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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Reign of Tiberius, Out of the First Six Annals of Tacitus + +Author: Tacitus + +Editor: Arthur Galton + +Translator: Thomas Gordon + + +Release Date: April, 2005 [EBook #7959] +This file was first posted on June 5, 2003 +Last Updated: May 30, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REIGN OF TIBERIUS *** + + + + +Text file produced by Anne Soulard, Tiffany Vergon, Charles Aldarondo, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +HTML file produced by David Widger + + + + +</pre> + + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THE REIGN OF TIBERIUS, OUT OF THE FIRST SIX ANNALS OF TACITUS + </h1> + <h3> + WITH HIS ACCOUNT OF GERMANY, AND LIFE OF AGRICOLA + </h3> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Tacitus + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h4> + Translated By Thomas Gordon <br /> <br /> Edited By Arthur Galton + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + "Alme Sol, curru nitido diem qui + Promis et celas, aliusque et idem + Nasceris, possis nihil urbe Roma + Visere maius." + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE FIRST SIX BOOKS OF THE ANNALS OF TACITUS: + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <b>THE ANNALS OF TACITUS</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> BOOK I. — A.D. 14 AND 15. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> BOOK II. — A.D. 16-19. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> BOOK III. — A.D. 20-22. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> BOOK IV. — A.D. 23-28. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> BOOK V. — A.D. 29-31. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> BOOK VI. — A.D. 32-37. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> A TREATISE OF THE SITUATION, CUSTOMS, AND PEOPLE + OF GERMANY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> THE LIFE OF AGRICOLA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE + SITUATION, CLIMATE, AND PEOPLE OF BRITAIN. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTION + </h2> + <p> + "I am going to offer to the publick the Translation of a work, which, for + wisdom and force, is in higher fame and consideration, than almost any + other that has yet appeared amongst men:" it is in this way, that Thomas + Gordon begins The Discourses, which he has inserted into his rendering of + Tacitus; and I can find none better to introduce this volume, which my + readers owe to Gordon's affectionate and laborious devotion. Caius + Cornelius Tacitus, the Historian, was living under those Emperors, who + reigned from the year 54 to the year 117, of the Christian era; but the + place and the date of his birth are alike uncertain, and the time of his + death is not accurately known. He was a friend of the younger Pliny, who + was born in the year 61; and, it is possible, they were about the same + age. Some of Pliny's letters were written to Tacitus: the most famous, + describes that eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which caused the death of old + Pliny, and overwhelmed the cities of Pompeii and of Herculaneum. The + public life of Tacitus began under Vespasian; and, therefore, he must have + witnessed some part of the reign of Nero: and we read in him, too, that he + was alive after the accession of the Emperor Trajan. In the year 77, + Julius Agricola, then Consul, betrothed his daughter to Tacitus; and they + were married in the following year. In 88, Tacitus was Praetor; and at the + Secular Games of Domitian, he was one of the <i>Quindecimviri</i>: these + were sad and solemn officers, guardians of the Sibylline Verse; and + intercessors for the Roman People, during their grave centenaries of + praise and worship. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Quaeque Aventinum tenet Algidumque, + Quindecim Diana preces virorum + Curet; et vobis pueorum amicas + Applicet aures.</i> +</pre> + <p> + From a passage in "The Life of Agricola," we may believe that Tacitus + attended in the Senate; for he accuses himself as one of that frightened + assembly, which was an unwilling participator in the cruelties of + Domitian. In the year 97, when the Consul Virginius Rufus died, Tacitus' + was made <i>Consul Suffectus</i>; and he delivered the funeral oration of + his predecessor: Pliny says, that "it completed the good fortune of Rufus, + to have his panegyric spoken by so eloquent a man." From this, and from + other sayings, we learn that Tacitus was a famous advocate; and his + "Dialogue about Illustrious Orators" bears witness to his admirable taste, + and to his practical knowledge of Roman eloquence: of his own orations, + however, not a single fragment has been left. We know not, whether Tacitus + had children; but the Emperor Tacitus, who reigned in 275, traced his + genealogy to the Historian. "If we can prefer personal merit to accidental + greatness," Gibbon here observes, "we shall esteem the birth of Tacitus + more truly noble than that of Kings. He claimed his descent from the + philosophic historian, whose writings will instruct the last generations + of mankind. From the assiduous study of his immortal ancestor, he derived + his knowledge of the Roman Constitution and of human nature." This Emperor + gave orders, that the writings of Tacitus should be placed in all the + public libraries; and that ten copies should be taken annually, at the + public charge. Notwithstanding the Imperial anxiety, a valuable part of + Tacitus is lost: indeed we might argue, from the solicitude of the + Emperor, as well as from his own "distinction," that Tacitus could not be + generally popular; and, in the sixteenth century, a great portion of him + was reduced to the single manuscript, which lay hidden within a German + monastery. Of his literary works, five remain; some fairly complete, the + rest in fragments. Complete, are "The Life of Julius Agricola," "The + Dialogue on Orators," and "The Account of Germany": these are, + unfortunately, the minor works of Tacitus. His larger works are "The + History," and "The Annals." "The History" extended from the second + Consulship of Galba, in the year 69, to the murder of Domitian, in the + year 96; and Tacitus desired to write the happy times of Nerva, and of + Trajan: we are ignorant, whether infirmity or death prevented his design. + Of "The History," only four books have been preserved; and they contain + the events of a single year: a year, it is true, which, saw three civil + wars, and four Emperors destroyed; a year of crime, and accidents, and + prodigies: there are few sentences more powerful, than Tacitus' + enumeration of these calamities, in the opening chapters. The fifth book + is imperfect; it is of more than common interest to some people, because + Tacitus mentions the siege of Jerusalem by Titus; though what he says + about the Chosen People, here and elsewhere, cannot be satisfactory to + them nor gratifying to their admirers. With this fragment, about revolts + in the provinces of Gaul and Syria, "The History" ends. "The Annals" begin + with the death of Augustus, in the year 14; and they were continued until + the death of Nero, in 68. The reign of Tiberius is nearly perfect, though + the fall of Sejanus is missing out of it. The whole of Caligula, the + beginning of Claudius, and the end of Nero, have been destroyed: to those, + who know the style of Tacitus and the lives and genius of Caligula and + Nero, the loss is irreparable; and the admirers of Juvenal must always + regret, that from the hand of Tacitus we have only the closing scene, and + not the golden prime, of Messalina. + </p> + <p> + The works of Tacitus are too great for a Camelot volume; and, therefore, I + have undertaken a selection of them. I give entire, "The Account of + Germany" and "The Life of Agricola": these works are entertaining, and + should have a particular interest for English readers. I have added to + them, the greater portion of the first six books of "The Annals"; and I + have endeavoured so to guide my choice, that it shall present the history + of Tiberius. In this my volume, the chapters are not numbered: for the + omission, I am not responsible; and I can only lament, what I may not + control. But scholars, who know their Tacitus, will perceive what I have + left out; and to those others, who are not familiar with him, the omission + can be no affront. I would say briefly, that I have omitted some chapters, + which describe criminal events and legal tragedies in Rome: but of these, + I have retained every chapter, which preserves an action or a saying of + Tiberius; and what I have inserted is a sufficient specimen of the + remainder. I have omitted many chapters, which are occupied with wearisome + disputes between the Royal Houses of Parthia and Armenia: and I have + spared my readers the history of Tacfarinas, an obscure and tedious rebel + among the Moors; upon whose intricate proceedings Tacitus appears to have + relied, when he was at a loss for better material. To reject any part of + Tacitus, is a painful duty; because the whole of him is good and valuable: + but I trust, that I have maintained the unity of my selection, by + remembering that it is to be an history of Tiberius. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar, the third master of the Roman world, + derived his origin, by either parent, from the Claudian race; the proudest + family, and one of the most noble and illustrious, in the ancient + Commonwealth: the pages of Livy exhibit the generosity, the heroism, and + the disasters, of the Claudii; who were of unequal fortune indeed, but + always magnificent, in the various events of peace and war. Suetonius + enumerates, among their ancestral honours, twenty-eight Consulships, five + Dictators, seven Censorial commissions, and seven triumphs: their <i>cognomen</i> + of Nero, he says, means in the Sabine tongue "vigorous and bold," <i>fortis + et strenuus</i>; and the long history of the Claudian House does not belie + their gallant name. Immediately after the birth of Tiberius, or perhaps + before it, his mother Livia was divorced from Claudius, and married by + Augustus: the Empress is revealed mysteriously and almost as a divine + being, in the progress of "The Annals." The Emperor adopted the offspring + of Claudius: among the Romans, these legal adoptions were as valid as + descent by blood; and Tiberius was brought up to be the son of Caesar. His + natural parts were improved and strengthened, by the training of the Forum + and the camp. Tiberius became a good orator; and he gained victory and + reputation, in his wars against the savages of Germany and Dalmatia: but + his peculiar talent was for literature; in this, "he was a great purist, + and affected a wonderful precision about his words." He composed some + Greek poems, and a Latin Elegy upon Lucius Caesar: he also wrote an + account of his own life, an <i>Apologia</i>; a volume, which the Emperor + Domitian was never tired of reading. But the favourite pursuit of Tiberius + was Greek divinity; like some of the mediaeval Doctors, he frequented the + by-ways of religion, and amused his leisure with the more difficult + problems in theology: "Who was Hecuba's mother?" "What poetry the Sirens + chaunted?" "What was Achilles' name, when he lay hid among the women?" The + writings of Tiberius have all perished; and in these days, we have only + too much cause to regret, that nothing of his "precision" has come down to + us. The battles of Tiberius are celebrated in the Odes of Horace: one of + the Epistles is addressed to him; and in another, written to Julius + Florus, an officer with Tiberius, Horace enquires about the learned + occupations of the Imperial cohort. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Quid studiosa Cohors operum struit? Hoc quoque curo.</i> +</pre> + <p> + It was from his commerce with the Ancients, as I always think, that George + Buchanan derived his opinion, strange to modern ears, that "a great + commander must of necessity have all the talents of an author." Velleius + Paterculus, who served with Tiberius in his campaigns, tells us of his + firm discipline, and of his kindness to the soldiers. + </p> + <p> + The Caesars Caius and Lucius, grandsons of Augustus, Marcellus his nephew, + and Drusus the brother of Tiberius, all died: they died young, rich in + promise, the darlings of the Roman People; "Breves et infaustos Populi + Romani amores;" and thus, in the procession of events, Tiberius became the + heir. "The Annals" open with his accession, and Tacitus has narrated the + vicissitudes of his reign. Velleius Paterculus has written its happier + aspects: he describes how the "Pax Augusta," the "Roman Peace," delivered + every quarter of the world from violence. He celebrates the return of + Justice and prosperity, of order, of mild and equable taxation, of + military discipline and magisterial authority. It is like the Saturnian + Reign, which Virgil sings in the Eclogue "Pollio." The first action of + Tiberius was to canonise his father, and Augustus was translated to the + banquet of the Gods: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Quos inter Augustus recumbens, + Purpureo bibit ore nectar.</i> +</pre> + <p> + Augustus was his great example; "he not only called him, but considered + him, divine;" "non appelavit eum, sed facit Deum." The Latin of Paterculus + is here so elegant and happy, that, for the pleasure of the learned, I + transcribe it: for others, I have already given something of the sense. + "Revocata in forum fides; submota e foro seditio, ambitio campo, discordia + curia: sepultaeque ac situ obsitae, justitia, aequitas, industria, + civitati, redditae; accessit magistratibus auctoritas, senatui majestas, + judiciis gravitas; compressa theatralis seditio; recte faciendi, omnibus + aut incussa voluntas aut imposita necessitas. Honorantur recta, prava + puniuntur. Suspicit potentem humilis, non timet. Antecedit, non contemnit, + humiliorem potens. Quando annona moderatior? Quando pax laetior? Diffusa + in Orientis Occidentisque tractus, quidquid meridiano aut septentrione + finitur, Pax Augusta, per omnes terrarum orbis angulos metu servat + immunes. Fortuita non civium tantummodo, sed Urbium damna, Principis + munificentia vindicat. Restitutae urbes Asiae: vindictae ab injuriis + magistratuum provinciae. Honor dignis paratissimus: poena in malos sera, + sed aliqua. Superatur aequitate gratia, ambitio virtute: nam facere recte + cives suos, Princeps optimus faciendo docet; cumque sit imperio maximus, + exemplo major est." + </p> + <p> + Tiberius reigned from the year 14, to the year 37. He died in the villa of + Lucullus, and he was buried in the mausoleum of the Caesars. The manner of + his death is variously related: Tacitus gives one account; Suetonius, + another. According to the last writer, he died like George II., alone, + having just risen from his bed; and he was thus found by his attendants: + "Seneca cum scribit subito vocatis ministris, ac nemine respondente, + consurrexisse; nec procul a lectulo, deficientibus viribus, concidisse." + Tiberius was tall, and beautiful. Suetonius tells us of his great eyes, + which could see in the dark; of his broad shoulders, his martial bearing, + and the fine proportion of his limbs: he describes, too, the unusual + strength of his hands and fingers, especially of the left hand. His health + was good; because, from his thirtieth year, he was his own physician. + "Valetudine prosperrima usus est, tempore quidem principatus paene toto + prope illesa; quamvis a trigesimo aetatis anno arbitratu eam suo rexerit, + sine adjutamento consiliove medicorum." The Emperor Julian describes him + "severe and grim; with a statesman's care, and a soldier's frankness, + curiously mingled:" this was in his old age. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Down the pale cheek, long lines of shadow slope; + Which years, and curious thought, and suffering give.</i> +</pre> + <p> + At Rome, is a sculpture of Tiberius; he is represented young, seated, + crowned with rays, exceedingly handsome and majestic: if the figure were + not known to be a Caesar, the beholder would say it was a God. + </p> + <p> + There is another personage in "The Annals," whose history there is + mutilated, and perhaps dissembled; of whose character my readers may like + to know something more, than Tacitus has told them: I mean Sejanus, a man + always to be remembered; because whatever judgment we may form about his + political career, and on this question the authorities are divided, yet it + is admitted by them all, that he introduced those reforms among the + Praetorian Cohorts, which made them for a long time, proprietors of the + throne, and the disposers of the Imperial office. To this minister, + Paterculus attributes as many virtues as he has bestowed upon Tiberius: "a + man grave and courteous," he says, "with 'a fine old-fashioned grace'; + leisurely in his ways, retiring, modest; appearing to be careless, and + therefore gaining all his ends; outwardly polite and quiet, but an eager + soul, wary, inscrutable, and vigilant." Whatever he may have been in + reality, he was at one time valued by Tiberius. "The whole Senate," Bacon + says, "dedicated an altar to Friendship as to a Goddess, in respect of the + great Dearness of Friendship between them two:" and in the Essay "Of + Friendship," Bacon has many deep sentences about the favourites of Kings, + their "Participes Curarum." I would summon out of "The Annals," that + episode of Tiberius imprisoned within the falling cave, and shielded by + Sejanus from the descending roof. "Coelo Musa beat:" Sejanus has + propitiated no Muse; and although something more, than the "invida + taciturnitas" of the poet, lies heavy upon his reputation, he shall find + no apologist in me. But over against the hard words of Tacitus, it is only + fair to place the commendations of Paterculus, and even Tacitus remarks, + that after the fall of Sejanus, Tiberius became worse; like Henry VIII., + after the fall of Wolsey. Livia and Sejanus are said by Tacitus, to have + restrained the worst passions of the Emperor. The two best authorities + contradict one another; they differ, as much as our political organs + differ, about the characters of living statesmen: and who are we, to + decide absolutely, from a distance of two thousand years, at our mere + caprice, and generally without sufficient evidence, that one ancient + writer is correct; and another, dishonest or mistaken? This is only less + absurd, than to prefer the groping style and thoughts of a modern pedant, + usually a German as well, to the clear words of an old writer, who may be + the sole remaining authority for the statements we presume to question; or + for those very facts, upon which our reasonings depend. And how easy it is + to misunderstand what we read in ancient histories, to be deceived by the + plainest records, or to put a sinister interpretation upon events, which + in their own time were passed over in silence or officially explained as + harmless! Let me take an illustration, of what I mean, from something + recent. Every one must remember the last hours of the Emperor Frederick: + the avenues to his palace infested by armed men; the gloom and secrecy + within; without, an impatient heir, and the posting to and fro of + messengers. We must own, that the ceremonials of the Prussian Court + departed in a certain measure from the ordinary mild usage of humanity; + but we attributed this to nothing more, than the excitement of a youthful + Emperor, or the irrepressible agitation of German officials. But if these + events should find a place in history, or if the annals of the Kings of + Prussia should be judged worth reading by a distant Age; who could blame + an historian for saying, that these precautions were not required for the + peaceful and innocent devolution of the crown from a father to his son. + Would not our historian be justified, if he referred to the tumults and + intrigues of a Praetorian election; if he compared these events to the + darkest pages in Suetonius, or reminded his readers of the most criminal + narratives in the authors of the "Augustan History"? From Sejanus and the + Emperor William, I return once more to Tiberius; from the present <i>Kaiser</i>, + to a genuine Caesar. + </p> + <p> + It is not my purpose here to abridge Tacitus, to mangle his translator, + nor to try and say what is better said in the body of the volume: but when + my readers have made themselves acquainted with Tiberius, they may be glad + to find some discussion about him, as he is presented to us in "The + Annals"; and among all the personages of history, I doubt if there be a + more various or more debated character. Mr. Matthew Arnold thus describes + him: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Cruel, but composed and bland, + Dumb, inscrutable and grand; + So Tiberius might have sat, + Had Tiberius been a cat.</i> +</pre> + <p> + And these verses express the popular belief, with great felicity: I must + leave my readers, to make their own final judgment for themselves. Whether + Tacitus will have helped them to a decision, I cannot guess: he seems to + me, to deepen the mystery of Tiberius. At a first reading, and upon the + surface, he is hostile to the Emperor; there is no doubt, that he himself + remained hostile, and that he wished his readers to take away a very bad + impression: but, as we become familiar with his pages, as we ponder his + words and compare his utterances, we begin to suspect our previous + judgment; another impression steals upon us, and a second, and a third, + until there grows imperceptibly within us a vision of something different. + Out of these dim and floating visions, a clearer image is gradually + formed, with lineaments and features; and, at length, a new Tiberius is + created within our minds: just as we may have seen a portrait emerge under + the artist's hand, from the intricate and scattered lines upon an easel. + Then it dawns upon us, that, after all, Tacitus was not really an intimate + at Capri; that he never received the secret confidences of Tiberius, nor + attended upon his diversions. And at last it is borne in upon us, as we + read, that, if we put aside rumours and uncertain gossip, whatever + Tiberius does and says is unusually fine: but that Tacitus is not + satisfied with recording words and actions; that he supplies motives to + them, and then passes judgment upon his own assumptions: that the evidence + for the murder of Germanicus, for instance, would hardly be accepted in a + court of law; and that if Piso were there found guilty, the Emperor could + not be touched. At any rate, we find it stated in "The Annals," that + "Tiberius by the temptations of money was incorruptible;" and he refused + the legacies of strangers, or of those who had natural heirs. "He wished + to restore the people to severer manners," like many sovereigns; unlike + the most of them, "in his own household, he observed the ancient + parsimony." Besides the "severa paupertas" of Camillus and Fabricius, he + had something of their primitive integrity; and he declined, with scorn, + to be an accomplice in the proposed assassination of Arminius: "non fraude + neque occultis, sed palam et armatum, Populum Romanum hostes suos + ulcisci." He protected magistrates and poor suitors, against the nobles. + He refused to add to the public burdens, by pensioning needy Senators: but + he was charitable to poor debtors; and lavish to the people, whether + Romans or Provincials, in times of calamity and want. Not least admirable + was his quiet dignity, in periods of disturbance and of panic: he refused + to hurry to the mutinous legions, or to a mean rebellion in Gaul; and he + condescended to reason excellently about his behaviour, when his people + were sane enough to listen. He was both sensible and modest: he restrained + the worship of Augustus, "lest through being too common it should be + turned into an idle ceremony;" he refused the worship of himself, except + in one temple dedicated equally to the Senate and to the Emperor. Tiberius + could be pathetic, too: "I bewail my son, and ever shall bewail him," he + says of Germanicus; and again, "Eloquence is not measured by fortune, and + it is a sufficient honour, if he be ranked among the ancient orators." + "Princes are mortal;" he says again, "the Commonwealth, eternal." Then his + wit, how fine it was; how quick his humour: when he answered the tardy + condolences from Troy, by lamenting the death of Hector: when he advised + an eager candidate, "not to embarrass his eloquence by impetuosity;" when + he said of another, a low, conceited person, "he gives himself the airs of + a dozen ancestors," "videtur mihi ex se natus:" when he muttered in the + Senate, "O homines ad servitutem paratos:" when he refused to become a + persecutor; "It would be much better, if the Gods were allowed to manage + their own affairs," "Deorum injurias Dis curae." In all this; in his + leisured ways, in his dislike of parade and ceremonial, in his mockery of + flatterers and venal "patriots"; how like to Charles II., "the last King + of England who was a man of parts." And no one will deny "parts" to + Tiberius; he was equal to the burden of Imperial cares: the latest + researches have discovered, that his provincial administration was most + excellent; and even Tacitus admits, that his choice of magistrates "could + not have been better." He says, in another passage, "The Emperor's domains + throughout Italy, were thin; the behaviour of his slaves modest; the + freed-men, who managed his house, few; and, in his disputes with + particulars, the courts were open and the law equal." This resembles the + account of Antoninus Pius, by Marcus Aurelius; and it is for this modesty, + this careful separation between private and public affairs, that Tacitus + has praised Agricola. I am well contented, with the virtues of the + Antonines; but there are those, who go beyond. I have seen a book entitled + "The History of that Inimitable Monarch Tiberius, who in the xiv year of + his Reign requested the Senate to permit the worship of Jesus Christ; and + who suppressed all Opposition to it." In this learned volume, it is proved + out of the Ancients, that Tiberius was the most perfect of all sovereigns; + and he is shown to be nothing less than the forerunner of Saint Peter, the + first Apostle and the nursing-father of the Christian Church. The author + was a Cambridge divine, and one of their Professors of mathematics: "a + science," Goldsmith says, "to which the meanest intellects are equal." + </p> + <p> + Upon the other hand, we have to consider that view of Tiberius, which is + thus shown by Milton; + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>This Emperor hath no son, and now is old; + Old and lascivious: and from Rome retired + To Capreae, an island small but strong, + On the Campanian shore; with purpose there, + His horrid lusts in private to enjoy.</i> +</pre> + <p> + This theme is enlarged by Suetonius, and evidently enjoyed: he represents + Tiberius, as addicted to every established form of vice; and as the + inventor of new names, new modes, and a new convenience, for unheard-of + immoralities. These propensities of the Emperor are handled by Tacitus + with more discretion, though he does not conceal them. I wish neither to + condemn nor to condone Tiberius: I desire, if it be possible, to see him + as he is; and whether he be good or bad, he is very interesting. I have + drawn attention to what is good in "The Annals," because Tacitus leans + with all his weight upon the bad; and either explains away what is + favourable, or passes over it with too light a stroke. At the end, I must + conclude, as I began, that the character of Tiberius is a mystery. It is a + commonplace, that no man is entirely good nor entirely evil; but the + histories of Tiberius are too contradictory, to be thus dismissed by a + platitude. It is not easy to harmonise Paterculus with Suetonius: it is + impossible to reconcile Tacitus with himself; or to combine the strong, + benevolent ruler with the Minotaur of Capri. The admirers of an almost + perfect prose, must be familiar with a story, which is not the highest + effort of that prose: they will remember a certain man with a double + nature, like all of us; but, unlike us, able to separate his natures, and + to personate at will his good or evil genius. Tiberius was fond of magic, + and of the curious arts: it may be, that he commanded the secrets of which + Mr. Stevenson has dreamed! + </p> + <p> + The readers of "The Annals" have seen enough of blood, of crime, and of + Tiberius; and I would now engage their attention upon a more pleasing + aspect of Imperial affairs: I wish to speak about the Empire itself; about + its origin, its form, its history: and, if my powers were equal to the + task, I would sketch a model Emperor; Marcus Aurelius, or the elder + Antonine. Gibbon has described the limits of the Roman Empire; which + "comprised the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilised portion + of mankind." Its boundaries were "the Rhine and Danube, on the north; the + Euphrates, on the east; towards the south, the sandy deserts of Arabia and + Africa;" and upon the west, the Atlantic ocean. It was over this extensive + monarchy, that Caesar reigned; by the providence of Caesar, was the whole + defended and administered. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Quis Parthum paveat? Quis gelidum Scythen + Quis, Germania quos horrida parturit + Fetus, incolumi Caesare?</i> +</pre> + <p> + The frontiers of the Empire, and its richest provinces, had been obtained + for the most part in the long wars of the Republic. The conquest of Gaul, + and the establishment of the Empire, was achieved by Julius Caesar; and to + him, the civilised world is indebted for that majestic "Roman Peace," + under which it lived and prospered for nearly nineteen centuries: the + Eastern Empire was maintained in Constantinople, until 1453; and the + Empire of the West continued, though in waning splendour, until the last + Caesar abdicated his throne at the order of Napoleon. The nations of + modern Europe were developed out of the ruin of Caesar's Empire; and from + that, the more civilised among them have obtained the politer share of + their laws, their institutions, and their language: and to Caesar, we are + indebted for those inestimable treasures of antiquity, which the Roman + Empire and the Roman Church have preserved from the barbarians, and have + handed on for the delight and the instruction of modern times. There are + those, who can perceive in Caesar nothing but a demagogue, and a tyrant; + and in the regeneration of the Commonwealth, nothing but a vulgar crime: + among these, I am sorry to inscribe the name of Thomas Gordon. The + supporters of this view are generally misled, by the specious allurements + of the term "Republic." Tiberius, it may be, was not a perfect ruler, and + other sovereigns were even more ferocious; but the excesses of the most + reckless Emperor are hardly to be compared to the wholesale massacres and + spoliations, which attended the last agonies of the expiring Commonwealth. + After the Macedonian and Asiatic wars, we find a turbulent and servile + crowd, instead of the old families and tribes of Roman citizens; instead + of allies, oppressed and plundered provinces; instead of the heroes of the + young Republic, a set of worn-out, lewd, and greedy nobles. By these, the + spoils of the world were appropriated, and its government abused: Caesar + gave the helpless peoples a legal sovereign, and preserved them from the + lawless tyranny of a thousand masters. He narrates himself, that "he found + the Romans enslaved by a faction, and he restored their liberty:" "Caesar + interpellat; ut Populum Romanum, paucorum factione oppressum, in + libertatem vindicat." The march of Caesar into Italy was a triumphal + progress; and there can be no doubt, that the common people received him + gladly. Again he says, "Nihil esse Rempublicam; appellationem modo, sine + corpore et specie;" "The Republic is nothing but an empty name, a phantom + and a shadow." That Caesar should have seen this, is the highest evidence + of his genius: that Cicero did not see it, is to himself, and to his + country, the great misfortune of his career; and to his admirers, one of + the most melancholy events in Roman history. The opinions of Tacitus were + not far removed from the opinions of Cicero, but they were modified by + what he saw of Nerva and of Trajan: he tells us, how Agricola looked + forward to the blessings of a virtuous Prince; and his own thoughts and + writings would have been other, than they are, had he witnessed the + blameless monarchy of Hadrian and the Antonines. The victims of a bad + Emperor were taken usually from among the nobles; many of them were little + better, than their destroyer; and his murders were confined, almost + invariably, within the walls of Rome: but the benefits of the Imperial + system were extended into all the provinces; and the judgment-seat of + Caesar was the protection of innumerable citizens. Many were the mistakes, + many the misfortunes, deplorable the mischiefs, of the Imperial + administration; I wish neither to deny, nor to conceal them: but here I + must content myself with speaking broadly, with presenting a superficial + view of things; and, upon the whole, the system of the Emperors was less + bad than the decayed and inadequate government, out of which it was + developed. For the change from the Republic to the Empire was hardly a + revolution; and the venerable names and forms of the old organisation were + religiously preserved. Still, the Consuls were elected, the Senate met and + legislated, Praetors and Legates went forth into the provinces, the + Legions watched upon the frontiers, the lesser Magistrates performed their + office; but above them was Caesar, directing all things, controlling all + things; the <i>Imperator</i> and Universal Tribune, in whose name all was + done; the "Praesens Divus," on whom the whole depended; at once the master + of the Imperial Commonwealth, and the minister of the Roman People. + </p> + <p> + "The Annals," and the history of Tiberius, have detained us, for the most + part, within the capital: "The Agricola" brings us into a province of the + Empire; and "The Account of Germany" will take us among the savages beyond + the frontier. I need scarcely mention, that our country was brought within + the Roman influence by Julius Caesar; but that Caesar's enterprise was not + continued by Augustus, nor by Tiberius; though Caligula celebrated a + fictitious triumph over the unconquered Britons: that a war of about forty + years was undertaken by Claudius, maintained by Nero, and terminated by + Domitian; who were respectively "the most stupid, the most dissolute, and + the most timid of all the Emperors." It was in the British wars, that + Vespasian began his great career, "monstratus fatis"; but the island was + not really added to the Empire, until Agricola subdued it for Domitian. + "The Life of Agricola" is of general interest, because it preserves the + memory of a good and noble Roman: to us, it is of special interest, + because it records the state of Britain when it was a dependency of the + Caesars; "adjectis Britannis imperio." Our present fashions in history + will not allow us to think, that we have much in common with those + natives, whom Tacitus describes: but fashions change, in history as in + other things; and in a wiser time we may come to know, and be proud to + acknowledge, that we have derived a part of our origin, and perhaps our + fairest accomplishments, from the Celtic Britons. The narrative of Tacitus + requires no explanation; and I will only bring to the memory of my + readers, Cowper's good poem on Boadicea. We have been dwelling upon the + glories of the Roman Empire: it may be pardonable in us, and it is not + unpleasing, to turn for a moment, I will not say to "the too vast orb" of + our fate, but rather to that Empire which is more extensive than the + Roman; and destined to be, I hope, more enduring, more united, and more + prosperous. Horace will hardly speak of the Britons, as humane beings, and + he was right; in his time, they were not a portion of the Roman World, + they had no part in the benefits of the Roman government: he talks of + them, as beyond the confines of civility, "in ultimos orbis Britannos;" as + cut off by "the estranging sea," and there jubilant in their native + practices, "Visum Britannos hospitibus feros." But Cowper says, no less + truly, of a despised and rebel Queen; + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Regions Caesar never knew, + Thy posterity shall sway; + Where his Eagles never flew, + None invincible as they.</i> +</pre> + <p> + The last battles of Agricola were fought in Scotland; and, in the pages of + Tacitus, he achieved a splendid victory among the Grampian hills. Gibbon + remarks, however, "The native Caledonians preserved in the northern + extremity of the island their wild independence, for which they were not + less indebted to their poverty than to their valour. Their incursions were + frequently repelled and chastised; but their country was never subdued. + The masters of the fairest and most wealthy climates of the globe turned + with contempt from gloomy hills assailed by the winter tempest, from lakes + concealed in a blue mist, and from cold and lonely heaths, over which the + deer of the forest were chased by a troop of naked barbarians." The Scotch + themselves are never tired of asserting, and of celebrating, their + "independence"; Scotland imposed a limit to the victories of the Roman + People, Scaliger says in his compliments to Buchanan: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Imperii fuerat Romani Scotia lines.