + of war. + </p> + <p> + By the capitulation of Charleston, the citizens were prisoners on parole, + but successive proclamations were published, each abridging the privileges + of prisoners more than that which had gone before. A board of police was + established for the administration of justice, and before that board + British subjects were allowed to sue for debts, but prisoners were denied + that privilege; they were liable to prosecution for debts, but had no + security for what was owing them, except the honor of their debtors, and + that, in many instances, was found a feeble guarantee. If they complained + they were threatened with close confinement; numbers were imprisoned in + the town and others consigned to dungeons at a distance from their + families. In short, every method, except that of kindness and + conciliation, was resorted to in order to compel the people to become + British subjects. A few, who had always been well affected to the royal + cause, cheerfully returned to their allegiance, and many followed the same + course from convenience. To abandon their families and estates and + encounter all the privations of fugitives required a degree of patriotism + and fortitude which few possessed. + </p> + <p> + In that melancholy posture of American affairs, many of the ladies of + Charleston displayed a remarkable degree of zeal and intrepidity in the + cause of their country. They gloried in the appellation of rebel ladies, + and declined invitations to public entertainments given by the British + officers, but crowded to prison ships and other places of confinement to + solace their suffering countrymen. While they kept back from the concerts + and assemblies of the victors they were forward in showing sympathy and + kindness toward American officers whenever they met them. They exhorted + their brothers, husbands, and sons to an unshrinking endurance in behalf + of their country, and cheerfully became the inmates of their prison and + the companions of their exile—voluntarily renouncing affluence and + ease and encountering labor, penury, and privation. + </p> + <p> + For some time the rigorous measures of the British officers in South + Carolina seemed successful and a deathlike stillness prevailed in the + province. The clangor of arms ceased and no enemy to British authority + appeared. The people of the lower parts of South Carolina were generally + attached to the revolution, but many of their most active leaders were + prisoners. The fall of Charleston and the subsequent events had sunk many + into despondency, and all were overawed. This gloomy stillness continued + about six weeks when the symptoms of a gathering storm began to show + themselves. The oppression and insults to which the people were exposed + highly exasperated them; they repented the apathy with which they had seen + the siege of Charleston carried on, and felt that the fall of their + capital, instead of introducing safety and rural tranquility, as they had + fondly anticipated, was only the forerunner of insolent exactions and + oppressive services. Peaceful and undisturbed neutrality was what they + desired and what they had expected; but when they found themselves + compelled to fight, they chose to join the Provincial banners, and the + most daring only waited an opportunity to show their hostility to their + new masters. + </p> + <p> + Such an opportunity soon presented itself. In the end of March (1780) + Washington dispatched the troops of Maryland and Delaware, with a regiment + of artillery, under the Baron de Kalb, to reinforce the southern army. + That detachment met with many obstructions in its progress southward. Such + was the deranged state of the American finances that it could not be put + in motion when the order was given. After setting out it marched through + Jersey and Pennsylvania, embarked at the head of Elk river, was conveyed + by water to Petersburgh in Virginia, and proceeded thence towards the + place of its destination. But as no magazines had been provided, and as + provisions could with difficulty be obtained, the march of the detachment + through North Carolina was greatly retarded. Instead of advancing rapidly, + the troops were obliged to spread themselves over the country in small + parties, in order to collect corn and to get it ground for their daily + subsistence. In this way they proceeded slowly through the upper and more + fertile parts of North Carolina to Hillsborough, and were preparing to + march by Cross creek to Salisbury, where they expected to be joined by the + militia of North Carolina. + </p> + <p> + The approach of this detachment, together with information that great + exertions were making to raise troops in Virginia, encouraged the + irritation which the rigorous measures of the British officers had + occasioned in South Carolina; and numbers of the inhabitants of that + State, who had fled from their homes and taken refuge in North Carolina + and Virginia, informed of the growing discontents in their native State, + and relying on the support of regular troops, assembled on the frontier of + North Carolina. + </p> + <p> + About 200 of these refugees chose Colonel Sumter, an old Continental + officer, called by his comrades the "Gamecock," as their leader. On the + advance of the British into the upper parts of South Carolina, this + gentleman had fled into North Carolina, but had left his family behind. + Soon after his departure a British party arrived, turned his wife and + family out of door, and burned his house and everything in it. This harsh + and unfeeling treatment excited his bitterest resentment, which operated + with the more virulence by being concealed under the fair veil of + patriotism. + </p> + <p> + At the head of his little band, without money or magazines, and but ill + provided with arms and ammunition, Sumter made an irruption into South + Carolina. Iron implements of husbandry were forged by common blacksmiths + into rude weapons of war; and pewter dishes, procured from private + families and melted down, furnished part of their supply of balls. + </p> + <p> + This little band skirmished with the royal militia and with small parties + of regular troops, sometimes successfully, and always with the active + courage of men fighting for the recovery of their property. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes they engaged when they had not more than three rounds of shot + each, and occasionally some of them were obliged to keep at a distance + till, by the fall of friends or foes, they could be furnished with arms + and ammunition. When successful, the field of battle supplied them with + materials for the next encounter. + </p> + <p> + This party soon increased to 600 men, and, encouraged by its daring + exertions, a disposition manifested itself throughout South Carolina again + to appeal to arms. Some companies of royal militia, embodied under the + authority of Cornwallis, deserted to Sumter and ranged themselves under + his standard. + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis beheld this change with surprise: he had thought the conflict + ended, and the southern provinces completely subdued; but, to his + astonishment, saw that past victories were unavailing, and that the work + yet remained to be accomplished. He was obliged to call in his outposts + and to form his troops into larger bodies. + </p> + <p> + But Cornwallis was soon threatened by a more formidable enemy than Sumter, + who, though an active and audacious leader, commanded only an irregular + and feeble band, and was capable of engaging only in desultory + enterprises. Congress, sensible of the value and importance of the + provinces which the British had overrun, made every effort to reinforce + the southern army; and, fully aware of the efficacy of public opinion and + of the influence of high reputation, on the 13th of June (1780) appointed + General Gates to command it. He had acquired a splendid name by his + triumphs over Burgoyne, and the populace, whose opinions are formed by + appearances and fluctuate with the rumors of the day, anticipated a + success equally brilliant. {4} + </p> + <p> + On receiving notice of his appointment to the command of the southern + army, Gates, who had been living in retirement on his estate in Virginia, + proceeded southward without delay, and on the 25th of July (1780) reached + the camp at Buffalo ford, on Deep river, where he was received by De Kalb + with respect and cordiality. The army consisted of about 2,000 men, and + considerable reinforcements of militia from North Carolina and Virginia + were expected. In order that he might lead his troops through a more + plentiful country, and for the purpose of establishing magazines and + hospitals at convenient points, De Kalb had resolved to turn out of the + direct road to Camden. But Gates, in opposition to De Kalb's advice, + determined to pursue the straight route toward the British encampment, + although it lay through a barren country, which afforded but a scanty + subsistence to its inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + On the 27th of July (1780) he put his army in motion and soon experienced + the difficulties and privations which De Kalb had been desirous to avoid. + The army was obliged to subsist chiefly on poor cattle, accidentally found + in the woods, and the supply of all kinds of food was very limited. Meal + and corn were so scarce that the men were compelled to use unripe corn and + peaches instead of bread. That insufficient diet, together with the + intense heat and unhealthy climate, engendered disease, and threatened the + destruction of the army. Gates at length emerged from the inhospitable + region of pine-barrens, sand hills, and swamps, and, after having effected + a junction with General Caswell, at the head of the militia of North + Carolina, and a small body of troops under Lieutenant-Colonel Porterfield, + he arrived at Clermont, or Rugely's Mills, on the 13th of August (1780), + and next day was joined by the militia of Virginia, amounting to 700 men, + under General Stevens. + </p> + <p> + On the day after Gates arrived at Rugley's Mills, he received an express + from Sumter, stating that a number of the militia of South Carolina had + joined him on the west side of the Wateree, and that an escort of clothes, + ammunition, and other stores for the garrison at Camden was on its way + from Ninety-Six and must pass the Wateree at a ford covered by a small + fort nor far from Camden. + </p> + <p> + Gates immediately detached 100 regular infantry and 300 militia of North + Carolina to reinforce Sumter, whom he ordered to reduce the fort and + intercept the convoy. Meanwhile he advanced nearer Camden, with the + intention of taking a position about seven miles from that place. For that + purpose he put his army in motion at 10 in the evening of the 15th of + August, having sent his sick, heavy baggage, and military stores not + immediately wanted, under a guard to Waxhaws. On the march Colonel + Armand's {5} legion composed the van; Porterfield's light infantry, + reinforced by a company of picked men from Stevens' brigade, marching in + Indian files, two hundred yards from the road, covered the right flank of + the legion, while Major Armstrong's light infantry of North Carolina + militia, reinforced in like manner by General Caswell, in the same order, + covered the left. The Maryland division, followed by the North Carolina + and Virginia militia, with the artillery, composed the main body and rear + guard; and the volunteer cavalry were equally distributed on the flanks of + the baggage. The American army did not exceed 4,000 men, only about 900 of + whom were regular troops, and 70 cavalry. + </p> + <p> + On the advance of Gates into South Carolina, Lord Rawdon had called in his + outposts, and concentrated his force at Camden. Informed of the appearance + of the American army, and of the general defection of the country between + the Pedee and the Black river, Cornwallis quitted Charleston and repaired + to Camden, where he arrived on the same day that Gates reached Clermont. + </p> + <p> + The British force was reduced by sickness, and Cornwallis could not + assemble more than two thousand men at Camden. That place, though + advantageous in other respects, was not well adapted for resisting an + attack; and as the whole country was rising against him, Cornwallis felt + the necessity of either retreating to Charleston, or of instantly striking + a decisive blow. If he remained at Camden, his difficulties would daily + increase, his communication with Charleston be endangered, and the + American army acquire additional strength. A retreat to Charleston would + be the signal for the whole of South Carolina and Georgia to rise in arms; + his sick and magazines must be left behind; and the whole of the two + provinces, except the towns of Charleston and Savannah, abandoned. The + consequences of such a movement would be nearly as fatal as a defeat. + Cornwallis, therefore, although he believed the American army considerably + stronger than what it really was, determined to hazard a battle; and, at + 10 at night, on the 15th of August, the very hour when Gates proceeded + from Rugely's Mills, about thirteen miles distant, he marched towards the + American camp. + </p> + <p> + About 2 in the morning of the 16th of August (1780) the advanced guards of + the hostile armies unexpectedly met in the woods, and the firing instantly + began. Some of the cavalry of the American advanced guard being wounded by + the first discharge, the party fell back in confusion, broke the Maryland + regiment which was at the head of the column, and threw the whole line of + the army into consternation. From that first impression, deepened by the + gloom of night, the raw and ill-disciplined militia seem not to have + recovered. In the reencounter several prisoners were taken on each side, + and from them the opposing generals acquired a more exact knowledge of + circumstances than they had hitherto possessed. Several skirmishes + happened during the night, which merely formed a prelude to the + approaching battle, and gave the commanders some notion of the position of + the hostile armies. + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis, perceiving that the Americans were on ground of no great + extent, with morasses on their right and left, so that they could not + avail themselves of their superior numbers to outflank his little army, + impatiently waited for the returning light, which would give every + advantage to his disciplined troops. {6} + </p> + <p> + Both armies prepared for the conflict. Cornwallis formed his men in two + divisions; that on the right was under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel + Webster, that on the left under Lord Rawdon. In front were four field + pieces. The Seventy-first regiment, with two cannon, formed the reserve; + and the cavalry, about 300 in number, were in the rear, ready to act as + circumstances might require. + </p> + <p> + In the American army the second Maryland brigade, under General Gist, + formed the right of the line; the militia of North Carolina, commanded by + General Caswell, occupied the center; and the militia of Virginia, with + the light infantry and Colonel Armand's corps, composed the left; the + artillery was placed between the divisions. The First Maryland brigade was + stationed as a reserve 200 or 300 yards in the rear. Baron de Kalb + commanded on the right; the militia generals were at the head of their + respective troops, and General Gates resolved to appear wherever his + presence might be most useful. + </p> + <p> + At dawn of day Cornwallis ordered Lieutenant-Colonel Webster, with the + British right wing, to attack the American left. As Webster advanced he + was assailed by a desultory discharge of musketry from some volunteer + militia who had advanced in front of their countrymen, but the British + soldiers, rushing through that loose fire, charged the American line with + a shout. The militia instantly threw down their arms and fled, many of + them without even discharging their muskets, and all the efforts of the + officers were unable to rally them. A great part of the center division, + composed of the militia of North Carolina, imitated the example of their + comrades of Virginia; few of either of the divisions fired a shot, and + still fewer carried their arms off the field. Tarleton with his legion + pursued and eagerly cut down the unresisting fugitives. Gates, with some + of the militia general officers, made several attempts to rally them, but + in vain. The further they fled the more they dispersed, and Gates in + despair hastened with a few friends to Charlotte, eighty miles from the + field of battle. + </p> + <p> + De Kalb at the head of the Continentals, being abandoned by the militia, + which had constituted the center and left wing of the army, and being + forsaken by the general also, was exposed to the attack of the whole + British army. De Kalb and his troops, however, instead of imitating the + disgraceful example of their brethren in arms, behaved with a steady + intrepidity and defended themselves like men. Rawdon attacked them about + the time when Webster broke the left wing, but the charge was firmly + received and steadily resisted, and the conflict was maintained for some + time with equal obstinacy on both sides. The American reserve covered the + left of De Kalb's division, but its own left flank was entirely exposed by + the flight of the militia, and, therefore, Webster, after detaching some + cavalry and light troops in pursuit of the fugitive militia, with the + remainder of his division attacked them at once in front and flank. A + severe contest ensued. The Americans, in a great measure intermingled with + British, maintained a desperate conflict. Cornwallis brought his whole + force to bear upon them; they were at length broken and began to retreat + in confusion. The brave De Kalb, while making a vigorous charge at the + head of a body of his men, fell pierced with eleven wounds. His + aide-de-camp, Lieutenant-Colonel de Buysson, embraced the fallen general, + announced his rank and nation to the surrounding enemy, and while thus + generously exposing his own life to save his bleeding friend, he received + several severe wounds, and was taken prisoner with him. De Kalb met with + all possible attention and assistance from the victorious enemy, but that + gallant officer expired in a few hours. Congress afterward ordered a + monument to be erected to his memory. + </p> + <p> + Never was victory more complete or defeat more total. Every regiment was + broken and dispersed through the woods, marshes, and brushwood, which at + once saved them from their pursuers and separated them more entirely from + each other. The officers lost sight of their men and every individual + endeavored to save himself in the best way he was able. The British + cavalry pursued; and for many miles the roads were strewed with the wrecks + of a ruined army. Wagons or fragments of wagons, arms, dead or maimed + horses, dead or wounded soldiers, were everywhere seen. General + Rutherford, of the North Carolina militia, was made prisoner, but the + other general officers reached Charlotte at different times and by + different routes. + </p> + <p> + About 200 wagons, a great part of the baggage, military stores, small + arms, and all the artillery fell into the hands of the conquerors. This + decisive victory cost the British only 80 men killed and 245 wounded. + Eight hundred or 900 of the Americans were killed or wounded, and about + 1,000 taken prisoners. The militia endeavored to save themselves by + flight; the Continentals alone fought, and almost half their number fell. + </p> + <p> + While the army under Gates was completely defeated and dispersed Colonel + Sumter was successful in his enterprise. On the evening in which + Cornwallis marched from Camden he reduced the redoubt on the Wateree, took + the stores on their way to Camden, and made about 100 prisoners. On + hearing, however, of the disastrous fate of the army under Gates, Sumter, + fully aware of his danger, retreated hastily with his stores and prisoners + up the south side of the Wateree. On the morning of the 17th (September, + 1780) Cornwallis sent Tarleton, with the legion and a detachment of + infantry, in pursuit of him. That officer proceeded with his usual + rapidity. Finding many of his infantry unable to keep pace with him he + advanced with about 100 cavalry and sixty of the most vigorous of the + infantry, and on the 18th (September, 1780) suddenly and unexpectedly came + upon the Americans. + </p> + <p> + Sumter, having marched with great diligence, thought himself beyond the + reach of danger, and his men being exhausted by unremitting service and + want of sleep, he halted near the Catawba ford to give them some repose + during the heat of the day. In order to prevent a surprise he had placed + sentinels at proper stations to give warning of approaching danger, but + overcome by fatigue and equally regardless of duty and safety the + sentinels fell asleep at their post and gave no alarm. Tarleton suddenly + burst into the encampment of the drowsy and unsuspecting Americans, and, + though some slight resistance was at first made from behind the baggage, + soon gained a complete victory. The Americans fled precipitately toward + the river or the woods. Between 300 and 400 of them were killed or + wounded. Sumter escaped, galloping off on horseback, without coat, hat, or + saddle, but all his baggage fell into the hands of the enemy, while the + prisoners and stores which he had taken were recovered. About 150 of his + men made good their retreat. + </p> + <p> + By the complete defeat and dispersion of the army under Gates and of + Sumter's corps, South Carolina and Georgia appeared to be again laid + prostrate at the feet of the royal army, and the hope of maintaining their + independence seemed more desperate than ever. + </p> + <p> + Affairs did not seem desperate, however, to Washington. He knew the + defensible nature of the country—intersected in every direction by + rivers and swamps, and affording every facility for partisan warfare + against regular troops, and he knew that the infamous conduct of the + British in the South had thoroughly roused the indignation of the people. + While Gates was gathering together a new army and stationing detachments + in different posts near Hillsborough, Washington received intelligence of + the disastrous battle of Camden. The sad news came unexpectedly, as the + previous reports had given hopes of some brilliant feat on the part of + Gates. The unlooked-for disaster, however, did not for a moment dishearten + Washington. He was fully aware of the determination of the British to + conquer the South, and if possible to detach it from the confederacy, and + he was determined on his part to defeat their purpose. This was to be done + chiefly by rousing the South itself to action, since the position of + affairs at the North did not admit of large detachments from the force + under his own immediate command. He ordered, however, that some regular + troops enlisted in Maryland for the war should be sent to the southward. + To show how attentive he was to all the details of the necessary measures + for defending the South we copy his letter of September 12th (1780) to + Governor Rutledge, of South Carolina, who had been armed with dictatorial + power by the Legislature of that State. {7} + </p> + <p> + "I am fully impressed," he writes, "with the importance of the southern + States, and of course with the necessity of making every effort to expel + the enemy from them. The late unlucky affair near Camden renders their + situation more precarious and calls for every exertion to stop at least + the further progress of the British army. It is to be wished that the + composition of our force in this quarter, our resources, and the present + situation of the fleet and army of our ally would admit of an immediate + and sufficient detachment, not only to answer the purpose I have just + mentioned, but to carry on operations of a more serious and extensive + nature. But this not being the case, for reasons which must be obvious to + you, let it suffice that your Excellency be informed that our views tend + ultimately to the southward. + </p> + <p> + "In the meantime our endeavors in that quarter should be directed rather + to checking the progress of the enemy by a permanent, compact, and + well-organized body of men, than attempting immediately to recover the + State of South Carolina by a numerous army of militia, who, besides being + inconceivably expensive, are too fluctuating and undisciplined to oppose + one composed chiefly of regular troops. I would recommend to you, + therefore, to make use of your influence with the States from Maryland + southward, to raise without delay at least 5,000 men for the war, if it + can be effected; if not, for as long a time as possible. These, with the + militia in the vicinity, would answer the purpose I have last mentioned, + and would in proper time make a useful body, either to form a diversion in + favor of, or to cooperate with, a force upon the coast. + </p> + <p> + "I have hinted the outlines of a plan to your Excellency which for many + reasons should be in general kept to yourself. You will oblige me by + informing yourself as accurately as possible, what may be the present + resources of the country as to meat, corn, wheat, or rice, and + transportation, as I suppose circumstances may have occasioned a + considerable change. And if it is possible to form magazines of either, it + should be done, especially of salt meat, which is an article so essential + to military operations, that the States of Virginia and North Carolina + should be requested to lay up, as soon as the weather will, permit, at + least 4,000 barrels in proportion to their respective ability. You will + also be pleased to endeavor to gain a knowledge of the force of the enemy, + the posts they occupy, the nature and state of those posts, and the + reinforcements they may probably derive from the people of the country. As + you receive these several intelligences you will be pleased to communicate + them to me with your opinion of the best place for debarking troops, in + case of an expedition against the enemy in the southern States, and the + names of the persons in that quarter whose opinion and advice may be + serviceable in such an event." + </p> + <p> + In the following extract from a letter to Count de Guichen in the West + Indies, September 12, 1780, we have from Washington a view of the general + state of affairs after the battle of Camden. Its object was to induce the + French admiral to come immediately to the United States. The letter did + not reach the West Indies until De Guichen had sailed to France. + </p> + <p> + "The situation of America," Washington writes, "at this time is critical. + The government is without finances. Its paper credit is sunk and no + expedients can be adopted capable of retrieving it. The resources of the + country are much diminished by a five years' war in which it has made + efforts beyond its ability. Clinton, with an army of 10,000 regular troops + (aided by a considerable body of militia, whom from motives of fear and + attachment he has engaged to take arms), is in possession of one of the + capital towns and a large part of the State to which it belongs. The + savages are desolating the frontier. A fleet superior to that of our + allies not only protects the enemy against any attempt of ours, but + facilitates those which they may project against us. Lord Cornwallis, with + seven or eight thousand men, is in complete possession of two States, + Georgia and South Carolina, and by recent misfortunes North Carolina is at + his mercy. His force is daily increasing by an accession of adherents, + whom his successes naturally procure in a country inhabited by emigrants + from England and Scotland who have not been long enough transplanted to + exchange their ancient habits and attachments in favor of their new + residence. + </p> + <p> + "By a letter received from General Gates we learn that in attempting to + penetrate and regain the State of South Carolina he met with a total + defeat near Camden in which many of his troops have been cut off and the + remainder dispersed with the loss of all their cannon and baggage. The + enemy are said to be now making a detachment from New York for a southern + destination. If they push their successes in that quarter we cannot + predict where their career may end. The opposition will be feeble unless + we can give succor from hence, which, from a variety of causes must depend + on a naval superiority." + </p> + <p> + The remainder of the letter gives more details and urges the admiral to + give his aid to the United States. + </p> + <p> + It will be recollected by the reader that Gates when in the height of his + glory did not make any report to Washington of the surrender of Burgoyne. + This was in the days of the Conway Cabal. He then slighted and almost + insulted the great commander, whom, it is not improbable he hoped to + supersede. But in the hour of disaster and defeat it was to Washington + himself that he turned for help, protection, and countenance. He is prompt + enough with his official report now although he writes his first dispatch + to Congress in order that his apology may be published. The following + letter to Washington is dated at Hillsborough, August 30, 1780: {8} + </p> + <p> + "My public letter to Congress has surely been transmitted to your + Excellency. Since then I have been able to collect authentic returns of + the killed, wounded, and missing of the officers of the Maryland line, + Delaware regiment, artillerists, and those of the legion under Colonel + Armand. They are enclosed. The militia broke so early in the day, and + scattered in so many directions upon their retreat, that very few have + fallen into the hands of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + "By the firmness and bravery of the Continental troops the victory is far + from bloodless on the part of the foe, they having upwards of 500 men, + with officers in proportion, killed and wounded. I do not think Lord + Cornwallis will be able to reap any advantage of consequence from his + victory as this State seems animated to reinstate and support the army. + Virginia, I am confident, will not be less patriotic. By the joint + exertions of these two States there is good reason to hope that should the + events of the campaign be prosperous to your Excellency all South Carolina + might be again recovered. Lord Cornwallis remained with his army at Camden + when I received the last accounts from thence. I am cantoning ours at + Salisbury, Guilford, Hillsborough, and Cross creek. The Marylanders and + artillerists, with their general hospital, will be here; the cavalry near + Cross creek, and the militia to the westward. This is absolutely necessary + as we have no magazine of provisions and are only supplied from hand to + mouth. Four days after the action of the 16th, fortune seemed determined + to distress us; for Colonel Sumter having marched near forty miles up the + river Wateree halted with the wagons and prisoners he had taken the 15th; + by some indiscretion the men were surprised, cut off from their arms, the + whole routed, and the wagons and prisoners retaken. + </p> + <p> + "What encouragement the numerous disaffected in this State may give Lord + Cornwallis to advance further into the country I cannot yet say. Colonel + Sumter, since his surprise and defeat upon the west side of the Wateree, + has reinstated and increased his corps to upwards of 1,000 men. I have + directed him to continue to harass the enemy upon that side. Lord + Cornwallis will therefore be cautious how he makes any considerable + movement to the eastward while his corps remains in force upon his left + flank, and the main body is in a manner cantoned in his front. Anxious for + the public good I shall continue my unwearied endeavors to stop the + progress of the enemy, to reinstate our affairs, to recommence an + offensive war and recover all our losses in the southern States. But if + being unfortunate is solely reason sufficient for removing me from + command, I shall most cheerfully submit to the orders of Congress and + resign an office few generals would be anxious to possess, and where the + utmost skill and fortitude are subject to be baffled by the difficulties + which must for a time surround the chief in command here. That your + Excellency may meet with no such difficulties, that your road to fame and + fortune may be smooth and easy is the sincere wish of, sir, your + Excellency's most obedient, etc." + </p> + <p> + In the following extract from a letter of the 3d of September (1780), he + again calls Washington's attention to his own pitiable case: "If I can yet + render good service to the United States," he writes, "it will be + necessary it should be seen that I have the support of Congress and your + Excellency; otherwise some men may think they please my superiors by + blaming me, and thus recommend themselves to favor. But you, sir, will be + too generous to lend an ear to such men, if such there be, and will show + your greatness of soul rather by protecting than slighting the + unfortunate. If, on the contrary, I am not supported and countenance is + given to everyone who will speak disrespectfully of me it will be better + for Congress to remove me at once from where I shall be unable to render + them any good service. This, sir, I submit to your candor and honor, and + shall cheerfully await the decision of my superiors. With the warmest + wishes for your prosperity, and the sincerest sentiments of esteem and + regard, I am, sir, your Excellency's most obedient, humble servant." + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these letters and any friendly help which Washington may + have rendered to his fallen rival, the fickle Congress, as we shall + presently see, deserted at his utmost need the man who they had advanced + against Washington's advice. + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Camden, Cornwallis was unable to follow up the victory + with his usual activity. His little army was diminished by the sword and + by disease. He had not brought with him from Charleston the stores + necessary for a long march, and he did not deem it expedient to leave + South Carolina till he had suppressed that spirit of resistance to his + authority which had extensively manifested itself in the province. In + order to consummate, as he thought, the subjugation of the State, he + resorted to measures of great injustice and cruelty. He considered the + province as a conquered country, reduced to unconditional submission and + to allegiance to its ancient sovereign, and the people liable to the + duties of British subjects and to corresponding penalties in case of a + breach of those duties. He forgot, or seemed to forget, that many of them + had been received as prisoners of war on parole; that, without their + consent, their parole had been discharged, and that, merely by a + proclamation, they had been declared British subjects instead of prisoners + of war. + </p> + <p> + In a few days after the battle of Camden, when Cornwallis thought the + country was lying prostrate at his feet, he addressed the following letter + to the commandant of the British garrison at Ninety-six: "I have given + orders that all the inhabitants of this province who have subscribed and + taken part in the revolt should be punished with the utmost rigor; and + also those who will not turn out, that they may be imprisoned and their + whole property taken from them or destroyed. I have also ordered that + compensation should be made out of these estates to the persons who have + been injured or oppressed by them. I have ordered, in the most positive + manner, that every militiaman who has borne arms with us and afterward + joined the enemy shall be immediately hanged. I desire you will take the + most vigorous measures to punish the rebels in the district you command + and that you obey, in the strictest manner, the directions I have given in + this letter relative to the inhabitants of the country." Similar orders + were given to the commanders of other posts. {9} + </p> + <p> + In any circumstances, such orders given to officers often possessing + little knowledge and as little prudence or humanity could not fail to + produce calamitous effects. In the case under consideration, where all the + worst passions of the heart were irritated and inflamed, the consequences + were lamentable. The orders were executed in the spirit in which they were + given. Numbers of persons were put to death; many were imprisoned and + their property was destroyed or confiscated. The country was covered with + blood and desolation, rancor and grief. + </p> + <p> + The prisoners on parole thought they had a clear right to take arms, for + from their parole they had been released by the proclamation of the 20th + of June (1780), which indeed called them to the duty of subjects, a + condition to which they had never consented, and therefore they reckoned + that they had as good a right to resume their arms as the British + commander had to enjoin their allegiance. The case of those who had taken + British protections in the full persuasion that they were to be allowed to + live peaceably on their estates, but who, on finding that they must fight + on one side or the other, had repaired to the standards of their country, + was equally hard. Deception and violence were practiced against both. So + long as the struggle appeared doubtful the Colonists met with fair + promises and kind treatment, but at the moment when resistance seemed + hopeless and obedience necessary they were addressed in the tone of + authority, heard stern commands and bloody threatenings, and received + harsh usage. Hence the province, which for some time presented the + stillness of peace, again put on the ruthless aspect of war. + </p> + <p> + A number of persons of much respectability remained prisoners of war in + Charleston since the capitulation of that town, but, after the battle of + Camden, Cornwallis ordered them to be carried out of the province. + Accordingly, early in the morning of the 27th of August (1780), some of + the principal citizens of Charleston were taken out of bed, put on board a + guard-ship, and soon afterward transported to St. Augustine. They + remonstrated with Lieutenant-Colonel Balfour, the commandant of + Charleston, but experienced only the insolence of authority from that + officer. + </p> + <p> + While Cornwallis endeavored by severe measures to break the spirits of the + people and to establish the royal authority in South Carolina, he did not + lose sight of his ulterior projects. He sent emissaries into North + Carolina to excite the Loyalists there, and to assure them of the speedy + march of the British army into that province. On the 8th of September + (1780) he left Camden, and toward the end of the month arrived at + Charlottetown, in North Carolina, of which place he took possession after + a slight resistance from some volunteer cavalry under Colonel Davie. + Though symptoms of opposition manifested themselves at Charlotte yet he + advanced toward Salisbury and ordered his militia to cross the Yadkin. But + Cornwallis was suddenly arrested in his victorious career by an unexpected + disaster. He made every exertion to embody the Tory inhabitants of the + country and to form them into a British militia. For that purpose he + employed Major Ferguson of the Seventy-first regiment with a small + detachment in the district of Ninety-six, to train the Loyalists and to + attach them to his own party. From the operations of that officer he + expected the most important services. + </p> + <p> + Ferguson executed his commission with activity and zeal, collected a large + number of Loyalists, and committed great depredations on the friends of + independence in the back settlements. When about to return to the main + army in triumph he was detained by one of those incidents which + occasionally occur in war and influence the course of events and the + destiny of nations. Colonel Clarke, of Georgia, who had fled from that + province on its reduction by Campbell in 1779, had retired to the + northward, and having collected a number of followers in the Carolinas, he + returned to his native province at the head of about 700 men, and while + Cornwallis was marching from Camden to Charlottetown, attacked the British + post at Augusta. Lieutenant-Colonel Brown, who commanded at that place + with a garrison of about 150 Provincials, aided by some friendly Indians, + finding the town untenable, retired toward an eminence on the banks of the + Savannah, named Garden Hill. But the Americans occupied it before his + arrival; by bringing his artillery, however, to bear upon them, after a + desperate conflict he succeeded in dislodging them and in gaining + possession of the hill, but with the loss of his cannon. There Clarke + besieged him till informed of the near approach of a British detachment + from Ninety-six, under Colonel Kruger. He then retreated, abandoning the + cannon which he had taken, and, though pursued, effected his escape. + Notice was instantly sent to Ferguson of Clarke's retreat and of his + route, and high hopes of intercepting him were entertained. For that + purpose Ferguson remained longer in those parts and approached nearer the + mountains than he would otherwise have done. As he had collected about + 1,500 men he had no apprehension of any force assembling in that quarter + able to embarrass him. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the depredations committed by Ferguson exasperated many of the + inhabitants of the country, some of whom, fleeing across the Allegheny + mountains, gave their western brethren an alarming account of the evils + with which they were threatened. Those men, living in the full enjoyment + of that independence for which the Atlantic States were struggling, + resolved to keep the war at a distance from their settlements. The hardy + mountaineers of the western parts of Virginia and North Carolina assembled + under Colonels Campbell, Shelby, Cleveland, and Sevier. Other parties, + under their several leaders, hastened to join them. They were all mounted + and unencumbered with baggage. Each man had his blanket, knapsack, and + rifle, and set out in quest of Ferguson, equipped in the same manner as + when they hunted the wild beasts of the forest. At night the earth + afforded them a bed and the heavens a covering; the flowing stream + quenched their thirst; their guns, their knapsacks, or a few cattle driven + in their rear, supplied them with food. Their numbers made them + formidable, and the rapidity of their movements rendered it difficult to + escape them. They amounted to nearly 3,000 men. + </p> + <p> + On hearing of their approach Ferguson began to retreat toward Charlotte + and sent messengers to Cornwallis to apprise him of his danger. But the + messengers were intercepted, and Cornwallis remained ignorant of the + perilous situation of his detachment. In the vicinity of Gilbert town the + Americans, apprehensive of Ferguson's escape, selected 1,000 of their best + riflemen, mounted them on their fleetest horses, and sent them in pursuit. + Their rapid movements rendered his retreat impracticable, and Ferguson, + sensible that he would inevitably be overtaken, chose his ground on King's + mountain on the confines of North and South Carolina, and waited the + attack. + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of October (1780) the Americans came up with him. Campbell had + the command, but his authority was merely nominal, for there was little + military order or subordination in the attack. They agreed to divide their + forces in order to assail Ferguson from different quarters, and the + divisions were led on by Colonels Cleveland, Shelby, Sevier, and Williams. + Cleveland, who conducted the party which began the attack, addressed his + men as follows: + </p> + <p> + "My brave fellows! we have beaten the Tories and we can beat them. When + engaged you are not to wait for the word of command from me. I will show + you by my example how to fight; I can undertake no more. Every man must + consider himself an officer and act on his own judgment. Though repulsed, + do not run off; return and renew the combat. If any of you are afraid you + have not only leave to withdraw, but are requested to do so." + </p> + <p> + Cleveland instantly began the attack, but was soon compelled to retire + before the bayonet. But Ferguson had no time to continue the pursuit, for + Shelby came forward from an unexpected quarter and poured in a destructive + fire. Ferguson again resorted to the bayonet and was again successful. But + at that moment Campbell's division advanced on another side and a new + battle began. Campbell, like his comrades, was obliged to retreat. But + Cleveland had now rallied his division and advanced anew to the combat. + The Royalists wheeled and met this returning assailant. In this way there + was an unremitting succession of attacks for about fifty minutes. Ferguson + obstinately defended himself and repulsed every assailant, but at last he + fell mortally wounded, and the second in command, seeing the contest + hopeless, surrendered. Ferguson and 150 of his men lay dead on the field; + as many were wounded; nearly 700 laid down their arms, and upwards of 400 + escaped. Among the prisoners the number of regular British soldiers did + not amount to 100. The Americans lost about twenty men, who were killed on + the field, and they had many wounded. They took 1,500 stand of arms. Major + Ferguson's position was good, but the hill abounded with wood and afforded + the Americans, who were all riflemen, an opportunity of fighting in their + own way and of firing from behind trees. + </p> + <p> + The Americans hanged ten of their prisoners on the spot, pleading the + guilt of the individuals who suffered and the example of the British, who + had executed a great number of Americans. One of the victims was a militia + officer, who accepted a British commission, although he had formerly been + in the American service. Those rude warriors, whose enterprise was the + spontaneous impulse of their patriotism or revenge, who acknowledged no + superior authority, and who were guided by no superior counsels, having + achieved their victories and attained their object, dispersed and returned + home. Most of the prisoners were soon afterward released on various + conditions. + </p> + <p> + The ruin of Ferguson's detachment, from which so much had been expected, + was a severe blow to Cornwallis; it disconcerted his plans and prevented + his progress northward. On the 14th of October (1780), as soon after + obtaining certain information of the fall of Major Ferguson as the army + could be put in motion, he left Charlotte, where Ferguson was to have met + him and began his retreat toward South Carolina. In that retrograde + movement the British army suffered severely; for several days it rained + incessantly; the roads were almost impassable; the soldiers had no tents, + and at night encamped in the woods in an unhealthy climate. The army was + ill supplied with provisions; sometimes the men had beef, but no bread; at + other times bread, but no beef. Once they subsisted during five days on + Indian corn collected as it stood in the fields. Five ears were the daily + allowance of two men, but the troops bore their toils and privations + without a murmur. + </p> + <p> + In these trying circumstances the American Loyalists who had joined the + royal standard were of great service, but their services were ill + requited, and several of them, disgusted by the abusive language and even + blows, which they received from some of the officers, left the British + army forever. At length the troops passed the Catawba, and on the 29th of + October (1780) reached Wynnesborough, an intermediate station between + Camden and Ninety-six. During this difficult march Cornwallis was ill and + Lord Rawdon had the command. + </p> + <p> + Washington directed the operations of this southern campaign as far as it + was in his power. But he was interfered with by the pragmatical, imbecile, + and conceited Congress. Had Greene been appointed to take command of the + southern army, according to Washington's desire, instead of Gates, he + would soon have assembled around him that "permanent, compact, and + well-organized body of men," referred to in Washington's letter to + Governor Rutledge, which we have quoted, and would have given a very + different account of the British from that of Gates. Greene was second + only to the Commander-in-Chief in ability—second to none in courage, + coolness, and perseverance. His campaign in the South, as we shall + presently see, was one of the most remarkable performances of the war. But + Congress would not send him to the South till repeated disasters compelled + them to listen to Washington's advice. The old virus of the Conway Cabal + must have been still lurking among the members or they would scarcely have + preferred Gates to Greene. We must now leave the South for a season and + turn to the course of events in the northern States. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: This was a recent conquest of the British fleet in the West + Indies. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: The reader will recollect that Fort Moultrie received its + name from its defense by Colonel Moultrie in 1776. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: The reader will recollect that Fort Moultrie received its + name from its defense by Colonel Moultrie in 1776. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: Washington, who had long ago taken the measure of Gates' + capacity, was desirous that Greene should receive the appointment to the + command of the southern army at this time; but his wishes were overruled + by Congress. Had Greene been appointed, or even had De Kalb been left in + command, the campaign of 1780 would have been quite another affair. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Charles Armand, Marquis de la Rouerie, was a French officer + of note when he entered our army as colonel in 1777, and was ordered to + raise a corps of Frenchmen not exceeding 200 men. He served in Jersey and + Pennsylvania in 1777, and in Westchester county, New York, in 1778, where + he captured Major Baremore and his Loyalists, as mentioned in Washington's + certificate below. In 1779 he was stationed at Ridgefield, Connecticut, + under Gen. Robert Howe. He was sent with a legion composed of his own and + Pulaski's cavalry to aid in Gates' southern expedition, as mentioned in + the text. In 1781 he went to France to obtain clothes and equipments, and + returned soon enough to assist at the siege of Yorktown. Washington + recommended him strongly to Congress, who gave him the commission of + brigadier-general in the spring of 1783. He returned to France in 1784, + engaged in the French revolution, and took an active part. He died January + 30th, 1793. On the occasion of Colonel Armand's going to join the southern + army under Gates, Washington gave him the following certificate under his + own hand: + </p> + <h3> + CERTIFICATE. + </h3> + <p> + I certify that the Marquis de la Rouerie has served in the army of the + United States since the beginning of 1777, with the rank of colonel, + during which time he has commanded an independent corps with much honor to + himself and usefulness to the service. He has upon all occasions conducted + himself as an officer of distinguished merit, of great zeal, activity, + vigilance, intelligence, and bravery. In the last campaign, particularly, + he rendered very valuable services, and towards the close of it made a + brilliant partisan stroke, by which, with much enterprise and address, he + surprised a major and some men of the enemy in quarters, at a considerable + distance within their pickets, and brought them off without loss to his + party. I give him this certificate In testimony of my perfect approbation + of his conduct, and esteem for himself personally. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: Colonel Armand censured Gates' conduct on this occasion + severely. It is clear that he chose the ground best suited for the enemy's + purpose. "I will not say," Armand remarked, "that the general contemplated + treason, but I will say, that if he had desired to betray his army, he + could not have chosen a more judicious course." + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: Sparks, "Writings of Washington," vol. VII, p.201. 8. + Footnote: Sparks, "Correspondence of the Revolution," vol. III, P.66. + </p> + <p> + 9. Footnote: The orders of Rawdon and Cornwallis to the subordinates to + treat the Americans in this cruel manner were intercepted and sent to + Washington, who transmitted them, with a sharp letter, to Sir Henry + Clinton. His reply sustained Rawdon and Cornwallis. The original letters + and the whole correspondence may be found in the 7th volume of Sparks, + "Writings of Washington." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. — PREPARATIONS FOR THE CAMPAIGN. 1781. + </h2> + <p> + The contest between Great Britain and her revolted Colonies had involved + her in other wars. Spain had already joined with France in the alliance + against her, and the Dutch were now drawn into the contest. Great Britain + had claimed and exercised what she called the "right of search," which + included the right to seize the property of an enemy, wherever found, at + sea. The Dutch, who had an extensive carrying trade with France, being + plundered by the British under their insolent "right of search," were + already preparing to join the other allies and commence open hostilities. + </p> + <p> + The next act in the drama was the formation of the armed neutrality + denying the "right of search," and declaring that free ships made free + goods. Catharine II. of Russia was at its head. Sweden and Denmark + immediately joined it. It was resolved that neutral ships should enjoy a + free navigation even from port to port and on the coasts of the + belligerent powers; that all effects belonging to the subjects of the said + belligerent powers should be looked upon as free on board such neutral + ships, except only such goods as were stipulated to be contraband, and + that no port should be considered under blockade unless there should be a + sufficient force before it to render the blockade effectual. The other + European powers were invited to join this confederacy. France and Spain + agreed to do so at once; Portugal hesitated and declined, and the United + Provinces delayed for a time their answer. The Emperor of Germany and the + King of Prussia joined the armed neutrality in 1781. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, Henry Laurens having been taken prisoner on his way to Holland + (1780) to solicit a loan for the United States, and his papers having made + the British ministry acquainted with the fact that overtures for a treaty + between Holland and America were under consideration, England, at the + close of 1780, resolved upon a war with the States General. Thus England, + by this step, without friend or allies, prepared to wage, single-handed, + the contest with enemies in every quarter of the globe. + </p> + <p> + In the beginning of the year 1781, the affairs of the American Union wore + a gloomy and alarming aspect. Vigorous and united efforts were needful; + but all seemed feeble and irresolute. The people were heartily tired of + the war; and, though no better affected to the parent State than before, + yet they earnestly desired deliverance from the multiplied miseries of the + protracted struggle. + </p> + <p> + The alliance with France had promised a speedy termination to the war; but + hitherto, while its existence made the Americans comparatively remiss in + their own exertions to prosecute hostilities, the French fleet and army + had performed no important service. + </p> + <p> + Congress had called for an army of 37,000 men, to be in camp on the 1st of + January (1781). The resolution, as usual, was too late, but even although + it had been promulgated in due time, so large a force could not have been + brought into the field. The deficiencies and delays on the part of the + several States exceeded all reasonable anticipation. At no time during + this active and interesting campaign did the regular force, drawn from + Pennsylvania to Georgia inclusive, amount to 3,000 men. So late as the + month of April (1781), the States, from New Jersey to New Hampshire + inclusive, had furnished only 5,000 infantry, but this force was slowly + and gradually increased, till, in the month of May, including cavalry and + artillery which never exceeded 1,000 men, it presented a total of about + 7,000, of whom upwards of 4,000 might have been relied on in active + service. A considerable part of this small force arrived in camp too late + to acquire during the campaign that discipline which is essential to + military success. Inadequate as this army was for asserting the + independence of the country, the prospect of being unable to support it + was still more alarming. The men were in rags; clothing had long been + expected from Europe but had not yet arrived and the disappointment was + severely felt. + </p> + <p> + The magazines were ill supplied, the troops were often almost starving and + the army ready to be dissolved for want of food. The arsenals were nearly + empty. Instead of having the requisites of a well-appointed army + everything was deficient and there was little prospect of being better + provided, for money was as scarce as food and military stores. Congress + had resolved to issue no more bills on the credit of the Union, and the + care of supplying the army was devolved upon the several States according + to a rule established by that body. Even when the States had collected the + specified provisions, the quartermaster-general had no funds to pay for + the transportation of them to the army to accomplish which military + impressment was resorted to in a most offensive degree. Congress was + surrounded with difficulties, the several States were callous and + dilatory, and affairs generally wore an aspect of debility and decay. + </p> + <p> + To deepen the general gloom there were portentous rumors of preparations + for savage warfare along the whole extent of the western frontier and of + an invasion on the side of Canada. In the midst of financial difficulties + and apprehensions of attack both from foreign and domestic enemies, a new + and alarming danger appeared in a quarter where it was little expected and + which threatened to consummate the ruin of American independence. The + privations and sufferings of the troops had been uncommonly great. To the + usual hardships of a military life were added nakedness and hunger, under + that rigor of climate which whets the appetite and renders clothing + absolutely necessary. By the depreciation of the paper currency their pay + was little more than nominal, and it was many months in arrear. + </p> + <p> + Besides those evils which were common to the whole army the troops of + Pennsylvania imagined that they labored under peculiar grievances. Their + officers had engaged them for three years or during the war. On the + expiration of three years the soldiers thought themselves entitled to a + discharge; the officers alleged that they were engaged for the war. The + large bounties given to those who were not bound by previous enlistment + heightened the discontent of the soldiers, and made them more zealous in + asserting what they thought their rights. In the first transports of their + patriotism they had readily enlisted, but men will not long willingly + submit to immediate and unprofitable hardships in the prospect of distant + and contingent rewards. + </p> + <p> + The discontents engendered by the causes now mentioned had for some time + been increasing and on the 1st of January, 1781, broke out into the open + and almost universal mutiny of the troops of Pennsylvania. On a signal + given, the greater part of the noncommissioned officers and privates + paraded under arms, declaring their intention of marching to the seat of + Congress at Philadelphia to obtain a redress of grievances, or to abandon + the service. The officers made every exertion to bring them back to their + duty, but in vain; in the attempt, a captain was killed and several other + persons wounded. General Wayne interposed, but, on cocking his pistols at + some of the most audacious of the mutineers, several bayonets were at his + breast, the men exclaiming, "We respect you—we love you; but you are + a dead man if you fire! Do not mistake us: we are not going to the enemy, + on the contrary, were they to come out, you should see us fight under you + with as much resolution and alacrity as ever, but we wish a redress of + grievances and will no longer be trifled with." Such of the Pennsylvania + troops as had at first taken no part in the disturbance were prevailed on + to join the mutineers and the whole, amounting to 1,300 men, with six + field pieces, marched from Morristown under temporary officers of their + own election. Washington's headquarters were then at New Windsor on the + North river. + </p> + <p> + Next day (Jan. 2, 1781), General Wayne and Colonels Butter and Stewart, + officers who in a high degree enjoyed the confidence and affection of the + troops, followed the mutineers, but though civilly received, they could + not succeed in adjusting the differences or in restoring subordination. On + the third day the mutineers resumed their march and in the morning arrived + at Princeton. Congress and the Pennsylvania government, as well as + Washington, were much alarmed by this mutiny fearing the example might be + contagious and lead to the dissolution of the whole army. Therefore a + committee of Congress, with President Reed {1} at their head and some + members of the executive council of Pennsylvania, set out from + Philadelphia for the purpose of allaying this dangerous commotion. + </p> + <p> + Sir Henry Clinton, who heard of the mutiny on the morning of the 3d + (January 1781), was equally active in endeavoring to turn it to the + advantage of his government. He ordered a large corps to be in readiness + to march on a moment's notice and sent two American spies by way of Amboy + and two by way of Elizabethtown, as agents from himself to treat with the + mutineers. But two of the persons employed were actually spies on himself + and soon disclosed his proposals to the American authorities. The two real + spies on reaching Princeton were seized by the mutineers and afterwards + delivered up to General Wayne who had them tried and executed on the 10th. + </p> + <p> + At first the mutineers declined leaving Princeton, but finding their + demands would be substantially complied with they marched to Trenton on + the 9th, and before the 15th (January 1781), the matter was so far settled + that the committee of Congress left Trenton and returned to Philadelphia. + All who had enlisted for three years or during the war were to be + discharged, and in cases where the terms of enlistment could not be + produced the oath of the soldier was to be received as evidence on the + point. They were to receive immediate certificates for the depreciation on + their pay, and their arrears were to be settled as soon as circumstances + would admit. On those terms about one-half of the Pennsylvania troops + obtained their discharge, numbers of them having, as afterwards appeared, + made false declarations concerning the terms of their enlistment. + </p> + <p> + Intelligence of this mutiny was communicated to Washington at New Windsor + before any accommodation had taken place. Though he had been long + accustomed to decide in hazardous and difficult situations yet it was no + easy matter in this delicate crisis to determine on the most proper course + to be pursued. His personal influence had several times extinguished + rising mutinies. The first scheme that presented itself was to repair to + the camp of the mutineers and try to recall them to a sense of their duty, + but on mature reflection this was declined. He well knew that their claims + were founded in justice, but he could not reconcile himself to wound the + discipline of his army by yielding to their demands while they were in + open revolt with arms in their hands. He viewed the subject in all its + relations and was well apprised that the principal grounds of discontent + were not peculiar to the Pennsylvania line, but common to all the troops. + </p> + <p> + If force was requisite he had none to spare without hazarding West Point. + If concessions were unavoidable they had better be made by any person than + the Commander-in-Chief. After that due deliberation which he always gave + to matters of importance he determined against a personal interference and + to leave the whole to the civil authorities which had already taken it up, + but at the same time prepared for those measures which would become + necessary if no accommodation took place. This resolution was communicated + to Wayne, with a caution to regard the situation of the other lines of the + army in any concessions which might be made and with a recommendation to + draw the mutineers over the Delaware, with a view to increase the + difficulty of communicating with the enemy in New York. The result, + however, showed that this last was an unnecessary precaution. + </p> + <p> + The success of the Pennsylvania troops in exacting from their country by + violence what had been denied to the claims of equity produced a similar + spirit of insubordination in another division of the army. On the night of + the 20th of January (1781), about 160 of the Jersey brigade, which was + quartered at Pompton, complaining of grievances similar to those of the + Pennsylvania line and hoping for equal success, rose in arms, and marched + to Chatham with the view of prevailing on some of their comrades stationed + there to join them. Their number was not formidable and Washington, + knowing that he might depend on the fidelity of the greater part of his + troops detached Gen. Robert Howe against the mutineers, with orders to + force them to unconditional submission and to execute some of the most + turbulent of them on the spot. These orders were promptly obeyed and two + of the ringleaders were put to death. + </p> + <p> + Sir Henry Clinton, as in the case of the Pennsylvanians, endeavored to + take advantage of the mutiny of the Jersey brigade. He sent emissaries to + negotiate with them, and detached General Robertson with 3,000 men to + Staten Island to be in readiness to support them if they should accede to + his proposals, but the mutiny was so speedily crushed that his emissaries + had no time to act. + </p> + <p> + The situation of Congress at this time was trying in the extreme. The + contest was now one for very existence. A powerful foe was in full + strength in the heart of the country; they had great military operations + to carry on, but were almost without an army and wholly without money. + Their bills of credit had ceased to be of any worth; and they were reduced + to the mortifying necessity of declaring by their own acts that this was + the fact, as they no longer made them a legal tender or received them in + payment of taxes. Without money of some kind an army could neither be + raised nor maintained. But the greater the exigency the greater were the + exertions of Congress. They directed their agents abroad to borrow, if + possible, from France, Spain, and Holland. They resorted to taxation, + although they knew that the measure would be unpopular and that they had + not the power to enforce their decree. The tax laid they apportioned among + the several States, by whose authority it was to be collected. Perceiving + that there was great disorder and waste, or peculation, in the management + of the fiscal concerns they determined on introducing a thorough reform + and the strictest economy. They accordingly appointed as treasurer Robert + Morris of Philadelphia, a man whose pure morals, ardent patriotism, and + great knowledge of financial concerns eminently fitted him for this + important station. The zeal and genius of Morris soon produced the most + favorable results. By means of the "Bank of North America," to which in + the course of the year he obtained the approbation of Congress, he + contrived to draw out the funds of wealthy individuals. By borrowing in + the name of the government from this bank and pledging for payment the + taxes not yet collected, he was enabled to anticipate them and command a + ready supply. He also used his own private credit which was good though + that of the government had failed, and at one time bills signed by him + individually, were in circulation to the amount of $581,000. + </p> + <p> + The establishment of a revenue subject to the exclusive control and + direction of the Continental government was connected inseparably with the + restoration of credit. The efforts, therefore, to negotiate a foreign loan + were accompanied by resolutions requesting the respective States to place + a fund under the control of Congress which should be both permanent and + productive. A resolution was passed recommending the respective States to + vest a power in Congress to levy for the use of the United States a duty + of five per centum ad valorem on all goods imported into any of them, and + also on all prizes condemned in any of the American courts of admiralty. + </p> + <p> + This fund was to be appropriated to the payment of both the principal and + interest of all debts contracted in the prosecution of the war, and was to + continue until those debts should be completely discharged. + </p> + <p> + Congress at that time contained several members who perceived the + advantages which would result from bestowing on the government of the + nation the full power of regulating commerce, and consequently, of + increasing the imports as circumstances might render advisable; but State + influence predominated and they were overruled by great majorities. Even + the inadequate plan which they did recommend was never adopted. + Notwithstanding the greatness of the exigency and the pressure of the + national wants, never during the existence of the Confederation did all + the States unite in assenting to this recommendation, so unwilling are men + possessed of power to place it in the hands of others. + </p> + <p> + About the same time a reform was introduced into the administration the + necessity of which had been long perceived. From a misplaced prejudice + against institutions sanctioned by experience all the great executive + duties had been devolved either on committees of Congress or on boards + consisting of several members. This unwieldy and expensive system had + maintained itself against all the efforts of reason and public utility. + But the scantiness of the national means at length prevailed over + prejudice, and the several committees and boards yielded to a secretary + for foreign affairs, a superintendent of finance, a secretary of war, and + a secretary of marine. But so miserably defective was the organization of + Congress as an executive body that the year (1781) had far advanced before + this measure, the utility of which all acknowledged, could be carried into + complete operation by making all the appointments. + </p> + <p> + The war had continued much longer than was originally anticipated, and the + natural resources of the country, mismanaged by the inexperience of the + government and its ignorance of the principles of political economy were + so much exhausted that it became apparent the war could not be carried on + without a foreign loan and France, sufficiently embarrassed with her own + affairs, was the only country to which Congress could look for pecuniary + aid. Accordingly, Lieutenant-Colonel Laurens, who had been one of + Washington's aids, was employed on this mission, and besides endeavoring + to negotiate a loan was instructed to press on the French monarch the + advantage of maintaining a naval superiority in the American seas. While + the energies of America were thus paralyzed by the financial difficulties + of Congress, the mutinous spirit of part of the army and the selfishness + and apathy of several of the States, the British interest in the Provinces + seemed in a prosperous condition. General Greene, as we shall presently + see, was maintaining a doubtful and hazardous struggle against Cornwallis + on the northern frontier of North Carolina. A British detachment from New + York had made a deep impression on Virginia where the resistance was + neither so prompt nor so vigorous as had been expected from the strength + of that State and the unanimity of its citizens. + </p> + <p> + On the 1st of May, 1781, Washington commenced a military journal. The + following statement is extracted from it: "I begin at this epoch a concise + journal of military transactions, &c. I lament not having attempted it + from the commencement of the war in aid of my memory, and wish the + multiplicity of matter which continually surrounds me and the embarrassed + state of our affairs which is momentarily calling the attention to + perplexities of one kind or another may not defeat altogether or so + interrupt my present intention and plan as to render it of little avail. + </p> + <p> + "To have the clearer understanding of the entries which may follow it + would be proper to recite in detail our wants and our prospects, but this + alone would be a work of much time and great magnitude. It may suffice to + give the sum of them, which I shall do in a few words, viz.: + </p> + <p> + "Instead of having magazines filled with provisions we have a scanty + pittance scattered here and there in the distant States. + </p> + <p> + "Instead of having our arsenals well supplied with military stores they + are poorly provided, and the workmen all leaving them. Instead of having + the various articles of field equipage in readiness the + quartermaster-general is but now applying to the several States to provide + these things for their troops respectively. Instead of having a regular + system of transportation established upon credit, or funds in the + quartermaster's hands to defray the contingent expenses thereof we have + neither the one nor the other; and all that business, or a great part of + it being done by impressment, we are daily and hourly oppressing the + people, souring their tempers, and alienating their affections. Instead of + having the regiments completed agreeable to the requisitions of Congress, + scarce any State in the Union has at this hour one-eighth part of its + quota in the field, and there is little prospect of ever getting more than + half. In a word, instead of having anything in readiness to take the + field, we have nothing; and, instead of having the prospect of a glorious + offensive campaign before us we have a bewildered and gloomy prospect of a + defensive one, unless we should receive a powerful aid of ships, troops, + and money from our generous allies, and these at present are too + contingent to build upon." + </p> + <p> + While the Americans were suffering the complicated calamities which + introduced the year 1781 their adversaries were carrying on the most + extensive plan of operations against them which had ever been attempted. + It had often been objected to the British commanders that they had not + conducted the war in the manner most likely to effect the subjugation of + the revolted provinces. Military critics found fault with them for keeping + a large army idle at New York, which, they said, if properly applied, + would have been sufficient to make successful impressions at one and the + same time on several of the States. The British seemed to have calculated + the campaign of 1781 with a view to make an experiment of the comparative + merit of this mode of conducting military operations. The war raged in + that year not only in the vicinity of the British headquarters at New + York, but in Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and in Virginia. + </p> + <p> + In this extensive warfare Washington could have no immediate agency in the + southern department. His advice in corresponding with the officers + commanding in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, was freely and + beneficially given, and as large detachments sent to their aid as could be + spared consistently with the security of West Point. In conducting the war + his invariable maxim was to suffer the devastation of property rather than + hazard great and essential objects for its preservation. While the war + raged in Virginia, Thomas Jefferson, the Governor, its representatives in + Congress, and other influential citizens, urged his return to the defense + of his native State. But considering America as his country and the + general safety as his object, he deemed it of more importance to remain on + the Hudson. There he was not only securing the most important post in the + United States but concerting a grand plan of combined operations which, as + shall soon be related, not only delivered Virginia but all the States from + the calamities of the war. In Washington's disregard of property when in + competition with national objects he was in no respect partial to his own. + While the British were in the Potomac they sent a flag to Mount Vernon + requiring a supply of fresh provisions. Refusals of such demands were + often followed by burning the houses and other property near the river. To + prevent this catastrophe the person entrusted with the management of the + estate went on board with the flag and carrying a supply of provisions, + requested that the buildings and improvements might be spared. For this he + received a severe reprimand in a letter to him in which Washington + observed: "It would have been a less painful circumstance to me to have + heard that in consequence of your noncompliance with the request of the + British they had burned my house and laid my plantation in ruins. You + ought to have considered yourself as my representative, and should have + reflected on the bad example of communicating with the enemy and making a + voluntary offer of refreshment to them with a view to prevent a + conflagration." + </p> + <p> + To the other difficulties with which Washington had to contend in the + preceding years of the war a new one was about this time added. While the + whole force at his disposal was unequal to the defense of the country + against the common enemy, a civil war was on the point of breaking out + among his fellow-citizens. The claims of Vermont to be a separate, + independent State, and of the State of New York to their country, as + within its chartered limits, together with open offers from the royal + commanders to establish and defend them as a British province, produced a + serious crisis which called for the interference of the American chief. + This was the more necessary, as the governments of New York and Vermont + were both resolved on exercising a jurisdiction over the same people and + the same territory. Congress, wishing to compromise the controversy, on + middle ground, resolved, in August, 1781, to accede to the independence of + Vermont on certain conditions and within certain specified limits which + they supposed would satisfy both parties. Contrary to their expectations + this mediatorial act of the national Legislature was rejected by Vermont, + and yet was so disagreeable to the Legislature of New York as to draw from + them a spirited protest against it. Vermont complained that Congress + interfered in their internal police; New York viewed the resolve as a + virtual dismemberment of their State, which was a constituent part of the + Confederacy. Washington, anxious for the peace of the Union, sent a + message to Governor Chittenden of Vermont desiring to know "what were the + real designs, views, and intentions of the people of Vermont; whether they + would be satisfied with the independence proposed by Congress, or had it + seriously in contemplation to join with the enemy and become a British + province." The Governor returned an unequivocal answer: "That there were + no people on the continent more attached to the cause of America than the + people of Vermont, but they were fully determined not to be put under the + government of New York; that they would oppose this by force of arms and + would join with the British in Canada rather than submit to that + government." While both States were dissatisfied with Congress, and their + animosities, from increasing violence and irritation, became daily more + alarming, Washington, aware of the extremes to which all parties were + tending, returned an answer to Governor Chittenden in which were these + expressions: "It is not my business, neither do I think it necessary now + to discuss the origin of the right of a number of inhabitants to that + tract of country formerly distinguished by the name of the New Hampshire + grants, and now known by that of Vermont. I will take it for granted that + their right was good, because Congress by their resolve of the 17th of + August imply it, and by that of the 21st are willing fully to confirm it, + provided the new State is confined to certain described bounds. It + appears, therefore, to me that the dispute of boundary is the only one + that exists, and that being removed all other difficulties would be + removed also and the matter terminated to the satisfaction of all parties. + You have nothing to do but withdraw your jurisdiction to the confines of + your old limits and obtain an acknowledgment of independence and + sovereignty under the resolve of the 21st of August (1781), for so much + territory as does not interfere with the ancient established bounds of New + York, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. In my private opinion, while it + behooves the delegates to do ample justice to a body of people + sufficiently respectable by their numbers and entitled by other claims to + be admitted into that confederation, it becomes them also to attend to the + interests of their constituents and see that under the appearance of + justice to one they do not materially injure the rights of others. I am + apt to think this is the prevailing opinion of Congress." + </p> + <p> + The impartiality, moderation, and good sense of this letter, together with + a full conviction of the disinterested patriotism of the writer, brought + round a revolution in the minds of the Legislature of Vermont, and they + accepted the propositions of Congress though they had rejected them four + months before. A truce among the contending parties followed and the storm + blew over. Thus the personal influence of one man, derived from his + pre-eminent virtues and meritorious services, extinguished the sparks of + civil discord at the time they were kindling into flame. {2} + </p> + <p> + While Washington, during the early part of the year 1781, was thus + contending with every species of discouragement and difficulty, prevented + from acting offensively by want of means, and thus apparently wasting away + the fighting season in comparative inaction the war was actively raging in + the southern States. To this grand theater of hostilities, as interesting + as they are terrible, we must now call the reader's attention. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Footnote: Gen. Joseph Reed, formerly secretary to Washington. +</pre> + <p> + 2. Footnote: It was during this dispute between New York and Vermont that + Gen. Ethan Allen, then residing in the latter State, received large offers + from the British to use his influence to detach Vermont from the Union and + annex it to Canada. Of course these offers were indignantly rejected. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. — THE CAMPAIGN AT THE SOUTH. 1781. + </h2> + <p> + In our last notice of the movements and operations of the contending + armies in the southern States, we left Cornwallis, after a dreary and + disastrous retreat, at Wynnsborough. The Americans, in the meantime, were + not idle. Defeated, but not subdued, they were active in preparing to + renew the struggle. After the defeat and dispersion of his army at Camden, + General Gates retreated to Charlotte, eighty miles from the field of + battle. There he halted to collect the straggling fugitives and to + endeavor from the wreck of his discomfited army to form a force with which + he might check or impede the advancing foe. He was soon joined by Generals + Smallwood and Gist, and about 150 dispirited officers and soldiers. Most + of the militia who escaped returned home, and General Caswell was ordered + to assemble those of the neighboring counties. Major Anderson of the Third + Maryland regiment, who had collected a number of fugitives not far from + the field of battle, proceeded toward Charlotte by easy marches in order + to give stragglers time to join him. But as Charlotte was utterly + indefensible and as no barrier lay between it and the victorious enemy + Gates retreated to Salisbury and sent Colonel Williams, accompanied by + another officer, on the road leading to Camden to gain information of the + movements of Cornwallis, and to direct such stragglers as he met to hasten + to Salisbury. From Salisbury Gates proceeded to Hillsborough, where he + intended to assemble an army with which he might contend for the southern + Provinces. + </p> + <p> + It was from Hillsborough that he wrote the letter to Washington, which we + have already quoted, desiring the exertion of his influence to prevent his + being superseded in the command of the southern army. + </p> + <p> + At Hillsborough every exertion was made to collect and organize a military + force and ere long Gates was again at the head of 1,400 men. Even before + the royal army entered North Carolina that State had called out the second + division of its militia, under Generals Davidson and Sumner, and they were + joined by the volunteer cavalry under Colonel Davie. + </p> + <p> + When Cornwallis entered Charlotte, Gates ordered General Smallwood to take + post at the fords of the Yadkin in order to dispute the passage of the + river, and Morgan, who had joined the southern army with the rank of + brigadier-general, was employed with a light corps to harass the enemy. + </p> + <p> + When Cornwallis retreated Gates advanced to Charlotte; he stationed + General Smallwood further down the Catawba on the road to Camden and + ordered Morgan to some distance in his front. Such was the position of the + troops when Gates was superseded in the command of the southern army. + </p> + <p> + On the 5th of October (1780) Congress, without any previous indications of + dissatisfaction, had passed a resolution requiring Washington to order a + court of inquiry into the conduct of Major-General Gates, as commander of + the southern army, and to appoint another officer to that command till + such inquiry should be made. The order of Congress to inquire into the + conduct of Gates was unsatisfactory, as we have already seen, to + Washington. It was afterward dispensed with and Gates restored to a + command in the army. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Washington recommended Major-General Greene to Congress as a + person qualified to command the southern army. Greene, by his activity, + intrepidity, and good conduct, had gained the confidence of Washington + long ago; he had desired him to have the command when Gates was appointed, + as we have already seen, and he now again recommended him as an officer in + whose ability, fortitude, and integrity he could trust. On the 2d of + December (1780) Greene arrived at Charlotte and informed Gates of his + commission. That was the first official notice which Gates, the former + favorite of Congress, received of his removal from the command of the + southern army. Next day Gates resigned the command of the army with + becoming dignity and patriotism, and Greene, who was dissatisfied with the + treatment which he had received, behaved toward him with the most polite + attention. + </p> + <p> + In a few hours after Greene entered on his command he received the report + of one of Morgan's foraging parties, not far from Camden. The party + advanced to the vicinity of the British posts at Clermont, which was + viewed by Col. William A. Washington, who saw that it was too strong to be + taken by small arms and cavalry, the only weapons and force present; he + therefore had recourse to stratagem. Having made an imposing show of part + of his men and having placed the trunk of a pine tree in such a situation + as, at a distance, to have the appearance of a cannon, he summoned the + post to surrender, and it yielded without firing a shot. The Tory Colonel + Rugely and 112 men whom he had collected in the place were made prisoners. + This inconsiderable event elated Greene's army and was considered by them + as a good omen of success under their new leader. + </p> + <p> + General Greene's situation was embarrassing. His army was feeble, + consisting, on the 8th of December (1780), of 2,029 infantry, of whom + 1,482 were in camp and 547 in detachments; 821 were Continentals and 1,208 + were militia. Besides these there were 90 cavalry, 60 artillerymen, and + 128 Continentals on extra service, constituting in all a force of 2,307 + men. + </p> + <p> + In North Carolina there were many Loyalists, and hostilities were carried + on between them and their republican neighbors with the most rancorous + animosity. The country was thinly inhabited and abounded in woods and + swamps. The cultivated parts were laid waste by hostile factions, and no + magazines for the army were provided. The troops were almost naked, and + Greene obliged to procure subsistence for them day by day. + </p> + <p> + He found that he could not long remain at Charlotte for the country + between that place and Camden, having been traversed by the contending + armies, was quite exhausted. In order, therefore, to procure subsistence + for his troops, as well as to distract and harass the enemy, Greene, + though fully aware of the danger of such a measure, felt himself + constrained to divide his little army. + </p> + <p> + General Morgan had been invested with the command of the light troops by + Gates, and Greene placed him at the head of one of the divisions of his + army, consisting of nearly 400 infantry under Lieutenant-Colonel Howard, + 170 Virginia riflemen under Major Triplett, and 80 light dragoons under + Lieut.-Col. William A. Washington. With this small force Morgan was sent + to the south of the Catawba to observe the British at Wynnsborough and + Camden and to shift for himself, but was directed to risk as little as + possible. On the 25th of December (1780) he took a position toward the + western frontier of South Carolina, not far from the confluence of the + Pacolet and Broad rivers, and about fifty miles northwest from + Wynnsborough. With the other division of his army Greene left Charlotte on + the 20th of the same month (December, 1780), and on the 29th arrived at + Hick's Corner on the east side of the Pedee, opposite the Cheraw hills, + about seventy miles northeast from Wynnsborough, where he remained some + time. He marched to that place in the hope of finding more plentiful + subsistence for his troops, but his difficulties in that respect were not + much diminished, for the country was almost laid waste by the cruel feuds + of the hostile factions. + </p> + <p> + General Morgan did not long remain inactive. On the 27th of December + (1780) he detached Colonel Washington with his dragoons and 200 militia, + who next day marched forty miles, surprised a body of Loyalists at + Ninety-six, killed or wounded 150 of them, and took 40 prisoners, without + sustaining any loss. At that time Morgan was joined by Major M'Dowell with + 200 North Carolina, and by Colonel Pickens with 70 South Carolina militia. + </p> + <p> + The British had to contend not only with the force under Greene and + Morgan, but were also obliged to watch other adversaries not less active + and enterprising. Sumter had been defeated by Tarleton on the 18th of + August (1780), and his followers dispersed, but that daring and + indefatigable partisan did not long remain quiet. He was soon again at the + head of a considerable band and had frequent skirmishes with his + adversaries. Always changing his position about Enoree, Broad, and Tiger + rivers, he often assailed the British posts in that quarter. On the 12th + of November (1780) he was attacked at Broad river by Major Wemyss, but + repulsed the party and made the major prisoner. On the 20th of the same + month he was attacked by Tarleton at Black Stocks, near Tiger river; the + encounter was sharp and obstinate; Tarleton was repulsed with loss, but + Sumter was wounded in the battle, and, being unfitted for active service, + his followers dispersed. Sumter showed much humanity to his prisoners. + Although Wemyss had deliberately hanged Mr. Cusack in the Cheraw district, + and although he had in his pocket a list of several houses burned by his + orders, yet he met with every indulgence. At Black Stocks the wounded were + kindly treated. + </p> + <p> + Other partisan chiefs arose and among them General Marion held a + distinguished place. He had commanded a regiment in Charleston at the time + of the siege, but having received a wound which fractured his leg, and + being incapable of discharging the {1} active duties of his office, he + withdrew from the town. On the advance of Gates, having procured a band of + followers, he penetrated to the Santee, harassed the British detachments, + and discouraged the Loyalists. After the defeat of the Americans at Camden + he rescued a party of Continental prisoners who were under a British + guard. So ill was he provided with arms that he was obliged to forge the + saws of the sawmills into rude swords for his horsemen, and so scanty was + his ammunition that at times he engaged when he had not three cartridges + to each of his party. He secured himself from pursuit in the recesses of + the forest and in deep swamps. {2} + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis impatiently waited the arrival of reinforcements. After the + victory at Camden, when he was flushed with the sanguine hope not only of + overrunning North Carolina, but of invading Virginia, General Leslie was + detached from New York to the southward with a considerable body of + troops, and, according to orders, landed in Virginia, expecting to meet + the southern army in that State. On finding himself unable to accomplish + his lofty schemes, and obliged to fall back into South Carolina, + Cornwallis ordered Leslie to re-embark and sail for Charleston. He arrived + there on the 13th of December (1780), and on the 19th began his march with + 1,500 men to join Cornwallis. His lordship resolved to begin offensive + operations immediately on the arrival of his reinforcements, but, in the + meantime, alarmed by the movements of Morgan for the safety of the British + post at Ninety-six, he detached Tarleton with the light and legion + infantry, the fusiliers or Seventh regiment, the first battalion of the + Seventy-first regiment, 350 cavalry, 2 field pieces, and an adequate + number of the royal artillery, in all about 1,100 men, with orders to + strike a blow at Morgan and drive him out of the province. As Tarleton's + force was known to be superior to that under Morgan, no doubt whatever was + entertained of the precipitate flight or total discomfiture of the + Americans. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Cornwallis left Wynnsborough and proceeded toward the northwest, + between the Broad and Catawba rivers. General Leslie, who had halted at + Camden in order to conceal as long as possible the road which the British + army was to take, was now ordered to advance up the Catawba and join the + main body on its march. By this route Cornwallis hoped to intercept Morgan + if he should escape Tarleton, or perhaps to get between General Greene and + Virginia and compel him to fight before the arrival of his expected + reinforcements. The British generals encumbered with baggage and military + stores, marching through bad roads, and a country intersected by rivulets + which were often swollen by the rains, advanced but slowly. Tarleton, + however, with his light troops, proceeded with great celerity and overtook + Morgan probably sooner than was expected. + </p> + <p> + On the 14th of January (1781) Morgan was informed of the movements of the + British army and got notice of the march of Tarleton and of the force + under his command. Sensible of his danger he began to retreat, and crossed + the Pacolet, the passage of which he was inclined to dispute, but, on + being told that Tarleton had forded the river six miles above him, he made + a precipitate retreat, and at ten at night on the 16th of January the + British took possession of the ground which the Americans had left a few + hours before. + </p> + <p> + Although his troops were much fatigued by several days' hard marching + through a difficult country, yet, determined that Morgan should not + escape, Tarleton resumed the pursuit at three next morning, leaving his + baggage behind under a guard with orders not to move till break of day. + Morgan, though retreating, was not disinclined to fight. By great + exertions he might have crossed Broad river or reached a hilly tract of + country before he could have been overtaken. He was inferior to Tarleton + in the number of his troops, but more so in their quality, as a + considerable part of his force consisted of militia, and the British + cavalry were three times more numerous than the American. But Morgan, who + had great confidence both in himself and in his men, was apprehensive of + being overtaken before he could pass Broad river, and he chose rather to + fight voluntarily than to be forced to a battle. Therefore, having been + joined by some militia under Colonel Pickens, he halted at a place called + the Cowpens, about three miles from the line of separation between North + and South Carolina. Before daylight on the morning of the 17th of January + (1781), he was informed of the near approach of Tarleton, and instantly + prepared to receive him. + </p> + <p> + The ground on which Morgan halted had no great advantages, but his + dispositions were judicious. On rising ground, in an open wood, he drew up + his Continental troops and Triplett's corps, amounting together to nearly + 500 men, under Lieutenant-Colonel Howard. Colonel Washington with his + cavalry was posted in their rear, behind the eminence, ready to act as + occasion might require. At a small distance in front of his Continentals + was a line of militia under Colonel Pickens and Major M'Dowell, and 150 + yards in front of Pickens was stationed a battalion of North Carolina and + Georgia volunteers under Major Cunningham, with orders to give one + discharge on the approaching enemy, and then to retreat and join the + militia. Pickens was directed, when he could no longer keep his ground, to + fall back with a retreating fire and form on the right of the + Continentals. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely were those dispositions made when the British van appeared. + Tarleton, who had been informed by two prisoners of Morgan's position and + strength, instantly formed his troops. The light and legion infantry and + the Seventh regiment, and a captain with fifty dragoons on each flank, + constituted his first line; the first battalion of the Seventy-first + regiment and the rest of the cavalry composed the reserve. Formerly + Tarleton had succeeded by sudden and impetuous assaults, and, entertaining + no doubt of speedy and complete victory on the present occasion, he led on + his men to the attack with characteristic ardor, even before his troops + were well formed. The British rushed forward impetuously, shouting and + firing as they advanced. The American volunteers, after a single + discharge, retreated to the militia under Pickens. The British advanced + rapidly, and furiously attacked the militia, who soon gave way and sought + shelter in the rear of the Continentals. Tarleton eagerly pressed on, but + the Continentals, undismayed by the retreat of the militia, received him + firmly, and an obstinate conflict ensued. Tarleton ordered up his reserve, + and the Continental line was shaken by the violence of the onset. Morgan + ordered his men to retreat to the summit of the eminence and was instantly + obeyed. The British, whose ranks were somewhat thinned, exhausted by the + previous march and by the struggle in which they had been engaged, and + believing the victory won, pursued in some disorder, but, on reaching the + top of the hill, Howard ordered his men to wheel and face the enemy; they + instantly obeyed and met the pursuing foe with a well-directed and deadly + fire. This unexpected and destructive volley threw the British into some + confusion, which Howard observing, ordered his men to charge them with the + bayonet. Their obedience was as prompt as before, and the British line was + soon broken. About the same moment Washington routed the cavalry on the + British right, who had pursued the flying militia and were cutting them + down on the left and even in the rear of the Continentals. Ordering his + men not to fire a pistol, Washington charged the British cavalry sword in + hand. The conflict was sharp, but not of long duration. The British were + driven from the ground with considerable loss and closely pursued. Howard + and Washington pressed the advantage which they had gained; many of the + militia rallied and joined in the battle. In a few minutes after the + British had been pursuing the enemy, without a doubt of victory, the + fortune of the day entirely changed; their artillerymen were killed, their + cannon taken, and the greater part of the infantry compelled to lay down + their arms. Tarleton, with about forty horse, made a furious charge on + Washington's cavalry, but the battle was irrecoverably lost, and he was + reluctantly obliged to retreat. Upwards of 200 of his cavalry, who had not + been engaged, fled through the woods with the utmost precipitation, + bearing away with them such of the officers as endeavored to oppose their + flight. The only part of the infantry which escaped was the detachment + left to guard the baggage, which they destroyed when informed of the + defeat, and, mounting the wagons and spare horses, hastily retreated to + the army. The cavalry arrived in camp in two divisions; one in the + evening, with the tidings of their disastrous discomfiture, and the other, + under Tarleton himself, appeared next morning. In this battle the British + had ten commissioned officers and upwards of 100 privates killed. More + than 500 were made prisoners, nearly 200 of whom, including twenty-nine + commissioned officers, were wounded. Two pieces of artillery, two + standards, 800 muskets, thirty-five baggage wagons and about 100 horses + fell into the hands of the Americans whose loss amounted only to 12 men + killed and 60 wounded. The British force under Tarleton has been commonly + estimated at 1,100 men, and the American army at 1,000, although Morgan, + in his official report to Greene, written two days after the battle, + states it to have been only 800. {3} + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis was at Turkey creek, twenty-five miles from the Cowpens, + confident of the success of his detachment or at least without the + slightest apprehension of its defeat. He was between Greene and Morgan and + it was a matter of much importance to prevent their junction and to + overthrow the one of them while he could receive no support from the + other. For that purpose he had marched up Broad river and instructed + General Leslie to proceed on the banks of the Catawba in order to keep the + Americans in a state of uncertainty concerning the route which he intended + to pursue, but the unexpected defeat of his detachment was an occurrence + equally mortifying and perplexing and nothing remained but to endeavor to + compensate the disaster by the rapidity of his movements and the decision + of his conduct. + </p> + <p> + He was as near the fords of the Catawba as Morgan and flattered himself + that, elated with victory and encumbered with prisoners and baggage, that + officer might yet be overtaken before he could pass those fords. + Accordingly, on the 18th of January, (1781) he formed a junction with + General Leslie and on the 19th began his remarkable pursuit of Morgan. In + order the more certainly to accomplish his end at Ramsour's Mills he + destroyed the whole of his superfluous baggage. He set the example by + considerably diminishing the quantity of his own and was readily imitated + by his officers although some of them suffered much less by the measure. + He retained no wagons except those loaded with hospital stores and + ammunition and four empty ones for the accommodation of the sick and + wounded. But notwithstanding all his privations and exertions he + ultimately missed his aim for Morgan displayed as much prudence and + activity after his victory as bravery in gaining it. Fully aware of his + danger he left behind him, under a flag of truce, such of the wounded as + could not be moved with surgeons to attend them, and scarcely giving his + men time to breathe he sent off his prisoners under an escort of militia + and followed with his regular troops and cavalry, bringing up the rear in + person. He crossed Broad river at the upper fords, hastened to the + Catawba, which he reached on the evening of the 28th, and safely passed it + with his prisoners and troops next day—his rear having gained the + northern bank only about two hours before the van of the British army + appeared on the opposite side. + </p> + <p> + Much rain had fallen on the mountains a short time before and it rained + incessantly during the night. The river rose and in the morning was + impassable. Morgan made a hair-breadth escape, for had the river risen a + few hours sooner he would have been unable to pass and probably would have + been overtaken and overwhelmed by his pursuers and had the flood in the + river been a little later Cornwallis might have forced a passage and + entirely discomfited the American division. But it was two days before the + inundation subsided, and in that interval Morgan sent off his prisoners + towards Charlottesville, in Virginia, under an escort of militia and they + were soon beyond the reach of pursuit. The Americans regarded the swelling + of the river with pious gratitude as an interposition of Heaven in their + behalf and looked forward with increased confidence to the day of ultimate + success. + </p> + <p> + Morgan called for the assistance of the neighboring militia, and prepared + to dispute the passage of the river; but on the 31st of January (1781), + while he lay at Sherwood's ford, General Greene unexpectedly appeared in + camp and took on himself the command. Toward the end of December, (1781) + Greene, as already mentioned, took a position at Hick's creek on the east + side of the Peedee, and had in camp 1,100 Continental and State troops fit + for service. On the 12th of January (1781) he was joined by Col. Henry + Lee's partisan legion which arrived from the North and consisted of 100 + well-mounted horsemen and 120 infantry. This reinforcement was next day + dispatched on a secret expedition and in order to divert the attention of + the enemy from the movements of the legion, Major Anderson, with a small + detachment was sent down the Peedee. On the night of the 24th, Lee + surprised Georgetown and killed some of the garrison, but the greater part + fled into the fort which Lee was not in a condition to besiege. + </p> + <p> + Although Cornwallis perceived that he would meet with opposition yet he + determined to force the passage. The river was about 500 yards wide, three + feet deep, and the stream rapid. The light infantry of the guards under + Colonel Hall, accompanied by a guide, first entered the ford; they were + followed by the grenadiers who were succeeded by the battalions. As soon + as Davidson perceived the direction of the British column he led his men + to the point where it was about to land. But before he arrived the light + infantry had overcome all difficulties and were ascending the bank and + forming. While passing the river, in obedience to orders, they reserved + their fire, and, on gaining the bank, soon put the militia to flight. + Davidson was the last to retreat and on mounting his horse to retire he + received a mortal wound. + </p> + <p> + The defeat of Davidson opened the passage of the river. All the American + parties retreated, and on the same day the rest of the British army + crossed at Beattie's ford. Tarleton, with the cavalry and the Twenty-third + regiment, was sent in pursuit of the militia, and being informed on his + march that the neighboring militia were assembling at Tarrant's tavern, + about ten miles distant, he hastened with the cavalry to that place. About + 500 militia were assembled and seemed not unprepared to receive him. He + attacked them with his usual impetuosity and soon defeated and dispersed + them with considerable slaughter. The passage of the river and the total + discomfiture of the party at Tarrant's tavern so much intimidated the + inhabitants of the country that the royal army received no further trouble + from the militia till it had passed the Yadkin. + </p> + <p> + A grand military race now began between the retreating Americans under + Greene and the pursuing British under Cornwallis. Greene marched so + rapidly that he passed the Yadkin at the trading ford on the night between + the 2d and 3d of February (1781), partly by fording and partly by means of + boats and flats. So closely was he pursued that the British van was often + in sight of the American rear and a sharp conflict happened not far from + the ford, between a body of American riflemen and the advanced guard of + the British army, when the latter obtained possession of a few wagons. + Greene secured all the boats on the south side and here it again happened + as at the Catawba—the river suddenly rose by reason of the preceding + rains and the British were unable to pass. This second escape by the + swelling of the waters was interpreted by the Americans as a visible + interposition of Heaven in their behalf and inspired then with a lofty + enthusiasm in that cause which seemed to be the peculiar care of + Omnipotence. + </p> + <p> + Greene, released from the immediate pressure of his pursuers, continued + his march northward and on the 7th of February joined his division under + Huger and Williams near Guilford Courthouse. + </p> + <p> + In order to cover his retreat and to check the pursuing enemy Greene + formed a light corps out of Lee's legion, Howard's infantry, Washington's + cavalry, and some Virginia riflemen under Major Campbell, amounting to 700 + men, the flower of the southern army. As General Morgan was severely + indisposed the command of these light troops was given to Col. Otho + Holland Williams, formerly adjutant-general. + </p> + <p> + Having refreshed his troops, and made the necessary arrangements on the + morning of the 10th of February (1781), Greene left Guilford Courthouse on + his march towards the Dan, and was pursued by Cornwallis, who had been + detained by the long circuit which he was obliged to make in order to pass + the Yadkin. The retreat and pursuit were equally rapid, but the boldness + and activity of the American light troops compelled the British to march + compactly and with caution, for on one occasion Colonel Lee charged the + advanced cavalry of the British army suddenly and furiously, killed a + number, and made some prisoners. On this occasion Cornwallis felt the loss + of the light troops who had been killed or taken at the Cowpens. He was + destined to regret their loss through the rest of the campaign. + </p> + <p> + Greene's precautions and preparations for passing the Dan were successful + and on the 14th of February he crossed that river at Boyd's and Irwin's + ferries with his army, baggage, and stores. Although his light troops had + marched forty miles that day, yet the last of them had scarcely reached + the northern bank when the advanced guard of the British army appeared on + the other side of the river. + </p> + <p> + The escape of Greene into Virginia without a battle and without any loss + except a few wagons at the Yadkin, was a severe disappointment to + Cornwallis. He had entirely failed in his attempts against Greene, but he + was consoled by the reflection that he had completely driven him out of + North Carolina, and that now there was nothing to hinder the loyal + inhabitants from openly espousing the British cause and reinforcing the + royal army. + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis now gave up the pursuit and repaired to Hillsborough with the + view of calling out and organizing the Royalist forces. His adherents, + though here particularly strong, did not come forward to the extent + expected. The larger portion, as elsewhere, regarded the cause with that + passive and inert attachment which we have remarked to be generally + prevalent and even the more zealous having suffered severely by former + premature displays, dreaded lest the republican cause should regain the + ascendancy. The view also of the distress and exhaustion of the British + troops after so long a march was by no means alluring. Yet seven companies + were formed and detachments began to come in from different quarters. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, Greene, having obtained a reinforcement of Virginia + militia, repassed the Dan and with his light troops endeavored to annoy + the British army and prevent recruiting. Major Lee surprised a detachment + of Royalists who mistook him for Tarleton and cut them nearly to pieces. + On account of the exhausted state of the country at Hillsborough, + Cornwallis soon withdrew to a position on the Allimance creek between Haw + and Deep rivers, where he could be better supplied and support his friends + who were numerous there. Greene, however, by an active use of his cavalry + and light troops, severely harassed his opponent and by changing his own + position every night, eluded the attempt to bring him to an engagement. + </p> + <p> + At length General Greene, having received reinforcements which raised his + army to above 4,200 men, of whom about a third were regulars, determined + to offer battle. This was what Cornwallis had eagerly sought, yet his own + effective force being reduced to somewhat under 2,000 he felt now some + hesitation, and probably would have acted more wisely in maintaining the + defensive. Even the enterprising Tarleton observes that in his + circumstances defeat would have been total ruin, while any victory he + might expect to gain could yield little fruit. All the habits and views of + Cornwallis, however, being directed to an active campaign, he formed his + resolution and, on the 15th of March (1781), proceeded to the attack. + Greene had drawn up his army very judiciously near Guilford Courthouse + mostly on a range of hills covered with trees and brushwood. + </p> + <p> + Greene made disposition of his troops in the following order: The first + line was composed of North Carolina militia, the right under General Eaton + and the left under General Butler, with two pieces of artillery under + Captain Singleton. The right flank was supported by Kirkwood's + Delawareans, Lynch's riflemen, and the cavalry, all under + Lieutenant-Colonel Washington, and the left in like manner by + Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell's riflemen and the infantry of the legion, all + under Lieutenant-Colonel Lee. The second line, which was formed 300 yards + in the rear of the first, consisted of two brigades of Virginia militia, + the right under General Lawson and the left under General Stevens. The + third, 400 yards in reserve was formed upon the brow of the hill near the + courthouse. The right of this line was composed of Hawes's and Greene's + Virginia regiments under General Huger; the left of the first and second + Maryland regiments, the former under Gunby, the latter under Ford—the + whole commanded by Colonel Williams. In the center of the last line was + placed the remainder of the artillery. + </p> + <p> + Captain Singleton commenced his fire, which was returned by the enemy, who + had formed their line of battle—the right wing under General Leslie + and the left under Lieutenant-Colonel Webster, with the artillery in the + center under Lieutenant-Colonel McLeod. The first battalion of the guards, + under Lieutenant-Colonel Norton, served as a support for the right, and + the second, with one company of grenadiers under General O'Hara, for the + left wing. Tarleton's dragoons were held in reserve. The British commander + having made all his dispositions advanced, fired one round, and charged + bayonets. Our militia having given a few shots while the enemy was at a + distance were seized by a panic when they saw him coming down upon them. + Many of them threw away their muskets, and the entreaties of Butler, + Eaton, and Davie, with the threats of Lee, were of no avail. Almost the + entire body fled. The artillery now retired to the left of the + Marylanders. At this crisis the enemy considered victory as already within + his grasp and continued to push on when he was attacked on his right and + left by Lee and Washington. Cornwallis perceiving this threw one regiment + out to engage Lee, and one regiment together with his light infantry and + yagers to resist Washington, filling up the breach thus created by + advancing the grenadiers with two battalions of the guards, which had + formed the supports to the flanks. Lee and Washington fell back in good + order, delivering their fire until they came up with the second line which + gave battle in good earnest. The right flank was supported by Washington, + who ordered Lynch's riflemen to fall upon the left of Webster, who had to + be supported by O'Hara. Here Webster ordered the Thirty-third regiment to + attack Lynch and was thereby in a measure relieved. O'Hara charged the + Virginia right wing, which was obliged to yield ground. Lee on the left + nobly did his duty and firmly held his position. When the militia on the + right gave way those on the left fell back and were not rallied until they + came up on the left of the third line. Campbell's riflemen and Lee's + legion stood perfectly firm and continued the contest against one + regiment, one battalion, and a body of infantry and riflemen. The American + reserve, with the artillery posted in a most favorable position, was fresh + and ready for the word of command. Webster having overcome the Americans + of the second line in his front advanced upon the third and was received + by Gunby's Maryland regiment with a most galling fire which made his + troops falter. Gunby advanced, charging bayonets, when the enemy was + completely routed. + </p> + <p> + Leslie, after the left of the Virginia militia gave way, advanced to the + support of O'Hara, who had forced the American right wing, and the + combined commands of these generals charged the Second Maryland regiment + of the third line. This regiment, panic-stricken, fled. Gunby, coming up + at the time, held the enemy in check and a deadly conflict ensued. Gunby + having his horse shot under him, Lieutenant-Colonel Howard assumed the + command. Washington seeing how hot was the battle at this point pushed + forward and charged the enemy, and Howard advancing with his bayonets + leveled, the British were completely routed. + </p> + <p> + The pursuit was continued for some distance when Cornwallis came up and + determined to gain the victory at any cost. He opened the fire of his + artillery alike on friend and foe, causing an indiscriminate slaughter of + British and Americans. + </p> + <p> + The British were rallied at all points, and Greene, considering it better + to preserve the advantages he had gained, withdrew his forces. This was + done in good order and Cornwallis continued the pursuit but a short + distance. The loss of the Americans was about 400 in killed and wounded; + that of the British about 800. The enemy retained the field, but his + victory was both empty, and disastrous. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding Cornwallis claimed a victory he resolved to fall back on + Wilmington, near the mouth of Cape Fear river, where he could recruit his + troops and obtain supplies and reinforcements by sea. + </p> + <p> + Greene retreated about fifteen miles, taking post behind a small stream + called Troublesome creek, where he expected and awaited an attack. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Marion was a strict temperance man. Being at a dinner party + where the guests, determined on a hard drinking bout, had locked the door + to prevent his exit, he jumped out of a second-story window, and broke his + leg. This was the wound above referred to. It occasioned him to leave the + city. He thus escaped surrendering when Charleston fell, and his + temperance preserved to the country one of its bravest defenders. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Marion, on account of his successful stratagems and sudden + surprises of the British, was called by them the <i>Swamp-Fox</i>. His own + countrymen styled him the <i>Bayard</i> of the South. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: The action at the Cowpens was one of the medal victories. + Congress had separate gold medals struck in honor of it, and presented to + Morgan, Howard, and Col. William A. Washington. The name Cowpens, + according to Irving, comes from the old designation of Hannah's Cowpens, + the place being part of a grazing establishment belonging to a man named + Hannah. The worthy grazier could hardly have foreseen the immortality + which was destined to attach to his Cowpens. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. — THE CAMPAIGN AT THE SOUTH CONCLUDED. 1781. + </h2> + <p> + While the events recorded in the last chapter were passing Washington was + by no means a passive spectator. He held a constant correspondence with + Greene and sent him all the aid he could. Writing to him on the 9th of + January, 1781, he says: "It is impossible for anyone to sympathize more + feelingly with you in the sufferings and distresses of the troops than I + do, and nothing could aggravate my unhappiness so much as the want of + ability to remedy or alleviate the calamities which they suffer and in + which we participate but too largely. + </p> + <p> + "The brilliant action of General Sumter and the stratagem of Colonel + Washington deserve great commendation. It gives me inexpressible pleasure + to find that such a spirit of enterprise and intrepidity still prevails." + {1} + </p> + <p> + Writing to Greene again (on the 21st of March, 1781), he says: "You may be + assured that your retreat before Lord Cornwallis is highly applauded by + all ranks and reflects much honor on your military abilities." Such words, + from such a man, must have inspirited Greene amidst his toils and perils. + </p> + <p> + Greene, writing to Washington three days after the battle of Guilford + Courthouse, says: "In my former letters I enclosed to your Excellency the + probable strength of the British army, since which they have been + constantly declining. Our force, as you will see by the returns, was + respectable, and the probability of not being able to keep it long in the + field, and the difficulty of subsisting men in this exhausted country, + together with the great advantages which would result from the action if + we were victorious, and the little injury if we were otherwise, determined + me to bring on an action as soon as possible. When both parties are agreed + in a matter all obstacles are soon removed. I thought the determination + warranted by the soundest principles of good policy and I hope events will + prove it so though we were unfortunate. I regret nothing so much as the + loss of my artillery, though it was of little use to us, nor can it be in + this great wilderness. However, as the enemy have it, we must also." + </p> + <p> + "Lord Cornwallis," he writes in the same letter, "will not give up this + country without being roundly beaten. I wish our force was more competent + to the business. But I am in hopes, by little and little, to reduce him in + time. His troops are good, well found, and fight with great obstinacy. + </p> + <p> + "Virginia has given me every support I could wish or expect since Lord + Cornwallis has been in North Carolina, and nothing has contributed more to + this than the prejudice of the people in favor of your Excellency which + has been extended to me from the friendship you have been pleased to honor + me with." + </p> + <p> + The reader will not fail to observe the soundness of Greene's judgment as + to the beneficial effect of the battle of Guilford Courthouse. It was + truly a disastrous victory for Cornwallis and a fortunate defeat for + Greene, whose subsequent operations we must now notice. + </p> + <p> + When Greene took his position at the ironworks on Troublesome creek after + the battle of Guilford Courthouse he expected that Cornwallis would follow + up his advantage and attack him without delay. He therefore prepared again + to fight. His army, indeed, was much diminished, but he had lost more in + numbers than in effective strength. The militia, many of whom had returned + home, had shown themselves very inefficient in the field. As soon as he + received certain information that instead of pursuing, Cornwallis was + retreating, he resolved to follow him and advanced accordingly. + </p> + <p> + Greene was now in his turn the pursuer and followed Cornwallis so closely + that skirmishes occasionally happened between his advanced parties and the + rear guard of the British army, but no conflict of importance ensued. On + the morning of the 28th of March he arrived at Ramsay's Mills, on Deep + river, a strong post which the British had evacuated a few hours before, + crossing the river by a bridge erected for the purpose. There Greene + paused and meditated on his future movements. His army, like that of the + British, for some time past had suffered much from heavy rains, deep + roads, and scarcity of provisions. On reaching Ramsay's Mills his men were + starving with hunger and fed voraciously on some fresh quarters of beef + left behind by the British army. The troops were much exhausted and stood + in need of repose and refreshment. Besides in that critical state of the + campaign he found himself reduced to a handful of Continentals. Most of + the militia had left him. Small as his army was he found great difficulty + in procuring subsistence for it. + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis had fairly the start of the Americans and was advancing to a + place where he would find more plentiful supplies and easily communicate + with the sea; so that Greene was sensible that with the force then under + his command he could make no impression on him. He resolved, therefore, + instead of following his opponent, to proceed to South Carolina. That + step, he thought, would oblige Cornwallis either to follow him or to + abandon his posts in the upper parts of the southern States. If he + followed him North Carolina would be relieved and enabled to raise its + quota of men for the Continental service, but if he remained in that State + or proceeded to the northward it was likely that the greater part of the + British posts in South Carolina and Georgia would be reduced and that + those States would be restored to the Union. He entertained little + apprehension of Cornwallis being able with the force then under his + command to make any permanent impression on the powerful State of + Virginia. + </p> + <p> + Having refreshed his troops and collected provisions for a few days Greene + moved from Ramsay's Mills, on Deep river, on the 5th of April (1781), + toward Camden, and on the morning of the 20th of the same month encamped + at Logtown in sight of the British works at that place. + </p> + <p> + Soon after his arrival at Wilmington, Cornwallis received certain + information that Greene was proceeding to South Carolina, and it threw him + into much perplexity. He was alarmed for the safety of Lord Rawdon, but, + though desirous of assisting him, he was convinced that the Americans were + already so far advanced that it was impossible for him to arrive at Camden + in time to succor Rawdon if he should need it. His lordship's fate and + that of his garrison would probably be decided long before he could reach + them, and if Greene should be successful at Camden, he, by attempting to + relieve it, might be hemmed in between the great rivers and exposed to the + most imminent hazard. On the other hand, if Rawdon should defeat Greene + there would be no need of his assistance. A movement so perilous in the + execution and promising so little in the result was abandoned and Rawdon + left to his own resources. + </p> + <p> + Greene, without regard to the movements of his opponent, pushed on and + established himself at Hobkirk's Hill, about a mile from Rawdon's + headquarters at Camden. The militia having either deserted or their term + of service being expired his force was reduced to 1,800 men, but those in + fact included all on whom he could ever place much dependence. Camden was + occupied by Rawdon with about 800 men, the other troops being employed + upon the defense of detached posts, yet his position was judged so strong + as to afford no hope of success in a direct attack. The object aimed at + was, by throwing out detachments which might capture the forts and cut off + the supplies in his rear, to compel him gradually to fall back. Lee, for + this purpose, was sent with a strong party to cooperate with Marion and + Sumter. The English general seeing the hostile troops thus reduced to + about 1,500, formed the bold resolution of attacking them. Making a large + circuit round a swamp he came upon their left flank quite unexpectedly, + while the soldiers were busied in cooking and washing. This first surprise + was never wholly recovered, yet they quickly stood to their arms and + formed in order of battle. They had even gained some advantages when the + First Maryland regiment, considered the flower of the army and which had + highly distinguished itself both at Cowpens and Guilford, fell into + confusion, and when ordered to make a retrograde movement, converted it + into a complete retreat. The other corps also, beginning to give ground, + Greene thought it expedient to cause the whole to retire. The loss on each + side was about 260 killed and wounded, and the Americans carried off fifty + prisoners, including six officers. + </p> + <p> + This battle, commonly called the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, reflected much + honor on Lord Rawdon considering the disproportion of force which was, in + fact, greater than at Guilford, yet it did not change materially the + relative situation of the armies. Greene could still maintain his position + and support the detachments operating in the rear of his adversary. + </p> + <p> + Lee and Marion proceeded next against Fort Watson on the Santee which + commanded in a great measure the communication with Charleston. Having + neither artillery nor besieging tools they reared a tower above the level + of the rampart whence their rifle fire drove the defenders, and themselves + then mounted and compelled the garrison to surrender. They could not, + however, prevent Colonel Watson from leading 500 men to reinforce Lord + Rawdon, who then advanced with the intention of bringing Greene again to + action, but found him fallen back upon so strong a position as to afford + no reasonable hope of success. His lordship finding his convoys + intercepted and viewing the generally insecure state of his posts in the + lower country, considered himself under at least the temporary necessity + of retreating thither. He had first in view the relief of Mott's House, on + the Congaree, but before reaching it had the mortification to find that + with the garrison of 165 it had fallen into the hands of Marion and Lee. + He continued his march to Monk's Corner, where he covered Charleston and + the surrounding country. + </p> + <p> + The partisan chiefs rapidly seized this opportunity of attacking the + interior posts and reduced successively Orangeburg and Granby on the + Congaree, and early in June, Augusta, the key of upper Georgia, + surrendered to Lee and Pickens. In these five forts they made 1,100 + prisoners. The most important one, however, was that named Ninety-Six, on + the Saluda, defended by a garrison of 500 men. Orders had been sent to + them to quit and retire downward but the messenger was intercepted and + Colonel Cruger, the commander, made the most active preparations for its + defense. Greene considered the place of such importance that he undertook + the siege in person with 1,000 regulars. He broke ground before it on the + night of the 23d of May (1781), and though much impeded by a successful + sally on the following day, proceeded with such energy that by the 3d of + June the second parallel was completed and the garrison summoned, but in + vain, to surrender. On the 8th, he was reinforced by Lee from the capture + of Augusta and though he encountered a most gallant and effective + resistance trusted that the place must in due time fall. Three days after, + however, he learned that Rawdon, having received a reinforcement from + Ireland, was in full march to relieve it and had baffled the attempts of + Sumter to impede his progress. The American leader, therefore, feeling + himself unable to give battle saw no prospect of carrying the fortress + unless by storm. On the 18th (June, 1781), an attack against the two most + commanding outworks was led by Lee and Campbell, the former of whom + carried his point, but the latter, though he penetrated into the ditch and + maintained his party there for three-quarters of an hour, found them + exposed to so destructive a fire as compelled a general retreat. {2} The + siege was immediately raised and Lord Rawdon, on the 21st, entered the + place in triumph. Being again master of the field, he pressed forward in + the hope of bringing his antagonist to battle but the latter rather chose + to fall back towards the distant point of Charlotte in Virginia, while + Rawdon did not attempt to pursue him beyond the Ennoree. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this present superiority his lordship, having failed in + his hopes of a decisive victory and viewing the general aspect of the + country, considered it no longer possible to attempt more than covering + the lower districts, of South Carolina. He therefore fell back to + Orangeburg on the Edisto and though he attempted at first to maintain + Cruger with a strong body at Ninety-Six was soon induced to recall him. + Greene, being reinforced by 1,000 men under Marion and Sumter, + reconnoitered his position but, judging it imprudent to attack, retired to + the high hills of the Santee, July the 15th (1781), and both armies, + exhausted by such a series of active movements, took an interval of repose + during the heat of the season. + </p> + <p> + Lord Rawdon being at this time obliged by ill health to return to England + left the army under the command of Colonel Stuart, who, to cover the lower + country, occupied a position at the point where the Congaree and Wateree + unite in forming the Santee. Greene, having received reinforcements from + the North and collected all his partisan detachments soon found himself + strong enough to try the chance of battle. His approach on the 7th of + September (1781) with this evident view induced the British to retire down + the river to the strong post of Eutaw Springs, whither the American army + immediately followed. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of September, Greene determined to attack the British camp, + placing as usual his militia in front, hoping that the English in charging + them would get into confusion, but from apprehension of this the latter + had been warned to keep their posts till ordered to move. The American + front, however, maintained their ground better than usual and the British + having become heated and forgetting the warnings given pushed forward + irregularly. They were then charged by the veterans of the second line and + after a very desperate struggle driven off the field. There lay in their + way, however, a large brick building and adjacent garden, where Stuart had + placed a strong corps which could not be dislodged and which kept up a + deadly fire which checked the victors, enabling the retreating troops to + be formed anew. At the same time Colonel Washington attacked the British + flank, but finding it strongly posted amongst the woods he was repulsed + with great loss and himself taken prisoner. The American general seeing no + hope of making any further impression, retreated to his previous position. + The conflict lasted four hours and great bravery was shown on both sides. + Colonel Campbell was mortally wounded. Learning the British were + dispersing he exclaimed, like Wolfe at Quebec, "Then I die contented!" and + immediately expired. + </p> + <p> + In this bloody and doubtful battle both parties claimed the victory though + the Americans with most reason as the general result was greatly to their + advantage. It was certainly far from decisive and the British loss in + killed and wounded was much greater than that of the Americans, who also + carried off above 500 prisoners. The British commander, prompted as well + probably by the result of the day as by the general state of the country + and the numbers and activity of the American light troops, conceiving + himself unable to maintain so advanced a position, retired during the + evening of the 9th (September 1781), and proceeded down to Monk's Corner, + where he covered Charleston and its vicinity. To this and to Savannah were + now limited that proud British authority which had lately extended so + widely over the southern States. {3} + </p> + <p> + Thus ended the campaign of 1781 in South Carolina. At its commencement the + British were in force all over the State. History affords but a few + instances of commanders who have achieved so much with equal means as was + done by General Greene in the short space of twelve months. He opened the + campaign with gloomy prospects but closed it with glory. His unpaid and + half-naked army had to contend with veteran soldiers, supplied with + everything that the wealth of Great Britain or the plunder of Carolina + could procure. Under all these disadvantages he compelled superior numbers + to retire from the extremity of the State, and confine themselves in the + capital and its vicinity. Had not his mind been of the firmest texture he + would have been discouraged, but his enemies found him as formidable on + the evening of a defeat as on the morning after a victory. + </p> + <p> + The reader will not fail to perceive how important a bearing the + operations of Greene in the South had upon those of Washington in the + North. Before recovering North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, + Greene had partly led and partly driven Cornwallis into Virginia, where he + was destined to be conquered by Washington and the war was thus to be + virtually terminated. How this was accomplished will now be the object of + our attention. Virginia had insensibly, as it were, become the principal + theater of war. General Leslie had been sent thither to reinforce + Cornwallis, who it was hoped might penetrate through the Carolinas, but + after Ferguson's disaster he was ordered to go round by Charleston. With + the view, however, of creating a diversion in favor of the southern army, + Clinton, in December, 1780, sent Arnold with 1,600 men to the Chesapeake. + That infamous traitor, displaying all his wonted activity, overran a great + extent of country and captured Richmond, the capital, destroying great + quantities of stores. Washington, most anxious to strike a blow against + him, prevailed upon Destouches, the French admiral to proceed thither with + a land force but the latter was overtaken by Arbuthnot and endured a hard + battle which though not admitted to be a defeat obliged him to return to + Newport; thus Arnold escaped the danger of falling into the hands of his + enraged countrymen. Clinton, still with the same view, sent another force + of 2,000 men under General Phillips which arrived in the Chesapeake on the + 26th of March (1781). This officer being complete master of the field, + overran the country between the James and York rivers, seized the town of + Petersburg, as also Chesterfield Courthouse, the militia rendezvous, and + other stations, destroying great quantities of shipping and stores, with + all the warehoused tobacco. Lafayette, then in command of about 3,000 men + for the defense of Virginia, succeeded by skilful maneuvering in securing + Richmond. + </p> + <p> + Operations seemed at a stand, when, late in April, intelligence was + received of Cornwallis' march from South Carolina toward Virginia and, in + spite of every effort of Lafayette, he, at the end of May (1781), joined + Phillips at Petersburg, taking the command of the whole army. Being then + decidedly superior he took possession of Richmond and began a hot pursuit + of Lafayette, who retreated into the upper country so rapidly and so + skillfully that he could not be overtaken. The English general then turned + back and sent a detachment under Colonel Simcoe, who destroyed the chief + magazine at the junction of the two branches of James river. Tarleton + pushed his cavalry so swiftly upon Charlotteville, where the State + Assembly was met, that seven members were taken and the rest very narrowly + escaped. Lafayette, however, now returned with a considerable force and by + his maneuvers induced the British commander to retire to Williamsburg. He + afterward continued his retreat to Portsmouth in the course of which the + former made an attack but was repulsed and would have been totally routed + had not his strength been estimated above its real amount. + </p> + <p> + The movement of Cornwallis into Virginia had been wholly disapproved by + Clinton who complained that, contrary to all his views and intentions, the + main theater of war had been transferred to a territory into which he + never proposed more than partial inroads, considering it very difficult to + subdue and maintain. His grand object had always been first to secure New + York and, if sufficient strength was afforded, to push offensive + operations thence into the interior. Hoping, therefore, that the + Carolinas, once subdued, might be retained by a small force, he had + repeatedly solicited the partial return of the troops. Cornwallis defended + the movement by observing that his situation at Wilmington, allowing no + time to send for instructions, obliged him to act on his own + responsibility. Communicating also with the government at home he urged + that the Carolinas could not be securely held without the possession also + of Virginia; that this might be attained by a vigorous effort, and would + make Britain mistress of all the southern Colonies, whose resources could + be then employed in conquering the more stubborn regions of the North. + These arguments, recommended by his lordship's brilliant achievements at + Camden and elsewhere, convinced the ministry, and Lord Germaine wrote to + the Commander-in-Chief to direct his principal attention to the war in + Virginia and to the plan of conquest from south to north. The latter, + considering himself thus slighted, solicited permission to resign and + leave the command to an officer who enjoyed greater confidence, but his + merits being highly estimated this tender was not accepted. + </p> + <p> + Under the apprehension inspired by the threatening movements of Washington + and the French army against New York, he had ordered a considerable + reinforcement from Virginia, but countermanded it on receiving the above + instructions, along with an additional body of troops. He had formed, + apparently, a favorite plan somewhat of a compromise between the two. It + is nowhere distinctly developed in his letters, but by a passage in one + very active operations were proposed at the head of the Chesapeake, to be + combined probably with a movement from New York and comprehending + Philadelphia and Baltimore. Aware that this plan required the maritime + command of that great inlet, he inquired if ministers would insure its + maintenance, and they made this engagement without duly considering its + difficulties. Under these views he directed Cornwallis to occupy and + fortify a naval position at the entrance of the bay, specially + recommending Old Point Comfort, at the mouth of James river. This measure + did not harmonize with Cornwallis' views; however, he obeyed, but, the + above position being declared by the engineers indefensible, he + recommended, in preference, Yorktown on the York river, which was agreed + to and operations actively commenced at the latter end of August. The + whole British force at this time in Virginia was about 7,000 men. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Referring to the affair at Rugely's Mills, where Colonel + Washington frightened the militia colonel into a surrender by means of a + pine log mounted like a cannon. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: On this occasion Kosciusko, the Polish general, particularly + distinguished himself. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: In the southern provinces the campaign of 1781 was uncommonly + active. The exertions and sufferings of the army were great. But the + troops were not the only sufferers; the inhabitants were exposed to many + calamities. The success of Colonel Campbell at Savannah laid Georgia and + the Carolinas open to all the horrors which attend the movements of + conflicting armies and the rage of civil dissensions for two years. + </p> + <p> + In those provinces the inhabitants were nearly divided between the British + and American interests, and, under the names of Tories and Whigs, + exercised a savage hostility against each other, threatening the entire + depopulation of the country. Besides, each of the contending armies, + claiming the provinces as its own, showed no mercy to those who, in the + fluctuations of war, abandoned its cause or opposed its pretensions. + Numbers were put to death as deserters and traitors at the different + British posts. One of those executions, that of Colonel Hayne, happened at + Charleston on the 4th of August, while Lord Rawdon was in that town, + preparing to sail for Europe, and threatened to produce the most + sanguinary consequences. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Hayne had served in the American militia during the siege of + Charleston, but, after the capitulation of that place and the expulsion of + the American army from the province, he was, by several concurring + circumstances, constrained, with much reluctance, to subscribe a + declaration of allegiance to the British government being assured that his + services against his country would not be required. He was allowed to + return to his family, but, in violation of the special condition on which + he had signed the declaration, he was soon called on to take up arms + against his countrymen, and was at length threatened with close + confinement in case of further refusal. Colonel Hayne considered this + breach of contract on the part of the British, and their inability to + afford him the protection promised in reward of his allegiance, as + absolving him from the obligations into which he had entered, and + accordingly he returned to the American standard. In the month of July he + was taken prisoner, confined in a loathsome dungeon, and, by the arbitrary + mandate of Lord Rawdon and Colonel Balfour, without trial, hanged at + Charleston. He behaved with much firmness and dignity, and his fate + awakened a strong sensation. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. — WASHINGTON CAPTURES CORNWALLIS. 1781. + </h2> + <p> + We have already seen, by the quotation from Washington's journal, how + gloomy was the prospect presented to him at this time. He evidently saw + little to encourage a hope of the favorable termination of the campaign of + that year. Indeed, it is quite apparent that our national affairs were + then at a lower ebb than they had ever been since the period immediately + preceding the battle of Trenton. But by the merciful interposition of + divine Providence, the course of events took a favorable turn much sooner + than he had anticipated. His letter to Col. John Laurens, on the occasion, + already mentioned, of that gentleman's mission to France to obtain a loan, + had been productive of remarkable effects. + </p> + <p> + In this paper he detailed the pecuniary embarrassments of the government, + and represented with great earnestness the inability of the nation to + furnish a revenue adequate to the support of the war. He dwelt on the + discontents which the system of impressment had excited among the people, + and expressed his fears that the evils felt in the prosecution of the war, + might weaken the sentiments which began it. + </p> + <p> + From this state of things he deduced the vital importance of an immediate + and ample supply of money, which might be the foundation for substantial + arrangements of finance, for reviving public credit, and giving vigor to + future operations, as well as of a decided effort of the allied arms on + the continent to effect the great objects of the alliance in the ensuing + campaign. + </p> + <p> + Next to a supply of money he considered a naval superiority in the + American seas as an object of the deepest interest. To the United States + it would be of decisive importance, and France also might derive great + advantages from transferring the maritime war to the coast of her ally. + The future ability of the United States to repay any loan which might now + be obtained was displayed, and he concluded with assurances that there was + still a fund of inclination and resource in the country, equal to great + and continued exertions, provided the means were afforded of stopping the + progress of disgust by changing the present system and adopting another + more consonant with the spirit of the nation, and more capable of infusing + activity and energy into public measures, of which a powerful succor in + money must be the basis. "The people were discontented, but it was with + the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war + itself." + </p> + <p> + With great reason did Washington urge on the cabinet of Versailles the + policy of advancing a sum of money to the United States which might be + adequate to the exigency. Deep was the gloom with which the political + horizon was then overcast. The British in possession of South Carolina and + Georgia had overrun the greater part of North Carolina also, and it was + with equal hazard and address that Greene maintained himself in the + northern frontier of that State. + </p> + <p> + A second detachment from New York was making a deep impression on + Virginia, where the resistance had been neither so prompt nor so vigorous + as the strength of that State and the unanimity of its citizens had given + reason to expect. + </p> + <p> + Such were the facts and arguments urged by Washington in his letter to + Colonel Laurens. Its able exposition of the actual state of the country, + and his arguments in support of the application of Congress for a fleet + and army as well as money, when laid before the King and the ministry, + decided them to afford the most ample aid to the American cause. A loan of + $6,000,000 was granted, which was to be placed at Washington's disposal, + but he was happy to be relieved from that responsibility. A loan from + Holland was also guaranteed by the French government, and large + reinforcements of ships and men were sent to the United States. The + intelligence of these succors followed within a few days after the + desponding tone of Washington's journal, to which we have just referred. + </p> + <p> + Early in May (1781) the Count de Barras, who had been appointed to the + command of the French fleet on the American coast, arrived at Boston, + accompanied by the Viscount de Rochambeau, commander of the land forces. + An interview between Washington and the French commanders was immediately + appointed to be held at Wethersfield, near Hartford, on the 21st (May, + 1781), but some movements of the British fleet made de Barras repair to + Newport, while the two generals met at the appointed place and agreed on a + plan of the campaign. It was resolved to unite the French and American + armies on the Hudson and to commence vigorous operations against New York. + The regular army at that station was estimated at only 4,500 men, and + though Sir Henry Clinton might be able to reinforce it with 5,000 or 6,000 + militia, yet it was believed he could not maintain the post without + recalling a considerable part of his troops from the southward and + enfeebling the operations of the British in that quarter; in which case it + was resolved to make a vigorous attack on the point which presented the + best prospect of success. + </p> + <p> + In a letter to General Greene, dated June 1, 1781, Washington thus gives + the result of the conference with Rochambeau: "I have lately had an + interview with Count de Rochambeau at Weathersfield. Our affairs were very + attentively considered in every point of view and it was finally + determined to make an attempt upon New York, with its present garrison, in + preference to a southern operation, as we had not the decided command of + the water. You will readily suppose the reasons which induced this + determination were the inevitable loss of men from so long a march, more + especially in the approaching hot season, and the difficulty, I may say + impossibility, of transporting the necessary baggage, artillery, and + stores by land. If I am supported as I ought to be by the neighboring + States in this operation, which, you know, has always been their favorite + one, I hope that one of these consequences will follow—either that + the enemy will be expelled from the most valuable position which they hold + upon the continent or be obliged to recall part of their force from the + southward to defend it. Should the latter happen you will be most + essentially relieved by it. The French troops will begin their march this + way as soon as certain circumstances will admit. I can only give you the + outlines of our plan. The dangers to which letters are exposed make it + improper to commit to paper the particulars, but, as matters ripen, I will + keep you as well informed as circumstances will allow." + </p> + <p> + Washington immediately required the States of New England to have 6,000 + militia in readiness to march wherever they might be called for, and sent + an account of the conference at Wethersfield to Congress. His dispatch was + intercepted in the Jerseys and carried to Clinton, who, alarmed by the + plan which it disclosed, made the requisition, already mentioned, of part + of the troops under Cornwallis, and took diligent precautions for + maintaining his post against the meditated attack. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the several States of the Union were extremely dilatory in + furnishing their contingents of troops, and it was found difficult to + procure subsistence for the small number of men already in the field. The + people and their rulers talked loudly of liberty, but each was anxious to + sacrifice as little as possible to maintain it and to devolve on his + neighbor the expense, dangers, and privations of the struggle. + </p> + <p> + In consequence of this dilatory spirit, when the troops left their winter + quarters in the month of June (1781), and encamped at Peekskill, the army + under Washington did not amount to 5,000 men. This force was so much + inferior to what had been contemplated when the plan of operations was + agreed on at Wethersfield that it became doubtful whether it would be + expedient to adhere to that plan. But the deficiency of the American force + was in some measure compensated by the arrival at Boston of a + reinforcement of 1,500 men to the army under Rochambeau. + </p> + <p> + The hope of terminating the war in the course of the campaign encouraged + the States to make some exertions. Small as was their military force it + was difficult to find subsistence for the troops, and even after the army + had taken the field there was reason to apprehend that it would be obliged + to abandon the objects of the campaign for want of provisions. It was at + that critical juncture of American affairs that the finances of the Union + were entrusted to Robert Morris, a member of Congress for Pennsylvania, a + man of considerable capital and of much sagacity and mercantile + enterprise. He, as we have already seen, extensively pledged his personal + credit for articles of the first necessity to the army, and, by an + honorable fulfillment of his engagements, did much to restore public + credit and confidence. It was owing mainly to his exertions that the + active and decisive operations of the campaign were not greatly impeded or + entirely defeated by want of subsistence to the army and of the means of + transporting military stores. + </p> + <p> + By his plan of a national bank, already referred to, Mr. Morris rendered + still more important service. Its notes were to be received as cash into + the treasuries of the several States, and also as an equivalent for the + necessaries which the States were bound to provide for the army. In this + way, and by a liberal and judicious application of his own resources, an + individual afforded the supplies which government was unable to furnish. + </p> + <p> + The French troops, under Rochambeau, marched from Newport and Boston + toward the Hudson. Both in quarters and on the route their behavior was + exemplary, and gained the respect and good will of the inhabitants. Toward + the end of June (1781) Washington put his army in motion, and, learning + that a royal detachment had passed into the Jerseys, he formed a plan to + surprise the British posts on the north end of York Island, but it did not + succeed, and General Lincoln, who commanded the Americans, being attacked + by a strong British party, a sharp conflict ensued. Washington marched + with his main body to support his detachment, but on his advance the + British retired into their works at Kingsbridge. Rochambeau, then on his + march to join Washington, detached the Duke de Lauzun with a body of men + to support the attack, who advanced with his troops within supporting + distance, but the British had retreated before they could be brought into + action. + </p> + <p> + Having failed in his design of surprising the British posts Washington + withdrew to Valentine's Hill, and afterward to Dobb's Ferry. While + encamped there, on the 6th of July (1781), the van of the long-expected + French reinforcements under Rochambeau was seen winding down the + neighboring heights. The arrival of these friendly strangers elevated the + minds of the Americans, who received them with sincere congratulations. + Washington labored, by personal attentions, to conciliate the good will of + his allies, and used all the means in his power to prevent those mutual + jealousies and irritations which frequently prevail between troops of + different nations serving in the same army. An attack on New York was + still meditated, and every exertion made to prepare for its execution, but + with the determination, if it should prove impracticable, vigorously to + prosecute some more attainable object. {1} + </p> + <p> + On the evening of the 21st of July (1781), the greater part of the + American, and part of the French troops, left their encampment, and + marching rapidly during the night, appeared in order of battle before the + British works at Kingsbridge, at 4 next morning. Washington and + Rochambeau, with the general officers and engineers, viewed the British + lines in their whole extent from right to left, and the same was again + done next morning. But, on the afternoon of the 23d they returned to their + former encampment without having made any attempt on the British works. + </p> + <p> + At that time the new levies arrived slowly in the American camp, and many + of those who were sent were mere boys utterly unfit for active service. + The several States discovered much backwardness in complying with the + requisitions of Congress, so that there was reason to apprehend that the + number of troops necessary for besieging New York could not be procured. + This made Washington turn his thoughts more seriously to the southward + than he had hitherto done, but all his movements confirmed Clinton in the + belief that an attack on New York was in contemplation. As the British + Commander-in-Chief, however, at that time received about 3,000 troops from + Europe, he thought himself able to defend his post without withdrawing any + part of the force from Virginia. Therefore he countermanded the + requisition which he had before sent to Cornwallis for part of the troops + under his command. The troops were embarked before the arrival of the + counter order, and of their embarkation Lafayette sent notice to + Washington. On the reception of new instructions, however, as formerly + mentioned they were relanded and remained in Virginia. + </p> + <p> + No great operation could be undertaken against the British armies so long + as their navy had undisputed command of the coast and of the great + navigable rivers. Washington, as we have seen, had already, through + Colonel Laurens, made an earnest application to the court of France for + such a fleet as might be capable of keeping in check the British navy in + those seas and of affording effectual assistance to the land forces. That + application was not unsuccessful, and towards the middle of the month of + August the agreeable information was received of the approach of a + powerful French fleet to the American coast. + </p> + <p> + Early in March (1781) the Count de Grasse had sailed from Brest with + twenty-five ships-of-the-line, five of which were destined for the East, + and twenty for the West Indies. After an indecisive encounter in the + Straits of St. Lucie with Sir Samuel Hood, whom Sir George Rodney, the + British admiral in the West Indies had detached to intercept him, Count de + Grasse formed a junction with the ships of his sovereign on that station + and had a fleet superior to that of the British in the West Indies. De + Grasse gave the Americans notice that he would visit their coast in the + month of August and take his station in Chesapeake Bay, but that his + continuance there could only be of short duration. This dispatch at once + determined Washington's resolution with respect to the main point of + attack, and as it was necessary that the projected operation should be + accomplished within a very limited time prompt decision and indefatigable + exertion were indispensable. Though it was now finally resolved that + Virginia should be the grand scene of action, yet it was prudent to + conceal till the last moment this determination from Sir Henry Clinton, + and still to maintain the appearance of threatening New York. + </p> + <p> + The defense of the strong posts on the Hudson or North river was entrusted + to General Heath who was instructed to protect the adjacent country as far + as he was able, and for that purpose a respectable force was put under his + command. Every preparation of which circumstances admitted was made to + facilitate the march to the southward. Washington was to take the command + of the expedition and to employ in it all the French troops and a strong + detachment of the American army. + </p> + <p> + On the 19th of August (1781) a considerable corps was ordered to cross the + Hudson at Dobbs' Ferry and to take a position between Springfield and + Chatham, where they were directed to cover some bakehouses which it was + rumored were to be immediately constructed in the vicinity of those places + in order to encourage the belief that there the troops intended to + establish a permanent post. On the 20th and 21st the main body of the + Americans passed the river at King's ferry, but the French made a longer + circuit and did not complete the passage till the 25th. Desirous of + concealing his object as long as possible, Washington continued his march + some time in such a direction as still to keep up the appearance of + threatening New York. When concealment was no longer practicable he + marched southward with the utmost celerity. His movements had been of such + a doubtful nature that Sir Henry Clinton, it is said, was not fully + convinced of his real destination till he had crossed the Delaware. + </p> + <p> + Great exertions had been made to procure funds for putting the army in + motion, but, after exhausting every other resource, Washington was obliged + to have recourse to Rochambeau for a supply of cash, which he received. + {2} + </p> + <p> + On the 2d and 3d of September (1781) the combined American and French + armies passed through Philadelphia, where they were received with ringing + of bells, firing of guns, bonfires, illuminations, and every demonstration + of joy. Meanwhile Count de Grasse, with 3,000 troops on board, sailed from + Cape Francois with a valuable fleet of merchantmen, which he conducted out + of danger, and then steered for Chesapeake Bay with twenty-eight + sail-of-the-line and several frigates. Toward the end of August (1781) he + cast anchor just within the capes, extending across from Cape Henry to the + middle ground. There an officer from Lafayette waited on the count, and + gave him full information concerning the posture of affairs in Virginia, + and the intended plan of operations against the British army in that + State. + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis was diligently fortifying himself at York and Gloucester. + Lafayette was in a position on James river to prevent his escape into + North Carolina, and the combined army was hastening southward to attack + him. In order to cooperate against Cornwallis De Grasse detached four + ships-of-the-line and some frigates to block up the entrance of York + river, and to carry the land forces which he had brought with him, under + the Marquis de St. Simon, to Lafayette's camp. The rest of his fleet + remained at the entrance of the bay. + </p> + <p> + Sir George Rodney, who commanded the British fleet in the West Indies, was + not ignorant that the count intended to sail for America, but knowing that + the merchant vessel which he convoyed from Cape Francois were loaded with + valuable cargoes the British admiral believed that he would send the + greater part of his fleet along with them to Europe and would visit the + American coast with a small squadron only. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, Rodney detached Sir Samuel Hood with fourteen + sail-of-the-line to America as a sufficient force to counteract the + operations of the French in that quarter. Admiral Hood reached the capes + of Virginia on the 25th of August (1781), a few days before de Grasse + entered the bay and finding no enemy there sailed for Sandy Hook, where he + arrived on the 28th of August. + </p> + <p> + Admiral Graves, who had succeeded Admiral Arbuthnot in the command of the + British fleet on the American station, was then lying at New York with + seven sail-of-the-line; but two of his ships had been damaged in a cruise + near Boston and were under repair. At the same time that Admiral Hood gave + information of the expected arrival of de Grasse on the American coast, + notice was received of the sailing of de Barras with his fleet from + Newport. Admiral Graves, therefore, without waiting for his two ships + which were under repair, put to sea on the 31st of August with nineteen + sail-of-the-line and steered to the southward. + </p> + <p> + On reaching the capes of the Chesapeake, early on the morning of the 5th + of September (1781), he discovered the French fleet, consisting of + twenty-four ships-of-the-line, lying at anchor in the entrance of the bay. + Neither admiral had any previous knowledge of the vicinity of the other + till the fleets were actually seen. The British stretched into the bay and + soon as Count de Grasse ascertained their hostile character he ordered his + ships to slip their cables, form the line as they could come up without + regard to their specified stations and put to sea. The British fleet + entering the bay and the French leaving it, they were necessarily sailing + in different directions, but Admiral Graves put his ships on the same tack + with the French and about four in the afternoon a battle began between the + van and centre of the fleets which continued till night. Both sustained + considerable damage. The fleets continued in sight of each other for five + days, but de Grasse's object was not to fight unless to cover Chesapeake + Bay, and Admiral Graves, owing to the inferiority of his force and the + crippled state of several of his ships, was unable to compel him to renew + the engagement. + </p> + <p> + On the 10th (September, 1781), de Grasse bore away for the Chesapeake and + anchored within the capes next day when he had the satisfaction to find + that Admiral de Barras with his fleet from Newport and fourteen transports + laden with heavy artillery and other military stores for carrying on a + siege had safely arrived during his absence. That officer sailed from + Newport on the 25th of August, and making a long circuit to avoid the + British, entered the bay while the contending fleets were at sea. Admiral + Graves followed the French fleet to the Chesapeake, but on arriving there + he found the entrance guarded by a force with which he was unable to + contend. He then sailed for New York and left de Grasse in the undisputed + possession of the bay. + </p> + <p> + While these naval operations were going on the land forces were not less + actively employed in the prosecution of their respective purposes. The + immediate aim of Washington was to overwhelm Cornwallis and his army at + Yorktown; that of Clinton, to rescue him from his grasp. As soon as + Clinton was convinced of Washington's intention of proceeding to the + southward with a view to bring him back, he employed the infamous traitor + Arnold, with a sufficient naval and military force, on an expedition + against New London. The "parricide," as Jefferson calls him, had not the + slightest objection to fill his pockets with the plunder of his native + State. He passed from Long Island and on the forenoon of the 6th of + September (1781) landed his troops on both sides of the harbor; those on + the New London side being under his own immediate orders and those on the + Groton side commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Eyre. As the works at New + London were very imperfect, no vigorous resistance was there made, and the + place was taken possession of with little loss. But Fort Griswold, on the + Groton side, was in a more finished state and the small garrison made a + desperate defense. The British entered the fort at the point of the + bayonet. + </p> + <p> + Col. William Ledyard, brother of the celebrated traveler, commanded the + fort. Colonel Eyre and Major Montgomery having fallen in the assault, the + command had devolved on Major Bromfield, a New Jersey Tory. After the + works had been carried, Ledyard ordered his men to lay down their arms. + Bromfield called out, "Who commands in this fort?" Ledyard advanced and + presenting his sword, replied, "I did, but you do now." Bromfield seized + the sword and ran Ledyard through the body. This was the signal for an + indiscriminate massacre of a greater part of the garrison by the Tories, + refugees, and Hessians, of which the army of Arnold was very appropriately + composed. Seventy were killed and thirty-five desperately wounded. The + enemy lost 2 officers and 46 men killed, 8 officers and 135 soldiers + wounded. Few Americans had fallen before the British entered the works. + </p> + <p> + The loss sustained by the Americans at New London was great, but that + predatory incursion had no effect in diverting Washington from his purpose + or in retarding his march southward. From Philadelphia the allied armies + pursued their route, partly to the head of Elk river, which falls into the + northern extremity of Chesapeake Bay, and partly to Baltimore, at which + places they embarked on board transports furnished by the French fleet, + and the last division of them landed at Williamsburgh on the 25th of + September (1781). Washington, Rochambeau, and their attendants proceeded + to the same place by land, and reached it ten days before the troops. + Virginia had suffered extremely in the course of the campaign; the + inhabitants were clamorous for the appearance of Washington in his native + State, and hailed his arrival with acclamations of joy. + </p> + <p> + Washington and Rochambeau immediately repaired on board de Grasse's ship + in order to concert a joint plan of operations against Cornwallis. De + Grasse, convinced that every exertion would be made to relieve his + lordship, and being told that Admiral Digby had arrived at New York with a + reinforcement of six ships-of-the-line, expected to be attacked by a force + little inferior to his own, and, deeming the station which he then + occupied unfavorable to a naval engagement, he was strongly inclined to + leave the bay and to meet the enemy in the open sea. Washington, fully + aware of all the casualties which might occur to prevent his return and to + defeat the previous arrangements, used every argument to dissuade the + French admiral from his purpose, and prevailed with him to remain in the + bay. + </p> + <p> + As de Grasse could continue only a short time on that station, every + exertion was made to proceed against Cornwallis at Yorktown. Opposite + Yorktown is Gloucester point, which projects considerably into the river, + the breadth of which at that place does not exceed a mile. Cornwallis had + taken possession of both these places and diligently fortified them. The + communication between them was commanded by his batteries and by some + ships-of-war which lay in the river under cover of his guns. The main body + of his army was encamped near Yorktown, beyond some outer redoubts and + field works calculated to retard the approach of an enemy. Colonel + Tarleton, with six or seven hundred men, occupied Gloucester point. + </p> + <p> + The combined army, amounting to upwards of 11,000 men, exclusive of the + Virginia militia, under the command of the patriotic Governor Nelson, was + assembled in the vicinity of Williamsburgh, and on the morning of the 28th + of September (1781), marched by different routes toward Yorktown. About + midday the heads of the columns reached the ground assigned them, and, + after driving in the outposts and some cavalry, encamped for the night. + The next day was employed in viewing the British works and in arranging + the plan of attack. At the same time that the combined army encamped + before Yorktown the French fleet anchored at the mouth of the river and + completely prevented the British from escaping by water as well as from + receiving supplies or reinforcements in that way. The legion of Lauzun and + a brigade of militia, amounting to upwards of 4,000 men, commanded by the + French general de Choisé, were sent across the river to watch Gloucester + Point and to enclose the British on that side. + </p> + <p> + On the 30th (September, 1781) Yorktown was invested. The French troops + formed the left wing of the combined army, extending from the river above + the town to a morass in front of it; the Americans composed the right wing + and occupied the ground between the morass and the river below the town. + Till the 6th of October the besieging army was assiduously employed in + disembarking its heavy artillery and military stores and in conveying them + to camp from the landing place in James river, a distance of six miles. On + the night of the 6th the first parallel was begun, under the direction of + General du Portail, the chief engineer, 600 yards from the British works. + The night was dark, rainy, and well adapted for such a service; and in the + course of it the besiegers did not lose a man. Their operations seem not + to have been suspected by the besieged till daylight disclosed them in the + morning, when the trenches were so far advanced as in a good measure to + cover the workmen from the fire of the garrison. By the afternoon of the + 9th the batteries were completed, notwithstanding the most strenuous + opposition from the besieged, and immediately opened on the town. From + that time an incessant cannonade was kept up, and the continual discharge + of shot and shells from twenty-four and eighteen pounders and ten-inch + mortars, damaged the unfinished works on the left of the town, silenced + the guns mounted on them and occasioned a considerable loss of men. Some + of the shot and shells from the batteries passed over the town, reached + the shipping in the harbor, and set on fire the Charon of forty-four guns + and three large transports, which were entirely consumed. + </p> + <p> + "From the bank of the river," says Dr. Thacher, "I had a fine view of this + splendid conflagration. The ships were enwrapped in a torrent of fire, + which, spreading with vivid brightness among the combustible rigging and + running with amazing rapidity to the tops of the several masts, while all + around was thunder and lightning from our numerous cannon and mortars, and + in the darkness of night presented one of the most sublime and magnificent + spectacles that can be imagined. Some of our shells, overreaching the + town, are seen to fall into the river, and bursting, throw up columns of + water, like the spouting of the monsters of the deep." + </p> + <p> + On the night of the 11th (October, 1781), the besiegers, laboring with + indefatigable perseverance, began their second parallel, 300 yards nearer + the British works than the first; and the three succeeding days were + assiduously employed in completing it. + </p> + <p> + During that interval the fire of the garrison was more destructive than at + any other period of the siege. The men in the trenches were particularly + annoyed by two redoubts toward the left of the British works, and about + 200 yards in front of them. Of these it was necessary to gain possession, + and on the 14th preparations were made to carry them both by storm. In + order to avail himself of the spirit of emulation which existed between + the troops of the two nations, and to avoid any cause of jealousy to + either, Washington committed the attack of the one redoubt to the French + and that of the other to the Americans. The latter were commanded by + Lafayette, attended by Col. Alexander Hamilton, who led the advance, and + the former by the Baron de Viomenil. + </p> + <p> + On the evening of the 14th, as soon as it was dark, the parties marched to + the assault with unloaded arms. The redoubt which the Americans under + Lafayette attacked was defended by a major, some inferior officers, and + forty-five privates. The assailants advanced with such rapidity, without + returning a shot to the heavy fire with which they were received, that in + a few minutes they were in possession of the work, having had 8 men killed + and 7 officers and 25 men wounded in the attack. Eight British privates + were killed; Major Campbell, a captain, an ensign, and seventeen privates + were made prisoners. The rest escaped. Although the Americans were highly + exasperated by the recent massacre of their countrymen in Fort Griswold by + Arnold's detachment, yet not a man of the British was injured after + resistance ceased. Retaliation had been talked of but was not exercised. + {3} + </p> + <p> + The French advanced with equal courage, but not with equal rapidity. The + American soldiers had removed the abattis themselves. The French waited + for the sappers to remove them according to military rule. While thus + waiting a message was brought from Lafayette to Viomenil, informing him + that he was in his redoubt, and wished to know where the baron was. "Tell + the marquis," replied Viomenil, "that I am not in mine, but will be in + five minutes." The abattis being removed, the redoubt was carried in very + nearly the time prescribed by the baron. There were 120 men in this + redoubt, of whom 18 were killed and 42 taken prisoners; the rest made + their escape. The French lost nearly 100 men killed or wounded. During the + night these two redoubts were included in the second parallel, and, in the + course of next day, some howitzers were placed on them, which, in the + afternoon, opened on the besieged. + </p> + <p> + "During the assault," says Dr. Thacher, "the British kept up an incessant + firing of cannon and musketry from their whole line. His Excellency, + General Washington, Generals Lincoln and Knox, with their aids, having + dismounted, were standing in an exposed situation, waiting the result. + Colonel Cobb, one of Washington's aids, solicitous for his safety, said to + his Excellency, 'Sir, you are too much exposed here; had you not better + step a little back?' 'Colonel Cobb,' replied his Excellency, 'if you are + afraid, you have liberty to step back.' + </p> + <p> + "Cornwallis and his garrison had done all that brave men could do to + defend their post. But the industry of the besiegers was persevering and + their approaches rapid. The condition of the British was becoming + desperate. In every quarter their works were torn to pieces by the fire + of the assailants. The batteries already playing upon them had nearly + silenced all their guns, and the second parallel was about to open on + them, which in a few hours would render the place untenable. + </p> + <p> + Owing to the weakness of his garrison, occasioned by sickness and the fire + of the besiegers, Cornwallis could not spare large sallying parties, but, + in the present distressing crisis, he resolved to make every effort to + impede the progress of the besiegers, and to preserve his post to the last + extremity. For this purpose, a little before daybreak on the morning of + the 16th of October (1781), about 350 men, under the command of + Lieutenant-Colonel Abercrombie, sallied out against two batteries, which + seemed in the greatest state of forwardness. They attacked with great + impetuosity, killed or wounded a considerable number of the French troops, + who had charge of the works, spiked eleven guns, and returned with little + loss. This exploit was of no permanent advantage to the garrison, for the + guns, having been hastily spiked, were soon again rendered fit for + service. + </p> + <p> + About 4 in the afternoon of the 16th of October, several batteries of the + second parallel opened on the garrison, and it was obvious that, in the + course of next day, all the batteries of that parallel, mounting a most + formidable artillery, would be ready to play on the town. The shattered + works of the garrison were in no condition to sustain such a tremendous + fire. In the whole front which was attacked the British could not show a + single gun, and their shells were nearly exhausted. In this extremity + Cornwallis formed the desperate resolution of crossing the river during + the night with his effective force and attempting to escape to the + northward. His plan was to leave behind his sick, baggage, and all + encumbrances; to attack de Choisé, who commanded on the Gloucester side, + with his whole force; to mount his own infantry, partly with the hostile + cavalry which he had no doubt of seizing, and partly with such horses as + he might find by the way; to hasten toward the fords of the great rivers + in the upper country, and then, turning northward, to pass through + Maryland, Pennsylvania, and the Jerseys, and join the army at New York. + The plan was hazardous, and presented little prospect of success; but in + the forlorn circumstances of the garrison anything that offered a glimpse + of hope was reckoned preferable to the humiliation of an immediate + surrender. + </p> + <p> + In prosecution of this perilous enterprise the light infantry, most of the + guards, and a part of the Twenty-third regiment embarked in boats, passed + the river, and landed at Gloucester point before midnight. A storm then + arose, which rendered the return of the boats and the transportation of + the rest of the troops equally impracticable. In that divided state of the + British forces the morning of the 17th of October (1781) dawned, when the + batteries of the combined armies opened on the garrison at Yorktown. As + the attempt to escape was entirely defeated by the storm, the troops that + had been carried to Gloucester point were brought back in the course of + the forenoon without much loss, though the passage was exposed to the + artillery of the besiegers. The British works were in ruins, the garrison + was weakened by disease and death, and exhausted by incessant fatigue. + Every ray of hope was extinguished. It would have been madness any longer + to attempt to defend the post and to expose the brave garrison to the + danger of an assault, which would soon have been made on the place. + </p> + <p> + At 10 in the forenoon of the 17th Cornwallis sent a flag of truce with a + letter to Washington, proposing a cessation of hostilities for twenty-four + hours, in order to give time to adjust terms for the surrender of the + forts at Yorktown and Gloucester point. To this letter Washington + immediately returned an answer, expressing his ardent desire to spare the + further effusion of blood and his readiness to listen to such terms as + were admissible, but that he could not consent to lose time in fruitless + negotiations, and desired that, previous to the meeting of commissioners, + his lordship's proposals should be transmitted in writing, for which + purpose a suspension of hostilities for two hours should be granted. + </p> + <p> + The terms offered by Cornwallis, although not all deemed admissible, were + such as induced the opinion that no great difficulty would occur in + adjusting the conditions of capitulation, and the suspension of + hostilities was continued through the night. Meanwhile, in order to avoid + the delay of useless discussion, Washington drew up and transmitted to + Cornwallis such articles as he was willing to grant, informing his + lordship that, if he approved of them, commissioners might be immediately + appointed to reduce them to form. Accordingly, Viscount Noailles and + Lieutenant-Colonel Laurens, whose father was then a prisoner in the Tower + of London, on the 18th met Colonel Dundas and Major Ross of the British + army at Moore's house, in the rear of the first parallel. They prepared a + rough draft, but were unable definitively to arrange the terms of + capitulation. + </p> + <p> + The draught was to be submitted to Cornwallis, but Washington, resolved to + admit of no delay, directed the articles to be transcribed; and, on the + morning of the 19th, sent them to his lordship, with a letter expressing + his expectation that they would be signed by 11 and that the garrison + would march out at 2 in the afternoon. {4} Finding that no better terms + could be obtained, Cornwallis submitted to a painful necessity, and, on + the 19th of October, surrendered the posts of Yorktown and Gloucester + point to the combined armies of America and France, on condition that his + troops should receive the same honors of war which had been granted to the + garrison of Charleston when it surrendered to Sir Henry Clinton. The army, + artillery, arms, accoutrements, military chest, and public stores of every + description were surrendered to Washington; the ships in the harbor and + the seamen to Count de Grasse. + </p> + <p> + Cornwallis wished to obtain permission for his European troops to return + home, on condition of not serving against America, France, or their allies + during the war, but this was refused, and it was agreed that they should + remain prisoners of war in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, + accompanied by a due proportion of officers for their protection and + government. The British general was also desirous of securing from + punishment such Americans as had joined the royal standard, but this was + refused, on the plea that it was a point which belonged to the civil + authority and on which the military power was not competent to decide. But + the end was gained in an indirect way, for Cornwallis was permitted to + send the Bonetta sloop-of-war unsearched to New York, with dispatches to + the Commander-in-Chief and to put on board as many soldiers as he thought + proper, to be accounted for in any subsequent exchange. This was + understood to be a tacit permission to send off the most obnoxious of the + Americans, which was accordingly done. + </p> + <p> + The officers and soldiers were allowed to retain their private property. + Such officers as were not required to remain with the troops were + permitted to return to Europe or to reside in any part of America not in + possession of the British troops. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Thacher, who was present during the whole siege, thus describes the + surrender: "At about 12 o'clock the combined army was arranged and drawn + up in two lines, extending more than a mile in length. The Americans were + drawn up in a line on the right side of the road, and the French occupied + the left. At the head of the former the great American commander, mounted + on his noble courser, took his station, attended by his aides. At the head + of the latter was posted the excellent Count Rochambeau and his suite. The + French troops, in complete uniform, displayed a noble and martial + appearance; their band of music, of which the timbrel formed a part, is a + delightful novelty, and produced, while marching to the ground, a most + enchanting effect. The Americans, though not all in uniform nor their + dress so neat, yet exhibited an erect, soldierly air and every countenance + beamed with satisfaction and joy. The concourse of spectators from the + country was prodigious, in point of numbers nearly equal to the military, + but universal silence and order prevailed. It was about 2 o'clock when the + captive army advanced through the line formed for their reception. Every + eye was prepared to gaze on Lord Cornwallis, the object of peculiar + interest and solicitude, but he disappointed our anxious expectations. + Pretending indisposition, he made General O'Hara his substitute as the + leader of his army. This officer was followed by the conquered troops in a + slow and solemn step, with shouldered arms, colors cased, and drums + beating a British march. Having arrived at the head of the line, General + O'Hara, elegantly mounted, advanced to his Excellency, the + Commander-in-Chief, taking off his hat and apologizing for the + nonappearance of Earl Cornwallis. With his usual dignity and politeness, + his Excellency pointed to Major-General Lincoln for directions, by whom + the British army was conducted into a spacious field, where it was + intended they should ground their arms. The royal troops, while marching + through the line formed by the allied army, exhibited a decent and neat + appearance as respects arms and clothing, for their commander opened his + store and directed every soldier to be furnished with a new suit complete + prior to the capitulation. But in their line of march we remarked a + disorderly and unsoldierlike conduct; their step was irregular and their + ranks frequently broken. But it was in the field, when they came to the + last act of the drama, that the spirit and pride of the British soldier + was put to the severest test. Here their mortification could not be + concealed. Some of the platoon officers appeared to be exceedingly + chagrined when giving the word, 'Ground arms!' and I am a witness that + they performed this duty in a very unofficerlike manner and that many of + the soldiers manifested a sullen temper, throwing their arms on the pile + with violence, as if determined to render them useless. This irregularity, + however, was checked by the authority of General Lincoln. After having + grounded their arms and divested themselves of their accoutrements, the + captive troops were conducted back to Yorktown and guarded by our troops + until they could be conducted to the place of their destination." + </p> + <p> + Congress bestowed its thanks freely and fully upon the Commander-in-Chief, + Count de Rochambeau, Count de Grasse, and the various officers of the + different corps, and the brave soldiers under their command. Two stands of + colors, trophies of war, were voted to Washington and two pieces of cannon + to Rochambeau and de Grasse, and it was also voted that a marble column to + commemorate the alliance and the victory should be erected in Yorktown. On + the day after the surrender the general orders closed as follows: "Divine + service shall be performed tomorrow in the different brigades and + divisions. The Commander-in-Chief recommends that all the troops that are + not upon duty do assist at it with a serious deportment and that + sensibility of heart which the recollection of the surprising and + particular interposition of Providence in our favor claims." A + proclamation was also issued by Congress appointing the 13th of December + as a day of thanksgiving and prayer, on account of this signal and manifest + favor of Divine Providence in behalf of our country. + </p> + <p> + The news of Cornwallis' surrender was received throughout the country with + the most tumultuous expressions of joy. The worthy New England Puritans + considered it, as Cromwell did the victory at Worcester, "the crowning + mercy." It promised them a return of peace and prosperity. The people of + the middle States regarded it as a guarantee for their speedy deliverance + from the presence of a hated enemy. But to the southern States it was more + than this. It was the retributive justice of Heaven against a band of + cruel and remorseless murderers and robbers, who had spread desolation and + sorrow through their once happy homes. It is asserted in Gordon's "History + of the War" that wherever Cornwallis' army marched the dwelling-houses + were plundered of everything that could be carried off. The stables of + Virginia were plundered of the horses on which his cavalry rode in their + ravaging march through that State. Millions of property, in tobacco and + other merchandise and in private houses and public buildings, were + destroyed by Arnold, Philips, and Cornwallis in Virginia alone. The very + horse which Tarleton had the impudence to ride on the day of the surrender + was stolen from a planter's stable, who recognized it on the field and + compelled Tarleton to give it up and mount a sorry hack for the occasion. + </p> + <p> + It was computed at the time that 1,400 widows were made by the war in the + single district of Ninety-Six. The whole devastation occasioned by the + British army, during six months previous to the surrender at Yorktown, + amounted to not less than £3,000,000 sterling, an immense loss for so + short a time, falling, as it did, chiefly on the rural population. No + wonder that they assembled in crowds to witness the humiliation of + Cornwallis and his army. To them it was not only a triumph, but a great + deliverance. Well might the Virginians triumph. The return of their + favorite commander, a son of the soil, had speedily released their State + from ravage and destruction and restored them to comparative peace and + repose. + </p> + <p> + On the very day of Cornwallis' surrender, Clinton sailed from New York + with reinforcements. He had been perfectly aware of Cornwallis' extreme + peril and was anxious to relieve him, but the fleet had sustained + considerable damage in the battle with de Grasse and some time was + necessarily spent in repairing it. During that interval four + ships-of-the-line arrived from Europe and two from the West Indies. At + length Clinton embarked with 7,000 of his best troops, but was unable to + sail from Sandy Hook till the 19th (1781), the day on which Cornwallis + surrendered. The fleet, consisting of twenty-five ships-of-the-line, two + vessels of fifty guns each, and eight frigates, arrived off the Chesapeake + on the 24th (October, 1781), when Clinton had the mortification to be + informed of the event of the 19th. He remained on the coast, however, till + the 29th, when, every doubt being removed concerning the capitulation of + Cornwallis, whose relief was the sole object of the expedition, he + returned to New York. + </p> + <p> + While Clinton continued off the Chesapeake, the French fleet, consisting + of thirty-six sail-of-the-line, satisfied with the advantage already + gained, lay at anchor in the bay without making any movement whatever. + </p> + <p> + Washington, considering the present a favorable opportunity for following + up his success by an expedition against the British army in Charleston, + wrote a letter to Count de Grasse on the day after the capitulation, + requesting him to unite his fleet to the proposed armament and assist in + the expedition. He even went on board the admiral's fleet to thank him for + his late services in the siege and to urge upon him the feasibility and + importance of this plan of operations. But the orders of his court, + ulterior projects, and his engagements with the Spaniards put it out of + the power of the French admiral to continue so long in America as was + required. He, however, remained some days in the bay in order to cover the + embarkation of the troops and of the ordnance to be conveyed by water to + the head of the Elk. {5} + </p> + <p> + Some brigades proceeded by land to join their companions at that place. + Some cavalry marched to join General Greene, but the French troops, under + Count Rochambeau, remained in Virginia to be in readiness to march to the + south or north, as the circumstances of the next campaign might require. + On the 27th the troops of St. Simon began to embark, in order to return to + the West Indies, and early in November Count de Grasse sailed for that + quarter. + </p> + <p> + Part of the prisoners were sent to Winchester in Virginia and + Fredericktown, Maryland, the remainder to Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Lord + Cornwallis and the principal officers were paroled and sailed for New + York. During their stay at Yorktown, after the surrender, they received + the most delicate attentions from the conquerors. Dr. Thacher, in his + "Military Journal," notices particularly some of these attentions: "Lord + Cornwallis and his officers," he says, "since their capitulation, have + received all the civilities and hospitality which is in the power of their + conquerors to bestow. General Washington, Count Rochambeau, and other + general officers have frequently invited them to entertainments, and they + have expressed their grateful acknowledgments in return. They cannot avoid + feeling the striking contrast between the treatment which they now + experience and that which they have bestowed on our prisoners who have + unfortunately fallen into their hands. It is a dictate of humanity and + benevolence, after sheathing the sword, to relieve and meliorate the + condition of the vanquished prisoner. + </p> + <p> + "On one occasion, while in the presence of General Washington, Lord + Cornwallis was standing with his head uncovered. His Excellency said to + him, politely, 'My lord, you had better be covered from the cold.' His + lordship, applying his hand to his head, replied, 'It matters not, sir, + what becomes of this head now.'" The reader will not have failed to notice + that the capture of Cornwallis was effected solely by the able and + judicious strategy of Washington. It was he that collected from different + parts of the country the forces that were necessary to enclose that + commander and his hitherto victorious army as it were in a net, from which + there was no possibility of escape. It was he who, by personal influence + and exertion, brought de Grasse to renounce his expected triumphs at sea + and zealously assist in the siege by preventing Cornwallis from receiving + any aid from British naval forces. It was he who detained de Grasse at a + critical moment of the siege, when he was anxious to go off with the chief + part of his force and engage the British at sea. In short, it was he who + provided all, oversaw all, directed all, and having, by prudence and + forethought, as well as by activity and perseverance, brought all the + elements of conquest together, combined them into one mighty effort with + glorious success. It was the second siege on a grand scale which had been + brought to a brilliant and fortunate conclusion by the wisdom and prudence + as well as the courage and perseverance of Washington. In the first he + expelled the enemy and recovered Boston uninjured, freeing the soil for a + time from the presence of the enemy. In the second, he captured the most + renowned and successful British army in America and dictated his own terms + of surrender to a commander who, from his marquee, had recently given law + to three States of the Union. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Dr. Thacher, in his Military Journal, has an entry: "July + 7th. Our army was drawn up in a line and reviewed by General Rochambeau, + with his Excellency, General Washington, and other general officers.—July + 10th. Another review took place in presence of the French ambassador from + Philadelphia, after which the French army passed a review in presence of + the general officers of both armies." Speaking of the French army, Dr. + Thacher says: "In the officers we recognize the accomplished gentlemen, + free and affable in their manners. Their military dress and side-arms are + elegant. The troops are under the strictest discipline, and are amply + provided with arms and accoutrements, which are kept in the neatest order. + They are in complete uniform—coats of white broadcloth, trimmed with + green, and white under-dress, and on their heads they wear a singular kind + of hat or chapeau. It is unlike our cocked hats, in having but two corners + instead of three, which gives them a very novel appearance." + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: The amount was $20,000 in specie, to be refunded by Robert + Morris on the 1st of October. On the 31st of August, Dr. Thacher says: + "Colonel Laurens arrived at headquarters, camp, Trenton, on his way from + Boston to Philadelphia. He brought two and a half millions of livres in + cash, a part of the French subsidy,—a most seasonable supply, as the + troops were discontented and almost mutinous for want of pay." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Lafayette (letter to Washington, 16th October, 1781) says + "Your Excellency having personally seen our dispositions, I shall only + give you an account of what passed in the execution. Colonel Gimat's + battalion led the van, and was followed by that of Colonel Hamilton, who + commanded the whole advanced corps. At the same time a party of eighty + men, under Colonel Laurens, turned the redoubt. I beg leave to refer your + Excellency to the report I have received from Colonel Hamilton, whose + well-known talents and gallantry were, on this occasion, most conspicuous + and serviceable. Our obligations to him, to Colonel Gimat, to Colonel + Laurens, and to each and all the officers and men, are above expression. + Not one gun was fired, and the ardor of the troops did not give time for + the sappers to derange the abattis; and owing to the conduct of the + commanders and the bravery of the men, the redoubt was stormed with + uncommon rapidity." + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: The whole number of prisoners, exclusive of seamen, was over + 7,000, and the British loss during the siege was between five and six + hundred. The army of the allies consisted of 7,000 American regular + troops, upward of 5,000 French, and 4,000 militia. The loss in killed and + wounded was about 300. The captured property consisted of a large train of + artillery—viz., 75 brass and 69 iron cannon, howitzers, and mortars; + also a large quantity of arms, ammunition, military stores, and provisions + fell to the Americans. One frigate, 2 ships of twenty guns each, a number + of transports and other vessels, and 1,500 seamen were surrendered to de + Grasse. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: On his departure, the Count de Grasse received from + Washington a present of two elegant horses as a token of his friendship + and esteem. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. — CLOSE OF THE WAR. 1782-1783. + </h2> + <p> + After the surrender of Cornwallis, the combined forces were distributed in + different parts of the country, in the manner we have described at the + close of the last chapter. Having personally superintended the + distribution of the ordnance and stores, and the departure of the + prisoners as well as the embarkation of the troops, who were to go + northward under General Lincoln, Washington left Yorktown on the 5th of + November (1781) for Eltham, the seat of his friend, Colonel Basset. He + arrived there the same day, but he came to a house of mourning. His + stepson, John Parke Custis, was just expiring when he reached the house. + Washington was just in time to be present, with Mrs. Washington and Mrs. + Custis, her daughter-in-law, at the last painful moment of the young man's + departure to the world of spirits. Mr. Custis had been an object of + peculiar affection and care to Washington, who had superintended his + education and introduction to public life. He had entered King's college + in New York, in 1773, but soon after left that institution and married the + daughter of Mr. Benedict Calvert, February 3, 1774. He had passed the + winter of 1775 at headquarters in Cambridge with his wife and Mrs. + Washington. He had subsequently been elected a member of the House of + Burgesses of Virginia, in which office he acquitted himself with honor, + and he was now cut off on the very threshold of life being only + twenty-eight years of age at the time of his decease. He left a widow and + four young children. The two youngest of these children, one less than two + and the other four years old, were adopted by Washington, and + thenceforward formed a part of his immediate family. During the last year + of Mr. Custis' life, Washington, writing to General Greene, took occasion + to cite a passage from his correspondence. He says, "I have received a + letter from Mr. Custis, dated the 29th ultimo (March, 1781), in which are + these words: 'General Greene has by his conduct gained universal esteem, + and possesses, in the fullest degree, the confidence of all ranks of + people.'" He had just then returned from the Assembly at Richmond. + Washington remained for several days at Eltham to comfort the family in + their severe affliction, and then proceeded to Mount Vernon, where he + arrived on the 13th of November. From this home of his early affections he + wrote to Lafayette on the 15th (1781), accounting for his not having + joined him in Philadelphia, by the pressure of private and public duties. + In this letter, ever attentive to the interests of his country, Washington + expresses his views with respect to the next campaign; and as Lafayette, + after the expedition with de Grasse to the South was abandoned, had + determined to pass the winter in France, Washington takes occasion in this + letter to impress upon his mind the absolute necessity of a strong naval + force in order to conduct the next campaign to a successful termination. + In concluding his letter, Washington says: "If I should be deprived of the + pleasure of a personal interview with you before your departure, permit me + to adopt this method of making you a tender of my ardent vows for a + prosperous voyage, a gracious reception from your prince, an honorable + reward for your services, a happy meeting with your lady and friends, and + a safe return in the spring to, my dear marquis, your affectionate friend, + etc.— + </p> + <h3> + "WASHINGTON." + </h3> + <p> + Washington had given Lafayette leave to proceed to Philadelphia, where he + obtained from Congress permission to visit his family in France for such a + period as he should think proper. Congress at the same time passed + resolutions doing justice to the zeal and military conduct of Lafayette. + Among them were the following: + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, that the Secretary of Foreign Affairs acquaint the ministers + plenipotentiary of the United States, that it is the desire of Congress + that they confer with the Marquis de Lafayette, and avail themselves of + his information relative to the affairs of the United States. + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, that the Secretary of Foreign Affairs further acquaint the + minister plenipotentiary at the court of Versailles, that he will conform + to the intention of Congress by consulting with and employing the + assistance of the Marquis de Lafayette in accelerating the supplies which + may be afforded by his most Christian majesty for the use of the United + States." + </p> + <p> + Lafayette was also commended by Congress to the notice of Louis XVI in + very warm terms. Having received his instructions from Congress and + completed his preparations, he went to Boston, where the American frigate + Alliance awaited his arrival. His farewell letter to Congress is dated on + board this vessel, December 23, 1781, and immediately after writing it he + set sail for his native country. + </p> + <p> + Before proceeding to Philadelphia Washington visited Alexandria, where he + was honored with a public reception and an address from a committee of the + citizens, in replying to which he was careful to remind them, when + referring to the late success at Yorktown, that "a vigorous prosecution of + this success would, in all probability," procure peace, liberty, and + independence. He also visited Annapolis, where the Legislature was in + session. A vote of thanks was passed by that body (22d November, 1781), + and in replying to it Washington also reminded the legislators of Maryland + that the war was by no means finished, and that further exertions were + required to be made by the States. + </p> + <p> + The splendid success of the allied arms in Virginia, and the great + advantages obtained still further south, produced no disposition in + Washington to relax those exertions which might yet be necessary to secure + the great object of the contest. "I shall attempt to stimulate Congress," + said he in a letter to General Greene, written at Mount Vernon, "to the + best improvement of our late success, by taking the most vigorous and + effectual measures to be ready for an early and decisive campaign the next + year. My greatest fear is that viewing this stroke in a point of light + which may too much magnify its importance they may think our work too + nearly closed and fall into a state of languor and relaxation. To prevent + this error I shall employ every means in my power, and, if unhappily we + sink into this fatal mistake, no part of the blame shall be mine." + </p> + <p> + On the 27th of November (1781) Washington reached Philadelphia, and + Congress passed a resolution granting him an audience on the succeeding + day. On his appearance the President addressed him in a short speech, + informing him that a committee was appointed to state the requisitions to + be made for the proper establishment of the army, and expressing the + expectation that he would remain in Philadelphia, in order to aid the + consultations on that important subject. + </p> + <p> + The Secretary of War, the financier, Robert Morris, and the Secretary of + Foreign Affairs, Robert R. Livingston, assisted at these deliberations, + and the business was concluded with unusual celerity. + </p> + <p> + A revenue was scarcely less necessary than an army, and it was obvious + that the means for carrying on the war must be obtained either by + impressments or by a vigorous course of taxation. But both these + alternatives depended on the States, and the government of the Union + resorted to the influence of Washington in aid of its requisitions. + </p> + <p> + But no exertions on the part of America alone could expel the invading + army. A superiority at sea was indispensable to the success of offensive + operations against the posts which the British still held within the + United States. To obtain this superiority Washington pressed its + importance on the Chevalier de la Luzerne, the minister of France, and + commanding officers of the French troops, as he had on Lafayette when he + was about to return to his native country. + </p> + <p> + The first intelligence from Europe was far from being conciliatory. The + Parliament of Great Britain reassembled in November (1781). The speech + from the throne breathed a settled purpose to continue the war, and the + addresses from both houses, which were carried by large majorities, echoed + the sentiment. + </p> + <p> + In the course of the animated debates which these addresses occasioned, an + intention was indeed avowed by some members of the administration to + direct the whole force of the nation against France and Spain, and to + suspend offensive operations in the interior of the United States until + the strength of those powers should be broken. In the meantime the posts + then occupied by their troops were to be maintained. + </p> + <p> + This development of the views of the administration furnished additional + motives to the American government for exerting all the faculties of the + nation to expel the British garrisons from New York and Charleston. The + efforts of Washington to produce these exertions were earnest and + unremitting, but not successful. The State Legislatures declared the + inability of their constituents to pay taxes. Instead of filling the + Continental treasury some were devising means to draw money from it, and + some of those which passed bills imposing heavy taxes directed that the + demands of the State should be first satisfied, and that the residue only + should be paid to the Continental receiver. By the unwearied attention and + judicious arrangements of Robert Morris, the minister of finance, the + expenses of the nation had been greatly reduced. The bank established in + Philadelphia, and his own high character, had enabled him to support in + some degree a system of credit, the advantages of which were incalculably + great. He had, through the Chevalier de la Luzerne, obtained permission + from the King of France to draw for half a million of livres monthly, + until 6,000,000 should be received. To prevent the diversion of any part + of this sum from the most essential objects, he had concealed the + negotiation even from Congress, and had communicated it only to + Washington; yet after receiving the first installment it was discovered + that Dr. Franklin had anticipated the residue of the loan and had + appropriated it to the purposes of the United States. At the commencement + of the year 1782 not a dollar remained in the treasury, and although + Congress had required the payment of 2,000,000 on the 1st of April not a + cent had been received on the 23d of that month, and so late as the 1st of + June (1782) not more than $20,000 had reached the treasury. Yet to Robert + Morris every eye was turned, to him the empty hand of every public + creditor was stretched for, and against him, instead of the State + governments, the complaints and imprecations of every unsatisfied claimant + were directed. In July (1782), when the second quarter annual payment of + taxes ought to have been received, Morris was informed by some of his + agents, that the collection of the revenue had been postponed in some of + the States, in consequence of which the month of December would arrive + before any money could come into the hands of the Continental receivers. + In a letter communicating this unpleasant intelligence to Washington, he + added: "With such gloomy prospects as this letter affords I am tied here + to be baited by continual clamorous demands; and for the forfeiture of all + that is valuable in life, and which I hoped at this moment to enjoy, I am + to be paid by invective. Scarce a day passes in which I am not tempted to + give back into the hands of Congress the power they have delegated, and to + lay down a burden which presses me to the earth. Nothing prevents me but a + knowledge of the difficulties I am obliged to struggle under. What may be + the success of my efforts God only knows, but to leave my post at present + would, I know, be ruinous. This candid state of my situation and feelings + I give to your bosom, because you, who have already felt and suffered so + much, will be able to sympathize with me." + </p> + <p> + Fortunately for the United States the temper of the British nation on the + subject of continuing the war did not accord with that of its Sovereign. + That war, into which the people had entered with at least as much + eagerness as the minister, had become almost universally unpopular. + Motions against the measures of administration respecting America were + repeated by the opposition, and, on every experiment, the strength of the + minority increased. At length, on the 27th of February (1782), General + Conway moved in the House of Commons, "that it is the opinion of this + house that a further prosecution of offensive war against America would, + under present circumstances, be the means of weakening the efforts of this + country against her European enemies, and tend to increase the mutual + enmity so fatal to the interests both of Great Britain and America." The + whole force of administration was exerted to get rid of this resolution, + but was exerted in vain, and it was carried. An address to the King, in + the words of the resolution, was immediately voted, and was presented by + the whole house. The answer of the Crown being deemed inexplicit it was, + on the 4th of March (1782), resolved "that the house will consider as + enemies to his Majesty and the country, all those who should advise or + attempt a further prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North + America." + </p> + <p> + These votes were soon followed by a change of ministers and by + instructions to the officers commanding the forces in America, which + conformed to them. + </p> + <p> + While Washington was employed in addressing circular letters to the State + governments, suggesting all those motives which might stimulate them to + exertions better proportioned to the exigency, English papers, containing + the debates in Parliament on the various propositions respecting America, + reached the United States. Alarmed at the impression these debates might + make, he introduced the opinions it was deemed prudent to inculcate + respecting them into the letters he was then about to transmit to the + Governors of the several States. "I have perused these debates," he said, + "with great attention and care, with a view, if possible, to penetrate + their real design, and upon the most mature deliberation I can bestow I am + obliged to declare it as my candid opinion that the measure, in all its + views, so far as it respects America, is merely delusory, having no + serious intention to admit our independence upon its true principles, but + is calculated to produce a change of ministers to quiet the minds of their + own people and reconcile them to a continuance of the war, while it is + meant to amuse this country with a false idea of peace, to draw us from + our connection with France, and to lull us into a state of security and + inactivity; which taking place, the ministry will be left to prosecute the + war in other parts of the world with greater vigor and effect. Your + Excellency will permit me on this occasion to observe that, even if the + nation and Parliament are really in earnest to obtain peace with America, + it will undoubtedly be wisdom in us to meet them with great caution and + circumspection, and by all means to keep our arms firm in our hands, and + instead of relaxing one iota in our exertions, rather to spring forward + with redoubled vigor, that we may take the advantage of every favorable + opportunity until our wishes are fully obtained. No nation yet suffered in + treaty by preparing (even in the moment of negotiation) most vigorously + for the field. + </p> + <p> + "The industry which the enemy is using to propagate their pacific reports + appears to me a circumstance very suspicious, and the eagerness with which + the people, as I am informed, are catching at them, is, in my opinion, + equally dangerous." + </p> + <p> + While Washington was still residing at Philadelphia, in conference with + the committees of Congress, a spirited naval action took place near the + capes of the Delaware, which must have afforded him much gratification. + </p> + <p> + The Delaware bay was, at this period, says Peterson, {1} infested with + small cruisers of the enemy, which not only captured the river craft, but + molested the neighboring shores. To repress these marauders, the State of + Pennsylvania determined to fit out a vessel or two at its own expense, and + with this view a small merchant ship, called the Hyder All, then lying + outward-bound with a cargo of flour, was purchased. It took but a few days + to discharge her freight, to pierce her for sixteen guns, and to provide + her with an armament. Volunteers flocked to offer themselves for her crew. + The command was given to Barney, and, at the head of a convoy of + outward-bound merchantmen, he stood down the bay, and anchored, on the 8th + of April (1782), in the roads off Cape May, where he awaited a proper wind + for the traders to go to sea. Suddenly two ships and a brig, one of the + former a frigate, were seen rounding the cape, obviously with the + intention of attacking him, on which he signaled the convoy to stand up + the bay, the wind being at the southward, himself covering their rear, and + the enemy in hot pursuit. + </p> + <p> + In order to head off the fugitives, the frigate took one channel and her + consorts the other, the ship and brig choosing that which the Hyder Ali + had selected. The brig, being a very fast vessel, soon overhauled Barney, + but, contenting herself with giving him a broadside as she passed, pressed + on in pursuit of the convoy. The Hyder Ali declined to return this fire, + holding herself in reserve for the ship, a sloop-of-war mounting twenty + guns, which was now seen rapidly approaching. When the Englishman drew + near, Barney suddenly luffed, threw in his broadside, and immediately + righting his helm, kept away again. This staggered the enemy, who, being + so much the superior and having a frigate within sustaining distance, had + expected the Hyder Ali to surrender. The two vessels were now within + pistol shot of each other, and the forward guns of the British were just + beginning to bear, when Barney, in a loud voice, ordered his quartermaster + "to port his helm." The command was distinctly heard on board the enemy, + as indeed Barney had intended it should be, and the Englishman immediately + prepared to maneuver his ship accordingly. But the quartermaster of the + Hyder Ali had, prior to this, received his instructions, and, instead of + obeying Barney's pretended order, whirled his wheel in the contrary + direction, luffing the American ship athwart the hawse of her antagonist. + The jib-boom of the enemy, in consequence of this, caught in the + forerigging of the Hyder Ali, giving the latter the raking position which + Barney had desired. + </p> + <p> + Not a cheer rose from the American vessel, even at this welcome spectacle, + for the men knew that victory against such odds was still uncertain, and + they thought as yet only of securing it. Nor did the British, at a sight + so dispiriting to them, yield in despair. On the contrary, both crews + rushed to their guns, and, for half an hour, the combat was waged on + either side with desperate fury. The two vessels were soon enveloped in + smoke. The explosions of the artillery were like continuous claps of + thunder. In twenty-six minutes not less than twenty broadsides were + discharged. Nor was the struggle confined to the batteries. Riflemen, + posted in the tops of the Hyder Ali, picked off one by one the crew of the + enemy, until his decks ran slippery with blood and 56 out of his crew of + 140 had fallen. All this while Barney stood on the quarter-deck of his + ship, a mark for the enemy's sharpshooters, until they were driven from + their stations by the superior aim of the Americans. At length, finding + further resistance hopeless, the Englishman struck his colors. Huzza on + huzza now rose from the deck of the victor. Barney, on taking possession, + discovered that the vessel he had captured was the General Monk, and that + her weight of metal was nearly twice his own. Notwithstanding the presence + of the frigate, the young hero succeeded in bringing off his prize in + safety and in a few hours had moored her by the Hyder Ali's side, opposite + Philadelphia, with the dead of both ships still on their decks. In this + action Barney lost but 4 killed and 11 wounded. For the victory, conceded + to be the most brilliant of the latter years of the war, Barney was + rewarded by the State of Pennsylvania with a gold-hilted sword. In + consequence of the capture of the General Monk, the Delaware ceased to be + infested with the enemy. + </p> + <p> + About the middle of April (1782), Washington left Philadelphia, where he + had remained since November (1781), and joined the army, his headquarters + being at Newburg. He was directly informed of a very shameful proceeding + on the part of some refugees from New York, and felt compelled to give the + matter his serious attention. The circumstances were these: Captain Huddy, + who commanded a body of troops in Monmouth county, New Jersey, was + attacked by a party of refugees, was made prisoner, and closely confined + in New York. A few days afterward they led him out and hanged him, with a + label on his breast declaring that he was put to death in retaliation for + some of their number, who, they said, had suffered a similar fate. Taking + up the matter promptly, Washington submitted it to his officers, laid it + before Congress, and wrote to Clinton demanding that Captain Lippencot, + the perpetrator of the horrid deed, should be given up. The demand not + being complied with, Washington, in accordance with the opinion of the + council of officers, determined upon retaliation. A British officer, of + equal rank with Captain Huddy, was chosen by lot. Captain Asgill, a young + man just nineteen years old, and the only son of his parents, was the one + upon whom the lot fell. The whole affair was in suspense for a number of + months. Both Clinton and Carleton, his successor, reprobated the act of + Lippencot with great severity, yet he was not given up, it being + considered by a court-martial that he had only obeyed the orders of the + Board of Associated Loyalists in New York. Great interest was made to save + Asgill's life; his mother begged the interference of the Count de + Vergennes, who wrote to Washington in her behalf. Early in November + Washington performed the grateful task of setting Captain Asgill at + liberty. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the army, by whose toils and sufferings the country had been + carried through the perils of the Revolution, remained unpaid, apparently + disregarded by Congress and by the people whom they had delivered from + oppression. It seemed probable that they would speedily be disbanded, + without any adequate provision being made by Congress for the compensation + which was due to them, and which had been solemnly promised by repeated + acts of legislation. They were very naturally discontented. Their + complaints and murmurs began to be ominous of very serious consequences. + They even began to question the efficiency of the form of government, + which appeared to be unfitted for meeting the first necessities of the + country—the maintenance and pay of its military force. They began to + consider the propriety of establishing a more energetic form of + government, while they still had their arms in their hands. Colonel + Nicola, an able and experienced officer, who stood high in Washington's + estimation, and had frequently been made the medium of communication + between him and the officers, was chosen as the organ for making known + their sentiments to him on the present occasion. In a letter carefully + written, after commenting upon the gloomy state of public affairs, the + disordered finances, and other embarrassments occasioned by the war, all + caused by defective political organization, he proceeded to say: "This + must have shown to all, and to military men in particular, the weakness of + republics, and the exertions the army have been able to make by being + under a proper head. Therefore, I little doubt that, when the benefits of + a mixed government are pointed out and duly considered, such will be + readily adopted. In this case it will, I believe, be uncontroverted that + the same abilities which have led us through difficulties, apparently + insurmountable by human power, to victory and glory, those qualities that + have merited and obtained the universal esteem and veneration of an army, + would be most likely to conduct and direct us in the smoother paths of + peace. Some people have so connected the ideas of tyranny and monarchy as + to find it very difficult to separate them. It may, therefore, be + requisite to give the head of such a constitution as I propose some title + apparently more moderate; but, if all things were once adjusted, I believe + strong arguments might be produced for admitting the name of King, which I + conceive would be attended with some material advantages." + </p> + <p> + The answer of Washington to this communication was in the following terms: + </p> + <p> + "NEWBURG, 22d <i>May</i>, 1782. + </p> + <p> + "SIR.—With a mixture of great surprise and astonishment, I have read + with attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusal. Be + assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me more + painful sensations than your information of there being such ideas + existing in the army as you have expressed, and I must view with + abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the present, the communication + of them will rest in my own bosom, unless some further agitation of the + matter shall make a disclosure necessary. + </p> + <p> + "I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct could have given + encouragement to an address, which to me seems big with the greatest + mischiefs that can befall my country. If I am not deceived in the + knowledge of myself, you could not have found a person to whom your + schemes are more disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my own + feelings, I must add, that no man possesses a more sincere wish to see + ample justice done to the army than I do; and as far as my powers and + influence, in a constitutional way, extend, they shall be employed, to the + utmost of my abilities, to effect it, should there be any occasion. Let me + conjure you, then, if you have any regard for your country, concern for + yourself or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these thoughts from + your mind, and never communicate, as from yourself or any one else, a + sentiment of the like nature. + </p> + <p> + "I am, sir, &c., + </p> + <h3> + "GEORGE WASHINGTON." + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + This was the language of Washington at a time when the army was entirely + devoted to him, when his popularity was equal to that of Cromwell or + Napoleon in their palmiest days. Certain officers of the army were ready, + at a word, to make him king; and the acknowledged inefficiency of the + existing government would have furnished a plausible reason for the act. + But Washington was not formed of the material that kings are made of. + Personal ambition he despised. To be, not to seem great and good was his + aim. To serve, and not to rule his country was his object. He was too true + a patriot to assume the power and title of a monarch. + </p> + <p> + Early in May (1782) Sir Guy Carleton, who had succeeded Sir Henry Clinton + in the command of all the British forces in the United States, arrived at + New York. Having been also appointed, in conjunction with Admiral Digby, a + commissioner to negotiate a peace, he lost no time in conveying to + Washington copies of the votes of the British Parliament, and of a bill + which had been introduced on the part of the administration, authorizing + the King to conclude a peace or truce with those who were still + denominated "the revolted Colonies of North America." These papers, he + said, would manifest the dispositions prevailing with the government and + people of England toward those of America, and, if the like pacific temper + should prevail in this country, both inclination and duty would lead him + to meet it with the most zealous concurrence. He had addressed to + Congress, he said, a letter containing the same communications, and he + solicited a passport for the person who should convey it. + </p> + <p> + At this time (1782) the bill enabling the British monarch to conclude a + peace or truce with America had not become a law, nor was any assurance + given that the present commissioners were empowered to offer other terms + than those which had been formerly rejected. General Carleton, therefore, + could not hope that negotiations would commence on such a basis, nor be + disappointed at the refusal of the passports he requested by Congress, to + whom the application was, of course, referred by Washington. The letter + may have been written for the general purpose of conciliation, but the + situation of the United States justified a suspicion of different motives, + and prudence required that their conduct should be influenced by that + suspicion. The repugnance of the King to a dismemberment of the empire was + understood, and it was thought probable that the sentiments expressed in + the House of Commons might be attributable rather to a desire of changing + ministers than to any fixed determination to relinquish the design of + reannexing America to the Crown. + </p> + <p> + Under these impressions, the overtures now made were considered as opiates + administered to lull the spirit of vigilance, which Washington and his + friends in Congress labored to keep up, into a state of fatal repose, and + to prevent those measures of security which it might yet be necessary to + adopt. + </p> + <p> + This jealousy was nourished by all the intelligence received from Europe. + The utmost address of the British cabinet had been employed to detach the + belligerents from each other. The mediation of Russia had been accepted to + procure a separate peace with Holland; propositions had been submitted + both to France and Spain, tending to an accommodation of differences with + each of those powers singly, and inquiries had been made of Mr. Adams, the + American minister at the Hague in place of Mr. Laurens, which seemed to + contemplate the same object with regard to the United States. These + political maneuvers furnished additional motives for doubting the + sincerity of the English cabinet. Whatever views might actuate the court + of St. James on this subject, the resolution of the American government to + make no separate treaty was unalterable. + </p> + <p> + But the public votes which have been stated, and probably his private + instructions, restrained Sir Guy Carleton from offensive war, and the + state of the American army disabled Washington from making any attempt on + the posts in possession of the British. The campaign of 1782 consequently + passed away without furnishing any military operations of moment between + the armies under the immediate direction of the respective + Commanders-in-Chief. + </p> + <p> + Early in August (1782) a letter was received by Washington from Sir Guy + Carleton and Admiral Digby, which, among other communications manifesting + a pacific disposition on the part of England, contained the information + that Mr. Grenville was at Paris, invested with full powers to treat with + all the parties at war, that negotiations for a general peace were already + commenced and that his Majesty had commanded his minister to direct Mr. + Grenville that the independence of the thirteen provinces should be + proposed by him in the first instance instead of being made a condition of + a general treaty. But that this proposition would be made in the + confidence that the Loyalists would be restored to their possessions, or a + full compensation made them for whatever confiscations might have taken + place. + </p> + <p> + This letter was, not long afterward, followed by one from Sir Guy + Carleton, declaring that he could discern no further object of contest, + and that he disapproved of all further hostilities by sea or land, which + could only multiply the miseries of individuals, without a possible + advantage to either nation. In pursuance of this opinion, he had, soon + after his arrival in New York, restrained the practice of detaching + parties of Indians against the frontiers of the United States and had + recalled those which were previously engaged in those bloody incursions. + </p> + <p> + These communications appear to have alarmed the jealousy of the minister + of France. To quiet his fears Congress renewed the resolution "to enter + into no discussion of any overtures for pacification, but in confidence + and in concert with his most Christian Majesty," and again recommended to + the several States to adopt such measures as would most effectually guard + against all intercourse with any subjects of the British Crown during the + war. + </p> + <p> + In South Carolina the American army under General Greene maintained its + position in front of Jacksonborough, and that of the British under General + Leslie was confined to Charleston and its immediate vicinity. Both were + inactive for a long period, and during this time Greene's army suffered so + much for want of provisions that he was under the necessity of authorizing + the seizure of them by the odious measure of impressment. + </p> + <p> + Privations, which had been borne without a murmur under the excitement of + active military operations, produced great irritation during the leisure + which prevailed after the enemy had abandoned the open field, and, in the + Pennsylvania line, which was composed chiefly of foreigners, the + discontent was aggravated to such a point as to produce a treasonable + intercourse with the enemy, in which a plot is understood to have been + laid for seizing General Greene and delivering him to a detachment of + British troops which would move out of Charleston for the purpose of + favoring the execution of the design. It was discovered when it is + supposed to have been on the point of execution, and a Sergeant Gornell, + believed to be the chief of the conspiracy, was condemned to death by a + court-martial, and executed on the 22d of April. Some others, among whom + were two domestics in the general's family, were brought before the court + on suspicion of being concerned in the plot, but the testimony was not + sufficient to convict them, and twelve deserted the night after it was + discovered. There is no reason to believe that the actual guilt of this + transaction extended further. + </p> + <p> + Charleston was held until the 14th of December. Previous to its evacuation + General Leslie had proposed a cessation of hostilities, and that his + troops might be supplied with fresh provisions, in exchange for articles + of the last necessity in the American camp. The policy of government being + adverse to this proposition, General Greene was under the necessity of + refusing his assent to it, and the British general continued to supply his + wants by force. This produced several skirmishes with foraging parties, to + one of which importance was given by the untimely death of the intrepid + Laurens, whose loss was universally lamented. + </p> + <p> + This gallant and accomplished young gentleman had entered into the + military family of Washington at an early period of the war and had always + shared a large portion of his esteem. Brave to excess, he sought every + occasion to render service to his country and to acquire that military + fame which he pursued with the ardor of a young soldier, whose courage + seems to have partaken largely of that romantic spirit which youth and + enthusiasm produce in a fearless mind. No small addition to the regrets + occasioned by his loss was derived from the reflection that he fell + unnecessarily, in an unimportant skirmish, in the last moments of the war, + when his rash exposure to the danger which proved fatal to him could no + longer be useful to his country. + </p> + <p> + From the arrival of Sir Guy Carleton at New York, the conduct of the + British armies on the American continent was regulated by the spirit then + recently displayed in the House of Commons, and all the sentiments + expressed by their general were pacific and conciliatory. But to these + flattering appearances it was dangerous to yield implicit confidence. With + a change of men a change of measures might also take place, and, in + addition to the ordinary suggestions of prudence, the military events in + the West Indies were calculated to keep alive the attention, and to + continue the anxieties of the United States. + </p> + <p> + After the surrender of Lord Cornwallis the arms of France and Spain in the + American seas had been attended with such signal success that the hope of + annihilating the power of Great Britain in the West Indies was not too + extravagant to be indulged. Immense preparations had been made for the + invasion of Jamaica, and, early in April, Admiral Count de Grasse sailed + from Martinique with a powerful fleet, having on board the land forces and + artillery which were to be employed in the operations against that island. + His intention was to form a junction with the Spanish Admiral Don Solano, + who lay at Hispaniola; after which the combined fleet, whose superiority + promised to render it irresistible, was to proceed on the important + enterprise which had been concerted. On his way to Hispaniola de Grasse + was overtaken by Rodney, and brought to an engagement in which he was + totally defeated and made a prisoner. This decisive victory disconcerted + the plans of the combined powers and gave security to the British islands. + In the United States it was feared that this alteration in the aspect of + affairs might influence the councils of the English cabinet on the + question of peace, and these apprehensions increased the uneasiness with + which all intelligent men contemplated the state of the American finances. + </p> + <p> + It was then in contemplation to reduce the army by which many of the + officers would be discharged. While the general declared, in a + confidential letter to the Secretary of War, his conviction of the + alacrity with which they would retire into private life, could they be + placed in a situation as eligible as they had left to enter into the + service, he added—"Yet I cannot help fearing the result of the + measure, when I see such a number of men goaded by a thousand stings of + reflection on, the past, and of anticipation on the future, about to be + turned on the world, soured by penury, and what they call the ingratitude + of the public; involved in debts, without one farthing of money to carry + them home, after having spent the flower of their days, and many of them + their patrimonies, in establishing the freedom and independence of their + country; and having suffered everything which human nature is capable of + enduring on this side of death. I repeat it, when I reflect on these + irritating circumstances, unattended by one thing to soothe their feelings + or brighten the gloomy prospect, I cannot avoid apprehending that a train + of evils will follow of a very serious and distressing nature. + </p> + <p> + "I wish not to heighten the shades of the picture so far as the real life + would justify me in doing, or I would give anecdotes of patriotism and + distress which have scarcely ever been paralleled, never surpassed, in the + history of mankind. But you may rely upon it, the patience and + long-sufferance of this army are almost exhausted, and there never was so + great a spirit of discontent as at this instant. While in the field I + think it may be kept from breaking out into acts of outrage, but when we + retire into winter quarters (unless the storm be previously dissipated) I + cannot be at ease respecting the consequences. It is high time for a + peace." + </p> + <p> + "To judge rightly," says Marshall, "of the motives which produced this + uneasy temper in the army it will be necessary to recollect that the + resolution of October, 1780, granting half-pay for life to the officers + stood on the mere faith of a government possessing no funds enabling it to + perform its engagements. From requisitions alone, to be made on sovereign + States, the supplies were to be drawn which should satisfy these + meritorious public creditors, and the ill success attending these + requisitions while the dangers of war were still impending, furnished + melancholy presages of their unproductiveness in time of peace. In + addition to this reflection, of itself sufficient to disturb the + tranquility which the passage of the resolution had produced, were other + considerations of decisive influence. The dispositions manifested by + Congress itself were so unfriendly to the half-pay establishment as to + extinguish the hope that any funds the government might acquire would be + applied to that object. Since the passage of the resolution the articles + of confederation, which required the concurrence of nine States to any act + appropriating public money, had been adopted, and nine States had never + been in favor of the measure. Should the requisitions of Congress + therefore be respected, or should permanent funds be granted by the + States, the prevailing sentiment of the nation was too hostile to the + compensation which had been stipulated to leave a probability that it + would be substantially made. This was not merely the sentiment of the + individuals then administering the government which might change with a + change of men; it was known to be the sense of the States they + represented, and consequently the hope could not be indulged that, on this + subject, a future Congress would be more just or would think more + liberally. As, therefore, the establishment of that independence for which + they had fought and suffered appeared to become more certain as the end of + their toils approached—the officers became more attentive to their + own situation, and the inquietude of the army increased with the progress + of the negotiation." + </p> + <p> + In October (1782) the French troops marched to Boston, in order to embark + for the West Indies, and the Americans retired into winter quarters. The + apparent indisposition of the British general to act offensively, the + pacific temper avowed by the cabinet of London, and the strength of the + country in which the American troops were cantoned, gave ample assurance + that no military operations would be undertaken during the winter which + would require the continuance of Washington in camp. But the irritable + temper of the army furnished cause for serious apprehension, and he + determined to forego every gratification to be derived from a suspension + of his toils, in order to watch the progress of its discontent. + </p> + <p> + The officers who had wasted their fortunes and the prime of their lives in + unrewarded service, fearing, with reason, that Congress possessed neither + the power nor the inclination to comply with its engagements to the army, + could not look with unconcern at the prospect which was opening to them. + In December, soon after going into winter quarters, they presented a + petition to Congress respecting the money actually due to them, and + proposing a commutation of the half-pay stipulated by the resolutions of + October, 1780, for a sum in gross, which, they flattered themselves, would + encounter fewer prejudices than the half-pay establishment. Some security + that the engagements of the government would be complied with was also + requested. A committee of officers was deputed to solicit the attention of + Congress to this memorial, and to attend its progress through the house. + </p> + <p> + Among the most distinguished members of the Federal government were + persons sincerely disposed to do ample justice to the public creditors + generally, and to that class of them particularly whose claims were + founded in military service. But many viewed the army with jealous eyes, + acknowledged its merit with unwillingness, and betrayed, involuntarily, + their repugnance to a faithful observance of the public engagements. With + this question another of equal importance was connected, on which Congress + was divided almost in the same manner. One party was attached to a State, + the other to a Continental system. The latter labored to fund the public + debts on solid Continental security, while the former opposed their whole + weight to measures calculated to effect that object. + </p> + <p> + In consequence of these divisions on points of the deepest interest, the + business of the army advanced slowly, and the important question + respecting the commutation of their half-pay remained undecided (March, + 1783), when intelligence was received of the signature of the preliminary + and eventual articles of peace between the United States and Great + Britain. + </p> + <p> + The officers, soured by their past sufferings, their present wants, and + their gloomy prospects—exasperated by the neglect which they + experienced and the injustice which they apprehended, manifested an + irritable and uneasy temper, which required only a slight impulse to give + it activity. To render this temper the more dangerous, an opinion had been + insinuated that the Commander-in-Chief was restrained, by extreme + delicacy, from supporting their interests with that zeal which his + feelings and knowledge of their situation had inspired. Early in March a + letter was received from their committee in Philadelphia, showing that the + objects they solicited had not been obtained. On the 10th of that month + (1783) an anonymous paper was circulated, requiring a meeting of the + general and field officers at the public building on the succeeding day at + 11 in the morning, and announcing the expectation that an officer from + each company, and a delegate from the medical staff would attend. The + object of the meeting was avowed to be, "to consider the late letter from + their representatives in Philadelphia, and what measures (if any) should + be adopted to obtain that redress of grievances which they seemed to have + solicited in vain." + </p> + <p> + On the same day an address to the army was privately circulated, which was + admirably well calculated to work on the passions of the moment, and to + lead to the most desperate resolutions. This was the first of the + celebrated "Newburg Addresses," since acknowledged to have been written by + Gen. John Armstrong, at the request of several of the officers in camp. + The following were the concluding passages of the first address: + </p> + <p> + "After a pursuit of seven long years, the object for which we set out is + at length brought within our reach. Yes, my friends, that suffering + courage of yours was active once. It has conducted the United States of + America through a doubtful and a bloody war. It has placed her in the + chair of independency; and peace returns again to bless—whom? A + country willing to redress your wrongs, cherish your worth, and reward + your services? A country courting your return to private life with tears + of gratitude and smiles of admiration—longing to divide with you + that independency which your gallantry has given, and those riches which + your wounds have preserved? Is this the case? Or is it rather a country + that tramples upon your rights, disdains your cries, and insults your + distresses? Have you not more than once suggested your wishes and made + known your wants to Congress? Wants and wishes which gratitude and policy + would have anticipated rather than evaded; and have you not lately, in the + meek language of entreating memorials, begged from their justice what you + could no longer expect from their favor? How have you been answered? Let + the letter which you are called to consider tomorrow reply. + </p> + <p> + "If this, then, be your treatment while the swords you wear are necessary + for the defense of America, what have you to expect from peace, when your + voice shall sink and your strength dissipate by division? When those very + swords, the instruments and companions of your glory, shall be taken from + your sides, and no remaining mark of military distinction left but your + wants, infirmities, and scars? Can you then consent to be the only + sufferers by this Revolution, and, retiring from the field, grow old in + poverty, wretchedness, and contempt? Can you consent to wade through the + vile mire of dependency, and owe the miserable remnant of that life to + charity which has hitherto been spent in honor? If you can, go; and carry + with you the jest of Tories and the scorn of Whigs, the ridicule, and, + what is worse, the pity of the world. Go—starve and be forgotten. + But if your spirit should revolt at this, if you have sense enough to + discover, and spirit enough to oppose, tyranny under whatever garb it may + assume, whether it be the plain coat of republicanism or the splendid robe + of royalty; if you have yet learned to discriminate between a people and a + cause, between men and principles, awake; attend to your situation and + redress yourselves. If the present moment be lost, every future effort is + in vain, and your threats then will be as empty as your entreaties now. + </p> + <p> + "I would advise you, therefore, to come to some final opinion upon what + you can bear and what you will suffer. If your determination be in any + proportion to your wrongs, carry your appeal from the justice to the fears + of the government. Change the milk-and-water style of your last memorial. + Assume a bolder tone, decent, but lively; spirited and determined; and + suspect the man who would advise to more moderation and longer + forbearance. Let two or three men who can feel as well as write be + appointed to draw up your last remonstrance; for I would no longer give it + the suing, soft, unsuccessful epithet of memorial. Let it be represented + in language that will neither dishonor you by its rudeness nor betray you + by its fears, what has been promised by Congress and what has been + performed; how long and how patiently you have suffered; how little you + have asked, and how much of that little has been denied. Tell them that, + though you were the first, and would wish to be the last to encounter + danger; though despair itself can never drive you into dishonor it may + drive you from the field; that the wound often irritated and never healed + may at length become incurable, and that the slightest mark of indignity + from Congress now must operate like the grave, and part you forever; that + in any political event, the army has its alternative—if peace, that + nothing shall separate you from your arms but death; if war, that, + courting the auspices and inviting the directions of your illustrious + leader, you will retire to some unsettled country, smile in your turn, and + 'mock when their fear cometh on.' But let it represent also that should + they comply with the request of your late memorial, it would make you more + happy and them more respectable. That while war should continue you would + follow their standard into the field, and when it came to an end, you + would withdraw into the shade of private life, and give the world another + subject of wonder and applause—an army victorious over its enemies, + victorious over itself." + </p> + <p> + Persuaded as the officers in general were of the indisposition of + government to remunerate their services, this eloquent and impassioned + address, dictated by genius and by feeling, found in almost every bosom a + kindred though latent sentiment prepared to receive its impression. Quick + as the train to which a torch is applied, the passions caught its flame + and nothing seemed to be required but the assemblage proposed for the + succeeding day to communicate the conflagration to the combustible mass + and to produce an explosion ruinous to the army and to the nation. + </p> + <p> + Accustomed as Washington had been to emergencies of great delicacy and + difficulty, yet none had occurred which called more pressingly than the + present for the utmost exertion of all his powers. He knew well that it + was much easier to avoid intemperate measures than to recede from them + after they have been adopted. He therefore considered it as a matter of + the last importance to prevent the meeting of the officers on the + succeeding day, as proposed in the anonymous summons. The sensibilities of + the army were too high to admit of this being forbidden by authority, as a + violation of discipline; but the end was answered in another way and + without irritation. Washington, in general orders, noticed the anonymous + summons, as a disorderly proceeding, not to be countenanced; and the more + effectually to divert the officers from paying any attention to it, he + requested them to meet for the same nominal purpose, but on a day four + days subsequent to the one proposed by the anonymous writer. On the next + day (March 12th), the second "Newburg Address" appeared, affecting to + consider Washington as approving the first, and only changing the day of + meeting. But this artifice was defeated. The intervening period was + improved in preparing the officers for the adoption of moderate measures. + Washington sent for one officer after another, and enlarged in private on + the fatal consequences, and particularly the loss of character, which + would result from the adoption of intemperate resolutions. His whole + personal influence was exerted to calm the prevailing agitation. When the + officers assembled (March 15, 1783), General Gates was called to the + chair. Washington rose and apologized for being present, which had not + been his original intention; but the circulation of anonymous addresses + had imposed on him the duty of expressing his opinion of their tendency. + He had committed it to writing, and, with the indulgence of his brother + officers, he would take the liberty of reading it to them; and then + proceeded as follows: + </p> + <p> + "GENTLEMEN.—By an anonymous summons an attempt has been made to + convene you together. How inconsistent with the rules of propriety, how + unmilitary, and how subversive of all order and discipline, let the good + sense of the army decide. + </p> + <p> + "In the moment of this summons, another anonymous production was sent into + circulation, addressed more to the feelings and passions than to the + reason and judgment of the army. The author of the piece is entitled to + much credit for the goodness of his pen, and I could wish he had as much + credit for the rectitude of his heart; for, as men see through different + optics, and are induced, by the reflecting faculties of the mind, to use + different means to attain the same end, the author of the address should + have had more charity than to mark for suspicion the man who should + recommend moderation and longer forbearance; or, in other words, who + should not think as he thinks, and act as he advises. But he had another + plan in view, in which candor and liberality of sentiment, regard to + justice, and love of country have no part; and he was right to insinuate + the darkest suspicion to effect the blackest design. That the address is + drawn with great art and is designed to answer the most insidious + purposes; that it is calculated to impress the mind with an idea of + premeditated injustice in the sovereign power of the United States, and + rouse all those resentments which must unavoidably flow from such a belief + that the secret mover of this scheme, whoever he may be, intended to take + advantage of the passions, while they were warmed by the recollection of + past distresses, without giving time for cool, deliberate thinking, and + that composure of mind which is so necessary to give dignity and stability + to measures, is rendered too obvious, by the mode of conducting the + business, to need other proof than a reference to the proceeding. Thus + much, gentlemen, I have thought it incumbent on me to observe to you, to + show upon what principles I opposed the irregular and hasty meeting which + was proposed to have been held on Tuesday last, and not because I wanted a + disposition to give you every opportunity, consistent with your own honor + and the dignity of the army, to make known your grievances. If my conduct + heretofore has not evinced to you that I have been a faithful friend to + the army, my declaration of it at this time would be equally unavailing + and improper. But as I was among the first who embarked in the cause of + our common country; as I have never left your side one moment, but when + called from you on public duty; as I have been the constant companion and + witness of your distresses, and not among the last to feel and acknowledge + your merits; as I have ever considered my own military reputation as + inseparably connected with that of the army; as my heart has ever expanded + with joy when I have heard its praises, and my indignation has arisen when + the mouth of detraction has been opened against it, it can scarcely be + supposed, at this late stage of the war, that I am indifferent to its + interests. But how are they to be promoted? The way is plain, says the + anonymous addresser. If war continues, remove into the unsettled country; + there establish yourselves and leave an ungrateful country to defend + itself. But who are they to defend? Our wives, our children, our farms and + other property, which we leave behind us? Or, in this state of hostile + separation, are we to take the two first (the latter cannot be removed), + to perish in a wilderness with hunger, cold, and nakedness? If peace takes + place, never sheathe your swords, says he, until you have obtained full + and ample justice. This dreadful alternative of either deserting our + country in the extremist hour of her distress, or turning our arms against + it, which is the apparent object, unless Congress can be compelled into + instant compliance, has something so shocking in it that humanity revolts + at the idea. My God! What can this writer have in view, by recommending + such measures? Can he be a friend to the army? Can he be a friend to this + country? Rather is he not an insidious foe? some emissary, perhaps, from + New York, plotting the ruin of both, by sowing the seeds of discord and + separation between the civil and military powers of the continent? And + what a compliment does he pay to our understandings, when he recommends + measures, in either alternative, impracticable in their nature! + </p> + <p> + "But here, gentlemen, I will drop the curtain, because it would be as + imprudent in me to assign my reasons for this opinion as it would be + insulting to your conception to suppose you stood in need of them. A + moment's reflection will convince every dispassionate mind of the physical + impossibility of carrying either proposal into execution. There might, + gentlemen, be an Impropriety in my taking notice, in this address to you, + of an anonymous production, but the manner in which that performance has + been introduced to the army, the effect it was intended to have, together + with some other circumstances, will amply justify my observations on the + tendency of that writing. With respect to the advice given by the author, + to suspect the man who shall recommend moderate measures and longer + forbearance, I spurn it, as every man who regards that liberty and reveres + that justice for which we contend, undoubtedly must; for, if men are to be + precluded from offering their sentiments on a matter which may involve the + most serious and alarming consequences that can invite the consideration + of mankind, reason is of no use to us. The freedom of speech may be taken + away, and, dumb and silent, we may be led like sheep to the slaughter. + </p> + <p> + "I cannot, in justice to my own belief and what I have great reason to + conceive is the intention of Congress, conclude this address without + giving it as my decided opinion that that honorable body entertain exalted + sentiments of the services of the army, and from a full conviction of its + merits and sufferings will do it complete justice; that their endeavors to + discover and establish funds for this purpose has been unwearied, and will + not cease till they have succeeded, I have not a doubt. But, like all + other large bodies where there is a variety of different interests to + reconcile, their determinations are slow. Why, then, should we distrust + them, and, in consequence of that distrust, adopt measures which may cast + a shade over that glory which has been so justly acquired, and tarnish the + reputation of an army which is celebrated through all Europe for its + fortitude and patriotism? And for what is this done? To bring the object + we seek nearer? No; most certainly, in my opinion, it will cast it at a + greater distance. For myself—and I take no merit in giving the + assurance, being induced to it from principles of gratitude, veracity, and + justice—a grateful sense of the confidence you have ever placed in + me, a recollection of the cheerful assistance and prompt obedience I have + experienced from you under every vicissitude of fortune, and the sincere + affection I feel for an army I have so long had the honor to command, will + oblige me to declare in this public and solemn manner that in the + attainment of complete justice for all your toils and dangers, and in the + gratification of every wish, so far as may be done consistently with the + great duty I owe my country, and those powers we are bound to respect, you + may freely command my services to the utmost extent of my abilities. While + I give you these assurances, and pledge myself in the most unequivocal + manner to exert whatever ability I am possessed of in your favor, let me + entreat you, gentlemen, on your part, not to take any measure, which, + viewed in the calm light of reason, will lessen the dignity and sully the + glory you have hitherto maintained. Let me request you to rely on the + plighted faith of your country, and place a full confidence in the purity + of the intentions of Congress, that, previous to your dissolution as an + army, they will cause all your accounts to be fairly liquidated, as + directed in the resolutions which were published to you two days ago; and + that they will adopt the most effectual measures in their power to render + ample justice to you for your faithful and meritorious services. And let + me conjure you, in the name of our common country, as you value your own + sacred honor, as you respect the rights of humanity, and as you regard the + military and national character of America, to express your utmost horror + and detestation of the man who wishes, under any specious pretenses, to + overturn the liberties of our country, and who wickedly attempts to open + the floodgates of civil discord and deluge our rising empire in blood. + </p> + <p> + "By thus determining and thus acting, you will pursue the plain and direct + road to the attainment of your wishes; you will defeat the insidious + designs of our enemies, who are compelled to resort from open force to + secret artifice. You will give one more distinguished proof of unexampled + patriotism and patient virtue, rising superior to the pressure of the most + complicated sufferings; and you will, by the dignity of your conduct, + afford occasion for posterity to say, when speaking of the glorious + example you have exhibited to mankind—'Had this day been wanting, + the world had never seen the last stage of perfection to which human + nature is capable of attaining.'" + </p> + <p> + After concluding this address, Washington read to the meeting a letter + from one of his frequent correspondents in Congress, the Hon. Joseph + Jones, pointing out the difficulties Congress had to contend with, but + expressing the opinion that the claims of the army would, at all events, + be paid. When he got through with the first paragraph of the letter he + made a short pause, took out his spectacles, and craved the indulgence of + the audience while he put them on, remarking, while he was engaged in that + operation, that "he had grown gray in their service, and now found himself + growing blind." The effect of such remark from Washington, at such a + moment, may be imagined. It brought tears to the eyes of many a veteran in + that illustrious assemblage. When he had finished reading the letter he + retired, leaving the officers to deliberate and act as the crisis + demanded. + </p> + <p> + On the present occasion, as on previous ones, Washington's appeal to the + officers was successful. The sentiments uttered in his address, from a + person whom the army had been accustomed to love, to revere, and to obey—the + solidity of whose judgment and the sincerity of whose zeal for their + interests were alike unquestioned—could not fail to be irresistible. + No person was hardy enough to oppose the advice he had given, and the + general impression was apparent. A resolution, moved by General Knox and + seconded by Brigadier-General Putnam, "assuring him that the officers + reciprocated his affectionate expressions with the greatest sincerity of + which the human heart is capable," was unanimously voted. On the motion of + General Putnam, a committee consisting of General Knox, Colonel Brooks, + and Captain Howard was then appointed to prepare resolutions on the + business before them, and to report in half an hour. The report of the + committee being brought in and considered, resolutions were passed + declaring that no circumstances of distress should induce the officers to + sully, by unworthy conduct, the reputation acquired in their long and + faithful service; that they had undiminished confidence in the justice of + Congress and of their country; and that the Commander-in-Chief should be + requested to write to the President of Congress, earnestly entreating a + speedy decision on the late address forwarded by a committee of the army. + In compliance with the request of the officers, expressed in the above + mentioned resolution, and with the pledge which he had voluntarily given, + Washington forthwith addressed the following letter to the President of + Congress: + </p> + <p> + "The result of the proceedings of the grand convention of the officers, + which I have the honor of enclosing to your Excellency for the inspection + of Congress, will, I flatter myself, be considered as the last glorious + proof of patriotism which could have been given by men who aspired to the + distinction of a patriot army, and will not only confirm their claim to + the justice but will increase their title to the gratitude of their + country. Having seen the proceedings on the part of the army terminate + with perfect unanimity and in a manner entirely consonant to my wishes; + being impressed with the liveliest sentiments of affection for those who + have so long, so patiently, and so cheerfully suffered and fought under my + immediate direction; having, from motives of justice, duty, and gratitude, + spontaneously offered myself as an advocate for their rights, and, having + been requested to write to your Excellency, earnestly entreating the most + speedy decision of Congress upon the subjects of the late address from the + army to that honorable body, it now only remains for me to perform the + task I have assumed, and to intercede in their behalf, as I now do, that + the sovereign power will be pleased to verify the predictions I have + pronounced of, and the confidence the army have reposed in, the justice of + their country. And here I humbly conceive it is altogether unnecessary + (while I am pleading the cause of an army which have done and suffered + more than any other army ever did in the defense of the rights and + liberties of human nature) to expatiate on their claims to the most ample + compensation for their meritorious services, because they are known + perfectly to the whole world, and because (although the topics are + inexhaustible) enough has already been said on the subject. To prove these + assertions, to evince that my sentiments have ever been uniform, and to + show what my ideas of the rewards in question have always been, I appeal + to the archives of Congress, and call on those sacred deposits to witness + for me. And in order that my observations and arguments in favor of a + future adequate provision for the officers of the army may be brought to + remembrance again and considered in a single point of view, without giving + Congress the trouble of having recourse to their files, I will beg leave + to transmit herewith an extract from a representation made by me to a + committee of Congress, so long ago as the 29th of January, 1778, and also + the transcript of a letter to the President of Congress, dated near + Passaic Falls, October 11, 1780. + </p> + <p> + "That in the critical and perilous moment when the last-mentioned + communication was made there was the utmost danger a dissolution of the + army would have taken place unless measures similar to those recommended + had been adopted, will not admit a doubt. That the adoption of the + resolution granting half-pay for life has been attended with all the happy + consequences I had foretold, so far as respected the good of the service, + let the astonishing contrast between the state of the army at this instant + and at the former period determine. And that the establishment of funds + and security of the payment of all the just demands of the army will be + the most certain means of preserving the national faith and future + tranquility of this extensive continent, is my decided opinion. + </p> + <p> + "By the preceding remarks it will readily be imagined that instead of + retracting and reprehending (from further experience and reflection) the + mode of compensation so strenuously urged in the enclosures, I am more and + more confirmed in the sentiment, and if in the wrong, suffer me to please + myself with the grateful delusion. + </p> + <p> + "For if, besides the simple payment of their wages, a further compensation + is not due to the sufferings and sacrifices of the officers, then have I + been mistaken indeed. If the whole army have not merited whatever a + grateful people can bestow, then have I been beguiled by prejudice and + built opinion on the basis of error. If this country should not in the + event perform everything which has been requested in the late memorial to + Congress, then will my belief become vain, and the hope that has been + excited void of foundation. And if (as has been suggested for the purpose + of inflaming their passions) the officers of the army are to be the only + sufferers by this revolution; 'if, retiring from the field, they are to + grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and contempt; if they are to wade + through the vile mire of dependency and owe the miserable remnant of that + life to charity which has hitherto been spent in honor,' then shall I have + learned what ingratitude is—then shall I have realized a tale which + will embitter every moment of my future life. + </p> + <p> + "But I am under no such apprehensions; a country rescued by their arms + from impending ruin will never leave unpaid the debt of gratitude. + </p> + <p> + "Should any intemperate or improper warmth have mingled itself amongst the + foregoing observations, I must entreat your Excellency and Congress it may + be attributed to the effusion of an honest zeal in the best of causes, and + that my peculiar situation may be my apology, and I hope I need not on + this momentous occasion make any new protestations of personal + disinterestedness, having ever renounced for myself the idea of pecuniary + reward. The consciousness of having attempted faithfully to discharge my + duty and the approbation of my country will be a sufficient recompense for + my services." + </p> + <p> + This energetic letter, connected with recent events, induced Congress to + decide on the claims of the army. These were liquidated, and the amount + acknowledged to be due from the United States. Thus the country was once + more indebted to the wisdom and moderation of Washington for its + preservation from imminent danger. + </p> + <p> + Soon after these events intelligence of a general peace was received. The + news came by a French vessel from Cadiz, with a letter from Lafayette, who + was then at that place preparing for an expedition to the West Indies, + under Count d'Estaing. Shortly after, Sir Guy Carleton gave official + information to the same effect and announced a cessation of hostilities. + The joyful intelligence was notified by proclamation of Washington to the + army, in the camp at Newburg, on the 19th of April (1783), exactly eight + years after the commencement of hostilities at Lexington. In general + orders a public religious service and thanksgiving was directed by him to + take place on the evening of the same day, when the proclamation was read + at the head of every regiment and corps of the army. The immediate + reduction of the army was resolved upon, but the mode of effecting it + required deliberation. To avoid the inconveniences of dismissing a great + number of soldiers in a body, furloughs were freely granted on the + application of individuals, and after their dispersion they were not + enjoined to return. By this arrangement a critical moment was got over. A + great part of an unpaid army was dispersed over the States without tumult + or disorder. + </p> + <p> + At the instance of Washington the soldiers were permitted to carry home + their arms, to be preserved and transmitted to their posterity as + memorials of the glorious war of independence. + </p> + <p> + While the veterans serving under the immediate eye of their beloved + Commander-in-Chief manifested the utmost good temper and conduct, a + mutinous disposition broke out among some new levies stationed at + Lancaster, in Pennsylvania. About eighty of this description marched in a + body to Philadelphia, where they were joined by some other troops, so as + to amount in the whole to 300. They marched with fixed bayonets to the + statehouse, in which Congress and the State Executive Council held their + sessions. They placed guards at every door and threatened the President + and Council of the State with letting loose an enraged soldiery upon them, + unless they granted their demands in twenty minutes. As soon as this + outrage was known to Washington, he detached General Howe with a competent + force to suppress the mutiny. This was effected without bloodshed before + his arrival. The mutineers were too inconsiderable to commit extensive + mischief, but their disgraceful conduct excited the greatest indignation + in the breast of the Commander-in-Chief, which was expressed in a letter + to the President of Congress in the following words: + </p> + <p> + "While I suffer the most poignant distress in observing that a handful of + men, contemptible in numbers, and equally so in point of service (if the + veteran troops from the southward have not been seduced by their example), + and who are not worthy to be called soldiers, should disgrace themselves + and their country, as the Pennsylvania mutineers have done, by insulting + the sovereign authority of the United States, and that of their own, I + feel an inexpressible satisfaction that even this behavior cannot stain + the name of the American soldiery. + </p> + <p> + "It cannot be imputable to or reflect dishonor on the army at large, but, + on the contrary, it will, by the striking contrast it exhibits, hold up to + public view the other troops in the most advantageous point of light. Upon + taking all the circumstances into consideration, I cannot sufficiently + express my surprise and indignation at the arrogance, the folly, and the + wickedness of the mutineers; nor can I sufficiently admire the fidelity, + the bravery, and patriotism which must forever signalize the unsullied + character of the other corps of our army. For when we consider that these + Pennsylvania levies who have now mutinied are recruits and soldiers of a + day, who have not borne the heat and burden of war, and who can have in + reality very few hardships to complain of, and when we at the same time + recollect that those soldiers who have lately been furloughed from this + army, are the veterans who have patiently endured hunger, nakedness, and + cold; who have suffered and bled without a murmur, and who, with perfect + good order have retired to their homes without a settlement of their + accounts or a farthing of money in their pockets, we shall be as much + astonished at the virtues of the latter as we are struck with detestation + at the proceedings of the former." + </p> + <p> + On the occasion of disbanding the army, Washington addressed a circular + letter to the governors of all the States, in which he gave his views of + the existing state of the country and the principles upon which the future + fabric of united government should be founded. It is one of the most + remarkable state papers ever produced in this country. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Sir Guy Carleton was preparing to evacuate the city of New York. + On the 27th of April (1783) a fleet had sailed for Nova Scotia with 7,000 + persons and their effects. These were partly soldiers and partly Tories + exiled by the laws of the States. + </p> + <p> + On the 6th of May Washington had a personal interview with Carleton at + Orangetown respecting the delivery of the British ports in the United + States, and of property directed to be surrendered by an article of the + treaty. + </p> + <p> + The independence of his country being established, Washington looked + forward with anxiety to its future destinies. These might greatly depend + on the systems to be adopted on the return of peace, and to those systems + much of his attention was directed. The future peace establishment of the + United States was one of the many interesting subjects which claimed the + consideration of Congress. As the experience of Washington would certainly + enable him to suggest many useful ideas on this important point, his + opinions respecting it were requested by the committee of Congress to whom + it was referred. His letter on this occasion will long deserve the + attention of those to whom the interests of the United States may be + confided. His strongest hopes of securing the future tranquility, dignity, + and respectability of his country were placed on a well-regulated and + well-disciplined militia; and his sentiments on this subject are entitled + to the more regard as a long course of severe experience had enabled him + to mark the total incompetence of the existing system to the great + purposes of national defense. + </p> + <p> + At length the British troops evacuated New York, and on the 25th of + November (1783) a detachment from the American army took possession of + that city. + </p> + <p> + Guards being posted for the security of the citizens, Washington, + accompanied by Governor George Clinton, and attended by many civil and + military officers and a large number of respectable inhabitants on + horseback, made his public entry into the city, where he was received with + every mark of respect and attention. His military course was now on the + point of terminating, and he was about to bid adieu to his comrades in + arms. This affecting interview took place on the 4th of December. At noon + the principal officers of the army assembled at Frances' tavern, soon + after which their belove'd Commander entered the room. His emotions were + too strong to be concealed. Filling a glass, he turned to them and said, + "With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you; I most + devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your + former ones have been glorious and honorable." Having drunk, he added, "I + cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged if each + of you will come and take me by the hand." General Knox, being nearest, + turned to him. Washington, incapable of utterance, grasped his hand and + embraced him. In the same affectionate manner he took leave of each + succeeding officer. The tear of manly sensibility was in every eye, and + not a word was articulated to interrupt the dignified silence and the + tenderness of the scene. Leaving the room, he passed through the corps of + light infantry and walked to Whitehall, where a barge waited to convey him + to Paulus Hook. The whole company followed in mute and solemn procession, + with dejected countenances, testifying feelings of delicious melancholy + which no language can describe. Having entered the barge he turned to the + company and, waving his hat, bid them a silent adieu. They paid him the + same affectionate compliment, and, after the barge had left them, returned + in the same solemn manner to the place where they had assembled. + </p> + <p> + Congress was then in session at Annapolis, in Maryland, to which place + Washington repaired for the purpose of resigning into their hands the + authority with which they had invested him. He arrived on the 19th of + December (1783). The next day he informed that body of his intention to + ask leave to resign the commission he had the honor of holding in their + service, and requested to know whether it would be their pleasure that he + should offer his resignation in writing or at an audience. + </p> + <p> + To give the more dignity to the act, they determined that it should be + offered at a public audience on the following Tuesday, 23d of December, at + 12. + </p> + <p> + When the hour arrived for performing a ceremony so well calculated to + recall the various interesting scenes which had passed since the + commission now to be returned was granted, the gallery was crowded with + spectators and several persons of distinction were admitted on the floor + of Congress. The members remained seated and covered. The spectators were + standing and uncovered. Washington was introduced by the secretary and + conducted to a chair. After a short pause the President, General Mifflin, + informed him that "the United States in Congress assembled were prepared + to receive his communications." With native dignity, improved by the + solemnity of the occasion, Washington rose and delivered the following + address: + </p> + <p> + "MR. PRESIDENT.—The great events on which my resignation depended + having at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering my sincere + congratulations to Congress, and of presenting myself before them, to + surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the + indulgence of retiring from the service of my country. + </p> + <p> + "Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and + pleased with an opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a + respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I accepted + with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a + task, which, however, was superseded by a confidence in rectitude of our + cause, the support of the supreme power of the Union, and the patronage of + Heaven. + </p> + <p> + "The successful termination of the war has verified the most sanguine + expectations, and my gratitude for the interposition of Providence, and + the assistance I have received from my countrymen increases with every + review of the momentous contest. While I repeat my obligations to the army + in general, I should do injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge in + this place the peculiar services and distinguished merits of the gentlemen + who have been attached to my person during the war. It was impossible the + choice of confidential officers to compose my family should have been more + fortunate. Permit me, sir, to recommend in particular, those who have + continued in the service to the present moment, as worthy of the favorable + notice and patronage of Congress. + </p> + <p> + "I consider it as an indispensable duty to close this last act of my + official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the + protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them + to His holy keeping. + </p> + <p> + "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theater + of action, and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body, + under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my commission and + take my leave of all the employments of public life." + </p> + <p> + After advancing to the chair and delivering his commission to the + President, he returned to his place and received, standing, the following + answer of Congress, which was delivered by the President: + </p> + <p> + "SIR.—The United States, in Congress assembled, receive with + emotions too affecting for utterance, the solemn resignation of the + authorities under which you have led their troops with success through a + perilous and a doubtful war. Called upon by your country to defend its + invaded rights, you accepted the sacred charge before it had formed + alliances and whilst it was without funds or a government to support you. + You have conducted the great military contest with wisdom and fortitude, + invariably regarding the rights of the civil power through all disasters + and changes. You have, by the love and confidence of your fellow citizens, + enabled them to display their martial genius and transmit their fame to + posterity. You have persevered until these United States, aided by a + magnanimous King and nation, have been enabled, under a just Providence, + to close the war in freedom, safety, and independence, on which happy + event we sincerely join you in congratulations. + </p> + <p> + "Having defended the standard of liberty in this new world, having taught + a lesson useful to those who inflict and to those who feel oppression, you + retire from the great theater of action with the blessings of your + fellow-citizens. But the glory of your virtues will not terminate with + your military command; it will continue to animate remotest ages. + </p> + <p> + "We feel with you our obligations to the army in general and will + particularly charge ourselves with the interests of those confidential + officers who have attended your person to this affecting moment. + </p> + <p> + "We join you in commending the interests of our dearest country to the + protection of Almighty God, beseeching Him to dispose the hearts and minds + of its citizens to improve the opportunity afforded them of becoming a + happy and respectable nation. And for you we address to Him our earnest + prayers that a life so beloved may be fostered with all his care; that + your days may be as happy as they have been illustrious, and that he will + finally give you that reward which this world cannot give." + </p> + <p> + This scene being closed, a scene rendered peculiarly interesting by the + personages who appeared in it, by the great events it recalled to the + memory, and by the singularity of the circumstances under which it was + displayed, the American chief withdrew from the hall of Congress, leaving + the silent and admiring spectators deeply impressed with those sentiments + which its solemnity and dignity were calculated to inspire. + </p> + <p> + Divested of his military character, Washington, on the following day, set + out for Mount Vernon to which favorite residence he now retired, followed + by the enthusiastic love, esteem, and admiration of his countrymen. + Relieved from the agitations of a doubtful contest and from the toils of + an exalted station he returned with increased delight to the duties and + the enjoyments of a private citizen. He indulged the hope that in the + shade of retirement, under the protection of a free government and the + benignant influence of mild and equal laws, he might taste that felicity + which is the reward of a mind at peace with itself and conscious of its + own purity. {2} + </p> + <p> + "Though General Washington was not stayed in his progress to Philadelphia, + by the Congress, who, on the 1st of November, had elected the Honorable + Thomas Mifflin President, and three days after had adjourned to meet at + Annapolis in Maryland on the 26th; yet it was the 8th of December, at + noon, before General Washington arrived at the Capital of Pennsylvania. + When his intention of quitting the army was known he was complimented and + received with the utmost respect and affection, by all orders of men, both + civil and military. He remained some days in Philadelphia. While in the + city he delivered in his accounts to the comptroller, down to December the + 13th, all in his own handwriting, and every entry made in the most + particular manner, stating the occasion of each charge, so as to give the + least trouble in examining and comparing them with the vouchers with which + they were attended. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The heads are as follows, copied from the folio manuscript paper book, + in the file of the treasury office, No. 3700, being a black box of tin + containing, under lock and key, both that and the vouchers: + + "Total of expenditures from 1775 to 1783, exclusive £. s. d. + of provisions from commissaries and contractors, + and of liquors, &c., from them and others............ 3387 14 4 + Secret intelligence and service...................... 1982 10 0 + Spent in reconnoitering and traveling................ 874 8 8 + Miscellaneous charges ............................... 2952 10 1 + Expended besides, dollars according to the scale of + depreciation ........................................ 6114 14 0 + ___________ + + £16,311 17 1 + + {3} "(General Washington's account) from June, 1775, £. s. d. + to the end of June, 1783............................ 16,311 17 1 + Expenditure from July 1, 1783, to Dec. 13........... 1717 5 4 + (Added afterwards) from thence to Dec. 28........... 213 8 4 + Mrs. Washington's traveling expenses in coming + to the General and returning........................ 1064 1 0 + + £19,306 11 9 + + "Lawful money of Virginia, + the same as the Massachusetts, or £14,479 18 9 3/4 sterling. +</pre> + <p> + "The General entered in his book—'I find upon the final adjustment + of these accounts, that I am a considerable loser—my disbursements + falling a good deal short of my receipts, and the money I had upon hand of + my own; for besides the sums I carried with me to Cambridge in 1775, I + received moneys afterward on private account in 1777 and since, which + (except small sums that I had occasion now and then to apply to private + uses) were all expended in the public service: through hurry, I suppose, + and the perplexity of business (for I know not how else to account for the + deficiency) I have omitted to charge the same, whilst every debit against + me is here credited. July 1, 1783.'" {4} + </p> + <p> + "Happy would it have been for the United States had each person who has + handled public money been equally exact and punctual! + </p> + <p> + "General Washington, after delivering in his accounts, hastened to + Annapolis, where he arrived on the evening of the 19th December." + </p> + <p> + A facsimile of the original account, filling many foolscap pages, has been + published; and copies were eagerly ordered by collectors in Europe as well + as the United States. + </p> + <p> + The document through which Washington, at the close of the Revolution, + left to the States whose trust he had held, and whose work he had done, + does not yield in interest and importance to even the more famous Farewell + Address. It was sent to each of the Governors of the several States, and + was as follows: + </p> + <p> + WASHINGTON'S CIRCULAR LETTER TO THE GOVERNORS OF ALL THE STATES ON + DISBANDING THE ARMY. + </p> + <p> + "Headquarters, Newburg, June 18, 1783. Sir:—The object for which I + had the honor to hold an appointment in the service of my country being + accomplished, I am now preparing to resign it into the hands of Congress, + and return to that domestic retirement, which, it is well known, I left + with the greatest reluctance; a retirement for which I have never ceased + to sigh through a long and painful absence, in which (remote from the + noise and trouble of the world) I meditate to pass the remainder of life, + in a state of undisturbed repose: but, before I carry this resolution into + effect, I think it a duty incumbent on me to make this my last official + communication, to congratulate you on the glorious events which Heaven has + been pleased to produce in our favor; to offer my sentiments respecting + some important subjects, which appear to me to be intimately connected + with the tranquility of the United States; to take my leave of your + Excellency as a public character; and to give my final blessing to that + country in whose service I have spent the prime of my life, for whose sake + I have consumed so many anxious days and watchful nights, and whose + happiness, being extremely dear to me, will always constitute no + inconsiderable part of my own. + </p> + <p> + "Impressed with the liveliest sensibility on this pleasing occasion, I + will claim the indulgence of dilating the more copiously on the subject of + our mutual felicitation. When we consider the magnitude of the prize we + contended for, the doubtful nature of the contest, and the favorable + manner in which it has terminated, we shall find the greatest possible + reason for gratitude and rejoicing. This is a theme that will afford + infinite delight to every benevolent and liberal mind, whether the event + in contemplation be considered as a source of present enjoyment, or the + parent of future happiness; and we shall have equal occasion to felicitate + ourselves on the lot which Providence has assigned us, whether we view it + in a natural, a political, or moral point of light. + </p> + <p> + "The citizens of America, placed in the most enviable condition, as the + sole lords and proprietors of a vast tract of continent, comprehending all + the various soils and climates of the world, and abounding with all the + necessaries and conveniences of life, are now, by the late satisfactory + pacification, acknowledged to be possessed of absolute freedom and + independency: they are from this period to be considered as the actors on + a most conspicuous theatre, which seems to be peculiarly designed by + Providence for the display of human greatness and felicity. Here they are + not only surrounded with every thing that can contribute to the completion + of private and domestic enjoyment; but Heaven has crowned all its other + blessings, by giving a surer opportunity for political happiness, than any + other nation has ever been favored with. Nothing can illustrate these + observations more forcibly than a recollection of the happy conjuncture of + times and circumstances under which our republic assumed its rank among + the nations. The foundation of our empire was not laid in a gloomy age of + ignorance and superstition, but at an epoch when the rights of mankind + were better understood and more clearly defined, than at any former + period. Researches of the human mind after social happiness have been + carried to a great extent; the treasures of knowledge acquired by the + labors of philosophers, sages, and legislators, through a long succession + of years, are laid open for us, and their collected wisdom may be happily + applied in the establishment of our forms of government. The free + cultivation of letters, the unbounded extension of commerce, the + progressive refinement of manners, the growing liberality of sentiment; + and, above all, the pure and benign light of revelation, have had a + meliorating influence on mankind, and increased the blessings of society. + At this auspicious period, the United States came into existence as a + nation; and if their citizens should not be completely free and happy, the + fault will be entirely their own. + </p> + <p> + "Such is our situation, and such are our prospects. But notwithstanding + the cup of blessing is thus reached out to us; notwithstanding happiness + is ours, if we have a disposition to seize the occasion, and make it our + own; yet it appears to me there is an option still left to the United + States of America, whether they will be respectable and prosperous, or + contemptible and miserable as a nation. This is the time of their + political probation; this is the moment when the eyes of the whole world + are turned upon them; this is the time to establish or ruin their national + character forever; this is the favorable moment to give such a tone to the + federal government, as will enable it to answer the ends of its + institution; or, this may be the ill-fated moment for relaxing the powers + of the union, annihilating the cement of the confederation, and exposing + us to become the sport of European politics, which may play one State + against another, to prevent their growing importance, and to serve their + own interested purposes. For, according to the system of policy the States + shall adopt at this moment, they will stand or fall; and, by their + confirmation or lapse, it is yet to be decided, whether the Revolution + must ultimately be considered as a blessing or a curse:—a blessing + or a curse, not to the present age alone, for with our fate will the + destiny of unborn millions be involved. + </p> + <p> + "With this conviction of the importance of the present crisis, silence in + me would be a crime; I will therefore speak to your Excellency the + language of freedom and sincerity, without disguise. I am aware, however, + those who differ from me in political sentiments may, perhaps, remark, I + am stepping out of the proper line of my duty; and they may possibly + ascribe to arrogance or ostentation, what I know alone is the result of + the purest intention. But the rectitude of my own heart, which disdains + such unworthy motives; the part I have hitherto acted in life; the + determination I have formed of not taking any share in public business + hereafter; the ardent desire I feel, and shall continue to manifest, of + quietly enjoying in private life, after all the toils of war, the benefits + of a wise and liberal government, will, I flatter myself, sooner or later, + convince my countrymen, that I could have no sinister views in delivering + with so little reserve the opinions contained in this address. + </p> + <p> + "There are four things which I humbly conceive are essential to the + well-being, I may even venture to say to the existence, of the United + States as an independent power. + </p> + <p> + "1st. An indissoluble union of the States under one federal head. + </p> + <p> + "2dly. A sacred regard to public justice. + </p> + <p> + "3dly. The adoption of a proper peace establishment. And, + </p> + <p> + "4thly. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition among the + people of the United States, which will induce them to forget their local + prejudices and policies; to make those mutual concessions which are + requisite to the general prosperity; and, in some instances, to sacrifice + their individual advantages to the interest of the community. + </p> + <p> + "These are the pillars on which the glorious fabric of our independency + and national character must be supported. Liberty is the basis; and + whoever would dare to sap the foundation, or overturn the structure, under + whatever specious pretext he may attempt it, will merit the bitterest + execration, and the severest punishment, which can be inflicted by his + injured country. + </p> + <p> + "On the three first articles I will make a few observations; leaving the + last to the good sense and serious consideration of those immediately + concerned. + </p> + <p> + "Under the first head, although it may not be necessary or proper for me + in this place to enter into a particular disquisition of the principles of + the union, and to take up the great question which has been frequently + agitated, whether it be expedient and requisite for the States to delegate + a larger portion of power to Congress, or not; yet it will be a part of my + duty, and that of every true patriot, to assert, without reserve, and to + insist upon the following positions:—That unless the States will + suffer Congress to exercise those prerogatives they are undoubtedly + invested with by the Constitution, every thing must very rapidly tend to + anarchy and confusion: That it is indispensable to the happiness of the + individual States, that there should be lodged, somewhere, a supreme power + to regulate and govern the general concerns of the confederated Republic, + without which the union cannot be of long duration: That there must be a + faithful and pointed compliance on the part of every State with the late + proposals and demands of Congress, or the most fatal consequences will + ensue: That whatever measures have a tendency to dissolve the union, or + contribute to violate or lessen the sovereign authority, ought to be + considered as hostile to the liberty and independence of America, and the + authors of them treated accordingly. And, lastly, that unless we can be + enabled by the concurrence of the States to participate of the fruits of + the Revolution, and enjoy the essential benefits of civil society, under a + form of government so free and uncorrupted, so happily guarded against the + danger of oppression, as has been devised and adopted by the articles of + confederation, it will be a subject of regret that so much blood and + treasure have been lavished for no purpose; that so many sufferings have + been encountered without a compensation; and that so many sacrifices have + been made in vain. Many other considerations might here be adduced to + prove, that without an entire conformity to the spirit of the union, we + cannot exist as an independent power. It will be sufficient for my purpose + to mention but one or two, which seem to me of the greatest importance. It + is only in our united character, as an empire, that our independence is + acknowledged that our power can be regarded, or our credit supported among + foreign nations. The treaties of the European powers with the United + States of America, will have no validity on a dissolution of the union. We + shall be left nearly in a state of nature; or we may find, by our own + unhappy experience, that there is a natural and necessary progression from + the extreme of anarchy to the extreme of tyranny; and that arbitrary power + is most easily established on the ruins of liberty abused to + licentiousness. + </p> + <p> + "As to the second article, which respects the performance of public + justice, Congress have, in their late address to the United States, almost + exhausted the subject; they have explained their ideas so fully, and have + enforced the obligations the States are under to render complete justice + to all the public creditors, with so much dignity and energy, that, in my + opinion, no real friend to the honor and independency of America can + hesitate a single moment respecting the propriety of complying with the + just and honorable measures proposed. If their arguments do not produce + conviction, I know of nothing that will have greater influence, especially + when we reflect that the system referred to, being the result of the + collected wisdom of the continent, must be esteemed, if not perfect, + certainly the least objectionable of any that could be devised; and that, + if it should not be carried into immediate execution, a national + bankruptcy, with all its deplorable consequences, will take place before + any different plan can possibly be proposed or adopted; so pressing are + the present circumstances, and such is the alternative now offered to the + States. + </p> + <p> + "The ability of the country to discharge the debts which have been + incurred in its defense, is not to be doubted; and inclination, I flatter + myself, will not be wanting. The path of our duty is plain before us; + honesty will be found, on every experiment to be the best and only true + policy. Let us then, as a nation, be just; let us fulfill the public + contracts which Congress had undoubtedly a right to make for the purpose + of carrying on the war, with the same good faith we suppose ourselves + bound to perform our private engagements. In the mean time, let an + attention to the cheerful performance of their proper business, as + individuals, and as members of society, be earnestly inculcated on the + citizens of America; then will they strengthen the bands of government, + and be happy under its protection. Every one will reap the fruit of his + labors: every one will enjoy his own acquisitions, without molestation and + without danger. + </p> + <p> + "In this state of absolute freedom and perfect security, who will grudge + to yield a very little of his property to support the common interests of + society, and insure the protection of government? Who does not remember + the frequent declarations at the commencement of the war, that we should + be completely satisfied, if, at the expense of one half, we could defend + the remainder of our possessions? Where is the man to be found, who wishes + to remain in debt for the defense of his own person and property, to the + exertions, the bravery, and the blood of others, without making one + generous effort to pay the debt of honor and of gratitude? In what part of + the continent shall we find any man, or body of men, who would not blush + to stand up and propose measures purposely calculated to rob the soldier + of his stipend, and the public creditor of his due? And were it possible + that such a flagrant instance of injustice could ever happen, would it not + excite the general indignation, and tend to bring down upon the authors of + such measures the aggravated vengeance of Heaven? If, after all, a spirit + of disunion, or a temper of obstinacy and perverseness should manifest + itself in any of the States; if such an ungracious disposition should + attempt to frustrate all the happy effects that might be expected to flow + from the union; if there should be a refusal to comply with requisitions + for funds to discharge the annual interest of the public debts; and if + that refusal should revive all those jealousies, and produce all those + evils, which are now happily removed, Congress, who have in all their + transactions shown a great degree of magnanimity and justice, will stand + justified in the sight of God and man! and that State alone, which puts + itself in opposition to the aggregate wisdom of the continent, and follows + such mistaken and pernicious councils, will be responsible for all the + consequences. + </p> + <p> + "For my own part, conscious of having acted, while a servant of the + public, in the manner I conceived best suited to promote the real + interests of my country; having, in consequence of my fixed belief, in + some measure pledged myself to the army that their country would finally + do them complete and ample justice; and not wishing to conceal any + instance of my official conduct from the eyes of the world, I have thought + proper to transmit to your Excellency the enclosed collection of papers, + relative to the half-pay and commutation granted by Congress to the + officers of the army. From these communications my decided sentiment will + be clearly comprehended, together with the conclusive reasons which + induced me, at an early period, to recommend the adoption of this measure + in the most earnest and serious manner. As the proceedings of Congress, + the army, and myself, are open to all, and contain, in my opinion, + sufficient information to remove the prejudices and errors which may have + been entertained by any, I think it unnecessary to say any thing more than + just to observe, that the resolutions of Congress now alluded to, are as + undoubtedly and absolutely binding upon the United States, as the most + solemn acts of confederation or legislation. + </p> + <p> + "As to the idea which, I am informed, has in some instances prevailed, + that the half-pay and commutation are to be regarded merely in the odious + light of a pension, it ought to be exploded forever: that provision should + be viewed, as it really was, a reasonable compensation offered by + Congress, at a time when they had nothing else to give to officers of the + army, for services then to be performed. It was the only means to prevent + a total dereliction of the service. It was a part of their hire; I may be + allowed to say, it was the price of their blood, and of your independency. + It is therefore more than a common debt; it is a debt of honor: it can + never be considered as a pension, or gratuity, nor cancelled until it is + fairly discharged. + </p> + <p> + "With regard to the distinction between officers and soldiers, it is + sufficient that the uniform experience of every nation of the world, + combined with our own, proves the utility and propriety of the + discrimination. Rewards in proportion to the aid the public draws from + them, are unquestionably due to all its servants. In some lines, the + soldiers have perhaps, generally, had as ample compensation for their + services, by the large bounties which have been paid them, as their + officers will receive in the proposed commutation; in others, if, besides + the donation of land, the payment of arrearages of clothing and wages (in + which articles all the component parts of the army must be put upon the + same footing), we take into the estimate the bounties many of the soldiers + have received, and the gratuity of one year's full pay, which is promised + to all, possibly their situation (every circumstance being duly + considered) will not be deemed less eligible than that of the officers. + Should a further reward, however, be judged equitable, I will venture to + assert, no man will enjoy greater satisfaction than myself,—in an + exemption from taxes for a limited time (which has been petitioned for in + some instances), or any other adequate immunity or compensation granted to + the brave defenders of their country's cause. But neither the adoption or + rejection of this proposition will, in any manner, affect, much less + militate against, the act of Congress by which they have offered five + years' full pay in lieu of the half-pay for life, which had been before + promised to the officers of the army. + </p> + <p> + "Before I conclude the subject on public justice, I cannot omit to mention + the obligations this country is under to the meritorious class of + veterans, the non-commissioned officers and privates, who have been + discharged for inability, in consequence of the resolution of Congress of + the 23d of April, 1782, on an annual pension for life. Their peculiar + sufferings, their singular merits and claims to that provision, need only + to be known to interest the feelings of humanity in their behalf. Nothing + but a punctual payment of their annual allowance can rescue them from the + most complicated misery; and nothing could be a more melancholy and + distressing sight than to behold those who have shed their blood, or lost + their limbs in the service of their country, without a shelter, without a + friend, and without the means of obtaining any of the comforts or + necessaries of life, compelled to beg their bread daily from door to door. + Suffer me to recommend those of this description, belonging to your State, + to the warmest patronage of your Excellency and your legislature. + </p> + <p> + "It is necessary to say but a few words on the third topic which was + proposed, and which regards particularly the defense of the republic—as + there can be little doubt but Congress will recommend a proper peace + establishment for the United States, in which a due attention will be paid + to the importance of placing the militia of the Union upon a regular and + respectable footing. If this should be the case, I should beg leave to + urge the great advantage of it in the strongest terms. + </p> + <p> + "The militia of this country must be considered as the palladium of our + security, and the first effectual resort in case of hostility. It is + essential, therefore, that the same system should pervade the whole; that + the formation and discipline of the militia of the continent should be + absolutely uniform; and that the same species of arms, accoutrements, and + military apparatus should be introduced in every part of the United + States. No one, who has not learned it from experience, can conceive the + difficulty, expense, and confusion which result from a contrary system, or + the vague arrangements which have hitherto prevailed. + </p> + <p> + "If, in treating of political points, a greater latitude than usual has + been taken in the course of the address, the importance of the crisis, and + the magnitude of the objects in discussion, must be my apology. It is, + however, neither my wish nor expectation that the preceding observations + should claim any regard, except so far as they shall appear to be dictated + by a good intention, consonant to the immutable rules of justice, + calculated to produce a liberal system of policy, and founded on whatever + experience may have been acquired by a long and close attention to public + business. Here I might speak with more confidence, from my actual + observations; and if it would not swell this letter (already too prolix) + beyond the bounds I had prescribed myself, I could demonstrate to every + mind, open to conviction, that in less time, and with much less expense + than has been incurred, the war might have been brought to the same happy + conclusion, if the resources of the continent could have been properly + called forth; that the distresses and disappointments which have very + often occurred have, in too many instances, resulted more from a want of + energy in the continental government, than a deficiency of means in the + particular States; that the inefficiency of the measures, arising from the + want of an adequate authority in the supreme power, from a partial + compliance with the requisitions of Congress in some of the States, and + from a failure of punctuality in others, while they tended to damp the + zeal of those who were more willing to exert themselves, served also to + accumulate the expenses of the war, and to frustrate the best concerted + plans; and that the discouragement occasioned by the complicated + difficulties and embarrassments in which our affairs were by this means + involved, would have long ago produced the dissolution of any army, less + patient, less virtuous, and less persevering than that which I have had + the honor to command. But while I mention those things which are notorious + facts, as the defects of our federal constitution, particularly in the + prosecution of a war, I beg it may be understood, that as I have ever + taken a pleasure in gratefully acknowledging the assistance and support I + have derived from every class of citizens, so shall I always be happy to + do justice to the unparalleled exertions of the individual States, on many + interesting occasions. + </p> + <p> + "I have thus freely disclosed what I wished to make known, before I + surrendered up my public trust to those who committed it to me. The task + is now accomplished. I now bid adieu to your Excellency, as the chief + magistrate of your State; at the same time, I bid a last farewell to the + cares of office, and all the employments of public life. + </p> + <p> + "It remains, then, to be my final and only request, that your Excellency + will communicate these sentiments to your legislature at their next + meeting; and that they may be considered as the legacy of one who has + ardently wished, on all occasions, to be useful to his country, and who, + even in the shade of retirement, will not fail to implore the divine + benediction upon it. + </p> + <p> + "I now make it my earnest prayer, that God would have you, and the State + over which you preside, in his holy protection; that he would incline the + hearts of the citizens to cultivate a spirit of subordination and + obedience to government; to entertain a brotherly affection and love for + one another; for their fellow-citizens of the United States at large, and + particularly for their brethren who have served in the field; and, + finally, that he would most graciously be pleased to dispose us all to do + justice, to love mercy, and to demean ourselves with that charity, + humility, and pacific temper of the mind, which were the characteristics + of the divine Author of our blessed religion; without an humble imitation + of whose example, in these things, we can never hope to be a happy nation. + </p> + <p> + "I have the honor to be, with much esteem and respect, sir, your + Excellency's most obedient and most humble servant, + </p> + <h3> + "GEO. WASHINGTON." + </h3> + <p> + NOTE.