</i> +</pre> + <p> + But it may be questioned, whether it were an unmixed blessing, to be + excluded from the Empire; and to offer a sullen resistance to its + inestimable gifts of humane life, of manners, and of civility. + </p> + <p> + To these things, the Germans also have manifested a strong dislike; and + they are more censurable than the Scotch, because all their knowledge of + the Romans was not derived from the intercourse of war. "The Germany" of + Tacitus is a document, that has been much discussed; and these discussions + may be numbered among the most flagrant examples of literary intemperance: + but this will not surprise us, when we allow for the structure of mind, + the language, and the usual productions of those, to whom the treatise is + naturally of the greatest importance. In the description of the Germans, + Tacitus goes out of his way to laugh at the "licentia vetustatis," "the + debauches of pedants and antiquarians;" as though he suspected the + fortunes of his volume, and the future distinctions of the Teutonic + genius. For sane readers, it will be enough to remark, that the Germany of + Tacitus was limited, upon the west, by the natural and proper boundary of + the Rhine; that it embraced a portion of the Low Countries; and that, + although he says it was confined within the Danube, yet the separation is + not clear between the true Germans and those obscurer tribes, whose + descendants furnish a long enumeration of titles to the present melancholy + sovereign of the House of Austria. Gibbon remarks, with his usual sense, + "In their primitive state of simplicity and independence, the Germans were + surveyed by the discerning eye, and delineated by the masterly pencil of + Tacitus, the first historian who supplied the science of philosophy to the + study of facts. The expressive conciseness of his descriptions has + deserved to exercise the diligence of innumerable antiquarians, and to + excite the genius and penetration of the philosophic historians of our own + time." Upon a few sentences out of the "Germania"; which relate to the + kings, to the holding of land, to the public assemblies, and to the army; + an imposing structure of English constitutional history has been erected: + our modern historians look upon this treatise with singular approval; + because it shows them, they say, the habits of their own forefathers in + their native settlements. They profess to be enchanted with all they read; + and, in their works, they betray their descent from the ancestors they + admire. Gibbon says, prettily, "Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those + beautiful episodes, in which he relates some domestic transaction of the + Germans or of the Parthians, his principal object is to relieve the + attention of the reader from an uniform scene of vice and misery." Whether + he succeeds, I must leave my readers to decide. Tacitus describes the + quarrels of the Germans; fought, then with weapons; now, with words: their + gambling, their sloth, their drunkenness. "Strong beer, a liquor extracted + with very little art from wheat or barley, and <i>corrupted</i> (as it is + strongly expressed by Tacitus) into a certain semblance of wine, was + sufficient for the gross purposes of German debauchery." Tacitus informs + us, too, "that they sleep far into the day; that on rising they take a + bath, usually of warm water; then they eat." To pass an entire day and + night in drinking, disgraces no one: "Dediti somno ciboque," he says; a + people handed over to sloth and gluttony. Some of these customs are now + almost obsolete; the baths, for instance. In others, there has been little + alteration since the Age of Tacitus; and the Germans have adhered, with + obstinate fidelity, to their primitive habits. Tacitus thought less of + their capacity, upon the whole, than it is usual to think now: "The + Chatti," he says, "for Germans, have much intelligence;" "Leur + intelligence et leur finesse étonnent, dans des Germains." But let us + forget these "Tedeschi lurchi, non ragionam di lor;" and pass on to those + manly virtues, which Tacitus records: To abandon your shield, is the + basest of crimes, "relicta non bene parmula;" nor may a man thus disgraced + be present at their sacred rites, nor enter their council; many, indeed, + after escaping from battle, have ended their infamy with the halter. And + to more shameful crimes, they awarded a sterner punishment: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Behind flock'd wrangling up a piteous crew + Greeted of none, disfeatured and forlorn: + Cowards, who were in sloughs interr'd alive; + And round them still the wattled hurdles hung + Wherewith they stamp'd them down, and trod them deep, + To hide their shameful memory from men.</i> +</pre> + <p> + Having now surveyed the compositions in this volume, it is proper that we + should at length devote some of our notice to Gordon himself, and to his + manner of presenting Tacitus. Thomas Gordon was born in Scotland; the date + has not yet been ascertained. He is thought to have been educated at a + northern university, and to have become an Advocate. Later, he went to + London; and taught languages. Two pamphlets on the Bangorian controversy + brought him into notice; and he wrote many religious and political + dissertations. "A Defence of Primitive Christianity, against the + Exhorbitant Claims of Fanatical and Dissaffected Clergymen;" "Tracts on + Religion, and on the Jacobite Rebellion of '45;" "The Pillars of + Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken;" "A Cordial for Low Spirits;" are the + titles of some of his compositions. In politics, and in theology, he was a + republican and free-thinker: he translated and edited "The Spirit of + Ecclesiastics in All Ages;" he was a contributor to "The Independent + Whig;" and in a series of "Cato's Letters," he discoursed at ease upon his + usual topics. The Tacitus was published in 1728, in two volumes folio: + long dissertations are inserted in either volume; the literature in them + excellent, the politics not so good: the volumes, as well as the several + parts of them, are dedicated to some Royal and many Noble Patrons. Gordon + has also turned Sallust into English: the book was published in 1744, in + one handsome quarto; "with Political Discourses upon that Author and + Translations of Cicero's Four Orations against Cataline." Walpole made + Gordon the first commissioner of wine licences. It is handed down, that + Gordon was a burly person, "large and corpulent." It is believed, that he + found his way into "The Dunciad," and that he is immortalised there among + the "Canaille Écrivante;" the line + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Where Tindal dictates and Silenus snores</i>, +</pre> + <p> + is taken to be Pope's description of him. Gordon died in 1750; at the same + time as Dr. Middleton, the elegant biographer of Cicero: Lord Bolingbroke + is said to have observed, when the news was told him, "Then is the best + writer in England gone, and the worst." That Bolingbroke should have + disliked Gordon and his politics, does not surprise me; but I cannot + understand for what reason he, and other good judges, despised his + writings. "The chief glory of every people arises from its authors," Dr. + Johnson says; and happy the people, I would assert, who have no worse + writers than Thomas Gordon. I wish to draw attention to Gordon's correct + vocabulary, to his bold and pregnant language, and to his scholarly + punctuation. Among our present writers, the art of punctuation is a lost + accomplishment; and it is usual now to find writings with hardly anything + but full stops; colons and semicolons are almost obsolete; commas are + neglected, or misused; and our slovenly pages are strewn with dashes, the + last resources of an untidy thinker, the certain witnesses to a careless + and unfinished sentence. How different, and how superior, is the way of + Gordon; who, though he can be homely and familiar, never lays aside the + well-bred and courteous manners of a polished Age. In his writings, the + leading clauses of a sentence are distinguished by their colons: the minor + clauses, by their semicolons; the nice meaning of the details is + expressed, the pleasure and the convenience of his readers are alike + increased, by his right and elegant use of commas. The comma, with us, is + used as a loop or bracket, and for little else: by the more accurate + scholars of the last Age, it was employed to indicate a finer meaning; to + mark an emphasis, or an elision; to introduce a relative clause; to bring + out the value of an happy phrase, or the nice precision of an epithet. And + thus the authors of the great century of prose, that orderly and spacious + time, assembled their words, arranged their sentences, and marshalled them + into careful periods: without any loss to the subtile meaning of their + thought, or any sacrifice of vigour, they exposed their subject in a + dignified procession of stately paragraphs; and when the end is reached we + look back upon a perfect specimen of the writer's art. We have grown + careless about form, we have little sense for balance and proportion, and + we have sacrificed the good manners of literature to an ill-bred liking + for haste and noise: it has been decided, that the old way of writing is + cumbersome and slow; as well might some guerilla chieftain have announced + to his fellow-barbarians, that Caesar's legions were not swift and + beautiful in their manoeuvres, nor irresistible in their advance. I have + spoken of our long sentences, with nothing but full stops: they are + variegated, here and there, with shorter sentences, sometimes of two + words; this way of writing is common in Macaulay or in the histories of + Mr. Green, and I have seen it recommended in Primers of Literature and + Manuals of Composition. With the jolting and unconnected fragments of + these authorities, I would contrast the musical and flowing periods of Dr. + Johnson's "Lives of the Poets": to study these works in solitude, will + probably be sufficient to justify my preference; but to hear them read + aloud, should convert the most unwilling listener into an advocate of my + opinion. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Birkbeck Hill, in the delightful Preface to his Boswell, explains how + he was turned by a happy chance to the study of the literature of the + eighteenth century; and how he read on and on in the enchanting pages of + "The Spectator." "From Addison in the course of time I passed on," he + continues, "to the other great writers of his and the succeeding age, + finding in their exquisitely clear style, their admirable common-sense, + and their freedom from all the tricks of affectation, a delightful + contrast to so many of the eminent authors of our own time." These words + might be used of Gordon: I do not claim for him the style of Addison, nor + the accomplished negligence of Goldsmith; these are graces beyond the + reach of art; but he exhibits the common-sense, and the clear style, of + the eighteenth century. Like all the good writers of his time, he is + unaffected and "simplex munditiis"; he has the better qualities of Pyrrha, + and is "plain in his neatness." In Mr. Ward's edition of the English + Poets, there may be read side by side a notice of Collins and of Gray; the + one by Mr. Swinburne, the other by Mr. Matthew Arnold: I make no allusion + here to the greatness of either poet, to the merits of either style, nor + to the value of either criticism. But the essay upon Gray is quiet in + tone; it has an unity of treatment, and never deserts the principal + subject; it is suffused with light, and full of the most delicate + allusions: the essay on Collins, by being written in superlatives and + vague similes, deafens and perplexes the reader; and the author, by + squandering his resources, has no power to make fine distinctions, nor to + exalt one part of his thesis above another. These two performances + illustrate the last quality in Gordon, and in the old writers, to which I + shall draw attention: they were always restrained in their utterances, and + therefore they could be discriminating in their judgments; they could be + emphatic without noise, and deep without obscurity, ornamental but not + vulgar, carefully arranged but not stiff or artificial. They exhibit the + three indispensable gifts of the finest authorship: "simplicitas + munditiis," "lucidus ordo," "curiosa felicitas." + </p> + <p> + In this volume, Gordon's punctuation has been generally followed: his + orthography has been modernised a little, though not by my hands, nor with + my consent; and I have observed without regret, that some of Gordon's + original spellings have eluded the vigilance of the printer: that stern + official would by no means listen to my entreaties for the long "SS," the + turn-over words, or the bounteous capitals, which add so much to the + seductive and sober dignity of an eighteenth-century page; but, on the + whole, we have given a tolerable reproduction of Gordon's folio. In the + second edition, he himself made more changes than improvements. I will not + say, that Gordon has always conveyed the exact meaning of the sentences of + Tacitus: but he has done what is better, and more difficult; he has + grasped the broad meaning of his author, and caught something of his lofty + spirit. "A translation," he says, "ought to read like an original;" and + Gordon has not failed, I think, to reach this perfection. It is not + commonly attained among translators: Gordon says, of one rendering of + Tacitus, "'Tis not the fire of Tacitus, but his embers; quenched with + English words, cold and Gothick." Of the author of another version, he + says "Learning is his chief accomplishment, and thence his translation is + a very poor one." This judgment is true of most modern translations from + the Ancients; they may be correct versions, but are miserable English: the + authors, while studying the most perfect models of the art of writing, + have produced copies which are not literature at all. From this low + company, I would rescue Sir Charles Bowen's "Virgil": a delightful poem, + to those who are ignorant of Latin; an exquisite production, and an + amazing triumph, to those who converse with the original. There are many + English translations of Tacitus: the first, by Sir Henry Savile and "one + Greenway"; the former, says Gordon, "has performed like a schoolmaster, + the latter like a school-boy." Anthony à Wood writes in another strain, in + the "Athenae Oxonienis": "A rare Translation it is, and the Work of a very + Great Master indeed, both in our Tongue and that Story. For if we consider + the difficulty of the Original, and the Age wherein the Translation lived, + it is both for the exactness of the version, and the chastity of the + Language, one of the most accurate and perfect translations that ever were + made into English." There is a rendering by Murphy, diffuse and poor; a + dilution of Gordon, worthy neither of Tacitus nor of the English tongue. + There are translations, too, into almost every modern language: I would + give the highest praise to Davanzati; a scholar of Tuscany, who lived in + the sixteenth century. In French, I cannot but admire the labours of M. + Burnouf: although the austere rules, the precise constructions, and the + easy comportment of the French prose are not suited to the style of + Tacitus, and something of his weight and brevity are lost; yet the + translator never loses the depth and subtilty of his author's meaning; his + work is agreeable to read, and very useful to consult. The maps and the + genealogical tables in the three volumes of Messrs. Church and Brodribb's + translation are also of the greatest service, and the notes are sometimes + most amusing. + </p> + <p> + Of Tacitus himself, there is little for me to say: those, who know him, + can judge for themselves; to those who do not, no words are able to convey + an adequate impression. "Who is able to infuse into me," Cardinal Newman + asks, "or how shall I imbibe, a sense of the peculiarities of the style of + Cicero or Virgil, if I have not read their writings? No description, + however complete, could convey to my mind an exact likeness of a tune, or + an harmony, which I have never heard; and still less of a scent, which I + have never smelled: and if I said that Mozart's melodies were as a summer + sky, or as the breath of Zephyr, I shall be better understood by those who + knew Mozart, than by those who did not." These truths are little + remembered by modern critics: though, indeed, it is not possible to convey + to a reader adequate notions about the style of an author, whom that + reader has not pondered for himself; about his thoughts or his subjects, + it may be different. Still, I may write something about the manner of + Tacitus, which will not violate Cardinal Newman's laws, nor be an outrage + to taste and common-sense. "It is the great excellence of a writer," says + Dr. Johnson, "to put into his book as much as it will hold:" and if this + judgment be sound, then is Tacitus the greatest of all writers in prose. + Gordon says of him, "He explains events with a redundancy of images, and a + frugality of words: his images are many, but close and thick; his words + are few, but pointed and glowing; and even his silence is instructive and + affecting. Whatever he says, you see; and all, that you see, affects you. + Let his words be ever so few, his thought and matter are always abundant. + His imagination is boundless, yet never outruns his judgment; his wisdom + is solid and vast, yet always enlivened by his imagination. He starts the + idea, and lets the imagination pursue it; the sample he gives you is so + fine, that you are presently curious to see the whole piece, and then you + have your share in the merit of the discovery; a compliment, which some + able writers have forgot to pay to their readers." I would remark here, + that many of the old writers give me the sense of handling things, they + are definite and solid; while some of the moderns appear to play with + words only, and never to come up with the objects of their pursuit: "we + are too often ravished with a sonorous sentence," as Dr. Johnson says, "of + which, when the noise is past, the meaning does not long remain." But of + Tacitus, Gordon says, "His words and phrases are admirably adapted to his + matter and conceptions, and make impressions sudden and wonderful upon the + mind of man. Stile is a part of genius, and Tacitus had one peculiar to + himself; a sort of language of his own, one fit to express the amazing + vigour of his spirit, and that redundancy of reflections which for force + and frequency are to be equalled by no writer before nor since." + </p> + <p> + Dr. Johnson, however, says in another place, "Tacitus, Sir, seems to me + rather to have made notes for an historical work, than to have written a + history:" I must own, that upon the subject of Tacitus, I prefer the + sentiments of Gordon; and Montaigne would agree with me, for he says, "I + do not know any author, who, in a work of history, has taken so broad a + view of human events, or given a more just analysis of particular + characters." The impressions of Tacitus are indeed wonderful: I doubt, + whether volumes could bring us nearer to the mutinous legions, than the + few chapters in which he records their history. I am always delighted by + Gordon's way of telling the battle, in which the iron men of Sacrovir were + overthrown; the account begins on page 139. Then how satisfying is the + narrative of the wars in Germany, of the shipwreck, of the funeral of + Varus and the slaughtered legions; how pleasing the description of + Germanicus' antiquarian travels in Egypt, and in Greece. Though Tacitus is + not a maker of "descriptions," in our modern sense: there is but one + "description" in "The Annals," so far as I remember, it is of Capri; and + it is not the sort, that would be quoted by a reviewer, as a "beautiful + cameo of description." With Tacitus, a field of battle is not an occasion + for "word-painting," as we call it; the battle is always first, the + scenery of less importance. He tells, what it is necessary to know; but he + is too wise to think, that we can realise from words, a place which we + have never seen; and too sound in his taste, to forget the wholesome + boundaries between poetry and prose. This is the way of all the ancient + writers. In a work on "Landscape," I remember that Mr. Hamerton mourns + over the Commentaries of Caesar; because they do not resemble the letters + of a modern war-correspondent; Ascham, on the other hand, a man of real + taste and learning, says of the Commentaries, "All things be most + perfectly done by him; in Caesar only, could never yet fault be found." I + agree with Ascham: I think I prefer the Commentaries as they are, chaste + and quiet; I really prefer them to Mr. Kinglake's "Crimean War," or to Mr. + Forbes' Despatches, or even to the most effusive pages of Mr. Stanley's + book on Africa. + </p> + <p> + In "The Life of Agricola," I would mention the simplicity of the treatment + and the excellence of the taste. Tacitus does not recite the whole of + Roman history, nor assemble all the worthies out of Plutarch. Agricola is + not compared to the pyramids, to the Flavian circus, nor to any works of + art and literature: these flights of imagination were not known to the + Ancients; but in a learned modern, I have seen Dante compared to Wagner's + operas, to the Parthenon and St. Peter's, and to Justinian's code. The + sanctities of private life are not violated; yet we know everything, that + it is decent to know, about Agricola. Lord Coleridge has given a beautiful + rendering of the closing passages of "The Agricola," in his account of Mr. + Matthew Arnold: these elegant papers are not only models of good English; + but are conspicuous, among recent obituary notices, for their fine taste + and their becoming reticence. From the excesses of modern biographers, + Tacitus was in little danger; thanks to his Roman sense, and to the + qualities of the Roman Language. "Economy," says Mr. Symonds, "is + exhibited in every element of this athletic tongue. Like a naked gladiator + all bone and muscle, it relies upon bare sinewy strength." That author + speaks of "the austere and masculine virtues of Latin, the sincerity and + brevity of Roman speech;" and Tacitus is, beyond any doubt, the strongest, + the austerest, the most pregnant of all the Romans. "Sanity," says Mr. + Matthew Arnold, in conclusion, "that is the great virtue of the ancient + literature; the want of that is the great defect of the modern, in spite + of all its variety and power." "It is impossible to read the great + ancients, without losing something of our caprice and eccentricity. I know + not how it is, but their commerce with the ancients appears to me to + produce, in those who constantly practise it, a steadying and composing + effect upon the judgment, not of literary works only, but of men and + events in general. They are like persons who have had a very weighty and + impressive experience; they are more truly than others under the empire of + facts, and more independent of the language current among those with whom + they live." + </p> + <p> + It has been told of Cardinal Newman, that he never liked to pass a single + day, without rendering an English sentence into Latin. To converse with + the Roman authors, to handle their precise and sparing language, is, I can + well believe it, a most wholesome discipline; and the most efficient + remedy against those faults of diffuseness, of obscurity, and of excess, + which are only too common among the writers of our day. It may have been + to this practice, that Cardinal Newman owed something of his clearness, + and of his exquisite simplicity: and for his style, he should be idolised + by every one who has a taste for literature. I have said many things in + praise of the ancient authors: it pleases me, as I finish, to offer my + humble tribute to an author who is quite our own; to one, who in all his + writings has bequeathed us perfect models of chaste, of lucid, and of + melodious prose. + </p> + <p> + NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD: <i>September</i> 15, 1890. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE FIRST SIX BOOKS OF THE ANNALS OF TACITUS: + </h2> + <h3> + BEING AN HISTORY OF THE EMPEROR TIBERIUS + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE ANNALS OF TACITUS + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK I. — A.D. 14 AND 15. + </h2> + <p> + Kings were the original Magistrates of Rome: Lucius Brutus founded Liberty + and the Consulship: Dictators were chosen occasionally, and used only in + pressing exigencies. Little more than two years prevailed the supreme + power of the Decemvirate, and the consular jurisdiction of the military + Tribunes not very many. The domination of Cinna was but short, that of + Sylla not long. The authority of Pompey and Crassus was quickly swallowed + up in Caesar; that of Lepidus and Anthony in Augustus. The Commonwealth, + then long distressed and exhausted by the rage of her civil dissensions, + fell easily into his hands, and over her he assumed a sovereign dominion; + yet softened with a venerable name, that of Prince or Chief of the Senate. + But the several revolutions in the ancient free state of Rome, and all her + happy or disastrous events, are already recorded by writers of signal + renown. Nor even in the reign of Augustus were there wanting authors of + distinction and genius to have composed his story; till by the prevailing + spirit of fear, flattery, and abasement they were checked. As to the + succeeding Princes, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero; the dread of + their tyranny, whilst they yet reigned, falsified their history; and after + their fall, the fresh detestation of their cruelties inflamed their + Historians. Hence my own design of recounting briefly certain incidents in + the reign of Augustus, chiefly towards his latter end, and of entering + afterwards more fully into that of Tiberius and the other three; unbiassed + as I am in this undertaking by any resentment, or any affection; all the + influences of these personal passions being far from me. + </p> + <p> + When, after the fall of Brutus and Cassius, there remained none to fight + for the Commonwealth, and her arms were no longer in her own hands; when + Sextus Pompeius was utterly defeated in Sicily, Lepidus bereft of his + command. Marc Anthony slain; and of all the chiefs of the late Dictator's + party, only Octavius his nephew was left; he put off the invidious name of + Triumvir, and styling himself Consul, pretended that the jurisdiction + attached to the Tribuneship was his highest aim, as in it the protection + of the populace was his only view: but when once he had laid his + foundations wider, secured the soldiery by liberality and donations, + gained the people by store of provisions, and charmed all by the blessings + and sweetness of public peace, he began by politic gradations to exalt + himself, to extend his domination, and with his own power to consolidate + the authority of the Senate, jurisdiction of the Magistrate, and weight + and force of the Laws; usurpations in which he was thwarted by no man: all + the bravest Republicans and his most daring foes were slain in battle, or + gleaned up by the late sanguinary proscriptions; and for the surviving + Nobility, they were covered with wealth, and distinguished with public + honours, according to the measure of their debasement, and promptness to + bondage. Add, that all the creatures of this new Power, who in the loss of + public freedom had gained private fortunes, preferred a servile condition, + safe and possessed, to the revival of ancient liberty with personal peril. + Neither were the Provinces averse to the present Revolution, and + Sovereignty of one; since under that of the people and Senate they had + lived in constant fear and mistrust, sorely rent and harassed as they were + by the raging competition amongst our Grandees, as well as by the grievous + rapine and exactions of our Magistrates; in vain too, under these their + oppressions, had been their appeal to the protection of the laws, which + were utterly enfeebled and borne down by might and violence, by faction + and parties; nay, even by subornation and money. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, Augustus, in order to fortify his domination with collateral + bulwarks, raised his sister's son Claudius Marcellus, a perfect youth, to + the dignity of Pontiff and that of Aedile; preferred Marcus Agrippa to two + successive Consulships, a man in truth meanly born but an accomplished + soldier, and the companion of his victories; and Marcellus, the husband of + Julia, soon after dying, chose him for his son-in-law. Even the sons of + his wife, Tiberius Nero, and Claudius Drusus, he dignified with high + military titles and commands; though his house was yet supported by + descendants of his own blood. For into the Julian family and name of the + Caesars he had already adopted Lucius and Caius, the sons of Agrippa; and + though they were but children, neither of them seventeen years old, + vehement had been his ambition to see them declared Princes of the Roman + Youth and even designed to the Consulship; while openly, he was protesting + against admitting these early honours. Presently, upon the decease of + Agrippa, were these his children snatched away, either by their own + natural but hasty fate, or by the deadly fraud of their step-mother Livia; + Lucius on his journey to command the armies in Spain; Caius in his return + from Armenia, ill of a wound: and as Drusus, one of her own sons, had been + long since dead, Tiberius remained sole candidate for the succession. Upon + this object, centred all princely honours; he was by Augustus adopted for + his son, assumed Colleague in the Empire, partner in the jurisdiction + tribunitial, and presented under all these dignities to the several + armies: instances of grandeur which were no longer derived from the secret + schemes and plottings of his mother, as in times past, while her husband + had unexceptionable heirs of his own, but thenceforth bestowed at her open + suit. For as Augustus was now very aged, she had over him obtained such + absolute sway, that for her pleasure he banished into the Isle of Planasia + his only surviving grandson, Agrippa Postumus; one, in truth, destitute of + laudable accomplishments, in his temper untractable, and stupidly + conceited of his mighty strength, but branded with no misdemeanour or + transgression. The Emperor had withal set Germanicus, the son of Drusus, + over eight legions quartered upon the Rhine, and obliged Tiberius to adopt + him, though Tiberius had then a son of his own, one of competent years; + but it was the study of Augustus, to secure himself and the succession by + variety of stays and engraftments. War at that time there was none, except + that in Germany, kept on foot rather to abolish the disgrace sustained by + Quinctilius Varus, there slain with his army, than from any ambition to + enlarge the Empire, or for any other valuable advantage. In profound + tranquillity were affairs at Rome. To the Magistrates remained their + wonted names; of the Romans the younger sort had been born since the + battle of Actium, and even most of the old during the civil wars: how few + were then living who had seen the ancient free State! + </p> + <p> + The frame and economy of Rome being thus totally overturned, amongst the + Romans were no longer found any traces of their primitive spirit, or + attachment to the virtuous institutions of antiquity. But as the equality + of the whole was extinguished by the sovereignty of one, all men regarded + the orders of the Prince as the only rule of conduct and obedience; nor + felt they any anxiety, while Augustus yet retained vigour of life, and + upheld the credit of his administration with public peace, and the + imperial fortune of his house. But when he became broken with the pressure + of age and infirmities; when his end was at hand, and thence a new source + of hopes and views was presented, some few there were who began to reason + idly about the blessings and recovery of Liberty; many dreaded a civil + war, others longed for one; while far the greater part were uttering their + several apprehensions of their future masters; "that naturally stern and + savage was the temper of Agrippa, and by his public contumely enraged into + fury; and neither in age nor experience was he equal to the weight of + Empire. Tiberius indeed had arrived at fulness of years, and was a + distinguished captain, but possessed the inveterate pride entailed upon + the Claudian race; and many indications of a cruel nature escaped him, in + spite of all his arts to disguise it; besides that from his early infancy + he was trained up in a reigning house, and even in his youth inured to an + accumulation of power and honours, consulships and triumphs: nor during + the several years of his abode at Rhodes, where, under the plausible name + of retirement, a real banishment was covered, did he exercise other + occupation than that of meditating future vengeance, studying the arts of + treachery, and practising secret, abominable sensualities: add to these + considerations, that of his mother, a woman inspired with all the tyranny + of her sex; yes, the Romans must be under bondage to a woman, and moreover + enthralled by two youths, who would first combine to oppress the State, + and then falling into dissension, rend it piecemeal." + </p> + <p> + While the public was engaged in these and the like debates, the illness of + Augustus waxed daily more grievous; and some strongly suspected the + pestilent practices of his wife. For there had been, some months before, a + rumour abroad, that Augustus having singled out a few of his most faithful + servants, and taken Fabius Maximus for his only companion, had, with no + other retinue, sailed secretly over to the Island of Planasia, there to + visit his Grandson Agrippa; that many tears were shed on both sides, many + tokens of mutual tenderness shown, and hopes from thence conceived, that + the unhappy youth would be restored to his own place in his Grandfather's + family. That Maximus had disclosed it to Martia, she to Livia; and thence + the Emperor knew that the secret was betrayed: that Maximus being soon + after dead (dead, as it was doubted, through fear, by his own hands), + Martia was observed, in her lamentations and groans at his funeral, to + accuse herself as the sad cause of her husband's destruction. Whatever + truth was in all this, Tiberius was scarce entered Illyrium, but he was + hastily recalled by his mother's letters: nor is it fully known whether at + his return to Nola, he found Augustus yet breathing, or already + breathless. For Livia had carefully beset the palace, and all the avenues + to it, with detachments of the guards; and good news of his recovery were + from time to time given out. When she had taken all measures necessary in + so great a conjuncture, in one and the same moment was published the + departure of Augustus, and the accession of Tiberius. + </p> + <p> + The first feat of this new reign was the murder of young Agrippa: the + assassin, a bold and determined Centurion, found him destitute of arms, + and little apprehending such a destiny, yet was scarce able to despatch + him. Of this transaction Tiberius avoided any mention in the Senate: he + would have it pass for done by the commands of Augustus; as if he had + transmitted written orders to the Tribune, who guarded Agrippa, "to slay + him the instant he heard of his grandfather's decease." It is very true + that Augustus had made many and vehement complaints of the young man's + obstinate and unruly demeanour, and even solicited from the Senate a + decree to authorise his banishment: but he never hardened himself against + the sentiments of nature, nor in any instance dipped his hands in his own + blood; neither is it credible that he would barbarously sacrifice the life + of his grandson for the security and establishment of his step-son. More + probable it is, that this hasty murder was purely the work of Tiberius and + Livia; that the young Prince, hated and dreaded by both, fell thus + untimely, to rid the one of his apprehensions and a rival, and to satiate + in the other the rancorous spirit of a step-mother. When the Centurion, + according to the custom of the army, acquainted Tiberius, "that his + commands were executed;" he answered, "he had commanded no such execution, + and the Centurion must appear before the Senate, and for it be answerable + to them." This alarmed Sallustius Crispus, who shared in all his secret + counsels, and had sent the Centurion the warrant: he dreaded that he + should be arraigned for the assassination, and knew it equally perilous + either to confess the truth, and charge the Emperor; or falsely to clear + the Emperor, and accuse himself. Hence he had recourse to Livia, and + warned her, "never to divulge the secrets of the palace, never to expose + to public examination the ministers who advised, nor the soldiers who + executed: Tiberius should beware of relaxing the authority of the Prince, + by referring all things to that of the Senate; since it was the + indispensable prerogative of sovereignty for all men to be accountable + only to one." + </p> + <p> + Now at Rome, Consuls, Senators, and Roman Knights, were all rushing with + emulation into bondage, and the higher the quality of each the more false + and forward the men; all careful so to frame their faces, as to reconcile + false joy for the accession of Tiberius, with feigned sadness for the loss + of Augustus: hence they intermingled fears with gladness, wailings with + gratulations, and all with servile flattery. Sextus Pompeius and Sextus + Apuleius, at that time Consuls, took first the oath of fidelity to + Tiberius; then administered it to Seius Strabo and Caius Turranius; the + former Captain of the Praetorian Guards, the other Intendant of the Public + Stores. The oath was next given to the Senate, to the people, and to the + soldiery: all by the same Consuls; for Tiberius affected to derive all + public transactions from the legal ministry of the Consuls, as if the + ancient Republic still subsisted, and he were yet unresolved about + embracing the sovereign rule: he even owned in his edict for summoning the + Senate, that he issued it by virtue of the Tribunitial power, granted him + under Augustus. The edict, too, was short and unexceptionably modest. It + imported that, "they were to consider of the funeral honours proper to be + paid his deceased Father: for himself he would not depart from the corpse; + and further than this edict implied, he claimed no share in the public + administration." Yet from the moment Augustus was dead, he usurped all the + prerogatives of imperial state, gave the word to the Praetorian Cohorts; + had soldiers about the palace, guards about his person, went guarded in + the street, guarded to the Senate, and bore all the marks of Majesty: nay, + he writ letters to the several armies in the undisguised style of one + already their Prince: nor did he ever hesitate in expression, or speak + with perplexity, but when he spoke to the Senate. The chief cause of his + obscurity there proceeded from his fear of Germanicus: he dreaded that he, + who was master of so many legions, of numberless auxiliaries, and of all + the allies of Rome; he, who was the darling of the people, might wish + rather to possess the Empire, than to wait for it; he likewise, in this + mysterious way of dealing with the Senate, sought false glory, and would + rather seem by the Commonwealth chosen and called to the Empire, than to + have crept darkly into it by the intrigues of a woman, or by adoption from + a superannuated Prince. It was also afterwards found, that by this + abstruseness and counterfeit irresolution he meant to penetrate into the + designs and inclinations of the great men: for his jealous spirit + construed all their words, all their looks, into crimes; and stored them + up in his heart against a day of vengeance. + </p> + <p> + When he first met the Senate, he would bear no other business to be + transacted but that about the funeral of Augustus. His last will was + brought in by the Vestal Virgins: in it Tiberius and Livia were appointed + his heirs, Livia adopted into the Julian family, and dignified with the + name of Augusta: into the next and second degree of heirship he adopted + his grandchildren and their children; and in the third degree he named the + great men of Rome, most of them hated by him, but out of vainglory he + named them, and for future renown. His legacies were not beyond the usual + bounds; only he left to the Roman people four hundred thousand great + sesterces, {Footnote: £362,500.} to the populace or common sort, + thirty-five thousand; to every common soldier of the Praetorian Guards, a + thousand small sesterces, {Footnote: £8, 6s. 8d.} and to every soldier of + the Roman legions three hundred. {Footnote: £2, 10s.