—On the 3d of September, 1783, the Definitive Treaty of Peace, + between Great Britain and the United States of America, was signed at + Paris, by David Hartley, Esq., on the part of his Britannic Majesty, and + by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, Esqs., on the part of the + United States. The treaty was ratified by Congress early in January, 1784. + </p> + <h3> + IN THE NAME OF THE MOST HOLY AND UNDIVIDED TRINITY. + </h3> + <p> + It having pleased the Divine Providence to dispose the hearts of the most + serene and most potent prince, George the Third, by the grace of God King + of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, Duke of + Brunswick and Lunenburg, Arch-Treasurer and Prince Elector of the holy + Roman empire, etc., and of the United States of America, to forget all + past misunderstandings and differences that have unhappily interrupted the + good correspondence and friendship which they mutually wish to restore, + and to establish such a beneficial and satisfactory intercourse between + the two countries, upon the ground of reciprocal advantages and mutual + convenience, as may promote and secure to both perpetual peace and + harmony; and having for this desirable end already laid the foundation of + peace and reconciliation, by the provisional articles signed at Paris, on + the 30th of November, 1782, by the commissioners empowered on each part; + which articles were agreed to be inserted in, and to constitute the treaty + of peace proposed to be concluded between the crown of Great Britain and + the said United States, but which treaty was not to be concluded until the + terms of peace should be agreed upon between Great Britain and France, and + his Britannic majesty should be ready to conclude such treaty accordingly; + and the treaty between Great Britain and France having since been + concluded, his Britannic majesty and the United States of America, in + order to carry into full effect the provisional articles above mentioned, + according to the tenor thereof, have constituted and appointed, that is to + say, his Britannic majesty on his part, David Hartley, Esq., member of the + Parliament of Great Britain; and the said United States on their part, + John Adams, Esq., late a commissioner of the United States of America at + the court of Versailles, late delegate in Congress from the State of + Massachusetts, and chief-justice of the said State, and minister + plenipotentiary of the said United States to their high mightinesses the + States General of the United Netherlands; Benjamin Franklin, Esq., late + delegate in Congress from the State of Pennsylvania, president of the + Convention of the said State, and minister plenipotentiary from the United + States of America at the court of Versailles; and John Jay, Esq., late + president of Congress, and chief-justice of the State of New York, and + minister plenipotentiary from the said United States at the court of + Madrid; to be the plenipotentiaries for the concluding and signing the + present definitive treaty; who, after having reciprocally communicated + their respective full powers, have agreed upon and confirmed the following + articles. + </p> + <p> + ART. I.—His Britannic majesty acknowledges the said United States, + viz., New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence + Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, + Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, to be + free, sovereign, and independent States; that he treats them as such, and + for himself, his heirs, and successors, relinquishes all claim to the + government, proprietary, and territorial right of the same, and every part + thereof. + </p> + <p> + ART. II.-And that all disputes which might arise in future on the subject + of the boundaries of the said United States may be prevented, it is hereby + agreed and declared that the following are and shall be their boundaries, + viz.: from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia, viz., that angle which is + formed by a line drawn due north from the source of St. Croix River to the + high lands which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river + St. Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the + northwestern most head of Connecticut River; thence drawn along the middle + of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude; from thence by + a line due west on said latitude, until it strikes the river Iroquois or + Cataraquy; thence along the middle of said river into Lake Ontario; + through the middle of said lake until it strikes the communication by + water between that lake and Lake Erie; thence along the middle of the said + communication into Lake Erie, through the middle of said lake, until it + arrives at the water communication between that lake and Lake Huron; + thence through the middle of said lake to the water communication between + that lake and Lake Superior; thence through Lake Superior northward to the + isles Royal and Philipeaux, to the Long Lake; thence through the middle of + said Long Lake, and the water communication between it and the Lake of the + Woods, to the said Lake of the Woods; thence through the said lake to the + most northwestern most point thereof, and from thence a due west course to + the river Mississippi; thence by a line to be drawn along the middle of + the said river Mississippi, until it shall intersect the northernmost part + of the thirty-first degree of north latitude; south, by a line to be drawn + due east from the determination of the line last mentioned, in the + latitude of thirty-one degrees north of the equator, to the middle of the + river Apalachicola or Catahouche; thence along the middle thereof, to its + junction with the Flint River; thence straight to the head of St. Mary's + River, and thence down the middle of St. Mary's River to the Atlantic + Ocean; east, by a line to be drawn along the middle of the River St. + Croix, from its mouth in the Bay of Fundy to its source, and from its + source directly north to the aforesaid high lands, which divide the rivers + that fall into the Atlantic Ocean from those which fall into the river St. + Lawrence, comprehending all islands within twenty leagues of any part of + the shores of the United States, and lying between lines to be drawn due + east from the points where the aforesaid boundaries between Nova Scotia on + the one part, and east Florida on the other, shall respectively touch the + Bay of Fundy and the Atlantic Ocean, excepting such islands as now are or + heretofore have been within the limits of the said province of Nova + Scotia. + </p> + <p> + ART. III.—It is agreed, that the people of the United States shall + continue to enjoy, unmolested, the right to take fish of every kind on the + Great Bank, and on all the other banks of Newfoundland; also in the Gulf + of St. Lawrence, and at all other places in the sea where the inhabitants + of both countries used at any time heretofore to fish; and also that the + inhabitants of the United States shall have liberty to take fish of every + kind on such part of the coast of Newfoundland as British fishermen shall + use (but not to dry or cure the same on that island), and also on the + coasts, bays, and creeks of all other of his Britannic majesty's dominions + in America; and that the American fishermen shall have liberty to dry and + cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova + Scotia, Magdalen Islands, and Labrador, so long as the same shall remain + unsettled; but as soon as the same shall be settled, it shall not be + lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure fish at such settlement, + without a previous agreement for that purpose with the inhabitants, + proprietors, or possessors of the ground. + </p> + <p> + ART. IV.—It is agreed, that the creditors, on either side, shall + meet with no lawful impediment to the recovery of the full value in + sterling money of all <i>bona fide</i> debts heretofore contracted. + </p> + <p> + ART. V.—It is agreed, that Congress shall earnestly recommend it to + the legislatures of the respective States, to provide for the restitution + of all estates, rights, and properties, which have been confiscated, + belonging to real British subjects; and also of the estates, rights, and + properties of persons resident in districts in the possession of his + majesty's arms, and who have not borne arms against the United States; and + that persons of any other description shall have free liberty to go to any + part or parts of any of the thirteen United States, and therein to remain + twelve months unmolested in their endeavors to obtain the restitution of + such of their estates, rights, and properties as may have been + confiscated; and that Congress shall also earnestly recommend to the + several States a reconsideration and revision of all acts or laws + regarding the premises, so as to render the said laws or acts perfectly + consistent, not only with justice and equity, but with that spirit of + conciliation which, on the return of the blessings of peace, should + invariably prevail; and that Congress shall also earnestly recommend to + the several States, that the estates, rights, and properties of such + last-mentioned persons shall be restored to them, they refunding to any + persons who may be now in possession, the <i>bona fide</i> price (where + any has been given) which such persons may have paid on purchasing any of + the said lands, rights, or properties, since the confiscation. And it is + agreed, that all persons who have any interest in confiscated lands, + either by debts, marriage settlements, or otherwise, shall meet with no + lawful impediment in the prosecution of their just rights. + </p> + <p> + ART. VI.—That there shall be no future confiscations made, nor any + prosecutions commenced against any person or persons, for or by reason of + the part which he or they may have taken in the present war; and that no + person shall on that account suffer any future loss or damage, either in + his person, liberty, or property; and that those who may be in confinement + on such charges, at the time of the ratification of the treaty in America, + shall be immediately set at liberty, and the prosecutions so commenced be + discontinued. + </p> + <p> + ART. VII.—There shall be a firm and perpetual peace between his + Britannic majesty and the said United States, and between the subjects of + the one and the citizens of the other; wherefore all hostilities, both by + sea and land, shall from henceforth cease; all prisoners, on both sides, + shall be set at liberty; and his Britannic majesty shall, with all + convenient speed, and without causing any destruction, or carrying away + any negroes or other property of the American inhabitants, withdraw all + his armies, garrisons, and fleets from the said United States, and from + every post, place, and harbor within the same, leaving in all + fortifications the American artillery that may be therein; and shall also + order and cause all archives, records, deeds, and papers belonging to any + of the said States, or their citizens, which in the course of the war may + have fallen into the hands of his officers, to be forthwith restored, and + delivered to the proper States and persons to whom they belong. + </p> + <p> + ART. VIII.—The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source + to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great + Britain and the citizens of the United States. + </p> + <p> + Art. IX.—In case it should so happen that any place or territory, + belonging to Great Britain or to the United States, should have been + conquered by the arms of either from the other, before the arrival of the + said provisional articles in America, it is agreed that the same shall be + restored without difficulty and without requiring any compensation. + </p> + <p> + Art. X.—The solemn ratifications of the present treaty, expedited in + good and due form, shall be exchanged between the contracting parties in + the space of six months, or sooner, if possible, to be computed from the + day of the signature of the present treaty. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: C. J. Peterson, "History of the Navy of the United States." + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Gordon thus notices the settlement of Washington's accounts + with the government. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Two hundred guineas advanced to General M'Dougat are not + included in the £1982 10, not being yet settled, but included in some of + the other charges, and so reckoned in the general sum. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: 104,364, of the dollars were received after March, 1780, and + although credited forty for one, many did not fetch at the rate of a + hundred for one, while 27,775 of them are returned without deducting + anything from the above account (and therefore actually made a present to + the public). + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PART" id="link2H_PART"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PART V. WASHINGTON A PRIVATE CITIZEN. + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. — WASHINGTON'S RETURN TO PRIVATE LIFE. 1783-1784. + </h2> + <p> + When Washington retired from the command of the army it was undoubtedly + his intention to devote the remainder of his life to his favorite pursuit + of agriculture. His estate had suffered considerably from his devotion to + public duties, and his private affairs now demanded all his attention. The + Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania instructed the delegates of that + State in Congress to propose a public remuneration for his services, but + when the proposition was submitted for his approbation he promptly + declined it. This was in strict consistency with his uniform character of + disinterestedness. A liberal grant would have been voted by Congress and + sanctioned by the nation, but Washington would not consent to receive it. + </p> + <p> + His feelings on finding himself a private citizen are expressed in his + correspondence. In a letter to Governor Clinton, written only three days + after his arrival at Mount Vernon, he says: "The scene is at length + closed. I feel myself eased of a load of public care and hope to spend the + remainder of my days in cultivating the affections of good men, and in the + practice of the domestic virtues." + </p> + <p> + "At length, my dear marquis," said he to his noble and highly-valued + friend, Lafayette, "I have become a private citizen on the banks of the + Potomac, and under the shadow of my own vine and my own fig tree, free + from the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life, I am + solacing myself with those tranquil enjoyments of which the soldier, who + is ever in pursuit of fame—the statesman, whose watchful days and + sleepless nights are spent in devising schemes to promote the welfare of + his own, perhaps the ruin of other countries, as if this globe was + insufficient for us all—and the courtier, who is always watching the + countenance of his prince in the hope of catching a gracious smile—can + have very little conception. I have not only retired from all public + employments, but am retiring within myself, and shall be able to view the + solitary walk and tread the paths of private life with heartfelt + satisfaction. Envious of none I am determined to be pleased with all, and + this, my dear friend, being the order of my march, I will move gently down + the stream of life until I sleep with my fathers." + </p> + <p> + But a mind accustomed to labor for a nation's welfare does not immediately + divest itself of ancient habits. That custom of thinking on public + affairs, and that solicitude respecting them, which belong to the patriot + in office, follow him into his retreat. In a letter to General Knox, + written soon after his resignation, Washington thus expressed the feelings + attendant upon this sudden transition from public to private pursuits. "I + am just beginning to experience the ease and freedom from public cares, + which however desirable, takes some time to realize, for, strange as it + may seem, it is nevertheless true that it was not until lately I could get + the better of my usual custom of ruminating, as soon as I awoke in the + morning, on the business of the ensuing day, and of my surprise at + finding, after revolving many things in my mind, that I was no longer a + public man or had anything to do with public transactions. I feel now, + however, as I conceive a wearied traveler must do who, after treading many + a painful step with a heavy burden on his shoulders, is eased of the + latter, having reached the haven to which all the former were directed, + and from his house-top is looking back and tracing with an eager eye the + meanders by which he escaped the quicksands and mires which lay in his + way, and into which none but the all-powerful Guide and Dispenser of human + events could have prevented his falling." + </p> + <p> + For several months after arriving at Mount Vernon, almost every day + brought him the addresses of an affectionate and grateful people. The glow + of expression in which the high sense universally entertained of his + services was conveyed, manifested the warmth of feeling which animated the + American bosom. This unexampled tribute of voluntary applause, paid by a + whole people to an individual no longer in power, made no impression on + the unassuming modesty of his character and deportment. The same firmness + of mind, the same steady and well-tempered judgment, which had guided him + through the most perilous seasons of the war, still regulated his conduct, + and the enthusiastic applauses of an admiring nation served only to + cherish sentiments of gratitude and to give greater activity to the desire + still further to contribute to the general prosperity. + </p> + <p> + Soon after peace was proclaimed Congress unanimously passed a resolution + for the erection of an equestrian statue of Washington, at the place which + should be established for the residence of the government. + </p> + <p> + The Legislature of Virginia, too, at its first session after his + resignation, passed the following resolution: + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, That the Executive be requested to take measures for procuring + a statue of General Washington, to be of the finest marble and best + workmanship, with the following inscription on its pedestal: + </p> + <p> + "The General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia have caused this + statue to be erected as a monument of affection and gratitude to George + Washington, who, uniting to the endowments of the hero, the virtues of the + patriot, and exerting both in establishing the liberties of his country, + has rendered his name dear to his fellow-citizens, and given the world an + immortal example of true glory." {5} + </p> + <p> + In addition to the attention which he bestowed on his own estate + Washington endeavored to ameliorate the condition of agriculture + generally. Nothing could be more wretched than the general state of this + useful art in America. To its amelioration by examples which might be + followed, and by the introduction of systems adapted to the soil, the + climate, and to the wants of the people, the energies of his active and + intelligent mind were now in a great degree directed. No improvement of + the implements to be used on a farm, no valuable experiments in husbandry, + escaped his attention. His inquiries, which were equally minute and + comprehensive, extended beyond the limits of his own country, and he + entered into a correspondence on this interesting subject with Arthur + Young, the celebrated English writer, and with other foreigners who had + been most distinguished for their additions to the stock of agricultural + science. + </p> + <p> + Mingled with this favorite pursuit were the multiplied avocations + resulting from the high office he had lately filled. He was engaged in an + extensive correspondence with the friends most dear to his heart—the + foreign and American officers who had served under him during the late war—and + with almost every conspicuous political personage of his own, and with + many of other countries. Literary men also were desirous of obtaining his + approbation of their works, and his attention was solicited to every + production of American genius. His countrymen who were about to travel + were anxious to receive from the first citizen of the rising Republic, + some testimonial bearing his signature, and all those strangers of + distinction, who visited this newly-created empire, were ambitious of + being presented to its founder. In addition to visitors of distinction, + and those who had claims of ancient friendship, he was subjected to the + annoyance of visitors, who, without any just pretension to such an honor, + made visits to Mount Vernon merely to gratify their curiosity, and to the + scarcely less wearisome annoyance of tedious and unnecessary letters. Of + these unwelcome intrusions upon his time Washington thus complained to an + intimate military friend. "It is not, my dear sir, the letters of my + friends which give me trouble or add aught to my perplexity. I receive + them with pleasure, and pay as much attention to them as my avocations + will permit. It is references to old matters with which I have nothing to + do—applications which oftentimes cannot be complied with—inquiries, + to satisfy which would employ the pen of an historian—letters of + compliment, as unmeaning perhaps as they are troublesome, but which must + be attended to—and the common-place business—which employ my + pen and my time often disagreeably. Indeed these, with company, deprive me + of exercise, and, unless I can obtain relief, must be productive of + disagreeable consequences. Already I begin to feel their effects. Heavy + and painful oppressions of the head and other disagreeable sensations + often trouble me. I am determined therefore to employ some person who + shall ease me of the drudgery of this business. At any rate, if the whole + of it is thereby suspended, I am determined to use exercise. My private + affairs also require infinitely more attention than I have given or can + give them under present circumstances. They can no longer be neglected + without involving my ruin." + </p> + <p> + It was some time after the date of this letter before he introduced into + his family a young gentleman, qualified by education and manners to fill + the station of private secretary and friend. This was Mr. Tobias Lear of + New Hampshire, who had graduated at Harvard college. + </p> + <p> + The numerous visits which Washington received made Mount Vernon anything + but a place of seclusion and repose, and "during these stirring times Mrs. + Washington performed the duties of a Virginia housewife and presided at + her well-spread board with that ease and elegance of manners which always + distinguished her." {2} + </p> + <p> + This multiplicity of private avocations could not entirely withdraw the + mind of Washington from objects tending to promote and secure the public + happiness. His resolution never again to appear in the busy scenes of + political life, though believed by himself and by his bosom friends to be + unalterable, could not render him indifferent to those measures on which + the prosperity of his country essentially depended. + </p> + <p> + It is a very interesting fact that Washington was among the first, if not + the very first of our public men, who were impressed with the importance + of connecting the western with the eastern territory, by facilitating the + means of intercourse between them. To this subject his attention had been + directed in the early part of his life. While the American States were yet + British colonies he had obtained the passage of a bill for opening the + Potomac so as to render it navigable from tide-water to Wills creek, a + distance of about 150 miles. The river James had also been comprehended in + this plan, and he had triumphed so far over the opposition produced by + local interests and prejudices, that the business was in a train which + promised success, when the Revolutionary War diverted the attention of its + patrons, and of all America, from internal improvements to the still + greater objects of liberty and independence. As that war approached its + termination, subjects which for a time had yielded their pretensions to + consideration, reclaimed that place to which their real magnitude entitled + them, and internal navigation again attracted the attention of the wise + and thinking part of society. Accustomed to contemplate America as his + country and to consider with solicitude the interests of the whole, + Washington now took a more enlarged view of the advantages to be derived + from opening both the eastern and the western waters; and for this, as + well as for other purposes, after peace had been proclaimed, he traversed + the western parts of New England and New York. "I have lately," said he, + in a letter to the Marquis of Chastellux, "made a tour through the lakes + George and Champlain as far as Crown Point; then returning to Schenectady + I proceeded up the Mohawk river to Fort Schuyler, crossed over to Wood + creek, which empties into the Oneida lake and affords the water + communication with Ontario. I then traversed the country to the head of + the eastern branch of the Susquehanna and viewed the lake Otsego and the + portage between that lake and the Mohawk river at Canajoharie. Prompted by + these actual observations, I could not help taking a more contemplative + and extensive view of the vast inland navigation of these United States, + and could not but be struck with the immense diffusion and importance of + it, and with the goodness of that Providence which has dealt His favors to + us with so profuse a hand. Would to God we may have wisdom enough to + improve them. I shall not rest contented until I have explored the western + country and traversed those lines (or great part of them) which have given + bounds to a new empire." The journey here referred to was performed in + company with Governor Clinton while the army was encamped at Newburg. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely had he answered those spontaneous offerings of the heart which + flowed in upon him from every part of a grateful nation, when his views + were once more seriously turned to this truly interesting subject. Its + magnitude was also impressed on others, and the value of obtaining the aid + which his influence and active interference would afford to any exertions + for giving this direction to the public mind, and for securing the happy + execution of the plan which might be devised, was perceived by all those + who attached to the great work its real importance. Jefferson, who had + taken an expanded view of it concluded a letter to Washington containing a + detailed statement of his ideas on the subject in these terms: + </p> + <p> + "But a most powerful objection always arises to propositions of this kind. + It is, that public undertakings are carelessly managed and much money + spent to little purpose. To obviate this objection is the purpose of my + giving you the trouble of this discussion. You have retired from public + life. You have weighed this determination, and it would be impertinence in + me to touch it. But would the superintendence of this work break in too + much on the sweets of retirement and repose? If they would I stop here. + Your future time and wishes are sacred in my eye. If it would be only a + dignified amusement to you, what a monument of your retirement would it + be! It is one which would follow that of your public life and bespeak it + the work of the same great hand. I am confident that would you, either + alone or jointly with any persons you think proper, be willing to direct + this business, it would remove the only objection, the weight of which I + apprehend." + </p> + <p> + In September, 1784, Washington fulfilled the intention expressed in his + letter to the Marquis of Chastellux, by making a tour to the western + country. He went on horseback, using pack-horses for his tent and baggage. + He crossed the Alleghenies by Braddock's road, examined his lands on the + Monongahela river, and returned through the wilderness by a circuitous + route, examining the country in order to determine the practicability of + connecting the Potomac and James rivers with the western waters by means + of canals. The whole journey extended some 680 miles. {3} + </p> + <p> + After returning from this tour Washington's first moments of leisure were + devoted to the task of engaging his countrymen in a work which appeared to + him to merit still more attention from its political than from its + commercial influence on the Union. In a long and interesting letter to Mr. + Harrison then Governor of Virginia, he detailed the advantages which might + be derived from opening the great rivers, the Potomac and the James, as + high as should be practicable. After stating, with his accustomed + exactness, the distances and the difficulties to be surmounted in bringing + the trade of the west to different points on the Atlantic, he expressed + unequivocally the opinion that the rivers of Virginia afforded a more + convenient and a more direct course than could be found elsewhere for that + rich and increasing commerce. This was strongly urged as a motive for + immediately commencing the work. But the rivers of the Atlantic + constituted only a part of the great plan he contemplated. He suggested + the appointment of commissioners who should, after an accurate examination + of the James and the Potomac, search out the nearest and best portages + between those waters and the streams which run into the Ohio. Those + streams were to be accurately surveyed, the impediments to their + navigation ascertained, and their relative advantages examined. The + navigable waters west of the Ohio toward the great lakes were also to be + traced to their sources and those which emptied into the lakes to be + followed to their mouths. "These things being done, and an accurate map of + the whole presented to the public, he was persuaded that reason would + dictate what was right and proper." For the execution of this latter part + of his plan he had also much reliance on Congress, and, in addition to the + general advantages to be drawn from the measure, he labored in his letters + to the members of that body to establish the opinion that the surveys he + recommended would add to the revenue by enhancing the value of the lands + offered for sale. "Nature," he said, "had made such an ample display of + her bounties in those regions that the more the country was explored the + more it would rise in estimation." + </p> + <p> + The assent and cooperation of Maryland being indispensable to the + improvement of the Potomac, he was equally earnest in his endeavors to + impress a conviction of its superior advantages on those individuals who + possessed most influence in that State. In doing so he detailed the + measures which would unquestionably be adopted by New York and + Pennsylvania for acquiring the monopoly of the western commerce, and the + difficulty which would be found in diverting it from the channel it had + once taken. "I am not," he added, "for discouraging the exertions of any + State to draw the commerce of the western country to its seaports. The + more communications we open to it the closer we bind that rising world + (for indeed it may be so called) to our interests, and the greater + strength shall we acquire by it. Those to whom nature affords the best + communication will, if they are wise, enjoy the greatest share of the + trade. All I would be understood to mean, therefore, is, that the gifts of + Providence may not be neglected." + </p> + <p> + But the light in which this subject would be viewed with most interest and + which gave to it most importance, was its political influence on the + Union. "I need not remark to you, sir," said he, in his letter to Governor + Harrison of Virginia, "that the flanks and rear of the United States are + possessed by other powers—and formidable ones, too: nor need I press + the necessity of applying the cement of interest to bind all parts of the + Union together by indissoluble bonds—especially of binding that part + of it which lies immediately west of us to the middle States. For what + ties, let me ask, should we have upon those people? How entirely + unconnected with them shall we be, and what troubles may we not apprehend + if the Spaniards on their right and Great Britain on their left, instead + of throwing impediments in their way as they now do, should hold out lures + for their trade and alliance? When they get strength, which will be sooner + than most people conceive, what will be the consequence of their having + formed close commercial connections with both or either of those powers, + it needs not, in my opinion, the gift of prophecy to foretell." + </p> + <p> + This idea was enlarged and pressed with much earnestness in his letters to + several members of Congress. + </p> + <p> + The letter to Governor Harrison was communicated to the Assembly of + Virginia, and the internal improvements it recommended were zealously + supported by the wisest members of that body. While the subject remained + undecided, Washington, accompanied by Lafayette, who had crossed the + Atlantic and had arrived at Mount Vernon on the 17th of August, paid a + visit to the capital of the State. Never was reception more cordial or + more demonstrative of respect and affection than was given to these + beloved personages. But amidst the display of addresses and of + entertainments which were produced by the occasion, the great business of + internal improvements was not forgotten, and the ardor of the moment was + seized to conquer those objections to the plan which yet lingered in the + bosoms of members who could perceive in it no future advantage to + compensate for the present expense. + </p> + <p> + An exact conformity between the acts of Virginia and of Maryland being + indispensable to the improvement of the Potomac, a resolution was passed + soon after the return of Washington to Mount Vernon, requesting him to + attend the Legislature of Maryland, in order to agree on a bill which + might receive the sanction of both States. This agreement being happily + completed, the bills were passed, and thus began that grand system of + internal improvement by which the eastern portion of the Union is bound to + the west. Canals and portages were the forerunners of the railroads by + which every part of the country is now traversed, and the whole Republic + is firmly united in bonds of mutual intercourse, which, it is fondly hoped + will prove perpetual. + </p> + <p> + The Legislature of Virginia seized the occasion afforded by the passage of + these acts to signalize the affection and gratitude of the State towards + her favorite son. A bill was drafted by Mr. Madison, the preamble of which + was in the following words: + </p> + <p> + "Whereas, it is the desire of the representatives of this commonwealth to + embrace every suitable occasion of testifying their sense of the + unexampled merits of George Washington, Esquire, toward his country, and + it is their wish in particular that those great works for its improvement, + which, both as springing from the liberty which he has been so + instrumental in establishing and as encouraged by his patronage will be + durable monuments of his glory, may be made monuments also of the + gratitude of his country. Be it enacted, &c." + </p> + <p> + By this bill the treasurer was instructed to subscribe, in behalf of the + State, for a specified number of shares in each company. Just at the close + of the session, when no refusal of their offer could be communicated to + them, a bill was suddenly brought in which received the unanimous assent + of both houses, authorizing the treasurer to subscribe for the benefit of + Washington the same number of shares in each company as were to be taken + for the State. The actual value of the shares was $40,000. + </p> + <p> + Washington was greatly embarrassed by this mark of gratitude. It afforded + him pleasure to see that his character and services were appreciated by + his fellow-citizens. But he would not depart from his determination to + receive no pecuniary reward for his public services. + </p> + <p> + To Madison, who conveyed to him the first intelligence of this bill, his + difficulties were thus expressed: + </p> + <p> + "It is not easy for me to decide by which my mind was most affected upon + the receipt of your letter of the sixth instant—surprise or + gratitude. Both were greater than I had words to express. The attention + and good wishes which the Assembly has evinced by their act for vesting in + me 150 shares in the navigation of the rivers Potomac and James, is more + than mere compliment—there is an unequivocal and substantial meaning + annexed. But, believe me, sir, no circumstance has happened since I left + the walks of public life which has so much embarrassed me. On the one + hand, I consider this act, as I have already observed, as a noble and + unequivocal proof of the good opinion, the affection, and disposition of + my country to serve me, and I should be hurt, if, by declining the + acceptance of it my refusal should be construed into disrespect or the + smallest slight upon the generous intention of the legislature, or that an + ostentatious display of disinterestedness of public virtue was the source + of refusal. + </p> + <p> + "On the other hand, it is really my wish to have my mind and my actions, + which are the result of reflection as free and independent as the air, + that I may be more at liberty (in things which my opportunities and + experience have brought me to the knowledge of) to express my sentiments, + and, if necessary, to suggest what may occur to me under the fullest + conviction that, although my judgment may be arraigned, there will be no + suspicion that sinister motives had the smallest influence in the + suggestion. Not content then with the bare consciousness of my having in + all this navigation business, acted upon the clearest conviction of the + political importance of the measure, I would wish that every individual + who may hear that it was a favorite plan of mine, may know also, that I + had no other motive for promoting it than the advantage of which I + conceived it would be productive to the Union at large and to this State + in particular, by cementing the eastern and western territory together, at + the same time that it will give vigor and increase to our commerce and be + a convenience to our citizens." + </p> + <p> + At length he determined, in the same letter which should convey his + resolution not to retain the shares for his private emolument, to signify + his willingness to hold them in trust for such public institution as the + Legislature should approve. The following letter conveyed this resolution + to the General Assembly through the governor of the State: + </p> + <h3> + OCTOBER, 1785. + </h3> + <p> + "SIR:—Your Excellency having been pleased to transmit me a copy of + the act appropriating to my benefit certain shares in the companies for + opening the navigation of James and Potomac rivers, I take the liberty of + returning to the General Assembly, through your hands, the profound and + grateful acknowledgments inspired by so signal a mark of their beneficent + intentions towards me. I beg you, sir, to assure them that I am filled on + this occasion with every sentiment which can flow from a heart warm with + love for my country, sensible to every token of its approbation and + affection, and solicitous to testify in every instance a respectful + submission to its wishes. + </p> + <p> + "With these sentiments in my bosom, I need not dwell on the anxiety I feel + in being obliged, in this instance, to decline a favor which is rendered + no less flattering by the manner in which it is conveyed, than it is + affectionate in itself. In explaining this I pass over a comparison of my + endeavors in the public service, with the many honorable testimonies of + approbation which have already so far overrated, and overpaid them—reciting + one consideration only, which supersedes the necessity of recurring to + every other. + </p> + <p> + "When I was first called to the station with which I was honored during + the late conflict for our liberties, to the diffidence which I had so many + reasons to feel in accepting it, I thought it my duty to join a firm + resolution to shut my hand against every pecuniary recompense. To this + resolution I have invariably adhered, and from it (if I had the + inclination) I do not consider myself at liberty now to depart. + </p> + <p> + "Whilst I repeat therefore my fervent acknowledgments to the Legislature + for their very kind sentiments and intentions in my favor, and at the same + time beg them to be persuaded that a remembrance of this singular proof of + their goodness towards me will never cease to cherish returns of the + warmest affection and gratitude, I must pray that their act, so far as it + has for its object my personal emolument, may not have its effect; but if + it should please the General Assembly to permit me to turn the destination + of the fund vested in me, from my private emolument to objects of a public + nature, it will be my study, in selecting these, to prove the sincerity of + my gratitude for the honor conferred upon me, by preferring such as may + appear most subservient to the enlightened and patriotic views of the + Legislature." + </p> + <p> + The wish suggested in this letter immediately received the sanction of the + Legislature, and at a subsequent time the trust was executed by conveying + the shares respectively to the use of a seminary of learning—which + is now called Washington college, and to a university to be established in + the District of Columbia, under the auspices of the government. + </p> + <p> + Washington felt too strong an interest in the success of these works to + refuse the presidency of the companies instituted for their completion. In + conducting the affairs of the Potomac company, he took an active part; to + that formed for opening the navigation of the James, he could only give + his counsel. + </p> + <p> + While Washington was at Richmond attending to the interests of internal + navigation he had been joined by Lafayette, who, since his recent visit to + Mount Vernon, had accompanied the commissioners to Fort Schuyler to make a + treaty with the Indians, and had assisted on that occasion. He had + subsequently made a tour in the eastern States, where he was received with + much distinction and he was now on his return to pay a farewell visit to + Washington at Mount Vernon. + </p> + <p> + He remained only a week at Mount Vernon. Washington accompanied him to + Annapolis, where Lafayette was honored with a public reception and address + by the Legislature of Maryland, and there, on the 30th of November, 1784, + these distinguished men took leave of each other. From Annapolis Lafayette + proceeded to Trenton, where Congress was then in session, and on Christmas + day he embarked at New York for France in the frigate Nymphe. The + following is an extract from a letter written by Washington to Lafayette + on his return to Mount Vernon: + </p> + <p> + "The peregrination of the day in which I parted from you ended at + Maryborough. The next day, bad as it was, I got home before dinner. + </p> + <p> + "In the moment of separation, upon the road as I traveled, and every hour + since, I have felt all that love, respect, and attachment for you, with + which length of years, close connection, and your merits have inspired me. + I often asked myself, as our carriages separated, whether that was the + last sight I ever should have of you? And though I wished to say No, my + fears answered Yes. I called to mind the days of my youth, and found they + had long since fled to return no more; that I was now descending the hill + I had been fifty-two years climbing, and that, though I was blest with a + good constitution, I was of a short-lived family, and might soon expect to + be entombed in the mansion of my fathers. These thoughts darkened the + shades, and gave a gloom to the picture, and consequently to my prospect + of seeing you again. But I will not repine; I have had my day. + </p> + <p> + "Nothing of importance has occurred since I parted with you. I found my + family well, and am now immersed in company; notwithstanding which, I have + in haste produced a few more letters to give you the trouble of, rather + inclining to commit them to your care, than to pass them through many and + unknown hands." + </p> + <p> + Among the letters referred to in the above extract was one to the + Marchioness de Lafayette and another to her little daughter. In the former + he writes: "The Marquis returns to you with all the warmth and ardor of a + newly-inspired lover. We restore him to you in good health, crowned with + wreaths of love and respect from every part of the Union." + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: This statue was executed by Houdon, and stands in the capitol + at Richmond. It is in the costume of commander-in-chief of the army, and + is considered an excellent likeness. Another statue of Washington, by + Canova, was in the Roman costume, and in a sitting posture. It was made + for the State of North Carolina, and was unfortunately destroyed when the + capitol was burnt. Another statue stands in the statehouse at Boston. It + was the result of a private subscription. A fourth, by Greenough, adorns + the grounds of the capitol at Washington. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Custis, "Memoir of Martha Washington." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Sparks. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. — WASHINGTON PRESIDES AT THE FORMATION OP THE + CONSTITUTION. 1785-1788. + </h2> + <p> + On first retiring to Mount Vernon (1785), Washington had devoted his + attention to the restoration of his estate to that high condition of order + and productiveness which had been maintained under his own personal + superintendence previous to the war. During his absence of nine years he + had constantly corresponded with his manager and given particular + directions respecting its cultivation. But it had suffered much in his + absence, and he was determined to renovate it by assiduous care. He gave + up the cultivation of tobacco because it had a tendency to exhaust the + soil, and planted wheat in its stead, giving attention at the same time to + the production of grass, maize, potatoes, and oats, and pursuing the + system of rotation in crops now considered so indispensable by intelligent + farmers. + </p> + <p> + When this system was well established he commenced planting and adorning + with trees the grounds surrounding the mansion-house. His diary shows that + he paid great attention to this object, directing the setting out of a + great number and variety of ornamental trees, some of them being obtained + in the neighboring woods and others brought from a great distance. He also + replenished his gardens, orchards, and green-houses with choice fruits and + flowers which were confided to the care of skilful gardeners. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the number of guests entertained at Mount Vernon was ever on the + increase. Many were known to have crossed the Atlantic for the sole + purpose of visiting the founder of the Republic. Among these was Mrs. + Catharine Macauley Graham. By the principles contained in her "History of + the Stuarts," this lady had acquired much reputation in republican America + and by all was received with marked attention. She was cordially received + at Mount Vernon, and, if her letters may be credited, the exalted opinion + she had formed of its proprietor was "not diminished by a personal + acquaintance with him." + </p> + <p> + The French military and naval officers, Lafayette, Rochambeau, D'Estaing, + and others, gave letters of introduction to be presented to Washington by + their friends whenever any of them came to America, and those letters were + always duly honored by hospitable attentions to those who bore them. His + own compatriots were still more numerous and more assiduous in attention + to the retired commander. Officers who had served with him in the old + French war and in the Revolution, members of Congress, politicians, and + magistrates from distant States, were among the guests at Mount Vernon; so + that Washington's time would thus have been completely taken up but for + the efficient aid which he received in discharging the duties of + hospitality from the ease, urbanity, and excellent management of his + accomplished lady. + </p> + <p> + "His habits," says Mr. Sparks, "were uniform and nearly the same as they + had been previously to the war. He arose before the sun and employed + himself in his study writing letters or reading till the hour of + breakfast. When breakfast was over his horse was ready at the door, and he + rode to his farms and gave directions for the day to the managers and + laborers. Horses were likewise prepared for his guests whenever they chose + to accompany him, or to amuse themselves by excursions into the country. + Returning from his fields and dispatching such business as happened to be + on hand, he went again to his study, and continued there till 3 o'clock, + when he was summoned to dinner. The remainder of the day and the evening + were devoted to company or to recreation in the family circle. At 10 he + retired to rest. From these habits he seldom deviated unless compelled to + do so by particular circumstances." {1} + </p> + <p> + In a delightful memoir {2} of his own life and times by Mr. Elkanah + Watson, we find the following interesting notice of Washington at home, + and we also learn what subject chiefly occupied his thoughts at the time + of which we are writing: + </p> + <p> + "I had feasted my imagination for several days," says Mr. Watson, "on the + near prospect of a visit to Mount Vernon—the seat of Washington. No + pilgrim ever approached Mecca with deeper enthusiasm. I arrived there on + the afternoon of January 23d, 1785. I was the bearer of a letter from + General Greene, with another from Colonel Fitzgerald, one of the former + aides of Washington, and also the books from Granville Sharpe. Although + assured that these credentials would secure me a respectful reception, I + felt an unaccountable diffidence as I came into the presence of the great + man. I found him at table with Mrs. Washington and his private family, and + was received with the native dignity and urbanity so peculiarly combined + in the character of a soldier and eminent private gentleman. He soon put + me at ease, by unbending in a free and affable conversation. + </p> + <p> + "The cautious reserve which wisdom and policy dictated whilst engaged in + rearing the glorious fabric of our independence was evidently the result + of consummate prudence and not characteristic of his nature. Although I + had frequently seen him in the progress of the Revolution and had + corresponded with him from France in 1781 and 1782, this was the first + occasion on which I had contemplated him in his private relations. I + observed a peculiarity in his smile which seemed to illuminate his eye; + his whole countenance beamed with intelligence, while it commanded + confidence and respect. The gentleman who had accompanied me from + Alexandria left in the evening, and I remained alone in the enjoyment of + the society of Washington for two of the richest days of my life. I saw + him reaping the reward of his illustrious deeds in the quiet shade of his + beloved retirement. He was at the matured age of fifty-three. Alexander + died before he reached that period of life and he had immortalized his + name. How much stronger and nobler the claims of Washington to + immortality! In the impulses of mad, selfish ambition, Alexander acquired + fame by wading to the conquest of the world through seas of blood. + Washington, on the contrary, was parsimonious of the blood of his + countrymen, stood forth the pure and virtuous champion of their rights, + and formed for them, not himself, a mighty empire. + </p> + <p> + "To have communed with such a man in the bosom of his family I shall + always regard as one of the highest privileges and most cherished + incidents of my life. I found him kind and benignant in the domestic + circle, revered and beloved by all around him, agreeably social, without + ostentation; delighting in anecdote and adventures, without assumption; + his domestic arrangements harmonious and systematic. His servants seemed + to watch his eye, and to anticipate his every wish; hence a look was + equivalent to a command. His servant Billy, the faithful companion of his + military career, was always at his side. Smiling content animated and + beamed on every countenance in his presence. + </p> + <p> + "The first evening I spent under the wing of his hospitality we sat a full + hour at table, by ourselves, without the least interruption, after the + family had retired. I was extremely oppressed with a severe cold and + excessive coughing, contracted from the exposure of a harsh winter + journey. He pressed me to use some remedies, but I declined doing so. As + usual after retiring my cough increased. When some time had elapsed the + door of my room was gently opened, and on drawing my bed-curtains, to my + utter astonishment, I beheld Washington himself standing at my bedside + with a bowl of hot tea in his hand. I was mortified and distressed beyond + expression. This little incident, occurring in common life with an + ordinary man would not have been noticed, but as a trait of the + benevolence and the private virtue of Washington it deserves to be + recorded. + </p> + <p> + "He modestly waived all allusions to the events in which he had acted so + glorious and conspicuous a part. Much of his conversation had reference to + the interior country and to the opening of the navigation of the Potomac, + by canals and locks at the Seneca, the Great, and the Little Falls. His + mind appeared to be deeply absorbed in that object, then in earnest + contemplation. He allowed me to take minutes from his former journal on + this subject, of which the following is a partial summary: + </p> + <p> + "'The stock of the company is divided into 500 shares at £50 sterling + each. The canal company has been incorporated by both Maryland and + Virginia.' Washington had accepted the presidency of it. 'The preliminary + preparations are in full train, to commence operations in the ensuing + spring, not only to remove the obstacles in the Potomac to a boat + navigation from Georgetown to Fort Cumberland, a distance of 190 miles, + but to the ultimate construction of a canal to Lake Erie, which is + intended not only to give a direction to the fur trade from Detroit to + Alexandria, but to attract the eventual trade of the country north of the + Ohio which now slumbers in a state of nature.' This scheme was worthy of + the comprehensive mind of Washington. + </p> + <p> + "To demonstrate the practicability and the policy of diverting the trade + of the immense interior world yet unexplored to the Atlantic cities, + especially in view of the idea that the Mississippi would be opened by + Spain, was his constant and favorite theme. To elucidate the probability, + also, that the Detroit fur trade would take this direction, he produced + the following estimates, which I copied in his presence and with his aid + from the original manuscript: + </p> + <p> + "From Detroit, at the head of Lake Erie, via Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh) + and Fort Cumberland, to the head of the Potomac, is 607 Miles. + </p> + <p> + "To Richmond 840 + </p> + <p> + "To Philadelphia 741 + </p> + <p> + "To Albany 943 + </p> + <p> + "To Montreal 955 + </p> + <p> + "Thus it appeared that Alexandria is 348 miles nearer Detroit than + Montreal, with only two carrying places of about forty miles." + </p> + <p> + "Since my travels in 1779 I had been deeply and constantly impressed with + the importance of constructing canals to connect the various waters of + America. This conviction was confirmed under the examination of numerous + canals of Europe, and traveling extensively on several of them. Hearing + little else for two days from the persuasive tongue of this great man I + was, I confess, completely under the influence of the canal mania, and it + en kindled all my enthusiasm." + </p> + <p> + Among the objects which claimed the attention of Washington in his + retirement was a change in the constitution of the Cincinnati. This + society had been formed in May, 1783, when the army was encamped at + Newburg. The prospect of speedily separating from each other had suggested + the plan of forming an association among the officers to serve as a tie of + brotherhood for the future. + </p> + <p> + This idea was suggested by General Knox and was matured in a meeting + composed of the generals, and of deputies from the regiments, at which + Major-General Steuben presided. An agreement was then entered into by + which the officers were to constitute themselves into one society of + friends, to endure as long as they should endure, or any of their eldest + male posterity, and, in failure thereof, any collateral branches who might + be judged worthy of becoming its supporters and members, were to be + admitted into it. To mark their veneration for that celebrated Roman + between whose situation and their own they found some similitude, they + were to be denominated "The Society of the Cincinnati." Individuals of the + respective States, distinguished for their patriotism and abilities, might + be admitted as honorary members for life, provided their numbers should at + no time exceed a ratio of one to four. + </p> + <p> + The society was to be designated by a medal of gold representing the + American eagle bearing on its breast the devices of the order, which was + to be suspended by a ribbon of deep blue edged with white, descriptive of + the union of America and France. To the ministers who had represented the + King of France at Philadelphia, to the admirals who had commanded in the + American seas, to the Count de Rochambeau and the generals and colonels of + the French troops who had served in the United States, the insignia of the + order were to be presented and they were to be invited to consider + themselves as members of the society, at the head of which the + Commander-in-Chief was respectfully solicited to place his name. An + incessant attention, on the part of the members, to the preservation of + the exalted rights and liberties of human nature for which they had fought + and bled, and an unalterable determination to promote and cherish between + the respective States union and national honor, were declared to be the + immutable principles of the society. Its objects were to perpetuate the + remembrance of the American revolution, as well as cordial affection and + the spirit of brotherly kindness among the officers, and to extend acts of + beneficence to those officers and their families whose situation might + require assistance. To give effect to the charitable object of the + institution a common fund was to be created by the deposit of one month's + pay on the part of every officer becoming a member, the product of which + fund, after defraying certain necessary charges, was to be sacredly + appropriated to this humane purpose. + </p> + <p> + The military gentlemen of each State were to constitute a distinct + society, deputies from which were to assemble triennially in order to form + a general meeting for the regulation of general concerns. + </p> + <p> + Without encountering any open opposition this institution was carried into + complete effect, and its honors were sought, especially by the foreign + officers, with great avidity. But soon after it was organized those + jealousies, which in its first moments had been concealed, burst forth + into open view. In October, 1783, a pamphlet was published by Mr. Burk of + South Carolina, for the purpose of rousing the apprehensions of the + public, and of directing its resentments against the society. In this work + its was denounced as an attempt to form an order of nobility. The + hereditary feature of the constitution and the power of conferring its + honors on distinguished personages, not descended from the officers of the + army, were considered particularly inconsistent with the genius of our + republican institutions. In Massachusetts the subject was even taken up by + the Legislature, and it was well understood that, in Congress, the society + was viewed with secret disapprobation. + </p> + <p> + It was impossible for Washington to view with indifference this state of + the public feeling. Bound to the officers of his army by the strictest + ties of esteem and affection, conscious of their merits and assured of + their attachment to his person, he was alive to everything which might + affect their reputation or their interests. However innocent the + institution might be in itself or however laudable its real objects, if + the impression it made on the public mind was such as to draw a line of + distinction between the military men of America and their fellow-citizens, + he was earnest in his wishes to adopt such measures as would efface that + impression. However ill founded the public prejudices might be he thought + this a case in which they ought to be respected, and, if it should be + found impracticable to convince the people that their fears were + misplaced, he was disposed "to yield to them in a degree, and not to + suffer that which was intended for the best of purposes to produce a bad + one." + </p> + <p> + A general meeting was to be held in Philadelphia in May, 1784, and, in the + meantime, he had been appointed the temporary president. Washington was + too much in the habit of considering subjects of difficulty in various + points of view, and of deciding on them with coolness and deliberation, to + permit his affections to influence his judgment. The most exact inquiries, + assiduously made into the true state of the public mind, resulted in a + conviction that opinions unfriendly to the institution, in its actual + form, were extensively entertained, and that those opinions were founded, + not in hostility to the late army, but in real apprehensions for equal + liberty. + </p> + <p> + A wise and necessary policy required, he thought, the removal of these + apprehensions, and, at the general meeting in May, the hereditary + principle, and the power of adopting honorary members, were relinquished. + The result demonstrated the propriety of this alteration. Although a few, + who always perceive most danger where none exists, and the visionaries + then abounding in Europe, continued their prophetic denunciations against + the order, America dismissed her fears, and, notwithstanding the refusal + of several of the State societies to adopt the measures recommended by the + general meeting, the members of the Cincinnati were received as brethren + into the bosom of their country. {3} + </p> + <p> + While Washington was engaged in the cultivation of his extensive estate + his thoughts were by no means withdrawn from the political concerns of the + country, which at this time were assuming rather an ominous aspect. His + correspondence evinces that his advice was much sought for by the leading + men in the country, and that his opinions on the aspect of the public + affairs were freely given. The want of power in the central government, + arising from the defects of the old confederation, was becoming more and + more apparent, and the evils arising from this want of power were pressing + severely on every side. While the war lasted the external pressure held + the government together, but on the return of peace its dissolution had + become imminent. Large debts had been contracted to pay the expenses of + the war, and, although an attempt had been made to establish a general + system of revenue from duties on imports, individual States had obstructed + the prosecution of this plan, and the government had found itself unable + to raise the funds necessary to pay the interest on the public debt. It + had, in fact, no power to regulate commerce or collect a revenue. This + made it incapable of executing treaties, fulfilling its foreign + engagements, or causing itself to be respected by foreign nations. While + at home its weakness was disgusting the public creditors and raising a + clamor of discontent and disaffection on every side. An alarming crisis + was rapidly approaching. + </p> + <p> + By the enlightened friends of republican government, this gloomy state of + things was viewed with deep chagrin. Many became apprehensive that those + plans from which so much happiness to the human race had been anticipated + would produce only real misery, and would maintain but a short and a + turbulent existence. Meanwhile, the wise and thinking part of the + community, who could trace evils to their source, labored unceasingly to + inculcate opinions favorable to the incorporation of some principles into + the political system which might correct the obvious vices, without + endangering the free spirit of the existing institutions. + </p> + <p> + While the advocates for union were exerting themselves to impress its + necessity on the public mind, measures were taken in Virginia, which, + though originating in different views, terminated in a proposition for a + general convention to revise the state of the Union. + </p> + <p> + To form a compact relative to the navigation of the rivers Potomac and + Pocomoke, and of part of Chesapeake Bay, commissioners were appointed by + the Legislatures of Virginia and Maryland, who assembled in Alexandria in + March, 1785. While at Mount Vernon on a visit {4} they agreed to propose + to their respective governments the appointment of other commissioners, + with power to make conjoint arrangements, to which the assent of Congress + was to be solicited, for maintaining a naval force in the Chesapeake, and + to establish a tariff of duties on imports to which the laws of both + States should conform. When these propositions received the assent of the + Legislature of Virginia an additional resolution was passed, directing + that which respected the duties on imports to be communicated to all the + States in the Union, who were invited to send deputies to the meeting. + </p> + <p> + On the 21st of January, 1786, a few days after the passage of these + resolutions, another was adopted appointing Edmund Randolph, James + Madison, Walter Jones, St. George Tucker, and Meriwether Smith, + commissioners, "who were to meet such as might be appointed by the other + States in the Union, at a time and place to be agreed on, to take into + consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative + situation and trade of the said States; to consider how far a uniform + system in their commercial relations may be necessary to their common + interest and their permanent harmony, and to report to the several States + such an act relative to this great object, as, when unanimously ratified + by them, will enable the United States in Congress assembled effectually + to provide for the same." + </p> + <p> + In the circular letter transmitting these resolutions to the respective + States, Annapolis, in Maryland, was proposed as the place, and the ensuing + September (1786) as the time of meeting. + </p> + <p> + Before the arrival of the period at which these commissioners were to + assemble the idea was carried by those who saw and deplored the + complicated calamities which flowed from the inefficacy of the general + government, much further than was avowed by the resolution of Virginia. + "Although," said Mr. Jay, one of the most conspicuous patriots of the + Revolution, in a letter to Washington, dated the 16th of March, 1786, "you + have wisely retired from public employments, and calmly view, from the + temple of fame, the various exertions of that sovereignty and independence + which Providence has enabled you to be so greatly and gloriously + instrumental in securing to your country, yet I am persuaded you cannot + view them with the eye of an unconcerned spectator. + </p> + <p> + "Experience has pointed out errors in our national government which call + for correction, and which threaten to blast the fruit we expected from our + tree of liberty. The convention proposed by Virginia may do some good, and + would perhaps do more, if it comprehended more objects. An opinion begins + to prevail that a general convention for revising the articles of + confederation would be expedient. Whether the people are yet ripe for such + a measure, or whether the system proposed to be attained by it is only to + be expected from calamity and commotion, is difficult to ascertain. + </p> + <p> + "I think we are in a delicate situation, and a variety of considerations + and circumstances give me uneasiness. It is in contemplation to take + measures for forming a general convention. The plan is not matured. If it + should be well connected and take effect, I am fervent in my wishes that + it may comport with the line of life you have marked out for yourself to + favor your country with your counsels on such an important and single + occasion. I suggest this merely as a hint for consideration." + </p> + <p> + To the patriots who accomplished the great revolution which gave to the + American people a national government capable of maintaining the union of + the States and of preserving republican liberty, we must ever feel + grateful and admire and honor them for their services during that arduous + and doubtful struggle which terminated in the triumph of human reason and + the establishment of a free government. To us who were not actors in those + busy scenes, but who enjoy the fruits of the labor without having + participated in the toils or the fears of the patriots who achieved such + glorious results, the sentiments entertained by the most enlightened and + virtuous of America at that eventful period cannot be uninteresting. + </p> + <p> + "Our affairs," said Mr. Jay, in a letter of the 27th of June (1786), "seem + to lead to some crisis, some revolution—something that I cannot + foresee or conjecture. I am uneasy and apprehensive, more so than during + the war. Then, we had a fixed object and, though the means and time of + obtaining it were often problematical, yet I did firmly believe that we + should ultimately succeed, because I did firmly believe that justice was + with us. The case is now altered, we are going and doing wrong and + therefore I look forward to evils and calamities, but without being able + to guess at the instrument, nature, or measure of them. + </p> + <p> + "That we shall again recover and things again go well, I have no doubt. + Such a variety of circumstances would not, almost miraculously, have + combined to liberate and make us a nation for transient and unimportant + purposes. I therefore believe we are yet to become a great and respectable + people, but when or how, only the spirit of prophecy can discern. + </p> + <p> + "There doubtless is much reason to think and to say that we are woefully, + and, in many instances, wickedly misled. Private rage for property + suppresses public considerations, and personal rather than national + interests have become the great objects of attention. New governments have + not the aid of habit and hereditary respect, and, being generally the + result of preceding tumult and confusion, do not immediately acquire + stability or strength. Besides, in times of commotion, some men will gain + confidence and importance who merit neither, and who, like political + mountebanks, are less solicitous about the health of the credulous crowd + than about making the most of their nostrums and prescriptions. + </p> + <p> + "What I most fear is that the better kind of people (by which I mean the + people who are orderly and industrious, who are content with their + situations, and not uneasy in their circumstances) will be led by the + insecurity of property, the loss of confidence in their rulers, and the + want of public faith and rectitude, to consider the charms of liberty as + imaginary and delusive. A state of uncertainty and fluctuation must + disgust and alarm such men and prepare their minds for almost any change + that may promise them quiet and security." + </p> + <p> + To this interesting letter Washington made the following reply: + </p> + <p> + "Your sentiments, that our affairs are drawing rapidly to a crisis, accord + with my own. What the event will be, is also beyond the reach of my + foresight. We have errors to correct; we have probably had too good an + opinion of human nature in forming our confederation. Experience has + taught us that men will not adopt and carry into execution measures the + best calculated for their own good without the intervention of coercive + power. I do not conceive we can exist long as a nation, without lodging + somewhere a power which will pervade the whole Union in as energetic a + manner as the authority of the State governments extends over the several + States. To be fearful of investing Congress, constituted as that body is + with ample authorities for national purposes, appears to me the very + climax of popular absurdity and madness. Could Congress exert them for the + detriment of the people, without injuring themselves in an equal or + greater proportion? Are not their interests inseparably connected with + those of their constituents? By the rotation of appointment, must they not + mingle frequently with the mass of citizens? Is it not rather to be + apprehended, if they were possessed of the powers before described, that + the individual members would be induced to use them, on many occasions, + very timidly and inefficaciously, for fear of losing their popularity and + future election? We must take human nature as we find it; perfection falls + not to the share of mortals. Many are of opinion that Congress have too + frequently made use of the suppliant humble tone of requisition, in + applications to the States, when they had a right to assert their imperial + dignity, and command obedience. Be that as it may, requisitions are a + perfect nullity, where thirteen sovereign, independent, disunited States + are in the habit of discussing, and refusing or complying with them at + their option. Requisitions are actually little better than a jest and a + by-word throughout the land. If you tell the Legislatures they have + violated the treaty of peace, and invaded the prerogatives of the + confederacy, they will laugh in your face. What then is to be done? Things + cannot go on in the same train forever. It is much to be feared, as you + observe, that the better kind of people, being disgusted with these + circumstances, will have their minds prepared for any revolution whatever. + We are apt to run from one extreme into another. To anticipate and prevent + disastrous contingencies would be the part of wisdom and patriotism. + </p> + <p> + "What astonishing changes a few years are capable of producing! I am told + that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical form of government + without horror. From thinking proceeds speaking; thence to acting is often + but a single step. But how irrevocable and tremendous! what a triumph for + our enemies to verify their predictions! what a triumph for the advocates + of despotism, to find that we are incapable of governing ourselves, and + that systems founded on the basis of equal liberty are merely ideal and + fallacious! Would to God that wise measures may be taken in time to avert + the consequences we have but too much reason to apprehend. + </p> + <p> + "Retired as I am from the world, I frankly acknowledge I cannot feel + myself an unconcerned spectator. Yet, having happily assisted in bringing + the ship into port, and having been fairly discharged, it is not my + business to embark again on a sea of troubles. + </p> + <p> + "Nor could it be expected that my sentiments and opinions would have much + weight on the minds of my countrymen. They have been neglected, though + given as a last legacy in the most solemn manner. I had then perhaps some + claims to public attention. I consider myself as having none at present." + </p> + <p> + The convention at Annapolis was attended by commissioners from only six + States—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and + Virginia. These, after appointing Mr. Dickinson their chairman, proceeded + to discuss the objects for which they had convened. Perceiving that more + ample powers would be required to effect the beneficial purposes which + they contemplated, and hoping to procure a representation from a greater + number of States, the convention determined to rise without coming to any + specific resolutions on the particular subject which had been referred to + them. + </p> + <p> + Previous to their adjournment, however, they agreed on a report to be made + to their respective States, in which they represented the necessity of + extending the revision of the Federal system to all its defects, and + recommended that deputies for that purpose be appointed by the several + Legislatures, to meet in convention in the city of Philadelphia on the + second day of the ensuing May (1787). + </p> + <p> + The reasons for preferring a convention to a discussion of this subject in + Congress, were stated to be, "that in the latter body it might be too much + interrupted by the ordinary business before them and would, besides, be + deprived of the valuable counsels of sundry individuals who were + disqualified by the constitution or laws of particular States or by + peculiar circumstances from a seat in that assembly." + </p> + <p> + A copy of this report was transmitted to Congress in a letter from the + chairman, stating the inefficacy of the Federal government and the + necessity of devising such further provisions as would render it adequate + to the exigencies of the Union. On receiving this report, the Legislature + of Virginia (1786) passed an act for the appointment of deputies to meet + such as might be appointed by other States, to assemble in convention at + Philadelphia at the time and for the purposes specified in the + recommendation from the convention which had met at Annapolis. + </p> + <p> + When the plan of a convention was thus ripened and its meeting appointed + to be at Philadelphia in May, 1787, Mr. Madison communicated to Washington + the intention of that State to elect him one of her representatives on + this important occasion. He explicitly declined being a candidate, yet the + Legislature placed him at the head of her delegation, in the hope that + mature reflection would induce him to attend upon the service. The + governor of the State, Mr. Randolph, informed him of his appointment by + the following letter: + </p> + <p> + "By the enclosed act you will readily discover that the assembly are + alarmed at the storms which threaten the United States. What our enemies + have foretold seems to be hastening to its accomplishment, and cannot be + frustrated but by an instantaneous, zealous, and steady union among the + friends of the Federal government. To you I need not press our present + dangers. The inefficacy of Congress you have often felt in your official + character, the increasing languor of our associated republics you hourly + see; and a dissolution would be, I know, to you a source of the deepest + mortification. I freely then entreat you to accept the unanimous + appointment of the General Assembly to the convention at Philadelphia. For + the gloomy prospect still admits one ray of hope—that those who + began, carried on, and consummated the Revolution, can yet restore America + from the impending ruin." + </p> + <p> + "Sensible as I am," said Washington in his answer, "of the honor conferred + on me by the General Assembly of this commonwealth, in appointing me one + of the deputies to a convention proposed to be held in the city of + Philadelphia in May next, for the purpose of revising the Federal + constitution, and desirous as I am on all occasions of testifying a ready + obedience to the calls of my country, yet, sir, there exist at this moment + circumstances which I am persuaded will render this fresh instance of + confidence incompatible with other measures which I had previously adopted + and from which, seeing little prospect of disengaging myself, it would be + disingenuous not to express a wish that some other character, on whom + greater reliance can be had, may be substituted in my place, the + probability of my nonattendance being too great to continue my + appointment. + </p> + <p> + "As no mind can be more deeply impressed than mine is with the critical + situation of our affairs, resulting in a great measure from the want of + efficient powers in the Federal head and due respect to its ordinances, so + consequently those who do engage in the important business of removing + these defects will carry with them every good wish of mine, which the best + dispositions toward their obtainment can bestow." + </p> + <p> + The governor declined the acceptance of his resignation of the appointment + and begged him to suspend his determination until the approach of the + period of the meeting of the convention, that his final judgment might be + the result of a full acquaintance with all circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Thus situated, Washington reviewed the subject that he might, upon + thorough deliberation, make the decision which duty and patriotism + enjoined. He had, by a circular letter to the State societies, declined + being re-elected the president of the Cincinnati, and had announced that + he should not attend their general meeting at Philadelphia in the next + May, and he apprehended that if he attended the convention at the time and + place of their meeting he should give offense to all the officers of the + late army who composed this body. He was under apprehension that the + States would not be generally represented on this occasion, and that a + failure in the plan would diminish the personal influence of those who + engaged in it. Some of his confidential friends were of opinion that the + occasion did not require his interposition and that he ought to reserve + himself for a state of things which would unequivocally demand his agency + and influence. Even on the supposition that the plan should succeed they + thought that he ought not to engage in it, because his having been in + convention would oblige him to make exertions to carry the measures that + body might recommend into effect, and would necessarily "sweep him into + the tide of public affairs." His own experience since the close of the + Revolutionary War created in his mind serious doubts whether the + respective States would quietly adopt any system calculated to give + stability and vigor to the national government. "As we could not," to use + his own language, "remain quiet more than three or four years in times of + peace under the constitutions of our own choosing, which were believed in + many States to have been formed with deliberation and wisdom, I see little + prospect either of our agreeing on any other, or that we should remain + long satisfied under it, if we could. Yet I would wish anything and + everything essayed to prevent the effusion of blood and to divert the + humiliating and contemptible figure we are about to make in the annals of + mankind." + </p> + <p> + These considerations operated powerfully to confirm him in the + determination first formed, not to attend the convention. On the other + hand he realized the greatness of the emergency. The confederation was + universally considered as a nullity. The advice of a convention, composed + of respectable characters from every part of the Union, would probably + have great influence with the community, whether it should be to amend the + articles of the old government or to form a new constitution. + </p> + <p> + Amidst the various sentiments which at this time prevailed respecting the + state of public affairs, many entertained the supposition that the "times + must be worse before they could be better," and that the American people + could be induced to establish an efficient and liberal national government + only by the scourge of anarchy. Some seemed to think that the experiment + of a republican government in America had already failed and that one more + energetic would soon by violence be introduced. Washington entertained + some apprehension that his declining to attend the convention would be + considered as a dereliction of republican principles. + </p> + <p> + While he was balancing these opposite circumstances in his mind the + insurrection of Massachusetts occurred, {5} which turned the scale of + opinion in favor of his joining the convention. He viewed this event as + awfully alarming. "For God's sake, tell me," said he, in a letter to + Colonel Humphreys, "what is the cause of all these commotions? Do they + proceed from licentiousness, British influence disseminated by the Tories, + or real grievances which admit of redress? If the latter, why was redress + delayed until the public mind had become so much agitated? If the former, + why are not the powers of the government tried at once? It is as well to + be without as not to exercise them." + </p> + <p> + To General Knox and other friends similar apprehensions were expressed. "I + feel infinitely more than I can express to you for the disorders which + have arisen in these States. Good God! who besides a Tory could have + foreseen, or a Briton have predicted them? I do assure you that even at + this moment, when I reflect upon the present aspect of our affairs, it + seems to me like the visions of a dream. My mind can scarcely realize it + as a thing in actual existence, so strange, so wonderful, does it appear + to me. In this, as in most other matters, we are too slow. When this + spirit first dawned it might probably have been easily checked, but it is + scarcely within the reach of human ken, at this moment, to say when, + where, or how it will terminate. There are combustibles in every State to + which a spark might set fire. In bewailing, which I have often done with + the keenest sorrow, the death of our much-lamented friend, General Greene, + I have accompanied my regrets of late with a query, whether he would not + have preferred such an exit to the scenes which it is more than probable + many of his compatriots may live to bemoan. + </p> + <p> + "You talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the present + tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found, + nor if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for these disorders. + Influence is not government. Let us have a government by which our lives, + liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the worst at + once. Under these impressions my humble opinion is that there is a call + for decision. Know then precisely what the insurgents aim at. If they have + real grievances redress them if possible, or acknowledge the justice of + them and your inability to do it in the present moment. If they have not, + employ the force of the government against them at once. If this is + inadequate all will be convinced that the superstructure is bad or wants + support. To be more exposed in the eyes of the world, and more + contemptible than we already are, is hardly possible. To delay one or the + other of these expedients is to exasperate on the one hand or to give + confidence on the other, and will add to their numbers, for, like + snowballs, such bodies increase by every movement, unless there is + something in the way to obstruct and crumble them before their weight is + too great and irresistible. + </p> + <p> + "These are my sentiments. Precedents are dangerous things. Let the reins + of government then be braced and held with a steady hand, and every + violation of the constitution be reprehended. If defective, let it be + amended, but not suffered to be trampled upon while it has an existence." + </p> + <p> + Colonel Humphreys having intimated by letter his apprehension that civil + discord was near, in which event he would be obliged to act a public part, + or to leave the continent—"It is," said Washington in reply, "with + the deepest and most heartfelt concern I perceive, by some late paragraphs + extracted from the Boston papers, that the insurgents of Massachusetts, + far from being satisfied with the redress offered by their General Court, + are still acting in open violation of law and government, and have obliged + the chief magistrate, in a decided tone, to call upon the militia of the + State to support the constitution. + </p> + <p> + "What, gracious God, is man, that there should be such inconsistency and + perfidiousness in his conduct! It is but the other day that we were + shedding our blood to obtain the constitutions under which we live—constitutions + of our own choice and making—and now we are unsheathing the sword to + overturn them. The thing is so unaccountable that I hardly know how to + realize it, or to persuade myself that I am not under the illusion of a + dream. My mind, previous to the receipt of your letter of the first + ultimo, had often been agitated by a thought similar to the one you + expressed respecting a friend of yours, but heaven forbid that a crisis + should come when he shall be driven to the necessity of making a choice of + either of the alternatives there mentioned." + </p> + <p> + Having learned that the States had generally elected their representatives + to the convention, and Congress having given its sanction to it, he on the + 28th of March communicated to the governor of Virginia his consent to act + as one of the delegates of his State on this important occasion. + </p> + <p> + When this determination was formed Washington at once commenced his + preparations to leave Mount Vernon at an early day, so that he might be + able to be present at the meeting of the Cincinnati; but on the 26th of + April (1787) he received intelligence by an express that his mother and + sister were dangerously ill at Fredericksburg. He immediately set off for + that place, and the detention thus occasioned prevented his meeting the + Cincinnati. After remaining three days at Fredericksburg, his mother and + sister being partially recovered, he returned to Mount Vernon, and was + enabled to complete his preparations for leaving home in season to arrive + in Philadelphia on the 13th of May, the day before the opening of the + convention. {6} + </p> + <p> + Public honors had awaited him everywhere on his route. At Chester he was + met by General Mifflin, then speaker of the Assembly of Pennsylvania, and + several officers of the army and other public characters who accompanied + him to Gray's Ferry, where his former escort, the "First Troop" of + Philadelphia, were waiting to conduct him to the city. On his arrival he + paid his first visit to Dr. Franklin, president of the State of + Pennsylvania, who had also been elected a member of the convention. + </p> + <p> + On the next day (May 14, 1787), the convention assembled which was to + accomplish one of the most splendid works that ever was achieved by human + wisdom. Several days, however, elapsed before a quorum of members could be + formed. When the moment for commencing the organization of the convention + arrived, Robert Morris, on behalf of the Pennsylvania delegation, + nominated Washington as its president. John Rutledge of South Carolina, + future chief justice of the United States, seconded the nomination, + remarking at the same time that the presence of General Washington forbade + any observations on the occasion which might not be proper. He was elected + by a unanimous vote. By this act the convention did but fulfill the wishes + of the whole nation. A crisis had arrived in which all eyes were turned to + the Great Founder for deliverance. To use his own language in a letter + written to Mr. Jefferson a few days later (May 30, 1787), "That something + is necessary none will deny, for the general government, if it can be + called a government, is shaken to its foundation and liable to be + overturned by every blast. In a word, it is at an end, and unless a remedy + is soon applied anarchy and confusion will inevitably ensue." + </p> + <p> + Among the members of the convention were many men of exalted character and + signal abilities. New York sent Alexander Hamilton, himself a host. No + member was better fitted for the work or exerted a more important + influence in perfecting it. Madison was one of the delegates from + Virginia, whose pen was subsequently exerted, in connection with those of + Hamilton and Jay in defending and expounding the constitution to the + people in the memorable papers of the "Federalist." Massachusetts sent + Nathaniel Gorham and Rufus King; New Hampshire, John Langdon and Nicholas + Gilman; Pennsylvania counted in her numerous delegates Franklin, Mifflin, + James Wilson, Robert Morris, and Gouverneur Morris, with others whose + historical names are less distinguished for ability and eloquence, though + not less for integrity and patriotism. South Carolina sent John Rutledge, + her former governor, one of the ablest and purest men then living, and + destined to preside over the supreme judiciary of the Union. Charles + Cotesworth Pinckney, one of the bravest of the revolutionary generals, and + the future ambassador to France, was also among the delegates of South + Carolina. Among the other names on the roll of the convention, we + recognize those of another Pinckney, famed for eloquence; Roger Sherman, a + veteran statesman and signer of the Declaration of Independence; William + Livingston, afterwards Governor of New Jersey, friend and correspondent of + Washington, and Doctor Hugh Williamson of North Carolina, an early + patriot, who had assisted Franklin in detecting the intrigues of + Hutchinson and Oliver. + </p> + <p> + It would fill far too much space to enumerate all the members of the + convention, or even to glance at their respective titles, already earned + by public service, to the confidence of their countrymen. + </p> + <p> + "It was a most fortunate thing for America," says a recent writer, {7} + "that the Revolutionary age, with its hardships, its trials, and its + mistakes, had formed a body of Statesmen capable of framing for it a + durable constitution. The leading persons in the convention which formed + the constitution had been actors either in civil or military life in the + scenes of the Revolution. In those scenes their characters as American + statesmen had been formed. When the condition of the country had fully + revealed the incapacity of the government to provide for its wants, these + men were naturally looked to to construct a system which would save it + from anarchy. And their great capacities, their high disinterested + purposes, their freedom from all fanaticism and illiberality, and their + earnest, unconquerable faith in the destiny of the country, enabled them + to found that government which now upholds and protects the whole fabric + of liberty in the States of this Union." + </p> + <p> + The convention remained in session four months, and their industry and + devotion to their important work is amply testified by the fact that they + sat from five to seven hours a day. It was a most imposing assemblage. + "The severe, unchanging presence of Washington," says the writer last + quoted, "presided over all. The chivalrous sincerity and disinterestedness + of Hamilton pervaded the assembly with all the power of his fascinating + manners. The flashing eloquence of Gouverneur Morris recalled the dangers + of anarchy, which must be accepted as the alternative of an abortive + experiment. The calm, clear, statesmanlike views of Madison, the searching + and profound expositions of King, the prudent influence of Franklin, at + length ruled the hour." + </p> + <p> + On the 17th of September, 1787, the constitution was signed by all the + members present, except Edmund Randolph, the governor of Virginia; George + Mason and Elbridge Gerry; and it was then forwarded with a letter to + Congress. By that assembly it was sent to the State Legislatures to be + submitted in each State to a convention of delegates, to be chosen by the + people, for approval or rejection. As the State Legislatures assembled at + different times, nearly a year would elapse before the result could be + known. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after the convention had ended its labors, Washington returned + to Mount Vernon to resume his agricultural pursuits and to watch with + intense interest the slow process of ratifying the constitution by the + several States. His correspondence with Hamilton, Madison, Jay, Wilson, + Governor Langdon of New Hampshire, Generals Knox and Lincoln, and Governor + Randolph, at this time, shows that the subject occupied a great share of + his attention, and that he was extremely anxious that the constitution + should be adopted by all the States. + </p> + <p> + In a letter to Lafayette (7th of February, 1788), he says: "As to my + sentiments with respect to the merits of the new constitution, I will + disclose them without reserve, although, by passing through the + post-offices they should become known to all the world; for, in truth, I + have nothing to conceal on that subject. It appears to me, then, little + short of a miracle that the delegates from so many States, different from + each other, as you know, in their manners, circumstances, and prejudices, + should unite in forming a system of national government so little liable + to well-founded objections. Nor am I yet such an enthusiastic, partial, or + undiscriminating admirer of it as not to perceive it is tinctured with + some real though not radical defects. The limits of a letter would not + suffer me to go fully into an examination of them; nor would the + discussion be entertaining or profitable. I therefore forbear to touch + upon it. With regard to the two great points, the pivots upon which the + whole machine must move, my creed is simply— + </p> + <p> + "First, That the general government is not invested with more powers than + are indispensably necessary to perform the functions of a good government, + and, consequently, that no objection ought to be made against the quantity + of power delegated to it. + </p> + <p> + "Secondly, That these powers, as the appointment of all rulers will + forever arise from, and at short stated intervals recur to the free + suffrage of the people, are so distributed among the legislative, + executive, and judicial branches in to which the general government is + arranged that it can never be in danger of degenerating into a monarchy, + an oligarchy, an aristocracy, or any other despotic or oppressive form so + long as there shall remain any virtue in the body of the people. + </p> + <p> + "I would not be understood, my dear Marquis, to speak of consequences + which may be produced in the revolution of ages, by corruption of morals, + profligacy of manners, and listlessness in the preservation of the natural + and unalienable rights of mankind, nor of the successful usurpations that + may be established at such an unpropitious juncture upon the ruins of + liberty, however providentially guarded and secured, as these are + contingencies against which no human prudence can effectually provide. It + will at least be a recommendation to the proposed constitution that it is + provided with more checks and barriers against the introduction of tyranny + and those of a nature less liable to be surmounted than any government + hitherto instituted among mortals. We are not to expect perfection in this + world: but mankind, in modern times, have apparently made some progress in + the science of government. Should that which is now offered to the people + of America be found an experiment less perfect than it can be made, a + constitutional door is left open for its amelioration." + </p> + <p> + A letter of Mr. Jefferson, written to one of his friends while the + constitution was under consideration, gives some interesting particulars + respecting its reception and the opinions of some of the States and + leaders in regard to it: + </p> + <p> + "The constitution," he says, "has been received with very general + enthusiasm; the bulk of the people are eager to adopt it. In the eastern + States the printers will print nothing against it unless the writer + subscribes his name. Massachusetts and Connecticut have called conventions + in January to consider it. In New York there is a division; the governor, + Clinton, is known to be hostile. Jersey, it is thought, will accept; + Pennsylvania is divided, and all the bitterness of her factions has been + kindled anew. But the party in favor of it is the strongest, both in and + out of the Legislature. This is the party anciently of Morris, Wilson, + etc. Delaware will do what Pennsylvania shall do. Maryland is thought + favorable to it, yet it is supposed that Chase and Paca will oppose it. As + to Virginia, two of her delegates, in the first place, refused to sign it; + these were Randolph, the governor, and George Mason. Besides these, Henry, + Harrison, Nelson, and the Lees are against it. General Washington will be + for it, but it is not in his character to exert himself much in the case. + Madison will be its main pillar," etc. + </p> + <p> + With respect to Washington, Jefferson was mistaken. His letters show that + he did exert himself very zealously to remove the objections of recusant + States and statesmen, especially the Virginia leaders who were all + numbered among his personal friends. + </p> + <p> + The following letter to Jonathan Trumbull, of Connecticut, written at + Mount Vernon on the 20th of July, 1788, when the final event was pretty + certain, evinces the lively interest he took in the progress of affairs + and the deep religious feeling of thankfulness with which, as usual, he + recognized the hand of Providence in the result: + </p> + <p> + "You will have perceived from the public papers," he writes, "that I was + not erroneous in my calculation, that the constitution would be accepted + by the convention of this State. The majority, it is true, was small and + the minority respectable in many points of view. But the great part of the + minority here, as in most other States, have conducted themselves with + great prudence and political moderation, insomuch that we may anticipate a + pretty general and harmonious acquiescence. We shall impatiently wait the + result from New York and North Carolina. The other State, which has not + yet acted, is nearly out of the question. + </p> + <p> + "I am happy to hear from General Lincoln and others that affairs are + taking a good turn in Massachusetts, but the triumph of salutary and + liberal measures over those of an opposite tendency seems to be as + complete in Connecticut as in any other State, and affords a particular + subject of congratulation. Your friend, Colonel Humphreys, informs me from + the wonderful revolution of sentiment in favor of Federal measures and the + marvelous change for the better in the elections of your State, that he + shall begin to suspect that miracles have not ceased. Indeed, for myself, + since so much liberality has been displayed in the construction and + adoption of the proposed general government, I am almost disposed to be of + the same opinion. Or at least we may, with a kind of pious and grateful + exultation, trace the finger of Providence through those dark and + mysterious events which first induced the States to appoint a general + convention and then led them one after another, by such steps as were best + calculated to effect the object into an adoption of the system recommended + by that general convention, thereby, in all human probability, laying a + lasting foundation for tranquility and happiness, when we had but too much + reason to fear that confusion and misery were coming rapidly upon us." + </p> + <p> + North Carolina and Rhode Island did not at first accept the constitution + and New York was apparently dragged into it by a repugnance to being + excluded from the confederacy. At length the conventions of eleven States + assented to and ratified the constitution. When officially informed of + this fact, Congress passed an act appointing a day for the people + throughout the Union to choose electors of a president of the United + States in compliance with the provision in the constitution and another + day for the electors to meet and vote for the person of their choice. The + choice of electors was to take place in February, 1789, and the electors + were to meet and choose a president on the first Wednesday in March + following. + </p> + <p> + A few days before the close of the convention, Washington prepared and + submitted a draft of a letter to Congress, which was adopted. The + constitution having been duly signed, it was transmitted to Congress, with + the letter from the president of the convention. + </p> + <p> + "IN CONVENTION, September 17, 1787. + </p> + <p> + "SIR:—We have now the honor to submit to the consideration of the + United States, in Congress assembled, that constitution which has appeared + to us the most advisable. + </p> + <p> + "The friends of our country have long seen and desired, that the power of + making war, peace, and treaties; that of levying money, and regulating + commerce, and the correspondent executive and judicial authorities, should + be fully and effectually vested in the general government of the Union: + but the impropriety of delegating such extensive trust to one body of men + is evident. Hence results the necessity for a different organization. + </p> + <p> + "It is obviously impracticable in the federal government of these States + to secure all the rights of independent sovereignty to each, and yet + provide for the interest and safety of all. Individuals entering into + society, must give up a share of liberty, to preserve the rest. The + magnitude of the sacrifice must depend, as well on situation and + circumstance, as on the object to be obtained. It is at all times + difficult to draw with precision the line between those rights which must + be surrendered, and those which may be reserved; and on the present + occasion, this difficulty was increased by a difference among the several + States, as to their situation, extent, habits, and particular interests. + </p> + <p> + "In all our deliberations on this subject, we kept steadily in our view + that which appears to us the greatest interest of every true American, the + consolidation of our Union, in which is involved our prosperity, felicity, + safety, perhaps our national existence. This important consideration, + seriously and deeply impressed on our minds, led each State in the + Convention to be less rigid on points of inferior magnitude than might + have been otherwise expected; and thus the constitution, which we now + present, is the result of a spirit of amity, and of that mutual deference + and concession, which the peculiarity of our political situation rendered + indispensable. + </p> + <p> + "That it will meet the full and entire approbation of every State, is not + perhaps to be expected; but each State will doubtless consider, that had + her interests alone been consulted, the consequences might have been + particularly disagreeable or injurious to others; that it is liable to as + few exceptions as could reasonably have been expected, we hope and + believe; that it may promote the lasting welfare of that country so dear + to us all, and secure her freedom and happiness, is our most ardent wish. + </p> + <p> + "With great respect, we Have the honor to be, sir, your Excellency's most + obedient and humble servants. + </p> + <h3> + "GEORGE WASHINGTON, + </h3> + <p> + "<i>President</i>. + </p> + <p> + "By unanimous Order of the Convention. + </p> + <p> + "His EXCELLENCY THE PRESIDENT OF CONGRESS." + </p> + <p> + We give this important document in full, as contained in the Supplement to + the Journal of the Federal Convention. + </p> + <h3> + THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. + </h3> + <p> + We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect + union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the + common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of + liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this + Constitution for the United States of America. + </p> + <h3> + ARTICLE I. + </h3> + <p> + Sect. 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a + Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House + of Representatives. + </p> + <p> + Sect. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen + every second year by the people of the several States; and the electors in + each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the + most numerous branch of the State legislature. + </p> + <p> + No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age + of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, + and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which + he shall be chosen. + </p> + <p> + Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several + States which may be included within this union, according to their + respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole + number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of + years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. + The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first + meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent + term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number + of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but + each State shall have, at least, one representative; and until such + enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to + choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations + one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, + Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South + Carolina five, and Georgia three. + </p> + <p> + When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive + authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. + </p> + <p> + The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other + officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators + from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and + each senator shall have one vote. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first + election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. + The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the + expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of + the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth + year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies + happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature + of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until + the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. + </p> + <p> + No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of + thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who + shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall + be chosen. + </p> + <p> + The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the Senate, + but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. + </p> + <p> + The Senate shall choose their other officers, also a president pro + tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise + the office of president of the United States. + </p> + <p> + The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting + for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the president + of the United States is tried, the chief-justice shall preside; and no + person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the + members present. + </p> + <p> + Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal + from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, + trust, or profit, under the United States; but the party convicted shall + nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and + punishment, according to law. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators + and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature + thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such + regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. + </p> + <p> + The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting + shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint + a different day. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and + qualifications of its own members; and a majority of each shall constitute + a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, + and imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: + </p> + <p> + To borrow money on the credit of the United States: + </p> + <p> + To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, + and with the Indian tribes: + </p> + <p> + To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the + subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States: + </p> + <p> + To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix + the standard of weights and measures: + </p> + <p> + To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current + coin of the United States: + </p> + <p> + To establish post-offices and post-roads: + </p> + <p> + To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for + limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their + respective writings and discoveries: + </p> + <p> + To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court: + </p> + <p> + To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and + offences against the law of nations: + </p> + <p> + To declare war, to grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules + concerning captures on land and water: + </p> + <p> + To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use + shall be for a longer term than two years: + </p> + <p> + To provide and maintain a navy: + </p> + <p> + To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval + forces: + </p> + <p> + To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, + suppress insurrections, and repel invasions: + </p> + <p> + To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for + governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the + United States-reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the + officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the + discipline prescribed by Congress: + </p> + <p> + To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such + district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular + States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of + the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places + purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the + same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, + and other needful buildings:—and, + </p> + <p> + To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into + execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this + constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department + or officer thereof. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the + States, now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited + by the Congress prior to the year 1808, but a tax or duty may be imposed + on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. + </p> + <p> + The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless + when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. + </p> + <p> + No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. + </p> + <p> + No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to + the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. + </p> + <p> + No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No + preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to + the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, + or from one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. + </p> + <p> + No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of + appropriations made by law: and a regular statement and account of the + receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time + to time. + </p> + <p> + No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person + holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the + consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or + title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or + confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit + bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in + payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law + impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. + </p> + <p> + No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or + duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for + executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and + imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of + the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to + the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the + consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war + in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, + or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in + such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. + </p> + <h3> + ARTICLE II. + </h3> + <p> + SECT. I. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United + States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, + and, together with the vice-president, chosen for the same term, be + elected as follows: + </p> + <p> + Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may + direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and + representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no + senator or representative, or person holding any office of trust or profit + under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. + </p> + <p> + The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for + two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same + State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted + for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and + certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United + States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the + Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, + open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person + having the greatest number of votes shall be the president, if such number + be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be + more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, + then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one + of them for president; and if no person have a majority, then from the + five highest on the list, the said house shall, in like manner, choose the + president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by + States, the representation from each State having one vote. A quorum for + this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the + States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. + In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the + greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the vice-president. But + if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall + choose from them, by ballot, the vice-president. + </p> + <p> + The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day + on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same + throughout the United States. + </p> + <p> + No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States + at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the + office of president; neither shall any person be eligible to that office + who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been + fourteen years a resident within the United States. + </p> + <p> + In case the removal of the president from office, or of his death, + resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said + office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president; and the Congress may + by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, + both of the president and vice-president, declaring what officer shall + then act as president, and such officer shall act accordingly until the + disability be removed, or a president shall be elected. + </p> + <p> + The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a + compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the + period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive + within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of + them. + </p> + <p> + Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take the + following oath or affirmation: + </p> + <p> + "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office + of president of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, + preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." + </p> + <p> + SECT. 2. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of + the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called + into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, + in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, + upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; and + he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against + the United States, except in cases of impeachment. + </p> + <p> + He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to + make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he + shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, + shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of + the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States, whose + appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be + established by law. But the Congress may by law vest the appointment of + such inferior officers as they think proper in the president alone, in the + courts of law, or in the heads of departments. + </p> + <p> + The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen + during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall + expire at the end of their next session. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 3. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of + the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures + as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary + occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of + disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may + adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive + ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws + be faithfully executed; and shall commission all the officers of the + United States. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 4. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the + United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and + conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. + </p> + <h3> + ARTICLE III. + </h3> + <p> + SECT. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one + supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time + to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and + inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, + at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall + not be diminished during their continuance in office. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity, + arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and + treaties made, or which shall be made under their authority; to all cases + affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases + of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the + United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more + States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of + different States, between citizens of the same State, claiming lands under + grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, + and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. + </p> + <p> + In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, + and those in which a State shall be a party, the supreme court shall have + original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the + supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, + with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall + make. + </p> + <p> + The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; + and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have + been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall + be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying + war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and + comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony + of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. + The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; but no + attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except + during the life of the person attainted. + </p> + <h3> + ARTICLE IV. + </h3> + <p> + SECT. 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public + acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the + Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, + records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges + and immunities of citizens in the several States. + </p> + <p> + A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who + shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand + of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered + up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. + </p> + <p> + No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, + escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation + therein, be discharged from such service or labor; but shall be delivered + up, on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but + no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any + other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more + States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the + States concerned, as well as of the Congress. + </p> + <p> + The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and + regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the + United States; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as + to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. + </p> + <p> + SECT. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a + republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against + invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when + the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. + </p> + <h3> + ARTICLE V. + </h3> + <p> + The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, + shall propose amendments to this constitution; or, on the application of + the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a + convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid + to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified + by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by + conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of + ratification may be proposed by the Congress: Provided, that no amendment + which may be made prior to the year 1808, shall in any manner affect the + first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and + that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal + suffrage in the Senate. + </p> + <h3> + ARTICLE VI. + </h3> + <p> + All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of + this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this + constitution as under the confederation. + </p> + <p> + This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made + in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under + the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; + and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the + constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. + </p> + <p> + The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the + several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both + of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or + affirmation to support this constitution; but no religious test shall ever + be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the + United States. + </p> + <h3> + ARTICLE VII. + </h3> + <p> + The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for + the establishment of this constitution between the States so ratifying the + same. + </p> + <p> + Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the + 17th day of September, in the year of our Lord 1787, and of the + independence of the United States of America, the twelfth. In witness + whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. + </p> + <h3> + GEORGE WASHINGTON, + </h3> + <p> + <i>President, and Deputy from Virginia.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>New Hampshire</i>. + </p> + <h3> + JOHN LANGDON, + </h3> + <h3> + NICHOLAS GILMAN. + </h3> + <p> + <i>Massachusetts</i>. + </p> + <h3> + NATHANIEL GORHAM, + </h3> + <h3> + RUFUS KING. + </h3> + <p> + <i>Connecticut.</i> + </p> + <h3> + WILLIAM SAMUEL JOHNSON, + </h3> + <h3> + ROGER SHERMAN. + </h3> + <p> + <i>New York</i>. + </p> + <h3> + ALEXANDER HAMILTON. + </h3> + <p> + <i>New Jersey</i>. + </p> + <h3> + WILLIAM LIVINGSTON, + </h3> + <h3> + DAVID BREARLY, + </h3> + <h3> + WILLIAM PATTERSON, + </h3> + <h3> + JONATHAN DAYTON. + </h3> + <p> + <i>Pennsylvania</i>. + </p> + <h3> + BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, + </h3> + <h3> + THOMAS MIFFLIN, + </h3> + <h3> + ROBERT MORRIS, G + </h3> + <h3> + GEORGE CLYMER, + </h3> + <h3> + THOMAS FITZSIMONS, + </h3> + <h3> + JARED INGERSOLL, + </h3> + <h3> + JAMES WILSON, + </h3> + <h3> + GOUVERNEUR MORRIS. + </h3> + <p> + <i>Delaware</i>. + </p> + <h3> + GEORGE READ, + </h3> + <h3> + GUNNING BEDFORD, JR., + </h3> + <h3> + JOHN DICKINSON, + </h3> + <h3> + RICHARD BASSETT, + </h3> + <h3> + JACOB BROOM. + </h3> + <p> + <i>Maryland</i>. + </p> + <h3> + JAMES M'HENRY, + </h3> + <h3> + DANIEL OF ST. THOMAS JENIFER, + </h3> + <h3> + DANIEL CARROLL. + </h3> + <p> + <i>Virginia</i>. + </p> + <h3> + JOHN BLAIR, + </h3> + <h3> + JAMES MADISON, JR. + </h3> + <p> + <i>North Carolina</i>. + </p> + <h3> + WILLIAM BLOUNT, + </h3> + <h3> + RICHARD DOBBS SPAIGHT, + </h3> + <h3> + HUGH WILLIAMSON. + </h3> + <p> + <i>South Carolina</i>. + </p> + <h3> + JOHN RUTLEDGE, + </h3> + <h3> + CHARLES COTESWORTH PINCKNEY, + </h3> + <h3> + CHARLES PINCKNEY, + </h3> + <h3> + PIERCE BUTLER. + </h3> + <p> + <i>Georgia</i>. + </p> + <h3> + WILLIAM FEW, + </h3> + <h3> + ABRAHAM BALDWIN. + </h3> + <p> + Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: "Life of Washington," p. 389. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: "Men and Times of the Revolution, or Memoirs of Elkanah + Watson." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Marshall, "Life of Washington." + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: It is a very interesting fact that the proposition in which + the Convention that formed the Constitution originated should have been + made at Mount Vernon, in Washington's presence, if not by himself. As + Faneuil Hall is called the Cradle of Liberty, Mount Vernon may be regarded + as the Cradle of the Constitution. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: The occasion and effect of this insurrection, commonly called + Shay's Rebellion, are thus described by a recent writer. The jealousy felt + toward the statesmen of the Republic, or toward the upper by the middle + class—if the terms may be allowed—was likely to operate + fatally in marring the project of a Constitution, and rendering any + innovation for the purpose impracticable; since the dissentient States + were resolved not to choose delegates, or accede to the desire of + Virginia. + </p> + <p> + These democratic opinions of the middle classes, however, and the + resolutions founded upon them, were eventually shaken and overturned by + the extreme to which they were carried by the lower orders. These were no + sooner inspired by the same political feelings, than, after their fashion, + they rose in insurrection; bade defiance not only to Congress, but to the + State authorities themselves; and, collecting in armed bands, threatened + to effect a serious revolution by taking law and property into their own + hands. The New England States, principally Massachusetts, were the scenes + of these disorders, which took place toward the close of 1786. + </p> + <p> + A body of 2,000 men, assembled in the northwestern region of the State, + chose one of their number, Daniel Shay, for leader. They asked for + suspension of taxes, and the remission of paper money; but it was known + that their favorite scheme was that of an agrarian law—a general + division of property. Respectable classes were, of course, thrown into + alarm; Congress recovered a portion of that vigor which had marked it + during the war; troops were dispatched, under General Lincoln and other + officers, against the insurgents; and the citizens of the New England + towns forgot their late jealousy of the military so far as to join them in + the task of putting down their domestic foes. Funds were raised by private + subscription to supply the emptiness of the public treasury; and an + efficient force was enabled to march, in the midst of winter, against the + insurgents, who were soon dispersed and reduced. + </p> + <p> + The rebellion thus suppressed was productive of the most salutary result. + The middle classes, terrified at the exaggeration of their own doctrines, + and at the risk of exciting the mob as supporters, rallied universally to + the support of Congress. + </p> + <p> + Jealousy of those above was counterbalanced by fear of those below; and + the majority of the State Legislatures was brought to coincide with the + views of the Federal statesmen. Convinced by late experience of the + necessity of an established and general government, even for purposes of + domestic security, the hitherto refractory States named, without + hesitation, their delegates to the appointed convention for forming a + constitution. Rhode Island alone refused. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: Sparks, "Writings of Washington." + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: George Ticknor Curtis, "History of the Constitution of the + United States." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PART2" id="link2H_PART2"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PART VI. — WASHINGTON AS PRESIDENT AND IN RETIREMENT. + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. — THE ELECTION. 1789. + </h2> + <p> + As soon as it was ascertained that the new form of government had received + the sanction of the people and would go into immediate operation, all eyes + were at once turned to Washington as the first President of the United + States. During the war he had, in fact, directed the course of public + affairs. His suggestions had been almost invariably followed by Congress. + His recommendations had influenced the action of the different States. His + practical administrative abilities were known to all. He alone possessed + the confidence of the people to that degree which was necessary to carry + the constitution into vigorous effect at the outset and to defend it + against its secret as well as its open enemies. But it was by no means + certain that he would accept the office. By all who knew him, fears were + entertained that his preference for private life would prevail over the + wishes of the public, and soon after the adoption of the constitution was + ascertained, his correspondents began to press him on a point which was + believed essential to the completion of the great work on which the + grandeur and happiness of America was supposed to depend. "We cannot," + said Mr. Johnson, a man of great political eminence in Maryland, "do + without you; and I, and thousands more, can explain to anybody but + yourself why we cannot do without you." "I have ever thought," said + Gouverneur Morris, "and have ever said, that you must be President; no + other man can fill that office. No other man can draw forth the abilities + of our country into the various departments of civil life. You alone can + awe the insolence of opposing factions and the greater insolence of + assuming adherents. I say nothing of foreign powers nor of their + ministers. With these last you will have some plague. As to your feelings + on this occasion they are, I know, both deep and affecting: you embark + property most precious on a most tempestuous ocean; for, as you possess + the highest reputation, so you expose it to the perilous chance of popular + opinion. On the other hand, you will, I firmly expect, enjoy the + inexpressible felicity of contributing to the happiness of all your + countrymen. You will become the father of more than three millions of + children; and while your bosom glows with parental tenderness, in theirs + or at least in a majority of them, you will excite the duteous sentiments + of filial affection. This, I repeat it, is what I firmly expect; and my + views are not directed by that enthusiasm which your public character has + impressed on the public mind. Enthusiasm is generally short-sighted and + too often blind. I form my conclusions from those talents and virtues + which the world believes and which your friends know you possess." + </p> + <p> + In a letter detailing the arrangements which were making for the + introduction of the new government, Col. Henry Lee proceeded thus to speak + of the presidency of the United States. "The solemnity of the moment and + its application to yourself have fixed my mind in contemplations of a + public and a personal nature, and I feel an involuntary impulse which I + cannot resist, to communicate without reserve to you some of the + reflections which the hour has produced. Solicitous for our common + happiness as a people, and convicted as I continue to be that our peace + and prosperity depend on the proper improvement of the present period, my + anxiety is extreme that the new government may have an auspicious + beginning. To effect this and to perpetuate a nation formed under your + auspices it is certain that again you will be called forth. + </p> + <p> + "The same principles of devotion to the good of mankind which have + invariably governed your conduct will no doubt continue to rule your mind, + however opposite their consequences may be to your repose and happiness. + It may be wrong, but I cannot suppress, in my wishes for national + felicity, a due regard for your personal fame and content. + </p> + <p> + "If the same success should attend your efforts on this important occasion + which has distinguished you hitherto, then, to be sure, you will have + spent a life which Providence rarely if ever before gave to the lot of one + man. It is my anxious hope, it is my belief, that this will be the case; + but all things are uncertain, and perhaps nothing more so than political + events." He then proceeded to state his apprehensions that the government + might sink under the activity hostility of its foes, and in particular the + fears which he entertained from the circular letter of New York, around + which the minorities in the several States might be expected to rally. + Before concluding his letter, Colonel Lee said, "Without you the + government can have but little chance of success; and the people of that + happiness which its prosperity must yield." + </p> + <p> + In reply to this letter Washington said: "Your observations on the + solemnity of the crisis and its application to myself bring before me + subjects of the most momentous and interesting nature. In our endeavors to + establish a new general government the contest, nationally considered, + seems not to have been so much for glory as existence. It was for a long + time doubtful whether we were to survive as an independent Republic or + decline from our federal dignity into insignificant and wretched fragments + of empire. The adoption of the constitution so extensively and with so + liberal an acquiescence on the part of the minorities in general, promised + the former; but lately the circular letter of New York has manifested, in + my apprehension, an unfavorable if not an insidious tendency to a contrary + policy. I still hope for the best, but before you mentioned it I could not + help fearing it would serve as a standard to which the disaffected might + resort. It is now evidently the part of all honest men who are friends to + the new constitution, to endeavor to give it a chance to disclose its + merits and defects, by carrying it fairly into effect in the first + instance. + </p> + <p> + "The principal topic of your letter is to me a point of great delicacy + indeed—insomuch that I can scarcely without some impropriety touch + upon it. In the first place, the event to which you allude may never + happen; among other reasons, because, if the partiality of my + fellow-citizens conceive it to be a means by which the sinews of the new + government would be strengthened, it will of consequence be obnoxious to + those who are in opposition to it, many of whom unquestionably will be + placed among the electors. + </p> + <p> + "This consideration alone would supersede the expediency of announcing any + definite and irrevocable resolution. You are among the small number of + those who know my invincible attachment to domestic life, and that my + sincerest wish is to continue in the enjoyment of it solely, until my + final hour. But the world would be neither so well instructed, nor so + candidly disposed, as to believe me to be uninfluenced by sinister + motives, in case any circumstance should render a deviation from the line + of conduct I had prescribed for myself indispensable. Should the + contingency you suggest take place, and (for argument sake alone, let me + say) should my unfeigned reluctance to accept the office be overcome by a + deference for the reasons and opinions of my friends, might I not, after + the declarations I have made (and heaven knows they were made in the + sincerity of my heart), in the judgment of the impartial world, and of + posterity, be chargeable with levity and inconsistency, if not with + rashness and ambition? Nay, further, would there not even be some apparent + foundation for the two former charges? Now, justice to myself, and + tranquility of conscience, require that I should act a part, if not above + imputation, at least capable of vindication. Nor will you conceive me to + be too solicitous for reputation. Though I prize as I ought the good + opinion of my fellow-citizens, yet, if I know myself, I would not seek or + retain popularity at the expense of one social duty or moral virtue. While + doing what my conscience informed me was right, as it respected <i>my God</i>, + my country, and myself, I could despise all the party clamor and unjust + censure which must be expected from some, whose personal enmity might be + occasioned by their hostility to the government. I am conscious that I + fear alone to give any real occasion for obloquy, and that I do not dread + to meet with unmerited reproach. And certain I am, when-so-ever I shall be + convinced the good of my country requires my reputation to be put in risk, + regard for my own fame will not come in competition with an object of so + much magnitude. + </p> + <p> + "If I declined the task it would be upon quite another principle. + Notwithstanding my advanced season of life, my increasing fondness for + agricultural amusements, and my growing love of retirement, augment and + confirm my decided predilection for the character of a private citizen, + yet it will be no one of these motives, nor the hazard to which my former + reputation might be exposed, or the terror of encountering new fatigues + and troubles, that would deter me from an acceptance, but a belief that + some other person, who had less pretense and less inclination to be + excused, could execute all the duties full as satisfactorily as myself. To + say more would be indiscreet, as a disclosure of a refusal beforehand + might incur the application of the fable in which the fox is represented + as undervaluing the grapes he could not reach. You will perceive, my dear + sir, by what is here observed (and which you will be pleased to consider + in the light of a confidential communication), that my inclinations will + dispose and decide me to remain as I am, unless a clear and insurmountable + conviction should be impressed on my mind, that some very disagreeable + consequences must in all human probability result from the indulgence of + my wishes." + </p> + <p> + About the same time Colonel Hamilton concluded a letter on miscellaneous + subjects with the following observations. "I take it for granted, sir, you + have concluded to comply with what will, no doubt, be the general call of + your country in relation to the new government. You will permit me to say + that it is indispensable you should lend yourself to its first operations. + It is to little purpose to have introduced a system, if the weightiest + influence is not given to its firm establishment in the outset." + </p> + <p> + "On the delicate subject," said Washington in reply, "with which you + conclude your letter, I can say nothing; because the event alluded to may + never happen; and because, in case it should occur, it would be a point of + prudence to defer forming one's ultimate and irrevocable decision so long + as new data might be afforded for one to act with the greater wisdom and + propriety. I would not wish to conceal my prevailing sentiment from you. + For you know me well enough, my good sir, to be persuaded that I am not + guilty of affectation, when I tell you it is my great and sole desire to + live and die in peace and retirement on my own farm. Were it even + indispensable a different line of conduct should be adopted, while you and + some others who are acquainted with my heart would acquit, the world and + posterity might probably accuse me of inconsistency and ambition. Still, I + hope I shall always possess firmness and virtue enough to maintain (what I + consider the most enviable of all titles) the character of an honest man." + </p> + <p> + This answer drew from Hamilton the following reply: "I should be deeply + pained, my dear sir, if your scruples in regard to a certain station + should be matured into a resolution to decline it; though I am neither + surprised at their existence, nor can I but agree in opinion that the + caution you observe in deferring the ultimate determination is prudent. I + have, however, reflected maturely on the subject, and have come to the + conclusion (in which I feel no hesitation) that every public and personal + consideration will demand from you an acquiescence in what will certainly + be the unanimous wish of your country. + </p> + <p> + "The absolute retreat which you meditated at the close of the late war was + natural and proper. Had the government produced by the Revolution gone on + in a tolerable train, it would have been most advisable to have persisted + in that retreat. But I am clearly of opinion that the crisis which brought + you again into public view left you no alternative but to comply; and I am + equally clear in the opinion that you are by that act pledged to take a + part in the execution of the government. I am not less convinced that the + impression of the necessity of your filling the station in question is so + universal that you run no risk of any uncandid imputation by submitting to + it. But even if this were not the case, a regard to your own reputation, + as well as to the public good, calls upon you in the strongest manner to + run that risk. + </p> + <p> + "It cannot be considered as a compliment to say that, on your acceptance + of the office of President, the success of the new government in its + commencement may materially depend. Your agency and influence will be not + less important in preserving it from the future attacks of its enemies + than they have been in recommending it in the first instance to the + adoption of the people. Independent of all considerations drawn from this + source, the point of light in which you stand at home and abroad will make + an infinite difference in the respectability with which the government + will begin its operations, in the alternative of your being or not being + at the head of it. I forbear to mention considerations which might have a + more personal application. What I have said will suffice for the + inferences I mean to draw. + </p> + <p> + "First. In a matter so essential to the well-being of society as the + prosperity of a newly-instituted government, a citizen of so much + consequence as yourself to its success has no option but to lend his + services if called for. Permit me to say it would be inglorious, in such a + situation, not to hazard the glory, however great, which he might have + previously acquired. + </p> + <p> + "Secondly. Your signature to the proposed system pledges your judgment for + its being such a one as, upon the whole, was worthy of the public + approbation. If it should miscarry (as men commonly decide from success or + the want of it), the blame will, in all probability, be laid on the system + itself. And the framers of it will have to encounter the disrepute of + having brought about a revolution in government without substituting + anything that was worthy of the effort; they pulled down one utopia, it + will be said, to build up another. This view of the subject, if I mistake + not, my dear sir, will suggest to your mind greater hazard to that fame + which must be, and ought to be, dear to you, in refusing your future aid + to the system than in affording it. I will only add that in my estimate of + the matter that aid is indispensable. + </p> + <p> + "I have taken the liberty to express these sentiments and to lay before + you my view of the subject. I doubt not the considerations mentioned have + fully occurred to you, and I trust they will finally produce in your mind + the same result which exists in mine. I flatter myself the frankness with + which I have delivered myself will not be displeasing to you. It has been + prompted by motives which you would not disapprove." + </p> + <p> + In answer to this letter, Washington expressed himself without reserve. + "In acknowledging," said he, "the receipt of your candid and kind letter + by the last post, little more is incumbent on me than to thank you + sincerely for the frankness with which you communicated your sentiments, + and to assure you that the same manly tone of intercourse will always be + more than barely welcome—indeed, it will be highly acceptable to me. + </p> + <p> + "I am particularly glad, in the present instance, that you have dealt thus + freely and like a friend. Although I could not help observing, from + several publications and letters, that my name had been sometimes spoken + of, and that it was possible the contingency which is the subject of your + letter might happen, yet I thought it best to maintain a guarded silence, + and to lack the counsel of my best friends (which I certainly hold in the + highest estimation), rather than to hazard an imputation unfriendly to the + delicacy of my feelings. For, situated as I am, I could hardly bring the + question into the slightest discussion, or ask an opinion even in the most + confidential manner, without betraying, in my judgment, some impropriety + of conduct, or without feeling an apprehension that a premature display of + anxiety might be construed into a vainglorious desire of pushing myself + into notice as a candidate. Now, if I am not grossly deceived in myself, I + should unfeignedly rejoice, in case the electors, by giving their votes in + favor of some other person, would save me from the dreadful dilemma of + being forced to accept or refuse. If that may not be, I am, in the next + place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and of knowing + whether there does not exist a probability that the government would be + just as happily and effectually carried into execution without my aid as + with it. I am truly solicitous to obtain all the previous information + which the circumstances will afford, and to determine (when the + determination can with propriety be no longer postponed), according to the + principles of right reason and the dictates of a clear conscience, without + too great a reference to the unforeseen consequences which may affect my + person or reputation. Until that period, I may fairly hold myself open to + conviction, though I allow your sentiments to have weight in them, and I + shall not pass by your arguments without giving them as dispassionate a + consideration as I can possibly bestow upon them. + </p> + <p> + "In taking a survey of the subject, in whatever point of light I have been + able to place it, I will not suppress the acknowledgment, my dear sir, + that I have always felt a kind of gloom upon my mind, as often as I have + been taught to expect I might, and perhaps must ere long, be called to + make a decision. You will, I am well assured, believe the assertion + (though I have little expectation it would gain credit from those who are + less acquainted with me), that if I should receive the appointment, and + should be prevailed upon to accept it, the acceptance would be attended + with more diffidence and reluctance than ever I experienced before in my + life. It would be, however, with a fixed and sole determination of lending + whatever assistance might be in my power to promote the public weal, in + hopes that at a convenient and an early period, my services might be + dispensed with, and that I might be permitted once more to retire—to + pass an unclouded evening, after the stormy day of life, in the bosom of + domestic tranquility." + </p> + <p> + This correspondence was thus closed by Hamilton: "I feel a conviction that + you will finally see your acceptance to be indispensable. It is no + compliment to say that no other man can sufficiently unite the public + opinion, or can give the requisite weight to the office, in the + commencement of the government. These considerations appear to me of + themselves decisive. I am not sure that your refusal would not throw + everything into confusion. I am sure that it would have the worst effect + imaginable. + </p> + <p> + "Indeed, as I hinted in a former letter, I think circumstances leave no + option." + </p> + <p> + Although this correspondence does not appear to have absolutely decided + Washington on the part he should embrace, it could not have been without + its influence on his judgment, nor have failed to dispose him to yield to + the wish of his country. "I would willingly," said he, to his estimable + friend, General Lincoln, who had also pressed the subject on him, "pass + over in silence that part of your letter in which you mention the persons + who are candidates for the two first offices in the executive, if I did + not fear the omission might seem to betray a want of confidence. Motives + of delicacy have prevented me hitherto from conversing or writing on this + subject, whenever I could avoid it with decency. I may, however, with + great sincerity, and I believe without offending against modesty or + propriety, say to you that I most heartily wish the choice to which you + allude might not fall upon me; and that if it should, I must reserve to + myself the right of making up my final decision at the last moment, when + it can be brought into one view and when the expediency or inexpediency of + a refusal can be more judiciously determined than at present. But be + assured, my dear sir, if from any inducement I shall be persuaded + ultimately to accept, it will not be (so far as I know my own heart) from + any of a private or personal nature. Every personal consideration + conspires to rivet me (if I may use the expression) to retirement. At my + time of life, and under my circumstances, nothing in this world can ever + draw me from it, unless it be a conviction that the partiality of my + countrymen had made my services absolutely necessary, joined to a fear + that my refusal might induce a belief that I preferred the conservation of + my own reputation and private ease to the good of my country. After all, + if I should conceive myself in a manner constrained to accept, I call + Heaven to witness that this very act would be the greatest sacrifice of my + personal feelings and wishes that ever I have been called upon to make. It + would be to forego repose and domestic enjoyment for trouble—perhaps + for public obloquy; for I should consider myself as entering upon an + unexplored field, enveloped on every side with clouds and darkness. + </p> + <p> + "From this embarrassing situation I had naturally supposed that my + declarations at the close of the war would have saved me, and that my + sincere intentions, then publicly made known, would have effectually + precluded me forever afterward from being looked upon as a candidate for + any office. This hope, as a last anchor of worldly happiness in old age, I + had still carefully preserved, until the public papers and private letters + from my correspondents in almost every quarter taught me to apprehend that + I might soon be obliged to answer the question whether I would go again + into public life or not." + </p> + <p> + "I can say little or nothing new," said he in a letter to Lafayette, "in + consequence of the repetition of your opinion on the expediency there will + be for my accepting the office to which you refer. Your sentiments, + indeed, coincide much more nearly with those of my other friends than with + my own feelings. In truth, my difficulties increase and magnify as I draw + toward the period when, according to the common belief, it will be + necessary for me to give a definitive answer in one way or other. Should + circumstances render it, in a manner, inevitably necessary to be in the + affirmative, be assured, my dear sir, I shall assume the task with the + most unfeigned reluctance and with a real diffidence, for which I shall + probably receive no credit from the world. If I know my own heart, nothing + short of a conviction of duty will induce me again to take an active part + in public affairs. And in that case, if I can form a plan for my own + conduct, my endeavors shall be unremittingly exerted (even at the hazard + of former fame or present popularity) to extricate my country from the + embarrassments in which it is entangled through want of credit, and to + establish a general system of policy which, if pursued, will insure + permanent felicity to the commonwealth. I think I see a path, as clear and + as direct as a ray of light, which leads to the attainment of that object. + Nothing but harmony, honesty, industry, and frugality are necessary to + make us a great and happy people. Happily, the present posture of affairs, + and the prevailing disposition of my countrymen, promise to cooperate in + establishing those four great and essential pillars of public felicity." + </p> + <p> + After the electors had been chosen, and before the electoral colleges met, + Washington was assailed with the usual importunities of office-seekers. + </p> + <p> + As marking the frame of mind with which he came into the government, the + following extract is given from one of the many letters written to persons + whose pretensions he was disposed to favor. "Should it become absolutely + necessary for me to occupy the station in which your letter presupposes + me, I have determined to go into it perfectly free from all engagements of + every nature whatsoever. A conduct in conformity to this resolution would + enable me, in balancing the various pretensions of different candidates + for appointments, to act with a sole reference to justice and the public + good. This is, in substance, the answer that I have given to all + applications (and they are not few) which have already been made. Among + the places sought after in these applications, I must not conceal that the + office to which you particularly allude is comprehended. This fact I tell + you merely as matter of information. My general manner of thinking, as to + the propriety of holding myself totally disengaged, will apologize for my + not enlarging further on the subject. + </p> + <p> + "Though I am sensible that the public suffrage which places a man in + office should prevent him from being swayed, in the execution of it, by + his private inclinations, yet he may assuredly, without violating his + duty, be indulged in the continuance of his former attachments." + </p> + <p> + Although the time appointed for the new government to commence its + operations was the 4th of March, 1789, the members of Congress were so + dilatory in their attendance that a House of Representatives was not + formed till the 1st nor a Senate till the 6th of April. + </p> + <p> + When at length the votes for President and Vice-President were opened and + counted in the Senate, it was found that Washington was unanimously + elected President, and that the second number of votes was given to John + Adams. George Washington and John Adams were therefore declared to be duly + elected President and Vice-President of the United States, to serve for + four years from the 4th of March, 1789. + </p> + <p> + In a letter to General Knox, just before this announcement, Washington + thus adverts to the delay in forming a quorum of Congress: "I feel for + those members of the new Congress, who, hitherto, have given an unavailing + attendance at the theater of action. For myself, the delay may be compared + to a reprieve; for, in confidence, I tell you (with the world it would + obtain little credit) that my movements to the chair of government will be + accompanied by feelings not unlike those of a culprit who is going to the + place of his execution; so unwilling am I, in the evening of life, nearly + consumed in public cares, to quit a peaceful abode for an ocean of + difficulties, without that competency of political skill, abilities, and + inclination which are necessary to manage the helm. I am sensible that I + am embarking the voice of the people, and a good name of my own, on this + voyage; but what returns will be made for them heaven alone can foretell. + Integrity and firmness are all I can promise; these, be the voyage long or + short, shall never forsake me, although I may be deserted by all men; for + of the consolations which are to be derived from these, under any + circumstances, the world cannot deprive me." There is every reason to + believe that the diffidence expressed in the above was sincere. It is + perfectly consistent with the unaffected modesty of Washington's + character. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. — THE ADMINISTRATION FORMED. 1789. + </h2> + <p> + Washington's election was announced to him by a special messenger from + Congress, on the 14th of April, 1789. His acceptance of it, and his + expressions of gratitude for this fresh proof of the esteem and confidence + of his country, were connected with declarations of diffidence in himself. + "I wish," he said, "that there may not be reason for regretting the choice—for, + indeed, all I can promise is to accomplish that which can be done by an + honest zeal." + </p> + <p> + As the public business required the immediate attendance of the President + at the seat of government, he hastened his departure, and, on the second + day after receiving notice of his appointment, took leave of Mount Vernon. + </p> + <p> + In an entry made by himself in his diary, the feelings inspired by an + occasion so affecting to his mind are thus described: "About 10 o'clock I + bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to domestic felicity, + and, with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful sensations than I + have words to express, set out for New York in company with Mr. Thomson + and Colonel Humphreys, with the best dispositions to render service to my + country in obedience to its call, but with less hope of answering its + expectations." + </p> + <p> + "The President and his lady," says Mr. Custis, "bid adieu with extreme + regret to the tranquil and happy shades where a few years of repose had, + in a great measure, effaced the effects of the toils and anxieties of war; + where little Eden had bloomed and nourished under their fostering hands + and where a numerous circle of friends and relatives would sensibly feel + the privation of their departure. They departed and hastened to where duty + called the man of his country." + </p> + <p> + Soon after leaving Mount Vernon he was met by a cavalcade of gentlemen, + who escorted him to Alexandria, where a public dinner had been prepared to + which he was invited. Arrived at that place, he was greeted by a public + address, to which he made an appropriate reply. The address differs from + others, inasmuch as it came from his personal friends and neighbors, and + gives some interesting personal details. The tenor of the following + passage must have sensibly touched the feelings of Washington: + </p> + <p> + "Not to extol your glory as a soldier; not to pour forth our gratitude for + past services; not to acknowledge the justice of the unexampled honor + which has been conferred upon you by the spontaneous and unanimous + suffrages of 3,000,000 of freemen, in your election to the supreme + magistracy; nor to admire the patriotism which directs your conduct, do + your neighbors and friends now address you. Themes less splendid, but more + endearing, impress our minds. The first and best of citizens must leave + us; our aged must lose their ornament; our youth their model; our + agriculture its improver; our commerce its friend; our infant academy its + protector; our poor their benefactor; and the interior navigation of the + Potomac (an event replete with the most extensive utility, already, by + your unremitted exertions, brought into partial use) its institutor and + promoter." + </p> + <p> + Washington left Alexandria on the afternoon of the same day and attended + by his neighbors proceeded to Georgetown, where he was received by a + number of citizens of Maryland. His journey thenceforth to the seat of + government was a continual triumph. Military escorts, cavalcades of + citizens, and crowds of people of all ages and both sexes awaited his + arrival at each town. We may imagine the enthusiastic shouts and welcomes + with which he was received by the people. + </p> + <p> + On his approach to Philadelphia he was met by Governor Mifflin, Judge + Peters, and a military escort, headed by General St. Clair, and followed + by the usual cavalcade of gentlemen. Washington was mounted on a splendid + white horse. The procession passed into the city through triumphal arches + adorned with wreaths of flowers and laurel, attended by an immense crowd + of people. The day was a public festival, and in the evening an + illumination and a display of fireworks testified the enthusiasm of the + occasion. The next day, at Trenton, he was welcomed in a manner as new as + it was pleasing. In addition to the usual demonstrations of respect and + attachment which were given by the discharge of cannon, by military corps, + and by private persons of distinction, the gentler sex prepared in their + own taste a tribute of applause indicative of the grateful recollection in + which they held their deliverance twelve years before from a formidable + enemy. On the bridge over the creek which passes through the town was + erected a triumphal arch highly ornamented with laurels and flowers and + supported by thirteen pillars, each entwined with wreaths of evergreen. On + the front arch was inscribed in large gilt letters, "The defender of the + mothers will be the protector of the daughters." + </p> + <p> + On the center of the arch, above the inscription, was a dome or cupola of + flowers and evergreens, encircling the dates of two memorable events which + were peculiarly interesting to New Jersey. The first was the battle of + Trenton, and the second the bold and judicious stand made by the American + troops at the same creek, by which the progress of the British army was + arrested on the evening preceding the battle of Princeton. + </p> + <p> + At this place he was met by a party of matrons leading their daughters, + dressed in white, who carried baskets of flowers in their hands and sang, + with exquisite sweetness, an ode of two stanzas, composed for the + occasion. + </p> + <p> + At New Brunswick he was joined by the Governor of New Jersey, who + accompanied him to Elizabethtown Point. A committee of Congress received + him on the road and conducted him with military parade to the Point, where + he took leave of the Governor and other gentlemen of New Jersey and + embarked for New York in an elegant barge of thirteen oars, manned by + thirteen branch pilots, prepared for the purpose by the citizens of New + York. + </p> + <p> + "The display of boats," says Washington, in his private journal, "which + attended and joined on this occasion, some with vocal and others with + instrumental music, on board, the decorations of the ships, the roar of + cannon, and the loud acclamations of the people, which rent the sky as I + passed along the wharves, filled my mind with sensations as painful + (contemplating the reverse of this scene, which may be the case after all + my labors to do good) as they were pleasing." + </p> + <p> + At the stairs on Murray's wharf, which had been prepared and ornamented + for the purpose, he was received by Governor Clinton, of New York, and + conducted with military honors, through an immense concourse of people, to + the apartments provided for him. These were attended by all who were in + office and by many private citizens of distinction, who pressed around him + to offer their congratulations and to express the joy which glowed in + their bosoms at seeing the man in whom all confided at the head of the + American empire. This day of extravagant joy was succeeded by a splendid + illumination. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Custis, writing of the journey from Mount Vernon to New York, and of + Washington's mode of living at the seat of government, says: + </p> + <p> + "The august spectacle at the bridge of Trenton brought tears to the eyes + of the chief, and forms one of the most brilliant recollections of the age + of Washington. + </p> + <p> + "Arrived at the seat of the Federal government, the President and Mrs. + Washington formed their establishment upon a scale that, while it partook + of all the attributes of our republican institutions, possessed at the + same time that degree of dignity and regard for appearances so necessary + to give our infant Republic respect in the eyes of the world. The house + was handsomely furnished; the equipages neat, with horses of the first + order; the servants wore the family liveries, and, with the exception of a + steward and housekeeper, the whole establishment differed but little from + that of a private gentleman. On Tuesdays, from 3 to 4 o'clock, the + President received the foreign ambassadors and strangers who wished to be + introduced to him. On these occasions, and when opening the sessions of + Congress, the President wore a dress sword. His personal apparel was + always remarkable for its being old-fashioned and exceedingly plain and + neat. On Thursdays were the congressional dinners and on Friday nights + Mrs. Washington's drawing-room. The company usually assembled about 7 and + rarely stayed exceeding 10 o'clock. The ladies were seated, and the + President passed around the circle, paying his compliments to each. At the + drawing-rooms Mrs. Morris always sat at the right of the lady president, + and at all the dinners, public or private, at which Robert Morris was a + guest, that venerable man was placed at the right of Mrs. Washington. + </p> + <p> + "On the great national festivals of the 4th of July and 22d of February, + the sages of the Revolutionary Congress and the officers of the + Revolutionary army renewed their acquaintance with Mrs. Washington; many + and kindly greetings took place with many a recollection of the days of + trial. The Cincinnati, after paying their respects to their chief, were + seen to file off toward the parlor, where Lady Washington was in waiting + to receive them, and where Wayne, and Mifflin, and Dickinson, and Stewart, + and Moylan, and Hartley, and a host of veterans were cordially welcomed as + old friends, and where many an interesting reminiscence was called up, of + the headquarters and the 'times of the Revolution.' + </p> + <p> + "On Sundays, unless the weather was uncommonly severe, the President and + Mrs. Washington attended divine service at Christ Church, and in the + evening the President read to Mrs. Washington, in her chamber, a sermon or + some portion from the sacred writings. No visitors, with the exception of + Mr. Speaker Trumbull, were admitted to the presidoliad on Sundays. + </p> + <p> + "There was one description of visitors, however, to be found about the + first President's mansion on all days. The old soldiers repaired, as they + said, to headquarters just to inquire after the health of his Excellency + and Lady Washington. They knew his Excellency was, of course, much + engaged, but they would like to see the good lady, one had been a soldier + of the life guard, another had been on duty when the British threatened to + surprise the headquarters, a third had witnessed that terrible fellow, + Cornwallis, surrender his sword; each one had some touching appeal with + which to introduce himself to the peaceful headquarters of the + presidoliad. All were 'kindly bid to stay,' were conducted to the + steward's apartments, and refreshments set before them, and, after + receiving some little token from the lady, with her best wishes for the + health and happiness of an old soldier, they went their ways, while + blessings upon their revered commander and the good Lady Washington were + uttered by many a war worn veteran of the Revolution." {1} + </p> + <p> + The simple mode of life above described did not save Washington from + public censure by those who are always ready to carp at the doings of + distinguished men, however unexceptionable their conduct may be. Free + levees were said to savor of an affectation of royal state. In a letter to + his friend, Dr. Stewart, Washington thus puts to silence this calumny, + with his usual good sense and unanswerable argument: + </p> + <p> + "Before the custom was established which now accommodates foreign + characters, strangers, and others, who, from motives of curiosity, respect + to the chief magistrate, or any other cause, are induced to call upon me, + I was unable to attend to any business whatsoever. For gentlemen, + consulting their own convenience rather than mine, were calling from the + time I rose from breakfast—often before—until I sat down to + dinner. This, as I resolved not to neglect my public duties, reduced me to + the choice of one of these alternatives—either to refuse them + altogether or to appropriate a time for the reception of them. The first + would, I well knew, be disgusting to many; the latter I expected would + undergo animadversion from those who would find fault with or without + cause. To please everybody was impossible. I therefore adopted that line + of conduct which combined public advantage with private convenience, and + which, in my judgment, was unexceptionable in itself. + </p> + <p> + "These visits are optional. They are made without invitation. Between the + hours of 3 and 4 every Tuesday I am prepared to receive them. Gentlemen, + often in great numbers, come and go, chat with each other, and act as they + please. A porter shows them into the room, and they retire from it when + they choose, and without ceremony. At their first entrance they salute me + and I them, and as many as I can talk to I do. What pomp there is in all + this I am unable to discover. Perhaps it consists in not sitting. To this + two reasons are opposed: first, it is unusual; secondly (which is a more + substantial one); because I have no room large enough to contain a third + of the chairs which would be sufficient to admit it. If it is supposed + that ostentation or the fashions of courts (which by the by, I believe + originate oftener in convenience, not to say necessity, than is generally + imagined) gave rise to this custom, I will boldly affirm that no + supposition was ever more erroneous, for were I to indulge my inclinations + every moment that I could withdraw from the fatigues of my station should + be spent in retirement. That they are not proceeds from the sense I + entertain of the propriety of giving to everyone as free access as + consists with that respect which is due to the chair of government; and + that respect, I conceive, is neither to be acquired or preserved but by + maintaining a just medium between too much state and too great + familiarity. + </p> + <p> + "Similar to the above, but of a more familiar and sociable kind, are the + visits every Friday afternoon to Mrs. Washington, where I always am. These + public meetings, and a dinner once a week to as many as my table will + hold, with the references to and from the different departments of state + and other communications with all parts of the Union, is as much if not + more than I am able to undergo; for I have already had within less than a + year two severe attacks—the last worse than the first; a third, it + is more than probable, will put me to sleep with my fathers—at what + distance this may be I know not." + </p> + <p> + The inauguration of Washington deserves particular notice, inasmuch as in + its chief outlines it has served for the precedent to all succeeding + inaugurations. Congress had determined that the ceremony of taking the + oath of office should be performed in public and in the open air. It took + place on the 30th of April, 1789. In the morning religious services were + performed in all the churches of the city. At 12 o'clock a procession was + formed at the residence of the President, consisting of a military escort + and the committees of Congress and heads of departments in carriages, + followed by Washington alone in a carriage, and his aid-de-camp, Colonel + Humphreys, and secretary, Mr. Lear, in another carriage, with the foreign + ministers and citizens bringing up the rear. The procession moved to the + hall of Congress, where Washington alighted with his attendants and + entered the senate chamber. Here he was received by the Senate and House + of Representatives. The Vice-President, John Adams, conducted Washington + to his appointed seat, and shortly after announced to him that all was + prepared for his taking the oath of office. Washington then proceeded to + an open balcony in front of the house, where was a table with an open + Bible lying upon it. On his appearance in the balcony, he was received + with a most enthusiastic burst of popular applause, which he acknowledged + by bowing to the people. Chancellor Livingston administered the oath, + while Adams, Hamilton, Knox, Steuben, and others stood near the President. + While the oath was being administered Washington laid his hand on the + Bible. At its conclusion he said, "I swear, so help me God." His + administration proves that the oath was sincere. He then stooped down and + kissed the Bible. When the ceremony was concluded, he returned to the + senate chamber and delivered his inaugural address to the two branches of + Congress. He then proceeded on foot, with the whole assemblage, to St. + Paul's Church, where prayers were read by the bishop, and the public + ceremonial of the day was completed. + </p> + <p> + The occasion was celebrated by the people as a grand festival, and in the + evening there was a display of fireworks as well as a general illumination + of the city. + </p> + <p> + This display of enthusiasm on the part of the people was far from + rendering Washington over-confident of success in his new position. He was + thoroughly aware of the difficulties which would have to be encountered in + putting the new government into action, so as to insure its stability and + success. The opening of his inaugural address to both branches of Congress + gives a clear indication of his views and feelings on taking office. It is + as follows: + </p> + <p> + "Among the vicissitudes incident to life, no event could have filled me + with greater anxieties than that of which the notification was transmitted + by your order and received on the 14th day of the present month. On the + one hand I was summoned by my country, whose voice I can never hear but + with veneration and love, from a retreat which I had chosen with the + fondest predilection, and, in my flattering hopes, with an immutable + decision, as the asylum of my declining years; a retreat which was + rendered every day more necessary as well as more dear to me by the + addition of habit to inclination, and of frequent interruptions in my + health to the gradual waste committed on it by time. On the other hand, + the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to which the voice of my country + called me, being sufficient to awaken in the wisest and most experienced + of her citizens a distrustful scrutiny into his qualifications, could not + but overwhelm with despondence one, who, inheriting inferior endowments + from nature, and unpracticed in the duties of civil administration, ought + to be peculiarly conscious of his own deficiencies. In this conflict of + emotions, all I dare aver is, that it has been my faithful study to + collect my duty from a just appreciation of every circumstance by which it + might be effected. All I dare hope is, that if, in accepting this task, I + have been too much swayed by a grateful remembrance of former instances or + by an affectionate sensibility to this transcendent proof of the + confidence of my fellow-citizens, and have thence too little consulted my + incapacity, as well as disinclination for the weighty and untried cares + before me, my error will be palliated by the motives which misled me, and + its consequences be judged by my country with some share of the partiality + in which they originated. + </p> + <p> + "Such being the impressions under which I have, in obedience to the public + summons, repaired to the present station, it will be peculiarly improper + to omit, in this first official act, my fervent supplications to that + Almighty Being who rules over the universe—who presides in the + councils of nations, and whose Providential aids can supply every human + defect—that his benediction may consecrate to the liberties and + happiness of the people of the United States, a government instituted by + themselves for these essential purposes, and may enable every instrument + employed in its administration to execute with success the functions + allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to the great Author of + every public and private good, I assure myself that it expresses your + sentiments not less than my own, nor those of my fellow-citizens at large + less than either. No people can be bound to acknowledge and adore the + invisible hand which conducts the affairs of men more than the people of + the United States. Every step by which they have advanced to the character + of an independent nation seems to have been distinguished by some token of + Providential agency, and in the important Revolution just accomplished in + the system of their united government, the tranquil deliberations and + voluntary consent of so many distinct communities, from which the event + has resulted, cannot be compared with the means by which most governments + have been established, without some return of pious gratitude, along with + an humble anticipation of the future blessings which the past seem to + presage. These reflections, arising out of the present crisis, have forced + themselves too strongly on my mind to be suppressed. You will join with + me, I trust, in thinking that there are none under the influence of which + the proceedings of a new and free government can more auspiciously + commence." + </p> + <p> + It will be seen by these expressions that the same sense of solemn + responsibility and the same undoubting trust in Providence, so often + evinced by Washington during the conflicts and perils of the war, marked + his entrance upon the arduous duties of chief magistrate of the nation. As + in the previous instance of accepting office, he now signified to Congress + that he would receive no compensation for his services, except such as + should be necessary to defray the expenses incident to the position in + which he was placed. + </p> + <p> + This determination was announced in the concluding portion of the + inaugural address, which was as follows: + </p> + <p> + "By the article establishing the executive department, it is made the duty + of the President 'to recommend to your consideration such measures as he + shall judge necessary and expedient.' The circumstances under which I now + meet you will acquit me from entering into that subject, further than to + refer to the great constitutional charter under which you are assembled, + and which, in defining your powers, designates the objects to which your + attention is to be given. It will be more consistent with those + circumstances and far more congenial with the feelings which actuate me to + substitute in place of a recommendation of particular measures the tribute + that is due to the talents, the rectitude, and the patriotism which adorn + the characters selected to devise and adopt them. In these honorable + qualifications I behold the surest pledges that, as on one side no local + prejudices or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities will + misdirect the comprehensive and equal eye which ought to watch over this + great assemblage of communities and interests; so, on another, that the + foundations of our national policy will be laid in the pure and immutable + principles of private morality, and the pre-eminence of free government be + exemplified by all the attributes which can win the affections of its + citizens and command the respect of the world. I dwell on this prospect + with every satisfaction which an ardent love for my country can inspire, + since there is no truth more thoroughly established than that there exists + in the economy and course of nature, an indissoluble union between virtue + and happiness—between duty and advantage—between the genuine + maxims of an honest and magnanimous policy and the solid rewards of public + prosperity and felicity, since we ought to be no less persuaded that the + propitious smiles of Heaven can never be expected on a nation that + disregards the eternal rules of order and right which Heaven itself has + ordained, and since the preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the + destiny of the republican model of government are justly considered as + deeply, perhaps as finally, staked on the experiment entrusted to the + hands of the American people. + </p> + <p> + "Besides the ordinary objects submitted to your care it will remain with + your judgment to decide how far an exercise of the occasional power + delegated by the fifth article of the constitution is rendered expedient, + at the present juncture, by the nature of objections which have been urged + against the system or by the degree of inquietude which has given birth to + them. Instead of undertaking particular recommendations on this subject, + in which I could be guided by no lights derived from official + opportunities, I shall again give way to my entire confidence in your + discernment and pursuit of the public good, for I assure myself that, + whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the + benefits of a united and effective government, or which ought to await the + future lessons of experience, a reverence for the characteristic rights of + freemen and a regard for the public harmony will sufficiently influence + your deliberations on the question how far the former can be more + impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted. + </p> + <p> + "To the preceding observations I have one to add, which will be most + properly addressed to the House of Representatives. It concerns myself, + and will, therefore, be as brief as possible. When I was first honored + with a call into the service of my country, then on the eve of an arduous + struggle for its liberties, the light in which I contemplated my duty + required that I should renounce every pecuniary compensation. From this + resolution I have in no instance departed. And being still under the + impressions which produced it, I must decline, as inapplicable to myself, + any share in the personal emoluments which may be indispensably included + in a permanent provision for the executive department, and must + accordingly pray that the pecuniary estimates for the station in which I + am placed, may, during my continuance in it, be limited to such actual + expenditures as the public good may be thought to require. + </p> + <p> + "Having thus imparted to you my sentiments, as they have been awakened by + the occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present leave, but + not without resorting once more to the benign Parent of the human race, in + humble supplication, that since He has been pleased to favor the American + people with opportunities for deliberating in perfect tranquility and + dispositions for deciding with unparalleled unanimity on a form of + government for the security of their union and the advancement of their + happiness, so his divine blessing may be equally conspicuous in the + enlarged views, the temperate consultations, and the wise measures on + which the success of his government must depend." + </p> + <p> + This speech was read to Congress by the President himself. The practice of + sending a message instead of reading the speech in person was introduced + by President Jefferson, who did not appear to advantage as an orator, and + it has been continued to the present time. The same persons who found + fault with Washington's levees would probably have regarded the practice + introduced by Washington as anti-republican, as it is practiced by the + sovereigns of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + The executive departments which had existed under the confederation were + necessarily continued until Congress should make new arrangements. Mr. Jay + still acted as Secretary of Foreign Affairs, an office analogous to that + which is now denominated Secretary of State, and General Knox as Secretary + of War. The treasury was entrusted to a board of commissioners. Each of + these at the request of the President furnished a full report of the state + of the department respectively under their control. To the digesting, + condensing, and studying of these, and of the diplomatic correspondence of + the government since the close of the war, Washington now devoted himself + with unwearied attention. + </p> + <p> + Of the mode in which his daily life was now passed during the hours when + not engaged in official duty, we gain a pleasing glimpse from the + following extract from G. W. P. Custis' "Recollections and Private Memoirs + of the Life and Character of Washington," as follows: + </p> + <p> + "In the then limited extent and improvement of the city there was some + difficulty in selecting a mansion for the residence of the chief + magistrate and a house suitable to his rank and station. Osgood's house, a + mansion of very moderate extent, was at length fixed upon, situated in + Cherry street. + </p> + <p> + "There the President became domiciled. His domestic family consisted of + Mrs. Washington, the two adopted children, Mr. Lear, as principal + secretary, Colonel Humphreys, with Messrs. Lewis and Nelson, secretaries, + and Maj. William Jackson, aide-de-camp. + </p> + <p> + "Persons visiting the house in Cherry street at this time of day will + wonder how a building so small could contain the many and mighty spirits + that thronged its halls in olden days. Congress, cabinets, all public + functionaries in the commencement of the government were selected from the + very elite of the nation. Pure patriotism, commanding talent, eminent + services, were the proud and indispensable requisites for official station + in the first days of the Republic. The first Congress was a most + enlightened and dignified body. In the Senate were several of the members + of the Congress of 1776 and signers of the Declaration of Independence—Richard + Henry Lee, who moved the Declaration, John Adams, who seconded it, with + Sherman, Morris, Carroll, etc. + </p> + <p> + "The levees of the first President were attended by these illustrious + patriots and statesmen, and by many other of the patriots, statesmen, and + soldiers, who could say of the Revolution, '<i>magna pars fui</i>,' while + numbers of foreigners and strangers of distinction crowded to the seat of + the general government, all anxious to witness the grand experiment that + was to determine how much rational liberty mankind is capable of enjoying, + without said liberty degenerating into licentiousness. + </p> + <p> + "Mrs. Washington's drawing-rooms, on Friday nights, were attended by the + grace and beauty of New York. On one of these occasions an incident + occurred which might have been attended by serious consequences. Owing to + the lowness of the ceiling in the drawing-room, the ostrich feather in the + head-dress of Miss McIver, a belle of New York, took fire from the + chandelier, to the no small alarm of the company. Major Jackson, + aide-de-camp to the President, with great presence of mind and equal + gallantry, flew to the rescue of the lady, and, by clapping the burning + plumes between his hands, extinguished the flames, and the drawing-room + went on as usual. + </p> + <p> + "Washington preserved the habit, as well in public as in private life, of + rising at 4 o'clock and retiring to bed at 9. On Saturdays he rested + somewhat from his labors by either riding into the country, attended by a + groom, or with his family in his coach drawn by six horses. + </p> + <p> + "Fond of horses, the stables of the President were always in the finest + order and his equipage excellent, both in taste and quality. Indeed, so + long ago as the days of the vice-regal court of Lord Botetourt, at + Williamsburg, in Virginia, we find that there existed a rivalry between + the equipages of Colonel Byrd, a magnate of the old <i>régime</i>, and + Colonel Washington—the grays against the bays. Bishop, the + celebrated body-servant of Braddock, was the master of Washington's + stables. And there were what was termed muslin horses in those days. At + cockcrow the stable boys were at work; at sunrise Bishop stalked into the + stables, a muslin handkerchief in his hand, which he applied to the coats + of the animals, and, if the slightest stain was perceptible upon the + muslin, up went the luckless wights of the stableboys and punishment was + administered instanter; for to the veteran Bishop, bred amid the iron + discipline of European armies, mercy for anything like a breach of duty + was altogether out of the question. + </p> + <p> + "The President's stables in Philadelphia were under the direction of + German John, and the grooming of the white chargers will rather surprise + the moderns. The night before the horses were expected to be rode they + were covered entirely over with a paste, of which whiting was the + principal component part; then the animals were swathed in body clothes + and left to sleep upon clean straw. In the morning the composition had + become hard, was well rubbed in, and curried and brushed, which process + gave to the coats a beautiful, glossy, and satin-like appearance. The + hoofs were then blacked and polished, the mouths washed, teeth picked and + cleaned, and, the leopard-skin housings being properly adjusted, the white + chargers were led out for service. Such was the grooming of ancient times. + </p> + <p> + "There was but one theater in New York in 1789 (in John street), and so + small were its dimensions that the whole fabric might easily be placed on + the stage of one of our modern theaters. Yet, humble as was the edifice, + it possessed an excellent company of actors and actresses, including old + Morris, who was the associate of Garrick, in the very outset of that great + actor's career, at Goodrhan's Fields. The stage boxes were appropriated to + the President and Vice-President, and were each of them decorated with + emblems, trophies, etc. At the foot of the playbills were always the + words, '<i>Vivat Respublica</i>.' Washington often visited this theater, + being particularly gratified by Wignell's performance of Darby, in the + 'Poor Soldier.' + </p> + <p> + "It was in the theater in John street that the now national air of 'Hail + Columbia,' then called the 'President's March,' was first played. It was + composed by a German musician by the name of Fyles, the leader of the + orchestra, in compliment to the President. The national air will last as + long as the nation lasts, while the meritorious composer has been long + since forgotten. + </p> + <p> + "It was while residing in Cherry street that the President was attacked by + a severe illness that required a surgical operation. He was attended by + the elder and younger Drs. Bard. The elder, being somewhat doubtful of his + nerves, gave the knife to his son, bidding him 'cut away—deeper, + deeper still; don't be afraid; you see how well he bears it.' Great + anxiety was felt in New York at this time, as the President's case was + considered extremely dangerous. Happily, the operation proved successful, + and the patient's recovery removed all cause of alarm. During the illness + a chain was stretched across the street and the sidewalks laid with straw. + Soon after his recovery the President set out on his intended tour through + the New England States. + </p> + <p> + "The President's mansion was so limited in accommodation that three of the + secretaries were compelled to occupy one room—Humphreys, Lewis, and + Nelson. Humphreys, aide-de-camp to the Commander-in-Chief at Yorktown, was + a most estimable man, and at the same time a poet. About this period he + was composing his 'Widow of Malabac.' Lewis and Nelson, both young men, + were content, after the labors of the day, to enjoy a good night's repose. + But this was often denied them, for Humphreys, when in the vein, would + rise from his bed at any hour, and, with stentorian voice, recite his + verses. The young men, roused from their slumbers, and rubbing their eyes, + beheld a great burly figure, '<i>en chemise</i>,' striding across the + floor, reciting, with great emphasis, particular passages from his poems, + and calling on his room-mates for their approbation. Having, in this way, + for a considerable time, 'murdered the sleep' of his associates, + Humphreys, at length, wearied by his exertions, would sink upon his pillow + in a kind of dreamy languor. So sadly were the young secretaries annoyed + by the frequent outbursts of the poet's imagination that it was remarked + of them by their friends, that, from 1789 to the end of their lives, + neither Robert Lewis nor Thomas Nelson was ever known to evince the + slightest taste for poetry." + </p> + <p> + Washington had hardly recovered from the severe attack of illness above + referred to, when he heard of the death of his mother, who died on the + 25th of August, 1789. He had paid her a visit just before leaving Mount + Vernon for the seat of government. She was then residing at + Fredericksburg, and was gradually sinking under a disease which was + evidently mortal; and Washington, fully aware that he was seeing her for + the last time, was much affected at the interview. She also felt that they + were parting to meet no more in this world. "But she bade him go, with + Heaven's blessing and her own, to fulfill the high destinies to which he + had been called." + </p> + <p> + The mother of Washington was, in many respects, a remarkable woman. Her + influence over her son in early life we have already had occasion to + notice. In her last days she presents a true picture of matronly dignity. + Mr. Custis states that she was continually visited and solaced, in the + retirement of her declining years, by her children and numerous + grandchildren. Her daughter, Mrs. Lewis, repeatedly and earnestly + solicited her to remove to her house and there pass the remainder of her + days. Her son pressingly entreated her that she would make Mount Vernon + the home of her age. But the matron's answer was: "I thank you for your + affectionate and dutiful offers, but my wants are few in this world and I + feel perfectly competent to take care of myself." To the proposition of + her son-in-law, Colonel Lewis, to relieve her by taking the direction of + her concerns, she replied. "Do you, Fielding, keep my books in order, for + your eyesight is better than mine; but leave the executive management to + me." Such were the energy and independence she preserved to an age beyond + that usually allotted to mortals, and till within three years of her + death, when the disease under which she suffered (cancer of the breast) + prevented exertion. + </p> + <p> + Her meeting with Washington, after the victory which decided the fortune + of America, illustrates her character too strikingly to be omitted: "After + an absence of nearly seven years it was, at length, on the return of the + combined armies from Yorktown, permitted to the mother to see and embrace + her illustrious son. So soon as he had dismounted, in the midst of a + numerous and brilliant suite, he sent to apprise her of his arrival and to + know when it would be her pleasure to receive him. And now, mark the force + of early education and habits, and the superiority of the Spartan over the + Persian schools, in this interview of the great Washington with his + admirable parent and instructor. No pageantry of war proclaimed his coming—no + trumpets sounded—no banners waved. Alone, and on foot, the Marshal + of France, the General-in-Chief of the combined armies of France and + America, the deliverer of his country, the hero of the age, repaired to + pay his humble duty to her whom he venerated as the author of his being, + the founder of his fortune and his fame. Full well he knew that the matron + was made of sterner stuff than to be moved by all the pride that glory + ever gave or by all the "pomp and circumstance" of power. The lady was + alone—her aged hands employed in the works of domestic industry—when + the good news was announced, and it was further told that the victor chief + was in waiting at the threshold. She welcomed him with a warm embrace, and + by the well-remembered and endearing names of his childhood. Inquiring as + to his health, she remarked the lines which mighty cares and many trials + had made on his manly countenance, spoke much of old times and old + friends, but of his glory, not one word! + </p> + <p> + "Meantime, in the village of Fredericksburg, all was joy and revelry. The + town was crowded with the officers of the French and American armies, and + with gentlemen from all the country around, who hastened to welcome the + conquerors of Cornwallis. The citizens made arrangements for a splendid + ball to which the mother of Washington was specially invited. She observed + that although her dancing days were pretty well over she should feel happy + in contributing to the general festivity, and consented to attend. + </p> + <p> + "The foreign officers were anxious to see the mother of their chief. They + had heard indistinct rumors respecting her remarkable life and character, + but, forming their judgment from European examples, they were prepared to + expect in the mother that glare and show which would have been attached to + the parents of the great in the old world. How were they surprised when + the matron, leaning on the arm of her son, entered the room! She was + arrayed in the very plain, yet becoming garb worn by the Virginia lady of + the olden time. Her address, always dignified and imposing, was courteous + though reserved. She received the complimentary attentions which were + profusely paid her without evincing the slightest elevation, and, at an + early hour, wished the company much enjoyment of their pleasures, and + observing that it was time for old people to be at home, retired, leaning + as before on the arm of her son." + </p> + <p> + To this picture may be added another: + </p> + <p> + "The Marquis de Lafayette repaired to Fredericksburg, previous to his + departure for Europe in the fall of 1784, to pay his parting respects to + the mother, and to ask her blessing. Conducted by one of her grandsons he + approached the house, when the young gentleman observed: 'There, sir, is + my grandmother.' Lafayette beheld—working in the garden, clad in + domestic-made clothes, and her gray head covered with a plain straw hat—the + mother of 'his hero, his friend, and a country's preserver.' The lady + saluted him, kindly observing: 'Ah, marquis! you see an old woman, but + come, I can make you welcome to my poor dwelling without the parade of + changing my dress.'" + </p> + <p> + To the encomiums lavished by the marquis on his chief, the mother replied: + "I am not surprised at what George has done for he was always a very good + boy." So simple, in her true greatness of soul, was this remarkable woman. + </p> + <p> + Her piety was ardent, and she associated devotion with the grand and + beautiful in nature. She was in the habit of repairing every day for + prayer to a secluded spot, formed by rocks and trees, near her dwelling. + </p> + <p> + The person of Mrs. Washington is described as being of the medium height + and well proportioned—her features pleasing, though strongly marked. + There were few painters in the Colonies in those days, and no portrait of + her is in existence. Her biographer saw her but with infant eyes, but well + remembered the sister of the chief. Of her we are told nothing, except + that "she was a most majestic woman and so strikingly like the brother + that it was a matter of frolic to throw a cloak around her and place a + military hat upon her head, and such was the perfect resemblance that had + she appeared on her brother's steed, battalions would have presented arms, + and senates risen to do homage to the chief." + </p> + <p> + Mrs. Washington died at the age of eighty-five, rejoicing in the + consciousness of a life well spent, and the hope of a blessed immortality. + Her ashes repose at Fredericksburg, where a splendid monument has been + erected to her memory. {2} + </p> + <p> + Deeply as Washington felt the loss of his estimable parent his attention + was speedily withdrawn from his private and personal interests by the + important political affairs which were pressing upon him. Congress were + now fairly engaged in giving form and efficiency to the newly-created + government. {3} + </p> + <p> + The continued existence of the constitution itself was menaced by some of + the States which had acceded to it, as well as by those who had refused to + adopt it. In some of the States a disposition to acquiesce in the decision + which had been made, and to await the issue of a fair experiment of the + constitution was avowed by the minority. In others the chagrin of defeat + seemed to increase the original hostility to the instrument, and serious + fears were entertained by its friends that a second general convention + might pluck from it the most essential of its powers before their value + and the safety with which they might be confided where they were placed + could be ascertained by experience. + </p> + <p> + From the same cause exerting itself in a different direction the friends + of the new system had been still more alarmed. In all those States where + the opposition was sufficiently formidable to inspire a hope of success, + the effort was made to fill the Legislature with the declared enemies of + the government and thus to commit it, in its infancy, to the custody of + its foes. Their fears were quieted for the present. In both branches of + the Legislature the Federalists, an appellation at that time + distinguishing those who had supported the constitution, formed the + majority, and it soon appeared that a new convention was too bold an + experiment to be applied for by the requisite number of States. But two + States, Rhode Island and North Carolina, still remained out of the pale of + the Union, and a great deal of ill humor existed among those who were + included within it, which increased the necessity of circumspection in + those who administered the government. + </p> + <p> + To the western parts of the continent the attention of the Executive was + attracted by discontents which were displayed with some violence, and + which originated in circumstances and in interests peculiar to that + country. + </p> + <p> + Spain, in possession of the mouth of the Mississippi, had refused to + permit the citizens of the United States to follow its waters into the + ocean, and had occasionally tolerated or interdicted their commerce to New + Orleans, as had been suggested by the supposed interest or caprice of the + Spanish government or of its representatives in America. The eyes of the + inhabitants adjacent to the waters which emptied into that river were + turned down it as the only channel through which the surplus produce of + their luxuriant soil could be conveyed to the markets of the world. + Believing that the future wealth and prosperity of their country depended + on the use of that river they gave some evidence of a disposition to drop + from the Confederacy, if this valuable acquisition could not otherwise be + made. This temper could not fail to be viewed with interest by the + neighboring powers, who had been encouraged by it and by the imbecility of + the government, to enter into intrigues of an alarming nature. + </p> + <p> + Previous to his departure from Mount Vernon, Washington had received + intelligence, too authentic to be disregarded, of private machinations, by + real or pretended agents both of Spain and Great Britain, which were + extremely hostile to the peace and to the integrity of the Union. + </p> + <p> + Spain had intimated that the navigation of the Mississippi could never be + conceded while the inhabitants of the western country remained connected + with the Atlantic States, but might be freely granted to them if they + should form an independent empire. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand a gentleman from Canada, whose ostensible business was + to repossess himself of some lands on the Ohio which had been formerly + granted to him, frequently discussed the vital importance of the + navigation of the Mississippi, and privately assured several individuals + of great influence that if they were disposed to assert their rights he + was authorized by Lord Dorchester, the Governor of Canada, to say that + they might rely confidently on his assistance. With the aid it was in his + power to give they might seize New Orleans, fortify the Balize at the + mouth of the Mississippi, and maintain themselves in that place against + the utmost efforts of Spain. {4} + </p> + <p> + The probability of failing in any attempt to hold the mouth of the + Mississippi by force, and the resentments against Great Britain which + prevailed generally throughout the western country, diminished the danger + to be apprehended from any machinations of that power, but against those + of Spain the same security did not exist. + </p> + <p> + In contemplating the situation of the United States in their relations not + purely domestic the object demanding most immediate consideration was the + hostility of several tribes of Indians. The military strength of the + nations who inhabited the country between the lakes, the Mississippi, and + the Ohio was computed at 5,000 men, of whom about 1,500 were at open war + with the United States. Treaties had been concluded with the residue, but + the warlike disposition of the Indians, and the provocations they had + received, furnished reasons for apprehending that these treaties would + soon be broken. + </p> + <p> + In the South the Creeks, who could bring into the field 6,000 fighting + men, were at war with Georgia. In the mind of their leader, M'Gillivray, + the son of a white man, some irritation had been produced by the + confiscation of the lands of his father who had resided in that State, and + several other refugees, whose property had also been confiscated, + contributed still further to exasperate the nation. But the immediate + point in contest between them was a tract of land on the Oconee, which the + State of Georgia claimed under a purchase, the validity of which was + denied by the Indians. + </p> + <p> + The regular force of the United States was less than 600 men. + </p> + <p> + Not only the policy of accommodating differences by negotiation which the + government was in no condition to terminate by the sword, but a real + respect for the rights of the natives and a regard for the claims of + justice and humanity, disposed Washington to endeavor, in the first + instance, to remove every cause of quarrel by a treaty, and his message to + Congress on this subject evidenced his preference of pacific measures. + </p> + <p> + Possessing many valuable articles of commerce for which the best market + was often found on the coast of the Mediterranean, struggling to export + them in their own bottoms, and unable to afford a single gun for their + protection, the Americans could not view with unconcern the dispositions + which were manifested toward them by the Barbary powers. A treaty had been + formed with the Emperor of Morocco, but from Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli + peace had not been purchased, and those regencies considered all as + enemies to whom they had not sold their friendship. The unprotected + vessels of America presented a tempting object to their rapacity, and + their hostility was the more terrible, because by their public law + prisoners became slaves. + </p> + <p> + The United States were at peace with all the powers of Europe, but + controversies of a delicate nature existed with some of them, the + adjustment of which required a degree of moderation and firmness which + there was reason to fear might not, in every instance, be exhibited. + </p> + <p> + The apprehensions with which Spain had contemplated the future strength of + the United States, and the consequent disposition to restrict them to + narrow limits, have been already noticed. After the conclusion of the war + the attempt to form a treaty with that power had been repeated, but no + advance toward an agreement on the points Of difference between the two + governments had been made. + </p> + <p> + Circumstances attending the points of difference with Great Britain were + still more serious, because, in their progress, a temper unfavorable to + accommodation had been uniformly displayed. + </p> + <p> + The resentments produced by the various calamities war had occasioned were + not terminated with their cause. The idea that Great Britain was the + natural enemy of America had become habitual. Believing it impossible for + that nation to have relinquished its views of conquest, many found it + difficult to bury their animosities and to act upon the sentiment + contained in the Declaration of Independence, "to hold them as the rest of + mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends." In addition to the complaints + respecting the violation of the treaty of peace events were continually + supplying this temper with fresh aliment. The disinclination which the + cabinet of London had discovered to a commercial treaty with the United + States was not attributed exclusively to the cause which had been assigned + for it. It was in part ascribed to that jealousy with which Britain was + supposed to view the growing trade of America. + </p> + <p> + The general restrictions on commerce by which every maritime power sought + to promote its own navigation, and that part of the European system in + particular by which each aimed at a monopoly of the trade of its Colonies, + were felt with peculiar keenness when enforced by England. In this + suspicious temper almost every unfavorable event which occurred was traced + up to British hostility. + </p> + <p> + That an attempt to form a commercial treaty with Portugal had failed, was + attributed to the influence of the cabinet of London, and to the + machinations of the same power were also ascribed the danger from the + corsairs of Barbary and the bloody incursions of the Indians. The + resentment excited by these causes was felt by a large proportion of the + American people, and the expression of it was common and public. That + correspondent dispositions existed in England is by no means improbable, + and the necessary effect of this temper was to increase the difficulty of + adjusting the differences between the two nations. + </p> + <p> + With France the most perfect harmony subsisted. Those attachments which + originated in the signal services received from the King of France during + the war of the Revolution had sustained no diminution. Yet, from causes + which it was found difficult to counteract, the commercial intercourse + between the two nations was not so extensive as had been expected. It was + the interest and, of consequence, the policy of France, to avail herself + of the misunderstandings between the United States and Great Britain, in + order to obtain such regulations as might gradually divert the increasing + trade of the American continent from those channels in which it had been + accustomed to flow, and a disposition was felt throughout the United + States to cooperate with her in enabling her merchants, by legislative + encouragements, to rival those of Britain in the American market. + </p> + <p> + A great revolution had commenced in that country, the first stage of which + was completed by limiting the powers of the monarch, and by the + establishment of a popular assembly. In no part of the globe was this + revolution hailed with more joy than in America. The influence it would + have on the affairs of the world was not then distinctly foreseen, and the + philanthropist, without becoming a political partisan, rejoiced in the + event. On this subject, therefore, but one sentiment existed. + </p> + <p> + The relations of the United States with the other powers of Europe did not + require particular attention. Their dispositions were rather friendly than + otherwise, and an inclination was generally manifested to participate in + the advantages which the erection of an independent empire on the western + shores of the Atlantic held forth to the commercial world. + </p> + <p> + By the ministers of foreign powers in America it would readily be supposed + that the first steps taken by the new government would not only be + indicative of its present system, but would probably affect its foreign + relations permanently, and that the influence of the President would be + felt in the Legislature. Scarcely was the exercise of his executive + functions commenced when Washington received an application from the Count + de Moustiers, the minister of France, requesting a private conference. On + being told that the Department of Foreign Affairs was the channel through + which all official business should pass, the count replied that the + interview he requested was not for the purpose of actual business, but + rather as preparatory to its future transaction. + </p> + <p> + The next day, at 1 in the afternoon, was named for the interview. The + count commenced the conversation with declarations of his personal regard + for America, the manifestations of which, he said, had been early and + uniform. His nation, too, was well disposed to be upon terms of amity with + the United States, but at his public reception there were occurrences + which he thought indicative of coolness in the Secretary of Foreign + Affairs, who had, he feared, while in Europe, imbibed prejudices, not only + against Spain, but against France also. If this conjecture should be right + the present head of that department could not be an agreeable organ of + intercourse with the President. He then took a view of the modern usages + of European courts, which, he said, favored the practice he recommended, + of permitting foreign ministers to make their communications directly to + the chief of the executive. "He then presented a letter," says Washington + in his private journal, "which he termed confidential, and to be + considered as addressed to me in my private character, which was too + strongly marked with an intention, as well as a wish, to have no person + between the minister and President in the transaction of business between + the two nations." + </p> + <p> + In reply to these observations Washington assured him that, judging from + his own feelings and from the public sentiment, there existed in America a + reciprocal disposition to be on the best terms with France. That whatever + former difficulties might have occurred he was persuaded the Secretary of + Foreign Affairs had offered no intentional disrespect either to the + minister or to his nation. Without undertaking to know the private + opinions of Mr. Jay he would declare that he had never heard that officer + express, directly or indirectly, any sentiment unfavorable to either. + </p> + <p> + Reason and usage, he added, must direct the mode of treating national and + official business. If rules had been established they must be conformed + to. If they were yet to be framed it was hoped that they would be + convenient and proper. So far as case could be made to comport with + regularity and with necessary forms, it ought to be consulted, but custom, + and the dignity of office, were not to be disregarded. The conversation + continued upward of an hour, but no change was made in the resolution of + the President. + </p> + <p> + During its first session the national Legislature was principally occupied + in providing revenues for the long-exhausted treasury, in establishing a + judiciary, in organizing the executive departments in detail, and in + framing amendments to the constitution, agreeably to the suggestion of the + President. The members immediately entered upon the exercise of those + powers so long refused under the articles of confederation. They imposed a + tonnage duty, as well as duties on various imported articles, steadily + keeping in sight, however, the navigating interest of the country, which + had hitherto been almost wholly at the mercy of other nations. Higher + tonnage duties were imposed on foreign than on American bottoms, and goods + imported in vessels belonging to citizens of the United States paid 10 per + cent less duty than the same goods brought in those owned by foreigners. + These discriminating duties were intended to counteract the commercial + regulations of foreign nations and to encourage American shipping. To aid + in the management of the affairs of government three executive departments + were established, styled Departments of War, Foreign Affairs, and of the + Treasury, with a secretary at the head of each. + </p> + <p> + The heads of these departments, in addition to the duties specially + assigned them, were intended to constitute a council, to be consulted by + the President whenever he thought proper, and the Executive was authorized + by the constitution to require the opinion, in writing, of the principal + officers in the executive departments, on subjects relating to the duties + of their offices. In framing the acts constituting these offices and + defining their duties, it became an important subject of inquiry in what + manner or by whom these important officers could be removed from office. + This was a question as new as it was momentous and was applicable to all + officers of executive appointment. In the long and learned debates on the + subject in Congress, there arose a very animated opposition to such a + construction of the constitution as to give this power to any one + individual. Whatever confidence might be placed in the chief magistrate + then at the head of the government, equal confidence could not be expected + in his successors, and it was contended that a concurrence of the Senate + was as necessary and proper in the removal of a person from office as in + his appointment. Some of the members of the House of Representatives were + of opinion that they could not be removed without impeachment. The + principal question, however, on which Congress was divided, was, whether + they were removable by the President alone, or by the President in + concurrence with the Senate. A majority, however, in both houses, decided + that this power was in the President alone. In the House, the majority in + favor of this construction was twelve. This decision of a great + constitutional question has been acquiesced in, and in its consequences + has been of greater importance than almost any other since the + establishment of the new government. From the manner in which this power + has been exercised, it has given a tone and character to the executive + branch of the government not contemplated, it is believed, by the framers + of the constitution or by those who constituted the first Congress under + it. It has greatly increased the influence and patronage of the President + and in no small degree made him the center around which the other branches + of the government revolve. {4} + </p> + <p> + In a free country, where the private citizen has both the right and the + inclination to take an interest in the public concerns, it is natural that + political parties and civil contentions should arise. These will be more + or less violent, angry, and hostile, according as a sense of common + security from external dangers leaves no cause for united action, and + little anxiety for the common peace. A natural consequence of this strife + of parties is the exercise of the passions—pride, interest, vanity, + resentment, gratitude—each contributing its share in irritating and + prolonging the controversy. In the beginning of the Revolution, the people + of the United States divided themselves into the two great classes of + Whigs and Tories; then they again separated upon the question of absolute + independence. Other questions arose during the war, relative to its + conduct, and the qualifications of the leaders of the army. Independence + achieved, the minds of the people were agitated about the nature of the + government, which all saw to be necessary for their own happiness, and for + the better enabling them to prosecute with foreign countries peaceful + negotiations or the operations of war. Many saw, in too close a union, + dangers as great and consequences as distasteful as in their entire + separation. It was believed by many that the extent of the country, the + great diversity of character, habits, and pursuits among the several + States, presented insuperable obstacles to a closer union than that + afforded by the articles of confederation. Some were almost exclusively + commercial, others agricultural; some were disposed to engage in + manufacturing pursuits; some had domestic slavery firmly connected with + their domestic relations and were disposed to look favorably on the + extension of the institution; others regarded involuntary servitude as a + curse, and desired its abolition. + </p> + <p> + It was not to be wondered at, that with such points of diversity, many + should suppose that a single government could not administer the affairs + of all, except by a greater delegation of power than would be submitted to + by the American people. While some looked wholly to these apprehended + consequences of a close union and a single government, others chiefly + regarded the dangers arising from disunion, domestic dissensions, and even + war. One party dreaded consolidation; the other, anarchy and separation. + Each saw, in the object of its dread, the destruction of good government, + though one party looked too exclusively to its characteristic of order, + the other to that of civil liberty. These were the thoughts of the people, + widely different, but all equally honest. But the politicians addressed + themselves to these prejudices, often with unworthy motives. Local + prejudices, self-interest, fears, in some cases from an anticipated loss + of consequence, in the event of a transfer of sovereignty from the + individual States to the general government, all combined to make many + violent in their expressions of opposition to the plan. Apprehensions of + violence and disorder, and fears from individual popularity in a + circumscribed sphere, led others to desire consolidation. With these, + ranked others who were fond of the pomp and show of authority which would + attend a powerful government; and still others, who, having claims upon + the country, supposed that they would have much stronger hopes of being + paid themselves and of seeing the debts due abroad liquidated if a system + of government were established which could be certain to raise a revenue + for these objects. On the formation of the constitution, the community + settled down into two great parties, Federalists and Anti-Federalists, or + Democrats; the first believing that the most imminent danger to our peace + and prosperity was in disunion, and that popular jealousy, always active, + would withhold the power which was essential to good order and national + safety; the other party believing that the danger most to be apprehended + was in too close a union, and that their most powerful opponents wished a + consolidated and even a monarchial government. + </p> + <p> + There were many who had been accustomed to reflect upon government and + political relations previously to the war of independence, when the + constitution of Great Britain being by far the best that had ever existed, + they may naturally be supposed to have conceived for it a degree of homage + and respect which it could not now inspire. The speculations on political + rights, to which the contest with Great Britain and the debates on the + question of independence gave rise, greatly favored the doctrines of + political equality and the hatred of power in any form that could control + the public will. There are, in the heart of every man, principles which + readily prepare him for republican doctrines, and after a few years some + of the speculative politicians began to think that the free, simple, and + equal government which was suited to the tastes and habits of our people, + was also the best in theory. The great body of the people were partial to + the form of government to which they had been accustomed and wished for + none other, though the leading statesmen differed upon this point. Some + preferred the republican form in theory and believed that no other would + be tolerated in practice, and others regretted that they were obliged to + yield so far to popular prejudice as to forego the form they deemed best, + but determined to avail themselves of every opportunity of improving the + existing government into that form. Nor were they without hopes that by + siding with the general government in every question of power between that + and the separate States, and with the Executive in all questions between + that and the Legislature, and by continually increasing the patronage of + the executive by means of an army, a navy, and the multiplication of civil + officers, they would ultimately obtain their object. {5} + </p> + <p> + It was in the midst of this society, so agitated and disturbed, that + Washington, without ambition, without any false show, from a sense of duty + rather than inclination and rather trusting in truth than confident of + success, undertook actually to found the government decreed by the + new-born constitution. He rose to his high office invested with an immense + influence, which was acknowledged and received even by his enemies. + </p> + <p> + Washington's natural inclination, says Guizot, {7} was rather to a + democratic social state than to any other. Of a mind just rather than + expansive, of a temper wise and calm, full of dignity, but free from all + selfish and arrogant pretensions—coveting rather respect than power—the + impartiality of democratic principles and the simplicity of democratic + manners, far from offending or annoying him, suited his tastes and + satisfied his judgment. He did not trouble himself with inquiring whether + more elaborate combinations, a division into ranks, privileges, and + artificial barriers, were necessary to the preservation of society. He + lived tranquilly in the midst of an equal and sovereign people, finding + its authority to be lawful and submitting to it without effort. + </p> + <p> + But when the question was one of political and not social order, when the + discussion turned upon the organization of the government, he was strongly + federal, opposed to local and popular pretensions and the declared + advocate of the unity and force of the central power. + </p> + <p> + He placed himself under this standard and did so to insure its triumph. + But still his elevation was not the victory of a party and awakened in no + one either exultation or regret. In the eyes, not only of the public, but + of his enemies, he was not included in any party and was above them all: + "the only man in the United States," said Jefferson, "who possessed the + confidence of all;—there was no other one who was considered as + anything more than a party leader." + </p> + <p> + It was his constant effort to maintain this honorable privilege. "It is + really my wish to have my mind and my actions, which are the result of + reflection, as free and independent as the air. If it should be my + inevitable fate to administer the government, I will go to chair under no + pre-engagement of any kind or nature whatsoever. Should anything tending + to give me anxiety present itself in this or any other publication, I + shall never undertake the painful task of recrimination, nor do I know + that I should ever enter upon my justification. All else is but food for + declamation. Men's minds are as various as their faces, and, where the + motives of their actions are pure, the operations of the former are no + more to be imputed to them as a crime than the appearance of the latter. + Differences in political opinions are as unavoidable, as, to a certain + point, they may, perhaps, be necessary." {8} + </p> + <p> + A stranger also to all personal disputes, to the passions and prejudices + of his friends, as well as his enemies, the purpose of his whole policy + was to maintain this position and to this policy he gave the true name, + "the just medium!" + </p> + <p> + It is much, continues the great statesman of France, to have the wish to + preserve a just medium; but the wish, though accompanied with firmness and + ability, is not always enough to secure it. Washington succeeded in this + as much by the natural turn of his mind and character as by making it his + peculiar aim; he was, indeed, really of no party, and his country in + esteeming him so, did no more than pay homage to truth. + </p> + <p> + A man of experience and a man of action, he had an admirable wisdom, and + made no pretension to systematic theories. He took no side beforehand; he + made no show of the principles that were to govern him. Thus, there was + nothing like a logical harshness in his conduct, no committal of + self-love, no struggle of rival talent. When he obtained the victory, his + success was not to his adversaries either a stake lost or a sweeping + sentence of condemnation. It was not on the ground of the superiority of + his own mind that he triumphed, but on the ground of the nature of things + and of the inevitable necessity that accompanied them. Still, his success + was not an event without a moral character, the simple result of skill, + strength, or fortune. Uninfluenced by any theory he had faith in truth and + adopted it as the guide of his conduct. He did not pursue the victory of + one opinion against the partisans of another; neither did he act from + interest in the event alone, or merely for success. He did nothing which + he did not think to be reasonable and just; so that his conduct, which had + no systematic character that might be humbling to his adversary, had still + a moral character which commanded respect. + </p> + <p> + Men had, moreover, the most thorough conviction of his disinterestedness, + that great light to which men so willingly trust their fate; that vast + power which draws after it their hearts, while at the same time it gives + them confidence that their interests will not be surrendered, either as a + sacrifice or as instruments to selfishness and ambition. A striking proof + of his impartiality was afforded in the choice of the persons who were to + form his cabinet under the law for the formation of the executive + departments. + </p> + <p> + The government being completely organized and a system of revenue + established, the important duty of filling the offices which had been + created remained to be performed. In the execution of this delicate trust + the purest virtue and the most impartial judgment were exercised by + Washington in selecting the best talents and the greatest weight of + character which the United States could furnish. The unmingled patriotism + of the motives by which he was actuated, receives its clearest + demonstration from a view of all his private letters on this subject, and + the success of his endeavors is attested by the abilities and reputation + which he drew into the public service. + </p> + <p> + At the head of the Department of Foreign Affairs, since denominated the + Department of State, he placed Jefferson, who had been bred to the bar, + and at an early period of life had acquired considerable reputation for + extensive attainments in the science of politics. He had been a + distinguished member of the Second Congress and had been offered a + diplomatic appointment, which he had declined. Withdrawing from the + administration of Continental affairs, he had been elected Governor of + Virginia, which office he filled for two years. He afterwards again + represented his native State in the councils of the Union, and in the year + 1784 was appointed to succeed Dr. Franklin at the court of Versailles. In + that station he had acquitted himself much to the public satisfaction. His + "Notes on Virginia," which were read with applause, were believed to + evince the soundness of his political opinions, and the Declaration of + Independence was universally ascribed to his pen. He had long been placed + by America amongst the most eminent of her citizens, and had long been + classed by the President with those who were most capable of serving the + nation. Having lately obtained permission to return for a short time to + the United States, he was, while on his passage, nominated to this + important office, and, on his arrival in Virginia, found a letter from the + President, giving him the option of becoming the Secretary of Foreign + Affairs or of retaining his station at the court of Versailles. He appears + rather to have inclined to continue in his foreign appointment, and, in + changing his situation, to have consulted the wishes of the first + magistrate more than the preference of his own mind. {8} + </p> + <p> + The task of restoring public credit, of drawing order and arrangement from + the chaotic confusion in which the finances of America were involved, and + of devising means which should render the revenue productive and + commensurate with the demand, in a manner least burdensome to the people, + was justly classed among the most arduous of the duties which devolved on + the new government. In discharging it, much aid was expected from the head + of the treasury. This important, and at that time, intricate department, + was assigned to Colonel Hamilton. + </p> + <p> + This gentleman was a native of the Island of St. Croix, and at a very + early period of life had been placed by his friends in New York. + Possessing an ardent temper, he caught fire from the concussions of the + moment, and, with all the enthusiasm of youth, engaged first his pen, and + afterwards his sword in the stern contest between the American Colonies + and their parent State. Among the first troops raised by New York was a + corps of artillery, in which he was appointed a captain. Soon after the + war was transferred to the Hudson, his superior endowments recommended him + to the attention of the Commander-in-Chief, into whose family, before + completing his twenty-first year, he was invited to enter. Equally brave + and intelligent, he continued in this situation to display a degree of + firmness and capacity which commanded the confidence and esteem of his + general and of the principal officers in the army. + </p> + <p> + After the capitulation at Yorktown, the war languished throughout the + American continent and the probability that its termination was + approaching daily increased. + </p> + <p> + The critical circumstances of the existing government rendered the events + of the civil more interesting than those of the military department, and + Colonel Hamilton accepted a seat in the Congress of the United States. In + all the important acts of the day he performed a conspicuous part, and was + greatly distinguished among those distinguished men whom the crisis had + attracted to the councils of their country. He had afterwards been active + in promoting those measures which led to the convention at Philadelphia, + of which he was a member, and had greatly contributed to the adoption of + the constitution by the State of New York. In the preeminent part he had + performed, both in the military and civil transactions of his country, he + had acquired a great degree of well-merited fame, and the frankness of his + manners, the openness of his temper, the warmth of his feelings, and the + sincerity of his heart, had secured him many valuable friends. + </p> + <p> + To talents equally splendid and useful he united a patient industry, not + always the companion of genius, which fitted him, in a peculiar manner, + for subduing the difficulties to be encountered by the man who should be + placed at the head of the American finances. {9} + </p> + <p> + The Department of War was already filled by General Knox, and he was again + nominated to it. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the contest of the Revolution this officer had continued at the + head of the American artillery, and from being the colonel of a regiment, + had been promoted to the rank of a major-general. In this important + station he had preserved a high military character, and on the resignation + of General Lincoln had been appointed Secretary of War. To his past + services and to unquestionable? integrity, he was admitted to unite a + sound understanding, and the public judgment, as well as that of the chief + magistrate, pronounced him in all respects competent to the station he + filled. + </p> + <p> + The office of attorney-general was filled by Edmund Randolph. To a + distinguished reputation in the line of his profession, this gentleman + added a considerable degree of political eminence. After having been, for + several years the attorney-general of Virginia, he had been elected its + Governor. While in this office he was chosen a member of the convention + which framed the constitution, and was also elected to that which was + called by the State for its adoption or rejection. After having served at + the head of the executive the term permitted by the constitution of the + State, he entered into its Legislature, where he preserved a great share + of influence. + </p> + <p> + Such was the first cabinet council of the President. In its composition, + public opinion as well as intrinsic worth had been consulted, and a high + degree of character had been combined with real talent. + </p> + <p> + In the selection of persons for high judicial offices, the President was + guided by the same principles. At the head of this department he placed + John Jay. + </p> + <p> + From the commencement of the Revolution this gentleman had filled a large + space in the public mind. Remaining, without intermission, in the service + of his country, he had passed through a succession of high offices, and in + all of them had merited the approbation of his fellow-citizens. To his + pen, while in Congress, America was indebted for some of those masterly + addresses which reflected most honor upon the government, and to his + firmness and penetration was to be ascribed, in no inconsiderable degree, + the happy issue of those intricate negotiations which were conducted, + toward the close of the war, at Madrid and at Paris. On returning to the + United States he had been appointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs, in which + station he had conducted himself with his accustomed ability. A sound + judgment improved by extensive reading and great knowledge of public + affairs, unyielding firmness, and inflexible integrity, were qualities of + which Mr. Jay had given frequent and signal proofs. Although for some + years withdrawn from that profession to which he was bred, the + acquisitions of his early life had not been lost, and the subjects on + which his mind had been exercised were not entirely foreign from those + which would, in the first instance, employ the courts in which he was to + preside. + </p> + <p> + John Rutledge of South Carolina, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, William + Gushing of Massachusetts, Robert Harrison of Maryland, and John Blair of + Virginia, were nominated as associate justices. Some of these gentlemen + had filled the highest law offices in their respective States, and all of + them had received distinguished marks of the public confidence. + </p> + <p> + In the systems which had been adopted by the several States, offices + corresponding to those created by the revenue laws of Congress had been + already established. + </p> + <p> + Uninfluenced by considerations of personal regard, Washington could not be + induced to change men whom he found in place, if worthy of being employed, + and where the man who had filled such office in the former state of things + was unexceptionable in his conduct and character he was uniformly + reappointed. In deciding between competitors for vacant offices the law he + prescribed for his government was to regard the fitness of candidates for + the duties they would be required to discharge, and, where an equality in + this respect existed, former merits and sufferings in the public service + gave claims to preference which could not be overlooked. + </p> + <p> + In the legislative, as well as in the executive and judicial departments, + great respectability of character was also associated with an eminent + degree of talents. The constitutional prohibition to appoint any member of + the Legislature to an office created during the time for which he had been + elected did not exclude men of the most distinguished abilities from the + First Congress. Impelled by an anxious solicitude respecting the first + measures of the government its zealous friends had pressed into its + service, and, in both branches of the Legislature, men were found who + possessed the fairest claims to the public confidence. + </p> + <p> + From the duties attached to his office the Vice-President of the United + States and President of the Senate, though not a member of the + Legislature, was classed, in the public mind, with that department not + less than with the executive. Elected by the whole people of America in + common with the President he could not fail to be taken from the most + distinguished citizens and to add to the dignity of the body over which he + presided. + </p> + <p> + John Adams was one of the earliest and most ardent patriots of the + Revolution. Bred to the bar, he had necessarily studied the constitution + of his country and was among the most determined assertors of its rights. + Active in guiding that high spirit which animated all New England, he + became a member of the Congress of 1774 and was among the first who dared + to avow sentiments in favor of independence. In that body he soon attained + considerable eminence, and, at an early stage of the war, was chosen one + of the commissioners to whom the interests of the United States in Europe + were confided. In his diplomatic character he had contributed greatly to + those measures which drew Holland into the war; had negotiated the treaty + between the United States and the Dutch Republic, and had, at critical + points of time, obtained loans of money which were of great advantage to + his country. In the negotiations which terminated the war he had also + rendered important services, and, after the ratification of the definitive + articles of peace, had been deputed to Great Britain for the purpose of + effecting a commercial treaty with that nation. The political situation of + America having rendered this object unattainable he solicited leave to + return, and arrived in the United States soon after the adoption of the + constitution. + </p> + <p> + As a statesman John Adams had at all times ranked high in the estimation + of his countrymen. He had improved a sound understanding by extensive + political and historical reading, and perhaps no American had reflected + more profoundly on the subject of government. The exalted opinion he + entertained of his own country was flattering to his fellow-citizens, and + the purity of his mind, the unblemished integrity of a life spent in the + public service, had gained him their confidence. + </p> + <p> + A government, supported in all its departments by so much character and + talent, at the head of which was placed a man whose capacity was + undoubted, whose life had been one great and continued lesson of + disinterested patriotism, and for whom almost every bosom glowed with an + attachment bordering on enthusiasm, could not fail to make a rapid + progress in conciliating the affection of the people. That all hostility + to the constitution should subside, that public measures should receive + universal approbation, that no particular disgusts and individual + irritations should be excited, were expectations which could not + reasonably be indulged. Exaggerated accounts were indeed occasionally + circulated of the pomp and splendor which were affected by certain high + officers of the monarchical tendencies of particular institutions and of + the dispositions which prevailed to increase the powers of the executive. + That the doors of the Senate were closed and that a disposition had been + manifested by that body to distinguish the President of the United States + by a title, gave considerable umbrage, and were represented as evincing + inclinations in that branch of the Legislature unfriendly to + republicanism. The exorbitance of salaries was also a subject of some + declamation, and the equality of commercial privileges with which foreign + bottoms entered American ports, was not free from objection. But the + apprehensions of danger to liberty from the new system, which had been + impressed on the minds of well-meaning men, were visibly wearing off; the + popularity of the administration was communicating itself to the + government, and the materials with which the discontented were furnished + could not yet be efficaciously employed. + </p> + <p> + Toward the close of the session a report on a petition which had been + presented at an early period by the creditors of the public residing in + the State of Pennsylvania was taken up in the House of Representatives. + Though many considerations rendered a postponement of this interesting + subject necessary two resolutions were passed: the one, "declaring that + the House considered an adequate provision for the support of the public + credit, as a matter of high importance to the national honor and + prosperity," and the other, directing "the Secretary of the Treasury to + prepare a plan for that purpose, and to report the same to the House at + its next meeting." + </p> + <p> + On the 29th of September (1789) Congress adjourned to the first Monday in + the succeeding January (1790). + </p> + <p> + Throughout the whole of this laborious and important session perfect + harmony subsisted between the executive and the Legislature, and no + circumstance occurred which threatened to impair it. The modes of + communication between the departments of government were adjusted in a + satisfactory manner, and arrangements were made on some of those delicate + points in which the Senate participate of executive power. + </p> + <p> + Washington's own views of the proceedings of Congress are expressed in the + following extract from a letter to a friend: + </p> + <p> + "That Congress does not proceed with all that dispatch which people at a + distance expect, and which, were they to hurry business, they possibly + might, is not to be denied. That measures have been agitated which are not + pleasing to Virginia—and others, pleasing perhaps to her, but not to + some other States—is equally unquestionable. Can it well be + otherwise in a country so extensive, so diversified in its interests? And + will not these different interests naturally produce—in an assembly + of representatives who are to legislate for, and to assimilate and + reconcile them to, the general welfare—long, warm, and animated + debates? Most assuredly they will, and if there was the same propensity in + mankind for investigating the motives as there is for censuring the + conduct of public characters, it would be found that the censure so freely + bestowed is oftentimes unmerited and uncharitable. For instance, the + condemnation of Congress for sitting only four hours in the day. The fact + is, by the established rules of the House of Representatives, no committee + can sit whilst the House is sitting, and that is, and has been for a + considerable time, from 10 o'clock in the forenoon until 3, often later, + in the afternoon, before and after which the business is going on in + committees. If this application is not as much as most constitutions are + equal to, I am mistaken. + </p> + <p> + "Many other things, which undergo malignant constructions, would be found, + upon a candid examination, to wear a better face than is given to them. + The misfortune is that the enemies to the government, always more active + than its friends and always upon the watch to give it a stroke, neglect no + opportunity to aim one. If they tell truth it is not the whole truth, by + which means one side only of the picture is exhibited, whereas, if both + sides were seen it might, and probably would, assume a different form in + the opinion of just and candid men, who are disposed to measure matters by + a continental scale. + </p> + <p> + "I do not mean, however, from what I have here said, to justify the + conduct of Congress in all its movements, for some of these movements, in + my opinion, have been injudicious, and others unreasonable; whilst the + questions of assumption, residence, and other matters, have been agitated + with a warmth and intemperance, with prolixity and threats, which, it is + to be feared, have lessened the dignity of that body and decreased that + respect which was once entertained for it. And this misfortune is + increased by many members, even among those who wish well to the + government, ascribing, in letters to their respective States, when they + are defeated in a favorite measure, the worst motives for the conduct of + their opponents, who, viewing matters through another medium, may and do + retort in their turn, by which means jealousies and distrusts are spread + most impolitically far and wide, and will, it is to be feared, have a most + unhappy tendency to injure our public affairs, which, if wisely managed, + might make us, as we are now by Europeans thought to be, the happiest + people upon earth." + </p> + <p> + Anxious to visit New England to observe in person the condition of the + country and the dispositions of the people toward the government and its + measures, the President was disposed to avail himself of the short respite + from official cares afforded by the recess of Congress, to make a tour + through the eastern States. + </p> + <p> + His resolution being taken and the executive business which required his + immediate personal attendance being dispatched, he commenced his tour on + the 15th of October (1789), and, passing through Connecticut and + Massachusetts, as far as Portsmouth in New Hampshire, returned by a + different route to New York, where he arrived on the 13th of November. + </p> + <p> + With this visit the President had much reason to be satisfied. To + contemplate the theater on which many interesting military scenes had been + exhibited, and to review the ground on which his first campaign as + Commander-in-Chief of the American army had been made, were sources of + rational delight. To observe the progress of society, the improvements in + agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, and the temper, circumstances, + and dispositions of the people, could not fail to be grateful to an + intelligent mind, and an employment in all respects worthy of the chief + magistrate of the nation. The reappearance of their general in the high + station he now filled brought back to recollection the perilous + transactions of the war, and the reception universally given to him + attested the unabated love which was felt for his person and character, + and indicated unequivocally the growing popularity, at least in that part + of the Union, of the government he administered. + </p> + <p> + The sincerity and warmth with which he reciprocated the affection + expressed for his person in the addresses presented to him was well + calculated to preserve the sentiments which were generally diffused. "I + rejoice with you, my fellow-citizens," said he in answer to an address + from the inhabitants of Boston, "in every circumstance that declares your + prosperity, and I do so most cordially, because you have well deserved to + be happy. + </p> + <p> + "Your love of liberty, your respect for the law, your habits of industry, + and your practice of the moral and religious obligations, are the + strongest claims to national and individual happiness; and they will, I + trust, be firmly and lastingly established." + </p> + <p> + But the interchange of sentiments with the companions of his military + toils and glory will excite most interest, because on both sides the + expressions were dictated by the purest and most delicious feelings of the + human heart. + </p> + <p> + From the Cincinnati of Massachusetts he received the following address: + "Amidst the various gratulations which your arrival in this metropolis has + occasioned, permit us, the members of the Society of the Cincinnati in + this commonwealth, most respectfully to assure you of the ardor of esteem + and affection you have so indelibly fixed in our hearts, as our glorious + leader in war and illustrious example in peace. + </p> + <p> + "After the solemn and endearing farewell on the banks of the Hudson, which + our anxiety presaged as final, most peculiarly pleasing is the present + unexpected meeting. On this occasion we cannot avoid the recollection of + the various scenes of toil and danger through which you conducted us, and + while we contemplate various trying periods of the war, and the triumphs + of peace, we rejoice to behold you, induced by the unanimous voice of your + country, en-terming upon other trials and other services alike important, + and, in some points of view, equally hazardous. For the completion of the + great purposes which a grateful country has assigned you, long, very long, + may your invaluable life be preserved. And as the admiring world, while + considering you as a soldier, have long wanted a comparison, may your + virtue and talents as a statesman leave them without a parallel. + </p> + <p> + "It is not in words to express an attachment founded like ours. We can + only say that, when soldiers, our greatest pride was a promptitude of + obedience to your orders; as citizens, our supreme ambition is to maintain + the character of firm supporters of that noble fabric of Federal + government over which you preside. + </p> + <p> + "As members of the Society of the Cincinnati it will be our endeavor to + cherish those sacred principles of charity and fraternal attachment which + our institution inculcates. And while our conduct is thus regulated, we + can never want the patronage of the first of patriots and the best of + men." + </p> + <p> + To this address the following answer was returned: + </p> + <p> + "In reciprocating with gratitude and sincerity the multiplied and + affecting gratulations of my fellow-citizens of this commonwealth, they + will all of them with justice allow me to say, that none can be dearer to + me than the affectionate assurances which you have expressed. Dear, + indeed, is the occasion which restores an intercourse with my faithful + associates in prosperous and adverse fortune; and enhanced are the + triumphs of peace, participated with those whose virtue and valor so + largely contributed to procure them. To that virtue and valor your country + has confessed her obligations. Be mine the grateful task to add the + testimony of a connection which it was my pride to own in the field, and + is now my happiness to acknowledge in the enjoyments of peace and freedom. + </p> + <p> + "Regulating your conduct by those principles which have heretofore + governed your actions as men, soldiers, and citizens, you will repeat the + obligations conferred on your country, and you will transmit to posterity + an example that must command their admiration and grateful praise. Long + may you continue to enjoy the endearments of fraternal attachments and the + heartfelt happiness of reflecting that you have faithfully done your duty. + </p> + <p> + "While I am permitted to possess the consciousness of this worth, which + has long bound me to you by every tie of affection and esteem, I will + continue to be your sincere and faithful friend." + </p> + <p> + After Washington's return to New York from his tour to the north and east, + Mrs. Washington expressed, in the following letter, the gratification and + benefit he had derived from his journey. It also presents a delightful + view of her feelings and character: + </p> + <p> + "NEW YORK, <i>December</i> 26th, 1789. + </p> + <p> + "MY DEAR MADAM:—Your very friendly letter, of the 27th of last + month, has afforded me much more satisfaction than all the formal + compliments and empty ceremonies of mere etiquette could possibly have + done. I am not apt to forget the feelings that have been inspired by my + former society with good acquaintances, nor to be insensible to their + expressions of gratitude to the President of the United States; for you + know me well enough to do me the justice to believe that I am only fond of + what comes from the heart. Under a conviction that the demonstrations of + respect and affection which have been made to the President originate from + that source, I cannot deny that I have taken some interest and pleasure in + them. The difficulties which presented themselves to view upon his first + entering upon the Presidency, seem thus to be, in some measure, + surmounted. It is owing to this kindness of our numerous friends, in all + quarters, that my new and unwished-for situation is not indeed a burden to + me. When I was much younger, I should probably have enjoyed the innocent + gayeties of life as much as most of my age. But I had long since placed + all the prospects of my future worldly happiness in the still enjoyments + of the fireside at Mount Vernon. + </p> + <p> + "I little thought, when the war was finished, that any circumstances could + possibly have happened which would call the General into public life + again. I had anticipated that, from that moment, we should have been left + to grow old, in solitude and tranquility, together. That was, my dear + madam, the first and dearest wish of my heart; but in that I have been + disappointed. I will not, however, contemplate with too much regret + disappointments that were inevitable. Though the General's feelings and my + own were perfectly in unison with respect to our predilection for private + life, yet I cannot blame him for having acted according to his ideas of + duty in obeying the voice of his country. The consciousness of having + attempted to do all the good in his power, and the pleasure of finding his + fellow-citizens so well satisfied with the disinterestedness of his + conduct, will doubtless be some compensation for the great sacrifices + which I know he has made. Indeed, in his journey from Mount Vernon to this + place, in his late tour through the eastern States, by every public and by + every private information which has come to him, I am persuaded that he + has experienced nothing to make him repent his having acted from what he + conceived to be, alone, a sense of indispensable duty. On the contrary, + all his sensibility has been awakened in receiving such repeated and + unequivocal proofs of sincere regards from all his countrymen. + </p> + <p> + "With respect to myself, I sometimes think the arrangement is not quite as + it ought to have been; that I, who had much rather be at home, should + occupy a place with which a great many younger and gayer women would be + prodigiously pleased. As my grandchildren and domestic connections make up + a great portion of the felicity which I looked for in this world, I shall + hardly be able to find any substitute that would indemnify me for the loss + of a part of such endearing society. I do not say this because I feel + dissatisfied with my present station. No, God forbid! For everybody and + everything conspire to make me as contented as possible in it; yet I have + seen too much of the vanity of human affairs to expect felicity from the + splendid scenes of public life. I am still determined to be cheerful and + to be happy in whatever situation I may be; for I have also learnt from + experience that the greater part of our happiness or misery depends upon + our dispositions, and not upon our circumstances. We carry the seeds of + the one or the other about with us, in our minds, where-so-ever we go. I + have two of my grandchildren with me, who enjoy advantages in point of + education, and who, I trust, by the goodness of Providence, will continue + to be a great blessing to me. My other two grandchildren are with their + mother, in Virginia. + </p> + <p> + "The President's health is quite re-established by his late journey. Mine + is much better than it used to be. I am sorry to hear that General Warren + has been ill; hope, before this time, that he may be entirely recovered. + We should rejoice to see you both. To both, I wish the best of Heaven's + blessings; and am, my dear madam, with esteem and regard, your friend and + humble servant, + </p> + <h3> + "M. WASHINGTON." + </h3> + <p> + Soon after his return to New York, after his visit to the eastern States, + the President was informed of the ill success which had attended his first + attempt to negotiate a peace with the Creek Indians. General Lincoln, Mr. + Griffin, and Colonel Humphreys had been deputed on this mission, and had + met M'Gillivray with several other chiefs, and about 2,000 men, at Rock + Landing, on the Oconee, on the frontiers of Georgia. The treaty commenced + with favorable appearances, but was soon abruptly broken off by + M'Gillivray. Some difficulties arose on the subject of a boundary, but the + principal obstacles to a peace were supposed to grow out of his personal + interests, and his connections with Spain. + </p> + <p> + This intelligence was more than counterbalanced by the accession of North + Carolina to the Union. In the month of November a second convention had + assembled under the authority of the Legislature of that State, and the + constitution was adopted by a great majority. + </p> + <p> + We embrace the occasion afforded by the interval between the two sessions + of Congress to insert some further notices of Washington's mode of life in + New York, as well as of his personal appearance. + </p> + <p> + The manner of living observed by President Washington has been described + in the following speech, delivered by Mr. Stuyvesant, the president of the + New York Historical society, at the dinner on the occasion of the jubilee + celebration, in the city of New York, April 30, 1839. + </p> + <p> + "It cannot be expected, at this time and place, that any allusion should + be made to the public character of Washington; we are all in possession of + his history, from the dawn of life to the day that Mount Vernon was + wrapped in sable; and, after the exercises of this morning, if any attempt + to portray his political or military life were made, it would only be the + glimmering light of a feeble star succeeding the rays of a meridian sun. + </p> + <p> + "But the occasion affords an opportunity of congratulating the small + number of gentlemen present, who enjoyed the privilege of participating in + the ceremonies of the 30th of April, 1789; they will recall to their + memories the spontaneous effusions of joy that pervaded the breasts of the + people who on that occasion witnessed the organization of a constitutional + government, formed by intelligent freemen, and consummated by placing at + its head the man in whom their affections were concentrated as the father + of their country. + </p> + <p> + "Washington's residence in this city, after his inauguration, was limited + to about two years. His deportment in life was not plain, nor was it at + all pompous, for no man was more devoid of ostentation than himself, his + style, however, gave universal satisfaction to all classes in the + community, and, his historian has informed us, was not adopted for + personal gratification, but from a devotion to his country's welfare. + Possessing a desirable stature, an erect frame, and, superadded, a lofty + and sublime countenance, he never appeared in public without arresting the + reverence and admiration of the beholder; and the stranger who had never + before seen him, was at the first impression convinced it was the + President who delighted him. + </p> + <p> + "He seldom walked in the street; his public recreation was in riding. When + accompanied by Mrs. Washington, he rode in a carriage drawn by six horses, + with two outriders who wore rich livery, cocked hats, with cockades and + powder. When he rode on horseback he was joined by one or more of the + gentlemen of his family and attended by his outriders. He always attended + Divine service on Sundays. His carriage on those occasions contained Mrs. + Washington and himself, with one or both of their grandchildren and was + drawn by two horses, with two footmen behind; it was succeeded by a + post-chaise, accommodating two gentlemen of his household. On his arrival + in the city the only residence that could be procured was a house in + Cherry street, long known as the mansion of the Franklin family, but in a + short time afterwards he removed to and occupied the house in Broadway, + now Bunker's hotel. + </p> + <p> + "Washington held a levee once a week, and, from what is now recollected, + they were generally well attended, but confined to men in public life and + gentlemen of leisure, for at that day it would have been thought a breach + of decorum to visit the President of the United States in dishabille. + </p> + <p> + "The arrival of Washington, in 1789, to assume the reins of government, + was not his first entry into this city, accompanied with honor to himself + and glory to this country. This was on the 24th of November, 1783, and + here again, I must observe, the number present who witnessed the + ceremonies of that day, must, indeed, be very limited; on that day he made + his triumphal entry, not to sway the sceptre, but to lay down his sword, + not for personal aggrandizement, but to secure the happiness of his + countrymen. He early in the morning left Harlem and entered the city + through what is now called the Bowery; he was escorted by cavalry and + infantry and a large concourse of citizens, on horseback and on foot, in + plain dress. The latter must have been an interesting sight to those of + mature age who were capable of comprehending their merit. In their ranks + were seen men with patched elbows, odd buttons on their coats and + unmatched buckles in their shoes; they were not, indeed, Falstaff's + company of scarecrows, but the most respectable citizens who had been in + exile, and endured privations we know not of, for seven long and tedious + years." + </p> + <p> + On that occasion, and on his arrival in 1789, Washington was received, as + is well known, by the elder Clinton, who was at both periods Governor of + the State. + </p> + <p> + In the following extract, from a reliable source, we have a fine + description of the effect produced by Washington's personal appearance and + manners on the mind of a highly intelligent observer: + </p> + <p> + "The beautiful effusion which the reader will find below is the production + of the chaste and classic mind of the late venerable and distinguished + senator from Rhode Island, Mr. Robbins, and was occasioned by the + following circumstances. During the session of 1837-8, Mr. Webster + entertained a large party of friends at dinner, among them the venerable + senator we have named. The evening passed off with much hilarity, + enlivened with wit and sentiment, but, during the greater part of the + time, Mr. Robbins maintained that grave but placid silence which was his + habit. While thus apparently abstracted, someone suddenly called on him + for a toast, which call was seconded by the company. He rose, and in his + surprise asked if they were serious in making such a demand of so old a + man, and being assured that they were, he said, if they would suspend + their hilarity for a few moments, he would give them a toast and preface + it with a few observations. Having thus secured a breathless stillness, he + went on to remark, that they were then on the verge of the 22d of + February, the anniversary of the birth of the great patriot and statesman + of our country, whom all delighted to remember and to honor, and he hoped + he might be allowed the privilege of an aged man to recur, for a few + moments, to past events connected with his character and history. He then + proceeded and delivered in the most happy and impressive manner the + beautiful speech which now graces our columns. The whole company were + electrified by his patriotic enthusiasm, and one of the guests, before + they separated, begged that he would take the trouble to put on paper what + he had so happily expressed and furnish a copy for publication. Mr. + Robbins obligingly complied with this request on the following day, but by + some accident the manuscript got mislaid and eluded all search for it + until a few days ago, when it was unexpectedly recovered, and is now + presented to our readers. + </p> + <p> + "'On the near approach of that calendar-day which gave birth to + Washington, I feel rekindling within me some of those emotions always + connected with the recollection of that hallowed name. Permit me to + indulge them, on this occasion, for a moment, in a few remarks, as + preliminary to a sentiment which I shall beg leave to propose. + </p> + <p> + "'I consider it as one of the consolations of my age, that I am old enough + and fortunate enough to have seen that wonderful man. This happiness is + still common to so many yet among the living, that less is thought of it + now than will be in after-times; but it is no less a happiness to me on + that account. + </p> + <p> + "'While a boy at school, I saw him for the first time; it was when he was + passing through New England, to take command in chief of the American + armies at Cambridge. Never shall I forget the impression his imposing + presence then made upon my young imagination, so superior did he seem to + me to all that I had seen or imagined of the human form for striking + effect. I remember with what delight, in my after studies, I came to the + line in Virgil that expressed all the enthusiasm of my own feelings, as + inspired by that presence, and which I could not often enough repeat: + </p> + <p> + "'I saw him again at his interview with Rochambeau, when they met to + settle the plan of combined operations between the French fleet and the + American armies against the British on the Chesapeake, and then I saw the + immense crowd drawn together from all the neighboring towns, to get, if + possible, one look at the man who had throned himself in every heart. Not + one of that immense crowd doubted the final triumph of his country in her + arduous conflict, for everyone saw, or thought he saw, in Washington, her + guardian angel, commissioned by Heaven to insure her that triumph. 'Nil + desperandum' was the motto with everyone. + </p> + <p> + "'In after-life, when the judgment corrects the extravagance of early + impressions, I saw him on several occasions, but saw nothing to admonish + me of any extravagance in my early impressions. "Credo equidem, nee vana + fides, genus esse Deorum." {10} + </p> + <p> + "'"Nil desperandum, Teucro duce, et auspice Teucro." {11} The impression + was still the same; I had the same overpowering sense of standing in the + presence of some superior being. + </p> + <p> + "'It is indeed remarkable, and I believe unique, in the history of men, + that Washington made the same impression upon all minds, at all places, + and at once. When his fame first broke upon the world, it spread at once + over the whole world. By the consent of mankind, by the universal + sentiment, he was placed at the head of the human species; above all envy, + because above all emulation; for no one then pretended, or has pretended + to be—at least who has been allowed to be—the co-rival of + Washington in fame. + </p> + <p> + "'When the great Frederick of Prussia sent his portrait to Washington, + with this inscription upon it—"From the oldest general in Europe to + the greatest general in the world," he did but echo the sentiment of all + the chivalry of Europe. Nor was the sentiment confined to Europe, nor to + the bounds of civilization; for the Arab of the desert talked of + Washington in his tent; his name wandered with the wandering Scythian, and + was cherished by him as a household word in all his migrations. No clime + was so barbarous as to be a stranger to the name, but everywhere, and by + all men, that name was placed at the same point of elevation, and above + compare. As it was in the beginning, so it is now; of the future we cannot + speak with certainty. Some future age, in the endless revolutions of time, + may produce another Washington, but the greater probability is, that he is + destined to remain forever, as he now is, the Phoenix of human kind. + </p> + <p> + "'What a possession to his country is such a fame! Such a "Clarum et + venerabile nomen gentibus?" {12} + </p> + <p> + "'To all his countrymen it gives, and forever will give, a passport to + respect wherever they go, to whatever part of the globe, for his country + is in every other identified with that fame. + </p> + <p> + "'What, then, is incumbent upon us, his countrymen? Why, to be such a + people as shall be worthy of such a fame—a people of whom it shall + be said, "No wonder such a people have produced such a man as Washington." + I give you, therefore, this sentiment: + </p> + <p> + "'The memory of Washington: May his countrymen prove themselves a people + worthy of his fame.'" + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Memoir of Martha Washington in Longacre's Gallery. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Mrs. Ellet, "Women of the Revolution" + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: One of the first topics of debate in Congress was the title + by which the President should be addressed. Such title as "His Highness," + "His Mightiness," etc., having been discussed, it was finally and very + properly determined that the title of "President of the United States" + should be used; and it was accordingly used in the answers to the + inaugural address. No title could be more dignified. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: Marshall + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Pitkin. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: Tucker's "Life of Jefferson." + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: "Essay on the Character and Influence of Washington." + </p> + <p> + 8. Footnote: "Washington's Writings," vols. IX, X. + </p> + <p> + 9. Footnote: Marshall. + </p> + <p> + 10. Footnote: I verily believe, nor is my confidence unfounded, that he is + of Divine descent. + </p> + <p> + 11. Footnote: Let us never despair, with Teucer to lead us, and under + Teucer's auspices. + </p> + <p> + 12. Footnote: A name, illustrious and venerable among the nations! + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. — THE PUBLIC CREDIT ESTABLISHED. 1789-1790. + </h2> + <p> + During the recess of Congress Washington generally visited Mount Vernon, + but, after the rising of the first Congress under the constitution, his + visit to New England consumed so much time that he remained in New York + till Congress reassembled. His eastern tour commenced on the 15th of + October, as we have already seen, and ended on the 13th of November. As + Congress was to meet on the 1st of January, 1790, he had no time to visit + Mount Vernon. During the short time which elapsed before that day he was + very earnestly engaged in the duties of his office and in correspondence + with public men on political affairs. One of his letters, addressed to the + Emperor of Morocco, is curious, as showing the tact with which he + accommodated his style to the comprehension of the oriental sovereign. It + was written in consequence of an intimation from Mr. Chiappe, the American + agent at Mogadore, that the emperor was not well pleased at receiving no + acknowledgment from the government in respect to the treaty with Morocco + of the 28th of June, 1786, his subsequent faithful observance of the same, + as well as his good offices in favor of the Americans with the bashaws of + Tunis and Tripoli. The letter is as follows: + </p> + <h3> + "GREAT AND MAGNANIMOUS FRIEND: + </h3> + <p> + "Since the date of the last letter which the late Congress by their + President addressed to your Imperial Majesty, the United States of America + have thought proper to change their government and to institute a new one, + agreeably to the constitution, of which I have the honor of herewith + enclosing a copy. The time necessarily employed in the arduous task and + the derangements occasioned by so great, though peaceable, a revolution, + will apologize and account for your Majesty's not having received those + regular advices and marks of attention from the United States, which the + friendship and magnanimity of your conduct toward them afforded reason to + expect. + </p> + <p> + "The United States having unanimously appointed me to the supreme + executive authority in this nation, your Majesty's letter of the 17th of + August, 1788, which, by reason of the dissolution of the late government, + remained unanswered, has been delivered to me. I have also received the + letters which your Imperial Majesty has been so kind as to write, in favor + of the United States, to the bashaws of Tunis and Tripoli, and I present + to you the sincere acknowledgments and thanks of the United States for + this important mark of your friendship for them. + </p> + <p> + "We greatly regret that the hostile disposition of those regencies toward + this nation, who have never injured them, is not to be removed on terms in + our power to comply with. Within our territories there are no mines either + of gold or silver, and this young nation, just recovering from the waste + and desolation of a long war, has not as yet had time to acquire riches by + agriculture and commerce. But our soil is bountiful and our people + industrious, and we have reason to flatter ourselves that we shall + gradually become useful to our friends. + </p> + <p> + "The encouragement which your Majesty has been pleased generously to give + to our commerce with your dominions, the punctuality with which you have + caused the treaty with us to be observed, and the just and generous + measures taken in the case of Captain Proctor, make a deep impression on + the United States, and confirm their respect for, and attachment to, your + Imperial Majesty. + </p> + <p> + "It gives me pleasure to have this opportunity of assuring your Majesty + that, while I remain at the head of this nation, I shall not cease to + promote every measure that may conduce to the friendship and harmony which + so happily subsist between your empire and them, and shall esteem myself + happy on every occasion of convincing your Majesty of the high sense + which, in common with the whole nation, I entertain of the magnanimity, + wisdom, and benevolence of your Majesty. In the course of the approaching + winter the national Legislature, which is called by the former name of + Congress, will assemble, and I shall take care that nothing be omitted + that may be necessary to cause the correspondence between our countries to + be maintained and conducted in a manner agreeable to your Majesty and + satisfactory to all parties concerned in it. + </p> + <p> + "May the Almighty bless your Imperial Majesty—our great and + magnanimous friend—with his constant guidance and protection. + </p> + <p> + "Written at the city of New York, the 1st day of December, 1789." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In December, 1789, Washington was requested by Mr. Joseph Willard, the + president of Harvard University, to sit to Mr. Savage for his portrait, to + be placed in the philosophy chamber of the university. Washington promptly + replied to the letter of the president, and the portrait was painted by + Mr. Savage, and deposited in the university. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of January, 1790, the President met both houses of Congress in + the Senate chamber. In his speech, which was delivered from the chair of + the Vice-President, after congratulating Congress on the accession of the + important State of North Carolina to the Union and on the prosperous + aspect of American affairs, he proceeded to recommend certain great + objects of legislation to their more especial consideration. + </p> + <p> + "Among the many interesting objects," continued the speech, "which will + engage your attention, that of providing for the common defense will merit + your particular regard. To be prepared for war is one of the most + effectual means of preserving peace. + </p> + <p> + "A free people ought not only to be armed but disciplined, to which end a + uniform and well-digested plan is requisite, and their safety and interest + require that they should promote such manufactories as tend to render them + independent on others for essential, particularly for military, supplies." + </p> + <p> + As connected with this subject a proper establishment for the troops which + they might deem indispensable, was suggested for their mature + deliberation, and the indications of a hostile temper given by several + tribes of Indians, were considered as admonishing them of the necessity of + being prepared to afford protection to the frontiers and to punish + aggression. + </p> + <p> + The interests of the United States were declared to require that the means + of keeping up their intercourse with foreign nations should be provided, + and the expediency of establishing a uniform rule of naturalization was + suggested. + </p> + <p> + After expressing his confidence in their attention to many improvements + essential to the prosperity of the interior, the President added: "Nor am + I less persuaded that you will agree with me in opinion that there is + nothing which can better deserve your patronage than the promotion of + science and literature. Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of + public happiness. In one, in which the measures of government receive + their impression so immediately from the sense of the community as in + ours, it is proportionally essential. To the security of a free + constitution it contributes in various ways, by convincing those who are + entrusted with the public administration that every valuable end of + government is best answered by the enlightened confidence of the people, + and by teaching the people themselves to know and to value their own + rights; to discern and provide against invasions of them; to distinguish + between oppression and the necessary exercise of lawful authority—between + burdens proceeding from a disregard to their convenience, and those + resulting from the inevitable exigencies of society; to discriminate the + spirit of liberty from that of licentiousness, cherishing the first, + avoiding the last, and uniting a speedy but temperate vigilance against + encroachments, with an inviolable respect to the laws. + </p> + <p> + "Whether this desirable object will be best promoted by affording aids to + seminaries of learning already established by the institution of a + national university or by any other expedients, will be well worthy of a + place in the deliberations of the Legislature." + </p> + <p> + Addressing himself then particularly to the representatives, he said: "I + saw with peculiar pleasure, at the close of the last session, the + resolution entered into by you, expressive of your opinion that an + adequate provision for the support of the public credit is a matter of + high importance to the national honor and prosperity. In this sentiment I + entirely concur, and to a perfect confidence in your best endeavors to + devise such a provision as will be truly consistent with the end, I add an + equal reliance on the cheerful cooperation of the other branch of the + Legislature. It would be superfluous to specify inducements to a measure + in which the character and permanent interests of the United States are so + obviously and so deeply concerned, and which has received so explicit a + sanction from your declaration." + </p> + <p> + Addressing himself again to both houses he observed that the estimates and + papers respecting the objects particularly recommended to their attention + would be laid before them, and concluded with saying: "The welfare of our + country is the great object to which our cares and efforts ought to be + directed, and I shall derive great satisfaction from a cooperation with + you in the pleasing though arduous task of insuring to our fellow-citizens + the blessings which they have a right to expect from a free, efficient, + and equal government." + </p> + <p> + The answers of both houses were indicative of the harmony which subsisted + between the executive and legislative departments. + </p> + <p> + Congress had been so occupied during its first session with those bills + which were necessary to bring the new system into full operation and to + create an immediate revenue, that some measures which possessed great and + pressing claims to immediate attention had been unavoidably deferred. The + neglect under which the creditors of the public had been permitted to + languish could not fail to cast an imputation on the American republic, + and had been sincerely lamented by the wisest among those who administered + the former government. The power to comply substantially with the + engagements of the United States being at length conferred on those who + were bound by them, it was confidently expected by the friends of the + constitution that their country would retrieve its reputation, and that + its fame would no longer be tarnished with the blots which stain a + faithless people. + </p> + <p> + On the 9th of January (1790), a letter from Mr. Hamilton, the Secretary of + the Treasury, to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, was read, + stating that, in obedience to the resolution of the 21st of September + (1789), he had prepared a plan for the support of public credit, which he + was ready to report when the House should be pleased to receive it, and, + after a short debate in which the personal attendance of the secretary, + for the purpose of making explanations, was urged by some and opposed by + others, it was resolved that the report should be received in writing on + the succeeding Thursday. + </p> + <p> + Availing himself of the latitude afforded by the terms of the resolution + under which he acted, the secretary had introduced into his report an able + and comprehensive argument elucidating and supporting the principles it + contained. After displaying, with strength and perspicuity, the justice + and the policy of an adequate provision for the public debt, he proceeded + to discuss the principles on which it should be made. + </p> + <p> + "It was agreed," he said, "by all, that the foreign debt should be + provided for according to the precise terms of the contract. It was to be + regretted that, with respect to the domestic debt, the same unanimity of + sentiment did not prevail." + </p> + <p> + The first point on which the public appeared to be divided, involved the + question, "whether a discrimination ought not to be made between original + holders of the public securities and present possessors by purchase." + After reviewing the arguments generally urged in its support, the + secretary declared himself against this discrimination. He deemed it + "equally unjust and impolitic, highly injurious even to the original + holders of public securities, and ruinous to public credit." To the + arguments with which he enforced these opinions, he added the authority of + the government of the Union. From the circular address of Congress to the + States of the 26th of April, 1783, accompanying their revenue system of + the 18th of the same month, passages were selected indicating, + unequivocally, that in the view of that body the original creditors, and + those who had become so by assignment, had equal claims upon the nation. + </p> + <p> + After reasoning at great length against a discrimination between the + different creditors of the Union, the secretary proceeded to examine + whether a difference ought to be permitted to remain between them and the + creditors of individual States. + </p> + <p> + Both descriptions of debt were contracted for the same objects and were in + the main the same. Indeed, a great part of the particular debts of the + States had arisen from assumptions by them on account of the Union, and it + was most equitable that there should be the same measure of retribution + for all. There were many reasons, some of which were stated, for believing + this would not be the case, unless the State debts should be assumed by + the nation. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the injustice of favoring one class of creditors more than + another which was equally meritorious, many arguments were urged in + support of the policy of distributing to all with an equal hand from the + same source. + </p> + <p> + After an elaborate discussion of these and some other points connected + with the subject, the secretary proposed that a loan should be opened to + the full amount of the debt, as well of the particular States as of the + Union. + </p> + <p> + The terms to be offered were— + </p> + <p> + First. That for every $100 subscribed payable in the debt, as well + interest as principal, the subscriber should be entitled to have + two-thirds funded on a yearly interest of six per cent, (the capital + redeemable at the pleasure of government by the payment of the principal), + and to receive the other third in lands of the western territory at their + then actual value. Or, + </p> + <p> + Secondly. To have the whole sum funded at a yearly interest of four per + cent., irredeemable by any payment exceeding five dollars per annum both + on account of principal and interest, and to receive as a compensation for + the reduction of interest, fifteen dollars and eighty cents, payable in + lands as in the preceding case. Or, + </p> + <p> + Thirdly. To have sixty-six and two-thirds of a dollar funded at a yearly + interest of six per cent., irredeemable also by any payment exceeding four + dollars and two-thirds of a dollar per annum on account both of principal + and interest, and to have at the end of ten years twenty-six dollars and + eighty-eight cents funded at the like interest and rate of redemption. + </p> + <p> + In addition to these propositions, the creditors were to have an option of + vesting their money in annuities on different plans, and it was also + recommended to open a loan at five per cent, for ten millions of dollars, + payable one-half in specie and the other half in the debt, irredeemable by + any payment exceeding six dollars per annum both of principal and + interest. + </p> + <p> + By way of experiment, a tontine, on principles stated in the report, was + also suggested. + </p> + <p> + The secretary was restrained from proposing to fund the whole debt + immediately at the current rate of interest, by the opinion, "that + although such a provision might not exceed the abilities of the country, + it would require the extension of taxation to a degree and to objects + which the true interests of the creditors themselves would forbid. It was + therefore to be hoped and expected that they would cheerfully concur in + such modifications of their claims, on fair and equitable principles as + would facilitate to the government an arrangement substantial, durable, + and satisfactory to the community. Exigencies might ere long arise which + would call for resources greatly beyond what was now deemed sufficient for + the current service, and should the faculties of the country be exhausted + or even strained to provide for the public debt, there could be less + reliance on the sacredness of the provision. + </p> + <p> + "But while he yielded to the force of these considerations, he did not + lose sight of those fundamental principles of good faith which dictate + that every practicable exertion ought to be made, scrupulously to fulfill + the engagements of government; that no change in the rights of its + creditors ought to be attempted without their voluntary consent, and that + this consent ought to be voluntary in fact, as well as in name. + Consequently, that every proposal of a change ought to be in the shape of + an appeal to their reason and to their interest, not to their necessities. + To this end, it was requisite that a fair equivalent should be offered for + what might be asked to be given up and unquestionable security for the + remainder." This fair equivalent for the proposed reduction of interest + was, he thought, offered in the relinquishment of the power to redeem the + whole debt at pleasure. + </p> + <p> + That a free judgment might be exercised by the holders of public + securities in accepting or rejecting the terms offered by the government, + provision was made in the report for paying to nonsubscribing creditors a + dividend of the surplus which should remain in the treasury after paying + the interest of the proposed loans; but, as the funds immediately to be + provided were calculated to produce only four per cent. on the entire + debt, the dividend, for the present, was not to exceed that rate of + interest. + </p> + <p> + To enable the treasury to support this increased demand upon it, an + augmentation of the duties on imported wines, spirits, tea, and coffee was + proposed and a duty on homemade spirits was also recommended. + </p> + <p> + This celebrated report, which has been alike the fruitful theme of + extravagant praise and bitter censure, merits the more attention, because + the first regular and systematic opposition to the principles on which the + affairs of the Union were administered, originated in the measures which + were founded on it. + </p> + <p> + On the 28th of January (1790), says Marshall, this subject was taken up, + and, after some animadversions on the speculations in the public debt to + which the report, it was said, had already given birth, the business was + postponed until the 8th of February, when it was again brought forward. + </p> + <p> + Several resolutions affirmative of the principles contained in the report, + were moved by Mr. Fitzsimmons. To the first, which respected a provision + for the foreign debt, the House agreed without a dissenting voice. The + second, in favor of appropriating permanent funds for payment of the + interest on the domestic debt and for the gradual redemption of the + principal, gave rise to a very animated debate. {1} + </p> + <p> + Mr. Jackson declared his hostility to funding systems generally. To prove + their pernicious influence, he appealed to the histories of Florence, + Genoa, and Great Britain, and contending that the subject ought to be + deferred until North Carolina should be represented, moved that the + committee should rise. This question being decided in the negative, Mr. + Scott declared the opinion that the United States were not bound to pay + the domestic creditors the sums specified in the certificates of debts in + their possession. He supported this opinion by urging, not that the public + had received less value than was expressed on the face of the paper which + had been issued, but that those to whom it had been delivered by parting + with it at two shillings and sixpence in the pound, had themselves fixed + the value of their claims, and had manifested their willingness to add to + their other sacrifices this deduction from their demand upon the nation. + He therefore moved to amend the resolution before the committee so as to + require a resettlement of the debt. + </p> + <p> + The amendment was opposed by Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Ames, Mr. + Sherman, Mr. Hartley, and Mr. Goodhue. They stated at large the terms on + which the debt had been contracted, and urged the confidence which the + creditors had a right to place in the government for its discharge + according to settlements already made, and acknowledgments already given. + The idea that the legislative body could diminish an ascertained debt was + reprobated with great force, as being at the same time unjust, impolitic, + and subversive of every principle on which public contracts are founded. + The evidences of debt possessed by the creditors of the United States were + considered as public bonds, for the redemption of which the property and + the labor of the people were pledged. + </p> + <p> + After the debate had been protracted to some length, the question was + taken on Mr. Scott's amendment, and it passed in the negative. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Madison then rose, and, in an eloquent speech, replete with argument, + proposed an amendment to the resolution, the effect of which was to + discriminate between the public creditors, so as to pay the present holder + of assignable paper the highest price it had borne in the market, and give + the residue to the person with whom the debt was originally contracted. + Where the original creditor had never parted with his claim, he was to + receive the whole sum acknowledged to be due on the face of the + certificate. + </p> + <p> + This motion was supported by Mr. Jackson, Mr. White, Mr. Moore, Mr. Page, + Mr. Stone, Mr. Scott, and Mr. Seney. + </p> + <p> + It was opposed with great earnestness and strength of argument by Mr. + Sedgewic, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Smith, of South Carolina, Mr. Ames, Mr. Gerry, + Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Wadsworth, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Hartley, Mr. Bland, Mr. + Benson, Mr. Burke, and Mr. Livermore. + </p> + <p> + The argument was ably supported on both sides, was long, animated, and + interesting. At length the question was put and the amendment was rejected + by a great majority. + </p> + <p> + This discussion deeply engaged the public attention. The proposition was + new and interesting. That the debt ought to be diminished for the public + advantage, was an opinion which had frequently been advanced, and was + maintained by many. But a reduction from the claims of its present holders + for the benefit of those who had sold their rights, was a measure which + saved nothing to the public purse, and was therefore recommended only by + considerations, the operation of which can never be very extensive. + Against it were arrayed all who had made purchases, and a great majority + of those who conceived that sound policy and honest dealing require a + literal observance of public contracts. + </p> + <p> + Although the decision of Congress against a discrimination in favor of the + original creditor produced no considerable sensation, the determination on + that part of the secretary's report which was the succeeding subject of + deliberation, affecting political interests and powers which are never to + be approached without danger, seemed to unchain all those fierce passions + which a high respect for the government, and for those who administered + it, had in a great measure restrained. + </p> + <p> + The manner in which the several States entered into and conducted the war + of the Revolution, is well known. Acting in some respects separately, and + in others conjointly, for the attainment of a common object, their + resources were exerted, sometimes under the authority of Congress, + sometimes under the authority of the local government, to repel the enemy + wherever he appeared. The debt incurred in support of the war was, + therefore, in the first instance, contracted partly by Congress and partly + by the States. When the system of requisitions was adopted, the + transactions of the Union were carried on almost entirely through the + agency of the States, and, when the measure of compensating the army for + the depreciation of their pay became necessary, this burden, under the + recommendation of Congress, was assumed by the respective States. Some had + funded this debt, and paid the interest upon it. Others had made no + provision for the interest; but all, by taxes, paper money, or purchase, + had in some measure reduced the principal. In their exertions some degree + of inequality had obtained, and they looked anxiously to a settlement of + accounts, for the ascertainment of claims which each supposed itself to + have upon the Union. Measures to effect this object had been taken by the + former government, but they were slow in their progress, and intrinsic + difficulties were found in the thing itself, not easily to be overcome. + </p> + <p> + Hamilton proposed to assume these debts and to fund them in common with + that which continued to be the proper debt of the Union. + </p> + <p> + The resolution which comprehended this principle of the report was + vigorously opposed. + </p> + <p> + It was contended that the general government would acquire an undue + influence, and that the State governments would be annihilated by the + measure. Not only would all the influence of the public creditors be + thrown into the scale of the former, but it would absorb all the powers of + taxation, and leave to the latter only the shadow of a government. This + would probably terminate in rendering the State governments useless, and + would destroy the system so recently established. The Union, it was said, + had been compared to a rope of sand, but gentlemen were cautioned not to + push things to the opposite extreme. The attempt to strengthen it might be + unsuccessful, and the cord might be strained until it should break. + </p> + <p> + The constitutional authority of the Federal government to assume the debts + of the States was questioned. Its powers, it was said, were specified, and + this was not among them. + </p> + <p> + The policy of the measure, as it affected merely the government of the + Union, was controverted, and its justice was arraigned. + </p> + <p> + On the ground of policy, it was objected that the assumption would impose + on the United States a burden, the weight of which was unascertained, and + which would require an extension of taxation beyond the limits which + prudence would prescribe. An attempt to raise the impost would be + dangerous, and the excise added to it would not produce funds adequate to + the object. A tax on real estate must be resorted to, objections to which + had been made in every part of the Union. It would be more advisable to + leave this source of revenue untouched in the hands of the State + governments, who could apply to it with more facility, with a better + understanding of the subject, and with less dissatisfaction to + individuals, than could possibly be done by the government of the United + States. + </p> + <p> + There existed no necessity for taking up this burden. The State creditors + had not required it. There was no petition from them upon the subject. + There was not only no application from the States, but there was reason to + believe that they were seriously opposed to the measure. Many of them + would certainly view it with a jealous—a jaundiced eye. The + convention of North Carolina which adopted the constitution had proposed, + as an amendment to it, to deprive Congress of the power of interfering + between the respective States and their creditors, and there could be no + obligation to assume more than the balances which on a final settlement + would be found due to creditor States. + </p> + <p> + That the debt by being thus accumulated would be perpetuated, was also an + evil of real magnitude. Many of the States had already made considerable + progress in extinguishing their debts, and the process might certainly be + carried on more rapidly by them than by the Union. A public debt seemed to + be considered by some as a public blessing, but to this doctrine they were + not converts. If, as they believed, a public debt was a public evil, it + would be enormously increased by adding those of the States to that of the + Union. + </p> + <p> + The measure was unwise, too, as it would affect public credit. Such an + augmentation of the debt must inevitably depreciate its value, since it + was the character of paper, whatever denomination it might assume, to + diminish in value in proportion to the quantity in circulation. + </p> + <p> + It would also increase an evil which was already sensibly felt. The State + debts, when assumed by the continent, would, as that of the Union had + already done, accumulate in large cities; and the dissatisfaction excited + by the payment of taxes would be increased by perceiving that the money + raised from the people flowed into the hands of a few individuals. Still + greater mischief was to be apprehended. A great part of this additional + debt would go into the hands of foreigners, and the United States would be + heavily burdened to pay an interest which could not be expected to remain + in the country. + </p> + <p> + The measure was unjust, because it was burdening those States which had + taxed themselves highly to discharge the claims of their creditors with + the debts of those which had not made the same exertions. It would delay + the settlement of accounts between the individual States and the United + States, and the supporters of the measure were openly charged with + intending to defeat that settlement. + </p> + <p> + It was also said that in its execution the scheme would be found extremely + embarrassing, perhaps impracticable. The case of a partial accession to + the measure by the creditors, a case which would probably occur, presented + a difficulty for which no provision was made, and of which no solution had + been given. Should the creditors in some States come into the system, and + those in others refuse to change their security, the government would be + involved in perplexities from which no means of extricating itself had + been shown. Nor would it be practicable to discriminate between the debts + contracted for general and for local objects. + </p> + <p> + In the course of the debate severe allusions were made to the conduct of + particular States, and the opinions advanced in favor of the measure were + ascribed to local interests. + </p> + <p> + In support of the assumption, the debts of the States were traced to their + origin. America, it was said, had engaged in a war the object of which was + equally interesting to every part of the Union. It was not the war of a + particular State, but of the United States. It was not the liberty and + independence of a part, but of the whole, for which they had contended, + and which they had acquired. The cause was a common cause. As brethren, + the American people had consented to hazard property and life in its + defense. All the sums expended in the attainment of this great object, + whatever might be the authority under which they were raised or + appropriated, conduced to the same end. Troops were raised, and military + stores purchased, before Congress assumed the command of the army or the + control of the war. The ammunition which repulsed the enemy at Bunker's + Hill was purchased by Massachusetts, and formed a part of the debt of that + State. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more erroneous than the principle which had been assumed + in argument, that the holders of securities issued by individual States + were to be considered merely as State creditors, as if the debt had been + contracted on account of the particular State. It was contracted on + account of the Union, in that common cause in which all were equally + interested. + </p> + <p> + From the complex nature of the political system which had been adopted in + America, the war was, in a great measure, carried on through the agency of + the State governments, and the debts were, in truth, the debts of the + Union, for which the States had made themselves responsible. Except the + civil list, the whole State expenditure was in the prosecution of the war, + and the State taxes had undeniably exceeded the provision for their civil + list. The foundation for the several classes of the debt was reviewed in + detail, and it was affirmed to be proved from the review, and from the + books in the public offices, that, in its origin, a great part of it, even + in form, and the whole, in fact, was equitably due from the continent. The + States individually possessing all the resources of the nation, became + responsible to certain descriptions of the public creditors. But they were + the agents of the continent in contracting the debt, and its distribution + among them for payment arose from the division of political power which + existed under the old confederation. A new arrangement of the system had + taken place, and a power over the resources of the nation was conferred on + the general government. With the funds the debt also ought to be assumed. + This investigation of its origin demonstrated that the assumption was not + the creation of a new debt, but the reacknowledgment of liability for an + old one, the payment of which had devolved on those members of the system + who, at the time, were alone capable of paying it. And thence was inferred + not only the justice of the measure, but a complete refutation of the + arguments drawn from the constitution. If, in point of fact, the debt was + in its origin continental and had been transferred to the States for + greater facility of payment, there could be no constitutional objection to + restoring its original and real character. + </p> + <p> + The great powers of war, of taxation, and of borrowing money, which were + vested in Congress to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and + general welfare of the United States, comprised that in question. There + could be no more doubt of their right to charge themselves with the + payment of a debt contracted in the past war, than to borrow money for the + prosecution of a future war. The impolicy of leaving the public creditors + to receive payment from different sources was also strongly pressed, and + the jealousy which would exist between the creditors of the Union and of + the States was considered as a powerful argument in favor of giving them + one common interest. This jealousy, it was feared, might be carried so far + as even to create an opposition to the laws of the Union. + </p> + <p> + If the State should provide for their creditors, the same sum of money + must be collected from the people as would be required if the debt should + be assumed, and it would probably be collected in a manner more burdensome + than if one uniform system should be established. If all should not make + such provision, it would be unjust to leave the soldier of one State + unpaid, while the services of the man who fought by his side were amply + compensated, and, after having assumed the funds, it would dishonor the + general government to permit a creditor, for services rendered or property + advanced for the continent, to remain unsatisfied, because his claim had + been transferred to the State at a time when the State alone possessed the + means of payment. By the injured and neglected creditor such an + arrangement might justly be considered as a disreputable artifice. + </p> + <p> + Instead of delaying, it was believed to be a measure which would + facilitate the settlement of accounts between the States. Its advocates + declared that they did not entertain and never had entertained any wish to + procrastinate a settlement. On the contrary it was greatly desired by + them. They had themselves brought forward propositions for that purpose, + and they invited their adversaries to assist in improving the plan which + had been introduced. + </p> + <p> + The settlement between the States, it was said, either would or would not + be made. Should it ever take place, it would remedy any inequalities which + might grow out of the assumption. Should it never take place, the justice + of the measure became the more apparent. That the burdens in support of a + common war, which from various causes had devolved unequally on the + States, ought to be apportioned among them, was a truth too clear to be + controverted, and this, if the settlement should never be accomplished, + could be effected only by the measure now proposed. Indeed, in any event, + it would be the only certain, as well as only eligible plan. For how were + the debtor States to be compelled to pay the balances which should be + found against them? + </p> + <p> + If the measure was recommended by considerations which rendered its + ultimate adoption inevitable, the present was clearly preferable to any + future time. It was desirable immediately to quiet the minds of the public + creditors by assuring them that justice would be done, to simplify the + forms of public debt, and to put an end to that speculation which had been + so much reprobated and which could be terminated only by giving the debt a + real and permanent value. + </p> + <p> + That the assumption would impair the just influence of the States was + controverted with great strength of argument. The diffusive representation + in the State Legislatures, the intimate connection between the + representative and his constituents, the influence of the State + Legislatures over the members of one branch of the national Legislature, + the nature of the powers exercise by the State governments, which + perpetually presented them to the people in a point of view calculated to + lay hold of the public affections, were guarantees that the States would + retain their due weight in the political system and that a debt was not + necessary to the solidity or duration of their power. + </p> + <p> + But the argument, it was said, proved too much. If a debt was now + essential to the preservation of State authority it would always be so. It + must therefore never be extinguished, but must be perpetuated in order to + secure the existence of the State governments. If, for this purpose, it + was indispensable that the expenses of the Revolutionary War should be + borne by the States, it would not be less indispensable that the expenses + of future wars should be borne in the same manner. Either the argument was + unfounded or the constitution was wrong, and the powers of the sword and + the purse ought not to have been conferred on the government of the Union. + Whatever speculative opinions might be entertained on this point, they + were to administer the government according to the principles of the + constitution as it was framed. But, it was added, if so much power + followed the assumption as the objection implies, is it not time to ask—is + it safe to forbear assuming? If the power is so dangerous it will be so + when exercised by the States. If assuming tends to consolidation, is the + reverse, tending to disunion, a less weighty objection? If it is answered + that the non-assumption will not necessarily tend to disunion, neither, it + may be replied, does the assumption necessarily tend to consolidation. + </p> + <p> + It was not admitted that the assumption would tend to perpetuate the debt. + It could not be presumed that the general government would be less willing + than the local governments to discharge it; nor could it be presumed that + the means were less attainable by the former than the latter. + </p> + <p> + It was not contended that a public debt was a public blessing. Whether a + debt was to be preferred to no debt was not the question. The debt was + already contracted, and the question so far as policy might be consulted, + was, whether it was more for the public advantage to give it such a form + as would render it applicable to the purposes of a circulating medium, or + to leave it a mere subject of speculation, incapable of being employed to + any useful purpose. The debt was admitted to be an evil, but it was an + evil from which, if wisely modified, some benefit might be extracted, and + which, in its present state, could have only a mischievous operation. + </p> + <p> + If the debt should be placed on adequate funds, its operation on public + credit could not be pernicious; in its present precarious condition, there + was much more to be apprehended in that respect. + </p> + <p> + To the objection that it would accumulate in large cities, it was answered + it would be a moneyed capital, and would be held by those who chose to + place money at interest, but by funding the debt the present possessors + would be enabled to part with it at its nominal value, instead of selling + it at its present current rate. If it should center in the hands of + foreigners, the sooner it was appreciated to its proper standard, the + greater quantity of specie would its transfer bring into the United + States. + </p> + <p> + To the injustice of charging those States which had made great exertions + for the payment of their debts with the burden properly belonging to those + which had not made such exertions, it was answered that every State must + be considered as having exerted itself to the utmost of its resources, and + that if it could not or would not make provision for creditors to whom the + Union was equitably bound, the argument in favor of an assumption was the + stronger. + </p> + <p> + The arguments drawn from local interests were repelled and retorted, and a + great degree of irritation was excited on both sides. + </p> + <p> + After a very animated discussion of several days, the question was taken, + and the resolution was carried by a small majority. Soon after this + decision, while the subject was pending before the House, the delegates + from North Carolina took their seats, and changed the strength of parties. + By a majority of two voices, the resolution was recommitted, and, after a + long and ardent debate, was negatived by the same majority. + </p> + <p> + This proposition continued to be supported with a degree of earnestness + which its opponents termed pertinacious, but not a single opinion was + changed. It was brought forward in the new and less exceptionable form of + assuming specific sums from each State. Under this modification of the + principle, the extraordinary contributions of particular States during the + war, and their exertions since the peace, might be regarded, and the + objections to the measure, drawn from the uncertainty of the sum to be + assumed, would be removed. But these alterations produced no change of + sentiment, and the bill was sent up to the Senate with a provision for + those creditors only whose certificates of debt purported to be payable by + the Union. + </p> + <p> + In this state of things the measure is understood to have derived aid from + another, which was of a nature strongly to interest particular parts of + the Union. + </p> + <p> + From the month of June, 1783, when Congress was driven from Philadelphia + by the mutiny of a part of the Pennsylvania line, the necessity of + selecting some place for a permanent residence, in which the government of + the Union might exercise sufficient authority to protect itself from + violence and insult, had been generally acknowledged. Scarcely any subject + had occupied more time, or had more agitated the members of the former + Congress than this. + </p> + <p> + In December, 1784, an ordinance was passed for appointing commissioners to + purchase land on the Delaware, in the neighborhood of its falls, and to + erect thereon the necessary public buildings for the reception of Congress + and the officers of government; but the southern interest had been + sufficiently strong to arrest the execution of this ordinance by + preventing an appropriation of funds, which required the assent of nine + States. Under the existing government, this subject had received the early + attention of Congress, and many different situations, from the Delaware to + the Potomac inclusive, had been earnestly supported, but a majority of + both houses had not concurred in favor of any one place. With as little + success, attempts had been made to change the temporary residence of + Congress. Although New York was obviously too far to the east, so many + conflicting interests were brought into operation whenever the subject was + touched, that no motion designating a more central place could succeed. At + length, a compact respecting the temporary and permanent seat of + government was entered into between the friends of Philadelphia and the + Potomac, stipulating that Congress should adjourn to and hold its sessions + in Philadelphia for ten years, during which time buildings for the + accommodation of the government should be erected at some place on the + Potomac, to which the government should remove at the expiration of the + term. This compact having united the representatives of Pennsylvania and + Delaware with the friends of the Potomac, in favor both of the temporary + and permanent residence which had been agreed on between them, a majority + was produced in favor of the two situations, and a bill which was brought + into the Senate in conformity with this previous arrangement, passed both + houses by small majorities. This act was immediately followed by an + amendment to the bill then depending before the Senate for funding the + debt of the Union. The amendment was similar in principle to that which + had been unsuccessfully proposed in the House of Representatives. By its + provisions, $21,500,000 of the State debts were assumed in specified + proportions, and it was particularly enacted that no certificate should be + received from a State creditor which could be "ascertained to have been + issued for any purpose other than compensations and expenditures for + services or supplies toward the prosecution of the late war and the + defense of the United States, or of some part thereof, during the same." + </p> + <p> + When the question was taken in the House of Representatives on this + amendment two members, representing districts on the Potomac, who, in all + the previous stages of the business, had voted against the assumption, + declared themselves in its favor, and thus the majority was changed. {2} + </p> + <p> + Thus was a measure carried which was supported and opposed with a degree + of zeal and earnestness not often manifested, and which furnished + presages, not to be mistaken, that the spirit with which the opposite + opinions had been maintained, would not yield, contentedly, to the + decision of a bare majority. This measure has constituted one of the great + grounds of accusation against the first administration of the general + government, and it is fair to acknowledge that though, in its progress, it + derived no aid from the President, whose opinion remained in his own + bosom, it received the full approbation of his judgment. + </p> + <p> + A bill at length passed both houses, funding the debt upon principles + which lessened considerably the weight of the public burdens and was + entirely satisfactory to the public creditors. The proceeds of the sales + of the lands lying in the western territory and, by a subsequent act of + the same session, the surplus product of the revenue, after satisfying the + appropriations which were charged upon it with the addition of $2,000,000, + which the President was authorized to borrow at 5 per cent., constituted a + sinking fund to be applied to the reduction of the debt. + </p> + <p> + The effect of this measure was great and rapid. The public paper suddenly + rose and was for a short time above par. The immense wealth which + individuals acquired by this unexpected appreciation could not be viewed + with indifference. Those who participated in its advantages regarded the + author of a system to which they were so greatly indebted, with an + enthusiasm of attachment to which scarcely any limits were assigned. To + many others this adventitious collection of wealth in particular hands was + a subject rather of chagrin than of pleasure, and the reputation which the + success of his plans gave to the Secretary of the Treasury was not + contemplated with unconcern. As if the debt had been created by the + existing government, not by a war which gave liberty and independence to + the United States, its being funded was ascribed by many, not to a sense + of justice and to a liberal and enlightened policy, but to the desire of + bestowing on the government an artificial strength, by the creation of a + moneyed interest which would be subservient to its will. The effects + produced by giving the debt a permanent value justified the predictions of + those whose anticipations had been most favorable. The sudden increase of + moneyed capital derived from it invigorated commerce and gave a new + stimulus to agriculture. + </p> + <p> + About this time there was a great and visible improvement in the + circumstances of the people. Although the funding system was certainly not + inoperative in producing this improvement it cannot be justly ascribed to + any single cause. Progressive industry had gradually repaired the losses + sustained by the war, and the influence of the constitution on habits of + thinking and acting, though silent, was considerable. In depriving the + States of the power to impair the obligation of contracts or to make + anything but gold and silver a tender in payment of debts, the conviction + was impressed on that portion of society which had looked to the + government for relief from embarrassment that personal exertions alone + could free them from difficulties, and an increased degree of industry and + economy was the natural consequence of this opinion. {3} + </p> + <p> + Various other matters besides those already noticed, occupied the + attention of Congress during this laborious session. The question of the + slave trade was brought up by a petition from the Quakers in Pennsylvania, + Delaware, and other States, and the venerable Dr. Franklin, as president + of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, sent + in a memorial, early in February, asking the serious attention of Congress + to the importance and duty of extending to the negroes the blessings of + freedom. The subject was discussed at great length and with much warmth on + both sides, and toward the close of March it was resolved, "That Congress + have no authority to interfere in the emancipation of slaves, or in the + treatment of them within any of the States." Laws for the naturalization + of aliens, after two years' residence, for the patenting of useful + inventions, and for securing to authors the copyright of their works; and + others, regulating the mercantile marine of the Union, in respect to the + seamen engaged in it; and forming a groundwork for a criminal code; for + the ordering of what was called "the military establishment," only 1,216 + rank and file; and for arranging the means of intercourse with the Indians + in respect to trade and the acquisition of their hunting-grounds, and with + European governments for the larger commerce which required the + superintendence of resident ministers—these were duly considered and + framed. Much other business was done, such as voting for the public + service, under the heads of the civil list, pensions for revolutionary + services, the military establishment, lighthouses, embassies, and + outstanding debts, the moderate sum of about $725,000. + </p> + <p> + Both houses, having returned thanks to the corporation of the city of New + York, "for the elegant and convenient accommodations furnished the + Congress of the United States," adjourned on the 12th of August (1790), to + meet again in December, in the city of Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + Washington's old and valued friend, Dr. Franklin, after painful and + protracted sufferings, closed a life of four-score and four years on the + 17th of April, 1790. He was buried in the cemetery of Christ Church, + Philadelphia, and his funeral was attended by more than 20,000 of his + fellow-citizens. Congress resolved to wear the customary badge of mourning + for one month, "as a mark of veneration due to the memory of a citizen, + whose native genius was not more an ornament to human nature than his + various exertions of it have been precious to science, to freedom, and to + his country." In the National Assembly of France, Mirabeau eloquently + dilated in praise of the illustrious deceased, and Lafayette seconded the + motion for a decree, ordering the members to wear the usual badge of + mourning for three days, and there was not a land blessed with the light + of civilization which did not lament his death and pour forth expressions + of sorrow for the loss which not only America, but the world had + sustained. + </p> + <p> + An act was passed by Congress to accept the cession of the claims of the + State of North Carolina, to a certain district of western territory, and + on the 20th of May, provision was made for its government, under the title + of "The Territory of the United States south of the river Ohio." + </p> + <p> + On the 29th of May, 1790, Rhode Island, having become somewhat more alive + to her true interests and to the ill results which must certainly follow + her exclusion from the Union, adopted the constitution and cast in her lot + with the sister States for the great future which was opening before them + all. + </p> + <p> + A treaty of peace was concluded in August of this year with the Creek + Indians which restored tranquility to the people of Georgia. The pacific + overtures made to the Indians of the Wabash and the Miamis had not been + equally successful. The western frontiers were still exposed to their + incursions, and there was much reason to apprehend that the people of + Kentucky and of the western counties of the middle States could only be + relieved from the horrors of savage warfare by an exertion of the military + strength of the Union. In the opinion of the President, the emergency + required the immediate employment of a force competent to the object and + which should carry terror and destruction into the heart of the hostile + settlements. The people of the West, however, declared their opinion in + favor of desultory military expeditions, and Congress indulged their + wishes. The desire of the executive for a military establishment equal to + the exigency was not regarded and the distresses of the frontier + inhabitants therefore still continued. + </p> + <p> + The conduct of Spain in relation to the disputed boundary, and its + pretensions to the navigation of the Mississippi, was such as to give + ground to fear that its dispositions toward the United States were + unfriendly. Between the United States and England the nonexecution of + several articles of the treaty of peace still furnished matter for + reciprocal crimination which there was the more difficulty in removing + because there was no diplomatic intercourse maintained between them. Under + the old government, Mr. Adams' mission had been treated with neglect, and + the new administration was not disposed to subject itself to a similar + mark of disrespect. Mr. Gouverneur Morris was instructed, as an informal + agent to the British government, to sound its views respecting amicable + and permanent arrangements of the matters in dispute. But Mr. Morris + remarked, "that there never was, perhaps, a moment in which this country + (Britain) felt herself greater, and, consequently, it is the most + unfavorable moment to obtain advantageous terms from her in any bargain." + He conducted his mission with ability and address, but was unable to bring + it to a satisfactory conclusion. The communications laid before the + American government at the same time by Major Beckwith, an English + gentlemen, who had come in an informal manner to learn the dispositions of + the American government towards England and Spain, between which a rupture + was expected, gave Washington an insight of the object of the delays which + had been practiced with Mr. Morris. He was persuaded that a disposition + existed in the cabinet of London to retain things in their actual + situation until the intentions of the American government should be + ascertained with respect to the war supposed to be approaching. If America + would make a common cause with Great Britain against Spain, the way would + be smoothed to the attainment of all their objects, but if America should + incline toward Spain, no adjustment of the points of difference between + the two nations would be made. He therefore determined to hold himself + free to pursue without reproach, in the expected war, such a course as the + interest and honor of the United States might dictate. The want of + official authenticity in the communications of Mr. Beckwith was, + therefore, signified to that gentleman as a reason for reserve on the part + of the government and the powers given to Mr. Morris were withdrawn. It + was determined that things should remain in their actual situation until a + change of circumstances should require a change of conduct. Scarcely had + this resolution been adopted when the dispute between Britain and Spain + was adjusted, and thus both the fear of inconveniences, and the hope of + advantages which might result to America from war between the two powers, + were terminated. + </p> + <p> + By his incessant application to public business and the consequent change + of active for sedentary habits, the constitution of the President seemed + much impaired and during the second session of Congress he had, for the + second time since entering upon the duties of his office, been attacked by + a severe disease, which reduced him to the brink of the grave. Exercise, + and a temporary relief from the cares of office, being essential to the + restoration of his health, he determined for the short interval afforded + by the recess of the Legislature to retire from the fatigues of public + life to the tranquil shades of Mount Vernon. Previously, however, he made + a visit to Rhode Island, which, not having been a member of the Union at + the time of his late tour through New England, had not been visited by him + at that time. + </p> + <p> + His final departure from New York was not less affecting than his arrival + had been, when he came to assume the reins of government. "It was always + his habit," says Custis in his "Recollections," "to endeavor to avoid the + manifestations of affection and gratitude that met him everywhere. He + strove in vain—he was closely watched and the people would have + their way. He wished to slip off unobserved from New York and thus steal a + march upon his old companions in arms. But there were too many of the dear + glorious old veterans of the Revolution at that time of day in and near + New York to render such an escape possible. + </p> + <p> + "The baggage had all been packed up; the horses, carriages, and servants + ordered to be over the ferry to Paulus Hook by daybreak and nothing was + wanting for departure but the dawn. The lights were yet burning, when the + President came into the room where his family were assembled, evidently + much pleased in the belief that all was right, when, immediately under the + windows, the band of the artillery struck up Washington's March. 'There,' + he exclaimed, 'it's all over, we are found out. Well, well, they must have + their own way.' New York soon after appeared as if taken by storm—troops + and persons of all descriptions hurrying down Broadway toward the place of + embarkation, all anxious to take a last look on him whom so many could + never expect to see again. + </p> + <p> + "The embarkation was delayed until all the complimentary arrangements were + completed. The President, after taking leave of many dear and cherished + friends, and many an old companion in arms, stepped into the barge that + was to convey him from New York forever. The coxswain gave the word 'let + fall;' the spray from the oars sparkled in the morning sunbeams; the + bowman shoved off from the pier, and, as the barge swung round to the + tide, Washington rose, uncovered, in the stern, to bid adieu to the masses + assembled on the shore; he waved his hat, and, in a voice tremulous from + emotion, pronounced—Farewell. It may be supposed that Major Bauman, + who commanded the artillery on this interesting occasion, who was first + captain of Lamb's regiment, and a favorite officer of the war of the + Revolution, would, when about to pay his last respects to his beloved + commander, load his pieces with something more than mere blank cartridges. + But ah! the thunders of the cannon were completely hushed when the mighty + shout of the people arose that responded to the farewell of Washington. + Pure from the heart it came, right up to Heaven it went, to call down a + blessing upon the Father of his Country. + </p> + <p> + "The barge had scarcely gained the middle of the Hudson when the trumpets + were heard at Paulus Hook, where the Governor and the chivalry of Jersey + were in waiting to welcome the chief to those well-remembered shores. + Escorts of cavalry relieved each other throughout the whole route up to + the Pennsylvania line; every village, and even hamlet, turned out its + population to greet with cordial welcome the man upon whom all eyes were + fixed and in whom all hearts rejoiced. + </p> + <p> + "What must have been the recollections that crowded on the mind of + Washington during this triumphant progress? Newark, Brunswick, Princeton, + Trenton! What a contrast between the glorious burst of sunshine that now + illumined and made glad everything around these memorable spots, with the + gloomy and desolate remembrances of '76! Then his country's champion, with + the wreck of a shattered host, was flying before a victorious and + well-appointed foe, while all around him was shrouded in the darkness of + despair; now, in his glorious progress over the self-same route, his firm + footstep presses upon the soil of an infant empire, reposing in the joys + of peace, independence, and happiness. + </p> + <p> + "Among the many who swelled his triumph, the most endeared to the heart of + the chief were the old associates of his toils, his fortunes, and his + fame. Many of the Revolutionary veterans were living in 1790, and, by + their presence, gave a dignified tone and character to all public + assemblages; and when you saw a peculiarly fine-looking soldier in those + old days, and would ask: 'To what corps of the American army did you + belong?' drawing himself up to his full height, with a martial air, and + back of the hand thrown up to his forehead, the veteran would reply: 'Life + Guard, your honor.' + </p> + <p> + "And proud and happy were these veterans in again beholding their own good + Lady Washington. Greatly was she beloved in the army. Her many + intercessions with the chief for the pardon of offenders—her + kindness to the sick and wounded—all caused her annual arrival in + camp to be hailed as an event that would serve to dissipate the gloom of + the winter quarters. + </p> + <p> + "Arrived at the line, the Jersey escort was relieved by the cavalry of + Pennsylvania, and, when near to Philadelphia, the President was met by + Governor Mifflin and a brilliant cortege of officers, and escorted by a + squadron of horse to the city. Conspicuous among the Governors suite, as + well for his martial bearing as for the manly beauty of his person, was + General Walter Stewart, a son of Erin, and a gallant and distinguished + officer of the Pennsylvania line. To Stewart, as to Cadwallader, + Washington was most warmly attached; indeed, those officers were among the + very choicest of the contributions of Pennsylvania to the army and cause + of independence. Mifflin, small in stature, was active, alert, 'every inch + a soldier.' He was a patriot of great influence in Pennsylvania in the + 'times that tried men's souls,' and nobly did he exert that influence in + raising troops, with which to reinforce the wreck of the grand army at the + close of the campaign of '76. + </p> + <p> + "Arrived within the city, the crowd became intense, the President left his + carriage and mounted the white charger, and, with the Governor on his + right, proceeded to the city tavern in Third street, where quarters were + prepared for him, the light infantry, after some time, having opened a + passage for the carriages. At the city tavern the President was received + by the authorities of Philadelphia, who welcomed the chief magistrate to + their city as to his home for the remainder of his Presidential term. A + group of old and long-tried friends were also in waiting. Foremost among + these, and first to grasp the hand of Washington, was one who was always + nearest to his heart, a patriot and public benefactor, Robert Morris. + </p> + <p> + "After remaining a short time in Philadelphia, the President speeded on + his journey to that home where he ever found rest from his weighty labors, + and enjoyed the sweets of rural and domestic happiness amid his farms and + at his fireside of Mount Vernon." + </p> + <p> + Whenever Washington was residing at Mount Vernon, he was accustomed to + receive visits from his old and intimate friends, and to relieve his mind + from the cares of state by lively and familiar conversation, and social + and convivial intercourse. On one occasion, some years before the period + of which we are now writing, Mr. Drayton and Mr. Izard, of South Carolina, + were on a visit to Mount Vernon. {4} + </p> + <p> + After dinner, while the party were still sitting at table, the + conversation turned on Arnold's treason. Mr. Lear, Washington's private + secretary, was present, and after retiring he wrote down in his diary + Washington's own account of that remarkable incident in our history in his + own words. The extract from Mr. Lear's diary has recently been published + for the first time in Mr. Rush's "Washington in Domestic Life." It is as + follows: + </p> + <p> + "After dinner, Washington was, in the course of conversation, led to speak + of Arnold's treachery, when he gave the following account of it, which I + shall put in his own words, thus: 'I confess I had a good opinion of + Arnold before his treachery was brought to light; had that not been the + case I should have had some reason to suspect him sooner, for when he + commanded in Philadelphia, the Marquis Lafayette brought accounts from + France of the armament which was to be sent to cooperate with us in the + ensuing campaign. Soon after this was known, Arnold pretended to have some + private business to transact in Connecticut, and on his way there he + called at my quarters, and in the course of conversation expressed a + desire of quitting Philadelphia and joining the army the ensuing campaign. + I told him that it was probable we should have a very active one, and that + if his wound and state of health would permit, I should be extremely glad + of his services with the army. He replied that he did not think his wound + would permit him to take a very active part, but still he persisted in his + desire of being with the army. He went on to Connecticut and on his return + called again upon me. He renewed his request of being with me next + campaign, and I made him the same answer I had done before. He again + repeated that he did not think his wound would permit him to do active + duty, and intimated a desire to have the command at West Point. I told him + I did not think that would suit him, as I should leave none in the + garrison but invalids, because it would be entirely covered by the main + army. The subject was dropped at that time, and he returned to + Philadelphia. It then appeared somewhat strange to me that a man of + Arnold's known activity and enterprise should be desirous of taking so + inactive a part. I however thought no more of the matter. When the French + troops arrived at Rhode Island, I had intelligence from New York that + General Clinton intended to make an attack upon them before they could get + themselves settled and fortified. In consequence of that I was determined + to attack New York, which would be left much exposed by his drawing off + the British troops, and accordingly formed my line of battle and moved + down with the whole army to King's ferry, which we passed. Arnold came to + camp that time, and, having no command, and consequently no quarters (all + the houses thereabouts being occupied by the army), he was obliged to seek + lodgings at some distance from the camp. While the army was crossing at + King's ferry I was going to see the last detachment over, and met Arnold, + who asked me if I had thought of anything for him. I told him that he was + to have the command of the light troops, which was a post of honor, and + which his rank indeed entitled him to. Upon this information his + countenance changed, and he appeared to be quite fallen; and, instead of + thanking me, or expressing any pleasure at the appointment, never opened + his mouth. I desired him to go on to my quarters and get something to + refresh himself, and I would meet him there soon. He did so. Upon his + arrival there he found Colonel Tilghman, whom he took aside, and, + mentioning what I had told him, seemed to express great uneasiness at it—as + his leg, he said, would not permit him to be long on horseback, and + intimated a great desire to have the command at West Point. When I + returned to my quarters Colonel Tilghman informed me of what had passed. I + made no reply to it, but his behavior struck me as strange and + unaccountable. In the course of that night, however, I received + information from New York that General Clinton had altered his plan and + was debarking his troops. This information obliged me likewise to alter my + disposition and return to my former station, where I could better cover + the country. I then determined to comply with Arnold's desire, and + accordingly gave him the command of the garrison at West Point. Things + remained in this situation about a fortnight, when I wrote to the Count + Rochambeau, desiring to meet him at some intermediate place (as we could + neither of us be long enough from our respective commands to visit the + other), in order to lay the plan for the siege of Yorktown, and proposed + Hartford, where I accordingly went and met the count. On my return I met + the Chevalier Luzerne toward evening within about fifteen miles of West + Point (on his way to join the count at Rhode Island), which I intended to + reach that night, but he insisted upon turning back with me to the next + public house, where, in politeness to him, I could not but stay all night, + determining, however, to get to West Point to breakfast very early. I sent + off my baggage, and desired Colonel Hamilton to go forward and inform + General Arnold that I would breakfast with him. Soon after he arrived at + Arnold's quarters a letter was delivered to Arnold which threw him into + the greatest confusion. He told Colonel Hamilton that something required + his immediate attendance at the garrison, which was on the opposite side + of the river to his quarters, and immediately ordered a horse to take him + to the river, and the barge, which he kept to cross, to be ready, and + desired Major Franks, his aide, to inform me when I should arrive that he + was gone over the river and would return immediately. When I got to his + quarters and did not find him there I desired Major Franks to order me + some breakfast, and, as I intended to visit the fortifications, I would + see General Arnold there. After I had breakfasted I went over the river, + and, inquiring for Arnold, the commanding officer told me that he had not + been there. I likewise inquired at the several redoubts, but no one could + give me any information where he was. The impropriety of his conduct, when + he knew I was to be there, struck me very forcibly, and my mind misgave + me, but I had not the least idea of the real cause. When I returned to + Arnold's quarters about two hours after, and told Colonel Hamilton that I + had not seen him, he gave me a packet which had just arrived for me from + Colonel Jemmison, which immediately brought the matter to light. I ordered + Colonel Hamilton to mount his horse and proceed with the greatest dispatch + to a post on the river about eight miles below, in order to stop the barge + if she had not passed, but it was too late. It seems that the letter which + Arnold received which threw him into such confusion was from Colonel + Jemmison, informing him that André was taken, and that the papers found + upon him were in his possession. Colonel Jemmison, when André was taken + with these papers, could not believe that Arnold was a traitor, but rather + thought it was an imposition of the British in order to destroy our + confidence in Arnold. He, however, immediately on their being taken, + dispatched an express after me, ordering him to ride night and day till he + came up with me. The express went the lower road, which was the road by + which I had gone to Connecticut, expecting that I would return by the same + route, and that he would meet me, but before he had proceeded far he was + informed that I was returning by the upper road. He then cut across the + country and followed in my track till I arrived at West Point. He arrived + about two hours after and brought the above packet. When Arnold got down + to the barge, he ordered his men, who were very clever fellows and some of + the better sort of soldiery, to proceed immediately on board the Vulture, + sloop-of-war, as a flag, which was lying down the river, saying that they + must be very expeditious, as he must return in a short time to meet me, + and promised them two gallons of rum if they would exert themselves. They + did, accordingly, but when they got on board the Vulture, instead of their + two gallons of rum, he ordered the coxswain to be called down into the + cabin, and informed him that he and the men must consider themselves as + prisoners. The coxswain was very much astonished, and told him that they + came on board under the sanction of a flag. He answered that that was + nothing to the purpose; they were prisoners. But the captain of the + Vulture had more generosity than this pitiful scoundrel, and told the + coxswain that he would take his parole for going on shore to get clothes, + and whatever else was wanted for himself and his companions. He + accordingly came, got his clothes, and returned on board. When they got to + New York, General Clinton, ashamed of so low and mean an action, set them + all at liberty.'" + </p> + <p> + This narrative, from the lips of Washington himself, throws much + additional light on Arnold's treason. It is also interesting to the + general reader, as affording a specimen of Washington's style in + conversation, when the events of the Revolution formed the topic of + discourse. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: On account of the great importance of this debate, we give + Marshall's synopsis of the arguments used on both sides. It brought up the + question of State rights as opposed to centralization for the first time; + and on many other accounts is particularly interesting for the political + reader, as well as for all who are curious respecting our early colonial + history. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: It has ever been understood that these members were, on + principle, in favor of the assumption as modified in the amendment made by + the Senate; but they withheld their assent from it when originally + proposed in the House of Representatives in the opinion that the increase + of the national debt added to the necessity of giving to the departments + of the national government a more central residence. It is understood that + a greater number would have changed had it been necessary. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Marshall. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: October 23, 1786, was the date of Messrs. Drayton and Izard's + visit. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. — THE NATIONAL BANK ESTABLISHED. 1790. + </h2> + <p> + On his way from New York to Mount Vernon Washington stopped for a short + time, as we have seen, in Philadelphia. While there he addressed a letter + to his private secretary, Mr. Lear, which is interesting not only for the + information it contains respecting his residence, but from its + illustrating that remarkable attention to the details of business, which + we have already had occasion to notice. + </p> + <p> + "After a pleasant journey," he writes, "we arrived in this city on + Thursday last (September 2, 1790), and tomorrow we proceed—if Mrs. + Washington's health will permit, for she has been much indisposed since we + came here—toward Mount Vernon. The house of Mr. Robert Morris had, + previous to my arrival, been taken by the corporation for my residence. + {1} + </p> + <p> + "It is the best they could get. It is, I believe, the best single house in + the city. Yet without additions it is inadequate to the commodious + accommodation of my family. These additions, I believe, will be made. The + first floor contains only two public rooms (except one for the upper + servants). The second floor will have two public (drawing) rooms, and with + the aid of one room with a partition in it, in the back building, will be + sufficient for the use of Mrs. Washington and the children, and their + maids, besides affording her a small place for a private study and + dressing-room. The third story will furnish you and Mrs. Lear with a good + lodging-room, a public office (for there is no room below for one), and + two rooms for the gentlemen of the family. The garret has four good rooms, + which must serve Mr. and Mrs. Hyde {2}—unless they should prefer the + room over the workhouse—William, and such servants as it may not be + better to place in the proposed additions to the back building. There is a + room over the stable which may serve the coachman and postillions, and + there is a smokehouse, which may possibly be more valuable for the use of + servants than for the smoking of meats. The intention of the addition to + the back building is to provide a servant's hall and one or two + lodging-rooms for the servants. There are good stables, but for twelve + horses only, and a coach-house, which will hold all my carriages. Speaking + of carriages, I have left my coach to receive a thorough repair, by the + time I return, which I expect will be before the 1st of December." + </p> + <p> + The Legislature, meantime, had appropriated for his residence an elegant + house in South Ninth street, which was taken down a few years since, + having been occupied by the University, and other buildings were erected + on the same lot for the same purpose. But Washington refused to occupy the + house offered by the State authorities, because he would not live in a + house which was not hired and paid for by himself. He was desirous, + however, to have the rent fixed before he entered the house, and he wrote + repeatedly to Mr. Lear from Mount Vernon to ascertain what the rent would + be. On the 14th of November, 1790, he wrote to Mr. Lear as follows: + </p> + <p> + "I am, I must confess, exceedingly unwilling to go into any house without + first knowing on what terms I do it, and wish that this sentiment could be + again hinted in delicate terms to the parties concerned with me. I cannot, + if there are no latent motives which govern in this case, see any + difficulty in the business. Mr. Morris has most assuredly formed an idea + of what ought in equity to be the rent of the tenement in the condition he + left it, and with this aid the committee ought, I conceive, to be as + little at a loss in determining what it should rent for, with the + additions and alterations which are about to be made, and which ought to + be done in a plain and neat, not by any means in an extravagant style, + because the latter is not only contrary to my wish but would really be + detrimental to my interest and convenience, principally because it would + be the means of keeping me out of the use and comforts of the house to a + late period, and because the furniture and everything else would require + to be accordant therewith, besides making me pay an extravagant price, + perhaps to accommodate the alterations to the taste of another or to the + exorbitant rates of workmen. + </p> + <p> + "I do not know, nor do I believe, that anything unfair is intended by + either Mr. Morris or the committee, but let us for a moment suppose that + the rooms (the new ones I mean) were to be hung with tapestry or a very + rich and costly paper, neither of which would suit my present furniture; + that costly ornaments for the bow windows, extravagant chimney-pieces, and + the like were to be provided; that workmen, from extravagance of the times + for every twenty shillings' worth of work would charge forty shillings, + and that advantage should be taken of the occasion to new paint every part + of the house and buildings, would there be any propriety in adding ten or + twelve and a half per cent. for all this to the rent of the house in its + original state for the two years that I am to hold it? If the solution of + these questions is in the negative, wherein lies the difficulty of + determining that the houses and lots, when finished according to the + proposed plan, ought to rent for so much? When all is done that can be + done, the residence will not be so commodious as the house I left in New + York, for there (and the want of it will be found a real inconvenience at + Mr. Morris') my office was in a front room below, where persons on + business were at once admitted, whereas now they will have to ascend two + pair of stairs and to pass by the public rooms to go to it. + Notwithstanding which I am willing to allow as much as was paid to Mr. + Macomb, and shall say nothing if more is demanded, unless there is + apparent extortion or the policy of delay is to see to what height rents + will rise before mine is fixed. In either of these cases I should not be + pleased, and to occupy the premises at the expense of any public body I + will not. + </p> + <p> + "I had rather have heard that my repaired coach was plain and elegant than + rich and elegant." + </p> + <p> + The rent of Mr. Morris' house was finally settled at $3,000 a year, and at + this rate it was occupied by Washington till the expiration of his second + term as President and his final retirement to Mount Vernon. + </p> + <p> + Our readers will excuse us for dwelling a little longer on the domestic + arrangements of Washington, as disclosed in his letters to Mr. Lear. These + details are not only curious and entertaining, as showing the style of + living half a century ago, but as exhibiting the modest and economical + style in which Washington chose to live; and they refute the calumnies of + his political enemies, who, a little later, charged him with + anti-republican state and splendor in his style of living. One of his + letters to Mr. Lear relates to the servants. "The pressure of business," + he writes, "under which I labored for several days before I left New York, + allowed me no time to inquire who of the female servants it was proposed + or thought advisable to remove here, besides the wives of the footmen, + James and Fidas. With respect to Mr. Hyde and his wife, if it is not + stated on some paper handed in by Mr. Hyde, it is nevertheless strong on + my recollection that his wife's services were put down at $100 and his own + at $200 per annum. I have no wish to part with Mr. or Mrs. Hyde; first, + because I do not like to be changing, and, second, because I do not know + where or with whom to supply their places. On the score of accounts I can + say nothing, having never taken a comparative view of his and Fraunces', + but I am exceedingly mistaken if the expenses of the second table, at + which Mr. Hyde presides, have not greatly exceeded those of the tables + kept by Fraunces, for I strongly suspect (but in this I may be mistaken) + that nothing is brought to my table of liquors, fruits, or other luxuries + that is not used as profusely at his. If my suspicions are unfounded I + shall be sorry to have entertained them, and if they are not, it is at + least questionable whether under his successor the same things might not + be done; in which case (if Hyde is honest and careful, of which you are + better able to judge than I am), a change without benefit might take + place, which is not desirable if they are to be retained on proper terms. + I say they, for if Mrs. Hyde is necessary for the purposes enumerated in + your letter, and the cook is not competent to prepare the dessert, make + cake, etc., I do not see of what use Hyde will be, more than William, + without her. Fraunces, besides being an excellent cook, knowing how to + provide genteel dinners, and giving aid in dressing them, prepared the + dessert, made the cake, and did everything that is done by Hyde and his + wife together; consequently the services of Hyde alone are not to be + compared with those of Fraunces; and if his accounts exceed those of + Fraunces, in the same seasons—£4 or £5 a week—and at the same + time appear fair, I shall have no scruple to acknowledge that I have + entertained much harder thoughts of him than I ought to have done, + although it is unaccountable to me how other families, on $2,500 or $3,000 + a year, should be enabled to entertain more company or at least entertain + more frequently than I could do for $25,000." + </p> + <p> + Respecting the furniture, Washington writes: "Mr. and Mrs. Morris have + insisted upon leaving the two large looking-glasses which are in their + best rooms, because they have no place, they say, proper to remove them + to, and because they are unwilling to hazard the taking of them down. You + will, therefore, let them have, instead, the choice of mine; the large + ones I purchased of the French minister they do not incline to take, but + will be glad of some of the others. They will also leave a large glass + lamp in the entry or hall, and will take one or more of my glass lamps in + lieu of it. Mrs. Morris has a mangle (I think it is called) for ironing + clothes, which, as it is fixed in the place where it is commonly used, she + proposes to leave and take mine. To this I have no objection, provided + mine is equally good and convenient; but if I should obtain any + advantages, besides that of its being up and ready for use, I am not + inclined to receive it. + </p> + <p> + "I have no particular direction to give respecting the appropriation of + the furniture. By means of the bow-windows the back rooms will become the + largest, and, of course, will receive the furniture of the largest dining + and drawing-rooms; and in that case, though there are no closets in them, + there are some in the steward's room, directly opposite, which are not + inconvenient. There is a small room adjoining the kitchen that might, if + it is not essential for other purposes, be appropriated for the Sevres + china and other things of that sort, which are not in common use. + </p> + <p> + "Mrs. Morris, who is a notable lady in family arrangements, can give you + much information on all the conveniences about the house and buildings, + and I dare say would rather consider it as a compliment to be consulted in + these matters, as she is so near, than a trouble to give her opinion of + them. + </p> + <p> + "I approve, at least till inconvenience or danger shall appear, of the + large table ornaments remaining on the sideboard, and of the pagodas + standing in the smallest drawing-room. Had I delivered my sentiment from + here, respecting this fixture, that is the apartment I should have named + for it. Whether the green, which you have, or a new yellow curtain, should + be appropriated to the staircase above the hall may depend on your getting + an exact match in color and so forth of the latter. For the sake of + appearances one would not, in instances of this kind, regard a small + additional expense." + </p> + <p> + In these letters, written to Mr. Lear during Washington's residence at + Mount Vernon, in the autumn of 1790, he frequently refers to the children + under Mrs. Washington's care, who composed a part of the family. In a + letter, dated October 3d, he requests Mr. Lear to make inquiries + respecting the schools in Philadelphia, with a view to placing Washington + Custis, Mrs. Washington's grandson, at the best. If the college is under + good regulations, he inquires if it would not be better to put him there + at once. Again, in a letter dated October 10th, after speaking of the + proper care and instruction of his niece, Miss Harriet Washington, when he + should be established in Philadelphia, he refers again to Washington + Custis' education, whom he had adopted as a son, and in whom he appears to + have taken great interest. {3} He also wishes inquiry to be made as to the + higher branches taught at the college, with a view to placing his nephews, + George and Lawrence Washington, at that institution in Philadelphia. + Having studied the languages, they are engaged, he adds, under Mr. Harrow, + in Alexandria, in learning mathematics and French. In a letter dated + November 7, 1790, Washington expresses renewed anxiety respecting the + education of his adopted son, Washington Custis, who appears to have been + about eight years old at this time, and discusses the question of placing + him at the college, if his age will admit of it. + </p> + <p> + On the 17th of November (1790), Washington, writing from Mount Vernon to + Mr. Lear at Philadelphia, mentions that he is just setting out for + Alexandria to a public dinner given to him by the citizens of that place. + In his letter of November 23d, he dates from a tavern on the road, about + twelve miles from Baltimore. He was then on his journey from Mount Vernon + to Philadelphia in his own traveling carriage with Mrs. Washington, the + children, and the servants in attendance on the children, accompanying + them in a stage-coach hired for their accommodation. + </p> + <p> + The party arrived in Philadelphia on Saturday, the 28th of November + (1790), and immediately took possession of the house which had been hired + for the accommodation of the President and his family. The members of + Congress and other public functionaries were mostly at their posts, and a + crowd of strangers were resorting to the city, in expectation of the gay + and brilliant pleasures and society which are usual in the metropolis in + the winter season. + </p> + <p> + In the President's family, "the rules for receiving visitors and + entertaining company," says Dr. Griswold, {4} "continued to be very nearly + the same as in New York. Respectable citizens and strangers, properly + introduced, were seen by the President every other Tuesday, between the + hours of 3 and 4 in the afternoon. The receptions were in the dining-room, + on the first floor, in the back part of the house. At 3 o'clock, all the + chairs having been removed, the door was opened, and the President, + usually surrounded by members of his cabinet, or other distinguished men, + was seen by the approaching visitor standing before the fireplace, his + hair powdered and gathered behind in a silk bag, coat and breeches of + plain black velvet, white or pearl-colored vest, yellow gloves, a cocked + hat in his hand, silver knee and shoe-buckles, and a long sword, with a + finely-wrought and glittering steel hilt, the coat worn over it, and its + scabbard of polished white leather. On these occasions he never shook + hands, even with his most intimate friends. The name of everyone was + distinctly announced, and he rarely forgot that of a person who had been + once introduced to him. The visitor was received with a dignified bow and + passed on to another part of the room. At a quarter past 3 the door was + closed, the gentlemen present moved into a circle, and he proceeded, + beginning at his right hand, to exchange a few words with each. When the + circuit was completed he resumed his first position and the visitors + approached him in succession, bowed, and retired. + </p> + <p> + "At the levees of Mrs. Washington he did not consider any visits made to + himself, and he appeared as a private gentleman, with neither hat nor + sword, conversing without restraint, generally with women, who rarely had + other opportunities of meeting him." + </p> + <p> + Congress assembled for its third session on the 6th of December, 1790, the + day which had been appointed by adjournment. But the members had not yet + learned to be punctual in their attendance, and it was not till the 8th + that a sufficient number took their seats to authorize their entering upon + the business of the session. Among the members we recognize some + celebrated names. From Massachusetts were Elbridge Gerry, afterward + Vice-President of the United States, and Fisher Ames, one of the most + illustrious of American orators; from Connecticut, the veteran statesman, + Roger Sherman; from New Jersey, the philanthropist, Elias Boudinot; from + Pennsylvania, Peter and Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg and George Clymer; + from Virginia, James Madison; from North Carolina, Hugh Williamson, and + from Georgia, Gen. James Jackson. This is but a portion of the strong + array of historical names which adorned the First Congress of the United + States under the constitution. + </p> + <p> + In his speech delivered to Congress at the commencement of their third + session, Washington expressed much satisfaction at the favorable prospect + of public affairs, and particularly noticed the progress of public credit + and the productiveness of the revenue. + </p> + <p> + Adverting to foreign nations, he said: "The disturbed situation of Europe, + and particularly the critical posture of the great maritime powers, whilst + it ought to make us more thankful for the general peace and security + enjoyed by the United States, reminds us at the same time of the + circumspection with which it becomes us to preserve these blessings. It + requires, also, that we should not overlook the tendency of a war, and + even of preparations for war, among the nations most concerned in active + commerce with this country, to abridge the means and thereby, at least, to + enhance the price of transporting its valuable productions to their proper + market." To the serious reflection of Congress was recommended the + prevention of embarrassments from these contingencies, by such + encouragement to American navigation as would render the commerce and + agriculture of the United States less dependent on foreign bottoms. + </p> + <p> + After expressing to the House of Representatives his confidence arising + from the sufficiency of the revenues already established, for the objects + to which they were appropriated, he added: "Allow me moreover to hope that + it will be a favorite policy with you not merely to secure a payment of + the interest of the debt funded, but, as far and as fast as the growing + resources of the country will permit, to exonerate it of the principal + itself." Many subjects relative to the interior government were succinctly + and briefly mentioned, and the speech concluded with the following + impressive and admonitory sentiment: "In pursuing the various and weighty + business of the present session, I indulge the fullest persuasion that + your consultations will be marked with wisdom and animated by the love of + country. In whatever belongs to my duty you shall have all the cooperation + which an undiminished zeal for its welfare can inspire. It will be happy + for us both, and our best reward, if, by a successful administration of + our respective trusts, we can make the established government more and + more instrumental in promoting the good of our fellow-citizens, and more + and more the object of their attachment and confidence." + </p> + <p> + The addresses of the two Houses, in answer to the speech, proved that the + harmony between the executive and legislative departments, with which the + government had gone into operation, had sustained no essential + interruption. But in the short debate which took place on the occasion in + the House of Representatives a direct disapprobation of one of the + measures of the executive government was, for the first time, openly + expressed. + </p> + <p> + In the treaty lately concluded with the Creek Indians, an extensive + territory claimed by Georgia, under treaties, the validity of which was + contested by the chiefs, had been entirely, or in great part, + relinquished. This relinquishment excited serious discontents in that + State and was censured by General Jackson, with considerable warmth, as an + unjustifiable abandonment of the rights and interests of Georgia. No + specific motion, however, was made, and the subject was permitted to pass + away for the present. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely were the debates on the address concluded when several + interesting reports were received from Hamilton, the Secretary of the + Treasury, suggesting such further measures as were deemed necessary for + the establishment of public credit. + </p> + <p> + It will be recollected that, in his original report on this subject, the + secretary had recommended the assumption of the State debts and had + proposed to enable the treasury to meet the increased demand upon it, + which this measure would occasion, by an augmentation of the duties on + imported wines, spirits, tea, and coffee and by imposing duties on spirits + distilled within the country. The assumption not having been adopted until + late in the session, the discussion on the revenue which would be required + for this portion of the public debt did not commence until the House had + become impatient for an adjournment. As much contrariety of opinion was + disclosed, and the subject was not of immediate importance, it was + deferred to the ensuing session, and an order was made requiring the + Secretary of the Treasury to prepare and report such further provision as + might, in his opinion, be necessary for establishing the public credit. In + obedience to this order, several reports had been prepared, the first of + which repeated the recommendation of an additional impost on foreign + distilled spirits and of a duty on spirits distilled within the United + States. The estimated revenue from these sources was $877,500, affording a + small excess over the sum which would be required to pay the interest on + the assumed debt. The policy of the measure was discussed in a + well-digested and able argument, detailing many motives, in addition to + those assigned in his original report, for preferring the system now + recommended to accumulated burdens on commerce or to a direct tax on + lands. + </p> + <p> + A new tax is the certain rallying point for all those who are unfriendly + to the administration or to the minister by whom it is proposed. But that + recommended by the secretary contained intrinsic causes of objection which + would necessarily add to the number of its enemies. All that powerful + party in the United States which attached itself to the local rather than + to the general government, would inevitably contemplate any system of + internal revenue with jealous disapprobation. They considered the + imposition of a tax by Congress on any domestic manufacture as the + intrusion of a foreign power into their particular concerns, which excited + serious apprehensions for State importance and for liberty. In the real or + supposed interests of many individuals was also found a distinct motive + for hostility to the measure. A large portion of the American population, + especially that which had spread itself over the extensive regions of the + West, consuming imported articles to a very inconsiderable amount, was not + much affected by the impost on foreign merchandise. But the duty on + spirits distilled within the United States reached them, and consequently + rendered them hostile to the tax. + </p> + <p> + A bill which was introduced in pursuance of the report (1791) was opposed + with great vehemence by a majority of the southern and western members. By + some of them it was insisted that no sufficient testimony had yet been + exhibited that the taxes already imposed would not be equal to the + exigencies of the public. But, admitting the propriety of additional + burdens on the people, it was contended that other sources of revenue less + exceptionable and less odious than this might be pointed out. The duty was + branded with the hateful epithet of an excise, a species of taxation, it + was said, so peculiarly oppressive as to be abhorred even in England, and + which was totally incompatible with the spirit of liberty. The facility + with which it might be extended to other objects was urged against its + admission into the American system, and declarations made against it by + the Congress of 1775 were quoted in confirmation of the justice with which + inherent vices were ascribed to this mode of collecting taxes. So great + was the hostility manifested against it in some of the States that the + revenue officers might be endangered from the fury of the people, and in + all it would increase a ferment which had been already extensively + manifested. + </p> + <p> + When required to produce a system in lieu of that which they objected to, + the opponents of the bill alternately mentioned an increased duty on + imported articles generally, a particular duty on molasses, a direct tax, + a tax on salaries, pensions, and lawyers, a duty on newspapers, and a + stamp act. The friends of the bill contended that the reasons for + believing the existing revenue would be insufficient to meet the + engagements of the United States were as satisfactory as the nature of the + case would admit or as ought to be required. The estimates were founded on + the best data which were attainable, and the funds already provided had + been calculated by the proper officer to pay the interest on that part of + the debt only for which they were pledged. Those estimates were referred + to as documents from which it would be unsafe to depart. They were also in + possession of official statements showing the productiveness of the taxes + from the time the revenue bill had been in operation, and arguments were + drawn from these demonstrating the danger to which the infant credit of + the United States would be exposed by relying on the existing funds for + the interest on the assumed debt. It was not probable that the proposed + duties would yield a sum much exceeding that which would be necessary, but + should they fortunately do so, the surplus revenue might be advantageously + employed in extinguishing a part of the principal. They were not, they + said, of opinion that a public debt was a public blessing, or that it + ought to be perpetuated. An augmentation of the revenue being + indispensable to the solidity of the public credit, a more eligible system + than that proposed in the bill could not, it was believed, be devised. + Still further to burden commerce would be a hazardous experiment, which + might afford no real supplies to the treasury. Until some lights should be + derived from experience, it behooved the Legislature to be cautious not to + lay such impositions upon trade as might probably introduce a spirit of + smuggling, which, with a nominal increase, would occasion a real + diminution of revenue. In the opinion of the best judges, the impost on + the mass of foreign merchandise could not safely be carried further for + the present. The extent of the mercantile capital of the United States + would not justify the attempt. Forcible arguments were also drawn from the + policy and the justice of multiplying the subjects of taxation and + diversifying them by a union of internal with external objects. + </p> + <p> + Neither would a direct tax be advisable. The experience of the world had + proved that a tax on consumption was less oppressive and more productive + than a tax on either property or income. Without discussing the principles + on which the fact was founded, the fact itself was incontestable that, by + insensible means, much larger sums might be drawn from any class of men + than could be extracted from them by open and direct taxes. + </p> + <p> + Against the substitution of a duty on internal negotiations, it was said + that revenue to any considerable extent could be collected from them only + by means of a stamp act, which was not less obnoxious to popular + resentment than an excise, would be less certainly productive than the + proposed duties, and was, in every respect, less eligible. + </p> + <p> + The honor, the justice, and the faith of the United States were pledged, + it was said, to that class of creditors for whose claims the bill under + consideration was intended to provide. No means of making the provision + had been suggested, which, on examination, would be found equally eligible + with a duty on ardent spirits. Much of the public prejudice which appeared + in certain parts of the United States against the measure was to be + ascribed to their hostility to the term "excise," a term which had been + inaccurately applied to the duty in question. When the law should be + carried into operation, it would be found not to possess those odious + qualities which had excited resentment against a system of excise. In + those States where the collection of a duty on spirits distilled within + the country had become familiar to the people, the same prejudices did not + exist. On the good sense and virtue of the nation they could confidently + rely for acquiescence in a measure which the public exigencies rendered + necessary, which tended to equalize the public burdens and which, in its + execution, would not be oppressive. + </p> + <p> + A motion made by General Jackson to strike out that section which imposed + a duty on domestic distilled spirits was negatived by 36 to 16, and the + bill was carried by 35 to 21. Some days after the passage of this bill + another question was brought forward which was understood to involve + principles of deep interest to the government. + </p> + <p> + Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, had been the uniform advocate of + a national bank. Believing that such an institution would be "of primary + importance to the prosperous administration of the finances and of the + greatest utility in the operations connected with the support of public + credit," he had earnestly recommended its adoption in the first general + system which he presented to the view of Congress, and, at the present + session, had repeated that recommendation in a special report, containing + a copious and perspicuous argument on the policy of the measure. A bill + conforming to the plan he suggested was sent down from the Senate and was + permitted to proceed, unmolested, in the House of Representatives, to the + third reading. On the final question a great, and, it would seem, an + unexpected opposition was made to its passage. Mr. Madison, Mr. Giles, + General Jackson, and Mr. Stone spoke against it. The general utility of + banking systems was not admitted, and the particular bill before the House + was censured on its merits; but the great strength of the argument was + directed against the constitutional authority of Congress to pass an act + for incorporating a national bank. + </p> + <p> + The government of the United States, it was said, was limited, and the + powers which it might legitimately exercise were enumerated in the + constitution itself. In this enumeration the power now contended for was + not to be found. Not being expressly given it must be implied from those + which were given or it could not be vested in the government. The clauses + under which it could be claimed were then reviewed and critically + examined, and it was contended that, on fair construction, no one of these + could be understood to imply so important a power as that of creating a + corporation. + </p> + <p> + The clause which enables Congress to pass all laws necessary and proper to + execute the specified powers must, according to the natural and obvious + force of the terms and the context, be limited to means necessary to the + end and incident to the nature of the specified powers. The clause, it was + said, was in fact merely declaratory of what would have resulted by + unavoidable implication, as the appropriate, and as it were technical, + means of executing those powers. Some members observed that "the true + exposition of a necessary mean to produce a given end was that mean + without which the end could not be produced." + </p> + <p> + The bill was supported by Mr. Ames, Mr. Sedgwick, Mr. Smith, of South + Carolina, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Gerry, and Mr. Vining. + </p> + <p> + The utility of banking institutions was said to be demonstrated by their + effects. In all commercial countries they had been resorted to as an + instrument of great efficacy in mercantile transactions; and even in the + United States their public and private advantages had been felt and + acknowledged. + </p> + <p> + Respecting the policy of the measure no well-founded doubt could be + entertained, but the objections to the constitutional authority of + Congress deserved to be seriously considered. + </p> + <p> + That the government was limited by the terms of its creation was not + controverted; and that it could exercise only those powers which were + conferred on it by the constitution was admitted. If, on examination, that + instrument should be found to forbid the passage of the bill, it must be + rejected, though it would be with deep regret that its friends would + suffer such an opportunity of serving their country to escape for the want + of a constitutional power to improve it. + </p> + <p> + In asserting the authority of the Legislature to pass the bill it was + contended that incidental as well as express powers must necessarily + belong to every government, and that, when a power is delegated to effect + particular objects, all the known and usual means of effecting them must + pass as incidental to it. To remove all doubts on this subject, the + constitution of the United States had recognized the principle by enabling + Congress to make all laws which may be necessary and proper for carrying + into execution the powers vested in the government. They maintained the + sound construction of this grant to be a recognition of an authority in + the national Legislature to employ all the known and usual means for + executing the powers vested in the government. They then took a + comprehensive view of those powers and contended that a bank was a known + and usual instrument by which several of them were exercised. + </p> + <p> + After a debate of great length, which was supported on both sides with + ability and with that ardor which was naturally excited by the importance + attached by each party to the principle in contest, the question was put + and the bill was carried in the affirmative by a majority of nineteen + votes. + </p> + <p> + The point which had been agitated with so much zeal in the House of + Representatives was examined with equal deliberation by the executive. The + cabinet was divided upon it. Jefferson, the Secretary of State, and + Randolph, the Attorney-General, conceived that Congress had clearly + transcended their constitutional powers, while Hamilton, the Secretary of + the Treasury, with equal clearness, maintained the opposite opinion. The + advice of each minister, with his reasoning in support of it, was required + in writing, and their arguments were considered by the President with all + that attention which the magnitude of the question and the interest taken + in it by the opposing parties so eminently required. This deliberate + investigation of the subject terminated in a conviction that the + constitution of the United States authorized the measure, and the sanction + of the Executive was given to the act. {5} + </p> + <p> + In February, 1791, Vermont, having, in convention, adopted the + constitution of the United States, was admitted to the Union. The result + of the census of the United States, which had been ordered in 1790, was a + total of 3,929,827 souls, of whom 697,897 were slaves. + </p> + <p> + Besides the establishment of the Bank of the United States and the passage + of the excise law, Congress resolved upon having a mint for the national + coinage; it authorized an increase of the army and the raising a military + force to resist the Indians, and provided for the maintenance of these + additional troops; it also appropriated above $1,200,000 to various + branches of the public service, making the expenses of the year + $4,000,000, part of which had to be met by loans, since the surplus of the + former year had been applied to the paying off part of the national debt, + as a former act of Congress had directed. We may mention, in this + connection, that the exports of the year were computed to amount to some + $19,000,000 and the imports to about $20,000,000. + </p> + <p> + Among the last acts of the present Congress, as already mentioned, was an + act to augment the military establishment of the United States. + </p> + <p> + The earnest endeavors of Washington to give security to the northwestern + frontiers, by pacific arrangements, having been entirely unavailing, it + became his duty to employ such other means as were placed in his hands for + the protection of the country. Confirmed by all his experience in the + opinion that vigorous offensive operations alone could bring an Indian war + to a happy conclusion, he had planned an expedition against the hostile + tribes northwest of the Ohio as soon as the impracticability of effecting + a treaty with them had been ascertained. + </p> + <p> + General Harmar, a veteran of the Revolution, who had received his + appointment under the former government, was placed at the head of the + Federal troops. On the 30th of September (1790) he marched from Fort + Washington with 320 regulars. The whole army, when joined by the militia + of Pennsylvania and Kentucky, amounted to 1,453 men. About the middle of + October Colonel Harden, who commanded the Kentucky militia, and who had + been also a continental officer of considerable merit, was detached at the + head of 600 men, chiefly militia, to reconnoiter the ground and to + ascertain the intentions of the enemy. On his approach the Indians set + fire to their principal village and fled with precipitation to the wood. + As the object of the expedition would be only half accomplished unless the + savages could be brought to action and defeated, Colonel Harden was again + detached at the head of 210 men, 30 of whom were regulars. About ten miles + west of Chilicothe, where the main body of the army lay, he was attacked + by a party of Indians. The Pennsylvanians, who composed his left column, + had previously fallen in the rear, and the Kentuckians, disregarding the + exertions of their colonel and of a few other officers, fled on the first + appearance of the enemy. The small corps of regulars, commanded by + Lieutenant Armstrong, made a brave resistance. After twenty-three of them + had fallen in the field the surviving seven made their escape and rejoined + the army. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this check the remaining towns on the Scioto were reduced + to ashes, and the provisions laid up for the winter were entirely + destroyed. This service being accomplished the army commenced its march + toward Fort Washington. Being desirous of wiping off the disgrace which + his arms had sustained, General Harmar halted about eight miles from + Chilicothe and once more detached Colonel Harden with orders to find the + enemy and bring on an engagement. His command consisted of 360 men, of + whom 60 were regulars, commanded by Major Wyllys. Early the next morning + this detachment reached the confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Mary, + where it was divided into three columns. The left division, commanded by + Colonel Harden in person, crossed the St. Joseph and proceeded up its + western bank. The center, consisting of the Federal troops, was led by + Major Wyllys up the eastern side of that river, and the right, under the + command of Major M'Millan, marched along a range of heights which + commanded the right flank of the center division. The columns had + proceeded but a short distance when each was met by a considerable body of + Indians, and a severe engagement ensued. The militia retrieved their + reputation, and several of their bravest officers fell. The heights on the + right having been, from some cause not mentioned, unoccupied by the + American troops, the savages seized them early in the action, and attacked + the right flank of the center with great fury. Although Major Wyllys was + among the first who fell the battle was maintained by the regulars with + spirit, and considerable execution was done on both sides. At length the + scanty remnant of this small band, quite overpowered by numbers, was + driven off the ground, leaving fifty of their comrades, exclusive of Major + Wyllys and Lieutenant Farthingham, dead upon the field. The loss sustained + by the militia was also considerable. It amounted to upwards of 100 men, + among whom were nine officers. After an engagement of extreme severity the + detachment joined the main army, which continued its march to Fort + Washington. + </p> + <p> + General Harmar, with what propriety it is not easy to discern, claimed the + victory. He conceived, not entirely without reason, that the loss of a + considerable number of men would be fatal to the Indians, although a still + greater loss should be sustained by the Americans, because the savages did + not possess a population from which they could replace the warriors who + had fallen. The event, however, did not justify this opinion. + </p> + <p> + The information respecting this expedition was quickly followed by + intelligence stating the deplorable condition of the frontiers. An address + from the representatives of all the counties of Virginia, and those of + Virginia bordering on the Ohio, was presented to the President, praying + that the defense of the country might be committed to militia unmixed with + regulars, and that they might immediately be drawn out to oppose "the + exulting foe." To this address the President gave a conciliatory answer, + but he understood too well the nature of the service to yield to the + request it contained. Such were his communications to the Legislature that + a regiment was added to the permanent military establishment, and he was + authorized to raise a body of 2,000 men for six months, and to appoint a + major-general, and a brigadier-general, to continue in command so long as + he should think their services necessary. + </p> + <p> + With the 3d of March, 1791, terminated the first Congress elected under + the constitution of the United States. "The party denominated Federal," + says Marshall, "having prevailed at the elections, a majority of the + members were steadfast friends of the Constitution, and were sincerely + desirous of supporting a system they had themselves introduced, and on the + preservation of which, in full health and vigor, they firmly believed the + happiness of their fellow-citizens, and the respectability of the nation, + greatly to depend. To organize a government, to retrieve the national + character, to establish a system of revenue, and to create public credit, + were among the arduous duties which were imposed upon them by the + political situation of their country. With persevering labor, guided by no + inconsiderable portion of virtue and intelligence, these objects were, in + a great degree, accomplished. Out of the measures proposed for their + attainment, questions alike intricate and interesting unavoidably arose. + It is not in the nature of man to discuss such questions without strongly + agitating the passions, and exciting irritations which do not readily + subside. + </p> + <p> + "Had it ever been the happy and singular lot of America to see its + national Legislature assemble uninfluenced by those prejudices which grew + out of the previous divisions of the country, the many delicate points + which they were under the necessity of deciding, could not have failed to + disturb this enviable state of harmony, and to mingle some share of party + spirit with their deliberations. But when the actual state of the public + mind was contemplated, and due weight was given to the important + consideration that at no very distant day a successor to the present chief + magistrate must be elected, it was still less to be hoped that the first + Congress could pass away without producing strong and permanent + dispositions in parties, to impute to each other designs unfriendly to the + public happiness. As yet, however, these imputations did not extend to the + President. His character was held sacred, and the purity of his motives + was admitted by all. Some divisions were understood to have found their + way into the cabinet. It was insinuated that between the Secretaries of + State and of the Treasury very serious differences had arisen, but these + high personages were believed to be equally attached to the President, who + was not suspected of undue partiality to either. If his assent to the bill + for incorporating the national bank produced discontent, the opponents of + that measure seemed disposed to ascribe his conduct, in that instance, to + his judgment, rather than to any prepossession in favor of the party by + whom it was carried. The opposition, therefore, in Congress, to the + measures of the government, seemed to be levelled at the Secretary of the + Treasury, and at the northern members by whom those measures were + generally supported, not at the President by whom they were approved. By + taking this direction it made its way into the public mind, without being + encountered by that devoted affection which a great majority of the people + felt for the chief magistrate of the Union. In the meantime, the national + prosperity was in a state of rapid progress; and the government was + gaining, though slowly, in the public opinion. But in several of the State + assemblies, especially in the southern division of the continent, serious + evidences of dissatisfaction were exhibited, which demonstrated the + jealousy with which the local sovereignties contemplated the powers + exercised by the Federal Legislature." + </p> + <p> + A recent writer, speaking of the discussions in the cabinet respecting the + bill establishing a national bank, says: + </p> + <p> + "Jefferson and Randolph were of opinion that Congress, in passing the + bill, transcended the powers vested in them by the constitution. Hamilton, + on the other hand, maintained it to be purely constitutional. + </p> + <p> + "It was not an easy task to unite two men of such opposite natures as + Hamilton and Jefferson, and make them act in concert in the same cabinet. + The critical state of affairs at the first adoption of the constitution, + and the impartial preponderance of Washington alone could accomplish it. + He applied himself to it with consummate perseverance and wisdom. At heart + he felt a decided preference for Hamilton and his views. 'By some,' said + he, 'he is considered an ambitious man and therefore a dangerous one. That + he is ambitious I readily grant, but his ambition is of that laudable kind + which prompts a man to excel in whatever he takes in hand. He is + enterprising, quick in his perceptions, and in his judgment intuitively + great.' + </p> + <p> + "But it was only in 1798, in the freedom of retirement, that Washington + spoke so explicitly. While in office, and between his two secretaries, he + maintained toward them a strict reserve, and testified the same confidence + in both. He believed both of them to be sincere and able; both of them + necessary to the country and to himself. Jefferson was to him, not only a + connecting tie, a means of influence with the popular party which rarely + became the opposition; but he made use of him in the internal + administration of his government as a counterpoise to the tendencies, and + especially to the language, sometimes extravagant and inconsiderate, of + Hamilton and his friends. He had interviews and consultations with each of + them separately, upon the subjects which they were to discuss together, in + order to remove or lessen beforehand their differences of opinion. He knew + how to turn the merit and popularity of each, with his own party, to the + general good of the government, even to their own mutual advantage. He + skilfully availed himself of every opportunity to employ them in a common + responsibility. And when a disagreement too wide, and passions too + impetuous, seemed to threaten an immediate rupture, he interposed, used + exhortation and entreaty, and by his personal influence, by a frank and + touching appeal to the patriotism and right-mindedness of the two rivals, + he postponed the breaking forth of the evil which it was not possible to + eradicate. On the bank question he required from each his arguments in + writing, and after maturely weighing them both, he gave the sanction of + his signature to the act passed by Congress for its incorporation. From + the moment of the incorporation of the Bank of the United States parties + assumed the almost perfect forms of organization and principles by which + they are marked in our own day. The arguments and imputations of the + Republican party, however, were not so much intended to apply to + Washington and his measures as to Hamilton, who was considered and + acknowledged by all as the head of the Federal party. This fact was + sufficiently proved when Washington, at the close of the session of + Congress, made an excursion into the southern States. His reception by men + of all parties was ample testimony of the fact that he united all hearts, + and that, however the measures or the constitution of government might be + censured and disapproved, none would refuse to pour the grateful homage of + free hearts into the bosom of their veteran chief." Of this excursion we + shall give an account in the next chapter. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: This house was in Market street, on the south side, near + Sixth street. The market-house buildings then reached only to Fourth + street; the town in this street extended westward scarcely so far as Ninth + street; good private dwellings were seen above Fifth street; Mr. Morris' + was perhaps the best; the garden was well enclosed by a wall.—(Richard + Rush, "Washington in Domestic Life," from Original Letters and + Manuscripts. Philadelphia, 1857.) + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Mr. Hyde was butler. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Mr. Curtis was the writer of the "Reminiscences" we have so + frequently quoted. He died on the 10th of October, 1857, aged seventy-six + years. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: Republican Court. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Marshall. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. — POLITICAL PARTIES DEVELOPED. 1791-1792. + </h2> + <p> + Washington, having received from Congress more ample means for the + protection of the frontiers against the Indians, now directed his + attention (March, 1791) to an expedition which should carry the war into + their own country; this, as we have already seen, being his favorite + method of dealing with Indian hostilities. He accordingly appointed + Maj.-Gen. Arthur St. Clair, governor of the territory northwest of the + Ohio, commander-in-chief of the forces to be employed in the meditated + expedition. This officer had served through the war of the Revolution with + reputation, though it had never been his fortune to distinguish himself. + The evacuation of Ticonderoga had indeed, at one time, subjected him to + much public censure, but it was found, upon inquiry, to be unmerited. + Other motives, in addition to the persuasion of his fitness for the + service, induced Washington to appoint him. With the sword, the olive + branch was still to be tendered, and it was thought advisable to place + them in the same hands. The governor, having been made officially the + negotiator with the tribes inhabiting the territories over which he + presided, being a military man acquainted with the country into which the + war was to be carried, possessing considerable influence with the + inhabitants of the frontiers, and being so placed as to superintend the + preparations for the expedition advantageously, seemed to have claims to + the station which were not to be overlooked. It was also a consideration + of some importance that the high rank he had held in the American army + would obviate those difficulties in filling the inferior grades with men + of experience, which might certainly be expected should a person who had + acted in a less elevated station be selected for the chief command. + </p> + <p> + After making the necessary arrangements for recruiting the army Washington + prepared to make his long contemplated tour through the southern States. + </p> + <p> + On the 19th of March (1791), in writing to Lafayette, he says: "The tender + concern which you express on my late illness awakens emotions which words + will not explain, and to which your own sensibility can best do justice. + My health is now quite restored, and I flatter myself with a hope of a + long exemption from sickness. On Monday next I shall enter on the practice + of your friendly prescription of exercise, intending, at that time, to + begin a journey to the southward, during which I propose visiting all the + southern States." + </p> + <p> + This tour he performed in his own carriage, drawn by six horses, which + were not changed during the journey, which occupied nearly three months. + He was accompanied by one of his private secretaries, Major Jackson. + Leaving his residence in Market street, Philadelphia, he set off in the + latter part of March, and was escorted into Delaware by Mr. Jefferson and + General Knox. On the 25th of March he arrived at Annapolis, where he was + met by the people in a body, entertained at public dinners and a ball, + and, after staying two days, was accompanied on his journey by the + governor of Maryland, as far as Georgetown. From this place, on the 29th + of March, he writes to Gov. Charles Pinckney, of South Carolina: "I had + the pleasure of receiving your Excellency's obliging letter of the 8th + instant last evening. I am thus far on my tour through the southern + States, but as I travel with only one set of horses, and must make + occasional halts, the progress of my journey is exposed to such + uncertainty as admits not of fixing a day for my arrival at Charleston. + While I express the grateful sense which I entertain of your Excellency's + polite offer to accommodate me at your house during my stay in Charleston, + your goodness will permit me to deny myself that pleasure. Having, with a + view to avoid giving inconvenience to private families, early prescribed + to myself the rule of declining all invitations to quarters on my + journeys, I have been repeatedly under a similar necessity to the present, + of refusing those offers of hospitality which would, otherwise, have been + both pleasing and acceptable." + </p> + <p> + From Georgetown he proceeded to Mount Vernon, where the necessary + attention to his private affairs, and some important correspondence on + public business, detained him a week. Leaving Mount Vernon, and passing + through Fredericksburg, where he dined with some of his old personal + friends, he arrived at Richmond on the 11nth of April (1791). His + reception there was enthusiastic. He entered the city amidst the roar of + cannon and the acclamations of the crowds of people who lined the streets + through which he passed. In the evening there was a grand illumination; + and during the two days which he remained there, the city was given up to + festivities in honor of the favorite hero of Virginia. Similar tokens of + welcome were exhibited at Petersburg, Halifax, Newburn, and Wilmington. On + leaving the last-mentioned place he was rowed across Cape Fear river in a + splendid barge, by six masters of vessels; and on his arrival at + Charleston (May 2d) a similar token of honor was accorded to him on a + larger scale. From Hadrill's Point, attended by a cortege of distinguished + Carolinians, he was conveyed to the city in a twelve-oared barge, manned + by thirteen captains of American ships, while other barges and floats, + with bands of music and decorations, formed an imposing nautical + procession. On landing he was received by Governor Pinckney, the civic + authorities, the Cincinnati, and a brilliant military escort, who attended + him in procession, amidst the ringing of bells, the firing of cannon, and + the acclamations of the people, first to the Exchange, where he was + welcomed in a formal address, and then to the house prepared for his + reception. {1} + </p> + <p> + During the week he remained in Charleston, he received the most lively and + touching tokens of welcome and affection from the warm-hearted + Carolinians, who strove to render him every species of honor. A + corporation ball on a grand scale, a large dinner party at Governor + Pinckney's mansion, another at Maj. Pierce Butler's, a concert, and a + splendid public entertainment given by the merchants of the city, formed a + portion only of the testimonials of homage and welcome given on this + occasion to their illustrious guest. + </p> + <p> + He left Charleston on the 9th of May (1791), escorted to Ashley ferry by + the governor and a large cavalcade. "At Perrysburg," says Dr. Griswold, + "he was met the next day by a committee from Savannah, and, with General + Wayne, Major Butler, Mr. Baillie, and Major Jackson, was conducted on + board a richly decorated boat, in which the party were rowed down the + river by nine sea captains, dressed in light-blue silk jackets, black + satin breeches, white silk stockings, and round hats with black ribbons, + inscribed with 'Long live the President,' in golden letters. Ten miles + from the city they were met by other barges, from one of which a company + of gentlemen sung the popular song, 'He comes, the hero comes!' As they + drew near the harbor, every vessel and all the shore were discovered to be + thronged with people. When the President stepped on the landing he was + received by Gen. James Jackson, who introduced him to the mayor and + aldermen; and he was soon after conducted, in the midst of a procession, + through crowds of spectators, to the house prepared for his accommodation + in St. James' square. The same evening he dined with the city authorities + and a large number of other gentlemen, at Brown's Coffee House. Cannons + were fired during the day, and at night the streets and the shipping were + brilliantly illuminated. On Friday he dined with the Cincinnati of the + State of Georgia, and attended a ball. On Saturday, accompanied by General + McIntosh, who had been second in command under General Lincoln in storming + them, he examined the remaining traces of the lines constructed by the + British for the defense of Savannah in 1779, and dined with 200 citizens + and strangers under a beautiful arbor, supported by numerous columns and + ornamented with laurel and bay leaves, erected on an elevation which + commanded a view of the town and the harbor. + </p> + <p> + "It has been frequently said of Washington, that 'no man in the army had a + better eye for a horse,' and many of his letters show that he was by no + means indifferent as to the qualities or treatment of his stud, during the + war and afterward. A tour of 1,900 miles, with the same animals, was a + severe test of their capacities, and before reaching Charleston he wrote + to Mr. Lear, that though, all things considered, they had got on very + well, yet his horses were decidedly worsted, and if brought back would + 'not cut capers, as they did on setting out.' On the 13th of May, he says + in a letter to the same correspondent: + </p> + <p> + "'I shall leave this place to-morrow; my horses, especially the two I + bought just before I left Philadelphia, and my old white horse, are much + worn down, and I have yet 150 or 200 miles of heavy sand to pass before I + get fairly into the upper and firmer road.' + </p> + <p> + "On the way to Augusta he stopped to dine with the widow of his old friend + and companion in arms, General Greene, at her seat called Mulberry Grove. + On Wednesday, the 18th (May, 1791), Governor Telfair and the principal + officers of the State left the capital, with a numerous train of citizens, + and proceeded five miles toward Savannah to meet him, and he was conducted + to his lodgings accompanied by thousands of people, who filled the air + with joyous acclamations. That day he dined with a large party at the + Grove, the governor's private residence, near Augusta, where Mrs. Telfair + assembled the ladies of the town to meet him at a ball in the evening; on + Thursday he received and answered an address from the people, attended a + public dinner, and was present at another ball; on Friday he visited the + academy and dined again with the governor; and on Saturday he started + again on his return, Augusta being the further point of his journey. + </p> + <p> + "Coming again into South Carolina, he was conducted to Columbia by General + Winne, Col. Wade Hampton, and a large number of other citizens, and the + next day dined with more than 200 of the principal men and women of the + town and neighboring country at the State house, and in the evening + attended a ball. + </p> + <p> + "On Wednesday, the 25th (May, 1791), he dined at Camden, and on the + following morning visited this grave of the Baron de Kalb, the places + where the British redoubts had been erected, Hobkirk Hill, where General + Greene was attacked by Lord Rawdon, and the plains where General Gates was + engaged by Lord Cornwallis in 1780. Passing through Charlotte, Salisbury, + Salem, Guilford, and other towns, in all of which the love and reverence + of the people were exhibited in every variety of manner which taste and + ingenuity could suggest, he arrived at Mount Vernon on the 12th of June. + </p> + <p> + "He remained at his seat between three and four weeks, during which he was + occupied with his private affairs, and, with Major L'Enfant and others, + with the location of the new seat of government, on the banks of the + Potomac. On Thursday, the last day of June (1791), he started for + Philadelphia by way of Frederick, York, and Lancaster, and arrived at the + presidential residence about noon on the 6th of July, having been absent + nearly three months, and during that period performed a journey of 1,887 + miles." {2} + </p> + <p> + Washington was highly pleased with the result of his observations during + this tour. In a letter to Hamilton (June 13th), from Mount Vernon on his + return, we have occasion to notice the benefit he derived from his habits + of method and forethought in any undertaking which he contemplated. "My + return to this place," he writes, "is sooner than I expected, owing to the + uninterruptedness of my journey by sickness, from bad weather, or + accidents of any kind whatsoever. Having obtained, before I left + Philadelphia, the most accurate accounts I could get there of the places + and roads through and by which I was to perform my tour, and the distances + between the former, I formed my line of march accordingly, fixing each + day's journey and the day to halt; from neither of which have I departed + in a single instance, except staying, from a particular circumstance, two + days in Columbia, and none at Charlotte, instead of one at each, and + crossing James river at Carter's ferry, in place of Taylor's, as was my + original intention. But the improbability of performing a tour of 1,700 + miles (I have already rode more) with the same set of horses, without + encountering any accident, by which a deviation would be rendered + unavoidable, appeared so great, that I allowed eight days for casualties, + and six to refresh at this place, when I should have returned to it. None + of the former having happened, accounts for the fourteen days I shall + remain here before the meeting of the commissioners." {3} + </p> + <p> + In relation to this tour in the southern States Marshall says: "In passing + through them he was received universally with the same marks of + affectionate attachment which he had experienced in the northern and + central parts of the Union. To the sensibilities which these + demonstrations of the regard and esteem of good men could not fail to + inspire, was added the high gratification produced by observing the rapid + improvements of the country, and the advances made by the government in + acquiring the confidence of the people." The numerous letters written by + him after his return to Philadelphia, attest the agreeable impressions + made by these causes. "In my late tour through the southern States," said + he, in a letter of the 28th of July, to Mr. Gouverneur Morris, "I + experienced great satisfaction in seeing the good effects of the general + government in that part of the Union. The people at large have felt the + security which it gives, and the equal justice which it administers to + them. The farmer, the merchant, and the mechanic have seen their several + interests attended to, and from thence they unite in placing a confidence + in their representatives, as well as in those in whose hands the execution + of the laws is placed. Industry has there taken place of idleness, and + economy of dissipation. Two or three years of good crops, and a ready + market for the produce of their lands, have put everyone in good humor, + and, in some instances, they even impute to the government what is due + only to the goodness of Providence. + </p> + <p> + "The establishment of public credit is an immense point gained in our + national concerns. This, I believe, exceeds the expectation of the most + sanguine among us; and a late instance, unparalleled in this country, has + been given of the confidence reposed in our measures, by the rapidity with + which the subscriptions to the Bank of the United States were filled. In + two hours after the books were opened by the commissioners the whole + number of shares was taken up, and 4,000 more applied for than were + allowed by the institution. This circumstance was not only pleasing, as it + related to the confidence in government, but also as it exhibited an + unexpected proof of the resources of our citizens." + </p> + <p> + This visit had undoubtedly some tendency to produce the good disposition + which Washington observed with so much pleasure. The affections are, + perhaps, more intimately connected with the judgment than we are disposed + to admit; and the appearance of the chief magistrate of the Union, who was + the object of general love and reverence, could not be without its + influence in conciliating the minds of many to the government he + administered, and to its measures. But this progress toward conciliation + was, perhaps, less considerable than was indicated by appearances. The + hostility to the government, which was coeval with its existence, though + diminished, was far from being subdued; and under this smooth exterior was + concealed a mass of discontent, which, though it did not obtrude itself on + the view of the man who united almost all hearts, was active in its + exertions to effect its objects. + </p> + <p> + The difficulties which must impede the recruiting service in a country + where coercion is not employed, and where the common wages of labor + greatly exceed the pay of a soldier, protracted the completion of the + regiments to a late season of the year, but the summer was not permitted + to waste in total inaction. + </p> + <p> + The act passed at the last session for the defense of the frontiers, in + addition to its other provisions, had given to the President an unlimited + power to call mounted militia into the field. Under this authority two + expeditions had been conducted against the villages on the Wabash, in + which a few of the Indian warriors were killed, some of their old men, + women, and children were made prisoners, and several of their towns and + fields of corn were destroyed. The first was led by General Scott, in May, + and the second by General Wilkinson, in September. These desultory + incursions had not much influence on the war. + </p> + <p> + It was believed in the United States that the hostility of the Indians was + kept up by the traders living in their villages. These persons had, + generally, resided in the United States, and, having been compelled to + leave the country, in consequence of the part they had taken during the + war of the Revolution, felt the resentments which banishment and + confiscation seldom fail to inspire. Their enmities were ascribed by many, + perhaps unjustly, to the temper of the government in Canada; but some + countenance seemed to be given to this opinion by intelligence that, about + the commencement of the preceding campaign, large supplies of ammunition + had been delivered from the British posts on the lakes to the Indians at + war with the United States. While Washington was on his southern tour, he + addressed a letter to the Secretary of State, to be communicated to + Colonel Beckwith, who still remained in Philadelphia as the informal + representative of his nation, in which he expressed his surprise and + disappointment at this interference, by the servants or subjects of a + foreign State, in a war prosecuted by the United States for the sole + purpose of procuring peace and safety for the inhabitants of their + frontiers. + </p> + <p> + On receiving this communication Colonel Beckwith expressed his disbelief + that the supplies mentioned had been delivered; but, on being assured of + the fact, he avowed the opinion that the transaction was without the + knowledge of Lord Dorchester, to whom he said he should communicate, + without delay, the ideas of the American government on the subject. + </p> + <p> + On the 24th of October (1791) the second Congress assembled in + Philadelphia. In his speech, at the opening of the session, the President + expressed his great satisfaction at the prosperous situation of the + country, and particularly mentioned the rapidity with which the shares in + the Bank of the United States were subscribed, as "among the striking and + pleasing evidences which presented themselves, not only of confidence in + the government, but of resources in the community." + </p> + <p> + Adverting to the measures which had been taken in execution of the laws + and resolutions of the last session, "the most important of which," he + observed, "respected the defense and security of the western frontiers," + he had, he said "negotiated provisional treaties and used other proper + means to attach the wavering, and to confirm in their friendship the + well-disposed tribes of Indians. The means which he had adopted for a + pacification with those of a hostile description having proved + unsuccessful, offensive operations had been directed, some of which had + proved completely successful, and others were still depending. Overtures + of peace were still continued to the deluded tribes, and it was sincerely + to be desired that all need of coercion might cease, and that an intimate + intercourse might succeed, calculated to advance the happiness of the + Indians, and to attach them firmly to the United States." + </p> + <p> + In marking the line of conduct which ought to be maintained for the + promotion of this object, he strongly recommended "justice to the savages, + and such rational experiments for imparting to them the blessings of + civilization, as might from time to time suit their condition;" and then + concluded this subject with saying: "A system corresponding with the mild + principles of religion and philanthropy, toward an unenlightened race of + men whose happiness materially depends on the conduct of the United + States, would be as honorable to the national character, as conformable to + the dictates of sound policy." + </p> + <p> + After stating that measures had been taken for carrying into execution the + act laying duties on distilled spirits, he added: "The impressions with + which this law has been received by the community have been, upon the + whole, such as were to have been expected among enlightened and + well-disposed citizens, from the propriety and necessity of the measure. + The novelty, however, of the tax, in a considerable part of the United + States, and a misconception of some of its provisions, have given + occasion, in particular places, to some degree of discontent. But it is + satisfactory to know that this disposition yields to proper explanations, + and more just apprehensions of the true nature of the law. And I entertain + a full confidence that it will, in all, give way to motives which arise + out of a just sense of duty, and a virtuous regard to the public welfare. + </p> + <p> + "If there are any circumstances in the law, which, consistently with its + main design, may be so varied as to remove any well-intentioned objections + that may happen to exist, it will comport with a wise moderation to make + the proper variations. It is desirable, on all occasions, to unite with a + steady and firm adherence to constitutional and necessary acts of + government, the fullest evidence of a disposition, as far as may be + practicable, to consult the wishes of every part of the community, and to + lay the foundations of the public administration in the affections of the + people." + </p> + <p> + The answers of the two houses noticed, briefly and generally, the various + topics of the speech; and, though perhaps less warm than those of the + preceding Congress, manifested great respect for the executive magistrate, + and an undiminished confidence in his patriotic exertions to promote the + public interests. + </p> + <p> + Soon after Congress was organized for business a warm debate sprung up in + relation to the new apportionment of representatives, in accordance with + the census, which had been taken in the preceding year, and the results of + which were now ready for the consideration of Congress. The contest was + not put to rest till the following April (1792); and not till the third + bill was constructed did the two houses agree. The first proposal made by + the representatives was to adopt the lowest ratio allowed by the + constitution—30,000, which would have raised their numbers to 113, + but there would have been large fractions of population in the northern + States left unrepresented. The Senate, to lessen those disfranchised + remnants, raised the ration to 33,000; but it was alleged that then there + were fractions, though not so large, remaining in the southern States. The + house would not accept the change, and reiterated its former proposal in a + new bill, which also arranged the taking of another census before the + expiration of ten years; but the Senate refused its assent to this, and, + instead, increased the numbers to 120 by assigning representatives to the + largest fractions. This, which violated the letter of the constitution, + excited greater heat than ever, and the old threat of breaking up the + Union was resorted to. A committee of conference was demanded at length, + and in the end the scheme of the Senate was carried by a majority of two + out of sixty votes. This decision has been remarked upon as having a + curious bearing upon the old political controversies, the representatives + of the southern States being found rejecting the amendment of the Senate, + which embodied their own State sovereignty principle; and those of the + North accepting it, although they were most in favor of the opposite + principle of polity. + </p> + <p> + Washington very justly considered this mode of apportionment as contrary + to the constitution, and on the 5th of April returned the bill to + Congress, with his objections. The first was, that the constitution had + prescribed that representatives should be apportioned among the several + States according to their respective numbers, and that there was no one + proportion or division which, applied to the respective States, would + yield the number and allotment of representatives proposed by the bill; + the second, that by the constitution, the number of representatives should + not exceed one for every 30,000, which restriction, by the fair and + obvious construction, was to be applied to the separate and respective + States, and that the bill had allotted to eight States more than one for + every 30,000. This was the <i>first</i> instance in which the President + had exercised his <i>veto</i> upon any act of Congress. {4} + </p> + <p> + The bill, not being repassed by two-thirds of both houses, was rejected. A + bill afterward passed, April 9, 1792, by a vote of thirty-four to thirty, + apportioning the representatives agreeable to a ratio of one for every + 33,000 in each State, which received the sanction of the President, and + thus, this interesting part of the constitution was finally settled. + </p> + <p> + During this session of Congress an act passed for establishing a uniform + militia. + </p> + <p> + Washington had manifested, from the commencement of his administration, a + peculiar degree of solicitude on this subject, and had repeatedly urged it + on Congress. + </p> + <p> + In his speech at the opening of the present session, he again called the + attention of the Legislature to it, and at length a law was enacted, + though it was less efficacious than the plan reported by General Knox, the + Secretary of War. + </p> + <p> + In December (1791) intelligence was received by the President, and + immediately communicated to Congress, that the American army had been + totally defeated on the 4th of the preceding month. + </p> + <p> + Although the most prompt and judicious measures had been taken to raise + the troops and to march them to the frontiers, they could not be assembled + in the neighborhood of Fort Washington until the month of September, nor + was the establishment even then completed. + </p> + <p> + The immediate objects of the expedition were to destroy the Indian + villages on the Miami, to expel the savages from that country, and to + connect it with the Ohio by a chain of posts which would prevent their + return during the war. + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of September (1791) the regulars moved from their camp in the + vicinity of Fort Washington, and marching directly north, toward the + object of their destination, established two intermediate posts, Forts + Hamilton and Jefferson, at the distance of rather more than forty miles + from each other, as places of deposit and of security either for convoys + of provisions which might follow the army, or for the army itself should + any disaster befall it. The last of these works, Fort Jefferson, was not + completed until the 24th of October, before which time reinforcements were + received of about 360 militia. After placing garrisons in the forts the + effective number of the army, including militia, amounted to rather less + than 2,000 men. With this force the general continued his march, which was + rendered both slow and laborious by the necessity of opening a road. Small + parties of Indians were frequently seen hovering about them and some + unimportant skirmishes took place. As the army approached the country in + which they might expect to meet an enemy about sixty of the militia + deserted in a body. This diminution of force was not in itself an object + of much concern. But there was reason to fear that the example, should + those who set it be permitted to escape with impunity, would be + extensively followed, and it was reported to be the intention of the + deserters to plunder convoys of provisions which were advancing at some + distance in the rear. To prevent mischiefs of so serious a nature the + general detached Major Hamtranck with the first regiment in pursuit of the + deserters, and directed him to secure the provisions under a strong guard. + </p> + <p> + The army, consisting of about 1,400 effective rank and file, continued its + march, and, on the 3d of November, encamped about fifteen miles south of + the Miami villages. The right wing, under the command of General Butler, + formed the first line and lay with a creek, about twelve yards wide, + immediately in its front. The left wing, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel + Darke, formed the second, and between the two lines was an interval of + about seventy yards. The right flank was supposed to be secured by the + creek, by a steep bank, and by a small body of troops; the left was + covered by a party of cavalry and by piquets. The militia crossed the + creek and advanced about a quarter of a mile in front, where they also + encamped in two lines. On their approach a few Indians who had shown + themselves on the opposite side of the creek fled with precipitation. + </p> + <p> + At this place the general intended to throw up a slight work for the + security of the baggage, and, after being joined by Major Hamtranck, to + march, as unencumbered and as expeditiously as possible, to the villages + he purposed to destroy. + </p> + <p> + In both of these designs he was anticipated. About half an hour before + sunrise on the day following, just after the troops had been dismissed + from the parade, an unexpected attack was made upon the militia, who fled + in the utmost confusion, and rushing into camp through the first line of + Continental troops, which had been formed the instant the first gun was + discharged, threw them too into disorder. The exertions of the officers to + restore order were not entirely successful. The Indians pressed close upon + the heels of the flying militia and engaged General Butler with great + intrepidity. The action instantly became extremely warm, and the fire of + the assailants, passing round both flanks of the first line, was, in a few + minutes, poured with equal fury on the rear division. Its greatest weight + was directed against the center of each wing, where the artillery was + posted, and the artillerists were mowed down in great numbers. Firing from + the ground and from the shelter which the woods afforded, the assailants + were scarcely seen but when springing from one cover to another, in which + manner they advanced close up to the American lines and to the very mouths + of the field pieces. They fought with the daring courage of men whose + trade is war and who are stimulated by all those passions which can impel + the savage mind to vigorous exertions. + </p> + <p> + While some of the American soldiers performed their duty with the utmost + resolution, others seemed dismayed and terrified. Of this conduct the + officers were, as usual, the victims. With a fearlessness which the + occasion required, they exposed themselves to the most imminent dangers, + and, in their efforts to change the face of affairs, fell in great + numbers. + </p> + <p> + For several days the Commander-in-Chief had been afflicted with a severe + disease, under which he still labored, and which must have greatly + affected him, but, though unable to display that activity which would have + been useful in this severe conflict, neither the feebleness of his body + nor the peril of his situation could prevent his delivering his orders + with judgment and with self-possession. + </p> + <p> + It was soon perceived that the American fire could produce, on a concealed + enemy, no considerable effect, and that the only hope of victory was + placed in the bayonet. At the head of the second regiment, which formed + the left of the left wing, Lieutenant-Colonel Darke made an impetuous + charge upon the enemy, forced them from their ground with some loss and + drove them about 400 yards. He was followed by that whole wing, but the + want of a sufficient number of riflemen to press this advantage deprived + him of the benefit which ought to have been derived from this effort, and, + as soon as he gave over the pursuit, the Indians renewed their attack. In + the meantime General Butler was mortally wounded, the left of the right + wing was broken, the artillerists almost to a man killed, the guns seized, + and the camp penetrated by the enemy. With his own regiment and with the + battalions commanded by Majors Butler and Clarke, Darke was ordered again + to charge with the bayonet. These orders were executed with intrepidity + and momentary success. The Indians were driven out of the camp, and the + artillery recovered. But while they were pressed in one point by the + bravest of the American troops, their fire was kept up from every other + with fatal effect. Several times particular corps charged them, always + with partial success, but no universal effort could be made, and in every + charge a great loss of officers was sustained, the consequences of which + were severely felt. Instead of keeping their ranks, and executing the + orders which were given, a great proportion of the soldiers flocked + together in crowds and were shot down without resistance. To save the + remnant of his army was all that remained to be done, and about half past + 9 in the morning General St. Clair ordered Lieutenant-Colonel Darke, with + the Second regiment, to charge a body of Indians who had intercepted their + retreat and to gain the road. Major Clarke, with his battalion, was + directed to cover the rear. These orders were executed and a disorderly + flight commenced. The pursuit was kept up about four miles, when, + fortunately for the surviving Americans, that avidity for plunder which is + a ruling passion among savages, called back the victorious Indians to the + camp, where the spoils of their vanquished foes were to be divided. The + routed troops continued their flight to Fort Jefferson, a distance of + about thirty miles, throwing away their arms on the road. At this place + they met Major Hamtranck with the First regiment, and a council of war was + called to deliberate on the course to be pursued. As this regiment was far + from restoring the strength of the morning, it was determined not to + attempt to retrieve the fortune of the day, and, leaving the wounded at + Fort Jefferson, the army continued its retreat to Fort Washington. + </p> + <p> + In this disastrous battle the loss on the part of the Americans was very + great when compared with the numbers engaged. Thirty-eight commissioned + officers were killed upon the field, and 593 noncommissioned officers and + privates were slain and missing. Twenty-one commissioned officers, several + of whom afterward died of their wounds, and 242 noncommissioned officers + and privates were wounded. Among the dead was the brave and much-lamented + General Butler. This gallant officer had served through the war of the + Revolution, and had, on more than one occasion, distinguished himself in a + remarkable manner. In the list of those who shared his fate were the names + of many other excellent officers who had participated in all the toils, + the dangers, and the glory of that long conflict which terminated in the + independence of their country. At the head of the list of wounded were + Lieutenant-Colonels Gibson and Darke, Major Butler, and Adjutant-General + Sargent, all of whom were veteran officers of great merit, who displayed + their accustomed bravery on this unfortunate day. General St. Clair, in + his official letter, observed: "The loss the public has sustained by the + fall of so many officers, particularly of General Butler and Major + Ferguson, cannot be too much regretted, but it is a circumstance that will + alleviate the misfortune in some measure, that all of them fell most + gallantly doing their duty." + </p> + <p> + From the weight of the fire and the circumstance of his being attacked + nearly at the same time in front and rear, General St. Clair was of + opinion that he was overpowered by numbers. The intelligence afterward + collected would make the Indian force to consist of from 1,000 to 1,500 + warriors. Of their loss no estimate could be made; the probability is that + it bore no proportion to that sustained by the American army. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more unexpected than this severe disaster. The public had + confidently anticipated a successful campaign and could not believe that + the general who had been unfortunate had not been culpable. + </p> + <p> + General St. Clair requested with earnestness that a court-martial should + sit on his conduct, but this request could not be granted, because the + army did not furnish a sufficient number of officers of a grade to form a + court for his trial on military principles. Late in the session a + committee of the House of Representatives was appointed to inquire into + the cause of the failure of the expedition, whose report, in explicit + terms, exculpated St. Clair. This inquiry, however, was instituted rather + for the purpose of investigating the conduct of civil than of military + officers, and was not conducted by military men. More satisfactory + testimony in favor of St. Clair is furnished by the circumstance that he + still retained the undiminished esteem and good opinion of the President. + {5} + </p> + <p> + The confidence of Washington in St. Clair, however, had been very severely + shaken on his first receiving intelligence of his defeat. This fact is + known by the recent publication of an anecdote communicated by Mr. Lear to + the Hon. Richard Rush, and by him inserted in his "Washington in Domestic + Life," as follows: + </p> + <p> + "An anecdote I derived from Colonel Lear shortly before his death in + 1816," says Mr. Rush, "may here be related, showing the height to which + his (Washington's) passion would rise yet be controlled. It belongs to his + domestic life which I am dealing with, having occurred under his own roof, + whilst it marks public feeling the most intense and points to the moral of + his life. I give it in Colonel Lear's words as nearly as I can, having + made a note of them at the time. + </p> + <p> + "Toward the close of a winter's day in 1791, an officer in uniform was + seen to dismount in front of the President's in Philadelphia, and, giving + the bridle to his servant, knocked at the door of his mansion. Learning + from the porter that the President was at dinner, he said he was on public + business and had dispatches for the President. A servant was sent into the + dining-room to give the information to Mr. Lear, who left the table and + went into the hall, where the officer repeated what he had said. Mr. Lear + replied that, as the President's secretary, he would take charge of the + dispatches and deliver them at the proper time. The officer made answer + that he had just arrived from the western army, and his orders were to + deliver them with all promptitude, and to the President in person, but + that he would wait his directions. Mr. Lear returned and in a whisper + imparted to the President what had passed. General Washington rose from + the table and went to the officer. He was back in a short time, made a + word of apology for his absence, but no allusion to the cause of it. He + had company that day. Everything went on as usual. Dinner over, the + gentlemen passed to the drawing-room of Mrs. Washington, which was open in + the evening. The general spoke courteously to every lady in the room, as + was his custom. His hours were early, and by 10 o'clock all the company + had gone. Mrs. Washington and Mr. Lear remained. Soon Mrs. Washington left + the room. + </p> + <p> + "The general now walked backward and forward slowly for some minutes + without speaking. Then he sat down on a sofa by the fire, telling Mr. Lear + to sit down. To this moment there had been no change in his manner since + his interruption at table. Mr. Lear now perceived emotion. This rising in + him, he broke out suddenly: 'It's all over! St. Clair's defeated—routed—the + officers nearly all killed—the men by wholesale—the rout + complete—too shocking to think of—and a surprise into the + bargain!' + </p> + <p> + "He uttered all this with great vehemence. Then he paused, got up from the + sofa, and walked about the room several times, agitated but saying + nothing. Near the door he stopped short and stood still a few seconds, + when his wrath became terrible. + </p> + <p> + "'Yes,' he burst forth, 'here on this very spot I took leave of him; I + wished him success and honor. You have your instructions, I said, from the + Secretary of War; I had a strict eye to them, and will add but one word—beware + of a surprise! I repeat it—beware of a surprise! You know how the + Indians fight us. He went off with that as my last solemn warning thrown + into his ears. And yet! to suffer that army to be cut to pieces—hacked, + butchered, tomahawked—by a surprise—the very thing I guarded + him against! O God, O God, he's worse than a murderer! How can he answer + it to his country! The blood of the slain is upon him—the curse of + widows and orphans—the curse of Heaven!' + </p> + <p> + "This torrent came out in tones appalling. His very frame shook. It was + awful said Mr. Lear. More than once he threw his hands up as he hurled + imprecations upon St. Clair. Mr. Lear remained speechless—awed into + breathless silence. + </p> + <p> + "The roused chief sat down on the sofa once more. He seemed conscious of + his passion and uncomfortable. He was silent. His warmth beginning to + subside, he at length said in an altered voice: 'This must not go beyond + this room.' Another pause followed—a longer one—when he said + in a tone quite low: 'General St. Clair shall have justice. I looked + hastily through the dispatches, saw the whole disaster, but not all the + particulars. I will receive him without displeasure; I will hear him + without prejudice. He shall have full justice.' + </p> + <p> + "He was now, said Mr. Lear, perfectly calm. Half an hour had gone by. The + storm was over, and no sign of it was afterward seen in his conduct or + heard in his conversation. The result is known. The whole case was + investigated by Congress. St. Clair was exculpated and regained the + confidence Washington had in him when appointing him to that command. He + had put himself into the thickest of the fight, and escaped unhurt, though + so ill as to be carried on a litter, and unable to mount his horse without + help." + </p> + <p> + This anecdote might, at first, seem discreditable to Washington, as + exhibiting the mighty strength of his passions when aroused. But upon + mature consideration it does him great honor, affording equal evidence of + his power of self-control, his public spirit, his disinterestedness, and + his candor. + </p> + <p> + The Indian war now assumed a still more serious aspect. There was reason + to fear that the hostile tribes would derive a great accession of strength + from the impression which their success would make upon their neighbors; + and the reputation of the government was deeply concerned in retrieving + the fortune of its arms, and affording protection to its citizens. The + President, therefore, lost no time in causing the estimates for a + competent force to be prepared and laid before Congress. In conformity + with a report made by the Secretary of War, a bill was brought into the + House of Representatives, directing three additional regiments of infantry + and a squadron of cavalry to be raised, to serve for three years, if not + sooner discharged. The whole military establishment, if completed, would + amount to about 5,000 men. The additional regiments, however, were to be + disbanded as soon as peace should be concluded with the Indians; and the + President was authorized to discharge, or to forbear to raise any part of + them, "in case events should, in his judgment, render his so doing + consistent with the public safety." + </p> + <p> + This bill met with great opposition. A motion was made to strike out the + section which authorized an augmentation of force. This led to a very + animated debate, in which the opposition exhibited a determination to + embarrass the administration by defeating even the most necessary and + useful measures it might propose. The public spirit and good sense of the + majority, however, prevailed. The motion for striking out the section was + lost, and the bill was carried for the augmentation of force required by + the executive. + </p> + <p> + The treasury was not in a condition to meet the demands upon it, which the + increased expenses of the war would unavoidably occasion, and sources of + additional revenue were to be explored. A select committee, to whom this + subject was referred, brought in a resolution directing Mr. Hamilton, the + Secretary of the Treasury, to report his opinion to the House, on the best + mode of raising those additional supplies which the public service might + require for the current year. + </p> + <p> + This proposition gave rise to a very animated debate. + </p> + <p> + It will be recollected that when the act for establishing the Treasury + Department was under consideration, the clause which rendered it the duty + of the secretary to digest and report plans for the improvement and + management of the revenue, and for the support of public credit, was + earnestly opposed. A large majority, however, was in favor of the + principle, and, after being so modified as only to admit a report if + required by the House, it was retained in the bill. + </p> + <p> + In complying with the various resolutions of Congress, calling for reports + on subjects connected with his department, Hamilton had submitted plans + which, having been profoundly considered, were well digested, and + accompanied by arguments, the force of which it was difficult to resist. + His measures were generally supported by a majority of Congress; and, + while the high credit of the United States was believed to attest their + wisdom, the masterly manner in which his reports were drawn, contributed + to raise still higher that reputation for great talents which he had long + possessed. To the further admission of these reports, it was determined, + on this occasion, to make a vigorous resistance. + </p> + <p> + But the opposition was not successful. On taking the question the + resolution was carried, thirty-one members voting in its favor, and + twenty-seven against it. + </p> + <p> + The report made by Hamilton, in pursuance of this resolution, recommended + certain augmentations of the duties on imports, and was immediately + referred to the consideration of a committee of the whole House. + Resolutions were then passed which were to form the basis of a bill; and + which adopted, not only the principles, but, with the exception of a few + unimportant alterations, the minute details of the report. + </p> + <p> + Before the question was taken on the bill a motion was made to limit its + duration, the vote upon which marked the progress of opinion in the House + respecting those systems of finance which were believed to have + established the credit of the United States. + </p> + <p> + Hamilton had deemed it indispensable to the creation of public credit that + the appropriations of funds for the payment of the interest, and the + gradual redemption of the principal of the national debt, should be not + only sufficient, but permanent also. A party was found in the first + Congress who opposed this principle, and were in favor of retaining a full + power over the subject in each branch of the Legislature, by making annual + appropriations. The arguments which had failed in Congress appear to have + been more successfully employed with the people. Among the multiplied + vices which were ascribed to the funding system, it was charged with + introducing a permanent and extensive mortgage of funds, which was alleged + to strengthen unduly the hands of the executive magistrate, and to be one + of the many evidences which existed of monarchical propensities in those + who administered the government. + </p> + <p> + The report lately made by Hamilton, and the bill founded on that report, + contemplated a permanent increase of the duties on certain specified + articles, and a permanent appropriation of the revenue arising from them + to the purposes of the national debt. Thirty-one members were in favor of + the motion for limiting the duration of the bill, and only thirty against + it. By the rules of the House, the speaker has a right first to vote as a + member, and, if the numbers should then be equally divided, to decide as + speaker. Being opposed to the limitation, the motion was lost by his + voice, and Hamilton's measure was carried through in its original form. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of May (1792), after an active and interesting session, + Congress adjourned to the first Monday in November. + </p> + <p> + Among the bills passed at this session of Congress the most important were + that for the apportionment of the representatives, and that for the + augmentation of the military force, inasmuch as the discussion of these + measures served to develop the political parties which had begun to divide + Congress and the people. In apportioning the representatives many members + of Congress endeavored to obtain the largest possible number, in order to + preserve the rights of the States and check the power of the executive. On + the same principles the army bill was opposed, as having a tendency to + increase executive power and patronage, and thus endanger the liberties of + the country. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the United States the party opposed to the constitution had + charged its supporters with a desire to establish a monarchy on the ruins + of Republican government; and the constitution itself was alleged to + contain principles which would prove the truth of this charge. The leaders + of that party had, therefore, been ready, from the instant the government + came into operation, to discover, in all its measures, those monarchical + tendencies which they had perceived in the instrument they opposed. + </p> + <p> + The salaries allowed to public officers, though so low as not to afford a + decent maintenance to those who resided at the seat of government, were + declared to be so enormously high, as clearly to manifest a total + disregard of that simplicity and economy which were the characteristics of + republics. {6} + </p> + <p> + The levees of the President, and the evening parties of Mrs. Washington, + were said to be imitations of regal institutions, designed to accustom the + American people to the pomp and manners of European courts. The + Vice-President, too, was said to keep up the state and dignity of a + monarch, and to illustrate, by his conduct, the principles which were + inculcated in his political works. + </p> + <p> + The Indian war, they alleged, was misconducted, and unnecessarily + prolonged, for the purposes of expending the public money, and of + affording a pretext for augmenting the military establishment, and + increasing the revenue. + </p> + <p> + All this prodigal waste of the money of the people was designed to keep up + the national debt, and the influence it gave the government; which, united + with standing armies and immense revenues, would enable their rulers to + rivet the chains which they were secretly forging. Every prediction which + had been uttered respecting the anti-Republican principles of the + government, was said to be rapidly verifying, and that which was + disbelieved as prophecy, was daily becoming history. If a remedy for these + ills was not found in the increased representation of the people which + would take place at the ensuing elections, they would become too monstrous + to be borne; and when it was recollected that the division of opinion was + marked by a geographical line, there was reason to fear that the Union + would be broken into one or more confederacies. + </p> + <p> + These irritable symptoms had assumed appearances of increased malignity + during the session of Congress which had just terminated; and, to + Washington, who firmly believed that the Union and the liberty of the + States depended on the preservation of the government, they were the more + unpleasant and the more alarming because they were displayed in full force + in his cabinet. + </p> + <p> + The feud between Jefferson and Hamilton, to which we have already + referred, still continued in full force, and they were regarded, as in + fact they were, respectively, the heads of the two parties. They disagreed + not only on the internal affairs but on the foreign policy of the + government: Jefferson having a leaning towards the Revolutionists of + France, and Hamilton favoring a conciliatory policy toward Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + In all popular governments the press is the most ready channel by which + the opinions and the passions of the few are communicated to the many; and + of the press, the two great parties forming in the United States sought to + avail themselves. The "Gazette of the United States" supported the systems + of Hamilton, while other papers enlisted themselves under the banners of + the opposition. Conspicuous among these was the "National Gazette," a + paper edited by Philip Freneau, the poet, a clerk in the Department of + State. The avowed purpose for which Jefferson patronized this paper was to + present to the eye of the American people European intelligence derived + from the "Leyden Gazette," instead of English papers; but it soon became + the vehicle of calumny against the funding and banking systems; against + the duty on home-made spirits, which was denominated an excuse, and + against the men who had proposed and supported those measures. With, + perhaps, equal asperity, the papers attached to the party which had + defended these systems, assailed the motives of the leaders of the + opposition. + </p> + <p> + This schism in his cabinet was a subject of extreme mortification to + Washington. Entertaining a high respect for the talents, and a real esteem + for the characters of both gentlemen, he was unwilling to part with + either, and exerted all the influence he possessed to effect a + reconciliation between them. In a letter of the 23d of August (1792), + addressed to Jefferson, after reviewing the critical situation of the + United States with respect to its external relations, he thus expressed + himself on this delicate subject: "How unfortunate, and how much is it to + be regretted then, that while we are encompassed on all sides with avowed + enemies and insidious friends, internal dissensions should be harassing + and tearing our vitals. The last, to me, is the most serious, the most + alarming, and the most afflicting of the two, and, without more charity + for the opinions of one another in governmental matters, or some more + infallible criterion by which the truth of speculative opinions, before + they have undergone the test of experience, are to be forejudged, than has + yet fallen to the lot of fallibility, I believe it will be difficult, if + not impracticable, to manage the reins of government, or to keep the parts + of it together; for if, instead of laying our shoulders to the machine, + after measures are decided on, one pulls this way, and another that, + before the utility of the thing is fairly tried, it must inevitably be + torn asunder; and, in my opinion, the fairest prospect of happiness and + prosperity that ever was presented to man will be lost, perhaps forever. + </p> + <p> + "My earnest wish and my fondest hope, therefore, is, that instead of + wounding suspicions and irritating charges, there may be liberal + allowances, mutual forbearances, and temporizing yielding on all sides. + Under the exercise of these, matters will go on smoothly; and, if + possible, more prosperously. Without them everything must rub; the wheels + of government will clog; our enemies will triumph, and, by throwing their + weight into the disaffected scale, may accomplish the ruin of the goodly + fabric we have been erecting. + </p> + <p> + "I do not mean to apply this advice, or these observations, to any + particular person or character. I have given them in the same general + terms to other officers of the government, because the disagreements which + have arisen from difference of opinions and the attacks which have been + made upon almost all the measures of government, and most of its executive + officers, have for a long time past filled me with painful sensations, and + cannot fail, I think, of producing unhappy consequences at home and + abroad." + </p> + <p> + In a subsequent letter to Jefferson, in answer to one which enclosed some + documents designed to prove that, though desirous of amending the + constitution, he had favored its adoption, the President said: "I did not + require the evidence of the extracts which you enclosed me, to convince me + of your attachment to the constitution of the United States, or of your + disposition to promote the general welfare of this country, but I regret, + deeply regret, the difference of opinion which has arisen and divided you + and another principal officer of the government, and wish devoutly there + could be an accommodation of them by mutual yieldings. + </p> + <p> + "A measure of this sort would produce harmony and consequent good in our + public councils, and the contrary will inevitably produce confusion and + serious mischiefs—and for what? because mankind cannot think alike, + but would adopt different means to attain the same end. For I will frankly + and solemnly declare that I believe the views of both to be pure and well + meant, and that experience only will decide with respect to the salubrity + of the measures which are the subjects of this dispute. + </p> + <p> + "Why, then, when some of the best citizens of the United States, men of + discernment, uniform and tried patriots, who have no sinister views to + promote, but are chaste in their ways of thinking and acting, are to be + found, some on one side and some on the other, of the questions which have + caused these agitations—why should either of you be so tenacious of + your opinions as to make no allowance for those of the other? + </p> + <p> + "I could and, indeed, was about to add more on this interesting subject, + but will forbear, at least for the present, after expressing a wish that + the cup which has been presented to us may not be snatched from our lips + by a discordance of action, when I am persuaded there is no discordance in + your views. I have a great, a sincere esteem and regard for you both, and + ardently wish that some line could be marked out by which both of you + could walk." + </p> + <p> + On the same subject Washington addressed a letter to Hamilton, from which + the following is an extract: + </p> + <p> + "Differences in political opinions are as unavoidable as, to a certain + point, they may be necessary; but it is exceedingly to be regretted that + subjects cannot be discussed with temper, on the one hand, or decisions + submitted to on the other, without improperly implicating the motives + which led to them; and this regret borders on chagrin when we find that + men of abilities, zealous patriots, having the same general objects in + view, and the same upright intentions to prosecute them, will not exercise + more charity in deciding on the opinions and actions of each other. When + matters get to such lengths, the natural inference is that both sides have + strained the cords beyond their bearing, that a middle course would be + found the best, until experience shall have decided on the right way; or, + which is not to be expected, because it is denied to mortals, until there + shall be some infallible rule by which to forejudge events. + </p> + <p> + "Having premised these things, I would fain hope that liberal allowances + will be made for the political opinions of each other, and instead of + those wounding suspicions and irritating charges, with which some of our + gazettes are so strongly impregnated, and which cannot fail, if persevered + in, of pushing matters to extremity, and thereby tearing the machine + asunder, that there might be mutual forbearance and temporizing yieldings + on all sides. Without these, I do not see how the reins of government are + to be managed or how the union of the States can be much longer preserved. + </p> + <p> + "How unfortunate would it be if a fabric so goodly, erected under so many + providential circumstances, after acquiring in its first stages so much + respectability, should, from diversity of sentiment, or internal + obstructions to some of the acts of government (for I cannot prevail on + myself to believe that these measures are as yet the acts of a determined + party), be brought to the verge of dissolution! Melancholy thought! But + while it shows the consequences of diversified opinions, where pushed with + too much tenacity, it exhibits evidence also of the necessity of + accommodation, and of the propriety of adopting such healing measures as + may restore harmony to the discordant members of the Union, and the + governing powers of it. + </p> + <p> + "I do not mean to apply this advice to any measures which are passed or to + any particular character. I have given it, in the same general terms, to + other officers of the government. My earnest wish is that balm may be + poured into all the wounds which have been given, to prevent them from + gangrening, and to avoid those fatal consequences which the community may + sustain if it is withheld. The friends of the Union must wish this; those + who are not, but who wish to see it rended, will be disappointed; and all + things, I hope, will go well." + </p> + <p> + These earnest endeavors to soothe the angry passions and to conciliate the + jarring discords of the cabinet were unsuccessful. The hostility which was + so much and so sincerely lamented sustained no diminution, and its + consequences became every day more diffusive. + </p> + <p> + Among the immediate effects of these internal dissensions was the + encouragement they afforded to a daring and criminal resistance which was + made to the execution of the laws imposing a duty on spirits distilled + within the United States. + </p> + <p> + To the inhabitants of that part of Pennsylvania which lies west of the + Alleghany mountains this duty was, from local considerations, peculiarly + odious; nor was their hostility to the measure diminished by any affection + for the source in which it originated. The constitution itself had + encountered the most decided opposition from that part of the State, and + that early enmity to the government, which exerted every faculty to + prevent its adoption, had sustained no abatement. Its measures generally, + and the whole system of finance particularly, had been reprobated with + peculiar bitterness by many of the most popular men of that district. With + these dispositions a tax law, the operation of which was extended to them, + could not be favorably received, however generally it might be supported + in other parts of the Union. But when, to this pre-existing temper, were + superadded the motives which arose from perceiving that the measure was + censured on the floor of Congress as unnecessary and tyrannical; that + resistance to its execution was treated as probable; that a powerful and + active party, pervading the Union, arraigned with extreme acrimony the + whole system of finance as being antagonistic to liberty, and, with all + the passionate vehemence of conviction, charged its advocates with + designing to subvert the republican institutions of America, we ought not + to be surprised that the awful impressions, which usually restrain + combinations to resist the laws, were lessened, and that the malcontents + were emboldened to hope that those combinations might be successful. + </p> + <p> + The opposition to the duty on distilled spirits had been carried so far, + and so daring had become the resistance to the law, as to require a + proclamation from the President, warning all persons against unlawful + combinations and proceedings tending to obstruct the operations of the + laws. But such was the state of feeling that the proclamation produced no + salutary effect. + </p> + <p> + Anxious to avoid extremities, the government resolved upon another course. + Prosecutions were instituted against delinquents. The spirits distilled in + the noncomplying counties were intercepted in their way to market and + seized by the officers of the revenue, and the agents for the army were + directed to purchase only those spirits on which the duty had been paid. + Could the distillers have obeyed their wishes, these measures would have + produced the desired effect. But, impelled by a furious multitude, they + found it much more dangerous to obey the laws than to resist them. + </p> + <p> + Diplomatic intercourse had at length been opened with Great Britain, who + had sent, on her own motion, Mr. George Hammond as minister + Plenipotentiary to the United States. Mr. Hammond arrived at Philadelphia + in the autumn of 1791, and soon after entered upon a long correspondence + with the Secretary of State respecting the nonexecution of the treaty of + peace. The British minister having entrusted to him only powers to + negotiate, not to conclude, to make, not to adjust, complaints, the course + of the discussion, and the principles avowed by the respective parties, + speedily demonstrated the slight probability which existed of their being + able to agree upon a commercial treaty. + </p> + <p> + The Indians in the Northwest still maintaining their attitude of hostility + preparations for prosecuting the war with vigor were earnestly pressed. + General Wayne was appointed to succeed St. Clair in the command, but the + inducements to enter the service were so small that the ranks filled up + very slowly and the meditated expedition could not be undertaken prudently + during the present year. Meanwhile, the clamor against the war continued + to be loud and violent. From respect for opinions extensively professed it + was thought advisable to make still another effort to procure peace by a + direct communication of the views of the executive. The fate of those who + were employed in these efforts was still more to be lamented than their + failure. Colonel Harden and Major Truman, two brave officers and estimable + men, were severally dispatched with propositions of peace, and each was + murdered by the savages. + </p> + <p> + During the session of Congress Thomas Pinckney was nominated minister + plenipotentiary to England, and Gouverneur Morris as minister + plenipotentiary to France. Both these nominations were confirmed by the + Senate. William Short was appointed minister resident at the Hague and was + commissioned, with Mr. Carmichael, to effect a treaty with Spain. Paul + Jones, during the summer, was appointed a commissioner for treating with + the Dey of Algiers on the subject of peace and the ransoming of American + captives. The letter informing of his appointment did not, however, reach + him, for Jones died at Paris on the 18th of July, 1792, in abject poverty + and destitution. + </p> + <p> + In May (1792), Washington wrote to the Earl of Buchan, transmitting his + portrait, painted by Mr. Robertson, which had been solicited by the earl. + In the same letter he thanked the earl for a box made of the oak that + sheltered William Wallace after the battle of Falkirk. In making this + present the earl had requested Washington, in the event of his decease, to + leave it to the man in his own country who should appear, in his judgment, + to merit it best. Washington wisely decided otherwise, and, in his will, + directed it to be returned to the Earl of Buchan. + </p> + <p> + On the 9th of May (1792), the day after the rising of Congress, Washington + set out from Philadelphia for Mount Vernon, but returned early in June. In + July he went again to Mount Vernon, accompanied by Mrs. Washington and her + two little grandchildren, intending to remain there till near the meeting + of Congress, which was to take place in November. During this short + residence at his beloved home Washington had much to distract his + attention from his favorite rural pursuits. He was in constant + correspondence with the members of the cabinet and public affairs. To + Hamilton he was writing about the resistance to the tax on spirituous + liquors, on the dissension between him and Jefferson, and on politics; to + General Knox, Secretary of War, on the preparations for Wayne's campaign + against the Indians; to Jefferson, Secretary of State, on foreign affairs, + on the troubles with the Spaniards in Florida, and on the Indian war, as + well as on his quarrel with Hamilton, and to Randolph, Attorney-General, + on the state of parties and the licentiousness of the press. + </p> + <p> + On the subject of newspaper abuse Washington appears to have felt a degree + of sensitiveness which, at the present, is rare among public men. Hitherto + he appears to have been personally free from this annoyance, but he was + unwilling to see his administration calumniated by political demagogues. + </p> + <p> + Writing to Gouverneur Morris, the American minister in France (October 20, + 1792), he says. "From the complexion of some of our newspapers foreigners + would be led to believe that inveterate political dissensions exist among + us, and that we are on the very verge of disunion, but the fact is + otherwise. The great body of the people now feel the advantages of the + general government, and would not, I am persuaded, do anything that should + destroy it, but this kind of representations is an evil which must be + placed in opposition to the infinite benefits resulting from a free press, + and I am sure you need not be told that in this country a personal + difference in political sentiments is often made to take the garb of + general dissensions." + </p> + <p> + Besides the public business which pressed heavily on Washington during his + present residence at Mount Vernon he found a new source of anxiety in the + alarming illness of his nephew, George Augustine Washington, to whom the + care of the estate had been entrusted since 1789, when the duties of the + Presidency had called the chief to the seat of government. This gentleman + had served in the Revolutionary War as aid to Lafayette, with the rank of + major. Writing to Lafayette (June 10, 1792), Washington says: "I am afraid + my nephew George, your old aid, will never have his health perfectly + re-established. He has lately been attacked with the alarming symptom of + spitting large quantities of blood, and the physicians give no hope of a + restoration, unless it can be effected by a change of air and a total + dereliction of business, to which he is too anxiously attentive. He will, + if he should be taken from his family and friends, leave three fine + children, two sons and a daughter. To the eldest of the boys he has given + the name of Fayette, and a fine-looking child he is." + </p> + <p> + George Augustine Washington sunk rapidly after this and died at the + residence of Colonel Bassett, where he had gone for a change of air, on + the 5th of February, 1793. Washington, on hearing of his decease, wrote + immediately from Philadelphia, to his widow, {7} condoling with her on the + heavy loss, and inviting her to reside, with her children, at Mount + Vernon. + </p> + <p> + In the latter part of October Washington returned to Philadelphia, in + anticipation of the meeting of Congress. + </p> + <p> + On the 5th of November (1792), Congress again convened. In Washington's + speech, delivered at the commencement of the session, Indian affairs were + treated at considerable length, and the continuance of the war was + mentioned as a subject of much regret. "The reiterated endeavors," it was + said, "which had been made to effect a pacification had hitherto issued in + new and outrageous proofs of persevering hostility on the part of the + tribes with whom the United States were in contest. + </p> + <p> + "A detail of the measures that had been pursued and of their consequences, + which would be laid before Congress, while it would confirm the want of + success thus far, would evince that means, as proper and as efficacious as + could have been devised, had been employed. The issue of some of them was + still depending, but a favorable one, though not to be despaired of, was + not promised by anything that had yet happened." + </p> + <p> + That a sanction, commonly respected even among savages, had been found + insufficient to protect from massacre the emissaries of peace, was + particularly noticed, and the families of those valuable citizens who had + thus fallen victims to their zeal for the public service were recommended + to the attention of the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + That unprovoked aggression had been made by the southern Indians, and that + there was just cause for apprehension that the war would extend to them + also, was mentioned as a subject of additional concern. + </p> + <p> + "Every practicable exertion had been made to be prepared for the + alternative of prosecuting the war in the event of a failure of pacific + overtures. A large proportion of the troops authorized to be raised had + been recruited, though the numbers were yet incomplete, and pains had been + taken to discipline them and put them in a condition for the particular + kind of service to be performed. But a delay of operations, besides being + dictated by the measures that were pursuing toward a pacific termination + of the war, had been in itself deemed preferable to immature efforts." + </p> + <p> + The humane system which has since been pursued with partial success, of + gradually civilizing the savages by improving their condition, of + diverting them in some degree from hunting to domestic and agricultural + occupations, by imparting to them some of the most simple and useful + acquisitions of society, and of conciliating them to the United States by + a beneficial and well-regulated commerce, had ever been a favorite object + with the President, and the detailed view which was not taken of Indian + affairs was concluded with a repetition of his recommendations of these + measures. + </p> + <p> + The subject next adverted to in the speech was the impediments which, in + some places, continued to embarrass the collection of the duties on + spirits distilled within the United States. After observing that these + impediments were lessening in local extent, but that symptoms of such + increased opposition had lately manifested themselves in certain places + as, in his judgment, to render his special interposition advisable, the + President added: "Congress may be assured that nothing within + constitutional and legal limits, which may depend on me, shall be wanting + to assert and maintain the just authority of the laws. In fulfilling this + trust I shall count entirely on the full cooperation of the other + departments of government and upon the zealous support of all good + citizens." + </p> + <p> + After noticing various objects which would require the attention of the + Legislature, the President addressed himself particularly to the House of + Representatives, and said: "I entertain a strong hope that the state of + the national finances is now sufficiently matured to enable you to enter + upon a systematic and effectual arrangement for the regular redemption and + discharge of the public debt, according to the right which has been + reserved to the government. No measure can be more desirable, whether + viewed with an eye to its intrinsic importance, or to the general + sentiments and wish of the nation." + </p> + <p> + The addresses of the two Houses in answer to the speech were, as usual, + respectful and affectionate. The several subjects recommended to the + attention of Congress, were noticed either in general terms, or in a + manner to indicate a coincidence of sentiment between the legislative and + executive departments. The turbulent spirit which had manifested itself in + certain parts of the Union, was mentioned by both houses with a just + degree of censure and the measures adopted by the President, as well as + the resolution he expressed to compel obedience to the laws, were + approved, and the House of Representatives, in the most unqualified terms, + declared opinions in favor of systematic and effectual arrangements for + discharging the public debt. But the subsequent proceedings of the + Legislature did not fulfill the expectations excited by this auspicious + commencement of the session. + </p> + <p> + At an early day in a committee of the whole House on the President's + speech, Mr. Fitzsimmons moved "that measures for the reduction of so much + of the public debt as the United States have a right to redeem, ought to + be adopted, and that the Secretary of the Treasury be directed to report a + plan for that purpose." + </p> + <p> + This motion was objected to by Mr. Madison as being premature. The state + of the finances, he thought, was not sufficiently understood to authorize + the adoption of the measure it contemplated. The debate, however, soon + took a different direction. + </p> + <p> + On a motion made, directing the Secretaries of the Treasury and of War to + attend the House and to give information, severe denunciations were poured + forth against the unconstitutionality of subjecting the representatives to + the control of the heads of the executive departments. The motions for + requiring a report from Hamilton on a plan for redeeming the public debt, + and for paying a debt owing to the bank, which were brought in by Mr. + Fitzsimmons, renewed the contest, but, although Madison and others opposed + the reference to the Secretary of the Treasury, the resolution was + carried. + </p> + <p> + Hamilton's report proposed a plan for the redemption of the debt. But the + expenses of the Indian war rendering it unsafe, in his opinion, to rest + absolutely on the existing revenue, he also proposed to extend the + internal taxes to pleasure horses, or pleasure carriages, as might be + deemed most advisable. For the reimbursement of the bank, he recommended + that power be conferred to negotiate a loan for two million dollars—the + dividends on the shares held by the government to be pledged for the + interest, and, as the government paid six per cent, to the bank, he relied + on the saving that would be effected by borrowing at a lower rate of + interest. The consideration of this report was deferred on various + grounds, and a motion was made to reduce the military establishment. The + debate was long and earnestly contested, but the motion was rejected on + the 5th of January, 1793. + </p> + <p> + A few weeks later another subject was introduced into the House which + absorbed the attention of the members and put an end, for the present + session, to every measure connected with the finances. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Giles, on the 23d of January (1793), moved several resolutions, + requiring information, among other things, on various points growing out + of the loans authorized by Congress in August, 1790. The object was to + inculpate the Secretary of the Treasury respecting the management and + application of these loans, and of the revenue generally. Mr. Giles + indulged himself in remarks which clearly showed the animus of his + proceedings, and it was his determination to prove to the House that there + was a large balance in the funds unaccounted for. The resolutions were + agreed to without debate, as was only due to Mr. Hamilton, and soon after, + three successive and able reports were sent in, containing the information + required. + </p> + <p> + In these reports a full exposition was given of the views and motives of + the secretary, in the conduct of the treasury department. It is also + evident that Hamilton felt aggrieved at this attack upon his reputation, + and he did not hesitate to use language of great plainness and severity, + observing in conclusion: "Thus have I not only furnished a just and + affirmative view of the real situation of the public accounts, but have + likewise shown, I trust, in a conspicuous manner, fallacies enough in the + statements, from which the inference of an unaccounted-for balance is + drawn, to evince that it is one tissue of error." + </p> + <p> + But the matter did not end here. Mr. Giles, on the 28th of February + (1793), submitted to the House a series of nine resolutions, containing + charges against the secretary. The substance of them was, that he had + failed to give Congress information, in due time, of moneys drawn from + Europe; that he had violated the law of the 4th of August, 1790, by an + unauthorized application of money borrowed under it; that he had drawn + part of the money into the United States, without any instructions from + the President; that he had exceeded his authority in making loans, under + the acts; that, without instructions from the President, he had drawn more + of the money borrowed in Holland than he was authorized by those acts, and + that he had been guilty of an indecorum to the House, in undertaking to + judge its motives in calling for information. The debate was continued + until the night of March 1st (1793), and was characterized by unusual + bitterness. It terminated in a rejection of the resolutions and + consequently in an entire exculpation of Hamilton from all just censure. + The highest number voting in favor of any one of the resolutions was + sixteen. + </p> + <p> + "The whole of the session was spent," says Mr. Gibbs, "in sifting the + conduct of the secretary. {8} The investigation served one purpose of the + opposition—it prevented any question being taken on the report. It + seems somewhat anomalous, that a party which had charged the + administration with a wish to perpetuate the debt, should thus have + thwarted its measures to discharge it; and an explanation of the fact can + only be found in a fixed determination to break down the secretary." + </p> + <p> + The other business of the session may be briefly stated. The claim for + compensation for loss on the certificates in which they had been paid, + advanced by the officers of the old Continental army, was rejected. An act + respecting "fugitives from justice, and persons escaping from the service + of their masters," was passed, early in February, by a vote of forty-eight + to seven. The trade with the Indians was regulated, and an attempt was + made to initiate an amendment to the constitution, because the State of + Georgia, sued in the Federal courts for a debt due to a citizen of another + State, had suffered judgment by default. And nearly two millions of + dollars were appropriated to the public service, in addition to the almost + three millions more for interest on the debt. On Saturday, the 3d of March + (1793), a constitutional period was put to the existence of the present + Congress. The members separated with obvious symptoms of extreme + irritation. "Various causes," says Marshall, "the most prominent of which + have already been noticed, had combined to organize <i>two distinct + parties</i> in the United States, which were rapidly taking the form of a + ministerial and an opposition party. By that in opposition, the President + was not yet openly denounced. His personal influence was too great to be + encountered by a direct avowal that he was at the head of their + adversaries, and his public conduct did not admit of a suspicion that he + could allow himself to rank as the chief of a party. Nor could public + opinion he seduced to implicate him in the ambitious plans and dark + schemes for the subversion of liberty, which were ascribed to a part of + the administration, and to the leading members who had supported the + measures of finance adopted by the Legislature." + </p> + <p> + Yet it was becoming apparent that things were taking a course which must + inevitably involve him in the political conflicts which were about to take + place. It was apparent that the charges against the Secretary of the + Treasury would not be relinquished, and that they were of a nature to + affect the chief magistrate materially, should his countenance not be + withdrawn from that officer. It was equally apparent that the fervor of + democracy, which was perpetually manifesting itself in the papers, in + invectives against levees, against the trappings of royalty, and against + the marks of peculiar respect which were paid to the President, must soon + include him more pointedly in its strictures. + </p> + <p> + These divisions, which are inherent in the nature of popular governments, + by which the chief magistrate, however unexceptionable his conduct, and + however exalted his character, must, sooner or later, be more or less + affected, were beginning to be essentially influenced by the great events + of Europe. + </p> + <p> + That revolution which has been the admiration, the wonder, and the terror + of the civilized world, had, from its commencement, been viewed in America + with the deepest interest. In its first stage, but one sentiment + respecting it prevailed, and that was a belief, accompanied with an ardent + wish, that it would improve the condition of France, extend the blessings + of liberty, and promote the happiness of the human race. When the labors + of the convention had terminated in a written constitution, this unanimity + of opinion was in some degree impaired. By a few who had thought deeply on + the science of government, and who, if not more intelligent, certainly + judge more dispassionately than their fellow-citizens, that instrument was + believed to contain the principles of self-destruction. It was feared that + a system so ill balanced could not be permanent. A deep impression was + made on the same persons by the influence of the galleries over the + Legislature, and of mobs over the executive; by the tumultuous assemblages + of the people, and their licentious excesses during the short and sickly + existence of the regal authority. These did not appear to be the symptoms + of a healthy constitution or of genuine freedom. Persuaded that the + present state of things could not last, they doubted and they feared for + the future. + </p> + <p> + In total opposition to this sentiment was that of the public generally. + There seems to be something infectious in the example of a powerful and + enlightened nation verging toward democracy, which impose on the human + mind, and leads human reason in fetters. Novelties, introduced by such a + nation, are stripped of the objections which had been preconceived against + them, and long-settled opinions yield to the overwhelming weight of such + dazzling authority. It wears the semblance of being the sense of mankind, + breaking loose from the shackles which had been imposed by artifice, and + asserting the freedom and the dignity of his nature. + </p> + <p> + The constitution of France, therefore, was generally received with + unqualified plaudits. The establishment of a legislature consisting of a + single body was defended not only as being adapted to the particular + situation of that country, but as being right in itself. Certain anonymous + writers, who supported the theory of a balanced government, were branded + as the advocates of royalty and of aristocracy. To question the duration + of the present order of things was thought to evidence an attachment to + unlimited monarchy, or a blind prejudice in favor of the institutions of + Great Britain, and the partiality of America in favor of a senate was + visibly declining. + </p> + <p> + In this stage of the revolution, however, the division of sentiment was + not marked with sufficient distinctness, nor the passions of the people + agitated with sufficient violence, for any powerful effect to be produced + on the two parties in America. But when the monarchy was completely + overthrown and a republic decreed, {9} the people of the United States + seemed electrified by the measure, and its influence was felt by the whole + society. The war in which the several potentates of Europe were engaged + against France, although in almost every instance declared by that power, + was pronounced to be a war for the extirpation of human liberty and for + the banishment of free government from the face of the earth. The + preservation of the constitution of the United States was supposed to + depend on its issue, and the coalition against France was treated as a + coalition against America also. + </p> + <p> + A cordial wish for the success of the French arms, or rather that the war + might terminate without any diminution of French power, and in such a + manner as to leave the people of that country free to choose their own + form of government, was perhaps universal, but, respecting the probable + issue of their internal conflicts, perfect unanimity of opinion did not + prevail. By some few individuals, the practicability of governing by a + system formed on the republican model, an immense, populous, and military + nation, whose institutions, habits, and morals were adapted to monarchy, + and which was surrounded by armed neighbors, was deemed a problem which + time alone could solve. The circumstances under which the abolition of + royalty was declared, the massacres which preceded it, the scenes of + turbulence and violence which were acted in every part of the nation, + appeared to them to present an awful and doubtful state of things, + respecting which no certain calculations could be made, and the idea that + a republic was to be introduced and supported by force, was, to them, a + paradox in politics. Under the influence of these appearances the + apprehension was entertained that, if the ancient monarchy should not be + restored a military despotism would be established. By the many, these + unpopular doubts were deemed unpardonable heresies, and the few to whom + they were imputed, were pronounced hostile to liberty. A suspicion that + the unsettled state of things in France had contributed to suspend the + payment of the debt to that nation had added to the asperity with which + the resolutions on that subject were supported, and the French revolution + will be found to have had great influence on the strength of parties and + on the subsequent political transactions of the United States. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Griswold, "Republican Court." + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: "Republican Court." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: For designating the site of the new seat of government. + Washington remained with the commissioners several days engaged in this + business. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: The following is the message which he delivered on this + occasion: + </p> + <h3> + GENTLEMEN OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES: + </h3> + <p> + I have maturely considered the act passed by the two Houses, entitled "An + act for the apportionment of representatives among the several States + according to the first enumeration," and I return it to your House, + wherein it originated, with the following objections. + </p> + <p> + First. The constitution has prescribed that representatives shall be + apportioned among the several States according to their respective + numbers, and there is no proportion or divisor which, applied to the + respective numbers of the States, will yield the number and allotment of + representatives proposed by the bill. + </p> + <p> + Secondly. The constitution has also provided that the number of + representatives shall not exceed one for thirty thousand—which + restriction is by the context, and by fair and obvious construction, to be + applied to the separate and respective numbers of the States—and the + bill has allotted to eight of the States more than one for thirty + thousand. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Marshall. + </p> + <p> + 6. Footnote: The salary of the Secretary of State, which was the highest, + was $3,500; that of the Secretary of the Treasury was $2,000. Hamilton was + finally obliged to resign, to gain a living. + </p> + <p> + 7. Footnote: Mrs. Washington's maiden name was Frances Bassett. She was + the daughter of Colonel Bassett, an intimate friend of Washington. + </p> + <p> + 8. Footnote: "Administrations of Washington and Adams." + </p> + <p> + 9. Footnote: This event was announced to the President by the minister + plenipotentiary of France, at Philadelphia, in February, 1793. Through the + Secretary of State an answer was returned, of which the following is an + extract: + </p> + <p> + "The President receives with great satisfaction this attention of the + executive council, and the desire they have manifested of making known to + us the resolution entered into by the National Convention, even before a + definitive regulation of their new establishment could take place. Be + assured, sir, that the government and the citizens of the United States + view with the most sincere pleasure every advance of your nation towards + its happiness, an object essentially connected with its liberty; and they + consider the union of principles and pursuits between our two countries as + a link which binds still closer their interests and affections. + </p> + <p> + "We earnestly wish, on our part, that these our mutual dispositions may be + improved to mutual good, by establishing our commercial intercourse on + principles as friendly to natural right and freedom as are those of our + governments." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. — WASHINGTON INAUGURATES THE SYSTEM OF NEUTRALITY. 1793. + </h2> + <p> + As the time approached for the expiration of Washington's first term of + office as President of the United States, a great deal of anxiety was felt + lest he should determine on a final retirement from public life. It was + well known that he had originally accepted the office with extreme + reluctance, that his attention to its duties had impaired his health, and + that he was very desirous to pass the remainder of his life in retirement + and repose. But at the same time it was felt that a crisis in public + affairs was impending which imperatively demanded the whole force of his + character and the whole influence of his popularity to sustain the + government. Even at the period when the Federal government was first + inaugurated, the call of his country to give it strength and permanence + was not more urgent than that which now summoned him to save it from the + rage of party spirit. Troubles and difficulties were also threatening the + country from abroad as well as internal factions at home, and the true + friends of the country felt that none but Washington was equal to the + emergency. He received many letters urging his continuance in office. + Three of these were from members of the cabinet—Jefferson, Hamilton, + and Randolph. + </p> + <p> + Jefferson expressed himself as follows: + </p> + <p> + "When you first mentioned to me your purpose of retiring from the + government, though I felt all the magnitude of the event, I was in a + considerable degree silent. I knew that to such a mind as yours persuasion + was idle and impertinent; that, before forming your decision, you had + weighed all the reasons for and against the measure, had made up your mind + on full view of them, and that there could be little hope of changing the + result. Pursuing my reflections, too, I knew we were some day to try to + walk alone, and if the essay should be made while you should be alive and + looking on, we should derive confidence from that circumstance and + resource if it failed. The public mind, too, was then calm and confident, + and therefore in a favorable state for making the experiment. Had no + change of circumstances supervened, I should not, with any hope of + success, have now ventured to propose to you a change of purpose. But the + public mind is no longer so confident and serene, and that from causes in + which you are no ways personally mixed. + </p> + <p> + "The confidence of the whole Union is centered in you. Your being at the + helm will be more than an answer to every argument which can be used to + alarm and lead the people in any quarter into violence or secession. North + and South will hang together, if they have you to hang on; and if the + first corrective of a numerous representation should fail in its effect, + your presence will give time for trying others not inconsistent with the + union and peace of the States. + </p> + <p> + "I am perfectly aware of the oppression under which your present office + lays your mind, and of the ardor with which you pant for retirement to + domestic life. But there is sometimes an eminence of character on which + society have such peculiar claims, as to control the predilection of the + individual for a particular walk of happiness and restrain him to that + alone arising from the present and future benedictions of mankind. This + seems to be your condition, and the law imposed on you by Providence in + forming your character and fashioning the events on which it was to + operate, and it is to motives like these and not to personal anxieties of + mine or others, who have no right to call on you for sacrifices, that I + appeal from your former determination, and urge a revisal of it, on the + ground of change in the aspect of things. Should an honest majority result + from the new and enlarged representation, should those acquiesce, whose + principles or interests they may control, your wishes for retirement would + be gratified with less danger, as soon as that shall be manifest, without + awaiting the completion of the second period of four years. One or two + sessions will determine the crisis, and I cannot but hope that you can + resolve to add one or two more to the many years you have already + sacrificed to the good of mankind. + </p> + <p> + "The fear of suspicion that any selfish motive of continuance in office + may enter into this solicitation on my part obliges me to declare that no + such motive exists. It is a thing of mere indifference to the public + whether I retain or relinquish my purpose of closing my tour with the + first periodical renovation of the government. I know my own measure too + well to suppose that my services contribute anything to the public + confidence or the public utility. Multitudes can fill the office in which + you have been pleased to place me, as much to their advantage and + satisfaction. I, therefore, have no motive to consult but my own + inclination, which is bent irresistibly on the tranquil enjoyment of my + family, my farm, and my books. I should repose among them, it is true, in + far greater security, if I were to know that you remained at the watch, + and I hope it will be so. To the inducements urged from a view of our + domestic affairs I will add a bare mention of what indeed need only be + mentioned, that weighty motives for your continuance are to be found in + our foreign affairs. I think it probable that both the Spanish and English + negotiations, if not completed before your purpose is known, will be + suspended from the moment it is known, and that the latter nation will + then use double diligence in fomenting the Indian war. + </p> + <p> + "With my wishes for the future I shall, at the same time, express my + gratitude of the past, at least my portion of it, and beg permission to + follow you, whether in public or private life, with those sentiments of + sincere attachment and respect with which I am unalterably, dear sir, your + affectionate friend and humble servant." + </p> + <p> + Extract from Hamilton's letter: + </p> + <p> + "I received the most sincere pleasure at finding, in our last + conversation, that there was some relaxation in the disposition you had + before discovered to decline a re-election. Since your departure I have + lost no opportunity of sounding the opinions of persons whose opinions + were worth knowing on these two points: First, the effect of your + declining upon the public affairs, and upon your own reputation; secondly, + the effect of your continuing in reference to the declarations you have + made of your disinclination to public life. And I can truly say that I + have not found the least difference of sentiment on either point. The + impression is uniform, that your declining would be to be deplored as the + greatest evil that could befall the country at the present juncture, and + as critically hazardous to your own reputation; that your continuance will + be justified in the mind of every friend to his country by the evident + necessity for it. + </p> + <p> + "It is clear, says everyone with whom I have conversed, that the affairs + of the national government are not yet firmly established; that its + enemies, generally speaking, are as inveterate as ever; that their enmity + has been sharpened by its success, and by all the resentments which flow + from disappointed predictions and mortified vanity; that a general and + strenuous effort is making in every State to place the administration of + it in the hands of its enemies, as if they were its safest guardians; that + the period of the next House of Representatives is likely to prove the + crisis of its permanent character; that, if you continue in office, + nothing materially mischievous is to be apprehended, if you quit much is + to be dreaded; that the same motives which induced you to accept + originally ought to decide you to continue till matters have assumed a + more determinate aspect; that indeed it would have been better, as it + regards your own character, that you had never consented to come forward + than now to leave the business unfinished and in danger of being undone; + that, in the event of storms arising, there would be an imputation either + of want of foresight or want of firmness, and, in fine, that on public and + personal accounts, on patriotic and prudential considerations, the clear + path to be pursued by you will be again to obey the voice of your country, + which it is not doubted will be as earnest and as unanimous as ever. + </p> + <p> + "I trust, sir, and I pray God, that you will determine to make a further + sacrifice of your tranquility and happiness to the public good. I trust + that it need not continue above a year or two more. And I think that it + will be more eligible to retire from office before the expiration of the + term of election than to decline a re-election. + </p> + <p> + "The sentiments I have delivered upon this occasion I can truly say + proceed exclusively from an anxious concern for the public welfare and an + affectionate personal attachment. These dispositions must continue to + govern, in every vicissitude, one who has the honor to be very truly and + respectfully, sir, yours, etc." + </p> + <p> + Randolph wrote as follows: + </p> + <p> + "I have persuaded myself that this letter, though unconnected with any + official relation, and upon a subject to the decision of which you alone + are competent, will be received in the spirit with which it is written. + The Union, for the sake of which I have encountered various + embarrassments, not wholly unknown to you, and sacrificed some opinions, + which, but for its jeopardy, I should never have surrendered, seems to me + to be, now, at the eve of a crisis. It is feared by those who take a + serious interest in the affairs of the United States that you will refuse + the chair of government at the approaching election. If such an event must + happen indulge me, at least, in the liberty of opening to you a course of + thought, which a calm attention to the Federal government has suggested, + and no bias of party has influenced. + </p> + <p> + "It cannot have escaped you that divisions are formed in our politics as + systematic as those which prevail in Great Britain. Such as opposed the + constitution, from a hatred to the Union, can never be conciliated by any + overture or atonement. By others it is meditated to push the construction + of Federal powers to every tenable extreme. A third class, republican in + principle, and, thus far, in my judgment, happy in their discernment of + our welfare, have, notwithstanding, mingled with their doctrines a fatal + error—that the State assemblies are to be resorted to as the engines + of correction to the Federal administration. The honors belonging to the + chief magistracy are objects of no common solicitude to a few, who compose + a fourth denomination. + </p> + <p> + "The fuel which has been already gathered for combustion wants no + addition. But how awfully might it be increased were the violence, which + is now suspended by a universal submission to your pretensions, let loose + by your resignation! Permit me, then, in the fervor of a dutiful and + affectionate attachment to you, to beseech you to penetrate the + consequences of a dereliction of the reins. The constitution would never + have been adopted, but from a knowledge that you had once sanctioned it, + and an expectation that you would execute it. It is in a state of + probation. The most inauspicious struggles are past, but the public + deliberations need stability. You alone can give them stability. You + suffered yourself to yield when the voice of your country summoned you to + the administration. Should a civil war arise you cannot stay at home. And + now much easier will it be to disperse the factions which are rushing to + this catastrophe than to subdue them after they shall appear in arms? It + is the fixed opinion of the world that you surrender nothing incomplete. + </p> + <p> + "I am not unapprised of many disagreeable sensations which have labored in + your breast. But, let them spring from any cause whatsoever, of one thing + I think I am sure (and I speak this from a satisfactory inquiry lately + made), that, if a second opportunity shall be given to the people of + showing their gratitude, they will not be less unanimous than before." + </p> + <p> + Washington's own views we learn from the following letter in answer to + Randolph: + </p> + <p> + "The purpose of this letter is merely to acknowledge the receipt of your + favors of the 5th and 13th instant, and to thank you for the information + contained in both, without entering into the details of either. + </p> + <p> + "With respect, however, to the interesting subject treated in that of the + 5th, I can express but one sentiment at this time, and that is a wish, a + devout one, that, whatever my ultimate determination shall be, it may be + for the best. The subject never recurs to my mind but with additional + poignancy, and, from the declining state of the health of my nephew, to + whom my concerns of a domestic and private nature are entrusted, it comes + with aggravated force. But as the all-wise Disposer of events has hitherto + watched over my steps, I trust that, in the important one I may soon be + called upon to take, He will mark the course so plainly as that I cannot + mistake the way. In full hope of this I will take no measures for the + present that will not leave me at liberty to decide from circumstances and + the best lights I can obtain on the subject. + </p> + <p> + "I shall be happy, in the meantime, to see a cessation of the abuses of + public officers and of almost every measure of government with which some + of the gazettes are so strongly impregnated, and which cannot fail, if + persevered in with the malignancy with which they now teem, of rendering + the Union asunder. The seeds of discontent, distrust, and irritation which + are so plentifully sown, can scarcely fail to produce this effect, and to + mar that prospect of happiness which, perhaps, never beamed with more + effulgence upon any people under the sun, and this too at a time when all + Europe is gazing with admiration at the brightness of our prospects. And + for what is all this? Among other things, to afford nuts for our + transatlantic—(what shall I call them?)—foes. + </p> + <p> + "In a word, if government and the officers of it are to be the constant + theme for newspaper abuse, and this too without condescending to + investigate the motives or the facts, it will be impossible, I conceive, + for any man living to manage the helm or to keep the machine together. But + I am running from my text, and therefore will only add assurances of the + affectionate esteem and regard with which I am, etc." + </p> + <p> + To the remonstrances of his immediate advisers in the Cabinet were added + many more of the same tenor from other friends and correspondents. He had, + in fact, already determined to retire at this time, and had accordingly + prepared a farewell address to the people for the occasion. But he had + never publicly declared this intention, and, urged thus strongly by + leading men of all parties, he finally consented to remain in office. + </p> + <p> + "Respecting the person who should fill the office of Vice-President," says + Marshall, "the public was divided. The profound statesman who had been + called to the duties of that station had drawn upon himself a great degree + of obloquy by some political tracts, in which he had labored to maintain + the proposition that a balance in government was essential to the + preservation of liberty. In these disquisitions he was supposed by his + opponents to have discovered sentiments in favor of distinct orders in + society, and, although he had spoken highly of the constitution of the + United States, it was imagined that his balance could be maintained only + by hereditary classes. He was also understood to be friendly to the system + of finance which had been adopted, and was believed to be among the few + who questioned the durability of the French republic. His great services + and acknowledged virtues were therefore disregarded, and a competitor was + sought for among those who had distinguished themselves in the opposition. + The choice was directed from Mr. Jefferson by a constitutional restriction + on the power of the electors, which would necessarily deprive him of the + vote to be given by Virginia. It being necessary to designate some other + opponent to Mr. Adams, George Clinton, the Governor of New York, was + selected for this purpose. + </p> + <p> + "Throughout the war of the Revolution, this gentleman had filled the + office of chief magistrate of his native State, and, under circumstances + of real difficulty, had discharged its duties with a courage and an energy + which secured the esteem of the Commander-in-Chief and gave him a fair + claim to the favor of his country. Embracing afterward with ardor the + system of State supremacy, he had contributed greatly to the rejection of + the resolutions for investing Congress with the power of collecting an + impost on imported goods, and had been conspicuous for his determined + hostility to the constitution of the United States. His sentiments + respecting the measures of the government were known to concur with those + of the minority in Congress." + </p> + <p> + Both parties seemed confident in their strength, and both made the utmost + exertions to insure success. On opening the ballots in the Senate chamber + (Feb. 13, 1793), it appeared that the unanimous suffrage of his country + had been once more conferred on General Washington, and that Mr. Adams had + received a plurality of the votes. {1} + </p> + <p> + The ceremonial to be observed at the inauguration was the subject of a + difference of opinion, and a Cabinet council was called to take the matter + into consideration. Jefferson and Hamilton thought that the oath ought to + be administered in private, and that one of the judges of the Supreme + Court should attend to this duty at the President's own house. Knox and + Randolph were of a different opinion and decided that the ceremony should + take place in public. Washington coincided with them in their views, and + it was finally decided at a subsequent Cabinet meeting, on the 1st of + March, that the inauguration should take place in the Senate chamber. + </p> + <p> + Among the senators who were present on this occasion were John Langdon of + New Hampshire, one of the purest and most disinterested of the + Revolutionary veterans; Oliver Ellsworth, from Connecticut, afterward + chief justice of the United States; Roger Sherman, also from Connecticut, + one of the committee for preparing the Declaration of Independence; Rufus + King, the eloquent statesman from New York; Robert Morris, the great + financier, from Pennsylvania, and James Monroe, afterward President of the + United States, from Virginia. + </p> + <p> + The proceedings, as recorded in Mr. Benton's "Abridgment of the Debates of + Congress," were as follows: + </p> + <p> + "Agreeably to notice given by the President of the United States on the + second instant, he came to the Senate chamber and took his seat in the + chair usually assigned to the president of the Senate, who, on this + occasion was seated at the right, and in advance of the President of the + United States; a seat on the left, and also in advance, being provided for + Judge Cushing, appointed to administer the oath. The doors of the Senate + chamber being open, the heads of the departments, foreign ministers, the + late speaker, and such members of the late House of Representatives as + were in town, together with as many other spectators as could be + accommodated, were present. + </p> + <p> + "After a short pause the president of the Senate arose and addressed the + President of the United States as follows: + </p> + <p> + "'Sir:—One of the judges of the Supreme Court of the United States + is now present and ready to administer to you the oath required by the + constitution to be taken by the President of the United States.' + </p> + <p> + "On which the President of the United States, rising from his seat, was + pleased to address the audience as follows: + </p> + <p> + "'FELLOW-CITIZENS:—I am again called upon, by the voice of my + country, to execute the functions of its chief magistrate. When the + occasion proper for it shall arrive, I shall endeavor to express the high + sense I entertain of this distinguished honor, and of the confidence which + has been reposed in me by the people of United America. + </p> + <p> + "'Previous to the execution of any official act of the President, the + constitution requires an oath of office. This oath I am now about to take, + and in your presence; that, if it shall be found during my administration + of the government, I have, in any instance, violated, willingly, or + knowingly, the injunction thereof, I may (besides incurring constitutional + punishment) be subject to the upbraidings of all who are now witnesses of + the present solemn ceremony.' + </p> + <p> + "Judge Cushing then administered the oath of office required by the + constitution, after which the President of the United States retired, and + the spectators dispersed." + </p> + <p> + The record of the proceedings thus given by Mr. Benton gives but a very + imperfect idea of the actual scene. Fortunately, an eye-witness, Arthur J. + Stansbury, for twenty-five years a reporter of Congress, has given us a + very lively and graphic description of the scene in his "Recollections and + Anecdotes of the Presidents of the United States." {2} + </p> + <p> + We copy his description in full: + </p> + <p> + "But I once had," says Mr. Stansbury, "an opportunity far more favorable + of beholding this greatest of men, under circumstances the best possible + for exhibiting him to the fullest advantage. It was a privilege which + could happen but once to any man, and I esteem the hour when I enjoyed it + as one of the brightest moments I was ever permitted to know. Its + remembrance yet glows vividly on my mind; years have not dimmed it; the + whole scene is yet before me; and I need not say with what force repeated + public occasions of a like kind have since recalled it to remembrance. + Yes, it was my favored lot to see and hear President Washington address + the Congress of the United States, when elected for the last time. Of men + now living, how few can say the same! + </p> + <p> + "I was but a schoolboy at the time, and had followed one of the many + groups of people who, from all quarters, were making their way to the hall + in Chestnut street, at the corner of Fifth, where the two Houses of + Congress then held their sittings, and where they were that day to be + addressed by the President, on the opening of his second term of office. + Boys can often manage to work their way through a crowd better than men + can; at all events, it so happened that I succeeded in reaching the steps + of the hall, from which elevation, looking in every direction, I could see + nothing but human heads—a vast fluctuating sea, swaying to and fro, + and filling every accessible place which commanded even a distant view of + the building. They had congregated, not with the hope of getting into the + hall, for that was physically impossible, but that they might see + Washington. Many an anxious look was cast in the direction from which he + was expected to come, till at length, true to the appointed hour (he was + the most punctual of men), an agitation was observable on the outskirts of + the crowd, which gradually opened and gave space for the approach of an + elegant white coach, drawn by six superb white horses, having on its four + sides beautiful designs of the four seasons, painted by Cipriani. It + slowly made its way till it drew up immediately in front of the hall. The + rush was now tremendous. But as the coach door opened, there issued from + it two gentlemen, with long white wands, who, with some difficulty, parted + the people, so as to open a passage from the carriage to the steps, on + which the fortunate schoolboy had achieved a footing, and whence the whole + proceeding could be distinctly seen. As the person of the President + emerged from the carriage, a universal shout rent the air, and continued, + as he very deliberately mounted the steps. On reaching the platform, he + paused, looking back on the carriage, thus affording to the anxiety of the + people the indulgence they desired, of feasting their eyes upon his + person. Never did a more majestic personage present himself to the public + gaze. He was within two feet of me; I could have touched his clothes; but + I should as soon have thought of touching an electric battery. Boy as I + was, I felt as in the presence of a Divinity. As he turned to enter the + hall, the gentlemen with the white wands preceded him, and, with still + greater difficulty than before, repressed the people, and cleared a way to + the great staircase. As he ascended, I ascended with him, step by step, + creeping close to the wall, and almost hidden by the skirts of his coat. + Nobody looked at me; everybody was looking at him; and thus I was + permitted, unnoticed, to glide along, and, happily, to make my way (where + so many were vainly longing and struggling to enter) into the lobby of the + chamber of the House of Representatives. Once in, I was safe; for had I + even been seen by the officers in attendance, it would have been + impossible to get me out again. I saw near me a large pyramidal stove, + which, fortunately, had but little fire in it, and on which I forthwith + clambered, until I had attained a secure perch, from which every part of + the hall could be deliberately and distinctly surveyed. Depend upon it, I + made use of my eyes. + </p> + <p> + "On either side of the broad aisle that was left vacant in the center were + assembled the two houses of Congress. As the President entered, all rose, + and remained standing till he had ascended the steps at the upper end of + the chamber and taken his seat in the speaker's chair. It was an + impressive moment. Notwithstanding that the spacious apartment, floor, + lobby, galleries, and all approaches were crowded to their utmost + capacity, not a sound was heard; the silence of expectation was unbroken + and profound; every breath seemed suspended. He was dressed in a full suit + of the richest black velvet; his lower limbs in short clothes with diamond + knee buckles and black silk stockings. His shoes, which were brightly + japanned, were surmounted with large square silver buckles. His hair, + carefully displayed in the manner of the day, was richly powdered, and + gathered behind into a black silk bag, on which was a bow of black ribbon. + In his hand he carried a plain cocked hat, decorated with the American + cockade. He wore by his side a light, slender dress-sword, in a green + shagreen scabbard, with a richly ornamented hilt. His gait was deliberate, + his manner solemn but self-possessed, and he presented, altogether, the + most august human figure I had then or have since beheld. + </p> + <p> + "At the head of the Senate stood Thomas Jefferson, in a blue coat, single + breasted, with large bright basket-buttons, his vest and small-clothes of + crimson. I remember being struck with his animated countenance, of a + brick-red hue, his bright eye and foxy hair, as well as by his tall, + gaunt, ungainly form and square shoulders. A perfect contrast was + presented by the pale reflective face and delicate figure of James + Madison, and above all, by the short, burly, bustling form of General + Knox, with ruddy cheek, prominent eye, and still more prominent + proportions of another kind. In the semicircle which was formed behind the + chair, and on either hand of the President, my boyish gaze was attracted + by the splendid attire of the Chevalier d'Yrujo, the Spanish ambassador, + then the only foreign minister near our infant government. His glittering + star, his silk chapeau bras, edged with ostrich feathers, his foreign air + and courtly bearing, contrasted strongly with those nobility of nature's + forming who stood around him. It was a very fair representation of the old + world and the new. How often has the same reflection occurred to me since, + on witnessing the glittering and now numerous company of foreign + dignitaries collected round our President by an inauguration day, or the + recurrence of our national anniversary! True, the individuals who form + that brilliant coterie are, for the most part, men eminent for general + intelligence, as well as the virtues of private life—men who meet, + and well deserve, a cordial welcome on our shores and often carry from it + the sincerest regret. But how do the personal sentiments and characters of + the men themselves put out the blaze of the gold and diamonds with which + their governments had covered them! And if, even in the unadorned presence + of his successors, these decorations seem puerile in Republican eyes, how + would they have faded away and been lost in the chilling grandeur of the + public presence of Washington! + </p> + <p> + "Having retained his seat for a few moments, while the members resumed + their seats, the President rose, and, taking from his breast a roll of + manuscript, proceeded to read his address. His voice was full and + sonorous, deep and rich in its tones, free from that trumpet ring which it + could assume amid the tumult of battle (and which is said to have been + distinctly heard above all its roar), but sufficiently loud and clear to + fill the chamber, and be heard, with perfect ease, in its most remote + recesses. The address was of considerable length; its topics, of course, I + forget, for I was too young to understand them; I only remember, in its + latter part, some reference to the Wabash river (then a new name to my + ear), and to claims or disputes on the part of the Indian tribes. He read, + as he did everything else, with a singular serenity and composure, with + manly ease and dignity, but without the smallest attempt at display. + </p> + <p> + "Having concluded, he laid the manuscript upon the table before him and + resumed his seat, when, after a slight pause, he rose and withdrew, the + members rising and remaining on their feet until he left the chamber. + </p> + <p> + "The paper was then taken up by Mr. Beckley, the clerk of the House, and + again read from beginning to end. Beckley's enunciation, by the by, was + admirably clear, giving every syllable of every word, and I may say, he + was almost the only officer, whose official duty it is to read, whom I + ever heard read well. + </p> + <p> + "This form having been gone through, the members of the Senate retired and + I took advantage of the bustle to descend from my unwonted and + presumptuous elevation, and mingle with the dissolving crowd." + </p> + <p> + These recollections of Mr. Stansbury present a much livelier view of the + transactions of that memorable day; than that which any reader's + imagination can supply by the aid of the official record. + </p> + <p> + Washington was now once more plunged into the troubled ocean of public + affairs. Before following him into new scenes of self-sacrifice and + disinterestedness in the service of his country, we pause to notice a + pleasing act of private friendship, which, with his usual delicacy, he + calls an act of simple justice. In consequence of the active part which he + had taken in the French revolution, Washington's bosom friend, Lafayette, + had become a prisoner to the King of Prussia, and was detained in + captivity. The Marchioness Lafayette, after being a prisoner in Paris, had + been suffered to retire to her husband's estate, and reside there under + the safeguard of the municipality, without permission to correspond with + her friends. Ignorant of her actual residence, but supposing that she + might be suffering for want of ready money, Washington sent her a + considerable sum, and wrote as follows: + </p> + <p> + "MADAM:—If I had words that could convey to you an adequate idea of + my feelings on the present situation of the Marquis de Lafayette, this + letter would appear to you in a different garb. The sole object in writing + to you now is, to inform you that I have deposited in the hands of Mr. + Nicholas Van Staphorst, of Amsterdam, two thousand three hundred and ten + guilders, Holland currency, equal to two hundred guineas, subject to your + orders. + </p> + <p> + "This sum is, I am certain, the least I am indebted for services rendered + to me by the Marquis de Lafayette, of which I never yet have received the + account. I could add much, but it is best, perhaps, that I should say + little on this subject. Your goodness will supply any deficiency. + </p> + <p> + "The uncertainty of your situation, after all the inquiries I have made, + has occasioned a delay in this address and remittance, and even now, the + measure adopted is more the effect of a desire to find where you are, than + from any knowledge I have obtained of your residence. + </p> + <p> + "At all times, and under all circumstances, you and yours will possess the + affectionate regards of him who has the honor to be, etc." + </p> + <p> + Shortly after writing this letter Washington received one from the + marchioness, and still later another, both written before the above letter + reached her. She requested Washington's interference with the Prussian + government on behalf of Lafayette, and was desirous, if he could be + released, that he and his family should reside in the United States. + Everything was done that could be done, by Washington and the American + ministers in Europe, to obtain Lafayette's release, but it was not + effected till several years after, and then through other means. + </p> + <p> + During the recess of Congress, Washington twice visited Mount Vernon, once + for a few days in April (1793), and again, for two or three weeks in June + and July. On the 4th of July he was present at the celebration of the + national anniversary by the citizens of Alexandria. He was prevented from + spending more time at Mount Vernon by the pressure of public business, + which was now assuming a new and very unpleasant aspect. + </p> + <p> + During Washington's short visit to Mount Vernon in April, he received a + letter from Jefferson, dated April 7th, (1793), informing him that France + had declared war against England and Holland. Instantly perceiving the + danger of the United States becoming involved in the hostilities of these + nations, Washington, on the 12th of April, wrote in reply to Jefferson: + "War having actually commenced between France and Great Britain, it + behooves the government of this country to use every means in its power to + prevent the citizens thereof from embroiling us with either of those + powers, by endeavoring to maintain a strict neutrality. I therefore + require that you will give the subject mature consideration, that such + measures as shall be deemed most likely to effect this desirable purpose + may be adopted without delay, for I have understood that vessels are + already designated as privateers, and are preparing accordingly. Such + other measures as may be necessary for us to pursue against events, which + it may not be in our power to avoid or control, you will also think of, + and lay them before me on my arrival in Philadelphia; for which place I + shall set out tomorrow, but will leave it to the advices which I may + receive tonight by the post, to determine whether it is to be by the + direct route or by the one I proposed to come, that is, by Reading." + </p> + <p> + The tenor of this letter shows that Washington was fully aware of the + importance of the emergency in our foreign relations which had now arisen, + and the result showed that, as usual, he was fully equal to the occasion. + The difficulty of the position arose from the fact already adverted to—that + of the two great political parties then existing, one was in favor of + direct aid to the French revolutionists, while the other, desirous to + remain neutral while the European contest was going on, was charged by its + opponents with partiality to England. It remained for Washington, by that + decision of character and inflexible firmness for which he was so + remarkable, to inaugurate that system of neutrality and noninterference in + the affairs of Europe, which has ever since constituted the foreign policy + of this country. + </p> + <p> + On his return to Philadelphia, Washington summoned a meeting of the + Cabinet, at the same time sending to each member a series of questions to + be considered as preparatory to the meeting. These questions, thirteen in + number, all referred to the measures to be taken by the President in + consequence of the revolution which had overthrown the French monarchy; of + the new organization of a republic in that country; of the appointment of + a minister from that republic to the United States, and of the war + declared by the National Convention of France against Great Britain. The + first of these questions, says Mr. Adams, {3} was, whether a proclamation + should issue to prevent interferences of our citizens in the war, and + whether the proclamation should or should not contain a declaration of + neutrality. The second was, whether a minister from the Republic of France + should be received. Upon these two questions the opinion of the Cabinet + was unanimous in the affirmative—that a proclamation of neutrality + should issue, and that the minister from the French Republic should be + received. But upon all the other questions, the opinions of the four heads + of the departments were equally divided. They were indeed questions of + difficulty and delicacy equal to their importance. No less than whether, + after a revolution in France annihilating the government with which the + treaties of alliance and of commerce had been contracted, the treaties + themselves were to be considered binding as between the nations, and + particularly whether the stipulation of guarantee to France of her + possessions in the West Indies, was binding upon the United States to the + extent of imposing upon them the obligation of taking side with France in + the war. As the members of the Cabinet disagreed in their opinions upon + these questions, and as there was no immediate necessity for deciding + them, the further consideration of them was postponed, and they were never + afterwards resumed. While these discussions of the Cabinet of Washington + were held, the minister plenipotentiary from the French republic arrived + in this country. He had been appointed by the National Convention of + France, which had dethroned, tried, sentenced to death, and executed Louis + the Sixteenth, abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed a republic one and + indivisible, under the auspices of liberty, equality, and fraternity, as + thenceforth the government of France. By all the rest of Europe they were + then considered as revolted subjects in rebellion against their sovereign, + and were not recognized as constituting an independent government. + </p> + <p> + Hamilton and Knox were of opinion that the minister from France should be + conditionally received, with the reservation of the question whether the + United States were still bound to fulfill the stipulations of the + treaties. They inclined to the opinion that treaties themselves were + annulled by the revolution of the government in France—an opinion to + which the example of the revolutionary government had given plausibility + by declaring some of the treaties made by the abolished monarchy no longer + binding upon the nation. Mr. Hamilton thought, also, that France had no + just claim to the fulfillment of the stipulation of guarantee, because + that stipulation, and the whole treaty of alliance in which it was + contained, were professedly, and on the face of them, only defensive, + while the war which the French convention had declared against Great + Britain, was on the part of France offensive, the first declaration having + been issued by her—that the United States were at all events + absolved from the obligation of the guarantee by their inability to + perform it, and that under the constitution of the United States the + interpretation of treaties, and the obligations resulting from them, were + within the competency of the executive department, at least concurrently + with the Legislature. It does not appear that these opinions were debated + or contested in the Cabinet. By their unanimous advice the proclamation + was issued, and it was decided to receive a minister plenipotentiary of + the French republic. Thus the executive administration did assume and + exercise the power of recognizing a revolutionary foreign government as a + legitimate sovereign, with whom the ordinary diplomatic relations were to + be entertained. But the proclamation contained no allusion whatever to the + United States and France, nor of course to the article of guarantee or its + obligations. + </p> + <p> + Whatever doubts may have been entertained by a large portion of people of + the right of the executive to acknowledge a new and revolutionary + government, not recognized by any other sovereign State, or of the sound + policy of receiving, without waiting for the sanction of Congress, a + minister from a republic which had commenced her career by putting to + death the King whom she had dethroned, and which had rushed into war with + almost all the rest of Europe, no manifestation of such doubts was + publicly made. A current of popular favor sustained the French revolution, + at that stage of its progress, which nothing could resist, and far from + indulging any question of the right of the President to recognize a new + revolutionary government, by receiving from it the credentials which none + but sovereigns can grant, the American people would, at that moment, have + scarcely endured an instant of hesitation on the part of the President, + which should have delayed for an hour the reception of the minister from + the republic of France. But the proclamation enjoining neutrality upon the + people of the United States, indirectly counteracted the torrent of + partiality in favor of France, and was immediately assailed with + intemperate violence in many of the public journals. The right of the + executive to issue any proclamation of neutrality was fiercely and + pertinaciously denied as a usurpation of legislative authority, and in + that particular case it was charged with forestalling and prematurely + deciding the question whether the United States were bound, by the + guarantee to France of her West India possessions in the treaty of + alliance, to take side in the war with her against Great Britain—and + with deciding it against France. + </p> + <p> + The proclamation of neutrality was signed on the 22d of April, 1793, and + was immediately published. "This measure," says Mr. Sparks, "both in + regard to its character and its consequences, was one of the most + important of Washington's administration. It was the basis of a system by + which the intercourse with foreign nations was regulated, and which was + rigidly adhered to. In fact, it was the only step that could have saved + the United States from being drawn into the vortex of European wars, which + raged with so much violence for a long time afterward. Its wisdom and its + good effects are now so obvious, on a calm review of past events, that one + is astonished at the opposition it met with, and the strifes it enkindled, + even after making due allowance for the passions and prejudices which had + hitherto been at work in producing discord and divisions." + </p> + <p> + The proclamation of neutrality furnished the first occasion which was + thought a fit one for openly assaulting a character, around which the + affections of the people had thrown an armor theretofore deemed sacred, + and for directly criminating the conduct of the President himself. It was + only by opposing passions to passions, by bringing the feeling in favor of + France into conflict with those in favor of the chief magistrate, that the + enemies of his administration could hope to obtain the victory. + </p> + <p> + For a short time the opponents of this measure treated it with some degree + of delicacy. The opposition prints occasionally glanced at the executive, + considered all governments, including that of the United States, as + naturally hostile to the liberty of the people, and ascribed to this + disposition the combination of European governments against France, and + the apathy with which this combination was contemplated by the executive. + At the same time the most vehement declamations were published for the + purpose of inflaming the resentments of the people against Britain; of + enhancing the obligations of America to France; of confirming the opinions + that the coalition of European monarchs was directed not less against the + United States than against Great Britain, and that those who did not avow + this sentiment were the friends of that coalition, and equally the enemies + of America and France. + </p> + <p> + These publications, in the first instance sufficiently bitter, quickly + assumed a highly increased degree of acrimony. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the commotions which succeeded the deposition of Louis XVI had, + in some degree, subsided, the attention of the French government was + directed to the United States, and the resolution was taken to recall the + minister who had been appointed by the King, and to replace him with one + who might be expected to enter with more enthusiasm into the views of the + republic. + </p> + <p> + Edmund Charles Genet, a man of considerable talents, and of an ardent + temper, was selected for this purpose. The letters he brought to the + executive of the United States and his instructions, which he occasionally + communicated, were in a high degree flattering to the nation, and decently + respectful to its government. But Mr. Genet was also furnished with + private instructions, which the course of subsequent events tempted him to + publish. These indicated that if the American executive should not be + found sufficiently compliant with the views of France, the resolution had + been taken to appeal to the people of the United States against their own + government, and thus to effect an object which legitimate negotiations + might fail to accomplish. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Genet possessed many qualities which were peculiarly adapted to the + objects of his mission, but he seems to have been betrayed by the + flattering reception which was given him and by the universal fervor + expressed for his republic, into a too speedy disclosure of his + intentions. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of April (1793) he arrived, not at Philadelphia, but at + Charleston in South Carolina, a port whose contiguity to the West Indies + would give it peculiar convenience as a resort for privateers. He was + received by the governor of that State, and by its citizens, with an + enthusiasm well calculated to dissipate every doubt he might previously + have entertained concerning the dispositions on which he was to operate. + At this place he continued for several days, receiving extravagant marks + of public attachment, during which time he undertook to authorize the + fitting and arming of vessels in that port, enlisting men, and giving + commissions to cruise and commit hostilities on nations with whom the + United States were at peace. + </p> + <p> + The captures made by these cruisers were brought into port and the consuls + of France were assuming, under the authority of Mr. Genet, to hold courts + of admiralty on them, to try, condemn, and authorize their sale. + </p> + <p> + From Charleston Mr. Genet proceeded by land to Philadelphia, receiving on + his journey at the different towns through which he passed such marks of + enthusiastic attachment as had never before been lavished on a foreign + minister. On the 16th of May (1793) he arrived at Philadelphia, preceded + by the intelligence of his transactions in South Carolina. This + information did not diminish the extravagant transports of joy with which + he was welcomed by the great body of the inhabitants. Means had been taken + to render his entry pompous and triumphal, and the opposition papers + exultingly stated that he was met at Gray's ferry by "crowds who flocked + from every avenue of the city to meet the republican ambassador of an + allied nation." + </p> + <p> + The day succeeding his arrival he received addresses of congratulation + from particular societies, and from the citizens of Philadelphia, who + waited on him in a body, in which they expressed their fervent gratitude + for the "zealous and disinterested aids" which the French people had + furnished to America, unbounded exultation at the success with which their + arms had been crowned, and a positive conviction that the safety of the + United States depended on the establishment of the republic. The answers + to these addresses were well calculated to preserve the idea of a complete + fraternity between the two nations, and that their interests were + identified. + </p> + <p> + The day after being thus accredited by the citizens of Philadelphia he was + presented to the President, by whom he was received with frankness and + with expressions of a sincere and cordial regard for his nation. In the + conversation which took place on this occasion Mr. Genet gave the most + explicit assurances that, in consequence of the distance of the United + States from the theater of action, and of other circumstances, France did + not wish to engage them in war, but would willingly leave them to pursue + their happiness and prosperity in peace. The more ready faith was given to + these declarations, because it was believed that France might derive + advantages from the neutrality of America, which would be a full + equivalent for any services which she could render as a belligerent. + </p> + <p> + Before Genet had reached Philadelphia, however, a long catalogue of + complaints, partly founded on his proceedings in Charleston, had been made + by the British minister to the American executive. + </p> + <p> + This catalogue was composed of the assumptions of sovereignty already + mentioned—assumptions calculated to render America an instrument of + hostility to be wielded by France against those powers with which she + might be at war. + </p> + <p> + These were still further aggravated by the commission of actual + hostilities within the territories of the United States. The ship Grange, + a British vessel which had been cleared out from Philadelphia, was + captured by the French frigate L'Ambuscade within the capes of the + Delaware, while on her way to the ocean. + </p> + <p> + The prizes thus unwarrantably made, being brought within the power of the + American government, Mr. Hammond, among other things, demanded a + restitution of them. + </p> + <p> + On many of the points suggested by the conduct of Mr. Genet, and by the + memorials of the British minister, it would seem impossible that any + difference of opinion could exist among intelligent men not under the + dominion of a blind infatuation. Accordingly it was agreed in the Cabinet, + without a dissenting voice, that the jurisdiction of every independent + nation, within the limits of its own territory, being of a nature to + exclude the exercise of any authority therein by a foreign power, the + proceedings complained of, not being warranted by any treaty, were + usurpations of national sovereignty and violations of neutral rights, a + repetition of which it was the duty of the government to prevent. + </p> + <p> + It was also agreed that the efficacy of the laws should be tried against + those citizens of the United States who had joined in perpetrating the + offense. + </p> + <p> + The question of restitution, except as to the "Grange," was more dubious. + The cabinet agreed, however, that the original owners might claim + indemnification, and that if the property was not restored by the captors, + the value of it ought to be paid by the government of the United States. + </p> + <p> + Genet was much dissatisfied with these decisions of the American + government. He denounced them as contrary to natural right, and subversive + of the treaties by which the two nations were connected. In his exposition + of these treaties, he claimed, for his own country, all that the two + nations were restricted from conceding to others, thereby converting + negative limitations into an affirmative grant of privileges to France. + </p> + <p> + Without noticing a want of decorum in some of the expressions which Genet + had employed, he was informed that the subjects on which his letter + treated had, from respect to him, been reconsidered by the executive; but + that no cause was perceived for changing the system which had been + adopted. He was further informed that, in the opinion of the President, + the United States owed it to themselves and to the nations in their + friendship, to expect, as a reparation for the offense of infringing their + sovereignty, that the vessels thus illegally equipped would depart from + their ports. + </p> + <p> + Genet was not disposed to acquiesce in these decisions. Adhering to his + own construction of the existing treaty, he affected to consider the + measures of the American government as infractions of it, which no power + in the nation had a right to make, unless the United States in Congress + assembled should determine that their solemn engagements should no longer + be performed. Intoxicated with the sentiments expressed by a great portion + of the people, and unacquainted with the firm character of Washington, he + seems to have expected that the popularity of his nation would enable him + to overthrow the administration, or to render it subservient to his views. + It is difficult otherwise to account for his persisting to disregard its + decisions, and for passages with which his letters abound, such as the + following: + </p> + <p> + "Every obstruction by the government of the United States to the arming of + French vessels must be an attempt on the rights of man, upon which repose + the independence and laws of the United States; a violation of the ties + which unite the people of France and America; and even a manifest + contradiction of the system of neutrality of the President; for, in fact, + if our merchant vessels, as others, are not allowed to arm themselves, + when the French alone are resisting the league of all the tyrants against + the liberty of the people, they will be exposed to inevitable ruin in + going out of the ports of the United States, which is certainly not the + intention of the people of America. Their fraternal voice has resounded + from every quarter around me, and their accents are not equivocal. They + are pure as the hearts of those by whom they are expressed, and the more + they have touched my sensibility, the more they must interest in the + happiness of America the nation I represent;—the more I wish, sir, + that the Federal government should observe, as far as in their power, the + public engagements contracted by both nations; and that, by this generous + and prudent conduct, they will give at least to the world the example of a + true neutrality, which does not consist in the cowardly abandonment of + their friends in the moment when danger menaces them, but in adhering + strictly, if they can do no better, to the obligations they have + contracted with them. It is by such proceedings that they will render + themselves respectable to all the powers; that they will preserve their + friends and deserve to augment their numbers." + </p> + <p> + A few days previous to the reception of the letter from which the above is + an extract, two citizens of the United States, who had been engaged by + Genet in Charleston to cruise in the service of France, were arrested by + the civil magistrate, in pursuance of the determination formed by the + executive for the prosecution of persons having thus offended against the + laws. Genet demanded their release in the following extraordinary terms: + </p> + <p> + "I have this moment been informed that two officers in the service of the + republic of France, citizen Gideon Henfield and John Singletary, have been + arrested on board the privateer of the French republic, the Citizen Genet, + and conducted to prison. The crime laid to their charge—the crime + which my mind cannot conceive, and which my pen almost refuses to state—is + the serving of France, and defending with her children the common glorious + cause of liberty. + </p> + <p> + "Being ignorant of any positive law or treaty which deprives Americans of + this privilege, and authorizes officers of police arbitrarily to take + mariners in the service of France from on board their vessels, I call upon + your intervention, sir, and that of the President of the United States, in + order to obtain the immediate releasement of the above-mentioned officers, + who have acquired, by the sentiments animating them and by the act of + their engagement, anterior to every act to the contrary, the right of + French citizens, if they have lost that of American citizens." + </p> + <p> + Such an insolent style of address as this could not be otherwise than + deeply offensive to Washington. He must have regarded this, and most of + the other effusions of Genet, as studied insults, net only to himself, but + to the country of which he was the chief magistrate. Yet, in no single + instance did the administration in its communications with Genet, permit + itself to be betrayed into the use of one intemperate expression. The + firmness with which his extravagant pretensions were resisted, proceeding + entirely from a sense of duty and conviction of right, was unaccompanied + with any marks of that resentment which his language and his conduct were + alike calculated to inspire. + </p> + <p> + Genet's intemperate language and insolent conduct arose from a belief that + the people were ready to support his pretensions, in opposition to their + own government. This belief was strengthened by the proceedings and + publications of the party opposed to the administration. Civic festivals + and other public assemblages of people, at which the ensigns of France + were displayed in union with those of America—at which the red cap, + as a symbol of French liberty and fraternity, triumphantly passed from + head to head—at which toasts were given expressive of a desire to + identify the people of America with those of France, and, under the + imposing guise of adhering to principles not to men, containing allusions + to the influence of the President which could not be mistaken—appeared + to Genet to indicate a temper extremely favorable to his hopes, and very + different from that which would be required for the preservation of an + honest neutrality. + </p> + <p> + Through the medium of the press, these sentiments were communicated to the + public, and were represented as flowing from the hearts of the great body + of the people. + </p> + <p> + Soon after the arrival of Genet, a democratic society was formed in + Philadelphia on the model of the Jacobin clubs in Paris. An anxious + solicitude for the preservation of freedom, the very existence of which + was menaced by a "European confederacy transcendent in power and + unparalleled in iniquity," which was endangered also by "the pride of + wealth and arrogance of power" displayed within the United States, was the + motive assigned for the association. "A constant circulation of useful + information, and a liberal communication of republican sentiments, were + thought to be the best antidotes to any political poison with which the + vital principle of civil liberty might be attacked;" and to give the more + extensive operation to their labors, a corresponding committee was + appointed, through whom they would communicate with other societies which + might be established on similar principles throughout the United States. + </p> + <p> + Faithful to their founder, and true to the real objects of their + association, these societies continued during the term of their existence + to be the resolute champions of all the encroachments attempted by the + agents of the French republic on the government of the United States, and + the steady defamers of the views and measures of the American executive. + </p> + <p> + Thus strongly supported, Genet persisted in his construction of the + treaties between the two nations, and, in defiance of the positive + determination of the government, continued to act according to that + construction. + </p> + <p> + At this period Washington was called to Mount Vernon by urgent business, + which detained him less than three weeks; and, in his absence, the heads + of departments superintended the execution of those rules which had been + previously established. + </p> + <p> + In this short interval a circumstance occurred, strongly marking the + rashness of Genet, and his disrespect to the executive of the United + States. + </p> + <p> + The Little Sarah, an English merchantman, had been captured by a French + frigate and brought into the port of Philadelphia, where she was + completely equipped as a privateer, and was just about to sail on a + cruise, under the name of le Petit Democrat, when Hamilton communicated + her situation to Jefferson and Knox, the Secretaries of State and of War; + in consequence of which, Governor Mifflin was desired to cause an + examination of the fact. The warden of the port was directed to institute + the proper inquiries, and, late in the evening of the 6th of July, he + reported her situation, and that she was to sail the next day. + </p> + <p> + In pursuance of the instructions which had been given by the President, + the governor immediately sent Secretary Dallas for the purpose of + prevailing on Genet to relieve him from the employment of force, by + detaining the vessel in port until the arrival of Washington, who was then + on his way from Mount Vernon. Mr. Dallas communicated this message to the + French minister in terms as conciliatory as its nature would permit. On + receiving it, he gave aloose to the most extravagant passion. After + exclaiming with vehemence against the measure, he complained, in strong + terms, and with many angry epithets, of the ill treatment which he had + received from some of the officers of the general government, which he + contrasted with the cordial attachment that was expressed by the people at + large for his nation. He ascribed the conduct of those officers to + principles inimical to the cause of France and of liberty. He insinuated + that, by their influence, Washington had been misled, and observed, with + considerable emphasis, that the President was not the sovereign of this + country. The powers of peace and war being vested in Congress, it belonged + to that body to decide those questions growing out of treaties which might + involve peace or war, and the President, therefore, ought to have + assembled the national Legislature before he ventured to issue his + proclamation of neutrality, or to prohibit, by his instructions to the + State governors, the enjoyment of the particular rights which France + claimed under the express stipulations of the treaty of commerce. The + executive construction of that treaty was neither just nor obligatory, and + he would make no engagement which might be construed into a relinquishment + of rights which his constituents deemed indispensable. In the course of + this vehement and angry declamation, he spoke of publishing his + correspondence with the officers of government, together with a narrative + of his proceedings, and said that, although the existing causes would + warrant an abrupt departure, his regard for the people of America would + induce him to remain here, amidst the insults and disgusts that he daily + suffered in his official character from the public officers, until the + meeting of Congress, and if that body should agree in the opinions and + support the measures of the President, he would certainly withdraw, and + leave the dispute to be adjusted between the two nations themselves. His + attention being again called by Mr. Dallas to the particular subject, he + peremptorily refused to enter into any arrangements for suspending the + departure of the privateer, and cautioned him against any attempt to seize + her, as she belonged to the republic, and, in defense of the honor of her + flag, would unquestionably repel force by force. + </p> + <p> + On receiving the report of Mr. Dallas, Governor Mifflin ordered out 120 + militia, for the purpose of taking possession of the privateer, and + communicated the case, with all its circumstances, to the officers of the + executive government. On the succeeding day, Jefferson waited on Genet, in + the hope of prevailing on him to pledge his word that the privateer should + not leave the port until the arrival of the President. The minister was + not less intemperate with Jefferson than he had been with Dallas. He + indulged himself in a repetition of nearly the same passionate language, + and again spoke, with extreme harshness of the conduct of the executive. + He persisted in refusing to make any engagements for the detention of the + vessel, and, after his rage had in some degree spent itself, he entreated + that no attempt might be made to take possession of her, as her crew was + on board, and force would be repelled by force. + </p> + <p> + He then also said that she was not ready to sail immediately. She would + change her position and fall down the river a small distance on that day, + but was not yet ready to sail. + </p> + <p> + In communicating this conversation to Governor Mifflin, Jefferson stated + his conviction that the privateer would remain in the river until the + President should decide on her case, in consequence of which, the governor + dismissed the militia, and requested the advice of the heads of + departments on the course which it would be proper for him to pursue. Both + the governor and Jefferson stated, that in reporting the conversation + between Genet and himself, Dallas had said that Genet threatened, in + express terms, "to appeal from the President to the people." + </p> + <p> + Thus braved and insulted in the very heart of the country, Hamilton and + Knox were of opinion that it was expedient to take immediate measures for + establishing a battery on Mud Island, under cover of a party of militia, + with directions, that if the vessel should attempt to depart before the + pleasure of the President should be known concerning her, military + coercion should be employed to arrest her progress. + </p> + <p> + The Secretary of State dissenting from this opinion, the measure was not + adopted. The vessel fell down to Chester before the arrival of Washington + and sailed on her cruise before the power of the government could be + interposed. + </p> + <p> + On the 11th of July (1793), Washington reached Philadelphia, and requested + that the Cabinet ministers would convene at his house the next day at 9 in + the morning. + </p> + <p> + Among the important papers placed in his hands, which required immediate + attention were those which related to the Little Democrat. On reading + them, a messenger was immediately dispatched for Jefferson, but he had + retired, indisposed, to his seat in the country. Upon hearing this, the + President instantly addressed a letter to him, of which the following is + an extract: + </p> + <p> + "What is to be done in the case of the Little Sarah, now at Chester? Is + the minister of the French republic to set the acts of this government at + defiance with impunity and then threaten the executive with an appeal to + the people? What must the world think of such conduct, and of the + government of the United States in submitting to it? + </p> + <p> + "These are serious questions. Circumstances press for decision, and as you + have had time to consider them (upon me they come unexpectedly), I wish to + know your opinion upon them even before to-morrow, for the vessel may then + be gone." + </p> + <p> + In answer to this letter, Jefferson stated the assurances which had on + that day been given to him by Genet, that the vessel Would not sail before + the President's decision respecting her should be made. In consequence of + this information, immediate coercive measures were suspended, and in the + council of the succeeding day it was determined to retain in port all + privateers which had been equipped by any of the belligerent powers within + the United States. Genet was informed of this determination, but in + contempt of it, the Little Democrat proceeded on her cruise. This + proceeding furnished a subject of exultation to the opponents of the + government, as did also the acquittal by a Charleston jury of Gideon + Henfield, who had been arrested for shipping on board a French privateer, + he being an American citizen. + </p> + <p> + While the correspondence between Genet and Jefferson concerning this + affair was still going on, the former obtained cause of complaint on his + part, and urged that the British were in the habit of taking French + property out of American vessels, in contravention of the principles of + neutrality avowed by the rest of Europe. His letters to Jefferson on this + subject were still more insulting than those which had preceded them. On + the 9th of July (1793), he wrote to Jefferson, demanding an instant answer + to the question—What measures the President had taken, or would + take, to cause the American flag to be respected? Receiving no answer, + toward the end of July he again addressed the Secretary of State on the + subject. In this extraordinary letter, after complaining of the insults + offered to the American flag by seizing the property of Frenchmen confided + to its protection, he added: "Your political rights are counted for + nothing. In vain do the principles of neutrality establish that friendly + vessels make friendly goods; in vain, sir, does the President of the + United States endeavor, by his proclamation, to reclaim the observation of + this maxim; in vain does the desire of preserving peace lead to sacrifice + the interests of France to that of the moment; in vain does the thirst of + riches preponderate over honor in the political balance of America—all + this management, all this condescension, all this humility, end in + nothing; our enemies laugh at it; and the French, too confident, are + punished for having believed that the American nation had a flag, that + they had some respect for their laws, some conviction of their strength, + and entertained some sentiment of their dignity. It is not possible for + me, sir, to paint to you all my sensibility at this scandal, which tends + to the diminution of your commerce, to the oppression of ours, and to the + debasement and vilification of republics. It is for the Americans to make + known their generous indignation at this outrage, and I must confine + myself to demand of you, a second time, to inform me of the measures which + you have taken in order to obtain restitution of the property plundered + from my fellow-citizens under the protection of your flag. It is from our + government they have learned that the Americans were our allies, that the + American nation was sovereign, and that they knew how to make themselves + respected. It is then under the very same sanction of the French nation + that they have confided their property and persons to the safeguard of the + American flag, and on her they submit the care of causing those rights to + be respected. But if our fellow-citizens have been deceived, if you are + not in a condition to maintain the sovereignty of your people, speak; we + have guaranteed it when slaves, we shall be able to render it formidable, + having become freemen." + </p> + <p> + On the day preceding the date of this offensive letter, Jefferson had + answered that of the 9th of July, and, without noticing the unbecoming + style in which the decision of the executive was demanded, had avowed and + defended the opinion that, "by the general law of nations, the goods of an + enemy found in the vessels of a friend, are lawful prize." This fresh + insult might therefore be passed over in silence. + </p> + <p> + While a hope remained that the temperate forbearance of the President, and + the unceasing manifestations of his friendly dispositions toward the + French republic might induce the minister of that nation to respect the + rights of the United States, and to abstain from violations of their + sovereignty, an anxious solicitude not to impair the harmony which he + wished to maintain between the two republics had restrained him from + adopting those measures respecting Genet which his conduct required. He + had seen a foreign minister usurp, within the territories of the United + States, some of the most important rights of sovereignty, and persist, + after the prohibition of the government in the exercise of those rights. + In asserting this extravagant claim, so incompatible with national + independence, the spirit in which it originated had been pursued, and the + haughty style of a superior had been substituted for the respectful + language of diplomacy. He had seen the same minister undertake to direct + the civil government, and to pronounce, in opposition to the decisions of + the executive, in what departments the constitution of the United States + had placed certain great national powers. To render this state of things + more peculiarly critical and embarrassing, the person most instrumental in + producing it had, from his arrival, thrown himself into the arms of the + people, stretched out to receive him, and was emboldened by their favor to + indulge the hope of succeeding in his endeavors, either to overthrow their + government, or to bend it to his will. But the' full experiment had now + been made, and the result was a conviction not to be resisted, that + moderation would only invite additional injuries, and that the present + insufferable state of things could be terminated only by procuring the + removal of the French minister, or by submitting to become, in his hands, + the servile instrument of hostility against the enemies of his nation. + Information was continually received from every quarter of fresh + aggressions on the principles established by the government, and, while + the executive was thus openly disregarded and contemned, the members of + the administration were reproached, in all the papers of an active and + restless opposition, as the violators of the national faith, the partisans + of monarchy, and the enemies of liberty and of France. + </p> + <p> + The unwearied efforts to preserve that station in which the various + treaties in existence had placed the nation were incessantly calumniated + as infractions of those treaties, and ungrateful attempts to force the + United States into a war against France. + </p> + <p> + The judgment of Washington was never hastily formed, but, once made up, it + was seldom to be shaken. Before the last letter of Genet was communicated + to him he had decided to terminate future intercourse with him. + </p> + <p> + In a Cabinet council the whole matter was carefully reviewed, and it was + unanimously agreed that Gouverneur Morris, the American minister at Paris, + should present the whole case to the French government and request Genet's + recall. The faction by whom he had been originally sent out having passed + out of power, this was easily effected. + </p> + <p> + At the same time the Cabinet, under Washington's direction, drew up a + system of rules to be observed by the belligerents in the ports of the + United States. These rules evidence the settled purpose of the executive + faithfully to observe all the national engagements and honestly to perform + the duties of that neutrality in which the war found them and in which + those engagements left them free to remain. + </p> + <p> + Neutrality between belligerents is a difficult and delicate part to + sustain. It was not France alone that advanced extraordinary pretensions. + The British government issued orders for stopping all neutral ships, laden + with provisions, bound for the ports of France, thus declaring that + country in a state of blockade. The National Convention of France had, + indeed, set the example of this by an act of the same tendency, doubly + rash, because impotent. But this, however strong a plea for retaliating + upon France, was none for making America suffer. Corn, indeed, formed the + chief export of the United States, and to prohibit them from shipping it + at all—for the new regulation amounted in fact to this—was a + grievance which the most pacific neutral could scarcely submit to. Another + continually recurring source of complaint on the part of the United States + against England was the pressing of their seamen, which the difficulty of + distinguishing between natives of the two countries rendered of frequent + occurrence and tardy rectification. These causes came to swell the tide of + faction in America as the enemies of England and of authoritative + institutions took advantage of them to raise their cry, whilst the + anti-gallican, on the other hand, were as indignant against the arrogance + of the French and of their envoy. + </p> + <p> + Genet was in New York receiving all sorts of demonstrations of approbation + and attachment from his political friends when he received notice of his + recall (September, 1793). His rage was indescribable. He wrote to + Jefferson a letter full of the most atrocious abuse of Washington and the + administration generally, in which Jefferson himself was not spared. But + as his powers of mischief were now at an end very slight notice was taken + of his splenetic effusions. It appeared in the sequel, however, that he + had not confined his attempts to employ the force of America against the + enemies of his country to maritime enterprises. On his first arrival he is + understood to have planned an expedition against the Floridas, to be + carried on from Georgia, and another against Louisiana, to be carried on + from the western parts of the United States. Intelligence was received + that the principal officers were engaged, and the temper of the people + inhabiting the western country was such as to furnish some ground for the + apprehension that the restraints which the executive was capable of + imposing, would be found too feeble to prevent the execution of this plan. + The remonstrances of the Spanish commissioners on this subject, however, + were answered with explicit assurances that the government would + effectually interpose to defeat any expedition from the territories of the + United States against those of Spain, and the governor of Kentucky was + requested to cooperate in frustrating this improper application of the + military resources of his State. + </p> + <p> + While Genet was in New York a schooner, brought as a prize into the port + of Boston by a French privateer, was claimed by the British owner, who + instituted proceedings at law against her for the purpose of obtaining a + decision on the validity of her capture. She was rescued from the + possession of the marshal by an armed force, acting under the authority of + Mr. Duplaine, the French consul, which was detached from a frigate then + lying in port. Until the frigate sailed she was guarded by a part of the + crew, and, notwithstanding the determination of the American government + that the consular courts should not exercise a prize jurisdiction within + the territories of the United States, Mr. Duplaine declared his purpose to + take cognizance of the case. + </p> + <p> + To this act of open defiance it was impossible for Washington to submit. + The facts being well attested, the exequatur which had been granted to Mr. + Duplaine was revoked and he was forbidden further to exercise the consular + functions. It will excite surprise that even this necessary measure could + not escape censure. The self-proclaimed champions of liberty discovered in + it a violation of the constitution and a new indignity to France. + </p> + <p> + Meantime events were transpiring in Europe which added not a little to the + excitement in the public mind against Great Britain. For many years war + had existed between Portugal and Algiers. In consequence of this Algerian + cruisers had been confined to the Mediterranean by a Portuguese fleet, and + the commerce of the United States, as well as that of Portugal herself, + had been protected in the Atlantic from piratical depredations. In + September, 1793, an unexpected truce for a year was concluded between + Portugal and Algiers. The Dey's cruisers, therefore, immediately, and + without previous notice, passed into the Atlantic, and American vessels, + while on their way to Portugal and other parts of Europe, and without the + smallest suspicion of danger, became a prey to these lawless freebooters, + and many American seamen were doomed to slavery. There was no reasonable + doubt that England had a great deal to do with this matter and that, + besides her determination to carry on war against France, she was not very + unwilling that the United States should also suffer the evils incident to + their commerce being entirely unprotected by any naval force. + </p> + <p> + The causes of discontent which were furnished by Spain, as Marshall + states, though less the theme of public declamation, continued to be + considerable. That which related to the Mississippi was peculiarly + embarrassing. The opinion had been industriously circulated that an + opposition of interests existed between the eastern and the western + people, and that the endeavors of the executive to open this great river + were feeble and insincere. At a meeting of the Democratic Society in + Lexington, Kentucky, this sentiment was unanimously avowed in terms of + extreme disrespect to the government, and a committee was appointed to + open a correspondence with the inhabitants of the entire west for the + purpose of uniting them on this subject and of preparing a remonstrance to + the President and Congress of the United States, to be expressed "in the + bold, decent, and determined language proper to be used by injured freemen + when they address the servants of the people." They claimed much merit for + having thus long abstained from using the means they possessed, for the + assertion of "a natural and unalienable right," and indicated their + opinion that this forbearance could not be long continued. The probability + that the public expression of these dangerous dispositions would + perpetuate the evil could not moderate them. This restless temper gave + additional importance to the expedition of Genet projected against + Louisiana. + </p> + <p> + Private communications strengthened the apprehensions entertained by the + President that hostilities with Spain were not far distant. The government + had received intelligence from their ministers in Europe that propositions + had been made by the Cabinet of Madrid to that of London, the object of + which was the United States. The precise nature of these propositions was + not ascertained, but it was understood generally that their tendency was + hostile, and Washington, writing to the Secretary of War, in June, urged + the importance of ascertaining the Spanish force in the Floridas and such + other matters as might be necessary in view of the possible outbreak of a + contest with Spain. + </p> + <p> + We must now return to Washington, who, the reader will have perceived, + surrounded by the urgent nature of his official duties and the disturbed + state of public affairs, had been detained at Philadelphia during a great + portion of the recess of Congress. He left that place for Mount Vernon + toward the end of September, after the ravages of the terrible yellow + fever of 1793 had already commenced in the city. He remained at Mount + Vernon till near the end of October. {4} + </p> + <p> + During this time he was in constant correspondence with the members of the + Cabinet, of whom Jefferson appears to have retired to Virginia and the + other heads of departments to other places to avoid the contagion of the + fever. + </p> + <p> + The principal topic discussed in this correspondence was the + constitutional power of the President to change the place in which + Congress were to reassemble in December—Philadelphia being + considered unsafe. Germantown, Wilmington, Trenton, Annapolis, Reading, + and Lancaster were suggested each in turn as suitable places, but the + power of the President to change the place was doubted on all hands. As + the fever subsided, however, the meeting actually took place in + Philadelphia on the day appointed by adjournment. + </p> + <p> + Among those whom Washington consulted on the subject of the constitutional + power to change the place for the meeting of Congress was Mr. Madison. + Washington's letter to him, dated Mount Vernon, October 14, 1793, evinces + his anxiety to avoid a violation of the constitution, while it presents a + lively picture of the state of disorder in the departments, occasioned by + the pestilence at the seat of government. "The calamitous situation of + Philadelphia," he writes, "and the little prospect, from the present + appearance, of its eligibility to receive Congress by the first Monday in + December, involve a serious difficulty. It has been intimated by some that + the President ought, by proclamation, to convene Congress a few days + before the above-mentioned period, at some other place, and by others + that, although in extraordinary cases he has the power to convene, he has + none to change the place. Mr. Jefferson, when here on his way home, was of + the latter opinion, but the laws were not fully examined, nor was the case + at that time so serious as it now is. From the Attorney-General + (Randolph), to whom I have since written on this subject, requesting an + official opinion, I have received no answer, nor is it likely I shall + soon, as I believe he has no communication with Philadelphia. Time presses + and the malady at the usual place of meeting is becoming more and more + alarming. What then do you think is the most advisable course for me to + pursue in the present exigency—summon Congress to meet at a certain + time and place in their legislative capacity? Simply state facts and say + that I will meet the members at the time and place just mentioned for + ulterior arrangements? Or leave matters as they are if there is no power + in the executive to alter the place legally? In the first and second + cases, especially the first, the delicacy of my naming a place will + readily occur to you. My wish would be that Congress could be assembled at + Germantown to show that I meant no partiality, leaving it to themselves, + if there should be no prospect of getting into Philadelphia soon, to + decide what should be done thereafter. But accounts say that some people + have died in Germantown also of the malignant fever. Every death, now, + however, is ascribed to that cause, be the disorder what it may. + Wilmington and Trenton are almost equidistant from Philadelphia in + opposite directions, but both are on the great thoroughfare and equally + exposed to danger from the multitude of travelers, and neither may have a + chamber sufficient for the House of Representatives. Annapolis and + Lancaster are more secure and both have good accommodations. But to name + either of them, especially the first, would be thought to favor the + southern convenience, and, perhaps, might be attributed to local views, + especially as New York is talked of for this purpose. Reading, if there + are proper conveniences there, would favor neither the southern nor + northern interest most, but would be alike to both. + </p> + <p> + "I have written to Mr. Jefferson on this subject. Notwithstanding which, I + would thank you for your opinion and that fully, as you see my + embarrassment. I even ask more. I would thank you, not being acquainted + with forms, to sketch some instrument for publication, adapted to the + course you may think it would be most expedient for me to pursue in the + present state of things, if the members are called together as before + mentioned. + </p> + <p> + "The difficulty of keeping clerks in the public offices had in a manner + put a stop to business before I left Philadelphia, and the heads of + departments having matters of their own, which called them away, has + prevented my return thither longer than I had intended. I have now desired + the different secretaries to meet me there, or in the vicinity, the 1st of + next month, for which I shall set out the 27th or the 28th of the present. + </p> + <p> + "The accounts from the city are really affecting. Two gentlemen now here + from New York, Colonels Platt and Sergeant, say that they were told at the + Swede's ford of Schuylkill, by a person who had it from Governor Mifflin, + that, by an official report from the mayor of the city, upward of 3,500 + had died, and that the disorder was raging more violently than ever. If + cool weather, accompanied by rain, does not put a stop to the malady, + distressing indeed must be the case of that city, now almost depopulated + by removals and deaths." {5} + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: The precise return was: For President George Washington, 132. + For Vice-President—John Adams, 77; George Clinton, 50; Thomas + Jefferson, 4; Aaron Burr, 1. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Published in Arthur's "Home Gazette." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: John Quincy Adams on Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: On the 8th of October John Hancock died at Boston. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: The whole number that died during the prevalence of the + yellow fever in Philadelphia was over 4,000. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. — WASHINGTON SENDS JAY TO ENGLAND. 1793-1794. + </h2> + <p> + The time appointed for the reassembling of Congress was the first Monday + in December. Washington had arrived at Philadelphia, and the heads of + departments were at their posts before the end of November. + </p> + <p> + Although the fear of contagion was not entirely dispelled when the time + for the meeting of Congress arrived, yet, such was the active zeal of + parties, and such the universal expectation that important executive + communications would be made, and that legislative measures not less + important would be founded on them, that both Houses were full on the + first day, and a joint committee waited on the President with the usual + information that they were ready to receive his communications. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of December (1793), at 12, the President met both Houses in the + Senate chamber. His speech was moderate, firm, dignified, and interesting. + It commenced with his own re-election, his feelings at which were thus + expressed: + </p> + <p> + "Since the commencement of the term for which I have been again called + into office, no fit occasion has arisen for expressing to my + fellow-citizens at large, the deep and respectful sense which I feel of + the renewed testimony of public approbation. While, on the one hand, it + awakened my gratitude for all those instances of affectionate partiality + with which I have been honored by my country, on the other, it could not + prevent an earnest wish for that retirement, from which no private + consideration could ever have torn me. But, influenced by the belief that + my conduct would be estimated according to its real motives, and that the + people, and the authorities derived from them, would support exertions + having nothing personal for their object, I have obeyed the suffrage which + commanded me to resume the executive power, and I humbly implore that + Being on whose will the fate of nations depends, to crown with success our + mutual endeavors for the general happiness." Passing to those measures + which had been adopted by the executive for the regulation of its conduct + toward the belligerent nations, he observed: "As soon as the war in Europe + had embraced those powers with whom the United States have the most + extensive relations, there was reason to apprehend that our intercourse + with them might be interrupted, and our disposition for peace drawn into + question by suspicions too often entertained by belligerent nations. It + seemed therefore to be my duty to admonish our citizens of the consequence + of a contraband trade, and of hostile acts to any of the parties, and to + obtain, by a declaration of the existing state of things, an easier + admission of our rights to the immunities belonging to our situation. + Under these impressions the proclamation which will be laid before you was + issued. + </p> + <p> + "In this posture of affairs, both new and delicate, I resolved to adopt + general rules which should conform to the treaties, and assert the + privileges of the United States. These were reduced into a system which + shall be communicated to you." + </p> + <p> + After suggesting those legislative provisions on this subject, the + necessity of which had been pointed out by experience, he proceeded to + say: + </p> + <p> + "I cannot recommend to your notice measures for the fulfillment of our + duties to the rest of the world, without again pressing upon you the + necessity of placing ourselves in a condition of complete defense, and of + exacting from them the fulfillment of their duties toward us. The United + States ought not to indulge a persuasion that, contrary to the order of + human events, they will forever keep at a distance those painful appeals + to arms with which the history of every nation abounds. There is a rank + due to the United States among nations which will be withheld, if not + absolutely lost by the reputation of weakness. If we desire to avoid + insult, we must be able to repel it: if we desire to secure peace—one + of the most powerful instruments of our prosperity—it must be known + that we are at all times ready for war." + </p> + <p> + These observations were followed by a recommendation to augment the supply + of arms and ammunition in the magazines, and to improve the militia + establishment. + </p> + <p> + After referring to a communication to be subsequently made for occurrences + relative to the connection of the United States with Europe, which had, he + said, become extremely interesting, and, after reviewing Indian affairs, + he particularly addressed the House of Representatives. Having presented + to them in detail some subjects of which it was proper they should be + informed, he added: + </p> + <p> + "No pecuniary consideration is more urgent than the regular redemption and + discharge of the public debt; on none can delay be more injurious, or an + economy of time more valuable. + </p> + <p> + "The productiveness of the public revenues hitherto has continued to be + equal to the anticipations which were formed of it; but it is not expected + to prove commensurate with all the objects which have been suggested. Some + auxiliary provisions will therefore, it is presumed, be requisite; and it + is hoped that these may be made consistently with a due regard to the + convenience of our citizens who cannot but be sensible of the true wisdom + of encountering a small present addition to their contributions, to + obviate a future accumulation of burdens." + </p> + <p> + The speech was concluded with the following impressive exhortation: + </p> + <p> + "The several subjects to which I have now referred, open a wide range to + your deliberations and involve some of the choicest interests of our + common country. Permit me to bring to your remembrance the magnitude of + your task. Without an unprejudiced coolness, the welfare of the government + may be hazarded; without harmony, as far as consists with freedom of + sentiment, its dignity may be lost. But as the legislative proceedings of + the United States will never, I trust, be reproached for the want of + temper or of candor, so shall not the public happiness languish from the + want of my strenuous and warmest cooperation." + </p> + <p> + The day succeeding that on which this speech was delivered, a special + message was sent to both houses containing some of the promised + communications relative to the connection of the United States with + foreign powers. + </p> + <p> + After suggesting, as a motive for this communication, that it not only + disclosed "matter of interesting inquiry to the Legislature," but "might + indeed give rise to deliberations to which they alone were competent," the + President added: + </p> + <p> + "The representative and executive bodies of France have manifested + generally a friendly attachment to this country; have given advantages to + our commerce and navigation; and have made overtures for placing these + advantages on permanent ground. A decree, however, of the National + Assembly, subjecting vessels laden with provisions to be carried into + their ports, and making enemy goods lawful prize in the vessel of a + friend, contrary to our treaty, though revoked at one time as to the + United States, has been since extended to their vessels also, as has been + recently stated to us. Representations on the subject will be immediately + given in charge to our minister there, and the result shall be + communicated to the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + "It is with extreme concern I have to inform you that the person whom they + have unfortunately appointed their minister plenipotentiary here, has + breathed nothing of the friendly spirit of the nation which sent him. + Their tendency, on the contrary, has been to involve us in a war abroad + and discord and anarchy at home. So far as his acts, or those of his + agents, have threatened an immediate commitment in the war, or flagrant + insult to the authority of the laws, their effect has been counteracted by + the ordinary cognizance of the laws and by an exertion of the powers + confided to me. Where their danger was not imminent, they have been borne + with, from sentiments of regard of his nation, from a sense of their + friendship toward us, from a conviction that they would not suffer us to + remain long exposed to the actions of a person who has so little respected + our mutual dispositions, and, I will add, from a reliance on the firmness + of my fellow-citizens in their principles of peace and order. In the + meantime I have respected and pursued the stipulations of our treaties, + according to what I judged their true sense, and have withheld no act of + friendship which their affairs have called for from us, and which justice + to others left us free to perform. I have gone further. Rather than employ + force for the restitution of certain vessels which I deemed the United + States bound to restore, I thought it more advisable to satisfy the + parties by avowing it to be my opinion that, if restitution were not made, + it would be incumbent on the United States to make compensation." + </p> + <p> + The message next proceeded to state that inquiries had been instituted + respecting the vexations and spoliations committed on the commerce of the + United States, the result of which, when received, would be communicated. + </p> + <p> + The order issued by the British government on the 8th of June (1793), and + the measures taken by the executive of the United States in consequence + thereof, were briefly noticed, and the discussions which had taken place + in relation to the nonexecution of the treaty of peace, were also + mentioned. The message was then concluded with a reference to the + negotiations with Spain. "The public good," it was said, "requiring that + the present state of these should be made known to the Legislature in + confidence only, they would be the subject of a separate and subsequent + communication." + </p> + <p> + This message was accompanied with copies of the correspondence between the + Secretary of State and the French minister, on the points of difference + which subsisted between the two governments, together with several + documents necessary for the establishment of particular facts, and with + the letter written by Mr. Jefferson to Mr. Morris, which justified the + conduct of the United States by arguments too clear to be misunderstood, + and too strong ever to be controverted. + </p> + <p> + The extensive discussions which had taken place relative to the + nonexecution of the treaty of peace, and the correspondence produced by + the objectionable measures which had been adopted by the British + government during the existing war, were also laid before the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + In a popular government the representatives of the people may generally be + considered as a mirror, reflecting truly the passions and feelings which + govern their constituents. In the late elections, the strength of parties + had been tried, and the opposition had derived so much aid from + associating the cause of France with its own principles, as to furnish + much reason to suspect that, in one branch of the Legislature at least, it + had become the majority. The first act of the House of Representatives + served to strengthen this suspicion. By each party a candidate for the + chair was brought forward, and Mr. Muhlenberg, who was supported by the + opposition, was elected by a majority of ten votes, against Mr. Sedgewick, + whom the Federalists supported. + </p> + <p> + The answer, however, to Washington's speech, bore no tinge of that + malignant and furious spirit which had infused itself into the + publications of the day. Breathing the same affectionate attachment to his + person and character which had been professed in other times, and being + approved by every part of the House, it indicated that the leaders, at + least, still venerated their chief magistrate, and that no general + intention as yet existed to involve him in the obloquy directed against + his measures. + </p> + <p> + Noticing that unanimous suffrage by which he had been again called to his + present station, "it was," they said, "with equal sincerity and + promptitude they embraced the occasion for expressing to him their + congratulations on so distinguished a testimony of public approbation, and + their entire confidence in the purity and patriotism of the motives which + had produced this obedience to the voice of his country. It is," proceeded + the address, "to virtues which have commanded long and universal + reverence, and services from which have flowed great and lasting benefits, + that the tribute of praise may be paid without the reproach of flattery; + and it is from the same sources that the fairest anticipations may be + derived in favor of the public happiness." + </p> + <p> + The proclamation of neutrality was approved in guarded terms, and the + topics of the speech were noticed in a manner which indicated dispositions + cordially to cooperate with the executive. + </p> + <p> + On the part of the Senate, also, the answer to the speech was unfeignedly + affectionate. In warm terms they expressed the pleasure which the + re-election of Washington gave them. "In the unanimity," they added, + "which a second time marks this important national act, we trace with + particular satisfaction, besides the distinguished tribute paid to the + virtues and abilities which it recognizes, another proof of that + discernment, and constancy of sentiments and views, which have hitherto + characterized the citizens of the United States." Speaking of the + proclamation, they declared it to be "a measure well timed and wise, + manifesting a watchful solicitude for the welfare of the nation, and + calculated to promote it." + </p> + <p> + In a few days a confidential message from Washington was delivered, + communicating the critical situation of affairs with Spain. The + negotiations attempted with that power in regard to the interesting + objects of boundary, navigation, and commerce, had been exposed to much + delay and embarrassment, in consequence of the changes which the French + revolution had effected in the political state of Europe. Meanwhile, the + neighborhood of the Spanish colonies to the United States had given rise + to various other subjects of discussion, one of which had assumed a very + serious aspect. + </p> + <p> + Having the best reason to suppose that the hostility of the southern + Indians was excited by the agents of Spain, Washington had directed the + American commissioners at Madrid to make the proper representations on the + subject and to propose that each nation should, with good faith, promote + the peace of the other with their savage neighbors. + </p> + <p> + About the same time the Spanish government entertained, or affected to + entertain, corresponding suspicions of like hostile excitements by the + agents of the United States, to disturb their peace with the same nations. + The representations which were induced by these real or affected + suspicions were accompanied with pretensions and made in a style to which + the American executive could not be inattentive. The King of Spain + asserted these claims as a patron and protector of those Indians. He + assumed a right to mediate between them and the United States, and to + interfere in the establishment of their boundaries. At length, in the very + moment when those savages were committing daily inroads on the American + frontier, at the instigation of Spain, as was believed, the + representatives of that power, complaining of the aggressions of American + citizens on the Indians, declared "that the continuation of the peace, + good harmony, and perfect friendship of the two nations was very + problematical for the future, unless the United States should take more + convenient measures, and of greater energy than those adopted for a long + time past." + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the zeal and enthusiasm with which the pretensions of the + French republic, as asserted by their minister Genet, continued to be + supported out of doors, they found no open advocate in either branch of + the Legislature. This circumstance is, in a great measure, to be ascribed + to the temperate conduct of the executive, and to the convincing arguments + with which its decisions were supported. + </p> + <p> + But when it is recollected that the odium which these decisions excited + sustained no diminution; that the accusation of hostility to France and to + liberty, which originated in them, was not retracted; that, when + afterwards many of the controverted claims were renewed by France, her + former advocates still adhered to her; it is not unreasonable to suppose + that other considerations mingled themselves with the conviction which the + correspondence laid before the Legislature was calculated to produce. + </p> + <p> + An attack on the administration could be placed on no ground more + disadvantageous than on its controversy with Mr. Genet. The conduct and + language of that minister were offensive to reflecting men of all parties. + The President had himself taken so decisive a part in favor of the + measures which had been adopted that they must be ascribed to him, not to + his Cabinet, and, of consequence, the whole weight of his personal + character must be directly encountered in an attempt to censure those + measures. From this censure it would have been difficult to extricate the + person who was contemplated by the party in opposition as its chief; for + the Secretary of State had urged the arguments of the administration with + a degree of ability and earnestness, which ought to have silenced the + suspicion that he might not feel their force. {1} + </p> + <p> + The expression of a legislative opinion, in favor of the points insisted + on by the French minister, would probably have involved the nation in a + calamitous war, the whole responsibility for which would rest on them. To + these considerations was added another, which could not be disregarded. + The party in France, to which Mr. Genet owed his appointment, had lost its + power, and his fall was the inevitable consequence of the fall of his + patrons. That he would probably be recalled was known in America, and that + his conduct had been disapproved by his government, was generally + believed. The future system of the French republic, with regard to the + United States, could not be foreseen, and it would be committing something + to hazard not to wait its development. + </p> + <p> + These objections did not exist to an indulgence of the partialities and + prejudices of the nation towards the belligerent powers in measures + suggested by its resentment against Great Britain. But, independent of + these considerations, it is scarcely possible to doubt that Congress + really approved the conduct of the executive with regard to France, and + was also convinced that a course of hostility had been pursued by Great + Britain which the national interest and national honor required them to + repel. In the irritable state of the public mind, it was not difficult to + produce this opinion. + </p> + <p> + Early in the session a report was made by Mr. Jefferson, Secretary of + State, in pursuance of a resolution of the House of Representatives, + passed on the 23d of February, 1791, requiring him "to report to Congress + the nature and extent of the privileges and restrictions of the commercial + intercourse of the United States with foreign nations, and the measures + which he should think proper to be adopted for the improvement of the + commerce and navigation of the same." + </p> + <p> + This report stated the exports of the United States in articles of their + own produce and manufacture, at $19,587,055, and the imports at + $19,823,060. + </p> + <p> + Of the exports, nearly one-half was carried to the kingdom of Great + Britain and its dominions; of the imports, about four-fifths were brought + from the same countries. The American shipping amounted to 277,519 tons, + of which not quite one-sixth was employed in the trade with Great Britain + and its dominions. + </p> + <p> + In all the nations of Europe, most of the articles produced in the United + States were subject to heavy duties, and some of them were prohibited. In + England, the trade of the United States was in general on as good a + footing as the trade of other countries, and several articles were more + favored than the same articles, the growth of other countries. + </p> + <p> + The statements and arguments of this report tended to enforce the policy + of making discriminations which might favor the commerce of the United + States with France and discourage that with England, and which might + promote the increase of American navigation as a branch of industry and a + resource of defense. + </p> + <p> + This was the last official act of the Secretary of State. Early in the + preceding summer he had signified to the President his intention to retire + in September from the public service, and had, with some reluctance, + consented to postpone the execution of this intention to the close of the + year. Retaining his purpose, he resigned his office on the last day of + December. He was succeeded by Edmund Randolph, whose place as + Attorney-General was supplied by William Bradford, of Pennsylvania. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of January (1794), the House resolved itself into a committee + of the whole, on the report of the Secretary of State, relative to the + restrictions of the commerce of the United States, when Mr. Madison, after + some prefatory observations, laid on the table a series of resolutions for + the consideration of the members. + </p> + <p> + These memorable resolutions embraced almost completely the idea of the + report. They imposed an additional duty on the manufactures, and on the + tonnage of vessels of nations having no commercial treaty with the United + States; while they reduced the duties already imposed by law on the + tonnage of vessels belonging to nations having such commercial treaty, and + they reciprocated the restrictions which were imposed on American + navigation. + </p> + <p> + The resolutions were taken up on the 13th of January (1794), and the + consideration of them led to protracted and very animated debates. The + friends of the administration regarded Mr. Madison's scheme as directly + hostile to England and subservient to the views of France, in a degree + utterly inconsistent with the policy of neutrality. On the other hand, the + opposition insisted that the proposed measures were absolutely necessary + to protect the commerce of the country from aggression and plunder. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Madison, in advocating the views which he held, looked especially to + measures correspondent to the British navigation act, which had given + England the command of the sea. He contended that America would thrive + more from exclusion and contest, than from conciliating and stooping to a + power that slighted her; and that now was the moment, if ever, when + England was engaged in mortal strife with France, to bring her to reason. + {2} Mr. Madison's plan was debated at different periods of the session, + and underwent considerable modification in its progress through the House, + where a resolution was finally adopted retaining the principle of + commercial restrictions. It was rejected in the Senate by the casting vote + of Mr. Adams, the Vice-President. + </p> + <p> + Early in January, a resolution was agreed to in the House, declaring "that + a naval force, adequate to the protection of the commerce of the United + States against the Algerine corsairs, ought to be provided." The force + proposed was to consist of six frigates. + </p> + <p> + This measure was founded on the communications of the President respecting + the improbability of being able to negotiate a peace with the Dey of + Algiers; and on undoubted information that these pirates had, during their + first short cruise in the Atlantic, captured eleven American merchantmen, + and made upwards of 100 prisoners, and were preparing to renew their + attack on the unprotected vessels of the United States. This bill was + strongly opposed, but finally passed both houses, and was approved by the + President. + </p> + <p> + While these debates were going on, the news of the British order in + council of the 6th of November (which had not become known to the American + minister in England until the close of December, 1793), relative to the + French West India trade, arrived in the United States, and roused afresh + the hostility against England. Such was the threatening aspect of affairs, + that early in the session a committee of the House was instructed to + prepare and report an estimate of the expense requisite to place the + principal seaports of the country in a state of defense. + </p> + <p> + That some steps should be taken to resist aggressions on the part of + England, was very evident; but the members of Congress differed as to what + measures ought to be adopted. The opponents of the administration urged + the adoption of commercial restrictions, while its supporters, with the + President himself, were in favor of a different course. Various plans were + submitted to the House by members, in accordance with their different + views of the subject. + </p> + <p> + On the 12th of March (1794) Mr. Sedgwick moved several resolutions, the + objects of which were to raise a military force, and to authorize the + President to lay an embargo. The armament was to consist of 15,000 men, + who should be brought into actual service in case of war with any European + power, but not until war should break out. In the meantime they were to + receive pay while assembled for the purpose of discipline, which was not + to exceed twenty-four days in each year. + </p> + <p> + After stating the motives which led to the introduction of these + resolutions they were laid on the table for the consideration of the + members. + </p> + <p> + On the 21st of March Mr. Sedgwick's motion, authorizing the President to + lay an embargo, was negatived by a majority of two votes, but in a few + days the consideration of that subject was resumed, and a resolution + passed prohibiting all trade from the United States to any foreign port or + place for thirty days, and empowering the President to carry the + resolution into effect. + </p> + <p> + On the 27th of March Mr. Dayton moved a resolution for sequestering all + debts due to British subjects, and for taking means to secure their + payment into the treasury, as a fund out of which to indemnify the + citizens of the United States for depredations committed on their commerce + by British cruisers, in violation of the laws of nations. + </p> + <p> + The debate on this resolution was such as was to be expected from the + irritable state of the public mind. The invectives against the British + nation were uttered with peculiar vehemence, and were mingled with + allusions to the exertions of the government for the preservation of + neutrality, censuring strongly the system which had been pursued. + </p> + <p> + Before any question was taken on the proposition for sequestering British + debts, and without a decision on those proposed by Mr. Madison, Mr. Clarke + moved a resolution which in some degree suspended the commercial + regulations that had been so earnestly debated. This was to prohibit all + intercourse with Great Britain until her government should make full + compensation for all injuries done to the citizens of the United States by + armed vessels, or by any person or persons acting under the authority of + the British King, and until the western posts should be delivered up. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of April (1794) before any decision was made on the several + propositions which have been stated, the President laid before Congress a + letter just received from Thomas Pinckney, the minister of the United + States at London, communicating additional instructions to the commanders + of British armed ships, which were dated the 8th of January. These + instructions revoked those of the 6th of November (1793), and, instead of + bringing in for adjudication all neutral vessels trading with the French + islands, British cruisers were directed to bring in those only which were + laden with cargoes the produce of the French islands, and were on a direct + voyage from those islands to Europe. + </p> + <p> + The letter detailed a conversation with Lord Grenville on this subject, in + which his lordship explained the motives which had originally occasioned + the order of the 6th of November, and gave to it a less extensive + signification than it had received in the courts of vice-admiralty. + </p> + <p> + It was intended, he said, to be temporary and was calculated to answer two + purposes. One was to prevent the abuses which might take place in + consequence of the whole of the St. Domingo fleet having gone to the + United States; the other was on account of the attack designed upon the + French West India islands by the armament under Sir John Jervis and Sir + Charles Grey; but it was now no longer necessary to continue the + regulations for those purposes. His lordship added that the order of the + 6th of November did not direct the confiscation of all vessels trading + with the French islands, but only that they should be brought in for legal + adjudication, and he conceived that no vessel would be condemned under it + which would not have been previously liable to the same sentence. + </p> + <p> + The influence of this communication on the party in the Legislature which + was denominated Federal was very considerable. Believing that the existing + differences between the two nations still admitted of explanation and + adjustment, they strenuously opposed all measures which were irritating in + their tendency or which might be construed into a dereliction of the + neutral character they were desirous of maintaining, but they gave all + their weight to those which, by putting the nation in a posture of + defense, prepared it for war should negotiation fail. + </p> + <p> + On the opposite party no change of sentiment or of views appears to have + been produced. Their system seems to have been matured, and not to have + originated in the feelings of the moment. They adhered to it, therefore, + with inflexible perseverance, but seemed not anxious to press an immediate + determination of the propositions which had been made. These propositions + were discussed with great animation, but, notwithstanding an ascertained + majority in their favor, were permitted to remain undecided, as if their + fate depended on some extrinsic circumstance. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, great exertions were made to increase the public agitation and + to stimulate the resentments which were felt against Great Britain. The + artillery of the press was played with unceasing fury on the minority of + the House of Representatives and the democratic societies brought their + whole force into operation. Language will scarcely afford terms of greater + outrage than were employed against those who sought to stem the torrent of + public opinion and to moderate the rage of the moment. They were denounced + as a British faction, seeking to impose chains on their countrymen. Even + the majority was declared to be but half roused and to show little of that + energy and decision which the crisis required. + </p> + <p> + The proceedings of Congress continued to manifest a fixed purpose to + pursue the system which had been commenced, and the public sentiment + seemed to accord with that system. That the nation was advancing rapidly + to a state of war was firmly believed by many intelligent men, who doubted + the necessity and denied the policy of abandoning the neutral position + which had been thus long maintained. In addition to the extensive + calamities which must, in any state of things, result to the United States + from a rupture with a nation which was the mistress of the ocean, and + which furnished the best market for the sale of their produce and the + purchase of manufactures of indispensable necessity, there were + considerations belonging exclusively to the moment, which, though + operating only in a narrow circle, were certainly entitled to great + respect. {3} + </p> + <p> + That war with Britain, during the continuance of the passionate and almost + idolatrous devotion of a great majority of the people to the French + republic, would throw America so completely into the arms of France as to + leave her no longer mistress of her own conduct, was not the only fear + which the temper of the day suggested. That the spirit which triumphed in + that nation and deluged it with the blood of its revolutionary champions + might cross the Atlantic, and desolate the hitherto safe and peaceful + dwellings of the American people, was an apprehension not so entirely + unsupported by appearances as to be pronounced chimerical. With a blind + infatuation, which treated reason as a criminal, immense numbers applauded + a furious despotism, trampling on every right, and sporting with life as + the essence of liberty; and the few who conceived freedom to be a plant + which did not flourish the better for being nourished with human blood, + and who ventured to disapprove the ravages of the guillotine, were + execrated as the tools of the coalesced despots, and as persons who, to + weaken the affection of America for France, became the calumniators of + that republic. Already had an imitative spirit, captivated with the + splendor, but copying the errors, of a great nation, reared up in every + part of the continent self-created corresponding societies, who, claiming + to be the people, assumed a control over the government and were loosening + its bands. Already were the Mountain, {4} and a revolutionary tribunal, + favorite toasts, and already were principles familiarly proclaimed, which, + in France, had been the precursors of that tremendous and savage + despotism, which, in the name of the people and by the instrumentality of + affiliated societies, had spread its terrific sway over that fine country + and had threatened to extirpate all that was wise and virtuous. That a + great majority of those statesmen who conducted the opposition would + deprecate such a result furnished no security against it. When the + physical force of a nation usurps the place of its wisdom, those who have + produced such a state of things no longer control it. + </p> + <p> + These apprehensions, whether well or ill founded, produced in those who + felt them an increased solicitude for the preservation of peace. Their aid + was not requisite to confirm the judgment of Washington on this + interesting subject. Fixed in his purpose of maintaining the neutrality of + the United States until the aggressions of a foreign power should clearly + render neutrality incompatible with honor, and conceiving from the last + advices received from England that the differences between the two nations + had not yet attained that point, he determined to make one decisive + effort, which should either remove the ostensible causes of quarrel or + demonstrate the indisposition of Great Britain to remove them. This + determination was executed by the nomination of an envoy extraordinary to + his Britannic majesty, which was announced to the Senate on the 16th of + April (1794), in the following terms: + </p> + <p> + "The communications which I have made to you during your present session, + from the dispatches of our minister in London, contain a serious aspect of + our affairs with Great Britain. But as peace ought to be pursued with + unremitted zeal, before the last resource—which has so often been + the scourge of nations and cannot fail to check the advanced prosperity of + the United States—is contemplated, I have thought proper to nominate + and do hereby nominate John Jay as envoy extraordinary of the United + States to his Britannic majesty. {5} + </p> + <p> + "My confidence in our minister plenipotentiary in London continues + undiminished. But a mission like this, while it corresponds with the + solemnity of the occasion, will announce to the world a solicitude for the + friendly adjustment of our complaints and a reluctance to hostility. Going + immediately from the United States, such an envoy will carry with him a + full knowledge of the existing temper and sensibility of our country, and + will thus be taught to vindicate our rights with firmness and to cultivate + peace with sincerity." + </p> + <p> + To those who believed the interests of the nation to require a rupture + with England and a still closer connection with France nothing could be + more unlooked for or more unwelcome than this decisive measure. That it + would influence the proceedings of Congress could not be doubted, and that + it would materially affect the public mind was probable. Evincing the + opinion of the executive that negotiation, not legislative hostility, was + still the proper medium for accommodating differences with Great Britain, + it threw on the Legislature a great responsibility, if they should persist + in a system calculated to defeat that negotiation. By showing to the + people that their President did not yet believe war to be necessary, it + turned the attention of many to peace, and, by suggesting the probability, + rekindled the almost extinguished desire of preserving that blessing. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely has any public act of the President drawn upon his administration + a greater degree of censure than this. That such would be its effect could + not be doubted by a person who had observed the ardor with which opinions + that it thwarted were embraced, or the extremity to which the passions and + contests of the moment had carried all orders of men. But it is the + province of real patriotism to consult the utility more than the + popularity of a measure, and to pursue the path of duty, although it may + be rugged. + </p> + <p> + In the Senate the nomination was approved by a majority of ten votes, and, + in the House of Representatives, it was urged as an argument against + persevering in the system which had been commenced. On the 18th of April a + motion for taking up the report of the committee of the whole house on the + resolution for cutting off all commercial intercourse with Great Britain + was opposed chiefly on the ground that, as an envoy had been nominated to + the court of that country, no obstacle ought to be thrown in his way. The + adoption of the resolution would be a bar to negotiation, because it used + the language of menace and manifested a partiality to one of the + belligerents which was incompatible with neutrality. It was also an + objection to the resolution that it prescribed the terms on which alone a + treaty should be made, and was, consequently, an infringement of the right + of the executive to negotiate, and an indelicacy to that department. + </p> + <p> + The resolution having undergone some modifications, a bill in conformity + with it was brought in and carried by a considerable majority. In the + Senate it was lost by the casting vote of Mr. Adams, the Vice-President. + The system which had been taken up in the House of Representatives was + pressed no further. + </p> + <p> + A bill for punishing infringements of the neutrality laws and prohibiting + the condemnation and sale of prizes in the ports of the United States, + brought in by the belligerent powers, was suggested by Washington and + reported in the Senate, where it met a violent opposition and was finally + passed by the casting vote of the Vice-President. In the House of + Representatives it was passed after striking out the provision relative to + the sale of prizes. In maintaining his system of strict neutrality + Washington had to fight every inch of the ground. The opposition omitted + no means of bringing the administration into discredit. Attacks in + Congress on the executive officers of the government was resorted to. + </p> + <p> + In both houses inquiries were set on foot respecting the treasury + department, which obviously originated in the hope of finding some + foundation for censuring Mr. Hamilton, the secretary, but which failed + entirely. In a similar hope, as respected Gouverneur Morris, the minister + of the United States at Paris, the Senate passed a vote requesting the + President to lay before that body his correspondence with the French + republic, and also with the Department of State. + </p> + <p> + As a war with Great Britain seemed inevitable should the mission of Mr. + Jay prove unsuccessful, Congress did not adjourn without passing the + absolutely necessary laws for putting the country in a state of defense. + Provision was made for fortifying the principal harbors, and 80,000 + militia were ordered to be in readiness for active service. Arms and + munitions of war were allowed to be imported free of duty, and the + President was authorized to purchase galleys and lay an embargo if he + should deem that the public interest required it. To meet the expenses + thus incurred duties were levied on a number of additional articles of + importation. + </p> + <p> + On the 9th of June (1794) this active and stormy session was closed by an + adjournment to the first Monday in the succeeding November. + </p> + <p> + "The public," says Marshall, "was not less agitated than the Legislature + had been by those interesting questions which had occasioned some of the + most animated and eloquent discussions that had ever taken place on the + floor of the House of Representatives. Mr. Madison's resolutions + especially continued to be the theme of general conversation, and, for a + long time, divided parties throughout the United States. The struggle for + public opinion was ardent, and each party supported its pretensions, not + only with those arguments which each deemed conclusive, but also by those + reciprocal criminations which, perhaps, each in part believed. + </p> + <p> + "The opposition declared that the friends of the administration were an + aristocratic and corrupt faction, who, from a desire to introduce + monarchy, were hostile to France, and under the influence of Britain; that + they sought every occasion to increase expense, to augment debt, to + multiply the public burdens, to create armies and navies, and, by the + instrumentality of all this machinery, to govern and enslave the people; + that they were a paper nobility, whose extreme sensibility at every + measure which threatened the funds, induced a tame submission to injuries + and insults, which the interest and the honor of the nation required them + to resist. + </p> + <p> + "The friends of the administration retorted that the opposition was + prepared to sacrifice the best interests of their country on the altar of + the French revolution; that they were willing to go to war for French, not + for American objects; that while they urged war they withheld the means of + supporting it in order the more effectually to humble and disgrace the + government; that they were so blinded by their passion for France as to + confound crimes with meritorious deeds, and to abolish the natural + distinction between virtue and vice; that the principles which they + propagated and with which they sought to intoxicate the people were, in + practice, incompatible with the existence of government; that they were + the apostles of anarchy, not of freedom, and were, consequently, not the + friends of real and rational liberty." + </p> + <p> + Immediately after the adjournment of Congress, Washington paid a short + visit to Mount Vernon. On the 19th of June he writes from Baltimore to + Randolph, Secretary of State, respecting the commission and letters of + credence of John Quincy Adams, whom he had recently appointed minister + resident to the United Netherlands. From the same place, on the same day, + he writes to Gouverneur Morris, who had recently been recalled from France + at the request of the revolutionary authorities, he having pretty openly + expressed his disapprobation of the excesses of the party in power. + Washington had appointed as his successor James Monroe, who, as senator, + had uniformly opposed the measures of the administration. Such an act of + magnanimity in these times would excite considerable surprise. + </p> + <p> + On the 25th of June (1794), after his arrival at Mount Vernon, Washington + again writes to Gouverneur Morris, who still retained his warm friendship + and confidence. Speaking of his political course, he says: "My primary + objects, to which I have steadily adhered, have been to preserve the + country in peace if I can, and to be prepared for war if I cannot; to + effect the first upon terms consistent with the respect which is due to + ourselves and with honor, justice, and good faith to all the world." + </p> + <p> + On the same day he writes to Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State: "I shall + endeavor to be back by the time I allotted before I left Philadelphia, if + I am able, but an exertion to save myself and horse from falling among the + rocks at the lower falls of the Potomac, whither I went on Sunday morning + to see the canal and locks, has wrenched my back in such a manner as to + prevent my riding, and hitherto has defeated the purposes for which I came + home. My stay here will only be until I can ride with ease and safety, + whether I accomplish my own business or not." + </p> + <p> + In July (1794) Washington returned to Philadelphia, where very weighty + matters were demanding his attention. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Marshall. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Madison, on this and other occasions, appears to have been + earnestly desirous to build up an extensive mercantile marine, with a view + to the formation of an efficient navy. It is pleasant to recollect that, + under his administration as President, the proudest triumphs of our navy + were achieved. + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Marshall. + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: A well-known term designating the most violent party in + France. + </p> + <p> + 5. Footnote: Mr. Jay's secretary on this mission was Col. John Trumbull. + Colonel Trumbull may be considered one of the most interesting among the + many remarkable characters called into action and developed by our + Revolutionary War. All that we know of him tends to raise him in our + estimation as a soldier, a gentleman, and an artist. When accidentally, as + he thought, but providentially, as the event proved, he was excluded from + the army, he deemed it a great misfortune, but it forced upon him the + cultivation of his art, and made him the painter of the Revolution. His + noble historical paintings are the most precious relics of that heroic age + which the nation possesses. They are justly prized above all price; and + the latest posterity will rejoice that Trumbull laid down the sword to + take up the pallet and pencil. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. — WASHINGTON QUELLS THE WESTERN INSURRECTION. 1794. + </h2> + <p> + While Congress was in session several important matters had claimed the + consideration of Washington, to which we will now call the reader's + attention. It will be recollected that a request of the executive for the + recall of Mr. Genet had been transmitted to the French government. During + the time which elapsed before an answer could be returned Genet's + proceedings had been such as to call for all the prudence, foresight, and + moderation of Washington. + </p> + <p> + In that spirit of conciliation which adopts the least irritating means for + effecting its objects, Washington had resolved to bear with the insults, + the resistance, and the open defiance of Genet until his appeal to the + friendship and the policy of the French republic should be fairly tried. + Early in January (1794) this resolution was shaken by fresh proofs of the + perseverance of that minister in a line of conduct not to be tolerated by + a nation which has not surrendered all pretensions to self-government. + Genet had meditated and deliberately planned two expeditions, to be + carried on from the territories of the United States against the dominions + of Spain, and had, as minister of the French republic, granted commissions + to citizens of the United States, who were privately recruiting troops for + the proposed service. The first was destined against Florida and the + second against Louisiana. The detail of the plans had been settled. The + pay, rations, clothing, plunder, and division of the conquered lands to be + allotted to the military and the proportion of the acquisitions to be + reserved to the republic of France were arranged. The troops destined to + act against Florida were to be raised in the three southern States, were + to rendezvous in Georgia, were to be aided by a body of Indians, and were + to cooperate with the French fleet, should one arrive on the coast. This + scheme had been the subject of a correspondence between the executive and + Genet, but was in full progress in the preceding December, when, by the + vigilance of the Legislature of South Carolina, it was more particularly + developed, and some of the principal agents were arrested. + </p> + <p> + About the same time, intelligence less authentic, but wearing every + circumstance of probability, was received, stating that the expedition + against Louisiana, which was to be carried on down the Ohio from Kentucky, + was in equal maturity. + </p> + <p> + This intelligence seemed to render a further forbearance incompatible with + the dignity of the United States. The question of superseding the + diplomatic functions of Genet and depriving him of the privileges attached + to that character was brought before the Cabinet, and a message to + Congress was prepared, communicating these transactions and avowing a + determination to adopt that measure, unless one or the other House should + signify the opinion that it was not advisable so to do, when the business + was arrested by receiving a letter from Mr. Morris announcing officially + the recall of this rash minister. Mr. Fauchet, the successor of Genet, + arrived in February (1794), and brought with him strong assurances that + his government totally disapproved the conduct of his predecessor. He + avowed a determination to avoid whatever might be offensive to those to + whom he was deputed, and a wish to carry into full effect the friendly + dispositions of his nation toward the United States. For some time his + actions were in the spirit of these professions. + </p> + <p> + Not long after the arrival of Mr. Fauchet, the executive government of + France requested the recall of Gouverneur Morris. With this request + Washington, as we have already seen, immediately complied, and James + Monroe was appointed to succeed him. + </p> + <p> + The discontents which had been long fomented in the western country had + assumed a serious and alarming appearance. A remonstrance to the President + and Congress of the United States from the inhabitants of Kentucky, + respecting the navigation of the Mississippi, was laid before the + executive and each branch of the Legislature. The style of this paper + accorded well with the instructions under which it had been prepared. It + demanded the free navigation of the Mississippi as a right, and arraigned + the government for not having secured its enjoyment. The paper was + submitted to both Houses of Congress. + </p> + <p> + In the Senate the subject was referred to a committee who reported "that + in the negotiation now carrying on at Madrid between the United States and + Spain, the right of the former to the free navigation of the Mississippi + is well asserted and demonstrated, and their claim to its enjoyment is + pursued with all the assiduity and firmness which the magnitude of the + subject demands, and will doubtless continue to be so pursued until the + object shall be obtained or adverse circumstances shall render the further + progress of the negotiation impracticable. That in the present state of + the business it would improper for Congress to interfere, but, in order to + satisfy the citizens of the United States more immediately interested in + the event of this negotiation, that the United States, have uniformly + asserted their right to the free use of the navigation of the river + Mississippi, and have employed and will continue to pursue such measures + as are best adapted to obtain the enjoyment of this important territorial + right, the committee recommend that it be resolved by the Senate: + </p> + <p> + "That the President of the United States be, and he hereby is requested to + cause to be communicated to the executive of the State of Kentucky, such + part of the existing negotiation between the United States and Spain + relative to this subject, as he may deem advisable and consistent with the + course of the negotiation." + </p> + <p> + In the House of Representatives also a resolution was passed, expressing + the conviction of the House, that the executive was urging the claim of + the United States to the navigation of the Mississippi in the manner most + likely to prove successful. + </p> + <p> + This answer was not satisfactory to the Kentuckians. Later developments + showed that they had a different object from that of obtaining the free + navigation of the Mississippi by negotiation. + </p> + <p> + In October, 1793, it was alleged by the Spanish commissioners that four + Frenchmen had left Philadelphia, empowered by the minister of the French + republic to prepare an expedition, in Kentucky, against New Orleans. This + fact was immediately communicated by Mr. Jefferson to the governor of that + State, with a request that he would use those means of prevention which + the law enabled him to employ. This letter was accompanied by one from the + Secretary of War, conveying the request of the President, that, if + preventive means should fail, effectual military force should then be + employed to arrest the expedition, and General Wayne was ordered to hold a + body of troops at the disposal of the governor should he find the militia + insufficient for his purpose. + </p> + <p> + The governor had already received information that a citizen of Kentucky + was in possession of a commission appointing him Commander-in-Chief of the + proposed expedition; and that the Frenchmen alluded to in the letter of + Mr. Jefferson had arrived, and, far from affecting concealment, declared + that they only waited for money, which they expected soon to receive, in + order to commence their operations. + </p> + <p> + The governor, however, in a letter, containing very singular views of his + duty in the affair, declined to interfere with the proposed expedition. + </p> + <p> + Upon the receipt of this extraordinary letter, Washington directed General + Wayne to establish a military post at Fort Massac, on the Ohio, for the + purpose of stopping by force, if peaceful means should fail, any body of + armed men who should be proceeding down that river. + </p> + <p> + This precaution appears to have been necessary. The preparations for the + expedition were, for some time, carried on with considerable activity; and + there is reason to believe that it was not absolutely relinquished until + the war ceased between France and Spain. + </p> + <p> + It will be recollected that, in the preceding year, the attempt to treat + with the hostile Indians had suspended the operations of General Wayne + until the season for action had nearly passed away. After the total + failure of negotiation, the campaign was opened with as much vigor as a + prudent attention to circumstances would permit. + </p> + <p> + The Indians had expected an attempt upon their villages, and had collected + in full force, with the apparent determination of risking a battle in + their defense. A battle was desired by the American general, but the + consequences of another defeat were too serious to warrant him in putting + more to hazard by precipitate movements than the circumstances of the war + required. The negotiations with the Indians were not terminated till + September, and it was then too late to complete the preparations which + would enable General Wayne to accomplish his object. He, therefore, + contented himself with collecting his army and penetrating about six miles + in advance of Fort Jefferson, where he established himself for the winter + in a camp called Greensville. After fortifying his camp, he took + possession of the ground on which the Americans had been defeated in 1791, + where he erected Fort Recovery. These positions afforded considerable + protection to the frontiers, and facilitated the opening of the ensuing + campaign. + </p> + <p> + Seeing only the dark side of every measure adopted by the government, and + not disinclined to militia expeditions made at the expense of the United + States, the people of Kentucky loudly charged the President with a total + disregard of their safety, pronounced the Continental troops entirely + useless, declared that the Indians should be kept in awe alone by the + militia, and insisted that the power should be deposited with some person + in their State to call them out at his discretion, at the charge of the + United States. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, some steps were taken by the Governor of Upper Canada, which + were well calculated to increase suspicions respecting the dispositions of + Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + It was believed by Washington, not without cause, that the cabinet of + London was disposed to avail itself of the nonexecution of that article of + the treaty of peace which stipulates for the payment of debts, to justify + a permanent detention of the posts on the southern side of the lakes, and + to establish a new boundary line, whereby those lakes should be entirely + comprehended in Upper Canada. Early in the spring a detachment from the + garrison of Detroit repossessed and fortified a position nearly fifty + miles south of that station, on the Miami, a river which empties into Lake + Erie at its westernmost point. + </p> + <p> + This movement, and other facts which strengthened the belief that the + hostile Indians were at least countenanced by the English, were the + subjects of a correspondence between the Secretary of State and Mr. + Hammond, in which crimination was answered by recrimination, in which a + considerable degree of mutual irritation was displayed, and in which each + supported his charges against the nation of the other, much better than he + defended his own. It did not, however, in any manner, affect the + operations of the army. + </p> + <p> + The delays inseparable from the transportation of necessary supplies + through an uninhabited country, infested by an active enemy peculiarly + skilled in partisan war, unavoidably protracted the opening of the + campaign until near midsummer. Meanwhile several sharp skirmishes took + place, in one of which a few white men were stated to be mingled with the + Indians. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of August (1794) General Wayne reached the confluence of the Au + Glaize, where he threw up some works of defense and protection for + magazines. The richest and most extensive settlements of the western + Indians lay about this place. + </p> + <p> + The mouth of the Au Glaize is distant about thirty miles from the post + occupied by the British, in the vicinity of which the whole strength of + the enemy, amounting, according to intelligence on which General Wayne + relied, to rather less than 2,000 men, was collected. The Continental + legion was not much inferior in number to the Indians, and a reinforcement + of about 1,100 mounted militia from Kentucky, commanded by General Scott, + gave a decided superiority of strength to the army of Wayne. That the + Indians had determined to give him battle was well understood, and the + discipline of his legion, the ardor of all his troops, and the superiority + of his numbers, authorized him confidently to expect a favorable issue. + Yet, in pursuance of that policy by which the United States had been + uniformly actuated, he determined to make one more effort for the + attainment of peace without bloodshed. Messengers were dispatched to the + several hostile tribes who were assembled in his front, inviting them to + appoint deputies to meet him on his march, in order to negotiate a lasting + peace. + </p> + <p> + On the 15th of August (1794) the American army advanced down the Miami, + with its right covered by that river, and on the 18th arrived at the + rapids. Here they halted on the 19th, in order to erect a temporary work + for the protection of the baggage and to reconnoiter the situation of the + enemy. + </p> + <p> + The Indians were advantageously posted behind a thick wood, and behind the + British fort. + </p> + <p> + At 8 in the morning of the 20th the American army advanced in columns, the + legion with its right flank covered by the Miami. One brigade of mounted + volunteers, commanded by General Todd, was on the left; and the other, + under General Barbee, was in the rear. A select battalion, commanded by + Major Price, moved in front of the legion, sufficiently in advance to give + timely notice for the troops to form in case of action. + </p> + <p> + After marching about five miles Major Price received a heavy fire from a + concealed enemy, and was compelled to retreat. + </p> + <p> + The Indians had chosen their ground with judgment. They had advanced into + the thick wood in front of the British works, which extends several miles + west from the Miami, and had taken a position rendered almost inaccessible + to horse by a quantity of fallen timber which appeared to have been blown + up in a tornado. They were formed in three lines, within supporting + distance of each other; and, as is their custom, with a very extended + front. Their line stretched to the west, at right angles with the river, + about two miles, and their immediate effort was to turn the left flank of + the American army. + </p> + <p> + On the discharge of the first rifle, the legion was formed in two lines, + and the front was ordered to advance with trailed arms and rouse the enemy + from his covert at the point of the bayonet; then, and not until then, to + deliver a fire, and to press the fugitives too closely to allow them time + to load after discharging their pieces. Soon perceiving the strength of + the enemy in front, and that he was endeavoring to turn the American left, + the general ordered the second line to support the first. The legion + cavalry, led by Captain Campbell, was directed to penetrate between the + Indians and the river, where the wood was less thick and entangled, in + order to charge their left flank; and General Scott, at the head of the + mounted volunteers, was directed to make a considerable circuit, and to + turn their right flank. + </p> + <p> + These orders were executed with spirit and promptitude, but such was the + impetuosity of the charge made by the first line of infantry, so entirely + was the enemy broken by it, and so rapid was the pursuit that only a small + part of the second line and of the mounted volunteers could get into + action. In the course of one hour the Indians were driven more than two + miles through thick woods, when the pursuit terminated within gunshot of + the British fort. + </p> + <p> + General Wayne remained three days on the banks of the Miami, in front of + the field of battle, during which time the houses and cornfields above and + below the fort, some of them within pistol-shot of it, were reduced to + ashes. In the course of these operations a correspondence took place + between General Wayne and Major Campbell, the commandant of the fort, + which is stated by the former in such a manner as to show that hostilities + between them were avoided only by the prudent acquiescence of the latter + in this devastation of property within the range of his guns. + </p> + <p> + On the 28th (August, 1794), the army returned to Au Glaize by easy + marches, destroying on its route all the villages and corn within fifty + miles of the river. + </p> + <p> + In this decisive battle the loss of the Americans in killed and wounded, + amounted to 107, including officers. Among the dead were Captain Campbell, + who commanded the cavalry, and Lieutenant Towles of the infantry, both of + whom fell in the first charge. General Wayne bestowed great and + well-merited praise on the courage and alacrity displayed by every part of + the army. + </p> + <p> + The hostility of the Indians still continuing, their whole country was + laid waste, and forts were erected in the heart of their settlements to + prevent their return. + </p> + <p> + This seasonable victory rescued the United States from a general war with + all the Indians northwest of the Ohio. The Six Nations had discovered a + restless, uneasy temper, and the interposition of the President to prevent + a settlement which Pennsylvania was about to make at Presque Isle seemed + rather to suspend the commencement of hostilities than to establish + permanent pacific dispositions among those tribes. The battle of the 20th + of August, however, had an immediate effect, and the clouds which had been + long gathering in that quarter were instantly dissipated. + </p> + <p> + In the South, too, its influence was felt. In that quarter the inhabitants + of Georgia and the Indians seemed equally disposed to war. Scarcely was + the feeble authority of the government competent to restrain the + aggressions of the former, or the dread of its force sufficient to repress + those of the latter. In this doubtful state of things, the effect of a + victory could not be inconsiderable. + </p> + <p> + About this time the seditions and violent resistance to the execution of + the law imposing duties on spirits distilled within the United States had + advanced to a point in the counties of Pennsylvania lying west of the + Allegheny mountains, which required the decisive interposition of + government. + </p> + <p> + The laws being openly set at defiance, Washington determined to test their + efficiency. Bills of indictment were found against the perpetrators of + certain outrages, and process was issued against them and placed in the + hands of the United States marshal for execution. + </p> + <p> + The marshal repaired in person to the country which was the scene of + disorder for the purpose of serving the processes. On the 15th of July + (1794), while in the execution of his duty, he was beset on the road by a + body of armed men, who fired on him, but fortunately did him no personal + injury. At daybreak the ensuing morning a party attacked the house of + General Nevil, the inspector, but he defended himself resolutely and + obliged the assailants to retreat. + </p> + <p> + Knowing well that this attack had been preconcerted, and apprehending that + it would be repeated, he applied to the militia officers and magistrates + of the county for protection. The answer was that, "owing to the too + general combination of the people to oppose the revenue system, the laws + could not be executed so as to afford him protection; that should the <i>posse + comitatus</i> be ordered out to support the civil authority they would + favor the party of the rioters." + </p> + <p> + On the succeeding day the insurgents reassembled to the number of about + 500 to renew their attack on the house of the inspector. That officer, + finding that no protection could be afforded by the civil authority, had + applied to the commanding officer at Fort Pitt, and had obtained a + detachment of eleven men from that garrison, who were joined by Major + Kirkpatrick. Successful resistance to so great a force being obviously + impracticable, a parley took place, at which the assailants, after + requiring that the inspector and all his papers should be delivered up, + demanded that the party in the house should march out and ground their + arms. This being refused, the parley terminated and the assault commenced. + The action lasted until the assailants set fire to several adjacent + buildings, the heat from which was so intense that the house could no + longer be occupied. From this cause, and from the apprehension that the + fire would soon be communicated to the main building, Major Kirkpatrick + and his party surrendered themselves. + </p> + <p> + The marshal and Col. Pressly Nevil were seized on their way to General + Nevil's house and detained until 2 the next morning. The marshal + especially was treated with extreme severity. His life was frequently + threatened, and was probably saved by the interposition of some leading + individuals, who possessed more humanity or more prudence than those with + whom they were associated. He could obtain his liberty only by entering + into a solemn engagement, which was guaranteed by Colonel Nevil, to serve + no more processes on the western side of the Allegheny mountains. + </p> + <p> + The marshal and inspector having both retired to Pittsburgh, the + insurgents deputed two of their body, one of whom was a justice of the + peace, to demand that the former should surrender all his authority, and + that the latter should resign his office, threatening, in case of refusal, + to attack the place and seize their persons. These demands were not + acceded to, but Pittsburghh affording no security, these officers escaped + from the danger which threatened them by descending the Ohio; after which + they found their way, by a circuitous route, to the seat of government. + </p> + <p> + The rioters next proceeded to intercept the mail and take out letters from + certain parties in Pittsburghh, containing expressions of disapproval of + their proceedings. The writers of these letters they caused to be + banished. They next held meetings on Braddock's Field and at Parkinson's + Ferry, at which the determination to resist the laws by force of arms was + openly avowed. + </p> + <p> + Affidavits attesting this serious state of things were laid before + Washington. Affairs had now reached a point which seemed to forbid the + continuance of a temporizing system. The efforts at conciliation, which, + for more than three years, the government had persisted to make, and the + alterations repeatedly introduced into the act for the purpose of + rendering it less exceptionable, instead of diminishing the arrogance of + those who opposed their will to the sense of the nation, had drawn forth + sentiments indicative of designs much deeper than the evasion of a single + act. The execution of the laws had at length been resisted by open force, + and a determination to persevere in these measures was unequivocally + avowed. The alternative of subduing this resistance or of submitting to it + was presented to the government. + </p> + <p> + The act of Congress which provided for calling forth the militia "to + execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel + invasions" required, as a prerequisite to the exercise of this power, + "that an associate justice, or the judge of the district, should certify + that the laws of the United States were opposed, or their execution + obstructed, by combinations too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary + course of judicial proceedings, or by the powers vested in the marshals." + In the same act it was provided, "that if the militia of the State where + such combinations may happen shall refuse, or be insufficient, to suppress + the same, the President may employ the militia of other States." + </p> + <p> + The evidence which had been transmitted to Washington was laid before one + of the associate justices, who gave the certificate, which enabled the + chief magistrate to employ the militia in aid of the civil power. + </p> + <p> + Washington now called a cabinet to consider the subject, and the Governor + of Pennsylvania was also consulted respecting it. Randolph, the Secretary + of State, and the Governor of Pennsylvania urged reasons against coercion + by force of arms; Hamilton, Knox, and Bradford were in favor of employing + military force. These members of the Cabinet were also of opinion that + policy and humanity equally dictated the employment of a force which would + render resistance desperate. The insurgent country contained 16,000 men + able to bear arms, and the computation was that they could bring 7,000 + into the field. If the army of the government should amount to 12,000 men, + it would present an imposing force which the insurgents would not venture + to meet. + </p> + <p> + It was impossible that Washington could hesitate to embrace the latter of + these opinions. That a government entrusted to him should be trampled + under foot by a lawless section of the Union, which set at defiance the + will of the nation, as expressed by its representatives, was an abasement + to which neither his judgment nor his feelings could submit. He resolved, + therefore, to issue the proclamation which, by law, was to precede the + employment of force. + </p> + <p> + On the same day a requisition was made on the Governors of New Jersey, + Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia for their several quotas of militia + to compose an army of 12,000 men, who were to be immediately organized and + prepared to march at a minute's warning. The force was ultimately + increased to 15,000. While steps were taking to bring this force into the + field, a last essay was made to render its employment unnecessary. Three + distinguished and popular citizens of Pennsylvania were deputed by the + government to be the bearers of a general amnesty for past offenses, on + the sole condition of future obedience to the laws. + </p> + <p> + It having been deemed advisable that the executive of the State should act + in concert with that of the United States, Governor Mifflin also issued a + proclamation and appointed commissioners to act with those of the general + government. + </p> + <p> + These commissioners were met by a committee from the convention at + Parkinson's Ferry, and the conference resulted in a reference of the offer + of amnesty to the people. This reference only served to demonstrate that, + while a few persons were disposed to submit to the laws, the masses in the + disturbed districts were determined to obstruct the re-establishment of + civil authority. + </p> + <p> + On the 25th of September (1794), Washington issued a proclamation + describing in terms of great energy the obstinate and perverse spirit with + which the lenient propositions of the government had been received, and + declaring his fixed determination, in obedience to the high and + irresistible duty consigned to him by the constitution, "to take care that + the laws be faithfully executed," to reduce the refractory to obedience. + </p> + <p> + The troops of New Jersey and Pennsylvania were directed to rendezvous at + Bedford, and those of Maryland and Virginia at Cumberland, on the Potomac. + The command of the expedition had been conferred on Governor Lee, of + Virginia, and the Governors of New Jersey and Pennsylvania commanded the + militia of their respective States under him. + </p> + <p> + Washington in person visited each division of the army, but, being + confident that the force employed must look down all resistance, he left + Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, to accompany it, and returned + himself to Philadelphia, where the approaching session of Congress + required his presence. {1} + </p> + <p> + From Cumberland and Bedford the army marched in two divisions into the + country of the insurgents. The greatness of the force prevented the + effusion of blood. The disaffected did not venture to assemble in arms. + Several of the leaders, who had refused to give assurances of future + submission to the laws, were seized, and some of them detained for legal + prosecution. + </p> + <p> + But although no direct and open opposition was made, the spirit of + insurrection was not subdued. A sour and malignant temper displayed + itself, which indicated but too plainly that the disposition to resist had + only sunk under the pressure of the great military force brought into the + country, but would rise again should that force be withdrawn. It was, + therefore, thought advisable to station for the winter a detachment, to be + commanded by Major-General Morgan, in the center of the disaffected + country. + </p> + <p> + "Thus," says Marshall, "without shedding blood, did the prudent vigor of + the executive terminate an insurrection which, at one time, threatened to + shake the government of the United States to its foundation. That so + perverse a spirit should have been excited in the bosom of prosperity, + without the pressure of a single grievance, is among those political + phenomena which occur not infrequently in the course of human affairs, and + which the statesman can never safely disregard. When real ills are felt + there is something positive and perceptible to which the judgment may be + directed, the actual extent of which may be ascertained and the cause of + which may be discerned. But when the mind, inflamed by suppositious + dangers, gives full play to the imagination, and fastens upon some object + with which to disturb itself, the belief that the danger exists seems to + become a matter of faith, with which reason combats in vain." + </p> + <p> + Washington's own view of the insurrection and its causes is contained in a + letter to John Jay, then on his mission to England. "As you have been," he + writes, "and will continue to be fully informed by the Secretary of State + of all transactions of a public nature which relate to, or may have an + influence on, the points of your mission, it would be unnecessary for me + to touch upon any of them in this letter were it not for the presumption + that the insurrection in the western counties of this State has excited + much speculation and a variety of opinions abroad, and will be represented + differently, according to the wishes of some and the prejudices of others, + who may exhibit, as an evidence of what has been predicted, 'that we are + unable to govern ourselves.' Under this view of the subject, I am happy in + giving it to you as the general opinion that this event having happened at + the time it did was fortunate, although it will be attended with + considerable expense. + </p> + <p> + "That the self-created societies which have spread themselves over this + country have been laboring incessantly to sow the seeds of distrust, + jealousy, and, of course, discontent, thereby hoping to effect some + revolution in the government, is not unknown to you. That they have been + the fomenters of the western disturbances admits of no doubt in the mind + of anyone who will examine their conduct, but, fortunately, they + precipitated a crisis for which they were not prepared, and thereby have + unfolded views which will, I trust, effectuate their annihilation sooner + than it might otherwise have happened, at the same time that it has + afforded an occasion for the people of this country to show their + abhorrence of the result and their attachment to the constitution and the + laws; for I believe that five times the number of militia that was + required would have come forward, if it had been necessary, to support + them. + </p> + <p> + "The spirit which blazed out on this occasion, as soon as the object was + fully understood, and the lenient measures of the government were made + known to the people, deserves to be communicated. There are instances of + general officers going at the head of a single troop and of light + companies; of field officers, when they came to the place of rendezvous + and found no command for them in that grade, turning into the ranks and + proceeding as private soldiers, under their own captains; and of numbers, + possessing the first fortunes in the country, standing in the ranks as + private men, and marching day by day with their knapsacks and haversacks + at their backs, sleeping on straw, with a single blanket, in a soldier's + tent, during the frosty nights which we have had, by way of example to + others. Nay, more; many young Quakers of the first families, character, + and property, not discouraged by the elders, have turned into the ranks + and are marching with the troops. + </p> + <p> + "These things have terrified the insurgents, who had no conception that + such a spirit prevailed, but, while the thunder only rumbled at a + distance, were boasting of their strength and wishing for and threatening + the militia by turns, intimating that the arms they should take from them + would soon become a magazine in their hands. Their language is much + changed, indeed, but their principles want correction. + </p> + <p> + "I shall be more prolix in my speech to Congress on the commencement and + progress of this insurrection than is usual in such an instrument, or than + I should have been on any other occasion, but as numbers at home and + abroad will hear of the insurrection, and will read the speech, that may + know nothing of the documents to which it might refer, I conceived it + would be better to encounter the charge of prolixity by giving a cursory + detail of facts, that would show the prominent features of the thing, than + to let it go naked into the world, to be dressed up according to the fancy + or inclination of the readers or the policy of our enemies." + </p> + <p> + Sentiments similar to these were expressed in a letter to Washington's old + and intimate friend, Edmund Pendleton. "The successes of our army to the + westward," he writes, "have already been productive of good consequences. + They have dispelled a cloud which lowered very heavily in the northern + hemisphere (the Six Nations), and, though we have received no direct + advices from General Wayne since November, there is reason to believe that + the Indians with whom we are or were at war in that quarter, together with + their abettors, {2} begin to see things in a different point of view." + </p> + <p> + One of the most important effects of the suppression of the western + rebellion was the fatal blow it gave to the democratic societies founded + by Genet. + </p> + <p> + Washington's opinion of these societies is thus expressed in a letter to + one of his friends: "The real people, occasionally assembled in order to + express their sentiments on political subjects, ought never to be + confounded with permanent self-appointed societies, usurping the right to + control the constituted authorities and to dictate to public opinion. + While the former is entitled to respect, the latter is incompatible with + all government and must either sink into general disesteem or finally + overturn the established order of things." + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: General Knox, the Secretary of War, accompanied the army to + the expected scene of action. The command in chief was confided to Gen. + Henry Lee, Washington's old friend and companion in the Revolutionary War. + He was at this time Governor of Virginia. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: The British on the border. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. — WASHINGTON SIGNS JAY'S TREATY. 1794-1795. + </h2> + <p> + Congress had adjourned to meet on the 4th of November (1794), but a quorum + of the Senate was not present until the 10th. Washington addressed both + Houses of Congress in a longer speech than usual, giving, according to the + intention he had expressed in his letter to Mr. Jay, already quoted, a + particular view of the insurrection in Pennsylvania, and the measures + which he had taken in order to suppress it. + </p> + <p> + As Commander-in-Chief of the militia when called into actual service, he + had, he said, visited the places of general rendezvous, to obtain more + correct information and to direct a plan for ulterior movements. Had there + been reason for supposing that the laws were secure from obstruction, he + should have caught with avidity at the opportunity of restoring the + militia to their families and homes. But succeeding intelligence had + tended to manifest the necessity of what had been done, it being now + confessed by those who were not inclined to exaggerate the ill conduct of + the insurgents, that their malevolence was not pointed merely to a + particular law, but that a spirit inimical to all order had actuated many + of the offenders. + </p> + <p> + After bestowing a high encomium on the alacrity and promptitude with which + persons in every station had come forward to assert the dignity of the + laws, thereby furnishing an additional proof that they understood the true + principles of government and liberty, and felt the value of their + inseparable union, he added: + </p> + <p> + "To every description indeed of citizens let praise be given. But let them + persevere in their affectionate vigilance over that precious depository of + American happiness—the constitution of the United States. And when, + in the calm moments of reflection, they shall have retraced the origin and + progress of the insurrection, let them determine whether it has not been + fomented by combinations of men, who—careless of consequences and + disregarding the unerring truth that those who rouse cannot always appease + a civil convulsion—have disseminated, from an ignorance or + perversion of facts, suspicions, jealousies, and accusations of the whole + government." + </p> + <p> + Washington could not omit this fair occasion once more to press on + Congress a subject which had always been near his heart. After mentioning + the defectiveness of the existing system, he said: + </p> + <p> + "The devising and establishing a well-regulated militia would be a general + source of legislative honor and a perfect title to public gratitude. I + therefore entertain a hope that the present session will not pass without + carrying to its full energy the power of organizing, arming, and + disciplining the militia, and thus providing, in the language of the + constitution, for calling them forth to execute the laws of the Union, + suppress insurrections, and repel invasions." + </p> + <p> + After mentioning the intelligence from the army under the command of + General Wayne and the state of Indian affairs, he again called the + attention of the House of Representatives to a subject scarcely less + interesting than a system of defense against external and internal + violence. + </p> + <p> + "The time," he said, "which has elapsed since the commencement of our + fiscal measures has developed our pecuniary resources so as to open the + way for a definitive plan for the redemption of the public debt. It is + believed that the result is such as to encourage Congress to consummate + this work without delay. Nothing can more promote the permanent welfare of + the Union, and nothing would be more grateful to our constituents. Indeed, + whatever is unfinished of our system of public credit cannot be benefited + by procrastination, and, as far as may be practicable, we ought to place + that credit on grounds which cannot be disturbed, and to prevent that + progressive accumulation of debt which must ultimately endanger all + governments." + </p> + <p> + In alluding to the intercourse of the United States with foreign nations, + he said: "It may not be unseasonable to announce that my policy in our + foreign transactions has been to cultivate peace with all the world; to + observe treaties with pure and inviolate faith; to check every deviation + from the line of impartiality; to explain what may have been + misapprehended, and correct what may have been injurious to any nation, + and having thus acquired the right, to lose no time in acquiring the + ability to insist upon justice being done to ourselves." + </p> + <p> + In the Senate an answer was reported which contained the following clause: + "Our anxiety, arising from the licentious and open resistance to the laws + in the western counties of Pennsylvania, has been increased by the + proceedings of certain self-created societies relative to the laws and + administration of the government, proceedings in our apprehension, founded + in political error, calculated, if not intended, to disorganize our + government, and which, by inspiring delusive hopes of support, have been + instrumental in misleading our fellow-citizens in the scene of + insurrection." + </p> + <p> + The address proceeded to express the most decided approbation of the + conduct of Washington in relation to the insurgents, and, after noticing + the different parts of the speech, concluded with saying: + </p> + <p> + "At a period so momentous in the affairs of nations the temperate, just, + and firm policy that you have pursued in respect to foreign powers, has + been eminently calculated to promote the great and essential interest of + our country, and has created the fairest title to the public gratitude and + thanks." + </p> + <p> + To this unequivocal approbation of the policy adopted by the executive + with regard to foreign nations, no objections were made. The clause + respecting democratic societies was seriously opposed, but the party in + favor of the administration had been strengthened in the Senate by recent + events, and the address reported by the committee was agreed to without + alteration. + </p> + <p> + In the House, Mr. Madison, Mr. Sedgwick, and Mr. Scott were the committee + to report an answer to the speech of the President. It was silent, not + only with respect to the self-created societies, but also as to the + success of General Wayne, and the foreign policy of Washington. His + interference with a favorite system of commercial restrictions was not + forgotten, and the mission of John Jay still rankled in the memory of the + republicans. No direct censure of the societies or approbation of the + foreign policy of the President could be carried, and after an animated + debate the opposition party triumphed in the House. + </p> + <p> + This triumph over the administration revived for a moment the drooping + energies of these turbulent societies, but it was only for a moment. The + agency ascribed to them by the opinion of the public as well as of the + President, in producing an insurrection which was generally execrated, had + essentially affected them, and while languishing under this wound they + received a deadly blow from a quarter whence hostility was least expected. + The remnant of the French convention, rendered desperate by the ferocious + despotism of the Jacobins, and of the sanguinary tyrant who had become + their chief, had at length sought for safety by confronting danger, and, + succeeding in a desperate attempt to bring Robespierre to the guillotine, + had terminated the reign of terror. The colossal powers of the clubs fell + with that of their favorite member, and they sunk into long-merited + disgrace. Not more certain is it that the boldest streams must disappear, + if the fountain that fed them be emptied, than was the dissolution of the + democratic societies in America, when the Jacobin clubs were denounced in + France. As if their destinies depended on the same thread the political + death of the former was the unerring signal for that of the latter. {1} + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the disagreement between the executive and one branch of + the Legislature concerning self-created societies, and the policy observed + toward foreign nations, the speech of the President was treated with + marked respect, and the several subjects which it recommended engaged the + immediate attention of Congress. A bill was passed authorizing the + President to station a detachment of militia in the four western counties + of Pennsylvania; provision was made to compensate those whose property had + been destroyed by the insurgents, should those who had committed the + injury be unable to repair it, and an appropriation exceeding $1,100,000 + was made to defray the expenses occasioned by the insurrection. + </p> + <p> + Many of the difficulties which had occurred in drawing out the militia + were removed, and a bill was introduced to give greater energy to the + militia system generally, but this subject possessed so many intrinsic + difficulties that the session passed away without effecting anything + respecting it. + </p> + <p> + A bill for the gradual redemption of the national debt was more + successful. The President had repeatedly and earnestly recommended to the + Legislature the adoption of measures which might effect this favorite + object, but, although that party, which had been reproached with a desire + to accumulate debt as a means of subverting the republican system, had + uniformly manifested a disposition to carry this recommendation into + effect, their desire had hitherto been opposed by obstacles they were + unable to surmount. The party in opposition to the government, while + professing always a desire to reduce the debt took good care to oppose in + detail every proposition having this object in view. While the subject was + under discussion Colonel Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, addressed a + letter to the House of Representatives, through their speaker, informing + them that he had digested and prepared a plan on the basis of the actual + revenues, for the further support of public credit, which he was ready to + communicate. This comprehensive and valuable report was the last official + act of Hamilton. + </p> + <p> + The penurious provision made for those who filled the high executive + departments in the American government, excluded from a long continuance + in office all those whose fortunes were moderate and whose professional + talents placed a decent independence within their reach. While slandered + as the accumulator of thousands by illicit means, Hamilton had wasted in + the public service great part of the property acquired by his previous + labors, and had found himself compelled to decide on retiring from his + political station. The accusations brought against him in the last session + of the second Congress had postponed the execution of this design until + opportunity should be afforded for a more full investigation of his + official conduct, but he informed Washington that, on the close of the + session to meet in December, 1793, he should resign his situation in the + administration. The events which accumulated about that time, and which + were, he said, in a letter to Washington, of a nature to render the + continuance of peace in a considerable degree precarious, deferred his + meditated retreat. "I do not perceive," he added, "that I could + voluntarily quit my post at such a juncture, consistently with + considerations either of duty or character, and, therefore, I find myself + reluctantly obliged to defer the offer of my resignation." + </p> + <p> + "But if any circumstances should have taken place in consequence of the + intimation of an intention to resign, or should otherwise exist, which + serve to render my continuance in office in any degree inconvenient or + ineligible, I beg to leave to assure you, sir, that I should yield to them + with all the readiness naturally inspired by an impatient desire to + relinquish a situation in which even a momentary stay is opposed by the + strongest personal and family reasons, and could only be produced by a + sense of duty or reputation." + </p> + <p> + Assurances being given by Washington of the pleasure with which the + intelligence that he would continue at his post through the crisis was + received; he remained in office until the commencement of the ensuing + year. Immediately on his return from the western country, the dangers of + domestic insurrection or foreign war having subsided, he gave notice that + he should on the last day of January (1795) give in his resignation. + </p> + <p> + In the esteem and good opinion of Washington, to whom he was best known, + Hamilton at all times maintained a high place. While deciding on the + mission to England and searching for a person to whom the interesting + negotiation with that government should be confided, the mind of the chief + magistrate was directed, among others, to him. He carried with him out of + office the same cordial esteem for his character and respect for his + talents which had induced his appointment. + </p> + <p> + The vacant office of Secretary of the Treasury was filled by Oliver + Wolcott, of Connecticut, a gentleman of sound judgment, who was well + versed in its duties. He had served as Comptroller for a considerable + time, and in that situation had been eminently useful to the head of the + department. + </p> + <p> + The bill for the gradual reduction of the public debt, on the basis of + Hamilton's plan, was resisted in detail through nearly the whole session + of Congress, but by the persevering exertions of the Federal party was + finally carried, and the system inaugurated by Hamilton became a permanent + portion of the financial policy of the country. + </p> + <p> + On the 3d of March (1795) this important session was ended. Although the + party hostile to the administration had obtained a small majority in one + branch of the Legislature several circumstances had concurred to give + great weight to the recommendations of Washington. Among these may be + reckoned the victory obtained by General Wayne and the suppression of the + western insurrection. In some points, however, which he had pressed with + earnestness, his sentiments did not prevail. One of these was a bill + introduced into the Senate for preserving peace with the Indians, by + protecting them from the intrusions and incursions of the whites. + </p> + <p> + General Knox, Secretary of War, like Hamilton, was driven from the service + of his country by the scantiness of the compensation allowed him. He + resigned at the close of the year 1794. Colonel Pickering, a gentleman who + had filled many important offices through the war of the Revolution, who + had discharged several trusts of considerable confidence under the present + government, and who at the time was Postmaster-General, was appointed to + succeed him. + </p> + <p> + After the rising of Congress, Washington made a short visit to Mount + Vernon. He returned to Philadelphia about the 1st of May. Meantime, on the + 7th of March (1795) the treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation between + the United States and Great Britain, which had been signed by the + ministers of the two nations on the 19th of the preceding November, was + received. + </p> + <p> + From his arrival in London, on the 15th of June, 1794, Mr. Jay had been + assiduously and unremittingly employed on the arduous duties of his + mission. By a deportment respectful, yet firm, mingling a decent deference + for the government to which he was deputed with a proper regard, for the + dignity of his own, this minister avoided those little asperities which + frequently embarrass measures of great concern, and smoothed the way to + the adoption of those which were suggested by the real interests of both + nations. Many and intricate were the points to be discussed. On some of + them an agreement was found to be impracticable, but at length a treaty + was concluded, which Mr. Jay declared to be the best that was attainable, + and which he believed it for the interests of the United States to accept. + Indeed it was scarcely possible to contemplate the evidences of extreme + exasperation which were given in America, and the nature of the + differences which subsisted between the two countries, without feeling a + conviction that war was inevitable, should this attempt to adjust those + differences prove unsuccessful. + </p> + <p> + The constitution had provided that all treaties should be ratified by the + Senate, and Washington summoned that body to meet on Monday, the 8th of + June, in order to take it into consideration. In the meantime Washington + devoted himself to the task of examining its provisions with the utmost + care. It was not, in all respects, what he had wished and expected. Many + points were omitted which he had desired to be introduced and settled, + others were arranged so as to leave room for future misunderstandings + between the two nations. But he felt satisfied that Mr. Jay had obtained + the best terms in his power, and that this treaty was the best that could + have been made under all circumstances. Important privileges were secured, + no great national advantages had been sacrificed, nothing detrimental to + the national honor had been admitted, and peace was maintained. That the + rejection of the treaty would be followed by a calamitous war did not + admit of a doubt. In the existing state of Europe a war with Great Britain + would have involved the United States in the long-continued agitations of + Europe and deprive them of all the advantages of neutrality and + undisturbed commerce. Fully aware of all these considerations, Washington + determined that if the Senate should ratify the treaty he would give it + the sanction of his signature. + </p> + <p> + On Monday, the 8th of June (1795), the Senate, in conformity with the + summons of the President, convened in the Senate chamber, and the treaty, + with the documents connected with it, were submitted to their + consideration. + </p> + <p> + On the 24th of June, after a minute and laborious investigation, the + Senate, by precisely a constitutional majority, advised and consented to + its conditional ratification. + </p> + <p> + An insuperable objection existed to an article regulating the intercourse + with the British West Indies, founded on a fact which is understood to + have been unknown to Mr. Jay. The intention of the contracting parties was + to admit the direct intercourse between the United States and those + islands, but not to permit the productions of the latter to be carried to + Europe in the vessels of the former. To give effect to the intention, the + exportation from the United States of those articles which were the + principal productions of the islands was to be relinquished. Among these + was cotton. This article, which a few years before was scarcely raised in + sufficient quantity for domestic consumption, was becoming one of the + richest staples of the southern States. The Senate, being informed of this + act, advised and consented that the treaty should be ratified on condition + that an article be added thereto, suspending that part of the twelfth + article which related to the intercourse with the West Indies. + </p> + <p> + This resolution of the Senate presented difficulties which required + consideration. Whether they could advise and consent to an article which + had not been laid before them, and whether their resolution was to be + considered as the final exercise of their power, were questions not + entirely free from difficulty. Nor was it absolutely clear that the + executive could ratify the treaty, under the advice of the Senate, until + the suspending article should be introduced into it. A few days were + employed in the removal of these doubts, at the expiration of which, + intelligence was received from Europe which suspended the resolution the + President had formed. + </p> + <p> + The English newspapers reported that the British government had renewed + the order in council for seizing provisions in neutral vessels bound to + French ports. Washington directed the Secretary of State to prepare a + strong memorial to the British government against this order, and + postponed the signing of the treaty until it should be ready. In the + meantime his private affairs required that he should visit Mount Vernon, + for which place he set off about the middle of July (1795). + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, one of the Virginia senators, S. T. Mason, in violation of the + obligation of secrecy and the evident demands of propriety, sent a copy of + the treaty to the "Aurora," a violent partisan paper in Philadelphia. On + the 2nd of July it was published and spread before the community without + the authority of the executive, and without any of the official documents + and correspondence necessary to a fair appreciation and understanding of + its various provisions. + </p> + <p> + If, in the existing state of parties and the embittered feelings which + widely prevailed, the mission of Jay was censured, and the result of his + labors condemned in advance, before it was known at all what the treaty + contained, the reader can imagine what an effect must have been produced + by the publication of the treaty in this clandestine manner. Great Britain + was hated and reviled, and France was almost adored by a large and + powerful party in the United States, and there were numbers ready, in + their blind political fury and excitement, to sacrifice everything rather + than be on any terms of concord with the mother country, and rather than + moderate in any degree their passionate devotion to France. + </p> + <p> + In the populous cities meetings of the people were immediately summoned, + in order to take into consideration and to express their opinions + respecting the treaty. It may well be supposed that persons feeling some + distrust of their capacity to form a correct judgment on a subject so + complex, would be unwilling to make so hasty a decision, and consequently + be disinclined to attend such meetings. Many intelligent men stood aloof, + while the most intemperate assumed, as usual, the name of the people—pronounced + a definitive and unqualified condemnation of every article in the treaty, + and, with the utmost confidence, assigned reasons for their opinions + which, in many instances, had only an imaginary existence, and in some + were obviously founded on the strong prejudices which were entertained + with respect to foreign powers. It is difficult to review the various + resolutions and addresses to which the occasion gave birth without feeling + some degree of astonishment, mingled with humiliation, at perceiving such + proofs of the fallibility of human reason. + </p> + <p> + The first meeting was held in Boston. The example of that city was soon + followed by New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Charleston, and, as if + their addresses were designed at least as much for their fellow-citizens + as for their President, while one copy was transmitted to him another was + committed to the press. The precedent set by these large cities was + followed with wonderful rapidity throughout the Union, and the spirit in + which this system of opposition originated sustained no diminution of + violence in its progress. The party which supported the administration, + however, were not idle; they held meetings and sent addresses to + Washington, approving his principles of neutrality and peace. On the 18th + of July (1795), at Baltimore, on his way to Mount Vernon, the President + received the resolutions passed by the meeting at Boston, which were + enclosed to him in a letter from the selectmen of that town. The answer to + this letter and to these resolutions, given in a subsequent page, evinced + the firmness with which he had resolved to meet the effort that was + obviously making to control the exercise of his constitutional functions, + by giving a promptness and vigor to the expression of the sentiments of a + party which might impose it upon the world as the deliberate judgment of + the public. + </p> + <p> + Addresses to Washington, and resolutions of town and country meetings were + not the only means which were employed to enlist the American people + against the measure which had been advised by the Senate. In an immense + number of essays, the treaty was critically examined and every argument + which might operate on the judgment or prejudice of the public was urged + in the warm and glowing language of passion. To meet these efforts by + counter efforts was deemed indispensably necessary by the friends of that + instrument, and the gazettes of the day are replete with appeals to the + passions and to the reason of those who are the ultimate arbiters of every + political question. That the treaty affected the interests of France not + less than those of the United States, was, in this memorable controversy, + asserted by the one party with as much zeal as it was denied by the other. + These agitations furnished matter to Washington for deep reflection and + for serious regret, but they appear not to have shaken the decision he had + formed or to have affected his conduct otherwise than to induce a still + greater degree of circumspection in the mode of transacting the delicate + business before him. On their first appearance, therefore, he resolved to + hasten his return to Philadelphia, for the purpose of considering at that + place, rather than at Mount Vernon, the memorial against the provision + order and the conditional ratification of the treaty. + </p> + <p> + The following confidential letters are extremely interesting, as evincing + the precise state of Washington's mind at this momentous and exciting + period: + </p> + <p> + "<i>To Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State</i>. + </p> + <p> + "Private. + </p> + <p> + "MOUNT VERNON, July 29, 1795. + </p> + <p> + "My Dear Sir.—Your private letters of the 24th and 25th instant have + been received, and you will learn by the official letter of this date my + determination of returning to Philadelphia after Monday, if nothing in the + interim casts up to render it unnecessary. + </p> + <p> + "I am excited to this resolution by the violent and extraordinary + proceedings which have and are about taking place in the northern parts of + the Union, and may be expected in the southern; because I think that the + Memorial, the Ratification, and the Instructions, which are framing, are + of such vast magnitude as not only to require great individual + consideration, but a solemn conjunct revision. The latter could not take + place if you were to come here, nor would there be that source of + information which is to be found at, and is continually flowing to, the + seat of government; and, besides, in the course of deliberation on these + great objects, the examination of official papers may more than probably + be found essential, which could be resorted to at no other place than + Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + "To leave home so soon will be inconvenient. A month hence it would have + been otherwise; and it was, as I hinted to you before I left the city, in + contemplation by me for the purpose of Mrs. Washington's remaining here + till November, when I intended to come back for her. But whilst I am in + office I shall never suffer private convenience to interfere with what I + conceive to be my official duty. + </p> + <p> + "I view the opposition which the treaty is receiving from the meetings in + different parts of the Union in a very serious light, not because there is + more weight in any of the objections which are made to it than was + foreseen at first, for there is none in some of them and gross + misrepresentations in others, nor as it respects myself personally, for + this shall have no influence on my conduct—plainly perceiving, and I + am accordingly preparing my mind for it, the obloquy which disappointment + and malice are collecting to heap upon me. But I am alarmed at the effect + it may have on and the advantage the French government may be disposed to + take of the spirit which is at work to cherish a belief in them, that the + treaty is calculated to favor Great Britain at their expense. Whether they + believe or disbelieve these tales, the effect it will have upon the nation + will be nearly the same; for, whilst they are at war with that power, or + so long as the animosity between the two nations exists, it will, no + matter at whose expense, be their policy, and it is to be feared will be + their conduct, to prevent us from being on good terms with Great Britain, + or her from deriving any advantages from our trade, which they can hinder, + however much we may be benefited thereby ourselves. To what length this + policy and interest may carry them is problematical, but, when they see + the people of this country divided, and such a violent opposition given to + the measures of their own government, pretendedly in their favor, it may + be extremely embarrassing, to say no more of it." + </p> + <p> + "To sum the whole up in a few words, I have never, since I have been in + the administration of the government, seen a crisis which in my judgment + has been so pregnant with interesting events, nor one from which more is + to be apprehended, whether viewed on one side or the other. From New York + there is, and I am told will further be, a counter current, but how + formidable it may appear, I know not. If the same does not take place at + Boston and other towns, it will afford but too strong evidence that the + opposition is in a manner universal, and would make the ratification a + very serious business indeed. But, as it respects the French, even counter + resolutions would, for the reasons I have already mentioned, do little + more than weaken, in a small degree, the effect the other side would + have." + </p> + <p> + "I have written, and do now enclose the letter, the draught of which was + approved by the heads of departments, to the selectmen of the town of + Boston; but if new lights have been had upon the subject, since it was + agreed to, or if upon reconsideration any alteration should be deemed + necessary, I request you to detain it until I see you. Let me also request + that the same attention may be given to the draught of a letter to + Portsmouth and the Chamber of Commerce at New York as was recommended on + that occasion. I am, etc." + </p> + <p> + "<i>To Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State.</i>" + </p> + <p> + "Private." + </p> + <p> + "Mount Vernon, <i>July 31, 1795.</i> + </p> + <p> + "My Dear Sir.—On Wednesday evening I sent the packet, now under + cover with this, to the post-office in Alexandria, to be forwarded next + morning at the usual hour, 4 o'clock, by the Baltimore mail. But, behold! + when my letter-bag was brought back from the office and emptied, I not + only got those which were addressed to me, among which yours of the 27th + was one, but those also which I had sent up the evening before." + </p> + <p> + "I have to regret this blunder of the postmaster on account of the + enclosures, some of which I wished to have got to your hands without + delay, that they might have undergone the consideration and acting upon + which were suggested in the letter accompanying them. On another account I + am not sorry for the return of the packet, as I resolved thereupon and on + reading some letters which I received at the same time, to wait your + acknowledgment of the receipt of my letter of the 24th instant before I + would set out, as I should thereby be placed on a certainty whether your + journey hither or mine to Philadelphia would, under all circumstances, be + deemed most eligible, or whether the business could not be equally well + done without either; repeating now what I did in my letter of the 24th, + that I do not require more than a day's notice to repair to the seat of + government, and that if you and the confidential officers with you are not + clear in the measures which are best to be pursued in the several matters + mentioned in my last, my own opinion is, and for the reasons there given, + that difficult and intricate or delicate questions had better be settled + there, where the streams of information are continually flowing in, and + that I would set out accordingly. To be wise and temperate, as well as + firm, the present crisis most eminently calls for. There is too much + reason to believe, from the pains which have been taken before, at, and + since the advice of the Senate respecting the treaty, that the prejudices + against it are more extensive than is generally imagined. This I have + lately understood to be the case in this quarter, from men who are of no + party, but well disposed to the present administration. How should it be + otherwise, when no stone has been left unturned that could impress on the + minds of the people the most arrant misrepresentation of facts: that their + rights have not only been neglected, but absolutely sold; that there are + no reciprocal advantages in the treaty; that the benefits are all on the + side of Great Britain; and, what seems to have had more weight with them + than all the rest, and to have been most pressed, that the treaty is made + with the design to oppress the French, in open violation of our treaty + with that nation, and contrary, too, to every principle of gratitude and + sound policy? In time, when passion shall have yielded to sober reason, + the current may possibly turn; but, in the meanwhile, this government, in + relation to France and England, may be compared to a ship between the + rocks of Scylla and Charybdis. If the treaty is ratified, the partisans of + the French, or rather of war and confusion, will excite them to hostile + measures, or at least to unfriendly sentiments; if it is not, there is no + foreseeing all the consequences which may follow as it respects Great + Britain." + </p> + <p> + "It is not to be inferred from hence that I am disposed to quit the ground + I have taken, unless circumstances more imperious than have yet come to my + knowledge should compel it, for there is but one straight course, and that + is to seek truth and pursue it steadily. But these things are mentioned to + show that a close investigation of the subject is more than ever + necessary, and that they are strong evidences of the necessity of the most + circumspect conduct in carrying the determination of government into + effect, with prudence as it respects our own people, and with every + exertion to produce a change for the better from Great Britain." + </p> + <p> + "The memorial seems well designed to answer the end proposed, and by the + time it is revised and new dressed you will probably (either in the + resolutions, which are or will be handed to me, or in the newspaper + publications, which you promised to be attentive to) have seen all the + objections against the treaty which have any real force in them, and which + may be fit subjects for representation in the memorial, or in the + instructions, or both. But how much longer the presentation of the + memorial can be delayed without exciting unpleasant sensations here, or + involving serious evils elsewhere, you, who are at the scene of + information and action can decide better than I. In a matter, however, so + interesting and pregnant with consequences as this treaty, there ought to + be no precipitation, but, on the contrary, every step should be explored + before it is taken and every word weighed before it is uttered or + delivered in writing." + </p> + <p> + "The form of the ratification requires more diplomatic experience and + legal knowledge than I possess or have the means of acquiring at this + place, and, therefore, I shall say nothing about it. I am, etc." + </p> + <p> + The answer to the selectmen of Boston, already referred to, is too + characteristic to be omitted. It is as follows: + </p> + <p> + "<i>To the Selectmen of the Town of Boston.</i>" + </p> + <p> + "United States, <i>July 28, 1795.</i> + </p> + <p> + "Gentlemen.—In every act of my administration I have sought the + happiness of my fellow-citizens. My system for the attainment of this + object has uniformly been to overlook all personal, local, and partial + considerations; to contemplate the United States as one great whole; to + consider that sudden impressions, when erroneous, would yield to candid + reflection, and to consult only the substantial and permanent interests of + our country. Nor have I departed from this line of conduct on the occasion + which has produced the resolutions contained in your letter of the 13th + instant." + </p> + <p> + "Without a predilection for my own judgment, I have weighed with attention + every argument which has at any time been brought into view. But the + constitution is the guide which I can never abandon. It has assigned to + the President the power of making treaties, with the advice and consent of + the Senate. It was doubtless supposed that these two branches of + government would combine, without passion and with the best means of + information, those facts and principles upon which the success of our + foreign relations will always depend; that they ought not to substitute + for their own conviction the opinions of others, or to seek truth through + any channel but that of a temperate and well-informed investigation." + "Under this persuasion, I have resolved on the manner of executing the + duty before me. To the high responsibility attached to it, I freely + submit; and you, gentlemen, are at liberty to make these sentiments known, + as the ground of my procedure. While I feel the most lively gratitude for + the many instances of approbation from my country, I can no otherwise + deserve it than by obeying the dictates of my conscience." + </p> + <p> + "With due respect, I am, gentlemen, your obedient + </p> + <p> + "George Washington." + </p> + <p> + In nearly the same terms Washington replied to other committees and public + bodies who thought proper to remonstrate against his exercising the + constitutional right of signing the treaty. + </p> + <p> + In the afternoon of the 11th of August (1795), Washington arrived in + Philadelphia, and, on the next day, the question respecting the immediate + ratification of the treaty was brought before the Cabinet. Randolph, + Secretary of State, maintained, singly, the opinion that, during the + existence of the provision order, and during the war between Britain and + France, this step ought not to be taken. This opinion, however, did not + prevail. The resolution was adopted to ratify the treaty immediately and + to accompany the ratification with a strong memorial against the provision + order, which should convey, in explicit terms, the sense of the American + government on that subject. By this course the views of the executive were + happily accomplished. The order was revoked and the ratifications of the + treaty were exchanged. + </p> + <p> + Washington was most probably determined to adopt this course by the + extreme intemperance with which the treaty was opposed and the rapid + progress which this violence was apparently making. It was obvious that, + unless this temper could be checked, it would soon become so extensive and + would arrive at such a point of fury as to threaten dangerous + consequences. It was obviously necessary either to attempt a diminution of + its action, by rendering its exertions hopeless and by giving to the + treaty the weight of his character and influence, or to determine + ultimately to yield to it. A species of necessity, therefore, seems to + have been created for abandoning the idea, if it was ever taken up, of + making the ratification of the treaty dependent on the revocation of the + provision order. The soundness of the policy which urged this decisive + measure was proved by the event. The confidence which was felt in the + judgment and virtue of Washington induced many who, swept away by the + popular current, had yielded to the common prejudices, to re-examine and + discard opinions which had been too hastily embraced; and many were called + forth by a desire to support the administration in measures actually + adopted, to take a more active part in the general contest than they would + otherwise have pursued. The consequence was that more moderate opinions + respecting the treaty began to prevail. + </p> + <p> + In a letter from Mount Vernon of the 20th of September (1795), addressed + to General Knox, who had communicated to him the change of opinion which + was appearing in the eastern States, Washington expressed in warm terms + the pleasure derived from that circumstance, and added: + </p> + <p> + "Next to a conscientious discharge of my public duties, to carry along + with me the approbation of my constituents would be the highest + gratification of which my mind is susceptible. But the latter being + secondary, I cannot make the former yield to it, unless some criterion + more infallible than partial (if they are not party) meetings can be + discovered as the touchstone of public sentiment. If any person on earth + could, or the great Power above would, erect the standard of infallibility + in political opinions, no being that inhabits this terrestrial globe would + resort to it with more eagerness than myself, so long as I remain a + servant of the public. But as I have hitherto found no better guide than + upright intentions and close investigations, I shall adhere to them while + I keep watch, leaving it to those who will come after me to explore new + ways, if they like, or think them better." + </p> + <p> + If the ratification of the treaty increased the number of its open + advocates, it seemed also to give increased acrimony to the opposition. + Such hold had Washington taken of the affections of the people that even + his enemies had deemed it generally necessary to preserve, with regard to + him, external marks of decency and respect. Previous to the mission of Mr. + Jay, charges against Washington, though frequently insinuated, had seldom + been directly made; and the cover under which the attacks upon his + character were conducted evidenced the caution with which it was deemed + necessary to proceed. That mission visibly affected the decorum which had + been usually observed toward him, and the ratification of the treaty + brought sensations into open view which had long been ill concealed. His + military and political character was attacked with equal violence, and it + was averred that he was totally destitute of merit, either as a soldier or + a statesman. The calumnies with which he was assailed were not confined to + his public conduct; even his qualities as a man were the subjects of + detraction. That he had violated the constitution in negotiating a treaty + without the previous advice of the Senate, and in embracing within that + treaty subjects belonging exclusively to the Legislature, was openly + maintained, for which an impeachment was publicly suggested; and that he + had drawn from the treasury for his private use more than the salary + annexed to his office was asserted without a blush. This last allegation + was said to be supported from extracts from the treasury accounts which + had been laid before the Legislature, and was maintained with the most + persevering effrontery. + </p> + <p> + Though Wolcott, the Secretary of the Treasury, denied that the + appropriations made by the Legislature had ever been exceeded, the + atrocious charge was still confidently repeated, and the few who could + triumph in any spot which might tarnish the luster of Washington's fame + felicitated themselves on the prospect of obtaining a victory over the + reputation of a patriot, to whose single influence they ascribed the + failure of their political plans. With the real public, the confidence + felt in the integrity of Washington remained unshaken, but so imposing was + the appearance of the documents adduced as to excite an apprehension that + the transaction might be placed in a light to show that some indiscretion, + in which he had not participated, had been inadvertently committed. + </p> + <p> + This state of anxious suspense was of short duration. Hamilton, late + Secretary of the Treasury, during whose administration of the finances + this peculation was said to have taken place, came forward with a full + explanation of the fact. It appeared that Washington himself had never + touched any part of the compensation annexed to his office, but that the + whole was received and disbursed by the gentleman who superintended the + expenses of his household. That it was the practice of the treasury, when + a sum had been appropriated for the current year, to pay it to that + gentleman occasionally, as the situation of the family might require. The + expenses at some periods of the year exceeded and at others fell short of + the allowance for the quarter, so that at some times money was paid in + advance on account of the ensuing quarter, and at others, that which was + due at the end of the quarter was not completely drawn out. The secretary + entered into an examination of the constitution and laws to show that this + practice was justifiable, and illustrated his arguments by many examples + in which an advance on account of money appropriated to a particular + object, before the service was completed, would be absolutely necessary. + However this might be, it was a transaction in which Washington, + personally, was unconcerned. + </p> + <p> + When possessed of the entire facts, the public viewed with just + indignation this attempt to defame a character which was the nation's + pride. Americans felt themselves involved in this atrocious calumny on + their most illustrious citizen, and its propagators were frowned into + silence. + </p> + <p> + Meantime several changes were taking place in Washington's Cabinet. Edmund + Randolph, the Secretary of State, resigned his office on the 19th of + August, 1795, immediately after the ratification of Jay's treaty, which he + had opposed. The circumstances which led to his resignation were by no + means creditable to him, but as they brought out in bold relief one of + Washington's noblest traits—his perfect openness and candor—we + are induced to notice them in detail. + </p> + <p> + A letter addressed to his government in October, 1794, by Fauchet, the + minister of the French republic, was intercepted by the captain of a + British frigate and forwarded to Mr. Hammond, by whom it was delivered, + about the last of July, to Mr. Wolcott, the Secretary of the Treasury, + who, on the arrival of Washington in Philadelphia, placed it in his hands. + This letter alluded to communications from Randolph, which, in the opinion + of Washington, were excessively improper. The <i>éclaircissements</i> + which the occasion required were followed by the resignation of the + secretary. For the purpose, he alleged, of vindicating his conduct, he + demanded a sight of a confidential letter which had been addressed to him + by Washington, and which was left in the office. His avowed design was to + give this, as well as some others of the same description, to the public, + in order to support the allegation that, in consequence of his attachment + to France and to liberty, he had fallen a victim to the intrigues of a + British and an aristocratic party. The answer given to this demand was a + license which few politicians, in turbulent times, could allow to a man + who had possessed the unlimited confidence of the person giving it. "I + have directed," said Washington, "that you should have the inspection of + my letter of the 22nd of July, agreeable to your request; and you are at + full liberty to publish, without reserve, any and every private and + confidential letter I ever wrote you; nay, more—every word I ever + uttered to or in your presence from whence you can derive any advantage in + your vindication." + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding that Randolph was under the strongest personal obligations + to Washington, he did not hesitate, in his lame attempt to vindicate + himself, to resort to violent abuse of his late friend and patron. + Washington is said to have lost his temper on reading Randolph's + calumnies, {2} as well he might, for it is difficult to conceive of + blacker ingratitude than he suffered on this occasion. Late in life + Randolph seems to have been sensible of the enormity of his conduct. On + the 2nd of July, 1810, he used the following language in a letter to the + Hon. Bushrod Washington: "I do not retain the smallest degree of that + feeling which roused me fifteen years ago against some individuals. For + the world contains no treasure, deception, or charm which can seduce me + from the consolation of being in a state of good will toward all mankind, + and I should not be mortified to ask pardon of any man with whom I have + been at variance for any injury which I may have done him. If I could now + present myself before your venerated uncle it would be my pride to confess + my contrition that I suffered my irritation, let the cause be what it + might, to use some of those expressions respecting him which, at this + moment of my indifference to the ideas of the world, I wish to recall, as + being inconsistent with my subsequent conviction. My life will, I hope, be + sufficiently extended for the recording of my sincere opinion of his + virtues and merit, in a style which is not the result of a mind merely + debilitated by misfortune, but of that Christian philosophy on which alone + I depend for inward tranquility." + </p> + <p> + Washington offered the vacant post to Patrick Henry, who was prevented by + private considerations from undertaking its duties. Rufus King, Gen. + Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and two or three others were asked to enter + the Cabinet as Secretary of State, but they declined. Finally Colonel + Pickering, who had temporary charge of the post, was formally appointed in + December of the present year. James McHenry succeeded Colonel Pickering as + Secretary of War. Mr. Bradford's death, in August, caused a vacancy in the + attorney-generalship, which was also filled in December by the appointment + of Charles Lee, of Virginia. This office had been previously offered to + General Pinckney, Colonel Carrington, of Virginia, and Governor Howard, of + Maryland. + </p> + <p> + In August of this year (1795), General Wayne concluded a treaty of peace, + at Greenville, with the chiefs of the Wyandots, Delawares, Chippeways, and + other Indian tribes. By this treaty the Indians ceded the post of Detroit + and a considerable tract of adjacent land to the United States. A tract of + land was ceded on the main, to the north of the island on which the post + of Michilimackinac stood, measuring six miles on lakes Huron and Michigan, + and extending three miles back from the water of the lake or strait. De + Bois Blanc, or White Wood Island, was also ceded—the voluntary gift + of the Chippeways. + </p> + <p> + The foreign affairs of the United States had now begun to assume a more + favorable aspect. A treaty was concluded with Spain on the 27th of October + (1795). It was confined principally to the two great subjects in dispute, + and was styled a treaty of friendship, limits, and navigation. By this the + line between the United States and east and west Florida was settled, and + the western boundary of the United States, which separated them from the + Colony of Louisiana, was fixed in the middle of the channel of the + Mississippi river to the thirty-first degree of north latitude; and it was + also agreed that the navigation of that river, from its source to the + ocean, should be free only to the subjects and citizens of the two + countries. + </p> + <p> + It was further stipulated that both parties should use all the means in + their power to maintain peace and harmony among the Indian nations on + their borders, and both parties bound themselves to restrain, even by + force, the Indians within their limits from acts of hostilities against + the other, and it was also agreed that neither party would thereafter make + any treaties with those who did not live within their respective limits. + Provision was also made that free ships should make free goods, and that + no citizen or subject of either party should take a commission or letters + of marque for arming any vessel, to act as a privateer, from their + respective enemies, under the penalty of being considered and punished as + a pirate. + </p> + <p> + Thus, after a tedious and unpleasant negotiation of about fifteen years, + the boundaries between the countries belonging to the United States and + Spain, in America, were settled, and the right of navigating every part of + the Mississippi, a right so essential to the interests of our vast western + territory, was secured to the United States. + </p> + <p> + In November (1795) Washington had the gratification to bring to a close + the long negotiations with the Dey of Algiers, by which peace was + established with those piratical marauders and the release of American + captives obtained. This was accomplished through the agency of Colonel + Humphreys, Joel Barlow, and Mr. Donaldson, and about 120 prisoners were + released from cruel bondage, some of whom had been in this ignominious + condition more than ten years. + </p> + <p> + During the recess of Congress Washington paid a visit to Mount Vernon, + which lasted from the middle of September (1795) till near the end of + October. During this time his attention was divided between the concerns + of his estate and the public affairs of that exciting period. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Marshall + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: See Dr. Griswold's "Republican Court." Also, Sparks "Writings + of Washington," vol. XI, pp. 54, 479. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. — WASHINGTON MAINTAINS THE TREATY-MAKING POWER OF THE + EXECUTIVE. + </h2> + <h3> + 1795-1796. + </h3> + <p> + The first session of the Fourth Congress commenced on the 7th of December, + 1795. Although the ratification of the treaties with Spain and Algiers had + not been officially announced at the meeting of Congress the state of the + negotiations with both powers was sufficiently well understood to enable + Washington with confidence to assure the Legislature, in his speech at the + opening of the session, that those negotiations were in a train which + promised a happy issue. + </p> + <p> + After expressing his gratification at the prosperous state of American + affairs the various favorable events which have been already enumerated + were detailed in a succinct statement, at the close of which he mentioned + the British treaty, which, though publicly known, had not before been + communicated officially to the House of Representatives. + </p> + <p> + "This interesting summary of our affairs," continued the speech, "with + regard to the powers between whom and the United States controversies have + subsisted, and with regard also to our Indian neighbors with whom we have + been in a state of enmity or misunderstanding, opens a wide field for + consoling and gratifying reflections. If by prudence and moderation on + every side, the extinguishment of all the causes of external discord which + have heretofore menaced our tranquility, on terms compatible with our + national faith and honor, shall be the happy results, how firm and how + precious a foundation will have been laid for accelerating, maturing, and + establishing the prosperity of our country!" + </p> + <p> + After presenting an animated picture of the situation of the United + States, and recommending several objects to the attention of the + Legislature, Washington concluded with observing: "Temperate discussion of + the important subjects that may arise in the course of the session, and + mutual forbearance where there is a difference in opinion, are too obvious + and necessary for the peace, happiness, and welfare of our country to need + any recommendation of mine." + </p> + <p> + In the Senate an address was reported which echoed back the sentiments of + the speech. + </p> + <p> + In this House of Representatives, as in the last, the party in opposition + to the administration had obtained a majority. This party was unanimously + hostile to the treaty with Great Britain, and it was expected that their + answer to the speech of the President would indicate their sentiments on a + subject which continued to agitate the whole American people. The answer + reported by the committee contained a declaration that the confidence of + his fellow-citizens in the chief magistrate remained undiminished. + </p> + <p> + On a motion to strike out the words importing this sentiment is was + averred that the clause asserted an untruth; that it was not true that the + confidence of the people in the President was undiminished; that by a + recent transaction it had been considerably impaired, and some gentlemen + declared that their own confidence in him was lessened. + </p> + <p> + By the friends of the administration this motion was opposed with great + zeal, and the opinion that the confidence of the people in their chief + magistrate remained unshaken, was maintained with ardor. But they were + outnumbered. + </p> + <p> + To avoid a direct vote on the proposition it was moved that the address + should be recommitted. This motion succeeded and, two members being added + to the committee, an answer was reported, in which the clause objected to + was so modified as to be free from exception. + </p> + <p> + That part of the speech which mentioned the treaty with Great Britain was + alluded to in terms which, though not directly expressive of + disapprobation, were sufficiently indicative of the prevailing sentiment. + </p> + <p> + Early in the month of January (1796) Washington transmitted to both houses + of Congress a message, accompanying certain communications from the French + government which were well calculated to cherish those ardent feelings + that prevailed in the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + It was the fortune of Mr. Monroe to reach Paris soon after the death of + Robespierre and the fall of the Jacobins. On his reception as the minister + of the United States, which was public, and in the convention, he gave + free scope to the genuine feelings of his heart, and, at the same time, + delivered to the president of that body, with his credentials, two letters + addressed by the Secretary of State to the committee of public safety. + These letters were answers to one written by the committee of safety to + the Congress of the United States. The executive department being the + organ through which all foreign intercourse was to be conducted, each + branch of the Legislature had passed a resolution directing this letter to + be transmitted to the President with a request that he would cause it to + be answered in terms expressive of their friendly dispositions toward the + French republic. + </p> + <p> + So fervent were the sentiments expressed on this occasion that the + convention decreed that the flag of the American and French republics + should be united together and suspended in its own hall in testimony of + eternal union and friendship between the two people. To evince the + impression made on his mind by this act, and the grateful sense of his + constituents, Mr. Monroe presented to the convention the flag of the + United States, which he prayed them to accept as a proof of the + sensibility with which his country received every act of friendship from + its ally, and of the pleasure with which it cherished every incident which + tended to cement and consolidate the union between the two nations. + </p> + <p> + The committee of safety again addressed Congress in terms adapted to that + department of government which superintends its foreign intercourse and + expressive, among other sentiments, of the sensibility with which the + French nation had perceived those sympathetic emotions with which the + American people had viewed the vicissitudes of her fortune. Mr. Adet, who + was to succeed Mr. Fauchet at Philadelphia, and who was the bearer of this + letter, also brought with him the colors of France, which he was directed + to present to the United States. He arrived in the summer, but, probably + in the idea that these communications were to be made by him directly to + Congress, did not announce them to the executive until late in December + (1795). + </p> + <p> + The first day of the new year (1796) was named for their reception, when + the colors were delivered to Washington, and the letter to Congress also + was placed in his hands. + </p> + <p> + In executing this duty Mr. Adet addressed a speech to the President, + which, in the glowing language of his country, represented France as + struggling not only for her own liberty, but for that of the human race. + "Assimilated to, or rather identified with, free people by the form of her + government, she saw in them," he said, "only friends and brothers. Long + accustomed to regard the American people as her most faithful allies she + sought to draw closer the ties already formed in the fields of America, + under the auspices of victory, over the ruins of tyranny." + </p> + <p> + To answer this speech was a task of some delicacy. It was necessary to + express feelings adapted to the occasion without implying sentiments with + respect to the belligerent powers which might be improper to be used by + the chief magistrate of a neutral country. With a view to both these + objects Washington made the following reply: + </p> + <p> + "Born, sir, in a land of liberty; having early learned its value; having + engaged in a perilous conflict to defend it; having, in a word, devoted + the best years of my life to secure its permanent establishment in my own + country, my anxious recollections, my sympathetic feelings, and my best + wishes are irresistibly attracted, when-so-ever, in any country, I see an + oppressed nation unfurl the banners of freedom. But, above all, the events + of the French revolution have produced the deepest solicitude as well as + the highest admiration. To call your nation brave were to pronounce but + common praise. Wonderful people! ages to come will read with astonishment + the history of your brilliant exploits, I rejoice that the period of your + toils and of your immense sacrifices is approaching. I rejoice that the + interesting revolutionary movements of so many years have issued in the + formation of a constitution designed to give permanency to the great + object for which you have contended. I rejoice that liberty, which you + have so long embraced with enthusiasm—liberty, of which you have + been the invincible defenders, now finds an asylum in the bosom of a + regularly organized government—a government which, being formed to + secure the happiness of the French people, corresponds with the ardent + wishes of my heart, while it gratifies the pride of every citizen of the + United States by its resemblance to their own. On these glorious events + accept, sir, my sincere congratulations." + </p> + <p> + "In delivering to you these sentiments I express not my own feelings only, + but those of my fellow-citizens in relation to the commencement, the + progress, and the issue of the French revolution, and they will certainly + join with me in purest wishes to the Supreme Being that the citizens of + our sister republic, our magnanimous allies, may soon enjoy in peace that + liberty which they have purchased at so great a price, and all the + happiness that liberty can bestow." + </p> + <p> + "I receive, sir, with lively sensibility the symbol of the triumphs and of + the enfranchisement of your nation, the colors of France, which you have + now presented to the United States. The transaction will be announced to + Congress and the colors will be deposited with the archives of the United + States, which are at once the evidence and the memorials of their freedom + and independence. May these be perpetual! and may the friendship of the + two republics be commensurate with their existence!" + </p> + <p> + The address of Mr. Adet, the answer of the President, and the colors of + France, were transmitted to Congress with the letter from the committee of + safety. + </p> + <p> + In the House of Representatives a resolution was moved, requesting the + President to make known to the representatives of the French republic the + sincere and lively sensations which were excited by this honorable + testimony of the existing sympathy and affections of the two republics; + that the House rejoiced in an opportunity of congratulating the French + republic on the brilliant and glorious achievements accomplished during + the present afflictive war, and hoped that those achievements would be + attended with a perfect attainment of their object—the permanent + establishment of the liberty and happiness of that great and magnanimous + people. + </p> + <p> + In February (1796) the treaty with Great Britain was returned, in the form + advised by the Senate, ratified by his Britannic majesty. The constitution + declaring a treaty, when made, the supreme law of the land, the President + announced it officially to the people in a proclamation, requiring from + all persons its observance and execution, a copy of which was transmitted + to each House on the 1st of March. + </p> + <p> + The opposition having openly denied the right of the President to + negotiate a treaty of commerce was not a little dissatisfied at his + venturing to issue this proclamation before the sense of the House of + Representatives had been declared on the obligation of the instrument. + </p> + <p> + This dissatisfaction was not concealed. On the 2d of March Mr. Livingston + laid upon the table a resolution requesting the President "to lay before + the House a copy of the instructions to the minister of the United States, + who negotiated the treaty with the King of Great Britain, communicated by + his message of the 1st of March, together with the correspondence and + other documents relative to the said treaty." + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of March he amended this resolution by adding the words, + "excepting such of the said papers as any existing negotiation may render + improper to be disclosed." + </p> + <p> + The friends of the administration maintained that a treaty was a contract + between two nations, which, under the constitution, the President, by and + with the advice and consent of the Senate, had a right to make, and that + it was made when, by and with such advice and consent, it had received his + final act. Its obligations then became complete on the United States, and + to refuse to comply with its stipulations was to break the treaty and to + violate the faith of the nation. + </p> + <p> + The opposition contended that the power to make treaties, if applicable to + every object, conflicted with powers which were vested exclusively in + Congress; that either the treaty-making power must be limited in its + operation, so as not to touch objects committed by the constitution to + Congress, or the assent and cooperation of the House of Representatives + must be required to give validity to any compact, so far as it might + comprehend those objects. A treaty, therefore, which required an + appropriation of money, or any act of Congress to carry it into effect, + had not acquired its obligatory force until the House of Representatives + had exercised its powers in the case. They were at full liberty to make, + or to withhold, such appropriation or other law, without incurring the + imputation of violating any existing obligation or of breaking the faith + of the nation. + </p> + <p> + The debate on this question was animated, vehement, and argumentative, all + the party passions were enlisted in it, and it was protracted until the + 24th of March (1796), when the resolution was carried in the affirmative + by sixty-two to thirty-seven votes. The next day, the committee appointed + to present it to the chief magistrate reported his answer which was, "that + he would take the resolution into consideration." + </p> + <p> + The situation in which this vote placed the President was peculiarly + delicate. In an elective government, the difficulty of resisting the + popular branch of the Legislature is at all times great, but is + particularly so when the passions of the public have been strongly and + generally excited. The popularity of a demand for information, the large + majority by which that demand was supported, the additional force which a + refusal to comply with it would give to suspicions already insinuated, + that circumstances had occurred in the negotiation which the + administration dared not expose, and that the President was separating + himself from the representatives of the people, furnished motives of no + ordinary force for complying with the request of the House of + Representatives. + </p> + <p> + But Washington viewed every question which came before him with a single + eye to the performance of his duty to the country. Hitherto, on more than + one occasion, he had proved himself the defender of the constitution, but + he had never been called upon to defend it against so formidable an attack + as that which was now made. + </p> + <p> + That the future diplomatic transactions of the government might be + seriously and permanently affected by establishing the principle that the + House of Representatives could demand, as a right, the instructions given + to a foreign minister, and all the papers connected with a negotiation, + was too apparent to be unobserved. Nor was it less obvious that a + compliance with the request now made would go far in establishing this + principle. The form of the request, and the motives which induced it, + equally led to this conclusion. It left nothing to the discretion of the + President with regard to the public interests, and the information was + asked for the avowed purpose of determining whether the House of + Representatives would give effect to a public treaty. + </p> + <p> + It was also a subject for serious reflection that, in a debate unusually + elaborate, the House of Representatives had claimed a right of + interference in the formation of treaties, which, in the judgment of the + President, the constitution had denied them. Duties the most sacred + requiring that he should resist this encroachment on the department which + was particularly confided to him, he could not hesitate respecting the + course it became him to take, and on the 30th of March he returned to the + House the following answer to their resolution: + </p> + <p> + "With the utmost attention I have considered your resolution of the 24th + instant, requesting me to lay before your House a copy of the instructions + to the minister of the United States, who negotiated the treaty with the + King of Great Britain, together with the correspondence and other + documents relative to that treaty, excepting such of the said papers as + any existing negotiation may render improper to be disclosed. + </p> + <p> + "In deliberating upon this subject it was impossible for me to lose sight + of the principle which some have avowed in its discussion, or to avoid + extending my views to the consequences which must flow from the admission + of that principle. + </p> + <p> + "I trust that no part of my conduct has ever indicated a disposition to + withhold any information which the constitution has enjoined it upon the + President as a duty to give or which could be required of him by either + House of Congress as a right, and with truth I affirm, that it has been, + as it will continue to be, while I have the honor to preside in the + government, my constant endeavor to harmonize with the other branches + thereof, so far as the trust delegated to me by the people of the United + States, and my sense of the obligation it imposes to preserve, protect and + defend the constitution will permit. + </p> + <p> + "The nature of foreign negotiations requires caution, and their success + must often depend on secrecy, and even when brought to a conclusion, a + full disclosure of all the measures, demands, or eventual concessions + which may have been proposed or contemplated, would be extremely + impolitic, for this might have a pernicious influence on future + negotiations or produce immediate inconveniences, perhaps danger and + mischief to other persons. The necessity of such caution and secrecy was + one cogent reason for vesting the power of making treaties in the + President with the advice and consent of the Senate, the principle on + which that body was formed confining it to a small number of members. + </p> + <p> + "To admit, then, a right in the House of Representatives to demand and to + have as a matter of course, all the papers respecting a negotiation with a + foreign power, would be to establish a dangerous precedent. + </p> + <p> + "It does not occur that the inspection of the papers asked for can be + relative to any purpose under the cognizance of the House of + Representatives, except that of an impeachment, which the resolution has + not expressed. I repeat, that I have no disposition to withhold any + information which the duty of my station will permit or the public good + shall require to be disclosed, and, in fact, all the papers affecting the + negotiation with Great Britain were laid before the Senate, when the + treaty itself was communicated for their consideration and advice. + </p> + <p> + "The course which the debate has taken on the resolution of the House, + leads to some observations on the mode of making treaties under the + constitution of the United States. + </p> + <p> + "Having been a member of the general convention and knowing the principles + on which the constitution was formed, I have ever entertained but one + opinion upon this subject, and from the first establishment of the + government to this moment my conduct has exemplified that opinion—that + the power of making treaties is exclusively vested in the President by and + with the advice and consent of the Senate, provided two-thirds of the + senators present concur, and that every treaty so made and promulgated, + thenceforward becomes the law of the land. It is thus that the + treaty-making power has been understood by foreign nations, and in all the + treaties made with them, we have declared, and they have believed, that + when ratified by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, + they became obligatory. In this construction of the constitution every + House of Representatives has heretofore acquiesced, and, until the present + time, not a doubt or suspicion has appeared, to my knowledge, that this + construction was not a true one. Nay, they have more than acquiesced, for + until now, without controverting the obligation of such treaties, they + have made all the requisite provisions for carrying them into effect. + </p> + <p> + "There is also reason to believe that this construction agrees with the + opinions entertained by the State conventions when they were deliberating + on the constitution, especially by those who objected to it because there + was not required, in commercial treaties, the consent of two-thirds of the + whole number of the members of the Senate, instead of two-thirds of the + senators present, and because, in treaties respecting territorial and + certain other rights and claims, the concurrence of three-fourths of the + whole number of the members of both Houses respectively was not made + necessary. + </p> + <p> + "It is a fact declared by the general convention and universally + understood, that the constitution of the United States was the result of a + spirit of amity and mutual concession. And it is well known that under + this influence the smaller States were admitted to an equal representation + in the Senate with the larger States, and that this branch of the + government was invested with great powers, for on the equal participation + of those powers the sovereignty and political safety of the smaller States + were deemed essentially to depend. + </p> + <p> + "If other proofs than these, and the plain letter of the constitution + itself, be necessary to ascertain the points under consideration, they may + be found in the journals of the general convention, which I have deposited + in the office of the Department of State. In these journals it will appear + that a proposition was made 'that no treaty should be binding on the + United States which was not ratified by a law,' and that the proposition + was explicitly rejected. + </p> + <p> + "As, therefore, it is perfectly clear to my understanding that the assent + of the House of Representatives is not necessary to the validity of a + treaty, as the treaty with Great Britain exhibits in itself all the + objects requiring legislative provision—and on these the papers + called for can throw no light, and as it is essential to the due + administration of the government that the boundaries fixed by the + constitution between the different departments should be preserved, a just + regard to the constitution and to the duty of my office, under all the + circumstances of this case, forbids a compliance with your request." + </p> + <p> + The terms in which this decided, and, it would seem, unexpected negative + to the call for papers was conveyed, appeared to break the last cord of + that attachment which had theretofore bound some of the active leaders of + the opposition to Washington. Amidst all the agitations and irritations of + party a sincere respect and real affection for him, the remnant of former + friendship, had still lingered in the bosoms of some who had engaged with + ardor in the political contests of the day. But, if the last spark of this + affection was not now extinguished, it was at least concealed under the + more active passions of the moment. + </p> + <p> + Washington's message was referred to a committee of the whole house. It + was severely criticized and resolutions were adopted, by a vote of + fifty-seven to thirty-five, declaring the sense of the House on this + matter, and claiming the right to deliberate on the expediency of carrying + into effect stipulations made by treaty on subjects committed by the + constitution to Congress. + </p> + <p> + In March the subject came up incidentally. The treaties with the King of + Spain and with the Dey of Algiers were ratified by the President and laid + before Congress. On the 13th of April (1796), Mr. Sedgwick moved, "that + provision ought to be made by law for carrying into effect with good faith + the treaties lately concluded with the Dey and Regency of Algiers, the + King of Great Britain, the King of Spain, and certain Indian tribes + northwest of the Ohio." After much altercation on the subject of thus + joining all these treaties together, a division was made, and the question + taken on each. The resolution was amended by a majority of eighteen so as + to read, "that it is expedient to pass the laws necessary for carrying + into effect," &c. + </p> + <p> + The subject of the British treaty was again taken up on the 15th of April. + Its friends urged an immediate decision of the question, alleging that + every member had made up his mind already, and that dispatch was + necessary, in case the treaty was to be carried into effect. The posts + were to be delivered up on the 1st of June, and this required previous + arrangements on the part of the American government. They appear to have + entertained the opinion that the majority would not dare to encounter the + immense responsibility of breaking the treaty without previously + ascertaining that the great body of the people were willing to meet the + consequences of the measure. But its opponents, though confident of their + power to reject the resolution, called for its discussion. + </p> + <p> + The minority soon desisted from urging an immediate decision of the + question, and the spacious field which was opened by the propositions + before the House was entered into with equal avidity and zeal by both + parties. Gallatin, Madison, Giles, Nicholas, Preston, and other eminent + members of the republican party, in animated terms opposed the execution + of the treaty and entered fully into the discussion of its merits and + demerits. Fisher Ames, Dwight, Foster, Harper, Lyman, Dayton, and other + men of note among the Federalists, urged every possible argument in its + favor. + </p> + <p> + The debate on this occasion is one of the most celebrated which has ever + taken place in Congress. Fisher Ames' speech is acknowledged to have been + the most remarkable and effective which he ever made. So completely was + the House carried away by his eloquence that an adjournment was carried + for the avowed reason that it was not possible to decide calmly on the + question until the members should have taken time for reflection. + Reflection convinced not only the members of Congress, but the people, + that the opposition to the execution of the treaty was ill advised and + unreasonable. The length of time consumed in the debates was favorable to + a just view of the subject, and finally a majority of the members who had + been opposed to the treaty yielded to the exigency of the case and united + in passing the laws which were necessary for its fulfillment. + </p> + <p> + On the 29th of April (1796) the question was taken in committee of the + whole and was determined by the casting vote of the chairman in its favor. + The resolution was finally carried in the House by a vote of fifty-one to + forty-eight. + </p> + <p> + Besides the acts which arose out of the treaties, Congress passed others, + regulating the dealings of the inhabitants of the western frontier with + the Indians; authorizing the survey of certain public lands, with a view + to the sale of them; ordaining measures for the protection and relief of + American seamen, and equalizing the pay of members of both Houses of + Congress. There were some $6,000,000, which was not quite the full amount + of the income, appropriated to the public service and the interest of the + debt. But there were so many other demands upon the treasury that, after + vainly endeavoring to obtain another loan, part of the bank stock was + sold, a procedure which was reprobated by Hamilton as a violation of + system. The opposition party would not agree to raise further revenue by + indirect internal taxation, and only that augmenting the duty on pleasure + carriages was passed into a law. Equally strenuous was their opposition to + a naval force. Even under the pressure of the Algerine piracies, the bill + providing a decent naval force in the Mediterranean could not be carried + through the House without inserting a section which should suspend all + proceedings under the act in case the contest with Algiers was brought to + an end. That event having occurred, not a single frigate could be + completed without further authority from the Legislature. Although no + peace had been concluded with Tunis or Tripoli it was with the utmost + difficulty that a bill for the completion of three, instead of six, + frigates could be carried. On the 1st of June (1796) this long and + important session of Congress was brought to its close. + </p> + <p> + Before Congress rose Washington had written (May 22, 1796) to Thomas + Pinckney, the American minister in England, who had desired his recall. In + this letter he refers to the recent debate in Congress on passing the laws + necessary to give effect to the treaty: "A long and animated discussion," + he writes, "in the House of Representatives respecting the treaty of + amity, commerce, and navigation with Great Britain took place and + continued in one shape or another till the last of April, suspending in a + manner all other business, and agitating the public mind in a higher + degree than it has been at any period since the Revolution. And nothing, I + believe, but the torrent of petitions and remonstrances, which were + pouring in from all the eastern and middle States and were beginning to + come pretty strongly from that of Virginia, requiring the necessary + provisions for carrying the treaty into effect, would have produced a + division (fifty-one to forty-eight) in favor of the appropriation. + </p> + <p> + "But as the debates, which I presume will be sent to you from the + Department of State, will give you a view of this business more in detail + than I am able to do, I shall refer you to them. The enclosed speech, + however, made by Mr. Ames at the close of the discussion, I send to you, + because, in the opinion of most who heard it delivered or have read it + since, his reasoning is unanswerable. + </p> + <p> + "The doubtful issue of the dispute and the real difficulty in finding a + character to supply your place at the court of London, has occasioned a + longer delay than may have been convenient or agreeable to you. But as Mr. + King of the Senate, who, it seems, had resolved to quit his seat at that + board, has accepted the appointment, and will embark as soon as matters + can be arranged, you will soon be relieved. + </p> + <p> + "In my letter of the 20th of February I expressed in pretty strong terms + my sensibility on account of the situation of the Marquis de Lafayette. + This is increased by the visible distress of his son, who is now with me, + and grieving for the unhappy fate of his parents. This circumstance, + giving a poignancy to my own feelings, has induced me to go a step further + than I did in the letter above mentioned, as you will perceive by the + enclosed address (a copy of which is also transmitted for your + information) to the Emperor of Germany, to be forwarded by you in such a + manner, and under such auspices, as in your judgment shall be deemed best, + or to be withheld, if from the evidence before you, derived from former + attempts, it shall appear clear that it would be of no avail to send it. + {1} + </p> + <p> + "Before I close this letter permit me to request the favor of you to + embrace some favorable occasion to thank Lord Grenville, in my behalf, for + his politeness in causing a special permit to be sent to Liverpool for the + shipment of two sacks of field peas and the like quantity of winter + vetches, which I had requested our consul at that place to send me for + seed, but which it seems could not be done without an order from + government, a circumstance which did not occur to me or I certainly should + not have given the trouble of issuing one for such a trifle." + </p> + <p> + Rufus King, senator from New York, above referred to, had been nominated + to the Senate as minister to London on the 19th of May, three days before + the date of Washington's letter to Mr. Pinckney. Hamilton, writing to + Washington respecting him, thus describes his character: "Mr. King is a + remarkably well-informed man, a very judicious one, a man of address, a + man of fortune and economy, whose situation affords just ground of + confidence; a man of unimpeached probity where he is known, a firm friend + to the government, a supporter of the measures of the President; a man who + cannot but feel that he has strong pretensions to confidence and trust." + </p> + <p> + In June (1796) the President went to Mount Vernon where he continued for + more than two months. He kept up a constant correspondence with his + secretaries, and held himself ever in readiness to return to the seat of + government, if his presence should be needed. + </p> + <p> + During this visit to Mount Vernon the following letter was written to + Thomas Jefferson. It brought the correspondence, which, from time to time, + had taken place between them, to a final close. + </p> + <p> + "MOUNT VERNON, <i>July</i> 6, 1796. + </p> + <p> + "DEAR SIR:—When I inform you that your letter of the 19th ultimo + went to Philadelphia and returned to this place before it was received by + me, it will be admitted, I am persuaded, as an apology for my not having + acknowledged the receipt of it sooner. + </p> + <p> + "If I had entertained any suspicions before that the queries which have + been published in Bache's paper proceeded from you the assurances you have + given of the contrary would have removed them, but the truth is, I + harbored none. I am at no loss to conjecture from what source they flowed, + through what channel they were conveyed, and for what purpose they and + similar publications appear. They were known to be in the hands of Mr. + Parker in the early part of the last session of Congress. They were shown + about by Mr. Giles during the session and they made their public + exhibition about the close of it. + </p> + <p> + "Perceiving, and probably hearing, that no abuse in the gazettes would + induce me to take notice of anonymous publications against me, those who + were disposed to do me such friendly offices have embraced, without + restraint, every opportunity to weaken the confidence of the people, and, + by having the whole game in their hands, they have scrupled not to publish + things that do not, as well as those which do exist, and to mutilate the + latter, so as to make them subserve the purposes which they have in view. + </p> + <p> + "As you have mentioned the subject yourself, it would not be frank, + candid, or friendly to conceal that your conduct has been represented as + derogating from that opinion I had conceived you entertained of me, that + to your particular friends and connections you have described, and they + have denounced, me as a person under a dangerous influence, and that if I + would listen more to some other opinions all would be well. My answer + invariably has been that I had never discovered anything in the conduct of + Mr. Jefferson to raise suspicions in my mind of his insincerity; that, if + he would retrace my public conduct while he was in the administration, + abundant proofs would occur to him that truth and right decisions were the + sole objects of my pursuit; that there were as many instances within his + own knowledge of my having decided against as in favor of the opinions of + the person evidently alluded to, and, moreover, that I was no believer in + the infallibility of the politics or measures of any man living. In short, + that I was no party man myself, and the first wish of my heart was, if + parties did exist, to reconcile them. + </p> + <p> + "To this I may add, and very truly, that, until within the last year or + two I had no conception that parties would, or even could, go the length I + have been witness to, nor did I believe until lately that it was within + the bounds of probability, hardly within those of possibility, that, while + I was using my utmost exertions to establish a national character of our + own, independent, as far as our obligations and justice would permit, of + every nation of the earth, and wished, by steering a steady course, to + preserve this country from the horrors of a desolating war, I should be + accused of being the enemy of one nation and subject to the influence of + another, and, to prove it, that every act of my administration would be + tortured and the grossest and most insidious misrepresentations of them be + made, by giving one side only of a subject, and that too in such + exaggerated and indecent terms as could scarcely be applied to a Nero, a + notorious defaulter, or even to a common pickpocket. But enough of this. I + have already gone further in the expression of my feelings than I + intended." + </p> + <p> + The queries referred to in the above letter were those which had been + addressed to the Cabinet by Washington previous to the arrival of Mr. + Genet. As they were strictly confidential and could not have been obtained + for publication without treachery somewhere, Jefferson had written to + Washington to exculpate himself. It will be seen that Washington, with his + usual magnanimity, accepts the explanation of Jefferson; but, as the party + of which the latter was the acknowledged leader were constantly carrying + on the war of politics by abusing and misrepresenting the former's motives + and purposes, it is not surprising that their correspondence should have + terminated at this time. + </p> + <p> + Of the numerous misrepresentations and fabrications which, with unwearied + industry, were passed upon the public in order to withdraw the confidence + of the nation from its chief, no one marked more strongly the depravity of + that principle which justifies the means by the end, than the + republication of certain forged letters, purporting to have been written + by General Washington in the year 1776. + </p> + <p> + These letters had been originally published in the year 1777, and in them + were interspersed, with domestic occurrences which might give them the + semblance of verity, certain political sentiments favorable to Britain in + the then existing contest. + </p> + <p> + But the original fabricator of these papers missed his aim. It was + necessary to assign the manner in which the possession of them was + acquired, and, in executing this part of his task, circumstances were + stated so notoriously untrue, that, at the time, the meditated imposition + deceived no person. + </p> + <p> + In the indefatigable research for testimony which might countenance the + charge that the executive was unfriendly to France and under the influence + of Britain, these letters were drawn from the oblivion into which they had + sunk, it had been supposed forever, and were republished as genuine. The + silence with which Washington treated this as well as every other calumny, + was construed into an acknowledgment of its truth, and the malignant + commentators on this spurious text would not admit the possibility of its + being apocryphal. + </p> + <p> + Those who labored incessantly to establish the favorite position that the + executive was under other than French influence, reviewed every act of the + administration connected with its foreign relations, and continued to + censure every part of the system with extreme bitterness. Not only the + treaty with Great Britain, but all those measures which had been enjoined + by the duties of neutrality, were reprobated as justly offensive to + France, and no opinion which had been advanced by Mr. Genet, in his + construction of the treaties between the two nations, was too extravagant + to be approved. The most ardent patriot could not maintain the choicest + rights of his country with more zeal than was manifested in supporting all + the claims of the French republic upon the United States. This conduct of + the opposition increased the disposition of the French government to urge + charges against that of this country, and the French minister regulated + his proceedings accordingly. + </p> + <p> + In the anxiety which was felt by Washington to come to a full and + immediate explanation with the French Directory on the treaty with Great + Britain, Colonel Monroe, the American minister at Paris, had been + furnished, even before its ratification, and still more fully afterwards, + with ample materials for the justification of his government. But, + misconceiving the views of the administration, he reserved these + representations until complaints should be made, and omitted to urge them + while the Directory was deliberating on the course it should pursue. + Meanwhile, his letters kept up the alarm with regard to the dispositions + of France, and intelligence from the West Indies served to confirm it. + Washington received information that the special agents of the Directory + in the islands were about to issue orders for the capture of all American + vessels laden in whole or in part with provisions and bound for any port + within the dominions of the British Crown. + </p> + <p> + Knowing well that the intentions of the executive had been at all times + friendly to the French republic, Washington had relied with confidence on + early and candid communications for the removal of any prejudices or + misconceptions. That the Directory would be disappointed at the adjustment + of those differences which threatened to embroil the United States with + Great Britain, could not be doubted, but, as neither this adjustment, nor + the arrangements connected with it had furnished any real cause of + complaint, he had cherished the hope that it would produce no serious + consequences if the proper means of prevention should be applied in time. + He was therefore dissatisfied with delays which he had not expected, and + seems to have believed that they originated in a want of zeal to justify a + measure which neither the minister himself, nor his political friends, had + ever approved. To insure an earnest and active representation of the true + sentiments of the executive, Washington was inclined to depute an envoy + extraordinary for the particular purpose, who should be united with the + actual minister, but an objection, drawn from the constitution, was + suggested to the measure. It was doubted whether the President could, in + the recess of the Senate, appoint a minister when no vacancy existed. From + respect to this construction of the constitution, the resolution was taken + to appoint a successor to Colonel Monroe. The choice of a person + calculated for this mission was not without its difficulty. While a + disposition friendly to the administration was indispensable, it was + desirable that the person employed should have given no umbrage to the + French government. + </p> + <p> + After some deliberation, Washington selected Gen. Charles Cotesworth + Pinckney, of South Carolina, for this critical and important service. In + the early part of the French revolution, he had felt and expressed all the + enthusiasm of his countrymen for the establishment of the republic, but, + after the commencement of its contests with the United States, he stood + aloof from both those political parties which divided America. + </p> + <p> + He was recommended to the President by an intimate knowledge of his worth, + by a confidence in the sincerity of his personal attachment to the chief + magistrate, by a conviction that his exertions to effect the objects of + his mission would be ardent and sincere, and that, whatever might be his + partialities for France, he possessed a high and delicate sense of + national as well as individual honor, was jealous for the reputation of + his country, and tenacious of its rights. {2} + </p> + <p> + In July, immediately after the appointment of General Pinckney, letters + were received from Colonel Monroe communicating the official complaints + which had been made against the American government in March, by M. de la + Croix, the minister of exterior relations, with his answer to those + complaints. He had effectually refuted the criminations of M. de la Croix, + and the executive was satisfied with his answer. But the Directory had + decided on their system, and it was not by reasoning that their decision + was to be changed. + </p> + <p> + Washington's correspondence with the members of the Cabinet during his + summer residence at Mount Vernon was incessant. In his letters to James + McHenry, Secretary of War, we find evidence of his attention to minute + details of business, and his care of the public funds. In his letters of + the 8th of August, we find, besides a reference to the fact of the + delivery of the posts on the frontier by Great Britain, under the treaty, + some curious details respecting the army: + </p> + <p> + "Your letter of the 3d instant," he writes, "with the information of our + possession of Fort Ontario, lately occupied by the troops of Great + Britain, and the correspondence between Captain Bruff of the United States + troops, and Captain Clarke of the British, was brought to me by the last + post. Several matters are submitted by the former for consideration—among + them, the mode of supplying the garrison with firewood, and furnishing it + with a seine. With respect to the first of these, providing it with a + horse or pair of horses and a batteau, as the fuel is to be transported so + far, seems to be a matter of necessity, but the practice of the American + army should be consulted for precedents, before the British allowance is + made to the soldiers for cutting and transporting it to the fort, when the + means by which it is done are furnished by the public. If no allowance of + this sort has been made heretofore in towns, where wood was to be bought, + which, if I remember rightly, was the case invariably while I commanded + the army, it would be a dangerous innovation to begin it now, for it would + instantly pervade all the garrisons and the whole army, be their situation + what it may. In time of peace, where no danger is to be apprehended, and + where the duty is light, I see no hardship in the soldiers providing fuel + for their own use and comfort. With regard to a seine, as the expense + would be small if it is taken care of, and the convenience great, I think + the garrison should be indulged with one." He had always an eye to the + comfort of the soldier as well as to economy in the expenditure of the + public money. The garrison might have horses for draught, a batteau, and a + seine to catch fish in the lake, but in time of peace they were not to + have extra pay for cutting wood to keep themselves warm. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: This letter, dated May 15, 1796, contained an affecting + statement of Lafayette's case, and a request that he might be permitted to + come to the United States. The letter was transmitted to Mr. Pinckney, to + be conveyed to the Emperor through his minister at London. How far it + operated in mitigating immediately the rigor of Lafayette's confinement, + or in obtaining his liberation, remains unascertained. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Before offering the appointment of minister to France to + General Pinckney, Washington had offered it to Gen. John Marshall, + afterward chief justice; but the situation of his private affairs would + not permit its acceptance. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. — WASHINGTON RETIRES FROM THE PRESIDENCY. 1796-1797. + </h2> + <p> + Washington's fixed determination to retire from office at the end of his + second term had long been known to his confidential friends. Many of them + had opposed it from an apprehension of a political crisis arising from the + hostile demonstrations of France and the strong support given to French + pretensions by the opposition party in this country. When, in July (1796), + Washington proposed to declare publicly his determination, Hamilton wrote + to him, "If a storm gathers, how can you retreat? This is a most serious + question." Washington, yielding to the wishes of Hamilton and other + intimate friends, delayed the announcement of his purpose. As the time for + a new election approached the people, uncertain of his intentions, became + extremely anxious. The strong hold, says Marshall, which Washington had + taken of the affections of his countrymen was, on this occasion, fully + evinced. In districts where the opposition to his administration was most + powerful, where all his measures were most loudly condemned, where those + who approved his system possessed least influence, the men who appeared to + control public opinion on every other subject found themselves unable to + move it on this. Even the most popular among the leaders of the opposition + were reduced to the necessity of surrendering their pretensions to a place + in the electoral body or of pledging themselves to bestow their suffrage + on the actual President. The determination of his fellow-citizens had been + unequivocally manifested, and it was believed to be apparent that the + election would again be unanimous when he announced his fixed resolution + to withdraw from the honors and the toils of office. + </p> + <p> + Having long contemplated this event and having wished to terminate his + political course with an act which might be at the same time suitable to + his own character and permanently useful to his country, he had prepared + for the occasion a valedictory address in which, with the solicitude of a + person who, in bidding a final adieu to his friends, leaves his affections + and his anxieties for their welfare behind him, he made a last effort to + impress upon his countrymen those great political truths which had been + the guides of his own administration and could alone, in his opinion, form + a sure and solid basis for the happiness, the independence, and the + liberty of the United States. + </p> + <p> + This interesting paper was published on the 17th of September, at a time + when hopes were entertained that the discontents of France might be + appeased by proper representations. It contains precepts to which the + American statesman cannot too frequently recur. + </p> + <h3> + WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. + </h3> + <h3> + TO THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. + </h3> + <p> + FRIENDS AND FELLOW CITIZENS:—The period for a new election of a + citizen to administer the executive government of the United States being + not far distant, and the time actually arrived when your thoughts must be + employed in designating the person who is to be clothed with that + important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to + a more distinct expression of the public voice, that I should not apprise + you of the resolution I have formed, to decline being considered among the + number of those out of whom the choice is to be made. + </p> + <p> + I beg you at the same time to do me the justice to be assured that this + resolution has not been taken without a strict regard to all the + considerations appertaining to the relation which binds a dutiful citizen + to his country, and that in withdrawing the tender of service, which + silence in my situation might imply, I am influenced by no diminution of + zeal for your future interest, no deficiency of grateful respect for your + past kindness, but am supported by a full conviction that the step is + compatible with both. + </p> + <p> + The acceptance of, and continuance hitherto in, the office to which your + suffrages have twice called me, have been a uniform sacrifice of + inclination to the opinion of duty and to a deference for what appeared to + be your desire. I constantly hoped that it would have been much earlier in + my power, consistently with motives which I was not at liberty to + disregard, to return to that retirement from which I had been reluctantly + drawn. The strength of my inclination to do this, previous to the last + election, had even led to the preparation of an address to declare it to + you, but mature reflection on the then perplexed and critical posture of + our affairs with foreign nations, and the unanimous advice of persons + entitled to my confidence, impelled me to abandon the idea. + </p> + <p> + I rejoice that the state of your concerns, external as well as internal, + no longer renders the pursuit of inclination incompatible with the + sentiment of duty or propriety, and am persuaded, whatever partiality may + be retained for my services, that in the present circumstances of our + country, you will not disapprove of my determination to retire. + </p> + <p> + The impressions with which I first undertook the arduous trust were + explained on the proper occasion. In the discharge of this trust I will + only say that I have, with good intentions, contributed toward the + organization and administration of the government the best exertions of + which a very fallible judgment was capable. Not unconscious, in the + outset, of the inferiority of my qualifications, experience in my own + eyes, perhaps still more in the eyes of others, has strengthened the + motives to diffidence of myself, and every day the increasing weight of + years admonishes me more and more that the shade of retirement is as + necessary to me as it will be welcome. Satisfied that if any circumstances + have given peculiar value to my services, they were temporary, I have the + consolation to believe, that while choice and prudence invite me to quit + the political scene, patriotism does not forbid it. + </p> + <p> + In looking forward to the moment which is to terminate the career of my + political life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep + acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved country + for the many honors it has conferred upon me; still more for the steadfast + confidence with which it has supported me, and for the opportunities I + have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attachment by services + faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. If + benefits have resulted to our country from these services, let it always + be remembered to your praise and as an instructive example in our annals, + that, under circumstances in which the passions, agitated in every + direction, were liable to mislead—amidst appearances sometimes + dubious—vicissitudes of fortune often discouraging—in + situations in which not unfrequently want of success has countenanced the + spirit of criticism—the constancy of your support was the essential + prop of the efforts and a guarantee of the plans by which they were + effected. Profoundly penetrated with this idea, I shall carry it with me + to my grave, as a strong incitement to unceasing wishes, that Heaven may + continue to you the choicest tokens of its beneficence—that your + union and brotherly affection may be perpetual—that the free + constitution, which is the work of your hands, may be sacredly maintained—that + its administration in every department may be stamped with wisdom and + virtue—that, in fine, the happiness of the people of these States, + under the auspices of liberty, may be made complete, by so careful a + preservation and so prudent a use of this blessing, as will acquire to + them the glory of recommending it to the applause, the affection, and the + adoption of every nation which is yet a stranger to it. + </p> + <p> + Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. But a solicitude for your welfare which + cannot end but with my life and the apprehension of danger natural to that + solicitude, urge me, on an occasion like the present, to offer to your + solemn contemplation and to recommend to your frequent review, some + sentiments, which are the result of much reflection of no inconsiderable + observation and which appear to me all-important to the permanency of your + felicity as a people. These will be offered to you with the more freedom, + as you can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting + friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his counsel. Nor + can I forget, as an encouragement to it, your indulgent reception of my + sentiments on a former and not dissimilar occasion. + </p> + <p> + Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, + no recommendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the + attachment. + </p> + <p> + The unity of government, which constitutes you one people, is also now + dear to you. It is justly so, for it is a main pillar in the edifice of + your real independence, the support of your tranquility at home, your + peace abroad, of your safety, of your prosperity, of that very liberty + which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to foresee that from + different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, + many artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the conviction of this + truth, as this is the point in your political fortress against which the + batteries of internal and external enemies will be most constantly and + actively (though often covertly and insidiously) directed, it is of + infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immense value of + your national union to your collective and individual happiness, that you + should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it, + accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as of the palladium of + your political safety and prosperity, watching for its preservation with + jealous anxiety, discountenancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion + that it can in any event be abandoned, and indignantly frowning upon the + first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our country from + the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the + various parts. + </p> + <p> + For this you have every inducement of sympathy and interest. Citizens by + birth or choice of a common country, that country has a right to + concentrate your affections. The name of American, which belongs to you in + your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism, + more than any appellation derived from local discriminations. With slight + shades of difference, you have the same religion, manners, habits, and + political principles. You have in a common cause fought and triumphed + together; the independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint + councils and joint efforts of common dangers, sufferings, and successes. + </p> + <p> + But these considerations, however powerfully they address themselves to + your sensibility, are greatly out-weighed by those which apply more + immediately to your interest. Here every portion of our country finds the + most commanding motives for carefully guarding and preserving the union of + the whole. + </p> + <p> + The North, in an unrestrained intercourse with the South, protected by the + equal laws of a common government, finds in the productions of the latter, + great additional resources of maritime and commercial enterprise, and + precious materials of manufacturing industry. The South, in the same + intercourse, benefiting by the agency of the North, sees its agriculture + grow and its commerce expand. Turning partly into its own channels the + seamen of the North, it finds its particular navigation invigorated—and + while it contributes, in different ways, to nourish and increase the + general mass of the national navigation, it looks forward to the + protection of a maritime strength to which itself is unequally adapted. + The East, in like intercourse with the West, already finds and in the + progressive improvement of interior communications by land and water, will + more and more find a valuable vent for the commodities which it brings + from abroad or manufactures at home. The West derives from the East + supplies requisite to its growth and comfort, and, what is perhaps of + still greater consequence, it must of necessity owe the secure enjoyment + of indispensable outlets for its own productions, to the weight, + influence, and the future maritime strength of the Atlantic side of the + Union, directed by an indissoluble community of interest as one nation. + Any other tenure by which the West can hold this essential advantage, + whether derived from its own separate strength or from an apostate and + unnatural connection with any foreign power, must be intrinsically + precarious. + </p> + <p> + While, then, every part of our country thus feels an immediate and + particular interest in union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find + in the united mass of means and efforts, greater strength, greater + resource, proportionally greater security from external danger, a less + frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations, and, what is of + inestimable value, they must derive from union an exemption from those + broils and wars between themselves which so frequently afflict neighboring + countries, not tied together by the same government, which their own + rivalships alone would be sufficient to produce, but which opposite + foreign alliances, attachments, and intrigues would stimulate and + embitter. Hence likewise they will avoid the necessity of those overgrown + military establishments, which, under any form of government, are + inauspicious to liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly + hostile to republican liberty. In this sense it is that your union ought + to be considered as a main prop of your liberty and that the love of the + one ought to endear to you the preservation of the other. + </p> + <p> + These considerations speak a persuasive language to every reflecting and + virtuous mind and exhibit the continuance of the Union as a primary object + of patriotic desire. Is there a doubt whether a common government can + embrace so large a sphere? Let experience solve it. To listen to mere + speculation in such a case were criminal. We are authorized to hope that a + proper organization of the whole, with the auxiliary agency of governments + for the respective subdivisions will afford a happy issue to the + experiment. It is well worth a fair and full experiment. With such + powerful and obvious motives to union affecting all parts of our country, + while experience shall not have demonstrated its impracticability, there + will always be reason to distrust the patriotism of those who, in any + quarter, may endeavor to weaken its bands. + </p> + <p> + In contemplating the causes which may disturb our union, it occurs as + matter of serious concern, that any ground should have been furnished for + characterizing parties by geographical discriminations—northern and + southern—Atlantic and western, whence designing men may endeavor to + excite a belief that there is a real difference of local interests and + views. One of the expedients of party to acquire influence, within + particular districts, is to misrepresent the opinions and aims of other + districts. You cannot shield yourselves too much against the jealousies + and heart burnings which spring from these misrepresentations; they tend + to render alien to each other those who ought to be bound together by + fraternal affection. The inhabitants of our western country have lately + had a useful lesson on this head. They have seen, in the negotiation by + the executive and in the unanimous ratification by the Senate of the + treaty with Spain, and in the universal satisfaction at that even + throughout the United States, a decisive proof how unfounded were the + suspicions propagated among them of a policy in the general government and + in the Atlantic States, unfriendly to their interests in regard to the + Mississippi. They have been witnesses to the formation of two treaties, + that with Great Britain and that with Spain, which secure to them + everything they could desire in respect to our foreign relations toward + confirming their prosperity. Will it not be their wisdom to rely for the + preservation of these advantages on the Union by which they were procured? + Will they not henceforth be deaf to those advisers, if such there are, who + would sever them from their brethren and connect them with aliens? + </p> + <p> + To the efficacy and permanency of your Union a government for the whole is + indispensable. No alliances, however strict, between the parts can be an + adequate substitute; they must inevitably experience the infractions and + interruptions which all alliances in all times have experienced. + </p> + <p> + Sensible of this momentous truth you have improved upon your first essay + by the adoption of a constitution of government, better calculated than + your former, for an intimate union, and for the efficacious management of + your common concerns. This government, the offspring of our own choice, + uninfluenced and unawed, adopted upon full investigation and mature + deliberation, completely free in its principles, in the distribution of + its powers uniting security with energy, and containing within itself a + provision for its own amendments, has a just claim to your confidence and + your support. Respect for its authority, compliance with its laws, + acquiescence in its measures, are duties enjoined by the fundamental + maxims of true liberty. The basis of our political systems is the right of + the people to make and to alter their constitutions of government. But the + constitution which at any time exists, until changed by an explicit and + authentic act of the whole people, is sacredly obligatory upon all. The + very idea of the power and the right of the people to establish a + government, presupposes the duty of every individual to obey the + established government. + </p> + <p> + All obstructions to the execution of the laws, all combinations and + associations, under whatever plausible character, with the real design to + direct, control, counteract, or awe the regular deliberations and action + of the constituted authorities, are destructive of this fundamental + principle and of fatal tendency. They serve to organize faction; to give + it an artificial and extraordinary force; to put in the place of the + delegated will of the nation, the will of a party, often a small, but + artful and enterprising minority of the community, and, according to the + alternate triumphs of different parties, to make the public administration + the mirror of the ill-concerted and incongruous projects of faction, + rather than the organ of consistent and wholesome plans, digested by + common councils and modified by mutual interests. + </p> + <p> + However combinations or associations of the above description may now and + then answer popular ends they are likely, in the course of time and + things, to become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and + unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert the power of the people and to + usurp for themselves the reins of government, destroying afterward the + very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion. + </p> + <p> + Toward the preservation of your government and the permanency of your + present happy state, it is requisite not only that you steadily + discountenance irregular oppositions to its acknowledged authority, but + also that you resist with care the spirit of innovation upon its + principles, however specious the pretexts. One method of assault may be to + effect in the forms of the constitution alterations which will impair the + energy of the system, and thus to undermine what cannot be directly + overthrown. In all the changes to which you may be invited remember that + time and habit are at least as necessary to fix the true characters of + governments as of other human institutions—that experience is the + surest standard by which to test the real tendency of the existing + constitution of a country—that facility in changes upon the credit + of mere hypothesis, and opinion exposes to perpetual change from the + endless variety of hypothesis and opinion—and remember, especially, + that for the efficient management of your common interests, in a country + so extensive as ours, a government of as much vigor as is consistent with + the perfect security of liberty is indispensable. Liberty itself will find + in such a government, with powers properly distributed and adjusted, its + surest guardian. It is, indeed, little else than a name, where the + government is too feeble to withstand the enterprises of faction, to + confine each member of the society within the limits prescribed by the + laws, and to maintain all in the secure and tranquil enjoyment of the + rights of person and property. + </p> + <p> + I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the State, with + particular reference to the founding of them on geographical + discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view and warn you in + the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party + generally. + </p> + <p> + This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its + root in the strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under + different shapes in all governments, more or less stifled, controlled, or + repressed but in those of the popular form it is seen in its greatest + rankness and is truly their worst enemy. + </p> + <p> + The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the + spirit of revenge natural to party dissension, which in different ages and + countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a + frightful despotism. But this leads at length to a more formal and + permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries which result gradually + incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the absolute power + of an individual, and sooner or later the chief of some prevailing + faction, more able or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this + disposition to the purposes of his own elevation on the ruins of public + liberty. + </p> + <p> + Without looking forward to an extremity of this kind (which nevertheless + ought not to be entirely out of sight) the common and continual mischiefs + of the spirit of party are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of + a wise people to discourage and restrain it. + </p> + <p> + It serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public + administration. It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and + false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another; foments + occasional riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influence + and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the government itself, + through the channel of party passions. Thus the policy and the will of one + country are subjected to the policy and will of another. + </p> + <p> + There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon + the administration of the government and serve to keep alive the spirit of + liberty. This, within certain limits, is probably true, and in governments + of a monarchical cast patriotism may look with indulgence, if not with + favor, upon the spirit of party. But in those of the popular character, in + governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encouraged. From + their natural tendency it is certain there will always be enough of that + spirit for every salutary purpose, and, there being constant danger of + excess, the effort ought to be, by force of public opinion, to mitigate + and assuage it. A fire not to be quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance + to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, instead of warming, it should + consume. + </p> + <p> + It is important, likewise, that the habits of thinking in a free country + should inspire caution in those entrusted with its administration to + confine themselves within their respective constitutional spheres, + avoiding, in the exercise of the powers of one department, to encroach + upon another. The spirit of encroachment tends to consolidate the powers + of all the departments in one, and thus to create, whatever the form of + government, a real despotism. A just estimate of that love of power, and + proneness to abuse it, which predominate in the human heart, is sufficient + to satisfy us of the truth of this position. The necessity of reciprocal + checks in the exercise of political power, by dividing and distributing it + into different depositories and constituting each the guardian of the + public weal against invasions of the others, has been evinced by + experiments ancient and modern, some of them in our country and under our + own eyes. To preserve them must be as necessary as to institute them. If, + in the opinion of the people, the distribution or modification of the + constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by + an amendment in the way which the constitution designates. But let there + be no change by usurpation, for though this, in one instance, may be the + instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments + are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance, in permanent + evil, any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time + yield. + </p> + <p> + Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, + religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man + claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these great + pillars of human happiness—these firmest props of the duties of men + and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to + respect and to cherish them. A volume could not trace all their + connections with private and public felicity. Let it simply be asked, + where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense + of religious obligation desert the oaths which are the instruments of + investigation in courts of justice? And let us with caution indulge the + supposition that morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may + be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar + structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national + morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principles. It is + substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of + popular government. This rule indeed extends with more or less force to + every species of free government. Who that is a sincere friend to it can + look with indifference upon attempts to shake the foundation of the + fabric? + </p> + <p> + Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the + general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a + government gives force to public opinion it is essential that public + opinion should be enlightened. + </p> + <p> + As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public + credit. One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as possible, + avoiding occasions of expense by cultivating peace, but remembering also, + that timely disbursements to prepare for danger, frequently prevent much + greater disbursements to repel it; avoiding likewise the accumulation of + debt, not only by shunning occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertions + in time of peace to discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have + occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burden which we + ourselves ought to bear. The execution of these maxims belongs to your + representatives, but it is necessary that public opinion should cooperate. + To facilitate to them the performance of their duty, it is essential that + you should practically bear in mind, that toward the payment of debts + there must be revenue; that to have revenue there must be taxes; that no + taxes can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and + unpleasant; that the intrinsic embarrassment inseparable from the + selection of the proper objects (which is always a choice of + difficulties), ought to be a decisive motive for a candid construction of + the conduct of the government in making it, and for a spirit of + acquiescence in the measures for obtaining revenue, which the public + exigencies may at any time dictate. + </p> + <p> + Observe good faith and justice toward all nations, cultivate peace and + harmony with all. Religion and morality enjoin this conduct, and can it be + that good policy does not equally enjoin it? It will be worthy of a free, + enlightened, and, at no distant period, a great nation, to give to mankind + the magnanimous and too novel example of a people always guided by an + exalted justice and benevolence. Who can doubt, that, in the course of + time and things, the fruits of such a plan would richly repay any + temporary advantages which might be lost by a steady adherence to it? Can + it be, that Providence has not connected the permanent felicity of a + nation with its virtue? The experiment, at least, is recommended by every + sentiment which ennobles human nature. Alas! is it rendered impossible by + its vices? + </p> + <p> + In the execution of such a plan nothing is more essential than that + permanent inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and + passionate attachments for others, should be excluded, and that, in place + of them, just and amicable feelings toward all should be cultivated. The + nation which indulges toward another an habitual hatred, or an habitual + fondness, is in some degree a slave. It is a slave to its animosity or to + its affection, either of which is sufficient to lead it astray from its + duty and its interest. Antipathy in one nation against another disposes + each more readily to offer insult and injury, to lay hold of slight causes + of umbrage and to be haughty and intractable when accidental or trifling + occasions of dispute occur. + </p> + <p> + Hence, frequent collisions, obstinate, envenomed and bloody contests. The + nation, prompted by ill will and resentment, sometimes impels to war the + government, contrary to the best calculations of policy. The government + sometimes participates in the national propensity and adopts through + passion what reason would reject; at other times it makes the animosity of + the nation subservient to projects of hostility instigated by pride, + ambition, and other sinister and pernicious motives. The peace often, + sometimes perhaps the liberty of nations has been the victim. + </p> + <p> + So, likewise, a passionate attachment of one nation for another produces a + variety of evils. Sympathy for the favorite nation, facilitating the + illusion of an imaginary common interest in cases where no real common + interest exists and infusing into one the enmities of the other, betrays + the former into a participation in the quarrels and wars of the latter, + without adequate inducements or justification. It leads also to + concessions to the favorite nation of privileges denied to others, which + are apt doubly to injure the nation making the concessions by unnecessary + parting with what ought to have been retained, and by exciting jealousy, + ill will, and a disposition to retaliate, in the parties from whom equal + privileges are withheld, and it gives to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded + citizens (who devote themselves to the favorite nation), facility to + betray or sacrifice the interests of their own country, without odium, + sometimes even with popularity, gilding with the appearances of a virtuous + sense of obligation to a commendable deference for public opinion or a + laudable zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of + ambition, corruption, or infatuation. + </p> + <p> + As avenues to foreign influence in innumerable ways, such attachments are + particularly alarming to the truly enlightened and independent patriot. + How many opportunities do they afford to tamper with domestic factions, to + practice the arts of seduction, to mislead public opinion, to influence or + awe the public councils! Such an attachment of a small or weak, toward a + great and powerful nation, dooms the former to be the satellite of the + latter. + </p> + <p> + Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence (I conjure you to believe + me, fellow-citizens), the jealousy of a free people ought to be constantly + awake, since history and experience prove that foreign influence is one of + the most baneful foes of republican government. But that jealousy, to be + useful, must be impartial, else it becomes the instrument of the very + influence to be avoided, instead of a defense against it. Excessive + partiality for one foreign nation and excessive dislike of another cause + those whom they actuate to see danger only on one side, and serve to veil + and even second the arts of influence on the other. Real patriots who may + resist the intrigues of the favorite are liable to become suspected and + odious, while its tools and dupes usurp the applause and confidence of the + people to surrender their interests. + </p> + <p> + The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is, in + extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political + connection as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let + them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. Here let us stop. + </p> + <p> + Europe has a set of primary interests which to us have none, or a very + remote, relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the + causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, + it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the + ordinary vicissitudes of her politics or the ordinary combinations and + collisions of her friendships or enmities. + </p> + <p> + Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a + different course. If we remain one people, under an efficient government, + the period is not far off when we may defy material injury from external + annoyance, when we may take such an attitude as will cause the neutrality + we may at any time resolve upon to be scrupulously respected, when + belligerent nations, under the impossibility of making acquisitions upon + us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provocation, when we may choose + peace or war, as our interest, guided by justice, shall counsel. + </p> + <p> + Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit our own to + stand upon foreign ground? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of + any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of + European ambition, rivalship, interest, humor, or caprice? + </p> + <p> + It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any + portion of the foreign world, so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to + do it, for let me not be understood as capable of patronizing infidelity + to existing engagements. I hold the maxim no less applicable to public + than to private affairs, that honesty is always the best policy. I repeat + it, therefore, let those engagements be observed in their genuine sense. + But, in my opinion, it is unnecessary, and would be unwise to extend them. + </p> + <p> + Taking care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a + respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances + for extraordinary emergencies. + </p> + <p> + Harmony and a liberal intercourse with all nations are recommended by + policy, humanity, and interest. But even our commercial policy should hold + an equal and impartial hand, neither seeking nor granting exclusive favors + or preferences; consulting the natural course of things; diffusing and + diversifying, by gentle means, the streams of commerce, but forcing + nothing; establishing, with powers so disposed—in order to give + trade a stable course, to define the rights of our merchants, and to + enable the government to support them—conventional rules of + intercourse, the best that present circumstances and mutual opinion will + permit, but temporary, and liable to be from time to time abandoned or + varied, as experience and circumstances shall dictate, constantly keeping + in view that it is folly in one nation to look for disinterested favors + from another; that it must pay with a portion of its independence for + whatever it may accept under that character; that by such acceptance it + may place itself in the condition of having given equivalents for nominal + favors and yet of being reproached with ingratitude for not giving more. + There can be no greater error than to expect or calculate upon real favors + from nation to nation. It is an illusion which experience must cure, which + a just pride ought to discard. + </p> + <p> + In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and + affectionate friend, I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting + impression I could wish; that they will control the usual current of the + passions or prevent our nation from running the course which has hitherto + marked the destiny of nations. But if I may even flatter myself that they + may be productive of some partial benefit, some occasional good; that they + may now and then recur to moderate the fury of party spirit; to warn + against the mischiefs of foreign intrigue; to guard against the impostures + of pretended patriotism, this hope will be a full recompense for the + solicitude for your welfare by which they have been dictated. + </p> + <p> + How far, in the discharge of my official duties, I have been guided by the + principles which have been delineated, the public records and other + evidences of my conduct must witness to you and to the world. To myself + the assurance of my own conscience is that I have at least believed myself + to be guided by them. + </p> + <p> + In relation to the still subsisting war in Europe my proclamation of the + 22d of April, 1793, is the index to my plan. Sanctioned by your approving + voice and by that of your representatives in both Houses of Congress, the + spirit of that measure has continually governed me, uninfluenced by any + attempts to deter or divert me from it. + </p> + <p> + After deliberate examination, with the aid of the best lights I could + obtain, I was well satisfied that our country, under all the circumstances + of the case, had a right to take, and was bound in duty and interest to + take, a neutral position. Having taken it I determined, as far as should + depend upon me, to maintain it with moderation, perseverance, and + firmness. + </p> + <p> + The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct it is not + necessary on this occasion to detail. I will only observe that, according + to my understanding of the matter, that right, so far from being denied by + any of the belligerent powers, has been virtually admitted by all. + </p> + <p> + The duty of holding a neutral conduct may be inferred, without anything + more, from the obligation which justice and humanity impose on every + nation, in cases in which it is free to act, to maintain inviolate the + relations of peace and amity toward other nations. + </p> + <p> + The inducements of interest for observing that conduct will best be + referred to your own reflections and experience. With me a predominant + motive has been to endeavor to gain time to our country to settle and + mature its yet recent institutions and to progress, without interruption, + to that degree of strength and consistency which is necessary to give it, + humanely speaking, the command of its own fortunes. + </p> + <p> + Though in reviewing the incidents of my administration I am unconscious of + intentional error, I am, nevertheless, too sensible of my defects not to + think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may + be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to + which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country + will never cease to view them with indulgence, and, after forty-five years + of my life dedicated to its service, with an upright zeal, the faults of + incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon + be to the mansions of rest. + </p> + <p> + Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that + fervent love toward it, which is so natural to a man who views in it the + native soil of himself and his progenitors for several generations, I + anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat, in which I promise + myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the + midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign influence of good laws under a + free government, the ever favorite object of my heart and the happy + reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers. + </p> + <p> + UNITED STATES, <i>September</i> 17, 1796. + </p> + <p> + The sentiments of veneration with which this farewell address was + generally received were manifested in almost every part of the Union. Some + of the State Legislatures directed it to be inserted at large in their + journals, and nearly all of them passed resolutions expressing their + respect for the person of the President, their high sense of his exalted + services, and the emotions with which they contemplated his retirement + from office. Although the leaders of party might rejoice at this event it + produced solemn and anxious reflections in the great body, even of those + who belonged to the opposition. + </p> + <p> + The person in whom alone the voice of the people could be united having + declined a re-election, the two great parties in America brought forward + their respective chiefs, and every possible effort was made by each to + obtain the victory. Mr. John Adams and Mr. Thomas Pinckney, the late + minister at London, were supported as President and Vice-President by the + Federalists; the whole force of the opposite party was exerted in favor of + Mr. Jefferson. + </p> + <p> + Motives of vast influence were added on this occasion to those which + usually impel men in a struggle to retain or acquire power. The + continuance or the change, not only of those principles on which the + internal affairs of the United States had been administered, but of the + conduct which had been observed toward foreign nations, was believed to + depend on the choice of a chief magistrate. By one party the system of + neutrality pursued by the existing administration with regard to the + belligerent European powers, had been uniformly approved; by the other it + had been as uniformly condemned. In the contests, therefore, which + preceded the choice of electors, the justice of the complaints which were + made on the part of the French republic were minutely discussed, and the + consequences which were to be apprehended from her resentment or from + yielding to her pretensions were reciprocally urged as considerations + entitled to great weight in the ensuing election. + </p> + <p> + In such a struggle it was not to be expected that foreign powers could + feel absolutely unconcerned. In November, while the parties were so + balanced that neither scale could be perceived to preponderate, Mr. Adet + addressed a letter to Colonel Pickering, the Secretary of State, in which + he recapitulated the numerous complaints which had been urged by himself + and his predecessors against the government of the United States, and + reproached that government in terms of great asperity with violating those + treaties which had secured its independence, with ingratitude to France, + and with partiality to England. These wrongs, which commenced with the + "insidious" proclamation of neutrality, were said to be so aggravated by + the treaty concluded with Great Britain that Mr. Adet announced the orders + of the Directory to suspend his ministerial functions with the Federal + government. "But the cause," he added, "which has so long restrained the + just resentment of the Executive Directory from bursting forth, now + tempered its effects. The name of America, notwithstanding the wrongs of + its government, still excited sweet sensations in the hearts of Frenchmen, + and the Executive Directory wished not to break with a people whom they + loved to salute with the appellation of friend." This suspension of his + functions, therefore, was not to be regarded "as a rupture between France + and the United States, but as a mark of just discontent, which was to last + until the government of the United States returned to sentiments and to + measures more conformable to the interests of the alliance, and to the + sworn friendship between the two nations." "Let your government return to + itself," concluded Mr. Adet, "and you will still find in Frenchmen + faithful friends and generous allies." + </p> + <p> + As if to remove any possible doubt respecting the purpose for which this + extraordinary letter was written, a copy was transmitted, on the day of + its date, to a printer for publication. + </p> + <p> + This open and direct appeal of a foreign minister to the American people, + in the critical moment of their election of a chief magistrate, did not + effect its object. Reflecting men, even among those who had condemned the + course of the administration, could not approve this interference in the + internal affairs of the United States, and the opposite party resented it + as an attempt to control the operations of the American people in the + exercise of one of the highest acts of sovereignty, and to poison the + fountain of their liberty and independence by mingling foreign intrigue + with their elections. The reader of history, however, is familiar with the + fact that the course of Adet in this affair was in strict accordance with + the uniform practice of the new rulers of France at that time. Their + agents endeavored to prejudice the people of every country in Europe + against their respective governments, and never hesitated to interfere + directly between the people and the government, wherever there was any + prospect of introducing French ascendency by such proceedings. The people + of the United States, on the present occasion, resented the officious + interference of Adet in the pending election as a gross insult, and it + undoubtedly aided the party which it was intended to defeat. Congress met + on the 5th of December (1796). There was not a sufficient number of + senators present on that day to form a quorum. In the House of + Representatives, among the new members who presented themselves was Andrew + Jackson, from Tennessee, the future President of the United States. + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of December Washington, for the last time, met the national + Legislature in the hall of the House of Representatives. His address was + comprehensive, temperate, and dignified. No personal consideration could + restrain him from recommending those great national measures which he + believed would be useful to his country, although open and extensive + hostility had been avowed to them. + </p> + <p> + After presenting a full view of the situation of the United States and the + late transactions of the executive, he added: "To an active external + commerce the protection of a naval force is indispensable—this is + manifest with regard to wars in which a State is itself a party; but, + besides this, it is in our own experience that the most sincere neutrality + is not a sufficient guard against the depredations of nations at war. To + secure respect to a neutral flag requires a naval force, organized and + ready to vindicate it from insult or aggression; this may even prevent the + necessity of going to war by discouraging belligerent powers from + committing such violations of the rights of the neutral party as may, + first or last, leave no other option. From the best information I have + been able to obtain, it would seem as if our trade to the Mediterranean, + without a protecting force, will always be insecure, and our citizens + exposed to the calamities from which numbers of them have but just been + relieved." + </p> + <p> + The speech next proceeded earnestly to recommend the establishment of + national works for manufacturing such articles as were necessary for the + defense of the country, and also for an institution which should grow up + under the patronage of the public and be devoted to the improvement of + agriculture. The advantages of a military academy and of a national + university were also urged, and the necessity of augmenting the + compensation to the officers of the United States in various instances was + explicitly stated. + </p> + <p> + The President, in adverting to the dissatisfaction which had been + expressed by one of the great powers of Europe, said: "It is with much + pain and deep regret I mention that circumstances of a very unwelcome + nature have lately occurred. Our trade has suffered, and is suffering, + extensive injuries in the West Indies from the cruisers and agents of the + French republic, and communications have been received from, its minister + here which indicate the danger of a further disturbance of our commerce by + its authority." + </p> + <p> + After stating his constant and earnest endeavors to maintain cordial + harmony and a perfectly friendly understanding with that republic, and + that his wish to maintain them remained unabated, he added: "In pursuing + this course, however, I cannot forget what is due to the character of our + government and nation, or to a full and entire confidence in the good + sense, patriotism, self-respect, and fortitude of my countrymen." + </p> + <p> + After some other communications, the speech was concluded in the following + terms: + </p> + <p> + "The situation in which I now stand, for the last time, in the midst of + the representatives of the people of the United States, naturally recalls + the period when the administration of the present form of government + commenced; and I cannot omit the occasion to congratulate you and my + country on the success of the experiment, nor to repeat my fervent + supplications to the Supreme Ruler of the Universe and Sovereign Arbiter + of Nations that His providential care may still be extended to the United + States; that the virtue and happiness of the people may be preserved, and + that the government which they have instituted for their protection may be + perpetual." + </p> + <p> + The answer of the Senate embraced the various topics of the speech and + approved all the sentiments it contained. + </p> + <p> + It expressed the ardent attachment of that body to their chief magistrate, + and its conviction that much of the public prosperity was to be ascribed + to the virtue, firmness, and talents of his administration. After + expressing the deep and sincere regret with which the official + ratification of his intention to retire from the public employments of his + country was received, the address proceeded to say: "The most effectual + consolation that can offer for the loss we are about to sustain arises + from the animating reflection that the influence of your example will + extend to your successors, and the United States thus continue to enjoy an + able, upright, and energetic administration." + </p> + <p> + In the House of Representatives a committee of five had been appointed to + prepare a respectful answer to the speech, three of whom were friends to + the administration. + </p> + <p> + Hoping that the disposition would be general to avow in strong terms their + attachment to the person and character of the President, the committee + united in reporting an answer which promised, in general terms, due + attention to the various subjects recommended to their consideration, but + was full and explicit in the expression of attachment to himself and of + approbation of his administration. + </p> + <p> + The unanimity which prevailed in the committee did not extend to the + House. + </p> + <p> + After amplifying and strengthening the expressions of the report, which + stated regret that any interruption should have taken place in the harmony + which had subsisted between the United States and France, and modifying + those which declared their hope for the restoration of that harmony, so as + to avoid any implication that its rupture was exclusively ascribable to + France, a motion was made by Mr. Giles to expunge all those paragraphs + which expressed attachment to the person and character of the President, + approbation of his administration, or regret at his retiring from office. + </p> + <p> + After a very animated debate the motion to strike out was lost and the + answer was carried by a great majority. + </p> + <p> + Early in the session Washington communicated to Congress the copy of a + letter addressed by the Secretary of State to General Pinckney, containing + a minute and comprehensive detail of all the points of controversy which + had arisen between the United States and France, and defending the + measures which had been adopted by America with a clearness and a strength + of argument believed to be irresistible. The letter was intended to enable + General Pinckney to remove from the government of France all impressions + unfavorable to the fairness of intention which had influenced the conduct + of the United States, and to efface from the bosoms of the great body of + the American people all those unjust and injurious suspicions which had + been entertained against their own administration. Should its immediate + operation on the executive of France disappoint his hopes, Washington + persuaded himself that he could not mistake its influence in America; and + he felt the most entire conviction that the accusations made by the French + Directory against the United States would cease, with the evidence that + these accusations were supported by a great portion of the American + people. + </p> + <p> + The letter and its accompanying documents were communicated to the public, + but, unfortunately, their effect at home was not such as had been + expected, and they were, consequently, inoperative abroad. + </p> + <p> + The measures recommended by Washington, in his speech at the opening of + the session, were not adopted, and neither the debates in Congress nor the + party publications with which the nation continued to be agitated, + furnished reasonable ground for hope that the political intemperance which + had prevailed from the establishment of the republican form of government + in France, was about to be succeeded by a more conciliatory spirit. It was + impossible for Washington to be absolutely insensible to the bitter + invectives and malignant calumnies of which he had long been the object. + Yet in one instance only did he depart from the rule he had prescribed for + his conduct regarding them. Apprehending permanent injury from the + republication of certain spurious letters, which have been already + noticed, he, on the day which terminated his official character, addressed + a letter to the Secretary of State, declaring them to be forgeries and + stating the circumstances under which they were published. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of February (1797) the votes for the President and + Vice-President were opened and counted in the presence of both Houses, and + John Adams announced the fact from the chair of the Vice-President that he + himself had received 71 votes, Thomas Jefferson 68, Thomas Pinckney 59, + Aaron Burr 30, and that the balance of the votes were given in varying + small numbers to Samuel Adams, Oliver Ellsworth, John Jay, etc. The total + number of electors was 138. Thus John Adams became the second President of + the United States, and by some mismanagement on the part of the + Federalists Pinckney missed the Vice-Presidency, and the man of all others + most dreaded by the Federal party was placed in the very front rank of the + Republicans, and with the clear presage of success in the future. + </p> + <p> + Washington's feelings on the immediate prospect of retirement from office + are expressed in the following extract from a letter to General Knox, + dated March 2, 1797: "To the wearied traveler who sees a resting-place and + is bending his body to lean thereon, I now compare myself, but to be + suffered to do this in peace is too much to be endured by some. To + misrepresent my motives, to reprobate my politics, and to weaken the + confidence which has been reposed in my administration are objects which + cannot be relinquished by those who will be satisfied with nothing short + of a change in our political system. The consolation, however, which + results from conscious rectitude and the approving voice of my country, + unequivocally expressed by its representatives, deprive their sting of its + poison and place in the same point of view both the weakness and malignity + of their efforts. + </p> + <p> + "Although the prospect of retirement is most grateful to my soul, and I + have not a wish to mix again in the great world or to partake in its + politics, yet I am not without my regrets at parting with (perhaps never + more to meet) the few intimates whom I love. Among these, be assured, you + are one." + </p> + <p> + Bishop White has given the following anecdote, illustrating the strong + feelings of regret awakened among Washington's friends by his approaching + retirement from public life: + </p> + <p> + "On the day before President Washington retired from office a large + company dined with him. Among them were the foreign ministers and their + ladies, Mr. and Mrs. Adams, Mr. Jefferson, and other conspicuous persons + of both sexes. During the dinner much hilarity prevailed, but on the + removal of the cloth it was put an end to by the President, certainly + without design. Having filled his glass, he addressed the company, with a + smile, as nearly as can be recollected, in the following words: 'Ladies + and gentlemen, this is the last time I shall drink your health as a public + man. I do it with sincerity, wishing you all possible happiness.' There + was an end of all pleasantry. He who gives this relation accidentally + directed his eye to the lady of the British minister, Mrs. Liston, and + tears were running down her cheeks." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Gibbs, in his "Administrations of Washington and Adams," refers to the + parting levee in the following terms: + </p> + <p> + "Just before his final retirement, Washington held his last formal levee. + An occasion more respectable in simplicity, more imposing in dignity, more + affecting in the sensations which it awakened, the ceremonials of rulers + never exhibited. There were the great chiefs of the republic of all + parties and opinions; veterans of the War of Independence, weather-stained + and scarred; white-haired statesmen, who, in retirement, were enjoying the + fruits of former toil; there were his executive counselors and private + friends; ministers of foreign governments, whose veneration approached + that of his countrymen; citizens who came to offer the tribute of a + respect, sincere and disinterested. Little was there of the pageantry of + courts, little of the glitter which attends the receptions of royalty, yet + in the grave assemblage that stood in that unadorned chamber there was a + majesty which these knew not. The dignitaries of a nation had come + together to bid farewell to one who, at their own free call, by their own + willing trust—not as an honor to be coveted, but as a duty to be + discharged—had, in turn, led their armies and executed their laws; + one who now, his last task worthily fulfilled, was to take his place again + among them, readier to relinquish than he had been to undertake power; a + soldier without stain upon his arms; a ruler without personal ambition; a + wise and upright statesman; a citizen of self-sacrificing patriotism; a + man pure, unblemished, and true in every relation he had filled; one to + whom all ages should point as the testimony that virtue and greatness had + been and could be united. + </p> + <p> + "And he who was the object of this gathering—what thoughts crowded + upon his mind; what recollections filled the vista of the sixty odd years + which had passed over him; what changes of men, opinions, society, had he + seen! Great changes, indeed, in the world and its old notions; the growing + dissatisfaction of certain English emigrants at customary tyrannies and + new intended ones had taken form and shape, embodied itself into + principles, and vindicated them; blazed up an alarming beacon in the + world's eyes as the Sacred Right of Rebellion; fought battles; asserted + independence and maintained it at much cost of bloodshed; made governments + after its own new-fangled fashion; impressed a most unwilling idea on + history—the doctrine of popular sovereignty—one which had + proved contagious and had been adopted elsewhere, running riot indeed in + its novelty. And out of all this confusion there had arisen the nation + which he had presided over, already become great, and factious in its + greatness, with a noble birthright, noble virtues, energies, and + intellect; with great faults and passions that, unchecked, would, as in + lusty individual manhood, lead to its ruin. + </p> + <p> + "What was to be the future of that nation? Dark clouds hung over it, + dangers threatened it, enemies frowned upon it—the worst enemy was + within. License might blast, in a few hours, the growth of years; faction + destroy the careful work of the founders. On this he had left his great + solemn charge, like the last warning of a father to his children." + </p> + <p> + The relation in which the secretaries had stood with the President had + been one of respectful but affectionate intimacy. The most cordial and + unreserved friendship was extended to all whom he trusted and esteemed. + The Secretaries of State and War (Pickering and McHenry) had been his + fellow-soldiers; the Secretary of the Treasury (Wolcott) had, as it were, + grown up under his eye. The simplicity and military frankness of + Pickering, the kindly nature and refinement of McHenry, the + warm-heartedness and <i>bonhommie</i> of Wolcott, all won upon his regard. + On their part there was a no less sincere love for their chief. There are + those devotion to whom is no degradation. Washington was such a one, and + to him it was rendered in the spirit of men who respected themselves. + Among all connected with him, either in military or civil life, this + sentiment was retained. His death hallowed his memory in their hearts to a + degree and with a sanctity which none can know who have not heard from + their own lips—none can feel Who were not of them. And in likewise + the wife and family of Washington were cherished. They had been + universally beloved on their own account, and the hand of fate, in + depriving them of a husband and father, as it were, bequeathed them to the + tender care of a nation. There was something beautiful in these + sentiments, in a land where the ties that bind men depend so little upon + association. + </p> + <p> + Wolcott, among others, had enjoyed much of the domestic society of the + President's house. His gentle and graceful wife had been regarded with + maternal tenderness by Mrs. Washington and was the friend and + correspondent of her eldest daughter. His child had been used to climb, + confident of welcome, the knees of the chief, and though so many years his + junior, while Wolcott's character and judgment had been held in respect by + the President, his personal and social qualities had drawn toward him a + warm degree of interest. + </p> + <p> + On leaving the seat of government, Washington presented, it is believed, + to all his chief officers some token of regard. To Wolcott he gave a piece + of plate. Mrs. Washington gave to his wife, when visiting her for the last + time, a relic still more interesting. Asking her if she did not wish for a + memorial of the general, Mrs. Wolcott replied, "Yes," she "should like a + lock of his hair." Mrs. Washington, smiling, took Her scissors and cut off + for her a lock of her husband's and one of her own. These, with the + originals of Washington's letters, Wolcott preserved with careful + veneration and divided between his surviving children. + </p> + <p> + "On the retirement of General Washington," says Wolcott, "being desirous + that my personal interests should not embarrass his successor, and + supposing that some other person might be preferred to myself, I tendered + my resignation to Mr. Adams before his inauguration. The tender was + declined and I retained office under my former commission." + </p> + <p> + On the 1st of March (1797) Washington had addressed a note to the Senate, + desiring them to attend in their chamber on Saturday, the 4th, at 10 + o'clock, "to receive any communication which the President of the United + States might lay before them touching their interests." In conformity with + this summons the Senate assembled on that day and commenced their + thirteenth session. The oath of office was administered by Mr. Bingham to + Mr. Jefferson, who thereupon took the chair. The new Senators were then + sworn and the Vice-President delivered a brief address. The Senate then + repaired to the chamber of the House of Representatives to attend the + administration of the oath of office to the new President. Mr. Adams + entered, accompanied by the heads of departments, {1} the marshal of the + district and his officers, and took his seat in the speaker's chair. The + Vice-President and secretary of the Senate were seated in advance on his + right, and the late speaker and clerk on the left; the justices of the + Supreme Court sat before the President, the foreign ministers and members + of the House in their usual seats. Washington, once more a private + citizen, sat in front of the judges. Mr. Adams then rose and delivered his + inaugural speech. This address was brief and well suited to the occasion. + After adverting to the circumstances which led to the formation of the new + constitution, he expressed the unqualified approbation with which, in a + foreign land and apart from the scene of controversy, he had first perused + it, and the undiminished confidence which, after eight years of + experience, he entertained of its fitness. He remarked briefly on the + abuses to which it was subject, and against which it became the duty of + the people to guard, and having disclosed his opinions of general policy, + pledged himself anew to the support of the government. The oath of office + was then administered by Chief Justice Ellsworth, the other justices + attending, after which he retired. {2} + </p> + <p> + The citizens of Philadelphia celebrated the day of Adams' inauguration by + a testimony of their respect and affection for Washington. They prepared a + magnificent entertainment, designed for him as the principal guest, to + which were invited the foreign ministers, the members of the Cabinet, + officers of the army and navy, and other distinguished persons. + </p> + <p> + In the rotunda in which it was given, an elegant compliment was prepared + for the principal guest, which is thus described in the papers of the day: + </p> + <p> + "Upon entering the area, the general was conducted to his seat. On a + signal given music played Washington's march, and a scene which + represented simple objects in the rear of the principal seat was drawn up + and discovered emblematical painting. + </p> + <p> + "The principal was a female figure, large as life, representing America, + seated on an elevation composed of sixteen marble steps. At her left side + stood the Federal shield and eagle, and at her feet lay the cornucopias, + in her right hand she held the Indian calumet of peace supporting the cap + of liberty; in the perspective appeared the temple of fame, and on her + left hand an altar dedicated to public gratitude, upon which incense was + burning. In her left hand she held a scroll inscribed Valedictory, and at + the foot of the altar lay a plumed helmet and sword, from which a figure + of General Washington, large as life, appeared, retiring down the steps, + pointing with his right hand to the emblems of power which he had + resigned, and with his left to a beautiful landscape representing Mount + Vernon, in front of which oxen were seen harnessed to the plough. Over the + general appeared a Genius, placing a wreath of laurels on his head." + </p> + <p> + After Washington had paid to his successor those respectful compliments + which he believed to be equally due to the man and to the office, he + hastened to that real felicity which awaited him at Mount Vernon, the + enjoyment of which he had long impatiently anticipated. + </p> + <p> + The same marks of respect and affection for his person which had on all + great occasions been manifested by his fellow-citizens, still attended + him. His endeavors to render his journey private were unavailing, and the + gentlemen of the country through which he passed, were still ambitious of + testifying their sentiments for the man who had, from the birth of the + Republic been deemed the first of American citizens. Long after his + retirement he continued to receive addresses from legislative bodies and + various classes of citizens, expressive of the high sense entertained of + his services. + </p> + <p> + "Notwithstanding the extraordinary popularity of the first President of + the United States," says Marshall, "scarcely has any important act of his + administration escaped the most bitter invective. + </p> + <p> + "On the real wisdom of the system which he pursued, every reader will + decide for himself. Time will, in some measure, dissipate the prejudices + and passions of the moment, and enable us to view objects through a medium + which represents them truly. + </p> + <p> + "Without taking a full review of measures which were reprobated by one + party and applauded by the other, the reader may be requested to glance + his eye at the situation of the United States in 1797, and to contrast it + with their condition in 1788. + </p> + <p> + "At home a sound credit had been created; an immense floating debt had + been funded in a manner perfectly satisfactory to the creditors; an ample + revenue had been provided; those difficulties which a system of internal + taxation, on its first introduction, is doomed to encounter, were + completely removed, and the authority of the government was firmly + established. Funds for the gradual payment of the debt had been provided; + a considerable part of it had been actually discharged, and that system + which is now operating its entire extinction had been matured and adopted. + The agricultural and commercial wealth of the nation had increased beyond + all former example. The numerous tribes of warlike Indians, inhabiting + those immense tracts which lie between the then cultivated country of the + Mississippi, had been taught, by arms and by justice, to respect the + United States and to continue in peace. This desirable object having been + accomplished, that humane system was established for civilizing and + furnishing them with the conveniences of life, which improves their + condition, while it secures their attachment. + </p> + <p> + "Abroad, the differences with Spain had been accommodated, and the free + navigation of the Mississippi had been acquired, with the use of New + Orleans as a place of deposit for three years, and afterward, until some + other equivalent place should be designated. Those causes of mutual + exasperation which had threatened to involve the United States in a war + with the greatest maritime and commercial power in the world, had been + removed, and the military posts which had been occupied within their + territory, from their existence as a nation, had been evacuated. Treaties + had been formed with Algiers and with Tripoli, and no captures appear to + have been made by Tunis, so that the Mediterranean was opened to American + vessels. + </p> + <p> + "This bright prospect was indeed, in part, shaded by the discontents of + France. Those who have attended to the particular points of difference + between the two nations will assign the causes to which these discontents + are to be ascribed, and will judge whether it was in the power of the + President to have avoided them without surrendering the real independence + of the nation and the most invaluable of all rights—the right of + self-government." + </p> + <p> + Such was the situation of the United States at the close of Washington's + administration. Their circumstances at its commencement will be + recollected, and the contrast is too striking not to be observed. That + this beneficial change in the affairs of America is to be ascribed + exclusively to the wisdom which guided the national councils will not be + pretended. That many of the causes which produced it originated with the + government, and that their successful operation was facilitated, if not + secured, by the system which was adopted, will scarcely be denied. To + estimate that system correctly, their real influence must be allowed to + those strong prejudices and turbulent passions with which it was assailed. + </p> + <p> + Accustomed, in the early part of his life, to agricultural pursuits, and + possessing a real taste for them, Washington was particularly well + qualified to enjoy, in retirement, that tranquil felicity which he had + anticipated. Resuming former habits, and returning to ancient and + well-known employments, he was familiar with his new situation, and + therefore exempt from the danger of that disappointment which is the + common lot of those who, in old age, retire from the toils of business, or + the cares of office, to the untried pleasures of the country. A large + estate, which exhibited many proofs of having been long deprived of the + attentions of its proprietor in the management and improvement of which he + engaged with ardor, an extensive correspondence, and the society of men + and books, gave employment to every hour which was equally innocent and + interesting, and furnished ground for the hope that the evening of a life + which had been devoted to the public service, would be as serene as its + midday had been brilliant. + </p> + <p> + In his journey from Philadelphia to Mount Vernon Washington was + accompanied by Mrs. Washington, Miss Custis, George Washington Lafayette, + eldest son of the general, and M. Frestel, young Lafayette's tutor. + </p> + <p> + Writing to Mr. McHenry, Secretary of War, from Mount Vernon, April 3, + 1797, he thus describes His return home and his situation there: + </p> + <p> + "We got home without accident and found the roads dryer and better than I + ever found them at that season of the year. The attentions we met with on + our journey were very flattering, and, to some, whose minds are + differently formed from mine, would have been highly relished; but I + avoided, in every instance, where I had any previous knowledge of the + intention, and could by earnest entreaties prevail, all parade and + escorts. Mrs. Washington took a violent cold in Philadelphia, which hangs + upon her still, but it is not as bad as it has been. {3} + </p> + <p> + "I find myself in the situation nearly of a new beginner, for, although I + have not houses to build (except one, which I must erect for the + accommodation and security of my military, civil, and private papers, + which are voluminous, and may be interesting), yet I have scarcely + anything else about me that does not require considerable repairs. In a + word, I am already surrounded by joiners, masons, and painters, and, such + is my anxiety to get out of their hands, that I have scarcely a room to + put a friend into or to sit in myself without the music of hammers or the + odoriferous scent of paint." + </p> + <p> + To Mr. Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury, he writes: + </p> + <p> + "For myself, having turned aside from the broad walks of political into + the narrow paths of private life, I shall leave it with those whose duty + it is to consider subjects of this sort, and, as every good citizen ought + to do, conform to whatsoever the ruling powers shall decide. To make and + sell a little flour annually, to repair houses (going fast to ruin), to + build one for the security of my papers of a public nature, and to amuse + myself in agricultural and rural pursuits, will constitute employment for + the few years I have to remain on this terrestrial globe. If, also, I + could now and then meet the friends I esteem, it would fill the measure + and add zest to my enjoyments; but, if ever this happens, it must be under + my own vine and fig-tree, as I do not think it probable that I shall go + beyond twenty miles from them." + </p> + <p> + To another correspondent he repeats the same interesting sentiments, in + reference to his retirement and the happiness he found in it: + </p> + <p> + "Retired from noise myself, and the responsibility attached to public + employment, my hours will glide smoothly on. My best wishes, however, for + the prosperity of our country will always have the first place in my + thoughts; while to repair buildings and to cultivate my farms, which + require close attention, will occupy the few years, perhaps days, I may be + a sojourner here, as I am now in the sixty-sixth year of my peregrination + through life." + </p> + <p> + In a letter to Mr. McHenry, May 29th, he says: "I begin my diurnal course + with the sun; if my hirelings are not in their places at that time, I send + them messages of sorrow for their indisposition; having put these wheels + in motion, I examine the state of things further. The more they are probed + the deeper I find the wounds which my buildings have sustained by an + absence and neglect of eight years; by the time I have accomplished these + matters, breakfast (a little after 7 o'clock) is ready; this being over, I + mount my horse and ride round my farms, which employs me until it is time + to dress for dinner, at which I rarely miss seeing strange faces—come, + as they say, out of respect for me. Pray, would not the word curiosity + answer as well? And how different this from having a few social friends at + a cheerful board! The usual time of setting at table, a walk, and tea + bring me within the dawn of candle-light, previous to which, if not + prevented by company, I resolve that, as soon as the glimmering taper + supplies the place of the great luminary, I will retire to my writing + table and acknowledge the letters I have received; but, when the lights + are brought, I feel tired and disinclined to engage in this work, + conceiving that the next night will do as well. The next night comes, and + with it, the same causes for postponement, and so on. + </p> + <p> + "This will account for your letter remaining so long unacknowledged; and, + having given you the history of a day, it will serve for a year, and I am + persuaded you will not require a second edition of it. But it may strike + you, that in this detail no mention is made of any portion of time + allotted for reading. The remark would be just, for I have not looked into + a book since I came home; nor shall I be able to do it until I have + discharged my workmen, probably not before the nights grow longer, when, + possibly, I may be looking in Doomsday Book. At present I shall only add, + that I am always and affectionately yours." + </p> + <p> + The celebrated Mr. (afterward Lord) Erskine, having sent Washington a copy + of his "View of the Causes and Consequences of the Present War with + France," he acknowledged it in a letter, of which the following is a part: + </p> + <p> + "To have so conducted my steps in the intricate walks of public life, and + through a long course, as to meet the approbation of my country and the + esteem of good men, is, next to the consciousness of having acted in all + things from my best judgment, the highest gratification of which my mind + is susceptible, and will, during the remainder of a life which is + hastening to an end, and in moments of retirement better adapted to calm + reflection than I have hitherto experienced, alleviate the pain and soften + any cares, which are yet to be encountered, though hid from me at the + present. + </p> + <p> + "For me to express my sentiments with respect to the administration of the + concerns of another government might incur a charge of stepping beyond the + line of prudence; but the principles of humanity will justify an avowal of + my regret, and I do regret exceedingly, that any causes whatever should + have produced and continued until this time, a war, more bloody, more + expensive, more calamitous, and more pregnant with events than modern, or + perhaps any other times can furnish an example of. And I most sincerely + and devoutly wish that your exertions, and those of others having the same + object in view, may effect what human nature cries aloud for, a general + peace." {4} + </p> + <p> + His correspondence with the Earl of Radnor shows the estimation in which + he was held abroad, and also illustrates his situation and feelings at the + time. + </p> + <p> + "<i>To General Washington.</i> + </p> + <p> + "SIR.—Though of necessity a stranger to you, I cannot deny myself + the satisfaction, among the many who will, probably, even from this + country, intrude upon your retirement, of offering to you my + congratulations on your withdrawing yourself from the scene of public + affairs, with a character which appears to be perfectly unrivalled in + history. The voluntary resignation of authority, wielded, as it was, while + you thought fit to yield it, for the advantage of your country, in the + universal opinion of mankind, confirms the judgment I had presumed to form + of your moderation, and completes the glory of your life. + </p> + <p> + "Permit me, sir, who, enlisted in no political party, have, as a public + man, looked up to you with veneration; who have seen the beginning of your + career against England with approbation, because I felt England was + unjust; who have seen you discontinue your hostility toward England, when, + in good faith, she was no longer acting as an enemy to America, by honest + counsels endeavoring to be as closely connected with amity, as she is by + natural and mutual interests; who have seen you the instrument, in the + hand of Providence, of wresting from the British Parliament an influence + destructive of the just rights of both countries and of establishing the + independence of America, which, I am persuaded, will continually, if your + principles and your wisdom shall actuate your successors, be the means of + securing them respectively to us both; who have seen you, in adversity and + prosperity alike, the good, the firm, the moderate, the disinterested + patriot; permit me, I say, as an Englishman and as a man, to rejoice at + the completion of such a character, and to offer my unfeigned wishes for a + peaceful evening of your life and the realization (as is my sincere + belief) of your posthumous fame and your eternal happiness. + </p> + <p> + "I have the honor to subscribe myself, etc., + </p> + <h3> + "RADNOR. + </h3> + <p> + "LONGFORD CASTLE, <i>January</i> 19, 1797." + </p> + <p> + The following is Washington's reply: + </p> + <p> + "MY LORD.—The sentiments which your lordship has been pleased to + express, in your favor of the 19th of January last, relative to my public + conduct, do me great honor, and I pray you to accept my grateful + acknowledgment of the unequivocal evidence, conveyed in your letter, of + the favorable opinion you entertain of the principles by which it was + actuated. + </p> + <p> + "For having performed duties which I conceive every country has a right to + require of its citizens, I claim no merit; but no man can feel more + sensibly the reward of approbation for such services than I do. Next to + the consciousness of having acted faithfully in discharging the several + trusts to which I have been called, the thanks of one's country and the + esteem of good men are the highest gratification my mind is susceptible + of. + </p> + <p> + "At the age of sixty-five, I am now recommencing my agricultural and rural + pursuits, which were always more congenial to my temper and disposition + than the noise and bustle of public employments, notwithstanding so small + a portion of my life has been engaged in the former. + </p> + <p> + "I reciprocate, with great cordiality, the good wishes you have been + pleased to bestow on me, and pray devoutly that we may both witness, and + that shortly, the return of peace; for a more bloody, expensive, and + eventful war is not recorded in modern, if to be found in ancient + history." + </p> + <p> + Before leaving the subject of Washington's European reputation it is + proper to quote the remarks made by the celebrated orator and statesman, + Charles James Fox, in the British Parliament, January 31, 1794. It was in + reference to Washington's communications to Congress at the opening of the + session, December 3, 1793: + </p> + <p> + "And here, sir, I cannot help alluding to the President of the United + States, General Washington, a character whose conduct has been so + different from that which has been pursued by the ministers of this + country. How infinitely wiser must appear the spirit and principles + manifested in his late address to Congress than the policy of modern + European courts! Illustrious man, deriving honor less from the splendor of + his situation than from the dignity of his mind; before whom all borrowed + greatness sinks into insignificance, and all the potentates of Europe + (excepting the members of our own royal family) become little and + contemptible. He has had no occasion to have recourse to any tricks of + policy or arts of alarm; his authority has been sufficiently supported by + the same means by which it was acquired, and his conduct has uniformly + been characterized by wisdom, moderation, and firmness. Feeling gratitude + to France for the assistance received from her in that great contest which + secured the independence of America, he did not choose to give up the + system of neutrality. Having once laid down that line of conduct which + both gratitude and policy pointed out as most proper to be pursued, not + all the insults and provocation of the French minister, Genet, could turn + him from his purpose. Entrusted with the welfare of a great people, he did + not allow the misconduct of another, with respect to himself, for one + moment to withdraw his attention from their interest. He had no fear of + the Jacobins; he felt no alarm from their principles, and considered no + precaution necessary in order to stop their progress. + </p> + <p> + "The people over whom he presided he knew to be acquainted with their + rights and their duties. He trusted to their own good sense to defeat the + effect of those arts which might be employed to inflame or mislead their + minds, and was sensible that a government could be in no danger while it + retained the attachment and confidence of its subjects—attachment, + in this instance, not blindly adopted; confidence not implicitly given, + but arising from the conviction of its excellence and the experience of + its blessings. I cannot, indeed, help admiring the wisdom and fortune of + this great man. By the phrase 'fortune,' I mean not in the smallest degree + to derogate from his merit. But notwithstanding his extraordinary talents + and exalted integrity, it must be considered as singularly fortunate that + he should have experienced a lot which so seldom falls to the portion of + humanity, and have passed through such a variety of scenes without stain + and without reproach. It must, indeed, create astonishment, that, placed + in circumstances so critical, and filling for a series of years, a station + so conspicuous, his character should never once have been called in + question; that he should in no one instance have been accused either of + improper insolence or mean submission in his transactions with foreign + nations. For him it has been reserved to run the race of glory, without + experiencing the smallest interruption to the brilliancy of his career." + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: All the Cabinet officers of Washington were retained by Mr. + Adams, viz.: Timothy Pickering, Secretary of State; James McHenry, + Secretary of War; Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury, and Charles + Lee, Attorney-General. The navy department was not organized till 1798. 2. + Footnote: Gibbs, "Administrations of Washington and John Adams." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: The following extract is from a Baltimore paper, dated March + 13th: "Last evening arrived in this city, on his way to Mount Vernon, the + illustrious object of veneration and gratitude, George Washington. His + Excellency was accompanied by his lady and Miss Custis, and by the son of + the unfortunate Lafayette and his preceptor. At a distance from the city, + he was met by a crowd of citizens, on horse and foot, who thronged the + road to greet him, and by a detachment from Captain Hollingsworth's troop, + who escorted him in through as great a concourse of people as Baltimore + ever witnessed. On alighting at the Fountain Inn, the general was saluted + with reiterated and thundering huzzas from the spectators. His Excellency, + with the companions of his journey, leaves town, we understand, this + morning." + </p> + <p> + 4. Footnote: Erskine's opinion of Washington is thus expressed in his + letter, dated London, March 15, 1795: "I have taken the liberty," he + writes, "to introduce your august and immortal name in a short sentence, + which will be found in the book I send you. I have a large acquaintance + among the most valuable and exalted classes of men; but you are the only + human being for whom I ever felt an awful reverence. I sincerely pray God + to grant a long and serene evening to a life so gloriously devoted to the + universal happiness of the world. + </p> + <h3> + "T. ERSKINE." + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. — WASHINGTON APPOINTED LIEUTENANT-GENERAL. 1797-1798. + </h2> + <p> + We have mentioned, incidentally, that George Washington Motier de + Lafayette, the son of the general, with his tutor, M. Frestel, accompanied + Washington on his journey from Philadelphia to Mount Vernon. When the wife + and daughters of Lafayette left France to join him in the prison of Olmutz + his son came to the United States. He arrived at Boston in the summer of + 1795, with his tutor, and had immediately written to Washington to apprise + him of his arrival. The letter was received just as he was leaving + Philadelphia for Mount Vernon. Washington would have been delighted to + receive him immediately into his family, but this was forbidden by + political considerations of great weight. He therefore wrote to George + Cabot, of Boston, desiring him to assure the young man of his friendship + and protection, and recommending that he should be entered as a student at + Harvard University, Cambridge, and offering to defray the expenses of his + education there. This was declined, however, on account of the different + course of study which he was pursuing under the tuition of M. Frestel, and + George went to take up his residence with M. Lacolombe, {1} in a + country-house near New York. In November, 1795, Washington wrote to young + Lafayette and his tutor, assuring the former of his paternal regard and + support, and desiring him to repair to Colonel Hamilton in New York. On + the 18th of March, 1796, the following resolution, and order were passed + by the House of Representatives in Congress: + </p> + <p> + "Information having been given to this House that a son of General + Lafayette is now within the United States; + </p> + <p> + "<i>Resolved</i>, That a committee be appointed to inquire into the truth + of the said information and report thereon, and what measures it would be + proper to take, if the same be true, to evince the grateful sense + entertained by this country for the services of his father. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Ordered</i>, That Mr. Livingston, Mr. Sherburne, and Mr. Murray be + appointed a committee pursuant to the said resolution." + </p> + <p> + As chairman of this committee, Mr. Livingston wrote to young Lafayette as + follows: + </p> + <p> + "SIR.—Actuated by motives of gratitude to your father, and eager to + seize every opportunity of showing their sense of his important services, + the House of Representatives have passed the resolution which I have the + pleasure to communicate. The committee being directed to inquire into the + fact of your arrival within the United States, permit me to advise your + immediate appearance at this place, that the Legislature of America may no + longer be in doubt whether the son of Lafayette is under their protection + and within the reach of their gratitude. + </p> + <p> + "I presume to give this advice as an individual personally attached to + your father, and very solicitous to be useful to any person in whose + happiness he is interested. If I should have that good fortune on this + occasion, it will afford me the greatest satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + "I am, &c., + </p> + <h3> + "EDWARD LIVINGSTON." + </h3> + <p> + On receiving this letter, young Lafayette wrote to Washington, enclosing + the resolution and the letter of Mr. Livingston, and asking his advice + relative to the course which he should pursue. The following is + Washington's answer: + </p> + <p> + "Your letter of the 28th instant was received yesterday. The enclosures + which accompanied it evidence much discretion, and your conduct therein + meets my entire approbation. + </p> + <p> + "In the early part of this month I put a letter into the hands of Colonel + Hamilton, inviting you to this place, and expected, until your letter of + the above date was received, to have embraced you under my own roof + tomorrow or next day. + </p> + <p> + "As the period for this seems to be more distant, from the purport of your + inquiries, I again repeat my former request, and wish that, without delay, + you and M. Frestel would proceed immediately to this city and to my house, + where a room is prepared for you and him. + </p> + <p> + "Under expectation of your doing this, it is as unnecessary as it might be + improper to go more into detail until I have the pleasure of seeing you + and of rendering every service in my power to the son of my friend, for + whom I have always entertained the purest affection, which is too strong + not to extend itself to you. Therefore believe me to be, as I really am, + sincerely and affectionately yours, &c." + </p> + <p> + From this time (March, 1796) to April, 1797, when he journeyed with + Washington to Mount Vernon, young Lafayette resided with him in + Philadelphia. Writing to General Dumas (June 24, 1797) from Mount Vernon, + Washington, after expressing an ardent wish for the restoration of General + Lafayette to liberty, says: "His son and M. Frestel, who appears to have + been his mentor, are, and have been, residents in my family since their + arrival in this country, except in the first moments of it; and a modest, + sensible, well-disposed youth he is." + </p> + <p> + In October, 1797, intelligence of the liberation of General Lafayette from + his Austrian prison having been received, his son hastened to meet him in + France. He sailed with M. Frestel from New York, on the 26th of October, + bearing the following letter from Washington to his father: {2} + </p> + <p> + "This letter, I hope and expect, will be presented to you by your son, who + is highly deserving of such parents as you and your amiable lady. + </p> + <p> + "He can relate much better than I can describe my participation in your + sufferings, my solicitude for your relief, the measures I adopted, though + ineffectual, to facilitate your liberation from an unjust and cruel + imprisonment, and the joy I experienced at the news of its accomplishment. + I shall hasten, therefore, to congratulate you, and be assured that no one + can do it with more cordiality, with more sincerity, or with greater + affection, on the restoration of that liberty which every act of your life + entitles you to the enjoyment of; and I hope I may add, to the + uninterrupted possession of your estates and the confidence of your + country. The repossession of these things, though they cannot compensate + for the hardships you have endured, may nevertheless soften the painful + remembrance of them. + </p> + <p> + "From the delicate and responsible situation in which I stood as a public + officer, but more especially from a misconception of the manner in which + your son had left France, till explained to me in a personal interview + with himself, he did not come immediately into my family on his arrival in + America, though he was assured in the first moments of it of my protection + and support. His conduct, since he first set his feet on American ground, + has been exemplary in every point of view, such as has gained him the + esteem, affection, and confidence of all who have had the pleasure of his + acquaintance. His filial affection and duty and his ardent desire to + embrace his parents and sisters, in the first moments of their release, + would not allow him to wait the authentic account of this much-desired + event; but, at the same time that I suggested the propriety of this, I + could not withhold my assent to the gratification of his wishes to fly to + the arms of those whom he holds most dear, persuaded as he is, from the + information he has received, that he shall find you all in Paris. + </p> + <p> + "M. Frestel has been a true mentor to George. No parent could have been + more attentive to a favorite son, and he richly merits all that can be + said of his virtues, of his good sense, and of his prudence. Both your son + and he carry with them the vows and regrets of this family and all who + know them. And you may be assured that yourself never stood higher in the + affections of the people of this country than at the present moment. + </p> + <p> + "Having bid a final adieu to the walks of public life, and meaning to + withdraw myself from politics, I shall refer you to M. Frestel and George, + who, at the same time that they have, from prudential considerations, + avoided all interference in the politics of the country, cannot have been + inattentive observers of what was passing among us, to give you a general + view of our situation, and of the party which, in my opinion, has + disturbed the peace and tranquility of it. And with sentiments of the + highest regard for you, your lady, and daughters, and with assurances + that, if inclination or events should induce you or any of them to visit + America, no person in it would receive you with more cordiality and + affection than Mrs. Washington and myself, both of us being most sincerely + and affectionately attached to you, and admirers of them." + </p> + <p> + Devoted as Washington, in his retirement, was to his favorite pursuit of + agriculture, he nevertheless took a lively interest in the political + affairs of the country. In the events which were now passing he found + cause for considerable anxiety. The conduct of the French Directory still + indicated a persistence in their favorite policy of detaching the people + of the United States from the support of the executive, and effecting a + revolution in the government. Their treatment of General Pinckney, the + minister sent to France by Washington, fully disclosed their views and + intentions. After inspecting General Pinckney's letter of credence, the + Directory announced to him their determination "not to receive another + minister plenipotentiary from the United States until after the redress of + grievances demanded of the American government, which the French republic + had a right to expect from it." This message was succeeded, first by + indecorous verbal communications, calculated to force the American + minister out of France, and afterward, by a written mandate to quit the + territories of the republic. + </p> + <p> + This act of hostility was accompanied with another, which would explain + the motives for this conduct, if previous measures had not rendered all + further explanation unnecessary. + </p> + <p> + On giving to the recalled minister his audience of leave, the President of + the Directory addressed a speech to him, in which terms of outrage to the + government were mingled with expressions of affection for the people of + the United States, and the expectation of ruling the former, by their + influence over the latter, was too clearly manifested not to be + understood. To complete this system of hostility, American vessels were + captured wherever found, and, under the pretext of their wanting a + document, with which the treaty of commerce had been uniformly understood + to dispense, they were condemned as prize. + </p> + <p> + This serious state of things demanded a solemn consideration. On receiving + from General Pinckney the dispatches which communicated it, President + Adams issued his proclamation requiring Congress to meet on the 15th day + of May. The speech delivered by him at the commencement of the session + showed that the insults of the French Directory were deeply resented. He + said: "The speech of the President discloses sentiments more alarming than + the refusal of a minister, because more dangerous to our independence and + union, and, at the same time, studiously marked with indignities toward + the government of the United States. It evinces a disposition to separate + the people from their government; to persuade them that they have + different affections, principles, and interests from those of their + fellow-citizens whom they themselves have chosen to manage their common + concerns; and thus to produce divisions fatal to our peace. Such attempts + ought to be repelled with a decision which shall convince France, and the + world, that we are not a degraded people, humiliated under a colonial + spirit of fear and sense of inferiority, fitted to be the miserable + instruments of foreign influence, and regardless of national honor, + character, and interest. Retaining still the desire which had uniformly + been manifested by the American government to preserve peace and + friendship with all nations, and believing that neither the honor nor the + interest of the United States absolutely forbade the repetition of + advances for securing these desirable objects with France, he should," he + said, "institute a fresh attempt at negotiation, and should not fail to + promote and accelerate an accommodation on terms compatible with the + rights, duties, interests, and honor of the nation." But while he should + be making these endeavors to adjust all differences with the French + republic by amicable negotiation, he earnestly recommended it to Congress + to provide effectual measures of defense. + </p> + <p> + The drawing up an answer to this speech of President Adams occasioned a + full fortnight's debate in the House of Representatives, but at length a + reply, correspondent to the President's tone and views, was carried by 51 + or 52 voices against 48. This showed the balance of parties, proved that + Adams still kept the ascendency, however small, that Washington had done, + and that the dread of democratic violence prevailed over the suspicions + endeavored to be awakened of monarchism and an arbitrary executive. This + feeling was, no doubt, strengthened greatly by refugees from St. Domingo, + who related the dire effects which democratic acts had produced in that + island. France, however, was never more formidable. Tidings of her + victories poured in, whilst those of England told of bank payments + suspended, a mutiny in the fleet, and the abandonment of her best + continental ally. + </p> + <p> + To carry into effect the pacific dispositions avowed by President Adams in + his speech, he appointed three envoys to the French Directory. General + Pinckney, who was still residing in Europe, was placed at the head of the + mission. Gen. John Marshall, afterward chief justice, a sturdy Federalist, + and Elbridge Gerry, an anti-Federalist, but a strong personal friend and + favorite of the President, were joined with Pinckney in the mission. They + were instructed to endeavor to procure peace and reconciliation by all + means compatible with the honor and faith of the United States, but no + national engagements were to be impaired, no innovation to be permitted + upon those internal regulations for the preservation of peace which had + been deliberately and uprightly established, nor were the rights of the + government to be surrendered. On their arrival in France the envoys saw M. + Talleyrand, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, but were informed that they + could not be received by the Directory. They had permission to remain in + Paris, however, and the agents of M. de Talleyrand—a female amongst + others were employed to negotiate with them. The true difficulty in the + way of accommodation, in addition to the impertinent arrogance of the + Directory, seemed to be that Merlin and others received a great part of + the gains accruing from American prizes made by the French. In order to + counteract this gold in one hand by gold in the other, Talleyrand demanded + a douceur of £50,000 for himself and chiefs, besides a loan to be + afterward made from America to France. To extract these conditions, every + argument that meanness could suggest was employed by Talleyrand; he + demanded to be fed as a lawyer or bribed as a friend. But the Americans + were inexorable, and two of their number, Pinckney and Marshall, returned + to announce to their countrymen the terms on which peace was offered. The + cupidity of the French government completely turned against it the tide of + popular feeling in America. "Millions for defense, not a cent for + tribute," was instantly the general cry. The President felt his hands + strengthened by the demands of the French. Certainly, never did minister + show himself less sagacious than M. de Talleyrand in this affair, or more + ignorant of the spirit and manners of a nation amongst whom he had + resided. + </p> + <p> + In Congress (May, 1798), vigorous measures were adopted for placing the + country in a state of defense against impending hostilities from one of + the most powerful nations of the world. Among these was a regular army. A + regiment of artillerists and engineers was added to the permanent + establishment, and the President was authorized to raise twelve additional + regiments of infantry and one regiment of cavalry to serve during the + continuance of the existing differences with the French republic, if not + sooner discharged. He was also authorized to appoint officers for a + provisional army and to receive and organize volunteer corps who should be + exempt from ordinary militia duty, but neither the volunteers nor the + officers of the provisional army were to receive pay unless called into + actual service. + </p> + <p> + Addresses to the executive from every part of the United States attested + the high spirit of the nation, and the answers of President Adams were + well calculated to give it solidity and duration. + </p> + <p> + No sooner had a war become probable, to the perils of which no man could + be insensible, than the eyes of all were directed to Washington, as the + person who should command the American army. He alone could be seen at the + head of a great military force without exciting jealousy; he alone could + draw into public service and arrange properly the best military talents of + the nation, and he, more than any other, could induce the utmost exertion + of its physical strength. Indignant at the unprovoked injuries which had + been heaped upon his country, and convinced that the conflict, should a + war be really prosecuted by France with a view to conquest, would be + extremely severe and could be supported, on the part of America, only by a + persevering exertion of all her force, he could not determine, should such + a crisis arrive, to withhold those aids which it might be in his power to + afford, should public opinion really attach to his services that + importance which would render them essential. His own reflections appear + to have resulted in a determination not to refuse once more to take the + field, provided he could be permitted to secure efficient aid by naming + the chief officers of the army, and to remain at home until his service in + the field should be required by actual invasion. {3} + </p> + <p> + A confidential and interesting letter from Colonel Hamilton of the 19th of + May, on political subjects, concludes with saying: "You ought also to be + aware, my dear sir, that in the event of an open rupture with France the + public voice will again call you to command the armies of your country, + and though all who are attached to you will, from attachment as well as + public consideration, deplore an occasion which should once more tear you + from that repose to which you have so good a right, yet it is the opinion + of all those with whom I converse that you will be compelled to make the + sacrifice. All your past labors may demand, to give them efficacy, this + further, this very great sacrifice." + </p> + <p> + "You may be assured," said Washington in reply, "that my mind is deeply + impressed with the present situation of public affairs and not a little + agitated by the outrageous conduct of France toward the United States, and + at the inimitable conduct of those partisans who aid and abet her + measures. You may believe further, from assurances equally sincere, that + if there was anything in my power to be done consistently to avert or + lessen the danger of the crisis, it should be rendered with hand and + heart." + </p> + <p> + "But, my dear sir, dark as matters appear at present, and expedient as it + is to be prepared for the worst that can happen (and no man is more + disposed to this measure than I am), I cannot make up my mind yet for the + expectation of open war; or, in other words, for a formidable invasion by + France. I cannot believe, although I think her capable of anything, that + she will attempt to do more than she has done. When she perceives the + spirit and policy of this country rising into resistance, and that she has + falsely calculated upon support from a large part of the people to promote + her views and influence in it, she will desist ever from those practices, + unless unexpected events in Europe or the acquisition of Louisiana and the + Floridas should induce her to continue them. And I believe further, that, + although the leaders of their party in this country will not change their + sentiments, they will be obliged to change their plan or the mode of + carrying it on. The effervescence which is appearing in all quarters, and + the desertion of their followers, will frown them into silence—at + least for a while. + </p> + <p> + "If I did not view things in this light my mind would be infinitely more + disquieted than it is, for, if a crisis should arrive when a sense of duty + or a call from my country should become so imperious as to leave me no + choice, I should prepare for relinquishment and go with as much reluctance + from my present peaceful abode as I should go to the tombs of my + ancestors." + </p> + <p> + The opinion that prudence required preparations for open war and that + Washington must once more be placed at the head of the American armies + strengthened every day, and on the 22d of June President Adams addressed + him a letter in which that subject was thus alluded to. + </p> + <p> + "In forming an army, whenever I must come to that extremity I am at an + immense loss whether to call out the old generals or to appoint a young + set. If the French come here we must learn to march with a quick step and + to attack, for in that way only they are said to be vulnerable. I must tax + you sometimes for advice. We must have your name, if you will in any case + permit us to use it. There will be more efficacy in it than in many an + army." + </p> + <p> + A letter from McHenry, the Secretary of War, written four days afterward, + concludes with asking: "May we flatter ourselves that, in a crisis so + awful and important you will accept the command of all our armies? I hope + you will, because you alone can unite all hearts and all hands, if it is + possible that they can be united." + </p> + <p> + These letters reached Washington on the same day. The following extract + from his reply to the President will exhibit the course of his reflections + relative to his appearance once more at the head of the American armies: + </p> + <p> + "At the epoch of my retirement an invasion of these States by an European + power, or even the probability of such an event in my days, was so far + from being contemplated by me that I had no conception either that or any + other occurrence would arise in so short a period which could turn my eyes + from the shades of Mount Vernon. But this seems to be the age of wonders. + And it is reserved for intoxicated and lawless France (for purposes of + Providence far beyond the reach of human ken) to slaughter her own + citizens and to disturb the repose of all the world besides. From a view + of the past—from the prospect of the present—and of that which + seems to be expected, it is not easy for me to decide satisfactorily on + the part it might best become me to act. In case of actual invasion by a + formidable force I certainly should not entrench myself under the cover of + age and retirement, if my services should be required by my country to + assist in repelling it. And if there be good cause to expect such an + event, which certainly must be better known to the government than to + private citizens, delay in preparing for it may be dangerous, improper, + and not to be justified by prudence. The uncertainty, however, of the + latter, in my mind, creates my embarrassment, for I cannot bring it to + believe, regardless as the French are of treaties and of the laws of + nation, and capable as I conceive them to be of any species of despotism + and injustice, that they will attempt to invade this country after such a + uniform and unequivocal expression of the determination of the people in + all parts to oppose them with their lives and fortunes. That they have + been led to believe by their agents and partisans among us that we are a + divided people, that the latter are opposed to their own government, and + that the show of a small force would occasion a revolt, I have no doubt; + and how far these men (grown desperate) will further attempt to deceive, + and may succeed in keeping up the deception, is problematical. Without + that, the folly of the Directory in such an attempt would, I conceive, be + more conspicuous, if possible, than their wickedness." + </p> + <p> + "Having with candor made this disclosure of the state of my mind, it + remains only for me to add that to those who know me best it is best known + that, should imperious circumstances induce me to exchange once more the + smooth paths of retirement for the thorny ways of public life, at a period + too when repose is more congenial to nature, it would be productive of + sensations which can be more easily conceived than expressed." + </p> + <p> + His letter to the Secretary of War was more detailed and more explicit. + "It cannot," he said, "be necessary for me to premise to you or to others + who know my sentiments; that to quit the tranquility of retirement, and + enter the boundless field of responsibility, would be productive of + sensations which a better pen than I possess would find it difficult to + describe. Nevertheless, the principle by which my conduct has been + actuated through life would not suffer me, in any great emergency, to + withhold any services I could render when required by my country—especially + in a case where its dearest rights are assailed by lawless ambition and + intoxicated power, in contempt of every principle of justice, and in + violation of a solemn compact and of laws which govern all civilized + nations—and this too with the obvious intent to sow thick the seeds + of disunion for the purpose of subjugating our government and destroying + our independence and happiness. + </p> + <p> + "Under circumstances like these, accompanied by an actual invasion of our + territory, it would be difficult for me, at any time, to remain an idle + spectator, under the plea of age or retirement. With sorrow, it is true, I + should quit the shades of my peaceful abode, and the ease and happiness I + now enjoy, to encounter anew the turmoils of war, to which, possibly, my + strength and powers might be found incompetent. These, however, should not + be stumbling-blocks in my own way. But there are other things highly + important for me to ascertain and settle before I could give a definitive + answer to your question: + </p> + <p> + "1st. The propriety in the opinion of the public, so far as that opinion + has been expressed in conversation, of my appearing again on the public + theater after declaring the sentiments I did in my valedictory address of + September, 1796. + </p> + <p> + "2dly. A conviction in my own breast, from the best information that can + be obtained, that it is the wish of my country that its military force + should be committed to my charge; and, + </p> + <p> + "3dly. That the army now to be formed should be so appointed as to afford + a well-grounded hope of its doing honor to the country and credit to him + who commands it in the field. + </p> + <p> + "On each of these heads you must allow me to make observations." + Washington then proceeded to detail his sentiments on those points on + which his consent to take command of the army must depend. + </p> + <p> + Some casual circumstances delayed the reception of the letters of the + President and Secretary of War for several days, in consequence of which, + before the answer of Washington reached the seat of government, the + President had nominated him to the chief command of all the armies raised + or to be raised in the United States, with the rank of lieutenant-general; + and the Senate had unanimously advised and consented to his appointment. + </p> + <p> + By the Secretary of War, who was directed to wait upon him with his + commission, the President addressed to him the following letter: + </p> + <p> + "Mr. McHenry, the Secretary of War, will have the honor to wait on you in + my behalf, to impart to you a step I have ventured to take, which I should + have been happy to have communicated in person, had such a journey at this + time been in my power." + </p> + <p> + "My reasons for this measure will be too well known to need any + explanation to the public. Every friend and every enemy of America will + comprehend them at first blush. To you, sir, I owe all the apology I can + make. The urgent necessity I am in of your advice and assistance, indeed + of your conduct and direction of the war, is all I can urge; and that is a + sufficient justification to myself and to the world. I hope it will be so + considered by yourself. Mr. McHenry will have the honor to consult you + upon the organization of the army, and upon everything relating to it." + </p> + <p> + Open instructions, signed by the President, were on the same day delivered + to the Secretary of War, of which the following is a copy: + </p> + <p> + "It is my desire that you embrace the first opportunity to set out on your + journey to Mount Vernon and wait on General Washington with the commission + of lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the armies of the United + States, which, by the advice and consent of the Senate, has been signed by + me. + </p> + <p> + "The reasons and motives which prevailed on me to venture on such a step + as the nomination of this great and illustrious character, whose voluntary + resignation alone occasioned my introduction to the office I now hold, + were too numerous to be detailed in this letter, and are too obvious and + important to escape the observation of any part of America or Europe. But + as it is a movement of great delicacy it will require all your address to + communicate the subject in a manner that shall be inoffensive to his + feelings and consistent with all the respect that is due from me to him. + </p> + <p> + "If the general should decline the appointment all the world will be + silent and respectfully acquiesce. If he should accept it all the world, + except the enemies of his country, will rejoice. If he should come to no + decisive determination, but take the subject into consideration, I shall + not appoint any other lieutenant-general until his conclusion is known. + </p> + <p> + "His advice in the formation of a list of officers would be extremely + desirable to me. The names of Lincoln, Morgan, Knox, Hamilton, Gates, + Pinckney, Lee, Carrington, Hand, Muhlenberg, Dayton, Burr, Brooks, Cobb, + Smith, as well as the present commander-in-chief, may be mentioned to him, + and any others that occur to you. Particularly, I wish to have his opinion + on the men most suitable for inspector-general, adjutant-general, and + quartermaster-general. + </p> + <p> + "His opinion on all subjects would have great weight, and I wish you to + obtain from him as much of his reflections upon the times and the service + as you can." + </p> + <p> + The communications between Washington and the Secretary of War appear to + have been full and unreserved. The impressions of the former respecting + the critical and perilous situation of his country had previously determined + him to yield to the general desire and accept the commission offered him, + provided he could be permitted to select for the high departments of the + army, and especially for the military staff, those in whom he could place + the greatest confidence. Being assured that there was every reason to + believe his wishes in this respect would not be thwarted, he gave to the + secretary the arrangement which he would recommend for the principal + stations in the army, and on the 13th of July addressed the following + letter to the President: + </p> + <p> + "I had the honor, on the evening of the 11th instant, to receive from the + hands of the Secretary at War your favor of the 7th, announcing that you + had, with the advice and consent of the Senate, appointed me + lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the armies raised or to be + raised for the service of the United States." + </p> + <p> + "I cannot express how greatly affected I am at this new proof of public + confidence, and at the highly flattering manner in which you have been + pleased to make the communication. At the same time I must not conceal + from you my earnest wish that the choice had fallen upon a man less + declined in years and better qualified to encounter the usual vicissitudes + of war." + </p> + <p> + "You know, sir, what calculations I had made relative to the probable + course of events on my retiring from office and the determination with + which I had consoled myself of closing the remnant of my days in my + present peaceful abode. You will, therefore, be at no loss to conceive and + appreciate the sensations I must have experienced to bring my mind to any + conclusion that would pledge me at so late a period of life to leave + scenes I sincerely love to enter upon the boundless field of public + action, incessant trouble, and high responsibility. + </p> + <p> + "It was not possible for me to remain ignorant of or indifferent to recent + transactions. The conduct of the Directory of France toward our country; + their insidious hostility to its government; their various practices to + withdraw the affections of the people from it; the evident tendency of + their arts, and those of their agents to countenance and invigorate + opposition; their disregard of solemn treaties and the laws of nations; + their war upon our defenseless commerce; their treatment of our ministers + of peace, and their demands, amounting to tribute, could not fail to + excite in me sentiments corresponding with those my countrymen have so + generally expressed in their affectionate addresses to you. + </p> + <p> + "Believe me, sir, no man can more cordially approve the wise and prudent + measures of your administration. They ought to inspire universal + confidence, and will no doubt, combined with the state of things, call + from Congress such laws and means as will enable you to meet the full + force and extent of the crisis. Satisfied, therefore, that you have + sincerely wished and endeavored to avert war, and exhausted to the last + drop the cup of reconciliation, we can, with pure hearts, appeal to Heaven + for the justice of our cause, and may confidently trust the final result + to that kind Providence who has heretofore and then so often signally + favored the people of the United States. + </p> + <p> + "Thinking in this manner and feeling how incumbent it is upon every person + of every description to contribute at all times to his country's welfare, + and especially in a moment like the present, when everything we hold dear + and sacred is so seriously threatened, I have finally determined to accept + the commission of commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, + with the reserve only that I shall not be called into the field until the + army is in a situation to require my presence or it becomes indispensable + by the urgency of circumstances. + </p> + <p> + "In making this reservation, I beg it to be understood that I do not mean + to withhold any assistance to arrange and organize the army, which you may + think I can afford. I take the liberty also to mention that I must decline + having my acceptance considered as drawing after it any immediate charge + upon the public, or that I can receive any emoluments annexed to the + appointment before I am in a situation to incur expense." + </p> + <p> + From this period Washington intermingled the cares and attentions of + office with his agricultural pursuits. His solicitude respecting the + organization of an army which he might possibly be required to lead + against an enemy the most formidable in the world, was too strong to admit + of his being inattentive to its arrangements. + </p> + <p> + Having stipulated, in accepting office, that he should have a concurrent + voice in the appointment of the general officers and general staff of the + army, he named Alexander Hamilton as inspector-general and second in + command, with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Henry Knox as + major-generals. Adams, who particularly disliked Hamilton, and was very + suspicious of his designs and purposes, especially if placed in any + position of power and influence, was not at all pleased with this + arrangement; but he unwillingly acquiesced. General Knox was dissatisfied + with the rank assigned him, and refused to serve; General Pinckney, on the + other hand, accepted the post offered him. + </p> + <p> + During the months of November and December (1798), Washington was at + Philadelphia, where he was busily occupied, with Hamilton and Pinckney, in + concerting arrangements for raising and organizing the army. From this + time to the end of his life a great part of his time was bestowed upon + military affairs. + </p> + <p> + "His correspondence with the Secretary of War, the major-generals, and + other officers," as Mr. Sparks states, "was unremitted and very full, + entering into details and communicating instructions which derived value + from his long experience and perfect knowledge of the subject. His letters + during this period, if not the most interesting to many readers, will be + regarded as models of their kind, and as affording evidence that the vigor + and fertility of his mind had not decreased with declining years. + </p> + <p> + "He never seriously believed that the French would go to the extremity of + invading the United States. But it had always been a maxim with him, that + a timely preparation for war afforded the surest means for preserving + peace, and on this occasion he acted with as much promptitude and energy + as if the invaders had been actually on the coast. His opinion proved to + be correct, and his prediction was verified." For the French government, + when it was found that the people would support the executive in resisting + aggressions, soon manifested a disposition to draw back from their + war-like attitude, since war with the United States was the last thing + which was really desired. + </p> + <p> + While Washington was engaged in organizing the army actual hostilities + between the United States and France were going on at sea. A <i>navy</i> + department was formed by act of Congress in April (1798), and on May 21st + Benjamin Stoddert, of Maryland, became the first Secretary of the Navy. + The frigates United States, 44, and Constellation, 38, were launched and + fitted for sea in the summer and autumn succeeding; and the whole force + authorized by a law passed on the 16th of July, consisted of twelve + frigates, twelve ships of a force between twenty and twenty-four guns + inclusive, and six sloops, besides galleys and revenue cutters, making a + total of thirty active cruisers. Numerous privateers were also fitted out. + The chief theater of naval operations was the archipelago of the West + Indies, where the aggressions on our commerce by French cruisers and + privateers had originally commenced. Of the numerous encounters which took + place, two remarkable ones afforded a promise of the future glories of the + American navy. One of these was a very severe action (February, 1799) + between the American frigate Constellation, of thirty-eight guns, + commanded by Commodore Truxton, and the French frigate l'Insurgente, of + forty guns, which terminated in the capture of the latter. Truxton, in a + subsequent engagement, compelled another French frigate, the Vengeance, + mounting no less than fifty-two guns, to strike her colors, but she + afterward made her escape in the night. + </p> + <p> + The determined attitude of the United States soon convinced the French + Directory that the people were united in support of the administration in + its hostile operations, and Talleyrand sent certain intimations to our + government, through William Vans Murray, American minister at the Hague, + as well as by more private channels, that the Directory were willing and + desirous to treat for peace. President Adams determined to avail himself + of these friendly dispositions, and, without consulting his Cabinet or the + leading members of Congress, on the 18th of February (1799) nominated to + the Senate Mr. Murray as minister plenipotentiary to the French republic. + Patrick Henry and Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth were subsequently + appointed joint ambassadors, but the latter declining on account of ill + health, Gen. William Richardson Davie, Governor of North Carolina, was + appointed in his place. Ellsworth and Davie did not leave the country, + however, till November. The peace which terminated the quasi war with + France was negotiated by these envoys, but it did not take place till the + 3d of September, 1800, when Napoleon was at the head of affairs in France, + as First Consul, and after the death of Washington. + </p> + <p> + We have seen that when Washington retired from the office of President, he + had promised himself a season of leisure and repose before closing his + useful and honorable life. But this the course of events did not permit. + His last days were destined to be fully occupied with public affairs. + </p> + <p> + During the years 1798 and 1799 he was engaged in a most voluminous + correspondence with the President, the heads of departments, and the + officers of the provisional army, in relation to military affairs, and in + addition to this his published letters show that he had to keep up a + correspondence with many public men, both in Europe and America, as well + as with his own connections and dependants. + </p> + <p> + This correspondence and the arrangement of his papers added to the writing + occasioned by his accounts and the army affairs, made it necessary for him + to have assistance, and he accordingly wrote to his old secretary, Mr. + Tobias Lear, with a view to engaging him in the same office again (August + 2, 1798). An extract from his letter to Mr. Lear shows how his writing + labors had increased. + </p> + <p> + "The little leisure I had," he writes, "before my late appointment (from + visits, my necessary rides, and other occurrences), to overhaul, arrange, + and separate papers of real from those of little or no value, is now, by + that event, so much encroached upon by personal and written applications + for offices, and other matters incidental to the commander-in-chief, that, + without assistance, I must abandon all idea of accomplishing this + necessary work before I embark in new scenes, which will render them more + voluminous, and, of course, more difficult; a measure which would be + extremely irksome to me to submit to, especially as it respects my + accounts, which are yet in confusion; my earnest wish and desire being, + when I quit the stage of human action, to leave all matters in such a + situation as to give as little trouble as possible to those who will have + the management of them hereafter. + </p> + <p> + "Under this view of my situation, which is far from being an agreeable + one, and at times fills me with deep concern when I see so little prospect + of complete extrication, I have written to the Secretary of War to be + informed whether—as my taking the field is contingent, and no pay or + emolument will accrue to myself until then—I am at liberty to + appoint my secretary immediately, who shall be allowed his pay and forage + from the moment he joins me. If he answers in the affirmative, can you do + this on these terms?" + </p> + <p> + Mr. Lear accepted the appointment of secretary, proceeded immediately to + Mount Vernon, and remained with Washington till his decease. + </p> + <p> + With the aid of Mr. Lear, who was thoroughly conversant with his papers + and accustomed to his methods of transacting business, he was enabled to + keep up his old habit of riding over the estate, and superintending its + culture, during the early hours of the day. "When he returned from his + morning ride," which, he remarks in a letter to Mr. McHenry, "usually + occupied him till it was time to dress for dinner," he generally found + some newly arrived guests, perfect strangers to him, come, as they said, + out of respect to him. They were always received courteously, but their + number and their constant succession must have made serious inroads on the + domestic quiet in which he so much delighted. "How different this," he + says in the same letter, "from having a few social friends at a cheerful + board." + </p> + <p> + During the last two years of his life his domestic circle was small. Mrs. + Washington, Miss Custis, and some others of his adopted children, and his + old friend, Mr. Lear, were at Mount Vernon; and some of his visitors were + such as he himself would have chosen. But the greater part of them were + comparative strangers. + </p> + <p> + Distinguished persons sometimes came from Europe to visit him, and these + were received with his usual hospitality. When they sought to draw him + into conversation about his own actions, he changed the subject and made + inquiries about Europe and its affairs. In his own house, although + maintaining toward strangers great courtesy and amenity, he always avoided + discussing on matters in which he himself had played the most conspicuous + part. At home he was the plain, modest country gentleman he had been + before the destinies of an army and an empire had been placed in his + hands. + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: M. de Lacolombe had been adjutant-general under Lafayette, + when the latter commanded the National Guard. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Sparks, "Writings of Washington." + </p> + <p> + 3. Footnote: Marshall. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. — LAST ILLNESS, DEATH, AND CHARACTER OF WASHINGTON. + 1799. + </h2> + <p> + On Thursday, December 12, 1799, Washington rode out to superintend as + usual the affairs of his estate. He left the house at 10 o'clock in the + morning and did not return till 3 o'clock in the afternoon. Soon after he + went out the weather became very inclement, rain, hail, and snow falling + alternately, with a cold wind. When he came in his secretary and + superintendent, Mr. Lear, handed him some letters to frank, but he + declined sending them to the post-office that evening, remarking that the + weather was too bad to send a servant with them. On Mr. Lear's observing + that he was afraid he had got wet, he said, No, his great coat had kept + him dry. Still his neck was wet and snow was hanging on his hair. But he + made light of it, and sat down to dinner without changing his dress. In + the evening he appeared as well as usual. {1} + </p> + <p> + A heavy snowstorm on Friday prevented his riding out on the estate as + usual. He had taken cold the day before by his long exposure, and he + complained of a sore throat. This, however, did not prevent his going out + in the afternoon to mark some trees not far from the house, which were to + be cut down. He had now a hoarseness, which increased toward the close of + the day. He spent the evening in the parlor with Mrs. Washington and Mr. + Lear, perusing the newspapers, occasionally reading an interesting article + aloud as well as his hoarseness would permit, and cheerful as usual. On + his retiring, Mr. Lear proposed that he should take some remedy for his + cold, but he answered "No, you know I never take anything for a cold. Let + it go as it came." + </p> + <p> + Between 2 and 3 o'clock on Saturday morning he had an ague fit, but would + not permit the family to be disturbed in their rest till daylight. He + breathed with great difficulty and was hardly able to utter a word + intelligibly. At his desire he was bled by Mr. Rawlins, one of the + overseers. An attempt to take a simple remedy for a cold showed that he + could not swallow a drop, but seemed convulsed and almost suffocated in + his efforts. Dr. Craik, the family physician, was sent for and arrived + about 9 o'clock, who put a blister on his throat, took some more blood + from him and ordered a gargle of vinegar and sage tea, and inhalation of + the fumes of vinegar and hot water. Two consulting physicians, Dr. Brown + and Dr. Dick, were called in, who arrived about 3 o'clock, and after a + consultation he was bled a third time. The patient could now swallow a + little, and calomel and tartar emetic were administered without any + effect. + </p> + <p> + About half past 4 o'clock he desired Mr. Lear to call Mrs. Washington to + his bedside; when he requested her to bring from his desk two wills, and + on receiving them, he gave her one, which he observed was useless as being + superseded by the other, and desired her to burn it, which she did, and + put the other into her closet. + </p> + <p> + "After this was done," says Mr. Lear, in concluding his touching + narrative, "I returned to his bedside and took his hand. He said to me: 'I + find I am going. My breath cannot last long. I believed from the first + that the disorder would prove fatal. Do you arrange and record all my late + military letters and papers. Arrange my accounts and settle my books, as + you know more about them than anyone else, and let Mr. Rawlins finish + recording my other letters, which he has begun.' I told him this should be + done. He then asked if I recollected anything which it was essential for + him to do, as he had but a very short time to continue with us. I told him + that I could recollect nothing which it was essential for him to do, but + that I hoped he was not so near his end. He observed, smiling, that he + certainly was, and that, as it was the debt we must all pay, he looked to + the event with perfect resignation. + </p> + <p> + "In the course of the afternoon he appeared to be in great pain and + distress, from the difficulty of breathing, and frequently changed his + posture in the bed. On these occasions I lay upon the bed and endeavored + to raise him and turn him with as much ease as possible. He appeared + penetrated with gratitude for my attentions, and often said, 'I am afraid + I shall fatigue you too much,' and upon assuring him that I could feel + nothing but a wish to give him ease, he replied, 'Well, it is a debt we + must pay to each other, and I hope when you want aid of this kind you will + find it.' + </p> + <p> + "About 5 o'clock Dr. Craik came again into the room, and, upon going to + the bedside, the general said to him, 'Doctor, I die hard, but I am not + afraid to go. I believed, from my first attack, that I should not survive + it. My breath cannot last long.' The doctor pressed his hand, but could + not utter a word. He retired from the bedside and sat by the fire, + absorbed in grief. + </p> + <p> + "Between 5 and 6 o'clock Dr. Craik, Dr. Dick, and Dr. Brown came again + into the room, and with Dr. Craik went to the bed, when Dr. Craik asked + him if he could sit up in the bed. He held out his hand and I raised him + up. He then said to the physicians, 'I feel myself going; I thank you for + your attentions, but I pray you to take no more trouble about me. Let me + go off quietly. I cannot last long.' They found that all which had been + done was without effect. He lay down again, and all retired except Dr. + Craik. He continued in the same situation, uneasy and restless, but + without complaining, frequently asking what hour it was. When I helped him + to move at this time he did not speak, but looked at me with strong + expressions of gratitude. + </p> + <p> + "About 8 o'clock the physicians came again into the room and applied + blisters and cataplasms of wheat bran to his legs and feet, after which + they went out, except Dr. Craik, without a ray of hope. I went out about + this time and wrote a line to Mr. Law and Mr. Peter, requesting them to + come with their wives (Mrs. Washington's granddaughters) as soon as + possible to Mount Vernon. + </p> + <p> + "About 10 o'clock he made several attempts to speak to me before he could + effect it. At length he said, 'I am just going. Have me decently buried, + and do not let my body be put into the vault in less than three days after + I am dead.' I bowed assent, for I could not speak. He then looked at me + again and said, 'Do you understand me?' I replied, 'Yes.' 'Tis well,' said + he. + </p> + <p> + "About ten minutes before he expired (which was between 10 and 11 o'clock) + his breathing became easier. He lay quietly; he withdrew his hand from + mine and felt his own pulse. I saw his countenance change. I spoke to Dr. + Craik, who sat by the fire. He came to the bedside. The general's hand + fell from his wrist. I took it in mine and pressed it to my bosom. Dr. + Craik put his hands over his eyes, and he expired without a struggle or a + sigh (December 14, 1799). + </p> + <p> + "While we were fixed in silent grief, Mrs. Washington, who was sitting at + the foot of the bed, asked, with a firm and collected voice, 'Is he gone?' + I could not speak, but held up my hand as a signal that he was no more. + 'Tis well,' said she, in the same voice, 'all is over now. I shall soon + follow him. I have no more trials to pass through.' + </p> + <p> + "During his whole illness," adds Mr. Lear, "he spoke but seldom, and with + great difficulty and distress, and in so low and broken a voice as at + times hardly to be understood. His patience, fortitude, and resignation + never forsook him for a moment. In all his distress he uttered not a sigh + nor a complaint, always endeavoring, from a sense of duty, as it appeared, + to take what was offered him and to do as he was desired by the + physicians." + </p> + <p> + By this simple and touching record of the last moments of Washington, it + will be perceived that his conduct, in the last trying scene, was in all + respects consistent with his whole life and character. His habitual + serenity and self-command, and the ever-present sense of duty, are + apparent through the whole. He died as he had lived, a hero in the highest + sense of the word and a true Christian. + </p> + <p> + The deep and wide-spreading grief occasioned by this melancholy event + assembled a great concourse of people for the purpose of paying the last + tribute of respect to the first of Americans, and on Wednesday, the 18th + of December, his body, attended by military honors, and with religious and + Masonic ceremonies, was deposited in the family vault on his estate. + </p> + <p> + In December, 1837, the remains of the great father of our nation, after a + slumber of thirty-eight years, were again exposed by the circumstance of + placing his body once and forever within the marble sarcophagus made by + Mr. Struthers, of Philadelphia. The body, as Mr. Struthers related, was + still in a wonderful state of preservation, the high pale brow wore a calm + and serene expression, and the lips, pressed together, had a grave and + solemn smile. + </p> + <p> + When intelligence reached Congress of the death of Washington, they + instantly adjourned until the next day, when John Marshall, then a member + of the House of Representatives and afterward chief justice of the United + States and biographer of Washington, addressed the speaker in the + following words: + </p> + <p> + "The melancholy event which was yesterday announced with doubt has been + rendered but too certain. Our Washington is no more. The hero, the + patriot, and the sage of America; the man on whom, in times of danger, + every eye was turned, and all hopes were placed, lives now only in his own + great actions and in the hearts of an affectionate and afflicted people. + </p> + <p> + "If, sir, it had even not been usual openly to testify respect for the + memory of those whom Heaven has selected as its instruments for dispensing + good to man, yet such has been the uncommon worth and such the + extraordinary incidents which have marked the life of him whose loss we + all deplore, that the whole American nation, impelled by the same + feelings, would call with one voice for a public manifestation of that + sorrow, which is so deep and so universal. + </p> + <p> + "More than any other individual, and as much as to any one individual was + possible, has he contributed to found this, our wide-spreading empire, and + to give to the western world independence and freedom. + </p> + <p> + "Having effected the great object for which he was placed at the head of + our armies, we have seen him convert the sword into the ploughshare and + sink the soldier into the citizen. + </p> + <p> + "When the debility of our Federal system had become manifest, and the + bonds which connected this vast continent were dissolving, we have seen + him the chief of those patriots who formed for us a constitution, which, + by preserving the Union, will, I trust, substantiate and perpetuate those + blessings which our Revolution had promised to bestow. + </p> + <p> + "In obedience to the general voice of his country, calling him to preside + over a great people, we have seen him once more quit the retirement he + loved, and, in a season more stormy and tempestuous than war itself, with + calm and wise determination, pursue the true interests of the nation and + contribute more than any other could contribute to the establishment of + that system of policy which will, I trust, yet preserve our peace, our + honor, and our independence. Having been twice unanimously chosen the + chief magistrate of a free people, we have seen him, at a time when his + re-election with universal suffrage could not be doubted, afford to the + world a rare instance of moderation, by withdrawing from his high station + to the peaceful walks of private life. However the public confidence may + change, and the public affections fluctuate with respect to others, with + respect to him they have, in war and in peace, in public and in private + life, been as steady as his own firm mind and as constant as his own + exalted virtues. Let us then, Mr. Speaker, pay the last tribute of respect + and affection to our departed friend. Let the grand council of the nation + display those sentiments which the nation feels. For this purpose I hold + in my hand some resolutions which I take the liberty of offering to the + House. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Resolved</i>, That this House will wait on the President in condolence + of this mournful event. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Resolved</i>, That the speaker's chair be shrouded with black, and + that the members and officers of the House wear black during the session. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Resolved</i>, That a committee, in conjunction with one from the + Senate, be appointed to consider on the most suitable manner of paying + honor to the memory of the man first in war, first in peace, and first in + the hearts of his fellow-citizens." + </p> + <p> + The Senate, on this melancholy occasion, addressed to the President the + following letter: + </p> + <p> + "The Senate of the United States respectfully take leave, sir, to express + to you their deep regret for the loss their country sustains in the death + of Gen. George Washington. + </p> + <p> + "This event, so distressing to all our fellow-citizens, must be peculiarly + heavy to you, who have long been associated with him in deeds of + patriotism. Permit us, sir, to mingle our tears with yours. On this + occasion it is manly to weep. To lose such a man at such a crisis is no + common calamity to the world. Our country mourns a father. The Almighty + Disposer of human events has taken from us our greatest benefactor and + ornament. It becomes us to submit with reverence to Him 'who maketh + darkness His pavilion.' + </p> + <p> + "With patriotic pride we review the life of our Washington and compare its + events with those of other countries who have been preeminent in fame. + Ancient and modern times are diminished before him. Greatness and guilt + have too often been allied, but his fame is whiter than it is brilliant. + The destroyers of nations stood abashed at the majesty of his virtues. It + reproved the intemperance of their ambition and darkened the splendor of + victory. The scene is closed, and we are no longer anxious lest misfortune + should sully his glory; he has traveled on to the end of his journey and + carried with him an increasing weight of honor; he has deposited it safely + where misfortune cannot tarnish it, where malice cannot blast it. Favored + of Heaven, he departed without exhibiting the weakness of humanity. + Magnanimous in death, the darkness of the grave could not obscure his + brightness. + </p> + <p> + "Such was the man whom we deplore. Thanks to God, his glory is + consummated. Washington yet lives on earth in his spotless example; his + spirit is in Heaven. Let his countrymen consecrate the memory of the + heroic general, the patriotic statesman, and the virtuous sage. Let them + teach their children never to forget that the fruits of his labors and his + example are their inheritance." + </p> + <p> + To this address the President returned the following answer: + </p> + <p> + "I receive with the most respectful and affectionate sentiments, in this + impressive address, the obliging expressions of your regret for the loss + our country has sustained in the death of her most esteemed, beloved, and + admired citizen. + </p> + <p> + "In the multitude of my thoughts and recollections on this melancholy + event, you will permit me to say that I have seen him in the days of + adversity, in some of the scenes of his deepest distress and most trying + perplexities. I have also attended him in the highest elevation and most + prosperous felicity, with uniform admiration of his wisdom, moderation, + and constancy. + </p> + <p> + "Among all our original associates in that memorable league of this + continent in 1774, which first expressed the sovereign will of a free + nation in America, he was the only one remaining in the general + government. Although with a constitution more enfeebled than his, at an + age when he thought it necessary to prepare for retirement, I feel myself + alone bereaved of my last brother; yet I derive a strong consolation from + the unanimous disposition which appears in all ages and classes to mingle + their sorrows with mine on this common calamity to the world. + </p> + <p> + "The life of our Washington cannot suffer by a comparison with those of + other countries, who have been most celebrated and exalted by fame. The + attributes and decorations of royalty could only have served to eclipse + the majesty of those virtues which made him, from being a modest citizen, + a more resplendent luminary. Misfortune, had he lived, could hereafter + have sullied his glory only with those superficial minds, who, believing + that character and actions are marked by success alone, rarely deserve to + enjoy it. Malice could never blast his honor, and envy made him a singular + exception to her universal rule. For himself, he had lived long enough to + life and to glory; for his fellow-citizens, if their prayers could have + been answered, he would have been immortal; for me, his departure is at a + most unfortunate moment. Trusting, however, in the wise and righteous + dominion of Providence over the passions of men and the results of their + actions, as well as over their lives, nothing remains for me but humble + resignation. + </p> + <p> + "His example is now complete, and it will teach wisdom and virtue to + magistrates, citizens, and men, not only in the present age, but in future + generations, as long as our history shall be read." + </p> + <p> + The committee of both Houses appointed to devise the mode by which the + nation should express its grief reported the following resolutions, which + were unanimously adopted: + </p> + <p> + "That a marble monument be erected by the United States at the capitol of + the city of Washington, and that the family of General Washington be + requested to permit his body to be deposited under it, and that the + monument be so designed as to commemorate the great events of his military + and political life. + </p> + <p> + "That there be a funeral from Congress Hall to the German Lutheran Church, + in memory of Gen. George Washington, on Thursday, the 26th instant, and + that an oration be prepared at the request of Congress, to be delivered + before both Houses that day; and that the president of the Senate and + speaker of the House of Representatives be desired to request one of the + members of Congress to prepare and deliver the same. + </p> + <p> + "That the President of the United States be requested to direct a copy of + these resolutions to be transmitted to Mrs. Washington, assuring her of + the profound respect Congress will ever bear to her person and character, + of their condolence on the late affecting dispensation of Providence, and + entreating her assent to the interment of the remains of General + Washington in the manner expressed in the first resolution. + </p> + <p> + "That the President be requested to issue his proclamation, notifying the + people throughout the United States the recommendation contained in the + third resolution." + </p> + <p> + These resolutions passed both Houses unanimously, and those which would + admit of immediate execution were carried into effect. The whole nation + appeared in mourning. The funeral procession was grand and solemn, and the + eloquent oration, which was delivered on the occasion by General Lee, was + heard with profound attention and with deep interest. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the United States similar marks of affliction were exhibited. + In every part of the continent funeral orations were delivered, and the + best talents of the nation were devoted to an expression of the nation's + grief. + </p> + <p> + To the letter of the President which transmitted to Mrs. Washington the + resolutions of Congress, and of which his secretary was the bearer, that + lady answered: + </p> + <p> + "Taught by the great example which I have so long had before me, never to + oppose my private wishes to the public will, I must consent to the request + made by Congress which you have had the goodness to transmit to me; and in + doing this I need not, I cannot, say what a sacrifice of individual + feeling I make to a sense of public duty." + </p> + <p> + On receiving intelligence of the death of Washington, Napoleon, then First + Consul of France, issued the following order of the day to the army: + </p> + <p> + "Washington is dead. This great man fought against tyranny; he established + the liberty of his country. His memory will always be dear to the French + people, as it will be to all freemen of the two worlds; and especially to + French soldiers, who, like him and the American soldiers, have combated + for liberty and equality." + </p> + <p> + Napoleon ordered that during ten days black crape should be suspended from + all the standards and flags throughout the republic. On the 9th of + February, 1800, a splendid funeral solemnity took place in the Champ de + Mars; and a funeral oration in honor of Washington was pronounced by M. de + la Fontaines, in the Hotel des Invalides, at which the First Consul and + the civil and military authorities were present. {2} + </p> + <p> + The British admiral in command of the fleet lying at Torbay, on receiving + the news of Washington's death, honored his memory by lowering his flag to + half-mast; and his example was followed by the whole fleet. {3} + </p> + <p> + Judge Marshall, who had enjoyed the advantage of an intimate personal + acquaintance with Washington, who was one of his most steadfast political + supporters, and whose able biography shows a thorough appreciation of his + extraordinary abilities and virtues, gives the following summary view of + his character: + </p> + <p> + "General Washington was rather above the common size, his frame was + robust, and his constitution vigorous—capable of enduring great + fatigue and requiring a considerable degree of exercise for the + preservation of his health. His exterior created in the beholder the idea + of strength, united with manly gracefulness. + </p> + <p> + "His manners were rather reserved than free, though they partook nothing + of that dryness and sternness which accompany reserve when carried to an + extreme, and on all proper occasions he could relax sufficiently to show + how highly he was gratified by the charms of conversation and the + pleasures of society. His person and whole deportment exhibited an + unaffected and indescribable dignity, unmingled with haughtiness, of which + all who approached him were sensible; and the attachment of those who + possessed his friendship and enjoyed his intimacy was ardent, but always + respectful. + </p> + <p> + "His temper was humane, benevolent, and conciliatory, but there was a + quickness in his sensibility to anything apparently offensive which + experience had taught him to watch, and to correct. + </p> + <p> + "In the management of his private affairs he exhibited an exact yet + liberal economy. His funds were not prodigally wasted on capricious and + ill-examined schemes, nor refused to beneficial though costly + improvements. They remained, therefore, competent to that expensive + establishment which his reputation, added to a hospitable temper, had, in + some measure, imposed upon him, and to those donations which real distress + has a right to claim from opulence. + </p> + <p> + "He made no pretensions to that vivacity which fascinates, or to that wit + which dazzles and frequently imposes on the understanding. More solid than + brilliant, judgment rather than genius, constituted the most prominent + feature of his character. + </p> + <p> + "Without making ostentatious professions of religion, he was a sincere + believer in the Christian faith and a truly devout man. + </p> + <p> + "As a military man, he was brave, enterprising, and cautious. That + malignity which has sought to strip him of all the higher qualities of a + general, has conceded to him personal courage and a firmness of resolution + which neither dangers nor difficulties could shake. But candor will allow + him other great and valuable endowments. If his military course does not + abound with splendid achievements, it exhibits a series of judicious + measures adopted to circumstances, which probably saved his country. + </p> + <p> + "Placed, without having studied the theory or been taught in the school of + experience the practice of war, at the head of an undisciplined, + ill-organized multitude, which was impatient of the restraints and + unacquainted with the ordinary duties of a camp, without the aid of + officers possessing those lights which the Commander-in-Chief was yet to + acquire, it would have been a miracle indeed had his conduct been + absolutely faultless. But, possessing an energetic and distinguishing + mind, on which the lessons of experience were never lost, his errors, if + he committed any, were quickly repaired, and those measures which the + state of things rendered most advisable were seldom, if ever, neglected. + Inferior to his adversary in the numbers, in the equipment, and in the + discipline of his troops, it is evidence of real merit that no great and + decisive advantages were ever obtained over him, and that the opportunity + to strike an important blow never passed away unused. He has been termed + the American Fabius, but those who compare his actions with his means will + perceive at least as much of Marcellus as of Fabius in his character. He + could not have been more enterprising without endangering the cause he + defended, nor have put more to hazard without incurring justly the + imputation of rashness. Not relying upon those chances which sometimes + give a favorable issue to attempts apparently desperate, his conduct was + regulated by calculations made upon the capacities of his army and the + real situation of his country. When called a second time to command the + armies of the United States a change of circumstances had taken place, and + he meditated a corresponding change of conduct. In modeling the army of + 1798 he sought for men distinguished for their boldness of execution, not + less than for their prudence in council, and contemplated a system of + continued attack. 'The enemy,' said the general in his private letters, + 'must never be permitted to gain foothold on our shores.' + </p> + <p> + "In his civil administration, as in his military career, ample and + repeated proofs were exhibited of that practical good sense, of that sound + judgment, which is perhaps the most rare and is certainly the most + valuable quality of the human mind. Devoting himself to the duties of his + station, and pursuing no object distinct from the public good, he was + accustomed to contemplate at a distance those critical situations in which + the United States might probably be placed, and to digest, before the + occasion required action, the line of conduct which it would be proper to + observe. + </p> + <p> + "Taught to distrust first impressions, he sought to acquire all the + information which was attainable, and to hear, without prejudice, all the + reasons which could be urged for or against a particular measure. His own + judgment was suspended until it became necessary to determine, and his + decisions, thus maturely made, were seldom if ever to be shaken. His + conduct, therefore, was systematic, and the great objects of his + administration were steadily pursued. + </p> + <p> + "Respecting, as the first magistrate in a free government must ever do, + the real and deliberate sentiments of the people, their gusts of passion + passed over, without ruffling the smooth surface of his mind. Trusting to + the reflecting good sense of the nation for approbation and support, he + had the magnanimity to pursue its real interests, in opposition to its + temporary prejudices; and, though far from being regardless of popular + favor, he could never stoop to retain, by deserving to lose it. In more + instances than one we find him committing his whole popularity to hazard, + and pursuing steadily, in opposition to a torrent which would have + overwhelmed a man of ordinary firmness, that course which had been + dictated by a sense of duty. + </p> + <p> + "In speculation he was a real republican, devoted to the constitution of + his country and to that system of equal political rights on which it is + founded. But between a balanced republic and a democracy the difference is + like that between order and chaos. Real liberty, he thought, was to be + preserved only by preserving the authority of the laws and maintaining the + energy of government. Scarcely did society present two characters which, + in his opinion, less resembled each other than a patriot and a demagogue. + </p> + <p> + "No man has ever appeared upon the theater of public action whose + integrity was more incorruptible, or whose principles were more perfectly + free from the contamination of those selfish and unworthy passions which + find their nourishment in the conflicts of party. Having no views which + required concealment, his real and avowed motives were the same; and his + whole correspondence does not furnish a single case from which even an + enemy would infer that he was capable, under any circumstances, of + stooping to the employment of duplicity. No truth can be uttered with more + confidence than that his ends were always upright and his means always + pure. He exhibits the rare example of a politician to whom wiles were + absolutely unknown, and whose professions to foreign governments and to + his own countrymen were always sincere. In him was fully exemplified the + real distinction which forever exists between wisdom and cunning, and the + importance as well as truth of the maxim, that 'honesty is the best + policy.' + </p> + <p> + "If Washington possessed ambition that passion was, in his bosom, so + regulated by principles or controlled by circumstances that it was neither + vicious nor turbulent. Intrigue was never employed as the means of its + gratification, nor was personal aggrandizement its object. The various + high and important stations to which he was called by the public voice + were unsought by himself; and, in consenting to fill them, he seems rather + to have yielded to a general conviction that the interests of his country + would be thereby promoted, than to an avidity for power. + </p> + <p> + "Neither the extraordinary partiality of the American people, the + extravagant praises which were bestowed upon him, nor the inveterate + opposition and malignant calumnies which he encountered, had any visible + influence upon his conduct. The cause is to be looked for in the texture + of his mind. + </p> + <p> + "In him, that innate and unassuming modesty which adulation would have + offended, which the voluntary plaudits of millions could not betray into + indiscretion, and which never obtruded upon others his claims to superior + consideration, was happily blended with a high and correct sense of + personal dignity, and with a just consciousness of that respect which is + due to station. Without exertion he could maintain the happy medium + between that arrogance which wounds and that facility which allows the + office to be degraded in the person who fills it. + </p> + <p> + "It is impossible to contemplate the great events which have occurred in + the United States under the auspices of Washington without ascribing them, + in some measure, to him. If we ask the causes of the prosperous issue of a + war, against the successful termination of which there were so many + probabilities; of the good which was produced, and the ill which was + avoided, during an administration fated to contend with the strongest + prejudices that a combination of circumstances and of passions could + produce; of the constant favor of the great mass of his fellow-citizens, + and of the confidence which, to the last moment of his life, they reposed + in him, the answer, so far as these causes may be found in his character, + will furnish a lesson well meriting the attention of those who are + candidates for political fame. + </p> + <p> + "Endowed by nature with a sound judgment, and an accurate discriminating + mind, he feared not that laborious attention which made him perfectly + master of those subjects, in all their relations, on which he was to + decide; and this essential quality was guided by an unvarying sense of + moral right, which would tolerate the employment only of those means that + would bear the most rigid examination, by a fairness of intention which + neither sought nor required disguise, and by a purity of virtue which was + not only untainted but unsuspected." The eulogies of Washington, at the + time of his death, were almost as numerous as the towns and cities of the + republic; for everywhere funeral honors were paid to his memory. The + following, by the celebrated orator, Fisher Ames, pronounced before the + Legislature of Massachusetts, is as remarkable for its conciseness as for + its just and comprehensive estimate of Washington's character. + </p> + <p> + "It is not impossible," he said, "that some will affect to consider the + honors paid to this great patriot by the nation as excessive, idolatrous, + and degrading to freemen who are all equal. I answer, that refusing to + virtue its legitimate honors would not prevent their being lavished in + future on any worthless and ambitious favorite. If this day's example + should have its natural effect, it will be salutary. Let such honors be so + conferred only when, in future, they shall be so merited; then the public + sentiment will not be misled nor the principles of a just equality + corrupted. The best evidence of reputation is a man's whole life. We have + now, alas, all of Washington's before us. There has scarcely appeared a + really great man whose character has been more admired in his lifetime or + less correctly understood by his admirers. When it is comprehended it is + no easy task to delineate its excellencies in such a manner as to give the + portrait both interest and resemblance, for it requires thought and study + to understand the true ground of the superiority of his character over + many others, whom he resembled in the principles of action and even in the + manner of acting. But, perhaps, he excels all the great men that ever + lived, in the steadiness of his adherence to his maxims of life and in the + uniformity of all his conduct to those maxims. Those maxims, though wise, + were yet not so remarkable for their wisdom as for their authority over + his life, for if there were any errors in his judgment—and he + displayed as few as any man—we know of no blemishes in his virtue. + He was the patriot without reproach; he loved his country well enough to + hold success in serving it an ample recompense. Thus far, self-love and + love of country coincided, but when his country needed sacrifices that no + other man could, or perhaps would be willing to make, he did not even + hesitate. This was virtue in its most exalted character. More than once he + put his fame at hazard, when he had reason to think it would be + sacrificed, at least in this age. Two instances cannot be denied: when the + army was disbanded, and again when he stood, like Leonidas at the pass of + Thermopylae, to defend our independence against France. + </p> + <p> + "It is indeed almost as difficult to draw his character as to draw the + portrait of virtue. The reasons are similar; our ideas of moral excellence + are obscure, because they are complex, and we are obliged to resort to + illustrations. Washington's example is the happiest to show what virtue + is, and to delineate his character, we naturally expatiate on the beauty + of virtue; much must be felt and much imagined. His pre-eminence is not so + much to be seen in the display of any one virtue, as in the possession of + them all and in the practice of the most difficult. Hereafter, therefore, + his character must be studied before it will be striking, and then it will + be admitted as a model—a precious one to a free republic. + </p> + <p> + "It is no less difficult to speak of his talents. They were adapted to + lead, without dazzling mankind, and to draw forth and employ the talents + of others without being misled by them. In this he was certainly superior, + that he neither mistook nor misapplied his own. His great modesty and + reserve would have concealed them if great occasions had not called them + forth, and then, as he never spoke from the affectation to shine nor acted + from any sinister motives, it is from their effects only that we are to + judge of their greatness and extent. In public trusts, where men, acting + conspicuously, are cautious, and in those private concerns where few + conceal or resist their weakness, Washington was uniformly great, pursuing + right conduct from right maxims. His talents were such as to assist a + sound judgment and ripen with it. His prudence was consummate and seemed + to take the direction of his powers and passions; for, as a soldier, he + was more solicitous to avoid mistakes that might be fatal than to perform + exploits that are brilliant; and, as a statesman, to adhere to just + principles, however old, than to pursue novelties; and, therefore, in both + characters, his qualities were singularly adapted to the interest and were + tried in the greatest perils of the country. His habits of inquiry were so + far remarkable that he was never satisfied with investigating, nor + desisted from it, so long as he had less than all the light that he could + obtain upon a subject, and then he made his decision without bias. + </p> + <p> + "This command over the partialities that so generally stop men short or + turn them aside in their pursuit of truth, is one of the chief causes of + his unvaried course of right conduct in so many difficult scenes, where + every human action must be presumed to err. If he had strong passions he + had learned to subdue them, and to be moderate and mild. If he had + weaknesses, he concealed them, which is rare, and excluded them from the + government of his temper and conduct, which is still more rare. If he + loved fame, he never made improper compliances for what is called + popularity. The fame he enjoyed is of the kind that will last forever, yet + it was rather the effect than the motive of his conduct. Some future + Plutarch will search for a parallel to his character. Epaminondas is, + perhaps, the brightest name of all antiquity. Our Washington resembled him + in the purity and ardor of his patriotism, and, like him, he first exalted + the glory of his country. There, it is to be hoped, the parallel ends, for + Thebes fell with Epamanondas. But such comparisons cannot be pursued far + without departing from the similitude. For we shall find it as difficult + to compare great men as great rivers; some we admire for the length and + rapidity of their currents and the grandeur of their cataracts; others for + the majestic silence and fullness of their streams; we cannot bring them + together, to measure the difference of their waters. The unambitious life + of Washington, declining fame yet courted by it, seemed, like the Ohio, to + choose its long way through solitudes, diffusing fertility, or like his + own Potomac, widening and deepening its channel as it approaches the sea, + and displaying most the usefulness and serenity of its greatness toward + the end of its course. Such a citizen would do honor to any country. The + constant veneration and affection of his country will show that it was + worthy of such a citizen. + </p> + <p> + "However his military fame may excite the wonder of mankind, it is chiefly + by his civil magistracy that his example will instruct them. Great + generals have arisen in all ages of the world, and perhaps most of them in + despotism and darkness. In times of violence and convulsion they rise, by + the force of the whirlwind, high enough to ride in it and direct the + storm. Like meteors, they glare on the black clouds with a splendor that, + while it dazzles and terrifies, makes nothing visible but the darkness. + The fame of heroes is indeed growing vulgar; they multiply in every long + war; they stand in history and thicken in their ranks almost as + undistinguished as their own soldiers. + </p> + <p> + "But such a chief magistrate as Washington appears like the pole-star in a + clear sky to direct the skilful statesman. His presidency will form an + epoch and be distinguished as the age of Washington. Already it assumes + its high place in the political region. Like the milky-way, it whitens + along its allotted portion of the hemisphere. The latest generations of + men will survey, through the telescope of history, the space where so many + virtues blend their rays, and delight to separate them into groups and + distinct virtues. As the best illustration of them, the living monument, + to which the first of patriots would have chosen to consign his fame, it + is my earnest prayer to Heaven that our country may subsist even to that + late day in the plenitude of its liberty and happiness, and mingle its + mild glory with Washington's." + </p> + <p> + 1. Footnote: Our authority for the details of Washington's last illness + and death is a statement carefully prepared by Mr. Lear at the time, and + published from the original in Sparks' "Life of Washington." It is the + most exact and reliable authority extant. + </p> + <p> + 2. Footnote: Sparks, "Life of Washington." + </p> + <p> + 3. 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