} The funeral honours + were next considered. The chief proposed were these: Asinius Gallus moved + that "the funeral should pass through the Triumphal Gate:" Lucius + Arruntius, "that the titles of all the laws which he had made, and the + names of all the nations which he had conquered, should be carried before + the corpse:" Valerius Messala added, that "the oath of allegiance to + Tiberius should be renewed every year;" and being asked by Tiberius, + "whether at his instigation he had made that motion?" "I spoke it as my + opinion," says Messala; "nor will I ever be determined by any but my own, + in things which concern the commonweal; let who will be provoked by my + freedom." Only this new turn was wanting to complete the prevailing + flattery of the time. The Senators then concurred in a loud cry, "that + upon their own shoulders they must bear the body to the pile." But + Tiberius declined the offer from an arrogant show of moderation. Moreover, + he cautioned the people by an edict, "not to disturb the funeral functions + with a zeal over-passionate, as they had those of Julius Caesar; nor to + insist that the corpse of Augustus should be burnt rather in the Forum, + than in the field of Mars, which was the place appointed." On the funeral + day the soldiers under arms kept guard; a mighty mockery this to those who + had either seen, or heard their fathers describe, the day when Caesar the + Dictator was slain: servitude was then new, its sorrows yet fresh and + bitter; and liberty unsuccessfully retrieved by a deed which, while it + seemed impious to some, was thought altogether glorious by others, and + hence tore Rome into tumults and the violence of parties: they who knew + that turbulent day, and compared it with the quiet exit of Augustus, + ridiculed the foppery of "calling an aid of soldiers to secure a peaceable + burial to a Prince who had grown old in peace and power, and even provided + against a relapse into liberty, by a long train of successors." + </p> + <p> + Hence much and various matter of observation concerning Augustus: the + superstitious multitude admired the fortuitous events of his fortune; + "that the last day of his life, and the first of his reign, was the same; + that he died at Nola, in the same village, and in the same house, and in + the same chamber, where his father Octavius died. They observed to his + glory, his many Consulships, equal in number to those of Valerius Corvinus + and of Caius Marius, joined together; that he had exercised the power of + the Tribuneship seven-and-thirty continued years: that he was + one-and-twenty times proclaimed Imperator; with many other numerous + honours repeated to him, or created for him." Men of deeper discernment + entered further into his life, but differed about it. His admirers said, + "that his filial piety to his father Caesar, and the distractions of the + Republic, where the laws no longer governed, had driven him into a civil + war; which, whatever be the first cause, can never be begun or carried, on + by just and gentle means." Indeed, to be revenged on the murderers of his + father, he had made many great sacrifices to the violent genius of + Anthony; many to Lepidus: but when Lepidus was become sunk and + superannuated in sloth; when Anthony was lost headlong in sensuality, + there was then no other remedy for the distracted State, rent piecemeal by + its Chiefs, but the sovereignty of one: Augustus, however, never had + assumed to be over his country King, or Dictator; but settled the + government under the legal name of Prince, or Chief of the Senate: he had + extended the Empire, and set for its bounds the distant ocean and rivers + far remote; the several parts and forces of the State, the legions, the + provinces, and the navy, were all properly balanced and connected; the + citizens lived dutifully under the protection of the law, the Allies in + terms of respect, and Rome itself was adorned with magnificent structures: + indeed, in a few instances he had exerted the arbitrary violence of power; + and in but a few, only to secure the peace of the whole. + </p> + <p> + In answer to all this, it was urged, that "his filial piety, and the + unhappy situation of the Republic, were pure pretences; but the ardent + lust of reigning, his true and only motive: with this spirit he had + solicited into his service, by bribery, a body of veteran soldiers: and + though a private youth, without post or magistracy, but, in defiance of + law, levied an army: with this spirit he had debauched and bought the + Roman legions under the Consuls, while he was falsely feigning a coalition + with Pompey's republican party: that soon after, when he had procured from + the Senate, or rather usurped the honours and authority of the + Praetorship; and when Hirtius and Pansa, the two Consuls, were slain, he + seized both their armies: that it was doubted whether the Consuls fell by + the enemy, or whether Pansa was not killed by pouring poison into his + wounds; and Hirtius slain by his own soldiers; and whether the young + Caesar was not the black contriver of this bloody treason: that by terror + he had extorted the Consulship in spite of the Senate; and turned against + the Commonwealth the very arms with which the Commonwealth had trusted him + for her defence against Anthony. Add to all this his cruel proscriptions, + and the massacre of so many citizens, his seizing from the public and + distributing to his own creatures so many lands and possessions; a + violation of property not justified even by those who gained by it. But, + allowing him to dedicate to the Manes of the Dictator the lives of Brutus + and Cassius (though more to his honour had it been to have postponed his + own personal hate to public good), did he not betray the young Pompey by + an insidious peace, betray Lepidus by a deceitful show of friendship? Did + he not next ensnare Marc Anthony, first by treaties, those of Tarentum and + Brundusium; then by a marriage, that of his sister Octavia? And did not + Anthony at last pay with his life the penalty of that subdolous alliance? + After this, no doubt there was peace, but a bloody peace; bloody in the + tragical defeat of Lollius, and that of Varus, in Germany; and at Rome, + the Varrones, the Egnatii, the Julii (those illustrious names) were put to + death." Nor was his domestic life spared upon this occasion. "He had + arbitrarily robbed Nero of his wife big with child by her husband; and + mocked the Gods by consulting the Priests; whether religion permitted him + to marry her before her delivery, or obliged him to stay till after. His + minions, Tedius and Vedius Pollio, had lived in scandalous and excessive + luxury: his wife Livia, who wholly controlled him, had proved a cruel + governess to the Commonwealth; and to the Julian house, a more cruel + step-mother: he had even invaded the incommunicable honours of the Gods, + and setting up for himself temples like theirs, would like them be adored + in the image of a Deity, with all the sacred solemnity of Priests and + sacrifices: nor had he adopted Tiberius for his successor, either out of + affection for him, or from concern for the public welfare; but having + discovered in him a spirit proud and cruel, he sought future glory from + the blackest opposition and comparison." For, Augustus, when, a few years + before, he solicited the Senate to grant to Tiberius another term of the + authority of the Tribuneship, though he mentioned him with honour, yet + taking notice of his odd humour, behaviour, and manners, dropped some + expressions, which, while they seemed to excuse him, exposed and upbraided + him. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the funeral of Augustus was over, a temple and divine worship + were forthwith decreed him. The Senate then turned their instant + supplications to Tiberius, to fill his vacant place; but received an + abstruse answer, touching the greatness of the Empire and his own distrust + of himself; he said that "nothing but the divine genius of Augustus was + equal to the mighty task: that for himself, who had been called by him + into a participation of his cares, he had learnt by feeling them, what a + daring, what a difficult toil was that of government, and how perpetually + subject to the caprices of fortune: that in a State supported by so many + illustrious patriots they ought not to cast the whole administration upon + one; and more easy to be administered were the several offices of the + Government by the united pains and sufficiency of many." A pompous and + plausible speech, but in it little faith and sincerity. Tiberius, even + upon subjects which needed no disguises, used words dark and cautious; + perhaps from his diffident nature, perhaps from a habit of dissembling: at + this juncture indeed, as he laboured wholly to hide his heart, his + language was the more carefully wrapped up in equivoques and obscurity: + but the Senators, who dreaded nothing so much as to seem to understand + him, burst into tears, plaints, and vows; with extended arms they + supplicated the Gods, invoked the image of Augustus, and embraced the + knees of Tiberius. He then commanded the imperial register to be produced + and recited. It contained a summary of the strength and income of the + Empire, the number of Romans and auxiliaries in pay, the condition of the + navy, of the several kingdoms paying tribute, and of the various provinces + and their revenues, with the state of the public expense, the issues of + the exchequer, and all the demands upon the public. This register was all + writ by the hand of Augustus; and in it he had subjoined his counsel to + posterity, that the present boundaries of the Empire should stand fixed + without further enlargement; but whether this counsel was dictated by fear + for the public, or by envy towards his successors, is uncertain. + </p> + <p> + Now when the Senate was stooping to the vilest importunity and + prostrations, Tiberius happened to say, that, "as he was unequal to the + weight of the whole government; so if they entrusted him with any + particular part, whatever it were, he would undertake it." Here Asinius + Gallus interposed: "I beg to know, Caesar," says he, "what part of the + government you desire for your share?" He was astonished with the + unexpected question, and, for a short space, mute; but recovering himself, + answered, that "it ill became his modesty to choose or reject any + particular branch of the administration, when he desired rather to be + excused from the whole." Gallus, who in his face conjectured sullen signs + of displeasure, again accosted him, and said, "by this question I did not + mean that you should do an impracticable thing, and share that power which + cannot be separated; but I meant to reason you into a confession that the + Commonwealth is but one body, and can be governed only by one soul." He + added an encomium upon Augustus, and reminded Tiberius himself of his many + victories, of the many civil employments which he had long and nobly + sustained: nor even thus could he mollify the wrath of Tiberius, who had + long hated him, for that Gallus had married Vipsania, daughter of Marcus + Agrippa, and formerly wife to Tiberius, who thence suspected that by this + match he meant to soar above the rank of a subject, and possessed too the + bold and haughty spirit of Asinius Pollio his father. + </p> + <p> + Lucius Arruntius incurred his displeasure next, by a speech not much + unlike that of Gallus: it is true, that towards him Tiberius bore no old + rancour; but Arruntius had mighty opulence, prompt parts, noble + accomplishments, with equal popularity, and hence was marked by him with a + fell eye of suspicion. For, as Augustus, shortly before his decease, was + mentioning those among the great men, who were capable of the supreme + power, but would not accept it; or unequal to it, yet wished for it; or + such, as had both ambition and sufficiency; he had said, that "Marcus + Lepidus was qualified, but would reject it; Asinius would be aspiring, but + had inferior talents; and that Lucius Arruntius wanted no sufficiency, and + upon a proper occasion would attempt it." That he spoke thus of Lepidus + and Asinius, is agreed; but, instead of Arruntius, some writers have + transmitted the name of Cneius Piso: and every one of these great men, + except Lepidus, were afterwards cut off, under the imputation of various + crimes, all darkly framed by Tiberius. Quintus Haterius and Mamercus + Scaurus did thereafter incense his distrustful spirit; the first by asking + him, "How long, Caesar, wilt thou suffer the Commonwealth to remain + destitute of a head?" Scaurus, because he had said "there was room to hope + that the prayers of the Senate would not prove abortive, since he had not + opposed as Tribune, nor rendered invalid, as he might, the motion of the + Consuls in his behalf." With Haterius he fell into instant rage; towards + Scaurus his resentment was more deep and implacable, and in profound + silence he hid it. Wearied at last with public importunity and clamour, + and with particular expostulations, he began to unbend a little; not that + he would own his undertaking the Empire, but only avoid the uneasiness of + perpetually rejecting endless solicitations. It is known how Haterius, + when he went next day to the palace to implore pardon, and throwing + himself at the feet of Tiberius embraced his knees, narrowly escaped being + slain by the soldiers; because Tiberius, who was walking, tumbled down, + whether by chance, or whether his legs were entangled in the arms of + Haterius: neither was he a jot mollified by the danger which threatened so + great a man, who was at length forced to supplicate Augusta for + protection; nor could even she obtain it, but after the most laboured + entreaties. + </p> + <p> + Towards Livia, too, exorbitant was the flattering court of the Senate. + Some were for decreeing her the general title of Mother; others the more + particular one of Mother Of Her Country; and almost all moved, that to the + name of Tiberius should be added, The Son Of Julia: Tiberius urged in + answer, that "public honours to women ought to be warily adjudged, and + with a sparing hand; and that with the same measure of moderation he would + receive such as were presented to himself." In truth, full of envy as he + was, and anxious lest his own grandeur should sink as that of his mother + rose, he would not suffer so much as a Lictor to be decreed her, and even + forbade the raising her an altar upon her late adoption, or paying her any + such solemnities. But for Germanicus he asked the Proconsular power; and + to carry him that dignity, honourable deputies were sent, as also to + mollify his sorrow for the death of Augustus. If for Drusus he demanded + not the same honour, it was because Drusus was present and already Consul + designed. He then named twelve candidates for the Praetorship; the same + number settled by Augustus; and though the Senate requested him to + increase it, by an oath he bound himself never to exceed. + </p> + <p> + The privilege of creating Magistrates was now first translated from the + assemblies of the people to the Senate; for though the Emperor had before + conducted all affairs of moment at his pleasure; yet till that day some + were still transacted by the Tribes, and carried by their bent and + suffrages. Neither did the regret of the people for the seizure of these + their ancient rights rise higher than some impotent grumbling. The Senate + too liked the change; as by it they were released from the charge of + buying votes, and from the shame of begging them: and so moderate was + Tiberius, that of the twelve candidates he only reserved to himself the + recommendation of four, to be accepted without opposition or caballing. At + the same time, the Tribunes of the people asked leave to celebrate at + their own expense certain plays in honour of Augustus, such as were to be + called after his name, and inserted in the calendar. But it was decreed, + that out of the Exchequer the charge should be defrayed, and the Tribunes + should in the circus wear the triumphal robe; but to be carried in + chariots was denied them. The annual celebration of these plays was, for + the future, transferred to one of the Praetors, him in particular to whom + should fall the jurisdiction of deciding suits between citizens and + strangers. + </p> + <p> + Thus stood affairs at Rome when a sedition seized the legions in Pannonia; + without any fresh grounds, save that from a change of Princes, they meant + to assume a warrant for licentiousness and tumult, and from a civil war + hoped great earnings and acquisitions: they were three legions encamped + together, all commanded by Junius Blesus, who, upon notice of the death of + Augustus and the accession of Tiberius, had granted the soldiers a recess + from their wonted duties for some days, as a time either of public + mourning or festivity. From being idle they waxed wanton, quarrelsome, and + turbulent; greedily listened to mutinous discourses; the most profligate + amongst them had most credit with them, and at last they became passionate + for a life of sloth and riot, utterly averse to all military discipline + and every fatigue of the camp. In the camp was one Percennius; formerly a + busy leader in the embroilments of the theatre, and now a common soldier; + a fellow of a petulant, declaiming tongue, and by inflaming parties in the + playhouse, well qualified to excite and infatuate a crowd. This incendiary + practised upon the ignorant and unwary, such as were solicitous what might + prove their future usage, now Augustus was dead. He engaged them in + nightly confabulations, and by little and little incited them to violence + and disorders; and towards the evening, when the soberest and best + affected were withdrawn, he assembled the worst and most turbulent. When + he had thus ripened them for sedition, and other ready incendiaries were + combined with him, he personated the character of a lawful Commander, and + thus questioned and harangued them: + </p> + <p> + "Why did they obey, like slaves, a few Centurions and a fewer Tribunes? + When would they be bold enough to demand redress of their heavy + grievances, unless they snatched the present occasion, while the Emperor + was yet new and his authority wavering, to prevail with him by petition, + or by arms to force him? They had already by the misery of many years paid + dear for their patient sloth and stupid silence, since decrepit with age + and maimed with wounds, after a course of service for thirty or forty + years, they were still doomed to carry arms: nor even to those who were + discharged was there any end of the misery of warfare; they were still + kept tied to the colours, and under the creditable title of Veterans + endured the same hardships, and underwent the same labours. But suppose + any of them escaped so many dangers, and survived so many calamities, + where was their reward at last? Why, a long and weary march remained yet + to be taken into countries far remote and strange; where, under the name + of lands given them to cultivate, they had unhospitable bogs to drain, and + the wild wastes of mountains to manure. Severe and ungainful of itself was + the occupation of war: ten Asses {Footnote: About 5d.} a day the poor + price of their persons and lives; out of this, they must buy clothes, and + tents, and arms; out of this, bribe the cruel Centurions for a forbearance + of blows, and occasional exemption from hard duty: but stripes from their + officers, and wounds from their enemies, hard winters and laborious + summers, bloody wars and barren peace, were miseries without end: nor + remained there other cure or relief than to refuse to enlist but upon + conditions certain, and fixed by themselves; particularly, that their pay + be a denarius or sixteen Asses a day, {Footnote: About 8-1/2d.} sixteen + years be the utmost term of serving; when discharged, to be no longer + obliged to follow the colours, but have their reward in ready money, paid + them in the camp where they earned it. Did the Praetorian Guards, they who + had double pay, they who after sixteen years' service were paid off and + sent home, bear severer difficulties, undergo superior dangers? He did not + mean to detract from the merit of their brethren the City guards; their + own lot however it was, to be placed amongst horrid and barbarous nations, + nor could they look from their tents, but they saw the foe." + </p> + <p> + The whole crowd received this harangue with shouts of applause; but from + various instigations. Some displayed upon their bodies the obvious + impressions of stripes, others their hoary heads, many their vestments + ragged and curtailed, with backs utterly bare; as did all, their various + griefs, in the bitterness of reproach. At length to such excessive fury + they grew, that they proposed to incorporate the three legions into one; + nor by aught but emulation was the project defeated: for to his own legion + every man claimed the prerogative of swallowing and denominating the other + two. They took another method, and placed the three Eagles of the legions, + with the standards of the several cohorts, altogether without rank or + priority; then forthwith digged turf and were rearing a tribunal, one high + enough to be seen at a distance. In this hurry arrived Blesus, who, + falling into sore rebukes, and by force interrupting particulars, called + with vehemence to all: "Dip your hands rather in my blood: to murder your + General will be a crime less shameful and heinous than to revolt from your + Prince; for determined I am, either to preserve the legions in their faith + and obedience, if you kill me not for my intended good office; or my + death, if I fall by your hands, shall hasten your remorse." + </p> + <p> + For all this, turfs were accumulated, and the work was already breast + high, when, at last, overcome by his spirit and perseverance, they + forbore. Blesus was an able speaker: he told them "that sedition and + mutiny were not the methods of conveying to the Emperor the pretensions of + the soldiers; their demands too were new and singular; such as neither the + soldiers of old had ever made to the ancient Generals, nor they themselves + to the deified Augustus: besides, their claims were ill-timed, when the + Prince, just upon his accession, was already embarrassed with the weight + and variety of other cares. If, however, they meant to try to gain in full + peace those concessions, which, even after a civil war, the conquerors + never claimed; yet why trample upon duty and obedience, why reject the + laws of the army, and rules of discipline? And if they meant to petition, + why meditate violence? They might at least appoint deputies; and in his + presence trust them with their pretensions." Here they all cried out, + "that the son of Blesus, one of their Tribunes, should execute that + deputation; and demand in their name that, after sixteen years' service + they should be discharged: they said they would give him new orders, when + he had succeeded in these." After the departure of the young officer, a + moderate recess ensued; the soldiers however exulted to have carried such + a point: the sending the son of their General, as the public advocate for + their cause, was to them full proof that they had gained by force and + terror that which by modesty and gentle means they would never have + gained. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime those companies which, before the sedition began, were + sent to Nauportum {Footnote: Over-Laybach, in Carniola.} to mend roads and + bridges, and upon other duties, no sooner heard of the uproar in the camp, + but they cast off all obedience, tore away the ensigns, and plundered the + neighbouring villages; even Nauportum itself, which for greatness + resembled a municipal town, was plundered. The endeavours of the + Centurions to restrain this violence, were first returned with mockery and + contempt, then with invectives and contumelies, at last with outrage and + blows. Their vengeance was chiefly bent against the Camp-Marshal, + Aufidienus Rufus: him they dragged from his chariot, and, loading him with + baggage, drove him before the first ranks; they then insulted him, and + asked in scorn, "whether he would gladly bear such enormous burdens, + whether endure such immense marches?" Rufus had been long a common + soldier, then became a Centurion, and afterwards Camp-Marshal; a severe + restorer of primitive strictness and discipline; an indefatigable observer + of every military duty, which he exacted from others with the more rigour, + as he had himself undergone them all with patience. + </p> + <p> + By the arrival of this tumultuous band the sedition was again awakened to + its former outrage, and the seditious, roving abroad without control, + ravaged the country on every side. Blesus, for an example of terror to the + rest, commanded those who were most laden with plunder, to be punished + with stripes and cast into prison: for the General was still dutifully + obeyed by the Centurions, and by all the soldiers of any merit; but the + criminals refused to submit, and even struggled with the guard who were + carrying them off; they clasped the knees of the bystanders, implored help + from their fellows, now calling upon every individual, and conjuring them + by their particular names; then appealed to them in a body, and + supplicated the company, the cohort, the legion to which they belonged; + warning and proclaiming that the same ignominy and chastisement hung over + them all. With the same breath they heaped invectives without measure upon + their General, and called upon heaven and all the Gods to be their + witnesses and avengers; nor left they aught unattempted to raise effectual + hatred, compassion, terror, and every species of fury. Hence the whole + body rushed to their relief, burst open the prison, unbound and rescued + the prisoners: thus they owned for their brethren, and incorporated with + themselves, infamous revolters, and traitors convict and condemned. + </p> + <p> + Hence the violence became more raging, and hence more sedition from more + leaders. There was particularly one Vibulenus, a common soldier, who, + exalted on the shoulders of his comrades, before the tribunal of Blesus, + thus declaimed in the ears of a multitude already outrageous, and eager to + hear what he had to say. "To these innocents," says he, "to these + miserable sufferers, our fellow-soldiers, you have indeed restored breath + and liberty: but who will restore life to my poor brother; who my poor + brother to me? He was sent hither by the German armies, with propositions + for our common good; and for this, was last night butchered by that same + Blesus, who in the murder employed his gladiators, bloody men, whom he + purposely entertains and arms for our common execution. Where, oh where, + Blesus, hast thou thrown his unoffending and mangled corpse? Even open + enemies do not inhumanly deny burial to the slain: when I have satiated my + sorrow with a thousand kisses, and a flood of tears; command me also to be + murdered, that these our brethren may together bury my poor brother and + me, slaughtered both as victims, yet both guiltless of any crime but that + of studying the common interest of the legions." + </p> + <p> + He inflamed those his complaints and expostulations with affecting sighs + and lamentations, beat his breast, tore his face, and showed all the + symptoms of anguish. Then those who carried him giving way, he threw + himself headlong at the feet of his companions; and thus prostrate and + supplicating, in them raised such a spirit of commiseration and such a + storm of vengeance, that one party of them instantly seized and bound the + General's gladiators; another, the rest of his family; while many ran and + dispersed themselves to search for the corpse: and had it not been quickly + manifest that there was no corpse to be found, that the slaves of Blesus + had upon the rack cleared themselves, and that Vibulenus never had any + brother; they had gone nigh to have sacrificed the General. As it was, + they expulsed the Camp-Marshal and Tribunes; and as they fled, plundered + their baggage: they likewise put to death Lucilius the Centurion, whom + they had sarcastically named <i>Cedo Alteram</i>, because when upon the + back of a soldier he had broken one wand, he was wont to call for another, + and then a third. The other Centurions lurked in concealment, all but + Julius Clemens, who for his prompt capacity was saved, in order to manage + the negotiations of the soldiers: even two of the legions, the eighth and + the fifteenth, were ready to turn their swords upon each other; and had, + but for the ninth: one Sirpicus, a centurion, was the subject of the + quarrel; him the eighth required to be put to death, and the fifteenth + protected him; but the ninth interposed with entreaties to both, and with + threats to those who would not listen to prayers. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius, however, close and impenetrable, and ever labouring to smother + all melancholy tidings, was yet driven by those from Pannonia, to despatch + his son Drusus thither, accompanied by the principal nobility and guarded + by two Praetorian cohorts; but charged with no precise instructions, only + to adapt his measures to the present exigency: the cohorts were + strengthened with an extraordinary addition of chosen men, with the + greatest part of the Praetorian horse, and main body of the German, then + the Emperor's guards. Aelius Sejanus, lately joined with his father Strabo + in the command of the Praetorian bands, was also sent, not only as + Governor to the young Prince, but as his credit with the Emperor was known + to be mighty, to deal with the revolters by promises and terrors. When + Drusus approached, the legions, for show of respect, marched out to meet + him; not with the usual symptoms and shouts of joy, nor with gay ensigns + and arms glittering, but in a dress and accoutrements hideous and squalid: + in their countenances too, though composed to sadness, were seen greater + marks of sullenness and contumacy. + </p> + <p> + As soon as he was within the camp, they secured the entrances with guards, + and in several quarters of it placed parties upon duty: the rest crowded + about the tribunal of Drusus, who stood beckoning with his hand for + silence. Here as often as they surveyed their own numbers and met one + another's resentful looks, they uttered their rage in horrible cries: + again, when upon the tribunal they beheld Caesar, awe and trembling seized + them: now, there prevailed an hollow and inarticulate murmur; next, a + furious clamour; then suddenly a dead silence: so that, by a hasty + succession of opposite passions, they were at once dismayed and dreadful. + When at last the uproar was stayed, he read his father's letters, who in + them declared, "that he would take an affectionate care of the brave and + invincible legions by whom he had sustained successfully so many wars; + and, as soon as his grief was a little abated, deal with the Senate about + their demands; in the meantime he had sent them his son, on purpose to + make them forthwith all the concessions, which could instantly be made + them: the rest were to be reserved for the Senate, the proper distributers + of rewards and punishments by a right altogether unalienable." + </p> + <p> + The assembly answered, that to Julius Clemens they had intrusted what to + speak in their name: he began with their demands, "to be discharged after + sixteen years' service, to have the reward which, for past services upon + that discharge, they claimed; their pay to be increased to a Roman + denarius; the veterans to be no longer detained under their ensigns." When + Drusus urged, that wholly in the judgment of the Senate and his father, + these matters rested he was interrupted by their clamours: "To what + purpose came he; since he could neither augment their pay, nor alleviate + their grievances? and while upon them every officer was allowed to inflict + blows and death, the son of their Emperor wanted power to relieve them by + one beneficent action. The policy this of the late reign, when Tiberius + frustrated every request of the soldiers, by referring all to Augustus; + now Drusus was come with the same artifices to delude them: were they + never to have a higher visit than from the children of their Prince? It + was, indeed, unaccountable, that to the Senate the Emperor should leave no + part in the direction of the army, only the rewarding of the soldiery: + ought not the same Senate to be consulted as often as a battle was to be + fought, or a private man to be punished? or, were their recompenses to be + adjudged by many masters, but their punishments to remain without any + restraint or moderator whatsoever?" + </p> + <p> + At last they abandoned the tribunal, and with menaces and insults fell + upon all they met belonging to Drusus, either as guards or friends; + meditating thus to provoke a quarrel, and an introduction to blood. + Chiefly enraged they were against Cneius Lentulus, as one for years and + warlike renown superior to any about the person of Drusus, and thence + suspected to have hardened the Prince, and been himself the foremost to + despise these outrages in the soldiery: nor was it long after, that as he + was leaving Drusus, and from the foresight of danger returning to the + winter quarters, they surrounded him and demanded "whither he went? to the + Emperor or Senate? there also to exercise his enmity to the legions, and + oppose their interest?" and instantly assaulted him with stones. He was + already covered with wounds and blood, and awaiting certain assassination, + when the troops attending Drusus flew to his assistance and saved him. + </p> + <p> + The following night had a formidable aspect, and threatened the speedy + eruption of some tragical vengeance; when a phenomenon intervened and + assuaged all. The Moon, in the midst of a clear sky, seemed to the + soldiers suddenly to sicken; and they, who were ignorant of the natural + cause, took this for an omen foreboding the issue of their present + adventures: to their own labours, they compared the eclipse of the planet; + and prophesied, "that if to the distressed Goddess should be restored her + wonted brightness and vigour, equally successful would be the issue of + these their struggles." Hence they strove to charm and revive her with + sounds, and by ringing upon brazen metal, and an uproar of trumpets and + cornets, made a vehement bellowing. As she appeared brighter or darker, + they exulted or lamented; but when gathering clouds had utterly bereft + them of her sight, and they believed her now buried in everlasting + darkness; then, as minds once thoroughly dismayed are pliant to + superstition, they bewailed "their own eternal sufferings thus portended, + and that against their misdeeds the angry Deities were contending." + Drusus, who thought it behoved him to improve this disposition of theirs, + and to reap the fruits of wisdom from the operations of chance; ordered + certain persons to go round, and apply to them from tent to tent. For this + purpose, he called and employed the Centurion Julius Clemens, and whoever + else were by honest methods acceptable to the multitude. These insinuated + themselves everywhere, with those who kept watch, or were upon patrol, or + guarded the gates; soothing all with hopes, and by terrors rousing them. + "How long," said they, "shall we hold the son of our Emperor thus + besieged? Where will our broils and wild contentions end? Shall we swear + allegiance to Percennius and Vibulenus? Will Vibulenus and Percennius + support us with pay during our service, and reward us with lands when + dismissed? In short, shall two common men dispossess the Neros and the + Drusi, and to themselves assume the Empire of the Roman People? Let us be + wiser; and as we were the last to revolt, be the first to relent. Such + demands, as comprise terms for all, are ever slowly accorded; but + particulars may, when they please, merit instant favour, and instantly + receive it." These reasonings alarmed them, and filled them with mutual + jealousies. Presently the fresh soldiers forsook the veterans, and one + legion separated from another; then by degrees returned the love of duty + and obedience. They relinquished the guard of the gates: and the Eagles + and other ensigns, which in the beginning of the tumult they had thrown + together, were now restored each to its distinct station. + </p> + <p> + Drusus, as soon as it was day, summoned an assembly, and though unskilled + in speaking, yet with a haughtiness inherent in his blood, rebuked their + past and commended their present behaviour. "With threats and terrors," he + said, "it was impossible to subdue him; but if he saw them reclaimed to + submission, if from them he heard the language of supplicants, he would + send to his father to accept with a reconciled spirit the petitions of the + legions," Hence, at their entreaty, for their deputy to Tiberius the same + Blesus was again despatched, and with him Lucius Apronius, a Roman Knight + of the cohort of Drusus; and Justus Catonius, a Centurion of the first + order. There followed great debates in the council of Drusus, while some + advised "to suspend all proceeding till the return of the deputies, and by + a course of courtesy the while to soothe the soldiers; others maintained, + that remedies more potent must needs be applied: in a multitude, was to be + found nothing on this side extremes; always imperious where they are not + awed, and to be without danger despised when frightened: to their present + terror from superstition was to be added the dread of their General, by + his dooming to death the authors of the sedition." Rather prompt to + rigorous counsels was the genius of Drusus: Vibulenus and Percennius were + produced, and by his command executed; it is by many recounted, that in + his own tent they were secretly despatched and buried; by others, that + their bodies were ignominiously thrown over the entrenchments, for a + public spectacle of terror. + </p> + <p> + Search was then made for other remarkable incendiaries. Some were caught + skulking without the camp, and there by the Centurions or Praetorian + soldiers slain; others were by their several companies delivered up, as a + proof of their own sincere faith. The consternation of the soldiers was + heightened by the precipitate accession of winter, with rains incessant + and so violent, that they were unable to stir from their tents, or + maintain common intercourse, nay, scarce to preserve their standards, + assaulted continually by tempestuous winds and raging floods. Dread + besides of the angry Gods still possessed them; nor was it at random, they + thought, that such profane traitors were thus visited with black eclipses + and roaring tempests; neither against these their calamities was there + other relief than the relinquishing of a camp by impiety contaminated and + accursed, and after expiation of their guilt returning to their several + garrisons. The eighth legion departed first; and then the fifteenth: the + ninth, with earnest clamours, pressed for continuing there till the + letters from Tiberius arrived; but when deserted by the other two, their + courage failed, and by following of their own accord, they prevented the + shame of being forced. Drusus seeing order and tranquillity restored, + without staying for the return of the deputies, returned himself to Rome. + </p> + <p> + Almost at the same time, and from the same causes, the legions in Germany + raised an insurrection, with greater numbers, and thence with more fury. + Passionate too were their hopes that Germanicus would never brook the rule + of another, but yield to the spirit of the legions, who had force + sufficient to bring the whole Empire under his sway. Upon the Rhine were + two armies; that called the higher, commanded by Caius Silius, + Lieutenant-General; the lower, by Aulus Caecina: the command in chief + rested in Germanicus, then busy collecting the tribute in Gaul. The forces + however under Silius, with cautious ambiguity, watched the success of the + revolt which others began: for the soldiers of the lower army had broken + out into open outrages, which took its rise from the fifth legion, and the + one-and-twentieth; who after them drew the first, and twentieth. These + were altogether upon the frontiers of the Ubians, passing the campaign in + utter idleness or light duty: so that upon the news that Augustus was + dead, the whole swarm of new soldiers lately levied in the city, men + accustomed to the effeminacies of Rome, and impatient of every military + hardship, began to possess the ignorant minds of the rest with many + turbulent expectations, "that now was presented the lucky juncture for + veterans to demand entire dismission; the fresh soldiers, larger pay; and + all, some mitigation of their miseries; as also to return due vengeance + for the cruelties of the Centurions." These were not the harangues of a + single incendiary, like Percennius amongst the Pannonian legions; nor + uttered, as there, in the ears of men who, while they saw before their + eyes armies greater than their own, mutinied with awe and trembling: but + here was a sedition of many mouths, filled with many boasts, "that in + their hands lay the power and fate of Rome; by their victories the empire + was enlarged, and from them the Caesars took, as a compliment, the surname + of Germanicus." + </p> + <p> + Neither did Caecina strive to restrain them. A madness so extensive had + bereft him of all his bravery and firmness. In this precipitate frenzy + they rushed at once, with swords drawn, upon the Centurions, the eternal + objects of their resentment, and always the first victims to their + vengeance. Them they dragged to the earth, and upon each bestowed a + terrible portion of sixty blows; a number proportioned to that of + Centurions in a legion. Then bruised, mangled, and half expiring, as they + were, they cast them all out of the camp, some into the stream of the + Rhine. Septimius, who had for refuge fled to the tribunal of Caecina, and + lay clasping his feet, was demanded with such imperious vehemence, that he + was forced to be surrendered to destruction. Cassius Cherea (afterwards + famous to posterity for killing Caligula), then a young man of undaunted + spirit, and one of the Centurions, boldly opened himself a passage with + his sword through a crowd of armed foes striving to seize him. After this + no further authority remained to the Tribunes, none to the Camp-Marshals. + The seditious soldiers were their own officers; set the watch, appointed + the guard, and gave all orders proper in the present exigency; hence those + who dived deepest into the spirit of the soldiery, gathered a special + indication how powerful and obdurate the present insurrection was like to + prove; for in their conduct were no marks of a rabble, where every man's + will guides him, or the instigation of a few controls the whole. Here, all + at once they raged, and all at once kept silence; with so much concert and + steadiness, that you would have believed them under the sovereign + direction of one. + </p> + <p> + To Germanicus the while, then receiving, as I have said, the tribute in + Gaul, news were brought of the decease of Augustus; whose grand-daughter + Agrippina he had to wife, and by her many children: he was himself the + grandson of Livia, by her son Drusus, the brother of Tiberius; but ever + under heavy anxiety from the secret hate which his uncle and grandmother + bore him: hate the more virulent as its grounds were altogether + unrighteous; for, dear and adored was the memory of his father Drusus + amongst the Roman People, and from him was firmly expected that had he + succeeded to the Empire, he would have restored public liberty: hence + their zeal for Germanicus, and of him the same hopes conceived; as from + his youth he possessed a popular spirit, and marvellous affability utterly + remote from the comportment and address of Tiberius, ever haughty and + mysterious. The animosities too between the ladies administered fresh + fuel; while towards Agrippina, Livia was actuated by the despite natural + to step-mothers: and over-tempestuous was the indignation of Agrippina; + only that her known chastity and love for her husband, always gave her + mind, however vehement, a virtuous turn. + </p> + <p> + But Germanicus, the nearer he stood to supreme rule, the more vigour he + exerted to secure it to Tiberius: to him he obliged the Sequanians, a + neighbouring people, as also the several Belgic cities, to swear present + allegiance; and the moment he learnt the uproar of the legions, posted + thither: he found them advanced without the camp to receive him, with eyes + cast down, in feigned token of remorse. After he entered the + entrenchments, instantly his ears were filled with plaints and grievances, + uttered in hideous and mixed clamours: nay, some catching his hand, as if + they meant to kiss it, thrust his fingers into their mouths, to feel their + gums destitute of teeth; others showed their limbs enfeebled, and bodies + stooping under old age. As he saw the assembly mixed at random, he + commanded them "to range themselves into companies, thence more distinctly + to hear his answers; as also to place before them their several ensigns, + that the cohorts at least might be distinguished." + </p> + <p> + With slowness and reluctance it was, that they obeyed him; then beginning + with an encomium upon the "venerable memory of Augustus," he proceeded to + the "many victories and many triumphs of Tiberius," and with peculiar + praises celebrated the "glorious and immortal deeds, which with these very + legions in Germany he had accomplished;" he next boasted the quiet state + of things, the consent of all Italy, the loyal faith of both the Gauls: + and every quarter of the Roman State exempt from disaffection and + turbulence. + </p> + <p> + Thus far they listened with silence, at least with moderate murmuring; but + the moment he touched their sedition and questioned, "where now was the + wonted modesty of soldiers? where the glory of ancient discipline? whither + had they chased their Tribunes, whither their Centurions?" to a man, they + stripped themselves to the skin, and there exposed the seams of their + wounds and bruises of their chastisements, in the rage of reproach. Then + in the undistinguished voice of uproar, they urged "the exactions for + occasional exemptions, their scanty pay, and their rigorous labours;" + which they represented in a long detail: "ramparts to be reared, + entrenchments digged, trees felled and drawn, forage cut and carried, fuel + prepared and fetched," with every other article of toil required by the + exigencies of war, or to prevent idleness in the soldiery. Above all, from + the veterans arose a cry most horrible: they enumerated thirty years or + upwards undergone in the service; "and besought that to men utterly spent + he would administer respite, nor suffer them to be beholden to death for + the last relief from their toils; but discharge them from a warfare so + lasting and severe, and grant them the means of a comfortable recess." + Nay, some there were who of him required the money bequeathed them by + Augustus; and towards Germanicus uttering zealous vows, with omens of + happy fortune, declared their cordial attachment to his cause if he would + himself assume the Empire. Here, as if already stained with their treason, + he leaped headlong from the Tribunal; but with swords drawn they opposed + his departure, and threatened his life, if he refused to return: yet, with + passionate protestations that "he would rather die than be a traitor," he + snatched his sword from his side, and aiming full at his breast, would + have buried it there, had not those who were next him seized his hand and + by force restrained him. A cluster of soldiers in the extremity of the + assembly exhorted him, nay, what is incredible to hear, some particulars + advancing nearer, exhorted him <i>to strike home</i>: in truth one + Calusidius, a common soldier, presented him his naked sword, and added, + "it is sharper than your own;" a behaviour which to the rest, outrageous + as they were, seemed savage, and of horrid example: hence the friends of + Germanicus had time to snatch him away to his tent. + </p> + <p> + It was here consulted what remedy to apply: for it was advised, that + "ministers of sedition were preparing to be despatched to the other army, + to draw them too into a confederacy in the revolt; that the capital of the + Ubians was destined to be sacked; and if their hands were once inured to + plunder, they would break in, and ravage all Gaul." This dread was + augmented by another: the enemy knew of the sedition in the Roman army, + and were ready to invade the Empire, if its barrier the Rhine were left + unguarded. Now, to arm the allies and the auxiliaries of Rome, and lead + them against the departing legions, was to rouse a civil war: severity was + dangerous: the way of largesses infamous; and alike threatening it was to + the State to grant the turbulent soldiers nothing, or yield them + everything. After revolving every reason and objection, the result was, to + feign letters and directions from Tiberius, "that those who had served + twenty years should be finally discharged; such as served sixteen be under + the ensign and privileges of veterans, released from every duty but that + of repulsing the enemy; and the legacy, which they demanded, should be + paid and doubled." + </p> + <p> + The soldiers, who perceived that, purely to evade present difficulty, the + concessions were forged, insisted to have them forthwith executed; and + instantly the Tribunes despatched the discharge of the veterans: that of + the money was adjourned to their several winter quarters; but the fifth + legion, and the one-and-twentieth, refused to stir, till in that very camp + they were paid; so that out of the money reserved by himself and his + friends for travailing expenses, Germanicus was obliged to raise the sum. + Caecina, Lieutenant-General, led the first legion and twentieth back to + the capital of the Ubians: an infamous march, when the plunder of their + General's coffers was carried amidst the ensigns and Roman Eagles. + Germanicus, the while, proceeding to the army in higher Germany, brought + the second, thirteenth, and sixteenth legions to swear allegiance without + hesitation: to the fourteenth, who manifested some short suspense, he made + unasked a tender of their money, and a present discharge. + </p> + <p> + But a party of veterans which belonged to the disorderly legions, and then + in garrison among the Chaucians, as they began a sedition there, were + somewhat quelled by the instant execution of two of their body: an + execution this, commanded by Maenius, Camp-Marshal, and rather of good + example, than done by competent authority. The tumult, however, swelling + again with fresh rage, he fled, but was discovered; so that, finding no + safety in lurking, from his own bravery he drew his defence, and declared + "that to himself, who was only their Camp-Marshal, these their outrages + were not done, but done to the authority of Germanicus, their General, to + the majesty of Tiberius their Emperor." At the same time, braving and + dismaying all that would have stopped him, he fiercely snatched the + colours, faced about towards the Rhine, and pronouncing the doom of + traitors and deserters to every man who forsook his ranks, brought them + back to their winter quarters, mutinous, in truth, but not daring to + mutiny. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime the deputies from the Senate met Germanicus at the altar + of the Ubians {Footnote: Cologne.}, whither in his return he was arrived. + Two legions wintered there, the first and twentieth, with the soldiers + lately placed under the standard of veterans; men already under the + distractions of guilt and fear: and now a new terror possessed them, that + these Senators were come armed with injunctions to cancel every concession + which they had by sedition extorted; and, as it is the custom of the crowd + to be ever charging somebody with the crimes suggested by their own false + alarms, the guilt of this imaginary decree they laid upon Minutius + Plancus, a Senator of consular dignity, and at the head of this + deputation. In the dead of night, they began to clamour aloud for the + purple standard placed in the quarters of Germanicus, and, rushing + tumultuously to his gate, burst the doors, dragged the Prince out of his + bed, and, with menaces of present death, compelled him to deliver the + standard. Then, as they roved about the camp, they met the deputies, who, + having learnt the outrage, were hastening to Germanicus: upon them they + poured a deluge of contumelies, and to present slaughter were devoting + them, Plancus chiefly, whom the dignity of his character had restrained + from flight; nor in this mortal danger had he other refuge than the + quarters of the first legion, where, embracing the Eagle and other + ensigns, he sought sanctuary from the religious veneration ever paid them. + But, in spite of religion, had not Calpurnius, the Eagle-bearer, by force + defeated the last violence of the assault, in the Roman camp had been + slain an ambassador of the Roman People, and with his blood had been + stained the inviolable altars of the Gods; a barbarity rare even in the + camp of an enemy. At last, day returning, when the General, and the + soldiers, and their actions could be distinguished, Germanicus entered the + camp, and commanding Plancus to be brought, seated him by himself upon the + tribunal: he then inveighed against the late "pernicious frenzy, which in + it, he said, had fatality, and was rekindled by no despite in the + soldiers, but by that of the angry Gods." He explained the genuine + purposes of that embassy, and lamented with affecting eloquence "the + outrage committed upon Plancus, altogether brutal and unprovoked; the foul + violence done to the sacred person of an Ambassador, and the mighty + disgrace from thence derived upon the legion." Yet as the assembly showed + more stupefaction than calmness, he dismissed the deputies under a guard + of auxiliary horse. + </p> + <p> + During this affright, Germanicus was by all men censured, "that he retired + not to the higher army, whence he had been sure of ready obedience, and + even of succour against the revolters: already he had taken wrong measures + more than enow, by discharging some, rewarding all, and other tender + counsels; if he despised his own safety, yet why expose his infant son, + why his wife big with child, to the fury of outrageous traitors, wantonly + violating all the most sacred rights amongst men? It became him at least + to restore his wife and son safe to Tiberius and to the State." He was + long unresolved; besides Agrippina was averse to leave him, and urged, + that "she was the grand-daughter of Augustus, and it was below her spirit + to shrink in a time of danger." But embracing her and their little son, + with great tenderness and many tears, he prevailed with her to depart. + Thus there marched miserably along a band of helpless women: the wife of a + great commander fled like a fugitive, and upon her bosom bore her infant + son: about her a troop of other ladies, dragged from their husbands, and + drowned in tears, uttering their heavy lamentations; nor weaker than + theirs was the grief felt by all who remained. + </p> + <p> + These groans and tears, and this spectacle of woe, the appearances rather + of a city stormed and sacked, than of a Roman camp, that of Germanicus + Caesar, victorious and flourishing, awakened attention and inquiry in the + soldiers: leaving their tents, they cried, "Whence these doleful wailings? + what so lamentable! so many ladies of illustrious quality, travelling thus + forlorn; not a Centurion to attend them; not a soldier to guard them; + their General's wife amongst them, undistinguished by any mark of her + princely dignity; destitute of her ordinary train; frightened from the + Roman legions, and repairing, like an exile, for shelter to Treves, there + to commit herself to the faith of foreigners." Hence shame and + commiseration seized them, and the remembrance of her illustrious family, + with that of her own virtues; the brave Agrippa her father; the mighty + Augustus her grandfather; the amiable Drusus her father-in-law, herself + celebrated for a fruitful bed, and of signal chastity: add the + consideration of her little son, born in the camp, nursed in the arms of + the legions, and by themselves named Caligula, a military name from the + boots which of the same fashion with their own, in compliment to them, and + to win their affections, he frequently wore. But nothing so effectually + subdued them as their own envy towards the inhabitants of Treves: hence + they all besought, all adjured, that she would return to themselves, and + with themselves remain: thus some stopped Agrippina; but the main body + returned with their entreaties to Germanicus, who, as he was yet in the + transports of grief and anger, addressed himself on this wise to the + surrounding crowd. + </p> + <p> + "To me neither is my wife or son dearer than my father and the + Commonwealth. But him doubtless the majesty of his name will defend; and + there are other armies, loyal armies, to defend the Roman State. As to my + wife and children, whom for your glory I could freely sacrifice, I now + remove them from your rage; that by my blood alone may be expiated + whatever further mischief your fury meditates; and that the murder of the + great grandson of Augustus, the murder of the daughter-in-law of Tiberius, + may not be added to mine, nor to the blackness of your past guilt. For, + during these days of frenzy what has been too horrid for you to commit? + What so sacred that you have not violated? To this audience what name + shall I give? Can I call you <i>soldiers</i>? you who have beset with arms + the son of your Emperor, confined him in your trenches, and held him in a + siege? <i>Roman citizens</i> can I call you? you who have trampled upon + the supreme authority of the Roman Senate? Laws religiously observed by + common enemies, you have profaned; violated the sacred privileges, and + persons of Ambassadors; broken the laws of nations. The deified Julius + Caesar quelled a sedition in his army by a single word: he called all who + refused to follow him, <i>townsmen</i>. The deified Augustus, when, after + the battle of Actium, the legions who won it lapsed into mutiny, terrified + them into submission by the dignity of his presence and an awful look. + These, it is true, are mighty and immortal names, whom I dare not emulate; + but, as I am their descendant, and inherit their blood, should the armies + in Syria and Spain reject my orders, and contemn my authority, I should + think their behaviour strange and base: are not the present legions under + stronger ties than those in Syria and Spain? You are the first and the + twentieth legions; the former enrolled by Tiberius himself; the other his + constant companions in so many battles, his partners in so many victories, + and by him enriched with so many bounties! Is this the worthy return you + make your Emperor, and late Commander, for the distinction he has shown + you, for the favour he has done you, and for his liberalities towards you? + And shall I be the author of such tidings to him; such heavy tidings in + the midst of congratulations and happy accounts from every province in the + Empire? Must it be my sad task to acquaint him that his own new levies, as + well as his own veterans who long fought under him; these not appeased by + their discharge, and neither of them satiated with the money given them, + are both still combined in a furious mutiny? must I tell him that here and + only here the Centurions are butchered, the Tribunes driven away, the + Ambassadors imprisoned; that with blood the camp is stained, and the + rivers flow with blood; and that for me his son, I hold a precarious life + at the mercy of men, who owe me duty, and practise enmity? + </p> + <p> + "Why did you the other day, oh unseasonable and too officious friends! why + did you leave me at their mercy by snatching from me my sword, when with + it I would have put myself out of their power? He who offered me his own + sword showed greater kindness, and was more my friend. I would then have + fallen happy; happy that my death would have hid from mine eyes so many + horrible crimes since committed by my own army; and for you, you would + have chosen another general, such a general, no doubt, as would have left + my death unpunished, but still one who would have sought vengeance for + that of Varus and the three legions; for the Gods are too just to permit + that ever the Belgians, however generously they offer their service, shall + reap the credit and renown of retrieving the glory of the Roman name, and + of reducing in behalf of Rome the German nations her foes. Filled with + this passion for the glory of Rome, I here invoke thy spirit now with the + Gods, oh deified Augustus; and thy image interwoven in the ensigns, and + thy memory, oh deceased father. Let thy revered spirit, oh Augustus, let + thy loved image and memory, oh Drusus, still dear to these legions, + vindicate them from this guilty stain, this foul infamy of leaving to + foreigners the honour of defending and avenging the Roman State. They are + Romans; they already feel the remorses of shame; they are already + stimulated with a sense of honour: improve, oh improve this generous + disposition in them; that thus inspired they may turn the whole tide of + their civil rage to the destruction of their common enemy. And for you, my + fellow-soldiers, in whom I behold all the marks of compunction, other + countenances, and minds happily changed; if you mean to restore to the + Senate its ambassadors; to your Emperor your sworn obedience; to me, your + general, my wife and son; be it the first instance of your duty, to fly + the contagious company of incendiaries, to separate the sober from the + seditious: this will be a faithful sign of remorse, this a firm pledge of + fidelity." + </p> + <p> + These words softened them into supplicants: they confessed that all his + reproaches were true; they besought him to punish the guilty and + malicious, to pardon the weak and misled, and to lead them against the + enemy; to recall his wife, to bring back his son, nor to suffer the + fosterling of the legions to be given in hostage to the Gauls. Against the + recalling of Agrippina he alleged the advance of winter, and her + approaching delivery; but said, that his son should return, and that to + themselves he left to execute what remained further to be executed. + Instantly, with changed resentments, they ran, and seizing the most + seditious, dragged them in bonds to Caius Cretonius, commander of the + first legion, who judged and punished them in this manner. The legions, + with their swords drawn, surrounded the tribunal; from thence the prisoner + was by a Tribune exposed to their view, and if they proclaimed him guilty, + cast headlong down, and executed even by his fellow-soldiers, who rejoiced + in the execution, because by it they thought their own guilt to be + expiated: nor did Germanicus restrain them, since on themselves remained + the cruelty and reproach of the slaughter committed without any order of + his. The veterans followed the same example of vengeance, and were soon + after ordered into Rhetia, in appearance to defend that province against + the invading Suevians; in reality, to remove them from a camp still + horrible to their sight, as well in the remedy and punishment, as from the + memory of their crime. Germanicus next passed a scrutiny upon the conduct + and characters of the Centurions: before him they were cited singly; and + each gave an account of his name, his company, country, the length of his + service, exploits in war, and military presents, if with any he had been + distinguished: if the Tribunes or his legion bore testimony of his + diligence and integrity, he kept his post; upon concurring complaint of + his avarice or cruelty, he was degraded. + </p> + <p> + Thus were the present commotions appeased; but others as great still + subsisted, from the rage and obstinacy of the fifth and twenty-first + legions. They were in winter quarters sixty miles off, in a place called + the Old Camp, {Footnote: Xanten.} and had first began the sedition: nor + was there any wickedness so horrid, that they had not perpetrated; nay, at + this time, neither terrified by the punishment, nor reclaimed by the + reformation of their fellow-soldiers, they persevered in their fury. + Germanicus therefore determined to give them battle, if they persisted in + their revolt; and prepared vessels, arms, and troops to be sent down the + Rhine. + </p> + <p> + Before the issue of the sedition in Illyricum was known at Rome, tidings + of the uproar in the German legions arrived; hence the city was filled + with much terror; and hence against Tiberius many complaints, "that while + with feigned consultations and delays he mocked the Senate and people, + once the great bodies of the estate, but now bereft of power and armies, + the soldiery were in open rebellion, one too mighty and stubborn to be + quelled by two princes so young in years and authority: he ought at first + to have gone himself, and awed them with the majesty of imperial power, as + doubtless they would have returned to duty upon the sight of their + Emperor, a Prince of consummate experience, the sovereign disposer of + rewards and severity. Did Augustus, even under the pressure of old age and + infirmities, take so many journeys into Germany? and should Tiberius, in + the vigour of his life, when the same or greater occasions called him + thither, sit lazily in the Senate to watch senators and cavil at words? He + had fully provided for the domestic servitude of Rome; he ought next to + cure the licentiousness of the soldiers, to restrain their turbulent + spirits, and reconcile them to a life of peace." + </p> + <p> + But all these reasonings and reproaches moved not Tiberius: he was + determined not to depart from the capital, the centre of power and + affairs; nor to chance or peril expose his person and empire. In truth, + many and contrary difficulties pressed and perplexed him: "the German army + was the stronger; that of Pannonia nearer; the power of both the Gauls + supported the former; the latter was at the gates of Italy. Now to which + should he repair first? and would not the last visited be inflamed by + being postponed? But by sending one of his sons to each, the equal + treatment of both was maintained; as also the majesty of the supreme + power, which from distance ever derived most reverence. Besides, the young + princes would be excused, if to their father they referred such demands as + were for them improper to grant; and if they disobeyed Germanicus and + Drusus, his own authority remained to appease or punish them: but if once + they had contemned their Emperor himself, what other resource was behind?" + However, as if he had been upon the point of marching, he chose his + attendance, provided his equipage, and prepared a fleet: but by various + delays and pretences, sometimes that of the winter, sometimes business, he + deceived for a time even the wisest men; much longer the common people, + and the provinces for a great while. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus had already drawn together his army, and was prepared to take + vengeance on the seditious: but judging it proper to allow space for + trial, whether they would follow the late example, and consulting their + own safety do justice upon one another, he sent letters to Caecina, "that + he himself approached, with a powerful force; and if they prevented him + not, by executing the guilty, he would put all indifferently to the + slaughter." These letters Caecina privately read to the principal + officers, and such of the camp as the sedition had not tainted; besought + them "to redeem themselves from death, and all from infamy; urged that in + peace alone reason was heard and merit distinguished; but in the rage of + war the blind steel spared the innocent no more than the guilty." The + officers, having tried those they believed for their purpose, and found + the majority still to persevere in their duty, did, in concurrence with + the General, settle the time for falling with the sword upon the most + notoriously guilty and turbulent. Upon a particular signal given they + rushed into their tents and butchered them, void as they were of all + apprehension; nor did any but the centurions and executioners know whence + the massacre began, or where it would end. + </p> + <p> + This had a different face from all the civil slaughters that ever + happened: it was a slaughter not of enemies upon enemies, nor from + different and opposite camps, nor in a day of battle; but of comrades upon + comrades, in the same tents where they ate together by day, where they + slept together by night. From this state of intimacy they flew into mortal + enmity, and friends launched their darts at friends: wounds, outcries, and + blood were open to view; but the cause remained hid: wild chance governed + the rest, and several innocents were slain. For the criminals, when they + found against whom all this fury was bent, had also betaken themselves to + their arms; neither did Caecina, nor any of the Tribunes, intervene to + stay the rage; so that the soldiers had full permission to vengeance, and + a licentious satiety of killing. Germanicus soon after entered the camp + now full of blood and carcasses, and lamenting with many tears that "this + was not a remedy, but cruelty and desolation," commanded the bodies to be + burnt. Their minds, still tempestuous and bloody, were transported with + sudden eagerness to attack the foe, as the best expiation of their + tragical fury: nor otherwise, they thought, could the ghosts of their + butchered brethren be appeased, than by receiving in their own profane + breasts a chastisement of honourable wounds. Germanicus fell in with the + ardour of the soldiers, and laying a bridge upon the Rhine, marched over + twelve thousand legionary soldiers, twenty-six cohorts of the allies, and + eight regiments of horse; men all untainted in the late sedition. + </p> + <p> + The Germans rejoiced, not far off, at this vacation of war, occasioned + first by the death of Augustus, and afterwards by intestine tumults in the + camp; but the Romans by a hasty march passed through the Caesian woods, + and levelling the barrier formerly begun by Tiberius, upon it pitched + their camp. In the front and rear they were defended by a palisade; on + each side by a barricade of the trunks of trees felled. From thence, + beginning to traverse gloomy forests, they stopped to consult which of two + ways they should choose, the short and frequented, or the longest and + least known, and therefore unsuspected by the foe: the longest way was + chosen; but in everything else despatch was observed; for by the scouts + intelligence was brought that the Germans did, that night, celebrate a + festival with great mirth and revelling. Hence Caecina was commanded to + advance with the cohorts without their baggage, and to clear a passage + through the forest: at a moderate distance followed the legions; the + clearness of the night facilitated the march, and they arrived at the + villages of the Marsians, which with guards they presently invested. The + Germans were even yet under the effects of their debauch, scattered here + and there, some in bed, some lying by their tables; no watch placed, no + apprehension of an enemy. So utterly had their false security banished all + order and care; and they were under no dread of war, without enjoying + peace, other than the deceitful and lethargic peace of drunkards. + </p> + <p> + The legions were eager for revenge; and Germanicus, to extend their + ravage, divided them into four battalions. The country was wasted by fire + and sword fifty miles round; nor sex nor age found mercy; places sacred + and profane had the equal lot of destruction, all razed to the ground, and + with them the temple of Tanfana, of all others the most celebrated amongst + these nations: nor did all this execution cost the soldiers a wound, while + they only slew men half asleep, disarmed, or dispersed. This slaughter + roused the Bructerans, the Tubantes, and the Usipetes; and they beset the + passes of the forest, through which the army was to return: an event known + to Germanicus, and he marched in order of battle. The auxiliary cohorts + and part of the horse led the van, followed close by the first legion; the + baggage was in the middle; the twenty-first legion closed the left wing, + and the fifth the right; the twentieth defended the rear; and after them + marched the rest of the allies. But the enemy stirred not, till the body + of the army entered the wood: they then began lightly to insult the front + and wings; and at last, with their whole force, fell upon the rear. The + light cohorts were already disordered by the close German bands, when + Germanicus riding up to the twentieth legion, and exalting his voice, + "This was the season," he cried, "to obliterate the scandal of sedition: + hence they should fall resolutely on, and into sudden praise convert their + late shame and offence." These words inflamed them: at one charge they + broke the enemy, drove them out of the wood, and slaughtered them in the + plain. In the meanwhile, the front passed the forest, and fortified the + camp: the rest of the march was uninterrupted; and the soldiers, trusting + to the merit of their late exploits, and forgetting at once past faults + and terrors, were placed in winter quarters. + </p> + <p> + The tidings of these exploits affected Tiberius with gladness and anguish: + he rejoiced that the sedition was suppressed; but that Germanicus had, by + discharging the veterans, by shortening the term of service to the rest, + and by largesses to all, gained the hearts of the army, as well as earned + high glory in war, proved to the Emperor matter of torture. To the Senate, + however, he reported the detail of his feats, and upon his valour bestowed + copious praises, but in words too pompous and ornamental to be believed + dictated by his heart. It was with more brevity that he commended Drusus, + and his address in quelling the sedition of Illyricum, but more cordially + withal, and in language altogether sincere; and even to the Pannonian + legions he extended all the concessions made by Germanicus to his own. + </p> + <p> + There was this year an admission of new rites, by the establishment of + another College of Priests, one sacred to the deity of Augustus; as + formerly Titus Tatius, to preserve the religious rites of the Sabines, had + founded the fraternity of Titian Priests. To fill the society, + one-and-twenty, the most considerable Romans were drawn by lot, and to + them added Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius, and Germanicus. The games in honour + of Augustus began then first to be embroiled by emulation among the + players, and the strife of parties in their behalf. Augustus had + countenanced these players and their art, in complaisance to Maecenas, who + was mad in love with Bathyllus the comedian; nor to such favourite + amusements of the populace had he any aversion himself; he rather judged + it an acceptable courtesy to mingle with the multitude in these their + popular pleasures. Different was the temper of Tiberius, different his + politics: to severer manners, however, he durst not yet reduce the people, + so many years indulged in licentious gaieties. + </p> + <p> + In the consulship of Drusus Caesar and Caius Norbanus, a triumph was + decreed to Germanicus, while the war still subsisted. He was preparing + with all diligence to prosecute it the following summer; but began much + sooner by a sudden irruption early in the spring into the territories of + the Cattans: an anticipation of the campaign, which proceeded from the + hopes given him of dissension amongst the enemy, caused by the opposite + parties of Arminius and Segestes; two men signally known to the Romans + upon different accounts; the last for his firm faith, the first for faith + violated. Arminius was the incendiary of Germany; but by Segestes had been + given repeated warnings of an intended revolt, particularly during the + festival immediately preceding the insurrection: he had even advised Varus + "to secure himself and Arminius, and all the other chiefs; for that the + multitude, thus bereft of their leaders, would dare to attempt nothing; + and Varus have time to distinguish crimes and such as committed none." But + by his own fate, and the sudden violence of Arminius, Varus fell. + Segestes, though by the weight and unanimity of his nation he was forced + into the war, yet remained at constant variance with Arminius: a domestic + quarrel too heightened their hate, as Arminius had carried away the + daughter of Segestes, already betrothed to another; and the same + relations, which amongst friends prove bonds of tenderness, were fresh + stimulations of wrath to an obnoxious son and an offended father. + </p> + <p> + Upon these encouragements, Germanicus to the command of Caecina committed + four legions, five thousand auxiliaries, and some bands of Germans, + dwellers on this side the Rhine, drawn suddenly together; he led himself + as many legions with double the number of allies, and erecting a fort in + Mount Taunus, {Footnote: Near Homburg.} upon the old foundations of one + raised by his father, rushed full march against the Cattans; having behind + him left Lucius Apronius, to secure the ways from the fury of inundations: + for as the roads were then dry and the rivers low, events in that climate + exceeding rare, he had without check expedited his march; but against his + return apprehended the violence of rains and floods. Upon the Cattans he + fell with such surprise, that all the weak through sex or age were + instantly taken or slaughtered: their youth, by swimming over the Adrana, + {Footnote: Eder.} escaped, and attempted to force the Romans from building + a bridge to follow them, but by dint of arrows and engines were repulsed; + and then, having in vain tried to gain terms of peace, some submitted to + Germanicus; the rest abandoned their villages and dwellings, and dispersed + themselves in the woods. Mattium, {Footnote: Maden.} the capital of the + nation, he burnt, ravaged all the open country, and bent his march to the + Rhine; nor durst the enemy harass his rear, an usual practice of theirs, + when sometimes they fly more through craft than affright. The Cheruscans + indeed were addicted to assist the Cattans, but terrified from attempting + it by Caecina, who moved about with his forces from place to place; and by + routing the Marsians who had dared to engage him, restrained all their + efforts. + </p> + <p> + Soon after arrived deputies from Segestes, praying relief against the + combination and violence of his countrymen, by whom he was held besieged; + as more powerful amongst them than his was the credit of Arminius, since + it was he who had advised the war. The genius this of barbarians, to judge + that men are to be trusted in proportion as they are fierce, and in public + commotions ever to prefer the most resolute. To the other deputies + Segestes had added Segimundus, his son; but the young man faltered a + while, as his own heart accused him; for that the year when Germany + revolted, he, who had been by the Romans created Priest of the altar of + the Ubians, rent the sacerdotal tiara and fled to the revolters: yet, + encouraged by the Roman clemency, he undertook the execution of his + father's orders, was himself graciously received, and then conducted with + a guard to the frontiers of Gaul. Germanicus led back his army to the + relief of Segestes, and was rewarded with success. He fought the + besiegers, and rescued him with a great train of his relations and + followers; amongst them too were ladies of illustrious rank, particularly + the wife of Arminius, the same who was the daughter of Segestes: a lady + more of the spirit of her husband than that of her father; a spirit so + unsubdued, that from her eyes captivity forced not a tear, nor from her + lips a breath in the style of a supplicant: not a motion of her hands, nor + a look escaped her; but, fast across her breast she held her arms, and + upon her heavy womb her eyes were immovably fixed. There were likewise + carried Roman spoils taken at the slaughter of Varus and his army, and + then divided as prey amongst many of those who were now prisoners: at the + same time appeared Segestes, of superior stature; and from a confidence in + his good understanding with the Romans, undaunted. In this manner he + spoke: + </p> + <p> + "It is not the first day this, that to the Roman People I have approved my + faith and adherence: from the moment I was by the deified Augustus + presented with the freedom of the city, I have continued by your interest + to choose my friends, by your interest to denominate my enemies; from no + hate of mine to my native country (for odious are traitors even to the + party they embrace), but because the same measures were equally conducing + to the benefit of the Romans and of the Germans; and I was rather for + peace than war. For this reason to Varus, the then General, I applied, + with an accusation against Arminius, who from me had ravished my daughter, + and with you violated the faith of leagues: but growing impatient with the + slowness and inactivity of Varus, and well apprised how little security + was to be hoped from the laws, I pressed him to seize myself, and + Arminius, and his accomplices: witness that fatal night, to me I wish it + had been the last! more to be lamented than defended are the sad events + which followed. I moreover cast Arminius into irons, and was myself cast + into irons by his faction; and as soon as to you, Caesar, I could apply, + you see I prefer old engagements to present violence, and tranquillity to + combustions, with no view of my own to interest or reward, but to banish + from me the imputation of perfidiousness. For the German nation, too, I + would thus become a mediator, if peradventure they will choose rather to + repent than be destroyed: for my son, I intreat you, have mercy upon his + youth, and pardon his error; that my daughter is your prisoner by force I + own: in your breast it wholly lies under which character you will treat + her, whether as one by Arminius impregnated, or by me begotten." The + answer of Germanicus was gracious: he promised indemnity to his children + and kindred, and to himself a safe retreat in one of the old provinces; + then returned with his army, and by the direction of Tiberius, received + the title of <i>Imperator</i>. The wife of Arminius brought forth a male + child, and the boy was brought up at Ravenna; his unhappy conflicts + afterwards, with the contumelious insults of fortune, will be remembered + in their place. + </p> + <p> + The desertion of Segestes being divulged, with his gracious reception from + Germanicus, affected his countrymen variously; with hope or anguish, as + they were prone or averse to the war. Naturally violent was the spirit of + Arminius, and now, by the captivity of his wife, by the fate of his child + doomed to bondage though yet unborn, enraged even to distraction: he flew + about amongst the Cheruscans, calling them to arms; to arm against + Segestes, to arm against Germanicus. Invectives followed his fury; "A + blessed father this Segestes," he cried! "a mighty general this + Germanicus! invincible warriors these Romans! so many troops have made + prisoner of a woman. It is not thus that I conquer; before me three + legions fell, and three lieutenant-generals. Open and honourable is my + method of war, nor waged with big-bellied women, but against men and arms; + and treason is none of my weapons. Still to be seen are the Roman + standards in the German groves, there by me hung up and devoted to our + country Gods. Let Segestes live a slave in a conquered province; let him + to his son recover a foreign priesthood: with the German nations he can + never obliterate his reproach, that through him they have seen between the + Elbe and Rhine rods and axes, and the Roman toga. To other nations who + know not the Roman domination, executions and tributes are also unknown; + evils which we too have cast off, in spite of that Augustus now dead and + enrolled with the Deities; in spite too of Tiberius, his chosen successor: + let us not after this dread a mutinous army, and a boy without experience, + their commander; but if you love your country, your kindred, your ancient + liberty and laws, better than tyrants and new colonies, let Arminius + rather lead you to liberty and glory, than the wicked Segestes to the + infamy of bondage." + </p> + <p> + By these stimulations, not the Cheruscans only were roused, but all the + neighbouring nations; and into the confederacy was drawn Inguiomerus, + paternal uncle to Arminius, a man long since in high credit with the + Romans: hence a new source of fear to Germanicus, who, to avoid the shock + of their whole forces, and to divert the enemy, sent Caecina with forty + Roman cohorts to the river Amisia, {Footnote: Ems.} through the + territories of the Bructerans. Pedo the Prefect led the cavalry by the + confines of the Frisians: he himself, on the lake, {Footnote: The Zuyder + Zee.} embarked four legions; and upon the bank of the said river the whole + body met, foot, horse, and fleet. The Chaucians, upon offering their + assistance, were taken into the service; but the Bructerans, setting fire + to their effects and dwellings, were routed by Stertinius, by Germanicus + despatched against them with a band lightly armed. As this party were + engaged between slaughter and plunder, he found the Eagle of the + nineteenth legion lost in the overthrow of Varus. The army marched next to + the farthest borders of the Bructerans, and the whole country between the + rivers Amisia and Luppia {Footnote: Lippe.} was laid waste. Not far hence + lay the forest of Teutoburgium, and in it the bones of Varus and the + legions, by report still unburied. + </p> + <p> + Hence Germanicus became inspired with a tender passion to pay the last + offices to the legions and their leader; the like tenderness also affected + the whole army. They were moved with compassion, some for the fate of + their friends, others for that of their relations here tragically slain; + they were struck with the doleful casualties of war, and the sad lot of + humanity. Caecina was sent before to examine the gloomy recesses of the + forest; to lay bridges over the pools; and upon the deceitful marshes, + causeways. The army entered the doleful solitude, hideous to sight, + hideous to memory. First they saw the camp of Varus, wide in + circumference; and the three distinct spaces, allotted to the different + Eagles, showed the number of the legions. Further, they beheld the ruinous + entrenchment, and the ditch nigh choked up: in it the remains of the army + were supposed to have made their last effort, and in it to have found + their graves. In the open fields lay their bones all bleached and bare, + some separate, some on heaps; just as they had happened to fall, flying + for their lives, or resisting unto death. Here were scattered the limbs of + horses, there pieces of broken javelins; and the trunks of trees bore the + skulls of men. In the adjacent groves were the savage altars; where, of + the tribunes and principal centurions, the barbarians had made a horrible + immolation. Those who survived the slaughter, having escaped from + captivity and the sword, related the sad particulars to the rest: "Here + the commanders of the legions were slain; there we lost the Eagles; here + Varus had his first wound; there he gave himself another, and perished by + his own unhappy hand. In that place, too, stood the tribunal whence + Arminius harangued; in this quarter, for the execution of his captives, he + erected so many gibbets; in that such a number of funeral trenches were + digged; and with these circumstances of pride and despite he insulted the + ensigns and Eagles." + </p> + <p> + Thus the Roman army buried the bones of the three legions, six years after + the slaughter: nor could any one distinguish whether he gathered the + particular remains of a stranger, or those of a kinsman; but all + considered the whole as their friends, the whole as their relations; with + heightened resentments against the foe, at once sad and revengeful. In + this pious office, so acceptable to the dead, Germanicus was a partner in + the woe of the living; and upon the common tomb laid the first sod: a + proceeding not liked by Tiberius; whether it were that upon every action + of Germanicus he put a perverse meaning, or believed that the affecting + spectacle of the unburied slain would sink the spirit of the army, and + heighten their terror of the enemy; as also that "a general vested, as + Augur, with the intendency of religious rites, became defiled by touching + the solemnities of the dead." + </p> + <p> + Arminius, retiring into desert and pathless places, was pursued by + Germanicus; who, as soon as he reached him, commanded the horse to + advance, and dislodge the enemy from the post they had possessed. + Arminius, having directed his men to keep close together, and draw near to + the woods, wheeled suddenly about, and to those whom he had hid in the + forest gave the signal to rush out: the Roman horse, now engaged by a new + army, became disordered, and to their relief some cohorts were sent, but + likewise broken by the press of those that fled; and great was the + consternation so many ways increased. The enemy too were already pushing + them into the morass, a place well known to the pursuers, as to the + unapprised Romans it had proved pernicious, had not Germanicus drawn out + the legions in order of battle. Hence the enemy became terrified, our men + reassured, and both retired with equal loss and advantage. Germanicus + presently after returning with the army to the river Amisia, reconducted + the legions, as he had brought them, in the fleet: part of the horse were + ordered to march along the sea-shore to the Rhine. Caecina, who led his + own men, was warned, that though he was to return through unknown roads, + yet he should with all speed pass the causeway called the long bridges: it + is a narrow track this, between vast marshes, and formerly raised by + Lucius Domitius. The marshes themselves are of an uncertain soil, here + full of mud, there of heavy sticking clay, or traversed with various + currents. Round about are woods which rise gently from the plain, and were + already filled with soldiers by Arminius; who, by shorter ways and a + running march, had arrived there before our men, who were loaded with arms + and baggage. Caecina, who was perplexed how at once to repair the causeway + decayed by time, and to repulse the foe, resolved at last to encamp in the + place, that whilst some were employed in the work, others might maintain + the fight. + </p> + <p> + The Barbarians strove violently to break our station, and to fall upon the + entrenchers: they harassed our men, assaulted the works, changed their + attacks, and pushed everywhere. With the shouts of the assailants, the + cries of the workmen were confusedly mixed; and all things equally + combined to distress the Romans: the place deep with ooze sinking under + those who stood, slippery to such as advanced; their armour heavy; the + waters deep, nor could they in them launch their javelins. The Cheruscans, + on the contrary, were inured to encounters in the bogs; their persons + tall, their spears long, such as could wound at a distance. At last the + legions, already yielding, were by night redeemed from an unequal combat; + but night interrupted not the activity of the Germans, become by success + indefatigable. Without refreshing themselves with sleep, they diverted all + the courses of the springs which rise in the neighbouring mountains, and + turned them into the plains: thus the Roman camp was flooded, the work, as + far as they had carried it, overturned, and the labour of the poor + soldiers renewed and doubled. To Caecina this year proved the fortieth of + his sustaining as officer or soldier the functions of arms; a man in all + the vicissitudes of war, prosperous or disastrous, well experienced and + thence undaunted. Weighing, therefore, with himself all probable events + and expedients, he could devise no other than that of restraining the + enemy to the woods, till he had sent forward the wounded men and baggage; + for, from the mountains to the marshes there stretched a plain fit only to + hold a little army: to this purpose the legions were thus appointed; the + fifth had the right wing, and the one-and-twentieth the left; the first + led the van; the twentieth defended the rear. + </p> + <p> + A restless night it was to both armies, but in different ways; the + Barbarians feasted and caroused, and with songs of triumph, or with horrid + and threatening cries, filled all the plain and echoing woods. Amongst the + Romans were feeble fires, sad silence, or broken words; they leaned + drooping here and there against the pales, or wandered disconsolately + about the tents, like men without sleep, but not quite awake. A frightful + dream too terrified the General; he thought he heard and saw Quinctilius + Varus, rising out of the marsh all besmeared with blood, stretching forth + his hand, and calling upon him; but that he rejected the call and pushed + him away. At break of day, the legions posted on the wings, through + contumacy or affright, deserted their stations, and took sudden possession + of a field beyond the bogs. Neither did Arminius fall straight upon them, + however open they lay to his assault; but, when he perceived the baggage + set fast in mire and ditches, the soldiers above it disorderly and + embarrassed, the ranks and ensigns in confusion, and, as usual in a time + of distress, every one in haste to save himself, but slow to obey his + officer, he then commanded his Germans to break in, "Behold," he + vehemently cried; "behold again Varus and his legions subdued by the same + fate." Thus he cried, and instantly with a select body broke quite through + our forces, and chiefly against the horse directed his havoc; so that the + ground becoming slippery by their blood and the slime of the marsh, their + feet flew from them, and they cast their riders; then galloping and + stumbling amongst the ranks, they overthrew all they met, and trod to + death all they overthrew. The greatest difficulty was to maintain the + Eagles; a storm of darts made it impossible to advance them, and the + rotten ground impossible to fix them. Caecina, while he sustained the + fight, had his horse shot, and having fallen was nigh taken; but the first + legion saved him. Our relief came from the greediness of the enemy, who + ceased slaying to seize the spoil: hence the legions had respite to + struggle into the fair field and firm ground. Nor was here an end of their + miseries: a palisade was to be raised, an entrenchment digged; their + instruments too for throwing up and carrying earth, and their tools for + cutting turf, were almost all lost; no tents for the soldiers; no remedies + for the wounded; and their food all defiled with mire or blood. As they + shared it in sadness amongst them, they lamented that mournful night, they + lamented the approaching day, to so many thousand men the last. + </p> + <p> + It happened that a horse, which had broke his collar as he strayed about, + became frightened with noise, and ran over some that were in his way: this + raised such a consternation in the camp, from a persuasion that the + Germans in a body had forced an entrance, that all rushed to the gates, + especially to the postern, as the farthest from the foe, and safer for + flight. Caecina having found the vanity of their dread, but unable to stop + them, either by his authority, or by his prayers, or indeed by force, + flung himself at last across the gate. This prevailed; their awe and + tenderness of their General restrained them from running over his body; + and the Tribunes and Centurions satisfied them the while, that it was a + false alarm. + </p> + <p> + Then calling them together, and desiring them to hear him with silence, he + reminded them of their difficulties, and how to conquer them: "That for + their lives they must be indebted to their arms, but force was to be + tempered with art; they must therefore keep close within their camp, till + the enemy, in hopes of taking it by storm, advanced; then make a sudden + sally on every side, and by this push they should break through the enemy, + and reach the Rhine. But if they fled, more forests remained to be + traversed, deeper marshes to be passed, and the cruelty of a pursuing foe + to be sustained." He laid before them the motives and fruits of victory, + public rewards and glory, with every tender domestic consideration, as + well as those of military exploits and praise. Of their dangers and + sufferings he said nothing. He next distributed horses, first his own, + then those of the Tribunes and leaders of the legions, to the bravest + soldiers impartially; that thus mounted they might begin the charge, + followed by the foot. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the Germans there was not less agitation, from hopes of victory, + greediness of spoil, and the opposite counsels of their leaders. Arminius + proposed "to let the Romans march off, and to beset them in their march, + when engaged in bogs and fastnesses." The advice of Inguiomerus was + fiercer, and thence by the Barbarians more applauded: he declared "for + forcing the camp, for that the victory would be quick, there would be more + captives, and entire plunder." As soon, therefore, as it was light, they + rushed out upon the camp, cast hurdles into the ditch, attacked and + grappled the palisade. Upon it few soldiers appeared, and these seemed + frozen with fear; but as the enemy was in swarms, climbing the ramparts, + the signal was given to the cohorts; the cornets and trumpets sounded, and + instantly, with shouts and impetuosity, they issued out and begirt the + assailants. "Here are no thickets," they scornfully cried; "no bogs; but + an equal field and impartial Gods." The enemy, who imagined few Romans + remaining, fewer arms, and an easy conquest, were struck with the sounding + trumpets, with the glittering armour; and every object of terror appeared + double to them who expected none. They fell like men who, as they are void + of moderation in prosperity, are also destitute of conduct in distress. + Arminius forsook the fight unhurt; Inguiomerus grievously wounded; their + men were slaughtered as long as day and rage lasted. In the evening the + legions returned, in the same want of provisions, and with more wounds; + but in victory they found all things, health, vigour, and abundance. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime a report had flown, that the Roman forces were routed, and + an army of Germans upon full march to invade Gaul; so that under the + terror of this news there were those whose cowardice would have emboldened + them to have demolished the bridge upon the Rhine, had not Agrippina + restrained them from that infamous attempt. In truth, such was the + undaunted spirit of the woman, that at this time she performed all the + duties of a general, relieved the necessitous soldiers, upon the wounded + bestowed medicines, and upon others clothes. Caius Plinius, the writer of + the German wars, relates that she stood at the end of the bridge, as the + legions returned, and accosted them with thanks and praises; a behaviour + which sunk deep into the spirit of Tiberius: "For that all this + officiousness of hers," he thought, "could not be upright; nor that it was + against foreigners only she engaged the army. To the direction of the + generals nothing was now left, when a woman reviewed the companies, + attended the Eagles, and to the men distributed largesses: as if before + she had shown but small tokens of ambitious designs, in carrying her child + (the son of the General) in a soldier's coat about the camp, with the + title of Caesar Caligula: already in greater credit with the army was + Agrippina than the leaders of the legions, in greater than their generals; + and a woman had suppressed sedition, which the authority of the Emperor + was not able to restrain." These jealousies were inflamed, and more were + added, by Sejanus; one who was well skilled in the temper of Tiberius, and + purposely furnished him with sources of hatred, to lie hid in his heart, + and be discharged with increase hereafter. Germanicus, in order to lighten + the ships in which he had embarked his men, and fit their burden to the + ebbs and shallows, delivered the second and fourteenth legions to Publius + Vitellius, to lead them by land. Vitellius at first had an easy march on + dry ground, or ground moderately overflowed by the tide, when suddenly the + fury of the north wind swelling the ocean (a constant effect of the + equinox) the legions were surrounded and tossed with the tide, and the + land was all on flood; the sea, the shore, the fields, had the same + tempestuous face; no distinction of depths from shallows; none of firm, + from deceitful, footing. They were overturned by the billows, swallowed + down by the eddies; and horses, baggage, and drowned men encountered each + other, and floated together. The several companies were mixed at random by + the waves; they waded, now breast high, now up to the chin, and as the + ground failed them, they fell, some never more to rise. Their cries and + mutual encouragements availed them nothing against the prevailing and + inexorable waves; no difference between the coward and the brave, the wise + and the foolish; none between circumspection and chance; but all were + equally involved in the invincible violence of the flood. Vitellius, at + length struggling on to an eminence, drew the legions thither, where they + passed the cold night without fire, and destitute of every convenience; + most of them naked or lamed; not less miserable than men enclosed by an + enemy; for even to such remained the consolation of an honourable death; + but here was destruction every way void of glory. The land returned with + the day, and they marched to the river Vidrus, {Footnote: Weser.} whither + Germanicus had gone with the fleet. There the two legions were again + embarked, when fame had given them for drowned; nor was their escape + believed till Germanicus and the army were seen to return. + </p> + <p> + Stertinius, who in the meanwhile had been sent before to receive + Sigimerus, the brother of Segestes (a prince willing to surrender himself) + brought him and his son to the city of the Ubians. Both were pardoned; the + father freely, the son with more difficulty, because he was said to have + insulted the corpse of Varus. For the rest, Spain, Italy, and both the + Gauls strove with emulation to supply the losses of the army; and offered + arms, horses, money, according as each abounded. Germanicus applauded + their zeal; but accepted only the horses and arms for the service of the + war. With his own money he relieved the necessities of the soldiers: and + to soften also by his kindness the memory of the late havoc, he visited + the wounded, extolled the exploits of particulars, viewed their wounds, + with hopes encouraged some, with a sense of glory animated others; and by + affability and tenderness confirmed them all in devotion to himself and to + his fortune in war. + </p> + <p> + The ornaments of triumph were this year decreed to Aulus Caecina, Lucius + Apronius, and Caius Silius, for their services under Germanicus. The title + of Father of his Country, so often offered by the people to Tiberius, was + rejected by him; nor would he permit swearing upon his acts, though the + same was voted by the Senate. Against it he urged "the instability of all + mortal things, and that the higher he was raised the more slippery he + stood." But for all this ostentation of a popular spirit, he acquired not + the reputation of possessing it, for he had revived the law concerning + violated majesty; a law which, in the days of our ancestors, had indeed + the same name, but implied different arraignments and crimes, namely, + those against the State; as when an army was betrayed abroad, when + seditions were raised at home; in short, when the public was faithlessly + administered and the majesty of the Roman People was debased: these were + actions, and actions were punished, but words were free. Augustus was the + first who brought libels under the penalties of this wrested law, incensed + as he was by the insolence of Cassius Severus, who had in his writings + wantonly defamed men and ladies of illustrious quality. Tiberius too + afterwards, when Pompeius Macer, the Praetor, consulted him "whether + process should be granted upon this law?" answered, "That the laws must be + executed." He also was exasperated by satirical verses written by unknown + authors and dispersed; exposing his cruelty, his pride, and his mind + naturally alienated from his mother. + </p> + <p> + It will be worth while to relate here the pretended crimes charged upon + Falanius and Rubrius, two Roman knights of small fortunes; that hence may + be seen from what beginnings, and by how much dark art of Tiberius, this + grievous mischief crept in; how it was again restrained; how at last it + blazed out and consumed all things. To Falanius was objected by his + accusers, that "amongst the adorers of Augustus, who went in fraternities + from house to house, he had admitted one Cassius, a mimic and prostitute; + and having sold his gardens, had likewise with them sold the statue of + Augustus." The crime imputed to Rubrius was, "That he had sworn falsely by + the divinity of Augustus." When these accusations were known to Tiberius, + he wrote to the consuls, "That Heaven was not therefore decreed to his + father, that the worship of him might be a snare to the citizens of Rome; + that Cassius, the player, was wont to assist with others of his profession + at the interludes consecrated by his mother to the memory of Augustus: + neither did it affect religion, that his effigies, like other images of + the Gods, were comprehended in the sale of houses and gardens. As to the + false swearing by his name, it was to be deemed the same as if Rubrius had + profaned the name of Jupiter; but to the Gods belonged the avenging of + injuries done to the Gods." + </p> + <p> + Not long after, Granius Marcellus, Praetor of Bithynia, was charged with + high treason by his own Quaestor, Cepio Crispinus; Romanus Hispo, the + pleader, supporting the charge. This Cepio began a course of life which, + through the miseries of the times and the bold wickedness of men, became + afterwards famous: at first needy and obscure, but of a busy spirit, he + made court to the cruelty of the Prince by occult informations; and + presently, as an open accuser, grew terrible to every distinguished Roman. + This procured him credit with one, hatred from all, and made a precedent + to be followed by others, who from poverty became rich; from being + contemned, dreadful; and in the destruction which they brought upon + others, found at last their own. He accused Marcellus of "malignant words + concerning Tiberius," an inevitable crime! when the accuser, collecting + all the most detestable parts of the Prince's character, alleged them as + the expressions of the accused; for, because they were true, they were + believed to have been spoken. To this, Hispo added, "That the statue of + Marcellus was by him placed higher than those of the Caesars; and that, + having cut off the head of Augustus, he had in the room of it set the head + of Tiberius." This enraged him so, that breaking silence, he cried, "He + would himself, in this cause, give his vote explicitly and under the tie + of an oath." By this he meant to force the assent of the rest of the + Senate. There remained even then some faint traces of expiring liberty. + Hence Cneius Piso asked him, "In what place, Caesar, will you choose to + give your opinion? If first, I shall have your example to follow; if last, + I fear I may ignorantly dissent from you." The words pierced him, but he + bore them, the rather as he was ashamed of his unwary transport; and he + suffered the accused to be acquitted of high treason. To try him for the + public money was referred to the proper judges. + </p> + <p> + Nor sufficed it Tiberius to assist in the deliberations of the Senate + only: he likewise sat in the seats of justice; but always on one side, + because he would not dispossess the Praetor of his chair; and by his + presence there, many ordinances were established against the intrigues and + solicitations of the Grandees. But while private justice was thus + promoted, public liberty was overthrown. About this time, Pius Aurelius, + the Senator, whose house, yielding to the pressure of the public road and + aqueducts, had fallen, complained to the Senate and prayed relief: a suit + opposed by the Praetors who managed the treasury; but he was relieved by + Tiberius, who ordered him the price of his house; for he was fond of being + liberal upon honest occasions: a virtue which he long retained, even after + he had utterly abandoned all other virtues. Upon Propertius Celer, once + Praetor, but now desiring leave to resign the dignity of Senator, as a + burden to his poverty, he bestowed a thousand great sesterces; {Footnote: + £8333.} upon ample information, that Celer's necessities were derived from + his father. Others, who attempted the same thing, he ordered to lay their + condition before the Senate; and from an affectation of severity was thus + austere even where he acted with uprightness. Hence the rest preferred + poverty and silence to begging and relief. + </p> + <p> + The same year the Tiber, being swelled with continual rains, overflowed + the level parts of the city; and the common destruction of men and houses + followed the returning flood. Hence Asinius Callus moved "that the + Sibylline books might be consulted." Tiberius opposed it, equally + smothering all inquiries whatsoever, whether into matters human or divine. + To Ateius Capito, however, and Lucius Arruntius, was committed the care of + restraining the river within its banks. The provinces of Achaia and + Macedon, praying relief from their public burdens, were for the present + discharged of their Proconsular government, and subjected to the Emperor's + lieutenants. In the entertainment of gladiators at Rome, Drusus presided: + it was exhibited in the name of Germanicus, and his own; and at it he + manifested too much lust of blood, even of the blood of slaves: a quality + terrible to the populace; and hence his father was said to have reproved + him. His own absence from these shows was variously construed: by some it + was ascribed to his impatience of a crowd; by others to his reserved and + solitary genius, and his fear of an unequal comparison with Augustus, who + was wont to be a cheerful spectator. But, that he thus purposely furnished + matter for exposing the cruelty of his son there, and for raising him + popular hate, is what I would not believe; though this too was asserted. + </p> + <p> + The dissensions of the theatre, begun last year, broke out now more + violently, with the slaughter of several, not of the people only, but of + the soldiers, with that of a Centurion. Nay, a Tribune of a Praetorian + cohort was wounded, whilst they were securing the magistrates from + insults, and quelling the licentiousness of the rabble. This riot was + canvassed in the Senate, and votes were passing for empowering the + Praetors to whip the players. Haterius Agrippa, Tribune of the People, + opposed it; and was sharply reprimanded by a speech of Asinius Gallus. + Tiberius was silent, and to the Senate allowed these empty apparitions of + liberty. The opposition, however, prevailed, in reverence to the authority + of Augustus; who, upon a certain occasion, had given his judgment, "that + players were exempt from stripes:" nor would Tiberius assume to violate + any words of his. To limit the wages of players, and restrain the + licentiousness of their partisans, many decrees were made: the most + remarkable were, "That no Senator should enter the house of a pantomime; + no Roman Knight attend them abroad; they should show nowhere but in the + theatre; and the Praetors should have power to punish any insolence in the + spectators with exile." + </p> + <p> + The Spaniards were, upon their petition, permitted to build a temple to + Augustus in the colony of Tarragon; an example this for all the provinces + to follow. In answer to the people, who prayed to be relieved from the <i>centesima</i>, + a tax of one in the hundred, established at the end of the civil wars, + upon all vendible commodities; Tiberius by an edict declared, "That upon + this tax depended the fund for maintaining the army; nor even thus was the + Commonwealth equal to the expense, if before their twentieth year the + veterans were dismissed." So that the concessions made them during the + late sedition, to discharge them finally at the end of sixteen years, as + they were made through necessity, were for the future abolished. + </p> + <p> + It was next proposed to the Senate, by Arruntius and Ateius, whether, in + order to restrain the overflowing of the Tiber, the channels of the + several rivers and lakes by which it was swelled, must not be diverted. + Upon this question the deputies of several cities and colonies were heard. + The Florentines besought, "that the bed of the Clanis {Footnote: Chiana.} + might not be turned into their river Arnus; {Footnote: Arno.} for that the + same would prove their utter ruin." The like plea was urged by the + Interamnates; {Footnote: Terni.} "since the most fruitful plains in Italy + would be lost, if, according to the project, the Nar, branched out into + rivulets, overflowed them." Nor were the Reatinians less earnest against + stopping the outlets of the Lake Velinus into the Nar; "otherwise," they + said, "it would break over its banks, and stagnate all the adjacent + country; the direction of nature was best in all natural things: it was + she that to rivers had appointed their courses and discharges, and set + them their limits as well as their sources. Regard too was to be paid to + the religion of our Latin allies, who, esteeming the rivers of their + country sacred, had to them dedicated Priests, and altars, and groves; + nay, the Tiber himself, when bereft of his auxiliary streams, would flow + with diminished grandeur." Now, whether it were that the prayers of the + colonies, or the difficulty of the work, or the influence of superstition + prevailed, it is certain the opinion of Piso was followed; namely, that + nothing should be altered, + </p> + <p> + To Poppeus Sabinus was continued his province of Mesia; and to it was + added that of Achaia and Macedon. This too was part of the politics of + Tiberius, to prolong governments, and maintain the same men in the same + armies, or civil employments, for the most part, to the end of their + lives; with what view, is not agreed. Some think "that from an impatience + of returning cares, he was for making whatever he once liked perpetual." + Others, "that from the malignity of his invidious nature, he regretted the + preferring of many." There are some who believe, "that as he had a crafty + penetrating spirit, so he had an understanding ever irresolute and + perplexed." So much is certain, that he never courted any eminent virtue, + yet hated vice; from the best men he dreaded danger to himself, and + disgrace to the public from the worst. This hesitation mastered him so + much at last that he committed foreign governments to some, whom he meant + never to suffer to leave Rome. + </p> + <p> + Concerning the management of consular elections, either then or afterwards + under Tiberius, I can affirm scarce anything: such is the variance about + it, not only amongst historians, but even in his own speeches. Sometimes, + not naming the candidates, he described them by their family, by their + life and manners, and by the number of their campaigns; so as it might be + apparent whom he meant. Again, avoiding even to describe them, he exhorted + the candidates not to disturb the election by their intrigues, and + promised himself to take care of their interests. But chiefly he used to + declare, "that to him none had signified their pretensions, but such whose + names he had delivered to the Consuls; others too were at liberty to offer + the like pretensions, if they trusted to the favour of the Senate or their + own merits." Specious words! but entirely empty, or full of fraud; and by + how much they were covered with the greater guise of liberty, by so much + threatening a more hasty and devouring bondage. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK II. — A.D. 16-19. + </h2> + <p> + The commotions in the East happened not ungratefully to Tiberius, since + then he had a colour for separating Germanicus from his old and faithful + legions; for setting him over strange provinces, and exposing him at once + to casual perils and the efforts of fraud. But he, the more ardent he + found the affections of the soldiers, and the greater the hatred of his + uncle, so much the more intent upon a decisive victory, weighed with + himself all the methods of that war, with all the disasters and successes + which had befallen him in it to this his third year. He remembered "that + the Germans were ever routed in a fair battle, and upon equal ground; that + woods and bogs, short summers, and early winters, were their chief + resources; that his own men suffered not so much from their wounds, as + from tedious marches, and the loss of their arms. The Gauls were weary of + furnishing horses; long and cumbersome was his train of baggage, easily + surprised, and with difficulty defended; but, if we entered the country by + sea, the invasion would be easy, and the enemy unapprised. Besides, the + war would be earlier begun; the legions and provisions would be carried + together; and the cavalry brought with safety, through the mouths and + channels of the rivers, into the heart of Germany." + </p> + <p> + On that method therefore he fixed: whilst Publius Vitellius and Publius + Cantius were sent to collect the tribute of the Gauls; Silius, Anteius, + and Caecina had the direction of building the fleet. A thousand vessels + were thought sufficient, and with despatch finished: some were short, + sharp at both ends, and wide in the middle, the easier to endure the + agitations of the waves; some had flat bottoms, that without damage they + might bear to run aground; several had helms at each end, that by suddenly + turning the oars only they might work either way. Many were arched over, + for carrying the engines of war. They were fitted for holding horses and + provisions, to fly with sails, to run with oars, and the spirit and + alacrity of the soldiers heightened the show and terror of the fleet. They + were to meet at the Isle of Batavia, which was chosen for its easy + landing, for its convenience to receive the forces, and thence to + transport them to the war. For the Rhine, flowing in one continual + channel, or only broken by small islands, is, at the extremity of Batavia, + divided as it were into two rivers; one running still through Germany, and + retaining the same name and violent current, till it mixes with the ocean; + the other, washing the Gallic shore, with a broader and more gentle + stream, is by the inhabitants called by another name, the Wahal, which it + soon after changes for that of the river Meuse, by whose immense mouth it + is discharged into the same ocean. + </p> + <p> + While the fleet sailed, Germanicus commanded Silius, his lieutenant, with + a flying band, to invade the Cattans; and he himself, upon hearing that + the fort upon the river Luppia {Footnote: Lippe.} was besieged, led six + legions thither: but the sudden rains prevented Silius from doing more + than taking some small plunder, with the wife and daughter of Arpus, + Prince of the Cattans; nor did the besiegers stay to fight Germanicus, but + upon the report of his approach stole off and dispersed. As they had, + however, thrown down the common tomb lately raised over the Varian + legions, and the old altar erected to Drusus, he restored the altar; and + performed in person with the legions the funeral ceremony of running + courses to the honour of his father. To replace the tomb was not thought + fit; but all the space between Fort Aliso and the Rhine, he fortified with + a new barrier. + </p> + <p> + The fleet was now arrived, the provisions were sent forward; ships were + assigned to the legions and the allies; and he entered the canal cut by + Drusus, and called by his name. Here he invoked his father "to be + propitious to his son attempting the same enterprises; to inspire him with + the same counsels, and animate him by his example." Hence he sailed + fortunately through the lakes and the ocean to the river Amisia, + {Footnote: Ems.} and at the town of Amisia the fleet was left upon the + left shore; and it was a fault that it sailed no higher, for he landed the + army on the right shore, so that in making bridges many days were + consumed. The horse and the legions passed over without danger, as it was + yet ebb; but the returning tide disordered the rear, especially the + Batavians, while they played with the waves, and showed their dexterity in + swimming; and some were drowned. Whilst Germanicus was encamping, he was + told of the revolt of the Angrivarians behind him, and thither he + despatched a body of horse and light foot, under Stertinius, who with fire + and slaughter took vengeance on the perfidious revolters. + </p> + <p> + Between the Romans and the Cheruscans flowed the river Visurgis, + {Footnote: Weser.} and on the banks of it stood Arminius, with the other + chiefs: he inquired whether Germanicus was come; and being answered that + he was there, he prayed leave to speak with his brother. This brother of + his was in the army, his name Flavius; one remarkable for his lasting + faith towards the Romans, and for the loss of an eye in the war under + Tiberius. This request was granted: Flavius stepped forward, and was + saluted by Arminius, who, having removed his own attendance, desired that + our archers ranged upon the opposite banks might retire. When they were + withdrawn, "How came you," says he to his brother, "by that deformity in + your face?" The brother having informed him where, and in what fight, was + next asked, "what reward he had received?" Flavius answered, "Increase of + pay, the chain, the crown, and other military gifts;" all which Arminius + treated with derision, as the vile wages of servitude. + </p> + <p> + Here began a warm contest: Flavius pleaded "the grandeur of the Roman + Empire, the power of the Emperor, the Roman clemency to submitting + nations, the heavy yoke of the vanquished; and that neither the wife nor + son of Arminius was used like a captive." Arminius to all this opposed + "the natural rights of their country, their ancient liberty, the domestic + Gods of Germany; he urged the prayers of their common mother joined to his + own, that he would not prefer the character of a deserter, that of a + betrayer of his family, his countrymen, and kindred, to the glory of being + their commander." By degrees they fell into reproaches; nor would the + interposition of the river have restrained them from blows, had not + Stertinius hasted to lay hold on Flavius, full of rage, and calling for + his arms and his horse. On the opposite side was seen Arminius, swelling + with ferocity and threats, and denouncing battle. For, of what he said, + much was said in Latin, having as the General of his countrymen served in + the Roman armies. + </p> + <p> + Next day, the German army stood embattled beyond the Visurgis. Germanicus, + who thought it became not a General to endanger the legions, till for + their passage and security he had placed bridges and guards, made the + horse ford over. They were led by Stertinius, and Aemilius, + Lieutenant-Colonel of a legion; and these two officers crossed the river + in distant places, to divide the foe. Cariovalda, Captain of the + Batavians, passed it where most rapid, and was by the Cheruscans, who + feigned flight, drawn into a plain surrounded with woods, whence they + rushed out upon him and assaulted him on every side; overthrew those who + resisted, and pressed vehemently upon those who gave way. The distressed + Batavians formed themselves into a ring, but were again broken, partly by + a close assault, partly by distant showers of darts. Cariovalda, having + long sustained the fury of the enemy, exhorted his men to draw up into + platoons, and break through the prevailing host; he himself forced his way + into their centre, and fell with his horse under a shower of darts, and + many of the principal Batavians round him; the rest were saved by their + own bravery, or rescued by the cavalry under Stertinius and Aemilius. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus, having passed the Visurgis, learned from a deserter, that + Arminius had marked out the place of battle; that more nations had also + joined him; that they rendezvoused in a wood sacred to Hercules, and would + attempt to storm our camp by night. The deserter was believed; the enemy's + fires were discerned; and the scouts having advanced towards them, + reported that they had heard the neighing of horses, and the hollow murmur + of a mighty and tumultuous host. In this important conjuncture, upon the + approach of a decisive battle, Germanicus thought it behoved him to learn + the inclinations and spirit of the soldiers and deliberated with himself + how to be informed without fraud: "for the reports of the Tribunes and + Centurions used to be oftener pleasing than true; his Freedmen had still + slavish souls, incapable of free speech; friends were apt to flatter; + there was the same uncertainty in an assemble, where the counsel proposed + by a few was wont to be echoed by all; in truth, the minds of the soldiery + were then best known, when they were least watched; when free and over + their meals, they frankly disclosed their hopes and fears." + </p> + <p> + In the beginning of night, he went out at the augural gate, with a single + attendant; himself disguised with the skin of a wild beast hanging over + his shoulders; and choosing secret ways, he escaped the notice of the + watch, entered the lanes of the camp, listened from tent to tent, and + enjoyed the pleasing display of his own popularity and fame; as one was + magnifying the imperial birth of his general; another, his graceful + person; and all, his patience, condescension, and the equality of his soul + in every temper, pleasant or grave: they confessed the gratitude due to so + much merit, and that in battle they ought to express it, and to sacrifice + at the same time to glory and revenge these perfidious Germans, who for + ever violated stipulations and peace. In the meantime one of the enemy who + understood Latin rode up to the palisades, and with a loud voice offered, + in the name of Arminius, to every deserter a wife and land, and as long as + the war lasted an hundred sesterces a day. {Footnote: 16s. 8d.} This + contumely kindled the wrath of the legions: "Let day come," they cried, + "let battle be given: the soldiers would seize and not accept the lands of + the Germans; take and not receive German wives; they, however, received + the offer as an omen of victory, and considered the money and women as + their destined prey." Near the third watch of the night, they approached + and insulted the camp; but without striking a blow, when they found the + ramparts covered thick with cohorts, and no advantage given. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus had the same night a joyful dream: he thought he sacrificed, + and, in place of his own robe besmeared with the sacred blood, received + one fairer from the hands of his grandmother Augusta; so that elevated by + the omen, and by equal encouragement from the auspices, he called an + assembly, where he opened his deliberations concerning the approaching + battle with all the advantages contributing to victory: "That to the Roman + soldiers not only plains and dales, but, with due circumspection, even + woods and forests were commodious for an engagement. The huge targets, the + enormous spears, of the Barbarians could never be wielded amongst thickets + and trunks of trees like Roman swords and javelins, and armour adjusted to + the shape and size of their bodies, so that with these tractable arms they + might thicken their blows, and strike with certainty at the naked faces of + the enemy, since the Germans were neither furnished with headpiece nor + coat of mail, nor were their bucklers bound with leather or fortified with + iron, but all bare basket-work or painted boards; and though their first + ranks were armed with pikes, the rest had only stakes burnt at the end, or + short and contemptible darts; for their persons, as they were terrible to + sight and violent in the onset, so they were utterly impatient of wounds, + unaffected with their own disgrace, unconcerned for the honour of their + general, whom they ever deserted and fled; in distress cowards, in + prosperity despisers of all divine, of all human laws. In fine, if the + army, after their fatigues at sea and their tedious marches by land, + longed for an utter end of their labour, by this battle they might gain + it. The Elbe was now nearer than the Rhine; and if they would make him a + conqueror in those countries where his father and his uncle had conquered, + the war was concluded." The ardour of the soldiers followed the speech of + the general, and the signal for the onset was given. + </p> + <p> + Neither did Arminius or the other chiefs neglect to declare to their + several bands that "these Romans were the cowardly fugitives of the Varian + army, who, because they could not endure to fight, had afterwards chosen + to rebel. That some with backs deformed by wounds, some with limbs maimed + by tempests, forsaken of hope, and the Gods against them, were once more + presenting their lives to their vengeful foes. Hitherto a fleet, and + unfrequented seas, had been the resources of their cowardice against an + assaulting or a pursuing enemy; but now that they were to engage hand to + hand, vain would be their relief from wind and oars after a defeat. The + Germans needed only remember their rapine, cruelty, and pride; and that to + themselves nothing remained but either to maintain their native liberty, + or by death to prevent bondage." + </p> + <p> + The enemy, thus inflamed and calling for battle, were led into a plain + called Idistavisus: {Footnote: Near Minden.} it lies between the Visurgis + and the hills, and winds unequally along, as it is straitened by the + swellings of the mountains or enlarged by the circuits of the river. + Behind rose a forest of high trees, thick of branches above but clear of + bushes below. The army of Barbarians kept the plain, and the entrances of + the forest. The Cheruscans alone sat down upon the mountain, in order to + pour down from thence upon the Romans as soon as they became engaged in + the fight. Our army marched thus: the auxiliary Gauls and Germans in + front, after them the foot archers, next four legions, and then Germanicus + with two Praetorian cohorts and the choice of the cavalry; then four + legions more, and the light foot with archers on horseback and the other + troops of the allies; the men all intent to march in order of battle and + ready to engage as they marched. + </p> + <p> + As the impatient bands of Cheruscans were now perceived descending + fiercely from the hills, Germanicus commanded a body of the best horse to + charge them in the flank, and Stertinius with the rest to wheel round to + attack them in the rear, and promised to be ready to assist them in + person. During this a joyful omen appeared: eight eagles were seen to fly + toward the wood, and to enter it; a presage of victory to the General. "<i>Advance</i>," + he cried, "<i>follow the Roman birds; follow the tutelar Deities of the + legions!</i>" Instantly the foot charged the enemy's front, and instantly + the detached cavalry attacked their flank and rear: this double assault + had a strange event; the two divisions of their army fled opposite ways; + that in the woods ran to the plain; that in the plain rushed into the + woods. The Cheruscans, between both, were driven from the hills; amongst + them Arminius, remarkably brave, who with his hand, his voice, and + distinguished wounds was still sustaining the fight. He had assaulted the + archers, and would have broken through them, but the cohorts of the + Retians, the Vindelicians, and the Gauls marched to their relief; however, + by his own vigour and the force of his horse, he escaped, his face + besmeared with his own blood to avoid being known. Some have related that + the Chaucians, who were amongst the Roman auxiliaries, knew him, and let + him go; the same bravery or deceit procured Inguiomerus his escape; the + rest were everywhere slain; and great numbers attempting to swim the + Visurgis were destroyed in it, either pursued with darts, or swallowed by + the current, or overwhelmed with the weight of the crowd, or buried under + the falling banks; some seeking a base refuge on the tops of trees, and + concealment amongst the branches, were shot in sport by the archers, or + squashed as the trees were felled: a mighty victory this, and to us far + from bloody! + </p> + <p> + This slaughter of the foe, from the fifth hour of the day till night, + filled the country for ten miles with carcasses and arms: amongst the + spoils, chains were found, which, sure of conquering, they had brought to + bind the Roman captives. The soldiers proclaimed Tiberius <i>Imperator</i> + upon the field of battle, and raising a mount, placed upon it as trophies + the German arms, with the names of all the vanquished nations inscribed + below. + </p> + <p> + This sight filled the Germans with more anguish and rage than all their + wounds, past afflictions, and slaughters. They, who were just prepared to + abandon their dwellings, and flit beyond the Elbe, meditate war and grasp + their arms: people, nobles, youth, aged, all rush suddenly upon the Roman + army in its march and disorder it. They next chose their camp, a strait + and moist plain shut in between a river and a forest, the forest too + surrounded with a deep marsh, except on one side, which was closed with a + barrier raised by the Angrivarians between them and the Cheruscans. Here + stood their foot; their horse were distributed and concealed amongst the + neighbouring groves, thence, by surprise, to beset the legions in the rear + as soon as they had entered the wood. + </p> + <p> + Nothing of all this was a secret to Germanicus: he knew their counsels, + their stations, what steps they pursued, what measures they concealed; + and, to the destruction of the enemy, turned their own subtilty and + devices. To Seius Tubero, his Lieutenant, he committed the horse and the + field; the infantry so disposed, that part might pass the level approaches + into the wood, and the rest force the ramparts; this was the most arduous + task, and to himself he reserved it; the rest he left to his Lieutenants. + Those who had the even ground to traverse, broke easily in; but they who + were to assail the rampart, were as grievously battered from above, as if + they had been storming a wall. The General perceived the inequality of + this close attack, and drawing off the legions a small distance, ordered + the slingers to throw, and the engineers to play, to beat off the enemy: + immediately showers of darts were poured from the engines, and the + defenders of the barrier, the more bold and exposed they were, with the + more wounds they were beaten down. Germanicus, having taken the rampart, + first forced his way, at the head of the Praetorian cohorts, into the + woods, and there it was fought foot to foot; behind, the enemy were begirt + with the morass, the Romans with the mountains or the rivers; no room for + either to retreat, no hope but in valour, no safety but in victory. + </p> + <p> + The Germans had no inferior courage, but they were exceeded in the fashion + of arms and art of fighting. Their mighty multitude, hampered in narrow + places, could not push nor recover their long spears, nor practise in a + close combat their usual boundings and velocity of limbs. On the contrary, + our soldiers, with handy swords, and their breasts closely guarded with a + buckler, delved the large bodies and naked faces of the Barbarians, and + opened themselves a way with a havoc of the enemy: besides, the activity + of Arminius now failed him, either spent through his continual efforts or + slackened by a wound just received. Inguiomerus was everywhere upon the + spur, animating the battle, but fortune rather than courage deserted him. + Germanicus, to be the easier known, pulled off his helmet, and exhorted + his men "to prosecute the slaughter; they wanted no captives," he said; + "only the cutting off that people root and branch would put an end to the + war." It was now late in the day, and he drew off a legion to make a camp; + the rest glutted themselves till night, with the blood of the foe; the + horse fought with doubtful success. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus, in a speech from the tribunal, praised his victorious army, + and raised a monument of arms with a proud inscription: "That the army of + Tiberius Caesar, having vanquished entirely the nations between the Rhine + and the Elbe, had consecrated that monument to Mars, to Jupiter, and to + Augustus." Of himself, he made no mention, either fearful of provoking + envy, or that he thought it sufficient praise to have deserved it. He had + next commanded Stertinius to carry the war amongst the Angrivarians; but + they instantly submitted; and these supplicants, by yielding without + articles, obtained pardon without reserve. + </p> + <p> + The summer now declining, some of the legions were sent back into winter + quarters by land; more were embarked with Germanicus upon the river + Amisia, to go from thence by the ocean. The sea at first was serene, no + sound or agitation but from the oars or sails of a thousand ships; but + suddenly a black host of clouds poured a storm of hail; furious winds + roared on every side, and the tempest darkened the deep, so that all + prospect was lost; and it was impossible to steer. The soldiers too, + unaccustomed to the terrors of the sea, in the hurry of fear disordered + the mariners, or interrupted the skilful by unskilful help. At last the + south wind, mastering all the rest, drove the ocean and the sky: the + tempest derived new force from the windy mountains and swelling rivers of + Germany, as well as from an immense train of clouds; and contracting + withal fresh vigour from the boisterous neighbourhood of the north, it + hurled the ships and tossed them into the open ocean, or against islands + shored with rocks or dangerously beset with covered shoals. The ships by + degrees, with great labour and the change of the tide, were relieved from + the rocks and sands, but remained at the mercy of the winds; their anchors + could not hold them; they were full of water, nor could all their pumps + discharge it: hence, to lighten and raise the vessels swallowing at their + decks the invading waves, the horses, beasts, baggage, and even the arms + were cast into the deep. + </p> + <p> + By how much the German ocean is more outrageous than the rest of the sea, + and the German climate excels in rigour, by so much this ruin was reckoned + to exceed in greatness and novelty. They were engaged in a tempestuous + sea, believed deep without bottom, vast without bounds, or no shores near + but hostile shores: part of the fleet were swallowed up; many were driven + upon remote islands void of human culture, where the men perished through + famine, or were kept alive by the carcasses of horses cast in by the + flood. Only the galley of Germanicus landed upon the coast of the + Chaucians, where wandering sadly, day and night, upon the rocks and + prominent shore, and incessantly accusing himself as the author of such + mighty destruction, he was hardly restrained by his friends from casting + himself desperately into the same hostile floods. At last, with the + returning tide and an assisting gale, the ships began to return, all + maimed, almost destitute of oars, or with coats spread for sails; and + some, utterly disabled, were dragged by those that were less. He repaired + them hastily, and despatched them to search the islands; and by this care + many men were gleaned up; many were by the Angrivarians, our new subjects, + redeemed from their maritime neighbours and restored; and some, driven + into Great Britain, were sent back by the little British kings. Those who + had come from afar, recounted wonders at their return, "the impetuosity of + whirlwinds; wonderful birds; sea monsters of ambiguous forms, between man + and beasts." Strange sights these! or the effects of imagination and fear. + </p> + <p> + The noise of this wreck, as it animated the Germans with hopes of renewing + the war, awakened Germanicus also to restrain them: he commanded Caius + Silius, with thirty thousand foot and three thousand horse, to march + against the Cattans: he himself, with a greater force, invaded the + Marsians, where he learnt from Malovendus, their general, lately taken + into our subjection, that the Eagle of one of Varus's legions was hid + underground in a neighbouring grove, and kept by a slender guard. + Instantly two parties were despatched; one to face the enemy and provoke + them from their post; the other to beset their rear and dig up the Eagle; + and success attended both. Hence Germanicus advanced with great alacrity, + laid waste the country, and smote the foe, either not daring to engage, + or, wherever they engaged, suddenly defeated. Nor, as we learnt from the + prisoners, were they ever seized with greater dismay: "The Romans," they + cried, "are invincible: no calamities can subdue them: they have wrecked + their fleet; their arms are lost; our shores are covered with the bodies + of their horses and men; and yet they attack us with their usual ferocity, + with the same firmness, and with numbers as it were increased." + </p> + <p> + The army was from thence led back into winter quarters, full of joy to + have balanced, by this prosperous expedition, their late misfortune at + sea; and by the bounty of Germanicus, their joy was heightened, since to + each sufferer he caused to be paid as much as each declared he had lost; + neither was it doubted but the enemy were humbled, and concerting measures + for obtaining peace, and that the next summer would terminate the war. But + Tiberius by frequent letters urged him "to come home, there to celebrate + the triumph already decreed him; urged that he had already tried enough of + events, and tempted abundant hazards: he had indeed fought great and + successful battles; but he must likewise remember his losses and + calamities, which, however, owing to wind and waves, and no fault of the + general, were yet great and grievous. He himself had been sent nine times + into Germany by Augustus, and effected much more by policy than arms: it + was thus he had brought the Sigambrians into subjection, thus drawn the + Suevians and King Maroboduus under the bonds of peace. The Cheruscans too, + and the other hostile nations, now the Roman vengeance was satiated, might + be left to pursue their own national feuds." Germanicus besought one year + to accomplish his conquest; but Tiberius assailed his modesty with a new + bait and fresh opportunity, by offering him another Consulship, for the + administration of which he was to attend in person at Rome. He added, + "that if the war was still to be prosecuted, Germanicus should leave a + field of glory to his brother Drusus, to whom there now remained no other; + since the Empire had nowhere a war to maintain but in Germany, and thence + only Drusus could acquire the title of Imperator, and merit the triumphal + laurel." Germanicus persisted no longer; though he knew that this was all + feigned and hollow, and saw himself invidiously torn away from a harvest + of ripe glory. + </p> + <p> + Decrees of the Senate were made for driving astrologers and magicians out + of Italy; and one of the herd, Lucius Pituanius, was precipitated from the + Tarpeian Rock: Publius Marcius, another, was, by the judgment of the + Consuls, at the sound of trumpet executed without the Esquiline Gate, + according to the ancient form. + </p> + <p> + Next time the Senate sat, long discourses against the luxury of the city + were made by Quintus Haterius, a consular, and by Octavius Fronto, + formerly Praetor; and a law was passed "against using table-plate of solid + gold, and against men debasing themselves with gorgeous and effeminate + silks." Fronto went further, and desired that "the quantities of silver + plate, the expense of furniture, and the number of domestics might be + limited;" for it was yet common for senators to depart from the present + debate and offer, as their advice, whatever they judged conducing to the + interest of the commonweal. Against him it was argued by Asinius Callus, + "That with the growth of the Empire private riches were likewise grown, + and it was no new thing for citizens to live according to their + conditions, but agreeable to the most primitive usage: the ancient + Fabricii and the later Scipios, having different wealth, lived + differently; but all suitably to the several stages of the Commonwealth. + Public property was accompanied with domestic; but when the State rose to + such a height of magnificence, the magnificence of particulars rose too. + As to plate, and train, and expense, there was no standard of excess or + frugality, but from the fortunes of men. The law, indeed, had made a + distinction between the fortunes of senators and knights; not for any + natural difference between them, but that they who excelled in place, + rank, and civil pre-eminence, might excel too in other particulars, such + as conduced to the health of the body or to the peace and solacement of + the soul; unless it were expected, that the most illustrious citizens + should sustain the sharpest cares, and undergo the heaviest fatigues and + dangers, but continue destitute of every alleviation of fatigue and danger + and care." Gallus easily prevailed, whilst under worthy names he avowed + and supported popular vices in an assembly engaged in them. Tiberius too + had said, "That it was not a season for reformation; or, if there were any + corruption of manners, there would not be wanting one to correct them." + </p> + <p> + During these transactions, Lucius Piso, after he had declaimed bitterly in + the Senate against "the ambitious practices and intrigues of the Forum, + the corruption of the tribunals, and the inhumanity of the pleaders + breathing continual terror and impeachments," declared "he would entirely + relinquish Rome, and retire into a quiet corner of the country, far + distant and obscure." With these words he left the Senate; Tiberius was + provoked; and yet not only soothed him with gentle words, but likewise + obliged Piso's relations, by their authority or entreaties, to retain him. + The same Piso gave soon after an equal instance of the indignation of the + free spirit, by prosecuting a suit against Urgulania; a lady whom the + partial friendship of Livia had set at defiance with the laws. Urgulania + being carried, for protection, to the palace, despised the efforts of + Piso; so that neither did she submit; nor would he desist, notwithstanding + the complaints and resentments of Livia, that in the prosecution "violence + and indignity were done to her own person." Tiberius promised to attend + the trial, and assist Urgulania; but only promised in civility to his + mother, for so far he thought it became him; and thus left the palace, + ordering his guards to follow at a distance. People the while crowded + about him, and he walked with a slow and composed air: as he lingered, and + prolonged the time and way with various discourse, the trial went on. Piso + would not be mollified by the importunity of his friends; and hence at + last the Empress ordered the payment of the money claimed by him. This was + the issue of the affair: by it, Piso lost no renown; and it signally + increased the credit of Tiberius. The power, however, of Urgulania was so + exorbitant to the State, that she disdained to appear a witness in a + certain cause before the Senate: and, when it had been always usual even + for the Vestal Virgins to attend the Forum and Courts of Justice, as oft + as their evidence was required; a Praetor was sent to examine Urgulania at + her own house. + </p> + <p> + The procrastination which happened this year in the public affairs, I + should not mention, but that the different opinions of Cneius Piso and + Asinius Gallus about it, are worth knowing. Their dispute was occasioned + by a declaration of Tiberius; "that he was about to be absent," and it was + the motion of Piso, "that for that very reason, the prosecution of public + business was the rather to be continued; since, as in the Prince's + absence, the Senate and equestrian order might administer their several + parts, the same would redound to the honour of the Commonwealth." This was + a declaration for liberty, and in it Piso had prevented Gallus, who now in + opposition said, "that nothing sufficiently illustrious, nor suiting the + dignity of the Roman People, could be transacted but under the immediate + eye of the Emperor, and therefore the conflux of suitors and affairs from + Italy and the provinces must by all means be reserved for his presence." + Tiberius heard and was silent, while the debate was managed on both sides + with mighty vehemence; but the adjournment was carried. + </p> + <p> + A debate too arose between Gallus and the Emperor: for Gallus moved "that + the magistrates should be henceforth elected but once every five years; + that the legates of the legions, who had never exercised the Praetorships, + should be appointed Praetors; and that the Prince should nominate twelve + candidates every year." It was not doubted but this motion had a deeper + aim, and that by it the secret springs and reserves of imperial power were + invaded. But Tiberius, as if he rather apprehended the augmentation of his + power, argued "that it was a heavy task upon his moderation, to choose so + many magistrates, and to postpone so many candidates. That disgusts from + disappointments were hardly avoided in yearly elections; though, for their + solacement, fresh hopes remained of approaching success in the next; now + how great must be the hatred, how lasting the resentment of such whose + pretensions were to be rejected beyond five years? and whence could it be + foreseen that, in so long a tract of time, the same men would continue to + have the same dispositions, the same alliances and fortunes? even an + annual designation to power made men imperious; how imperious would it + make them, if they bore the honour for five years! besides, it would + multiply every single magistrate into five, and utterly subvert the laws + which had prescribed a proper space for exercising the diligence of the + candidates, and for soliciting as well as enjoying preferments." + </p> + <p> + By this speech, in appearance popular, he still retained the spirit and + force of the sovereignty. He likewise sustained by gratuities, the dignity + of some necessitous Senators: hence it was the more wondered, that he + received with haughtiness and repulse the petition of Marcus Hortalus, a + young man of signal quality and manifestly poor. He was the grandson of + Hortensius the Orator; and had been encouraged by the deified Augustus, + with a bounty of a thousand great sestertia, {Footnote: £8333.} to marry + for posterity; purely to prevent the extinction of a family most + illustrious and renowned. The Senate were sitting in the palace, and + Hortalus having set his four children before the door, fixed his eyes, now + upon the statue of Hortensius, placed amongst the orators; then upon that + of Augustus; and instead of speaking to the question, began on this wise: + "Conscript Fathers, you see there the number and infancy of my children; + not mine by my own choice, but in compliance with the advice of the + Prince: such too was the splendour of my ancestors, that it merited to be + perpetuated in their race; but for my own particular, who, marred by the + revolution of the times, could not raise wealth, nor engage popular + favour, nor cultivate the hereditary fortune of our house, the fortune of + Eloquence: I deemed it sufficient if, in my slender circumstances, I lived + no disgrace to myself, no burden to others. Commanded by the Emperor, I + took a wife; behold the offspring of so many Consuls; behold the + descendants of so many Dictators! nor is this remembrance invidiously + made, but made to move mercy. In the progress of your reign, Caesar, these + children may arrive at the honours in your gift; defend them in the + meantime from want: they are the great-grandsons of Hortensius; they are + the foster sons of Augustus." + </p> + <p> + The inclination of the Senate was favourable; an incitement this to + Tiberius the more eagerly to thwart Hortalus. These were in effect his + words: "If all that are poor recur hither for a provision of money to + their children, the public will certainly fail, and yet particulars never + be satiated. Our ancestors, when they permitted a departure from the + question, to propose somewhat more important to the State, did not + therefore permit it, that we might here transact domestic matters, and + augment our private rents: an employment invidious both in the Senate and + the Prince; since, whether they grant or deny the petitioned bounties, + either the people or the petitioners will ever be offended. But these, in + truth, are not petitions; they are demands made against order, and made by + surprise: while you are assembled upon other affairs, he stands up and + urges your pity, by the number and infancy of his children; with the same + violence, he charges the attack to me, and as it were bursts open the + exchequer; but if by popular bounties we exhaust it, by rapine and + oppression we must supply it. The deified Augustus gave you money, + Hortalus; but without solicitation he gave it, and on no condition that it + should always be given: otherwise diligence will languish; sloth will + prevail; and men having no hopes in resources of their own, no anxiety for + themselves, but all securely relying on foreign relief, will become + private sluggards and public burdens." These and the like reasonings of + Tiberius were differently received; with approbation by those whose way it + is to extol, without distinction, all the doings of Princes, worthy and + unworthy; by most, however, with silence, or low and discontented murmurs. + Tiberius perceived it, and having paused a little, said "his answer was + particularly to Hortalus; but if the Senate thought fit, he would give his + sons two hundred great sestertia each." {Footnote: £1666.} For this all + the Senators presented their thanks; only Hortalus said nothing; perhaps + through present awe, or perhaps possessed, even in poverty, with the + grandeur of his ancient nobility. Nor did Tiberius ever show further pity, + though the house of Hortensius was fallen into shameful distress. + </p> + <p> + At the end of the year, a triumphal arch was raised near the Temple of + Saturn; a monument this for the recovery of the Varian Eagles, under the + conduct of Germanicus, under the auspices of Tiberius. A temple was + dedicated to Happy Fortune near the Tiber, in the gardens bequeathed to + the Roman People by Caesar, the Dictator. A chapel was consecrated to the + Julian family, and statues to the deified Augustus, in the suburbs called + Bovillae. In the consulship of Caius Celius and Lucius Pomponius, the + six-and-twentieth of May, Germanicus Caesar triumphed over the Cheruscans, + the Cattans, the Angrivarians, and the other nations as far as the Elbe. + In the triumph were carried all the spoils and captives, with the + representations of mountains, of rivers, and of battles; so that his + conquests, because he was restrained from completing them, were taken for + complete. His own graceful person, and his chariot filled with his five + children, heightened the show and the delight of the beholders; yet they + were checked with secret fears, as they remembered "that popular favour + had proved malignant to his father Drusus; that his uncle Marcellus was + snatched, in his youth, from the burning affections of the populace; and + that ever short-lived and unfortunate were the favourites of the Roman + People." + </p> + <p> + Tiberius distributed to the people, in the name of Germanicus, three + hundred sesterces a man, {Footnote: £2, 10s.} and named himself his + colleague in the Consulship. Nor even thus did he gain the opinion of + tenderness and sincerity: in effect, on pretence of investing the young + Prince with fresh preferment and honours, he resolved to alienate him from + Rome; and, to accomplish it, craftily framed an occasion, or snatched such + an one as chance presented. Archelaus had enjoyed the kingdom of + Cappadocia now fifty years; a Prince under the deep displeasure of + Tiberius, because, in his retirement at Rhodes, the King had paid him no + sort of court or distinction: an omission this which proceeded from no + disdain, but from the warnings given him by the confidents of Augustus; + for that the young Caius Caesar, the presumptive heir to the sovereignty, + then lived, and was sent to compose and administer the affairs of the + East; hence the friendship of Tiberius was reckoned then dangerous. But + when, by the utter fall of the family of the Caesars, he had gained the + Empire, he enticed Archelaus to Rome, by means of letters from his mother, + who, without dissembling her son's resentment, offered the King his mercy, + provided he came and in person implored it. He, who was either ignorant of + the snare, or dreaded violence if he appeared to perceive it, hastened to + the city, where he was received by Tiberius with great sternness and + wrath, and soon after accused as a criminal in the Senate. The crimes + alleged against him were mere fictions; yet, as equal treatment is unusual + to kings, and to be treated like malefactors intolerable; Archelaus, who + was broken with grief as well as age, by choice or fate ended his life; + his kingdom was reduced into a province, and by its revenues Tiberius + declared the tax of a hundredth penny would be abated, and reduced it for + the future to the two hundredth. At the same time died Antiochus, king of + Comagena, as also Philopator, king of Cilicia; and great combustions shook + these nations; whilst of the people many desired Roman government, and + many were addicted to domestic monarchy. The provinces, too, of Syria and + Judea, as they were oppressed with impositions, prayed an abatement of + tribute. + </p> + <p> + These affairs, and such as I have above related concerning Armenia, + Tiberius represented to the Fathers, and "that the commotions of the East + could only be settled by the wisdom and abilities of Germanicus; for + himself, his age now declined, and that of Drusus was not yet sufficiently + ripe." The provinces beyond the sea were thence decreed to Germanicus, + with authority superior to all those who obtained provinces by lot, or the + nomination of the Prince; but Tiberius had already taken care to remove + from the government of Syria Creticus Silanus, one united to Germanicus in + domestic alliance, by having to Nero, the eldest son of Germanicus, + betrothed his daughter. In his room he had preferred Cneius Piso, a man of + violent temper, incapable of subjection, and heir to all the ferocity and + haughtiness of his father Piso; the same who, in the civil war, assisted + the reviving party against Caesar in Africa with vehement efforts; and + then followed Brutus and Cassius, but had at last leave to come home, yet + disdained to sue for any public offices; nay, was even courted by Augustus + to accept the Consulship. His son, besides his hereditary pride and + impetuosity, was elevated with the nobility and wealth of Plancina his + wife; scarce yielded he to Tiberius, and, as men far beneath him, despised + the sons of Tiberius; neither did he doubt but he was set over Syria on + purpose to thwart the measures and defeat all the views of Germanicus. + Some even believed that he had to this purpose secret orders from + Tiberius, as it was certain that Livia directed Plancina to exert the + spirit of the sex, and by constant emulation and indignities persecute + Agrippina. For the whole court was rent, and their affections secretly + divided between Drusus and Germanicus. Tiberius was partial to Drusus, as + his own son by generation; others loved Germanicus; the more for the + aversion of his uncle, and for being by his mother of more illustrious + descent; as Marc Anthony was his grandfather, and Augustus his + great-uncle. On the other side, Pomponius Atticus, a Roman knight, by + being the great-grandfather of Drusus, seemed thence to have derived a + stain upon the images of the Claudian house; besides, Agrippina, the wife + of Germanicus, did in the fruitfulness of her body and the reputation of + her virtue far excel Livia, the wife of Drusus. Yet the two brothers lived + in amiable dearness and concord, no wise shaken or estranged by the + reigning contention amongst their separate friends and adherents. + </p> + <p> + Drusus was soon after sent into Illyricum in order to inure him to war, + and gain him the affections of the army; besides, Tiberius thought that + the youth, who loved wantoning in the luxuries of Rome, would be reformed + in the camp, and that his own security would be enlarged when both his + sons were at the head of the legions. But the pretence of sending him was + the protection of the Suevians, who were then imploring assistance against + the powers of the Cheruscans. For these nations, who since the departure + of the Romans saw themselves no longer threatened with terrors from + abroad, and were then particularly engaged in a national competition for + glory, had relapsed, as usual, into their old intestine feuds, and turned + their arms upon each other. The two people were equally powerful, and + their two leaders equally brave; but differently esteemed, as the title of + king upon Maroboduus had drawn the hate and aversion of his countrymen; + whilst Arminius, as a champion warring for the defence of liberty, was the + universal object of popular affection. + </p> + <p> + Hence not only the Cheruscans and their confederates, they who had been + the ancient soldiery of Arminius, took arms; but to him too revolted the + Semnones and Langobards, both Suevian nations, and even subjects of + Maroboduus; and by their accession he would have exceeded in puissance, + but Inguiomerus with his band of followers deserted to Maroboduus; for no + other cause than disdain, that an old man and an uncle like himself should + obey Arminius, a young man, his nephew. Both armies were drawn out, with + equal hopes; nor disjointed, like the old German battles, into scattered + parties for loose and random attacks; for by long war with us they had + learnt to follow their ensigns, to strengthen their main body with parties + of reserves, and to observe the orders of their generals. Arminius was now + on horseback viewing all the ranks: as he rode through them he magnified + their past feats; "their liberty recovered; the slaughtered legions; the + spoils of arms wrested from the Romans; monuments of victory still + retained in some of their hands." Upon Maroboduus he fell with + contumelious names, as "a fugitive, one of no abilities in war; a coward + who had sought defence from the gloomy coverts of the Hercynian woods, and + then by gifts and solicitations courted the alliance of Rome; a betrayer + of his country, and a lifeguard-man of Caesar's, worthy to be exterminated + with no less hostile vengeance than in the slaughter of Quinctilius Varus + they had shown. Let them only remember so many battles bravely fought; the + events of which, particularly the utter expulsion of the Romans, were + sufficient proofs with whom remained the glory of the war." + </p> + <p> + Neither did Maroboduus fail to boast himself and depreciate the foe. "In + the person of Inguiomerus," he said (holding him by the hand), "rested the + whole renown of the Cheruscans; and from his counsels began all their + exploits that ended in success. Arminius, a man of a frantic spirit, and a + novice in affairs, assumed to himself the glory of another, for having by + treachery surprised three legions, which expected no foe, and their + leader, who feared no fraud; a base surprise, revenged since on Germany + with heavy slaughters, and on Arminius himself with domestic infamy, while + his wife and his son still bore the bonds of captivity. For himself, when + attacked formerly by Tiberius at the head of twelve legions, he had + preserved unstained the glory of Germany, and on equal terms ended the + war. Nor did he repent of the treaty, since it was still in their hands to + wage anew equal war with the Romans, or save blood and maintain peace." + The armies, besides the incitements from these speeches, were animated by + national stimulations of their own. The Cheruscans fought for their + ancient renown; the Langobards for their recent liberty; and the Suevians + and their king, on the contrary, were struggling for the augmentation of + their monarchy. Never did armies make a fiercer onset; never had onset a + more ambiguous event; for both the right wings were routed, and hence a + fresh encounter was certainly expected, till Maroboduus drew off his army + and encamped upon the hills; a manifest sign this that he was humbled. + Frequent desertions too leaving him at last naked of forces, he retired to + the Marcomannians, and thence sent ambassadors to Tiberius to implore + succours. They were answered, "That he had no right to invoke aid of the + Roman arms against the Cheruscans, since to the Romans, while they were + warring with the same foe, he had never administered any assistance." + Drusus was, however, sent away, as I have said, with the character of a + negotiator of peace. + </p> + <p> + The same year twelve noble cities of Asia were overturned by an + earthquake: the ruin happened in the night, and the more dreadful as its + warnings were unobserved; neither availed the usual sanctuary against such + calamities, namely, a flight to the fields, since those who fled, the + gaping earth devoured. It is reported "that mighty mountains subsided, + plains were heaved into high hills: and that with flashes and eruptions of + fire, the mighty devastation was everywhere accompanied." The Sardians + felt most heavily the rage of the concussion, and therefore most + compassion: Tiberius promised them an hundred thousand great sesterces, + {Footnote: £83,000.} and remitted their taxes for five years. The + inhabitants of Magnesia, under Mount Sipylus, were held the next in + sufferings, and had proportionable relief. The Temnians, Philadelphians, + the Aegeatans, Apollonians, with those called the Mostenians or + Macedonians of Hyrcania, the cities too of Hierocaesarea, Cyme, and + Tmolus, were all for the same term eased of tribute. It was likewise + resolved to send one of the Senate to view the desolations and administer + proper remedies: Marcus Aletus was therefore chosen, one of Praetorian + rank; because, a Consular Senator then governing Asia, had another of the + like quality been sent, an emulation between equals was apprehended, and + consequently opposition and delays. + </p> + <p> + The credit of this noble bounty to the public, he increased by private + liberalities, which proved equally popular: the estate of the wealthy + Aemilia Musa, claimed by the exchequer, as she died intestate, he + surrendered to Aemilius Lepidus, to whose family she seemed to belong; as + also to Marcus Servilius the inheritance of Patuleius, a rich Roman + knight, though part of it had been bequeathed to himself; but he found + Servilius named sole heir in a former and well-attested will. He said such + was "the nobility of both, that they deserved to be supported." Nor did he + ever to himself accept any man's inheritance, but where former friendship + gave him a title. The wills of such as were strangers to him, and of such + as, from hate and prejudice to others, had appointed the Prince their + heir, he utterly rejected. But, as he relieved the honest poverty of the + virtuous, so he degraded from the Senate (or suffered to quit it of their + own accord) Vibidius Varro, Marius Nepos, Appius Appianus, Cornelius + Sylla, and Quintus Vitellius, all prodigals, and only through debauchery + indigent. + </p> + <p> + About this time Tiberius finished and consecrated what Augustus began, the + Temples of the Gods consumed by age or fire: that near the great Circus, + vowed by Aulus Posthumius the Dictator, to Bacchus, Proserpina, and Ceres. + In the same place the Temple of Flora, founded by Lucius Publicius and + Marcus Publicius while they were Aediles. The Temple of Janus, built in + the Herb Market by Caius Duillius, who first signalised the Roman power at + sea, and merited a naval triumph over the Carthaginians. That of Hope was + dedicated by Germanicus: this temple Atilius had vowed in the same war. + </p> + <p> + The Consuls for the following year were, Tiberius the third time, + Germanicus the second. This dignity overtook Germanicus at Nicopolis, a + city of Achaia, whither he arrived by the coast of Illyricum, from + visiting his brother Drusus, then abiding in Dalmatia; and had suffered a + tempestuous passage, both in the Adriatic and Ionian Sea: he therefore + spent a few days to repair his fleet, and viewed the while the Bay of + Actium renowned for the naval victory there; as also the spoils + consecrated by Augustus, and the Camp of Anthony, with an affecting + remembrance of these his ancestors; for Anthony, as I have said, was his + great uncle, Augustus his grandfather; hence this scene proved to + Germanicus a mighty source of images pleasing and sad. Next he proceeded + to Athens, where in concession to that ancient city, allied to Rome, he + would use but one Lictor. The Greeks received him with the most elaborate + honours, and to dignify their personal flattery, carried before him + tablatures of the signal deeds and sayings of his ancestors. + </p> + <p> + Hence he sailed to Eubea, thence to Lesbos, where Agrippina was delivered + of Julia, who proved her last birth; then he kept the coast of Asia and + visited Perinthus and Byzantium, cities of Thrace, and entered the straits + of Propontis, and the mouth of the Euxine; fond of beholding ancient + places long celebrated by fame: he relieved at the same time, the + provinces wherever distracted with intestine factions, or aggrieved with + the oppressions of their magistrates. In his return he strove to see the + religious rites of the Samothracians, but by the violence of the north + wind was repulsed from the shore. As he passed, he saw Troy and her + remains, venerable for the vicissitude of her fate, and for the birth of + Rome: regaining the coast of Asia, he put in at Colophon, to consult there + the oracle of the Clarian Apollo: it is no Pythoness that represents the + God here, as at Delphos, but a Priest, one chosen from certain families, + chiefly of Miletus; neither requires he more than just to hear the names + and numbers of the querists, and then descends into the oracular cave; + where, after a draught of water from a secret spring, though ignorant for + the most part of letters and poetry, he yet utters his answers in verse, + which has for its subject the conceptions and wishes of each consultant. + He was even said to have sung to Germanicus his hastening fate, but as + oracles are wont, in terms dark and doubtful. + </p> + <p> + But Cneius Piso, hurrying to the execution of his purposes, terrified the + city of Athens by a tempestuous entry, and reproached them in a severe + speech, with oblique censure of Germanicus, "that debasing the dignity of + the Roman name, he had paid excessive court, not to the Athenians by so + many slaughters long since extinct, but to the then mixed scum of nations + there; for that these were they who had leagued with Mithridates against + Sylla, and with Anthony against Augustus." He even charged them with the + errors and misfortunes of ancient Athens; her impotent attempts against + the Macedonians; her violence and ingratitude to her own citizens. He was + also an enemy to their city from personal anger; because they would not + pardon at his request one Theophilus condemned by the Areopagus for + forgery. From thence sailing hastily through the Cyclades, and taking the + shortest course, he overtook Germanicus at Rhodes, but was there driven by + a sudden tempest upon the rocks: and Germanicus, who was not ignorant with + what malignity and invectives he was pursued, yet acted with so much + humanity, that when he might have left him to perish, and to casualty have + referred the destruction of his enemy; he despatched galleys to rescue him + from the wreck. This generous kindness however assuaged not the animosity + of Piso; and scarce could he brook a day's delay with Germanicus, but left + him in haste to arrive in Syria before him: nor was he sooner there, and + found himself amongst the legions, than he began to court the common men + by bounties and caresses, to assist them with his countenance and credit, + to form factions, to remove all the ancient centurions and every tribune + of remarkable discipline and severity, and, in their places, to put + dependents of his own, or men recommended only by their crimes; he + permitted sloth in the camp, licentiousness in the towns, a rambling and + disorderly soldiery, and carried the corruption so high, that in the + discourses of the herd, he was styled <i>Father of the Legions</i>. Nor + did Plancina restrain herself to a conduct seemly in her sex, but + frequented the exercises of the cavalry, and attended the decursions of + the cohorts; everywhere inveighing against Agrippina, everywhere against + Germanicus; and some even of the most deserving soldiers became prompt to + base obedience, from a rumour whispered abroad, "that all this was not + unacceptable to Tiberius." + </p> + <p> + These doings were all known to Germanicus; but his more instant care was + to visit Armenia, an inconstant and restless nation this from the + beginning; inconstant from the genius of the people, as well as from the + situation of their country, which bordering with a large frontier on our + provinces, and stretching thence quite to Media, is enclosed between the + two great Empires, and often at variance with them; with the Romans + through antipathy and hatred, with the Parthians through competition and + envy. At this time and ever since the removal of Vonones, they had no + king; but the affections of the nations leaned to Zeno, son of Polemon, + king of Pontus, because by an attachment, from his infancy, to the + fashions and customs of the Armenians, by hunting, feasting, and other + usages practised and renowned amongst the barbarians, he had equally won + the nobles and people. Upon his head therefore, at the city of Artaxata, + with the approbation of the nobles, in a great assembly, Germanicus put + the regal diadem; and the Armenians doing homage to their king, saluted + him, <i>Artaxias</i>, a name which from that of their city, they gave him. + The Cappadocians, at this time reduced into the form of a province, + received for their governor Quintus Veranius; and to raise their hopes of + the gentler dominion of Rome, several of the royal taxes were lessened. + Quintus Servaeus was set over the Comagenians, then first subjected to the + jurisdiction of a Praetor. + </p> + <p> + From the affairs of the allies, thus all successfully settled, Germanicus + reaped no pleasure, through the perverseness and pride of Piso, who was + ordered to lead by himself or his son, part of the legions into Armenia, + but contemptuously neglected to do either. They at last met at Cyrrum, the + winter quarters of the tenth legion, whither each came with a prepared + countenance; Piso to betray no fear, and Germanicus would not be thought + to threaten. He was indeed, as I have observed, of a humane and + reconcilable spirit: but, officious friends expert at inflaming + animosities, aggravated real offences, added fictitious, and with manifold + imputations charged Piso, Plancina, and their sons. To this interview + Germanicus admitted a few intimates, and began his complaints in words + such as dissembled resentment dictates. Piso replied with disdainful + submissions; and they parted in open enmity. Piso hereafter came rarely to + the tribunal of Germanicus; or, if he did, sate sternly there, and in + manifest opposition: he likewise published his spite at a feast of the + Nabathean King's, where golden crowns of great weight were presented to + Germanicus and Agrippina; but to Piso and the rest, such as were light: + "This banquet," he said, "was made for the son of a Roman prince, not of a + Parthian monarch:" with these words, he cast away his crown, and uttered + many invectives against luxury: sharp insults and provocations these to + Germanicus; yet he bore them. + </p> + <p> + In the consulship of Marcus Silanus and Lucius Norbanus, Germanicus + travelled to Egypt, to view the famous antiquities of the country; though + for the motives of the journey, the care and inspection of the province + were publicly alleged: and, indeed, by opening the granaries, he mitigated + the price of corn, and practised many things grateful to the people; + walking without guards, his feet bare, and his habit the same with that of + the Greeks; after the example of Publius Scipio, who, we are told, was + constant in the same practices in Sicily, even during the rage of the + Punic War there. For these his assumed manners and foreign habit, Tiberius + blamed him in a gentle style, but censured him with great asperity for + violating an establishment of Augustus, and entering Alexandria without + consent of the Prince. For Augustus, amongst other secrets of power, had + appropriated Egypt, and restrained the senators, and dignified Roman + knights from going thither without licence; as he apprehended that Italy + might be distressed with famine by any who seized that province, the key + to the Empire by sea and land, and defensible by a light band of men + against potent armies. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus, not yet informed that his journey was censured, sailed up the + Nile, beginning at Canopus, {Footnote: Near Aboukir.} one of its mouths: + it was built by the Spartans, as a monument to Canopus, a pilot buried + there, at the time when Menelaus returning to Greece was driven to + different seas and the Lybian continent. Hence he visited the next mouth + of the river sacred to Hercules: him the nations aver to have been born + amongst them; that he was the most ancient of the name, and that all the + rest, who with equal virtue followed his example, were, in honour, called + after him. Next he visited the mighty antiquities of ancient Thebes; + {Footnote: Karnak and Luxor.} where upon huge obelisks yet remained + Egyptian characters, describing its former opulency: one of the oldest + priests was ordered to interpret them; he said they related "that it once + contained seven hundred thousand fighting men; that with that army King + Rhamses had conquered Lybia, Ethiopia, the Medes and Persians, the + Bactrians and Scythians; and to his Empire had added the territories of + the Syrians, Armenians, and their neighbours the Cappadocians; a tract of + countries reaching from the sea of Bithynia to that of Lycia:" here also + was read the assessment of tribute laid on the several nations; what + weight of silver and gold; what number of horses and arms; what ivory and + perfumes, as gifts to the temples; what measures of grain; what quantities + of all necessaries, were by each people paid; revenues equally grand with + those exacted by the denomination of the Parthians, or by the power of the + Romans. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus was intent upon seeing other wonders: the chief were; the + effigies of Memnon, a colossus of stone, yielding when struck by the solar + rays, a vocal sound; the Pyramids rising, like mountains, amongst rolling + and almost impassable waves of sand; monuments these of the emulation and + opulency of Egyptian kings; the artificial lake, a receptacle of the + overflowing Nile; and elsewhere abysses of such immense depth, that those, + who tried, could never fathom. Thence he proceeded to Elephantina and + Syene, two islands, formerly frontiers of the Roman empire, which is now + widened to the Red Sea. + </p> + <p> + Whilst Germanicus spent this summer in several provinces, Drusus was + sowing feuds amongst the Germans, and thence reaped no light renown; and, + as the power of Maroboduus was already broken, he engaged them to persist + and complete his ruin. Amongst the Gotones was a young man of quality, his + name Catualda, a fugitive long since from the violence of Maroboduus, but + now in his distress, resolved on revenge: hence with a stout band, he + entered the borders of the Marcomannians, and corrupting their chiefs into + his alliance, stormed the regal palace, and the castle situate near it. In + the pillage were found the ancient stores of prey accumulated by the + Suevians; as also many victuallers and traders from our provinces; men who + were drawn hither from their several homes, first by privilege of traffic, + then retained by a passion to multiply gain, and at last, through utter + oblivion of their own country, fixed, like natives, in a hostile soil. + </p> + <p> + To Maroboduus on every side forsaken, no other refuge remained but the + mercy of Caesar: he therefore passed the Danube where it washes the + province of Norica, and wrote to Tiberius; not however in the language of + a fugitive or supplicant, but with a spirit suitable to his late grandeur, + "that many nations invited him to them, as a king once so glorious; but he + preferred to all the friendship of Rome." The Emperor answered, "that in + Italy he should have a safe and honourable retreat, and, when his affairs + required his presence, the same security to return." But to the Senate he + declared, "that never had Philip of Macedon been so terrible to the + Athenians; nor Pyrrhus, nor Antiochus to the Roman people." The speech is + extant: in it he magnifies "the greatness of the man, the fierceness and + bravery of the nations his subjects; the alarming nearness of such an + enemy to Italy, and his own artful measures to destroy him." Maroboduus + was kept at Ravenna, for a check and terror to the Suevians; as if, when + at any time they grew turbulent, he were there in readiness to recover + their subjection: yet in eighteen years he left not Italy, but grew old in + exile there; his renown too became eminently diminished; such was the + price he paid for an over-passionate love of life. The same fate had + Catualda, and no other sanctuary; he was soon after expulsed by the forces + of the Hermundurans led by Vibilius, and being received under the Roman + protection, was conveyed to Forum Julium, a colony in Narbon Gaul. The + barbarians their followers, lest, had they been mixed with the provinces, + they might have disturbed their present quiet, were placed beyond the + Danube, between the rivers Marus and Cusus, and for their king had + assigned them Vannius, by nation a Quadian. + </p> + <p> + As soon as it was known at Rome, that Artaxias was by Germanicus given to + the Armenians for their king, the fathers decreed to him and Drusus the + lesser triumph: triumphal arches were likewise erected, on each side of + the Temple of Mars the Avenger, supporting the statues of these two + Caesars; and for Tiberius, he was more joyful to have established peace by + policy, than if by battles and victories he had ended the war. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus returning from Egypt, learned that all his orders left with the + legions, and the eastern cities, were either entirely abolished, or + contrary regulations established: a ground this for his severe reproaches + and insults upon Piso. Nor less keen were the efforts and machinations of + Piso against Germanicus; yet Piso afterwards determined to leave Syria, + but was detained by the following illness of Germanicus: again when he + heard of his recovery, and perceived that vows were paid for his + restoration; the Lictors, by his command, broke the solemnity, drove away + the victims already at the altars; overturned the apparatus of the + sacrifice; and scattered the people of Antioch employed in celebrating the + festival. He then departed to Seleucia, waiting the event of the malady + which had again assaulted Germanicus. His own persuasion too, that poison + was given him by Piso, heightened the cruel vehemence of the disease: + indeed, upon the floors and walls were found fragments of human bodies, + the spoils of the grave; with charms and incantations; and the name of + Germanicus graved on sheets of lead; carcasses half burnt, besmeared with + gore; and other witchcrafts, by which souls are thought doomed to the + infernal gods: besides there were certain persons, charged as creatures of + Piso, purposely sent and employed to watch the progress and efforts of the + disease. + </p> + <p> + These things filled Germanicus with apprehensions great as his resentment: + "If his doors," he said, "were besieged, if under the eyes of his enemies + he must render up his spirit, what was to be expected to his unhappy wife, + what to his infant children?" The progress of poison was thought too slow; + Piso was impatient, and urging with eagerness to command alone the + legions, to possess alone the province: but Germanicus was not sunk to + such lowness and impotence, that the price of his murder should remain + with the murderer: and by a letter to Piso, he renounced his friendship: + some add, that he commanded him to depart the province. Nor did Piso tarry + longer, but took ship; yet checked her sailing in order to return with the + more quickness, should the death of Germanicus the while leave the + government of Syria vacant. + </p> + <p> + Germanicus, after a small revival, drooping again; when his end + approached, spoke on this wise to his attending friends: "Were I to yield + to the destiny of nature; just, even then, were my complaints against the + Gods, for hurrying me from my parents, my children, and my country, by a + hasty death, in the prime of life: now shortened in my course by the + malignity of Piso, and his wife, to your breasts I commit my last prayers: + tell my father, tell my brother, with what violent persecutions afflicted, + with what mortal snares circumvented, I end a most miserable life by death + of all others the worst. All they whose hopes in my fortune, all they + whose kindred blood, and even they whose envy, possessed them with + impressions about me whilst living, shall bewail me dead; that once great + in glory, and surviving so many wars, I fell at last by the dark devices + of a woman. To you will be place left to complain in the Senate, and place + to invoke the aid and vengeance of the laws. To commemorate the dead with + slothful wailings, is not the principal office of friends: they are to + remember his dying wishes, to fulfil his last desires. Even strangers will + lament Germanicus: you are my friends: if you loved me rather than my + fortune, you will vindicate your friendship: show the people of Rome my + wife, her who is the grand-daughter of Augustus, and enumerate to them our + six children. Their compassion will surely attend you who accuse; and the + accused, if they pretend clandestine warrants of iniquity, will not be + believed; if believed, not pardoned." His friends, as a pledge of their + fidelity, touching the hand of the dying prince, swore that they would + forego their lives sooner than their revenge. Then turning to his wife, he + besought her "that in tenderness to his memory, in tenderness to their + common children, she would banish her haughty spirit, yield to her hostile + fortune, nor, upon her return to Rome, by an impotent competition for + ruling, irritate those who were masters of rule." So much openly, and more + in secret; whence he was believed to have warned her of guile and danger + from Tiberius. Soon after he expired, to the heavy sorrow of the province, + and of all the neighbouring countries; insomuch that remote nations and + foreign kings were mourners: such had been his complacency to our + confederates; such his humanity to his enemies! Alike venerable he was, + whether you saw him or heard him; and without ever departing from the + grave port and dignity of his sublime rank, he yet lived destitute of + arrogance and untouched by envy. + </p> + <p> + The funeral, which was performed without exterior pomp or a procession of + images, drew its solemnity from the loud praises and amiable memory of his + virtues. There were those who from his loveliness, his age, his manner of + dying, and even from the proximity of places where both departed, compared + him in the circumstances of his fate, to Great Alexander: "Each of a + graceful person, each of illustrious descent; in years neither much + exceeding thirty; both victims to the malice and machinations of their own + people, in the midst of foreign nations: but Germanicus gentle towards his + friends; his pleasures moderate; confined to one wife; all his children by + one bed; nor less a warrior, though not so rash, and however hindered from + a final reduction of Germany, broken by him in so many victories, and + ready for the yoke: so that had he been sole arbiter of things, had he + acted with the sovereignty and title of royalty, he had easier overtaken + him in the glory of conquests, as he surpassed him in clemency, in + moderation, and in other virtues." His body, before its commitment to the + pile, was exhibited naked in the Forum of Antioch, the place where the + pile was erected: whether it bore the marks of poison, remained undecided: + for, people as they were divided in their affections, as they pitied + Germanicus, and presumed the guilt of Piso, or were partial to him, gave + opposite accounts. + </p> + <p> + It was next debated amongst the legates of the legions and the other + senators there, to whom should be committed the administration of Syria: + and after the faint effort of others, it was long disputed between Vibius + Marsus and Cneius Sentius: Marsus at last yielded to Sentius, the older + man and the more vehement competitor. By him one Martina, infamous in that + province for practices in poisoning, and a close confidant of Plancina, + was sent to Rome, at the suit of Vitellius, Veranius, and others, who were + preparing criminal articles against Piso and Plancina, as against persons + evidently guilty. + </p> + <p> + Agrippina, though overwhelmed with sorrow, and her body indisposed, yet + impatient of all delays to her revenge, embarked with the ashes of + Germanicus, and her children; attended with universal commiseration, "that + a lady, in quality a princess, wont to be beheld in her late splendid + wedlock with applauses and adorations, was now seen bearing in her bosom + her husband's funeral urn, uncertain of vengeance for him and fearful for + herself; unfortunate in her fruitfulness, and from so many children + obnoxious to so many blows of fortune." Piso the while was overtaken at + the Isle of Coös by a message, "that Germanicus was deceased," and + received it intemperately, slew victims and repaired with thanksgiving to + the temples: and yet, however immoderate and undisguised was his joy, more + arrogant and insulting proved that of Plancina, who immediately threw off + her mourning, which for the death of a sister she wore, and assumed a + dress adapted to gaiety and gladness. + </p> + <p> + About him flocked the Centurions with officious representations, "that + upon him particularly were bent the affections and zeal of the legions, + and he should proceed to resume the province, at first injuriously taken + from him and now destitute of a governor." As he therefore consulted what + he had best pursue, his son Marcus Piso advised "a speedy journey to Rome: + hitherto," he said, "nothing past expiation was committed; nor were + impotent suspicions to be dreaded; nor the idle blazonings of fame: his + variance and contention with Germanicus was perhaps subject to hate and + aversion, but to no prosecution or penalty; and, by bereaving him of the + province, his enemies were gratified: but if he returned thither, as + Sentius would certainly oppose him with arms, a civil war would thence be + actually begun: neither would the Centurions and soldiers persist in his + party; men with whom the recent memory of their late commander, and an + inveterate love to the Caesarian general, were still prevalent." + </p> + <p> + Domitius Celer, one in intimate credit with Piso, argued on the contrary, + "that the present event must by all means be improved; it was Piso and not + Sentius who had commission to govern Syria; upon him, were conferred the + jurisdiction of Praetor, and the badges of magistracy, and with him the + legions were instructed: so that if acts of hostility were by his + opponents attempted, with how much better warrant could he avow assuming + arms in his own right and defence, who was thus vested with the authority + of general, and acted under special orders from the Emperor. Rumours too + were to be neglected, and left to perish with time: in truth to the + sallies and violence of recent hate the innocent were often unequal: but + were he once possessed of the army, and had well augmented his forces, + many things, not to be foreseen, would from fortune derive success. Are we + then preposterously hastening to arrive at Rome with the ashes of + Germanicus, that you may there fall, unheard and undefended, a victim to + the wailings of Agrippina, a prey to the passionate populace governed by + the first impressions of rumour? Livia, it is true, is your confederate; + Tiberius is your friend; but both secretly: and indeed none will more + pompously bewail the violent fate of Germanicus, than such as for it do + most sincerely rejoice." + </p> + <p> + Piso of himself prompt to violent pursuits, was with no great labour + persuaded into this opinion, and, in a letter transmitted to Tiberius, + accused Germanicus "of luxury and pride: that for himself, he had been + expulsed, to leave room for dangerous designs against the State, and now + resumed, with his former faith and loyalty, the care of the army." In the + meantime he put Domitius on board a galley, and ordered him to avoid + appearing upon the coasts or amongst the isles, but, through the main sea, + to sail to Syria. The deserters, who from all quarters were flocking to + him in crowds, he formed into companies, and armed all the retainers to + the camp; then sailing over to the continent, intercepted a regiment of + recruits, upon their march into Syria; and wrote to the small kings of + Cilicia to assist him with present succours: nor was the younger Piso slow + in prosecuting all the measures of war, though to adventure a war had been + against his sentiments and advice. + </p> + <p> + As they coasted Lycia and Pamphilia, they encountered the ships which + carried Agrippina, with hostile spirit on each side, and each at first + prepared for combat; but as equal dread of one another possessed both, + proceeded not further than mutual contumelies. Vibius Marsus particularly + summoned Piso, as a criminal, to Rome, there to make his defence: he + answered with derision "that when the Praetor, who was to sit upon + poisonings, had assigned a day to the accusers and the accused, he would + attend." Domitius, the while, landing at Laodicea, a city of Syria, would + have proceeded to the winter quarters of the sixth legion, which he + believed to be the most prone to engage in novel attempts, but was + prevented by Pacuvius, its commander. Sentius represented this by letter + to Piso, and warned him, "at his peril to infect the camp by ministers of + corruption; or to assail the province of war;" and drew into a body such + as he knew loved Germanicus, or such as were averse to his foes: upon them + he inculcated with much ardour, that Piso was with open arms attacking the + majesty of the Prince, and invading the Roman State; and then marched at + the head of a puissant body, equipped for battle and resolute to engage. + </p> + <p> + Neither failed Piso, though his enterprises had thus far miscarried, to + apply the securest remedies to his present perplexities; and therefore + seized a castle of Cilicia strongly fortified, its name Celendris: for, to + the auxiliary Cilicians, sent him by the petty kings, he had joined his + body of deserters, as also the recruits lately intercepted, with all his + own and Plancina's slaves; and thus in number and bulk had of the whole + composed a legion. To them he thus harangued: "I who am the lieutenant of + Caesar, am yet violently excluded from the province which to me Caesar has + committed: not excluded by the legions (for by their invitation I am + arrived), but by Sentius, who thus disguises under feigned crimes against + me, his own animosity and personal hate: but with confidence you may stand + in battle, where the opposite army, upon the sight of Piso, a commander + lately by themselves styled their <i>Father</i>, will certainly refuse to + fight; they know too, that were right to decide it, I am the stronger; and + of no mean puissance in a trial at arms." He then arrayed his men without + the fortifications, on a hill steep and craggy, for all the rest was + begirt by the sea: against them stood the veterans regularly embattled, + and supported with a body of reserve; so that here appeared the force of + men, there only the terror and stubbornness of situation. On Piso's side + was no spirit, nor hope, nor even weapons save those of rustics, for + instant necessity hastily acquired. As soon as they came to blows, the + issue was no longer doubtful than while the Roman cohorts struggled up the + steep: the Cilicians then fled, and shut themselves up in the castle. + </p> + <p> + Piso having the while attempted in vain to storm the fleet, which rode at + a small distance, as soon as he returned, presented himself upon the + walls; where, by a succession of passionate complaints and entreaties, now + bemoaning in agonies the bitterness of his lot, then calling and cajolling + every particular soldier by his name, and by rewards tempting all, he + laboured to excite a sedition; and thus much had already effected, that + the Eagle-bearer of the sixth legion revolted to him with his Eagle. This + alarmed Sentius, and instantly he commanded the cornets and trumpets to + sound, a mound to be raised, the ladders placed, and the bravest men to + mount, and others to pour from the engines volleys of darts and stones, + and flaming torches. The obstinacy of Piso was at last vanquished; and he + desired "that upon delivering his arms he might remain in the castle till + the Emperor's pleasure, to whom he would commit the government of Syria, + were known;" conditions which were not accepted; nor was aught granted him + save ships and a passport to Rome. + </p> + <p> + After the illness of Germanicus grew current there, and all its + circumstances, like rumours magnified by distance, were related with many + aggravations; sadness seized the people; they burned with indignation, and + even poured out in plaints the anguish of their souls. "For this," they + said, "he had been banished to the extremities of the Empire, for this the + province of Syria was committed to Piso, and these the fruits of Livia's + mysterious conferences with Plancina: truly had our fathers spoken + concerning his father Drusus; that the possessors of rule beheld with an + evil eye the popular spirit of their sons; nor for aught else were they + sacrificed, but for their equal treatment of the Roman People, and + studying to restore the popular state." These lamentations of the populace + were, upon the tidings of his death, so inflamed, that, without staying + for an edict from the magistrates, without a decree of Senate, they by + general consent assumed a vacation; the public courts were deserted, + private houses shut up, prevalent everywhere were the symptoms of woe, + heavy groans, dismal silence; the whole a scene of real sorrow, and + nothing devised for form or show; and, though they forbore not to bear the + exterior marks and habiliments of mourning; in their souls they mourned + still deeper. Accidentally some merchants from Syria, who had left + Germanicus still alive, brought more joyful news of his condition: these + were instantly believed, and instantly proclaimed: each, as fast as they + met, informed others, who forthwith conveyed their light information with + improvements and accumulated joy to more, and all flew with exultation + through the city; and, to pay their thanks and vows, burst open the temple + doors: the night too heightened their credulity, and affirmation was + bolder in the dark. Nor did Tiberius restrain the course of these + fictions, but left them to vanish with time: hence with more bitterness + they afterwards grieved for him, as if anew snatched from them. + </p> + <p> + Honours were invented and decreed to Germanicus, various as the affections + and genius of the particular Senators who proposed them: "that his name + should be sung in the Salian hymns; curule chairs placed for him amongst + the priests of Augustus, and over these chairs oaken crowns hung; his + statue in ivory precede in the Cercensian games; none but one of the + Julian race be, in the room of Germanicus, created flamen or augur:" + triumphal arches were added; one at Rome; one upon the banks of the Rhine; + one upon Mount Amanus, in Syria; with inscriptions of his exploits, and a + testimony subjoined, "that he died for the Commonwealth:" a sepulchre at + Antioch, where his corpse was burnt; a tribunal at Epidaphne, the place + where he ended his life. The multitude of statues, the many places where + divine honours were appointed to be paid him, would not be easily + recounted. They would have also decreed him, as to one of the masters of + eloquence, a golden shield, signal in bulk as in metal; but Tiberius + offered to dedicate one himself, such as was usual and of a like size with + others; for that eloquence was not measured by fortune; and it was + sufficient glory, if he were ranked with ancient writers. The battalion + called after the name of the Junii was now, by the equestrian order, + entitled the battalion of Germanicus, and a rule made that, on every + fifteenth of July, these troops should follow, as their standard, the + effigies of Germanicus: of these honours many continue; some were + instantly omitted, or by time are utterly obliterated. + </p> + <p> + In the height of this public sorrow, Livia, sister to Germanicus, and + married to Drusus, was delivered of male twins: an event even in middling + families, rare and acceptable, and to Tiberius such mighty matter of joy, + that he could not refrain boasting to the fathers, "that to no Roman of + the same eminence, before him, were never two children born at a birth:" + for to his own glory he turned all things, even things fortuitous. But to + the people, at such a sad conjuncture, it brought fresh anguish; as they + feared that the family of Drusus thus increased, would press heavy upon + that of Germanicus. + </p> + <p> + The same year the lubricity of women was by the Senate restrained with + severe laws; and it was provided, "that no woman should become venal, if + her father, grandfather or husband, were Roman knights." For Vistilia, a + lady born of a Praetorian family, had before the Aediles published herself + a prostitute; upon a custom allowed by our ancestors, who thought that + prostitutes were by thus avowing their infamy, sufficiently punished. + Titidius Labeo too was questioned, that in the manifest guilt of his wife, + he had neglected the punishment prescribed by the law; but he alleged that + the sixty days allowed for consultation were not elapsed; and it was + deemed sufficient to proceed against Vistilia, who was banished to the + Isle of Seriphos. Measures were also taken for exterminating the + solemnities of the Jews and Egyptians; and by decree of Senate four + thousand descendants of franchised slaves, all defiled with that + superstition, but of proper strength and age, were to be transported to + Sardinia; to restrain the Sardinian robbers; and if, through the malignity + of the climate, they perished, despicable would be the loss: the rest were + doomed to depart Italy, unless by a stated day they renounced their + profane rites. + </p> + <p> + After this Tiberius represented that, to supply the place of Occia, who + had presided seven and fifty years with the highest sanctimony over the + Vestals, another virgin was to be chosen; and thanked Fonteius Agrippa and + Asinius Pollio, that by offering their daughters, they contended in good + offices towards the Commonwealth. Pollio's daughter was preferred; for + nothing else but that her mother had ever continued in the same wedlock: + for Agrippa, by a divorce, had impaired the credit of his house: upon her + who was postponed, Tiberius, in consolation, bestowed for her fortune a + thousand great sestertia. {Footnote: £8300.} + </p> + <p> + As the people murmured at the severe dearth of corn, he settled grain at a + price certain to the buyer, and undertook to pay fourteenpence a measure + to the seller: neither yet would he accept the name of <i>Father of his + Country</i>, a title offered him before, and for these bounties, now + again; nay, he sharply rebuked such as styled these provisions of his, <i>divine + occupations</i>, and him, <i>Lord</i>: hence freedom of speech became + cramped and insecure, under such a Prince; one who dreaded liberty, and + abhorred flattery. + </p> + <p> + I find in the writers of those times, some of them Senators, that in the + Senate were read letters from Adgandestrius, prince of the Cattans, + undertaking to despatch Arminius, if in order to it poison were sent him; + and an answer returned, "that not by frauds and blows in the dark, but + armed and in the face of the sun, the Roman People took vengeance on their + foes." In this Tiberius gained equal glory with our ancient captains, who + rejected and disclosed a plot to poison King Pyrrhus. Arminius however, + who upon the departure of the Romans and expulsion of Maroboduus, aimed at + royalty, became thence engaged in a struggle against the liberty of his + country; and, in defence of their liberty, his countrymen took arms + against him: so that, while with various fortune he contended with them, + he fell by the treachery of his own kindred: the deliverer of Germany + without doubt he was; one who assailed the Roman power, not like other + kings and leaders, in its first elements, but in its highest pride and + elevation; one sometimes beaten in battle, but never conquered in war: + thirty-seven years he lived; twelve he commanded; and, amongst these + barbarous nations, his memory is still celebrated in their songs; but his + name unknown in the annals of the Greeks, who only admire their own + national exploits and renown; nor even amongst the Romans does this great + captain bear much distinction, while, overlooking instances of modern + prowess and glory, we only delight to magnify men and feats of old. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK III. — A.D. 20-22. + </h2> + <p> + Agrippina, notwithstanding the roughness of winter, pursuing without + intermission her boisterous voyage, put in at the Island Corcyra, + {Footnote: Corfu.} situate over against the coasts of Calabria. Here to + settle her spirit, she spent a few days, violent in her grief, and a + stranger to patience. Her arrival being the while divulged, all the + particular friends to her family, mostly men of the sword, many who had + served under Germanicus, and even many strangers from the neighbouring + towns, some in officiousness towards the Emperor, more for company, + crowded to the city of Brundusium, the readiest port in her way and the + safest landing. As soon as the fleet appeared in the deep, instantly were + filled, not the port alone and adjacent shores, but the walls and roofs, + and as far as the eye could go; filled with the sorrowing multitude. They + were consulting one from one, how they should receive her landing, + "whether with universal silence, or with some note of acclamation." Nor + was it manifest which they would do, when the fleet stood slowly in, not + as usual with joyful sailors and cheerful oars, but all things impressed + with the face of sadness. After she descended from the ship, accompanied + with her two infants, carrying in her bosom the melancholy urn, with her + eyes cast steadily down; equal and universal were the groans of the + beholders: nor could you distinguish relations from strangers, nor the + wailings of men from those of women, unless that the new-comers, who were + recent in their sallies of grief, exceeded Agrippina's attendants, wearied + out with long lamentations. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius had despatched two Praetorian cohorts, with directions, that the + magistrates of Calabria, Apulia and Campania, should pay their last + offices to the memory of his son: upon the shoulders therefore of the + Tribunes and Centurions his ashes were borne; before went the ensigns + rough and unadorned, with the fasces reversed. As they passed through the + colonies, the populace were in black, the knights in purple; and each + place, according to its wealth, burnt precious raiment, perfumes and + whatever else is used in funeral solemnities: even they whose cities lay + remote attended: to the Gods of the dead they slew victims, they erected + altars, and with tears and united lamentations, testified their common + sorrow. Drusus came as far as Terracina, with Claudius the brother of + Germanicus, and those of his children who had been left at Rome. The + Consuls Marcus Valerius and Marcus Aurelius (just then entered upon their + office), the Senate, and great part of the people, filled the road; a + scattered procession, each walking and weeping his own way: in this + mourning, flattery had no share; for all knew how real was the joy, how + hollow the grief, of Tiberius for the death of Germanicus. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius and Livia avoided appearing abroad: public lamentation they + thought below their grandeur; or perhaps they apprehended that their + countenances, examined by all eyes, might show deceitful hearts. That + Antonia, mother to the deceased, bore any part in the funeral, I do not + find either in the historians or in the city journals: though, besides + Agrippina, and Drusus, and Claudius, his other relations are likewise + there recorded by name: whether by sickness she was prevented; or whether + her soul vanquished by sorrow, could not bear the representation of such a + mighty calamity. I would rather believe her constrained by Tiberius and + Livia, who left not the palace; and affecting equal affliction with her, + would have it seem that, by the example of the mother, the grandmother too + and uncle were detained. + </p> + <p> + The day his remains were reposited in the tomb of Augustus, various were + the symptoms of public grief; now the vastness of silence; now the uproar + of lamentation; the city in every quarter full of processions; the field + of Mars on a blaze of torches: here the soldiers under arms, the + magistrates without the insignia, the people by their tribes, all cried in + concert that "the Commonwealth was fallen, and henceforth there was no + remain of hope;" so openly and boldly that you would have believed they + had forgot, who bore sway. But nothing pierced Tiberius more than the + ardent affections of the people towards Agrippina, while such titles they + gave her as "the ornament of her country, the only blood of Augustus, the + single instance of ancient virtue;" and, while applying to heaven, they + implored "the continuance of her issue, that they might survive the + persecuting and malignant." + </p> + <p> + There were those who missed the pomp of a public funeral, and compared + with this the superior honours and magnificence bestowed by Augustus on + that of Drusus the father of Germanicus; "that he himself had travelled, + in the sharpness of winter, as far as Pavia, and thence, continuing by the + corpse, had with it entered the city; round his head were placed the + images of the Claudii and Julii; he was mourned in the Forum; his encomium + pronounced in the Rostras; all sorts of honours, such as were the + inventions of our ancestors, or the improvements of their posterity, were + heaped upon him. But to Germanicus were denied the ordinary solemnities, + and such as were due to every distinguished Roman. In a foreign country + indeed, his corpse because of the long journey, was burnt without pomp; + but afterwards, it was but just to have supplied the scantiness of the + first ceremony by the solemnity of the last: his brother met him but one + day's journey; his uncle not even at the gate. Where were those generous + observations of the ancients; the effigies of the dead borne on a bed, + hymns composed in memory of their virtue, with the oblations of praise and + tears? Where at least were the ceremonies and even outside of sorrow?" + </p> + <p> + All this was known to Tiberius; and, to suppress the discourses of the + populace, he published an edict, "that many illustrious Romans had died + for the Commonwealth, but none so vehemently lamented: this however was to + the glory of himself and of all men, if a measure were observed. The same + things which became private families and small states, became not Princes + and an Imperial People: fresh grief indeed required vent and ease by + lamentation; but it was now time to recover and fortify their minds. Thus + the deified Julius, upon the loss of an only daughter; thus the deified + Augustus, upon the hasty death of his grandsons, had both vanquished their + sorrow. More ancient examples were unnecessary; how often the Roman People + sustained with constancy the slaughter of their armies, the death of their + generals, and entire destruction of their noblest families: Princes were + mortal; the Commonwealth was eternal: they should therefore resume their + several vocations." And because the Megalesian games were at hand, he + added, "that they should even apply to the usual festivities." + </p> + <p> + The vacation ended, public affairs were resumed; Drusus departed for the + army in Illyricum, and the minds of all men were bent upon seeing + vengeance done upon Piso. They repeated their resentments, that while he + wandered over the delightful countries of Asia and Greece, he was + stifling, by contumacious and deceitful delays, the evidences of his + crimes; for it was bruited abroad, that Martina, she who was famous for + poisonings, and sent, as I have above related, by Cneius Sentius towards + Rome, was suddenly dead at Brundusium; that poison lay concealed in a knot + of her hair, but upon her body were found no symptoms of self-murder. + </p> + <p> + Piso, sending forward his son to Rome, with instructions how to soften the + Emperor, proceeded himself to Drusus: him he hoped to find less rigid for + the death of a brother, than favourable for the removal of a rival. + Tiberius, to make show of a spirit perfectly unbiassed, received the young + man graciously, and honoured him with the presents usually bestowed on + young noblemen. The answer of Drusus to Piso was, "That if the current + rumours were true, he stood in the first place of grief and revenge; but + he hoped they were false and chimerical, and that the death of Germanicus + would be pernicious to none." This he declared in public, and avoided all + privacy: nor was it doubted but the answer was dictated by Tiberius; when + a youth, otherwise easy and unwary, practised thus the wiles and cunning + of age. + </p> + <p> + Piso having crossed the sea of Dalmatia, and left his ships at Ancona, + took first the road of Picenum and then the Flaminian way, following the + legion which was going from Pannonia to Rome, and thence to garrison in + Africa. This too became the subject of popular censure, that he + officiously mixed with the soldiers, and courted them in their march and + quarters: he therefore, to avoid suspicion; or, because when men are in + dread, their conduct wavers, did at Narni embark upon the Nar, and thence + sailed into the Tiber. By landing at the burying-place of the Caesars, he + heightened the wrath of the populace: besides, he and Plancina came + ashore, in open day, in the face of the city who were crowding the banks, + and proceeded with gay countenances; he attended by a long band of + clients, she by a train of ladies. There were yet other provocations to + hatred; the situation of his house, proudly overlooking the Forum, and + adorned and illuminated as for a festival; the banquet and rejoicings held + in it, and all as public as the place. + </p> + <p> + The next day Fulcinius Trio arraigned Piso before the Consuls, but was + opposed by Vitellius, Veranius, and others, who had accompanied + Germanicus: they said, "that in this prosecution Trio had no part; nor did + they themselves act as accusers, but only gathered materials, and, as + witnesses, produced the last injunctions of Germanicus." Trio dropped that + accusation; but got leave to call in question his former life: and now the + Emperor was desired to undertake the trial; a request which the accused + did not at all oppose, dreading the inclinations of the people and Senate: + he knew Tiberius, on the contrary, resolute in despising popular rumours, + and in guilt confederate with his mother: besides that truth and + misrepresentations were easiest distinguished by a single judge, but in + assemblies odium and envy often prevailed. Tiberius was aware of the + weight of the trial, and with what reproaches he was assaulted. Admitting + therefore a few confidants, he heard the charge of the accusers, as also + the apology of the accused; and left the cause entire to the Senate. + </p> + <p> + Drusus returned the while from Illyricum; and though the Senate had for + the reduction of Maroboduus, and other his exploits the summer before, + decreed him the triumph of ovation; he postponed the honour, and privately + entered the city. Piso, for his advocates, desired Titus Arruntius, + Fulcinius, Asinius Gallus, Eserninus Marcellus, and Sextus Pompeius: but + they all framed different excuses; and he had, in their room, Marcus + Lepidus, Lucius Piso and Liveneius Regulus. Now earnest were the + expectations of all men, "how great would prove the fidelity of the + friends of Germanicus; what the assurance of the criminal, what the + behaviour of Tiberius; whether he would sufficiently smother, or betray + his sentiments." He never had a more anxious part; neither did the people + ever indulge themselves in such secret murmurs against their Emperor, nor + harbour in silence severer suspicions. + </p> + <p> + When the Senate met, Tiberius made a speech full of laboured moderation: + "That Piso had been his father's lieutenant and friend; and lately + appointed by himself, at the direction of the Senate, coadjutor to + Germanicus in administering the affairs of the East: whether he had there + by contumacy and opposition exasperated the young Prince, and exulted over + his death, or wickedly procured it, they were then to judge with minds + unprejudiced. For, if he who was the lieutenant of my son violated the + limits of his commission, cast off obedience to his general, and even + rejoiced at his decease and at my affliction; I will detest the man, I + will banish him from my house, and for domestic injuries exert domestic + revenge; not the revenge of an Emperor. But for you; if his guilt of any + man's death whatsoever is discovered, show your just vengeance, and by it + satisfy yourselves, satisfy the children of Germanicus, and us his father + and grandmother. Consider too especially, whether he vitiated the + discipline and promoted sedition in the army; whether he sought to debauch + the affections of the soldiers, and to recover the province by arms: or + whether these allegations are not published falsely and with aggravations + by the accusers, with whose over-passionate zeal, I am justly offended: + for, whither tended the stripping the corpse and exposing it to the eyes + and examination of the populace; with what view was it proclaimed even to + foreign nations, that his death was the effect of poison; if all this was + still doubtful, and remains yet to be tried? It is true I bewail my son, + and shall ever bewail him: but neither do I hinder the accused to do what + in him lies to manifest his innocence, even at the expense of Germanicus, + if aught blamable was in him. From you I entreat the same impartiality: + let not the connection of my sorrow with this cause, mislead you to take + crimes for proved because they are imputed. For Piso; if the tenderness of + kinsmen, if the faith of friends, has furnished him with patrons, let them + aid him in his peril, show their utmost eloquence, and exert their best + diligence. To the same pains, to the same firmness I exhort the accusers. + Thus much we will grant to the memory of Germanicus, that the inquest + concerning his death, be held rather here than in the Forum, in the Senate + than the common Tribunals. In all the rest, we will descend to the + ordinary methods. Let no man in this cause consider Drusus's tears; let + none regard my sorrow, no more than the probable fictions of calumny + against us." + </p> + <p> + Two days were then appointed for maintaining the charge; six for preparing + the defence, and three for making it. Fulcinius began with things stale + and impertinent, about the ambition and rapine of Piso in his + administration of Spain: things which, though proved, brought him under no + penalty, if acquitted of the present charge; nor, though he had been + cleared of former faults, could he escape the load of greater enormities. + After him Servaeus, Veranius, and Vitellius, all with equal zeal, but + Vitellius with great eloquence urged "that Piso, in hatred to Germanicus, + and passionate for innovations, had by tolerating general licentiousness, + and the oppression of the allies, corrupted the common soldiers to that + degree, that by the most profligate he was styled <i>Father of the Legions</i>: + he had, on the contrary, been outrageous to the best men, above all to the + friends and companions of Germanicus; and, at last, by witchcraft and + poison destroyed Germanicus himself: hence the infernal charms and + immolations practised by him and Plancina: he had then attacked the + Commonwealth with open arms; and, before he could be brought to be tried, + they were forced to fight and defeat him." + </p> + <p> + In every article but one his defence was faltering. For, neither his + dangerous intrigues in debauching the soldiery, nor his abandoning the + province to the most profligate and rapacious, nor even his insults to + Germanicus, were to be denied. He seemed only to wipe off the charge of + poison; a charge which in truth was not sufficiently corroborated by the + accusers, since they had only to allege, "that at an entertainment of + Germanicus, Piso, while he sat above him, with his hands poisoned the + meat." It appeared absurd that amongst so many attending slaves besides + his own, in so great a presence, and under the eye of Germanicus, he would + attempt it: he himself required that the waiters might be racked, and + offered to the rack his own domestics: but the Judges were implacable, + implacable from different motives; Tiberius for the war raised in the + province; and the Senate could never be convinced that the death of + Germanicus was not the effect of fraud. Some moved for the letters written + to Piso from Rome; a motion opposed by Tiberius no less than by Piso. From + without, at the same time, were heard the cries of the people, "that if he + escaped the judgment of the Senate, they would with their own hands + destroy him." They had already dragged his statues to the place from + whence malefactors were precipitated, and there had broken them; but by + the orders of Tiberius they were rescued and replaced. Piso was put into a + litter and carried back by a tribune of a Praetorian cohort; an attendance + variously understood, whether as a guard for his safety, or a minister of + death. + </p> + <p> + Plancina was under equal public hatred, but had more secret favour: hence + it was doubted how far Tiberius durst proceed against her. For herself; + while her husband's hopes were yet plausible, she professed "she would + accompany his fortune, whatever it were, and, if he fell, fall with him." + But when by the secret solicitations of Livia, she had secured her own + pardon, she began by degrees to drop her husband, and to make a separate + defence. After this fatal warning, he doubted whether he should make any + further efforts; but, by the advice of his sons, fortifying his mind, he + again entered the Senate: there he found the prosecution renewed, suffered + the declared indignation of the Fathers, and saw all things cross and + terrible; but nothing so much daunted him as to behold Tiberius, without + mercy, without wrath, close, dark, unmovable, and bent against every + access of tenderness. When he was brought home, as if he were preparing + for his further defence the next day, he wrote somewhat, which he sealed + and delivered to his freedman: he then washed and anointed, and took the + usual care of his person. Late in the night, his wife leaving the chamber, + he ordered the door to be shut; and was found, at break of day, with his + throat cut, his sword lying by him. + </p> + <p> + I remember to have heard from ancient men, that in the hands of Piso was + frequently seen a bundle of writings, which he did not expose, but which, + as his friends constantly averred, "contained the letters of Tiberius and + his cruel orders towards Germanicus: that he resolved to lay them before + the Fathers and to charge the Emperor, but was deluded by the hollow + promises of Sejanus: and that neither did Piso die by his own hands, but + by those of an express and private executioner." I dare affirm neither; + nor yet ought I to conceal the relations of such as still lived when I was + a youth. Tiberius, with an assumed air of sadness, complained to the + Senate, that Piso, by that sort of death, had aimed to load him with + obloquy; and asked many questions how he had passed his last day, how his + last night? The freedman answered to most with prudence, to some in + confusion. The Emperor then recited the letter sent him by Piso. It was + conceived almost in these words: "Oppressed by a combination of my enemies + and the imputation of false crimes; since no place is left here to truth + and my innocence; to the Immortal Gods I appeal, that towards you, Caesar, + I have lived with sincere faith, nor towards your mother with less + reverence. For my sons I implore her protection and yours: my son Cneius + had no share in my late management whatever it were, since, all the while, + he abode at Rome: and my son Marcus dissuaded me from returning to Syria. + Oh that, old as I am, I had yielded to him, rather than he, young as he + is, to me! Hence more passionately I pray that innocent as he is, he + suffer not in the punishment of my guilt: by a series of services for + five-and-forty years, I entreat you; by our former fellowship in the + consulship; by the memory of the deified Augustus, your father; by his + friendship to me; by mine to you, I entreat you for the life and fortune + of my unhappy son. It is the last request I shall ever make you." Of + Plancina he said nothing. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius, upon this, cleared the young man of any crime as to the civil + war: he alleged "the orders of his father, which a son could not disobey." + He likewise bewailed "that noble house, and even the grievous lot of Piso + himself, however deserved," For Plancina he pleaded with shame and guilt, + alleging the importunity of his mother; against whom more particularly the + secret murmurs of the best people waxed bitter and poignant. "Was it then + the tender part of a grandmother to admit to her sight the murderess of + her grandson, to be intimate with her, and to snatch her from the + vengeance of the Senate? To Germanicus alone was denied what by the laws + was granted to every citizen. By Vitellius and Veranius, the cause of that + prince was mourned and pleaded: by the Emperor and his mother, Plancina + was defended and protected. Henceforth she might pursue her infernal arts + so successfully tried, repeat her poisonings, and by her arts and poisons + assail Agrippina and her children; and, with the blood of that most + miserable house, satiate the worthy grandmother and uncle." In this mock + trial two days were wasted; Tiberius, all the while, animating the sons of + Piso to defend their mother: when the pleaders and witnesses had + vigorously pushed the charge, and no reply was made, commiseration + prevailed over hatred. The Consul Aurelius Cotta was first asked his + opinion: for, when the Emperor collected the voices, the magistrates + likewise voted. Cotta's sentence was, "that the name of Piso should be + razed from the annals, part of his estate forfeited, part granted to his + son Cneius, upon changing that name; his son Marcus be divested of his + dignity, and content with fifty thousand great sestertia, {Footnote: + £42,000.} be banished for ten years: and to Plancina, at the request of + Livia, indemnity should be granted." + </p> + <p> + Much of this sentence was abated by the Emperor; particularly that of + striking Piso's name out of the annals, when "that of Marc Anthony, who + made war upon his country; that of Julius Antonius, who had by adultery + violated the house of Augustus, continued still there." He also exempted + Marcus Piso from the ignominy of degradation, and left him his whole + paternal inheritance; for, as I have already often observed, he was to the + temptations of money incorruptible, and from the shame of having acquitted + Plancina, rendered then more than usually mild. He likewise withstood the + motion of Valerius Messalinus, "for erecting a golden statue in the Temple + of Mars the Avenger;" and that of Caecina Severus, "for founding an altar + to revenge." "Such monuments as these," he argued, "were only fit to be + raised upon foreign victories; domestic evils were to be buried in + sadness." Messalinus had added, "that to Tiberius, Livia, Antonia, + Agrippina and Drusus, public thanks were to be rendered for having + revenged the death of Germanicus;" but had omitted to mention Claudius. + Messalinus was asked by Lucius Asprenas, in the presence of the Senate, + "Whether by design he had omitted him?" and then at last the name of + Claudius was subjoined. To me, the more I revolve the events of late or of + old, the more of mockery and slipperiness appears in all human wisdom and + the transactions of men: for, in popular fame, in the hopes, wishes and + veneration of the public, all men were rather destined to the Empire, than + he for whom fortune then reserved the sovereignty in the dark. + </p> + <p> + A few days after, Vitellius, Veranius and Servaeus, were by the Senate + preferred to the honours of the Priesthood, at the motion of Tiberius. To + Fulcinius he promised his interest and suffrage towards preferment, but + advised him "not to embarrass his eloquence by impetuosity." This was the + end of revenging the death of Germanicus; an affair ambiguously related, + not by those only who then lived and interested themselves in it, but + likewise the following times: so dark and intricate are all the highest + transactions; while some hold for certain facts, the most precarious + hearsays; others turn facts into falsehood; and both are swallowed and + improved by the credulity of posterity. Drusus went now without the city, + there to renew the ceremony of the auspices, and presently re-entered in + the triumph of <i>ovation</i>. A few days after died Vipsania his mother; + of all the children of Agrippa, the only one who made a pacific end: the + rest manifestly perished, or are believed to have perished, by the sword, + poison, or famine. + </p> + <p> + The qualifying of the Law Papia Poppaea was afterwards proposed; a law + which, to enforce those of Julius Caesar, Augustus had made when he was + old, for punishing celibacy and enriching the Exchequer. Nor even by this + means had marriages and children multiplied, while a passion to live + single and childless prevailed: but, in the meantime, the numbers + threatened and in danger by it increased daily, while by the glosses and + chicane of the impleaders every family was undone. So that, as before the + city laboured under the weight of crimes, so now under the pest of laws. + From this thought I am led backwards to the first rise of laws, and to + open the steps and causes by which we are arrived to the present number + and excess; a number infinite and perplexed. + </p> + <p> + The first race of men, free as yet from every depraved passion, lived + without guile and crimes, and therefore without chastisements or + restraints; nor was there occasion for rewards, when of their own accord + they pursued righteousness: and as they courted nothing contrary to + justice, they were debarred from nothing by terrors. But, after they had + abandoned their original equality, and from modesty and shame to do evil, + proceeded to ambition and violence; lordly dominion was introduced and + arbitrary rule, and in many nations grew perpetual. Some, either from the + beginning, or after they were surfeited with kings, preferred the + sovereignty of laws; which, agreeable to the artless minds of men, were at + first short and simple. The laws in most renown were those framed for the + Cretans by Minos; for the Spartans by Lycurgus; and afterwards such as + Solon delivered to the Athenians, now greater in number and more + exquisitely composed. To the Romans justice was administered by Romulus + according to his pleasure: after him, Numa managed the people by religious + devices and laws divine. Some institutions were made by Tullus Hostilius, + some by Ancus Martius; but above all our laws were those founded by + Servius Tullius; they were such as even our kings were bound to obey. + </p> + <p> + Upon the expulsion of Tarquin; the people, for the security of their + freedom against the encroachment and factions of the Senate, and for + binding the public concord, prepared many ordinances: hence were created + the Decemviri, and by them were composed the twelve tables, out of a + collection of the most excellent institutions found abroad. The period + this of all upright and impartial laws. What laws followed, though + sometimes made against crimes and offenders, were yet chiefly made by + violence, through the animosity of the two Estates, and for seizing + unjustly withholden offices or continuing unjustly in them, or for + banishing illustrious patriots, and to other wicked ends. Hence the + Gracchi and Saturnini, inflamers of the people; and hence Drusus vying, on + behalf of the Senate, in popular concessions with these inflamers; and + hence the corrupt promises made to our Italian allies, promises + deceitfully made, or, by the interposition of some Tribune, defeated. + Neither during the war of Italy, nor during the civil war, was the making + of regulations discontinued; many and contradictory were even then made. + At last Sylla the Dictator, changing or abolishing the past, added many of + his own, and procured some respite in this matter, but not long; for + presently followed the turbulent pursuits and proposals of Lepidus, and + soon after were the Tribunes restored to their licentious authority of + throwing the people into combustions at pleasure. And now laws were not + made for the public only, but for particular men particular laws; and + corruption abounding in the Commonwealth, the Commonwealth abounded in + laws. + </p> + <p> + Pompey was, now in his third Consulship, chosen to correct the public + enormities; and his remedies proved to the State more grievous than its + distempers. He made laws such as suited his ambition, and broke them when + they thwarted his will; and lost by arms the regulations which by arms he + had procured. Henceforward for twenty years discord raged, and there was + neither law nor settlement; the most wicked found impunity in the excess + of their wickedness; and many virtuous men, in their uprightness met + destruction. At length, Augustus Caesar in his sixth Consulship, then + confirmed in power without a rival, abolished the orders which during the + Triumvirate he had established, and gave us laws proper for peace and a + single ruler. These laws had sanctions severer than any heretofore known: + as their guardians, informers were appointed, who by the Law Papia Poppaea + were encouraged with rewards, to watch such as neglected the privileges + annexed to marriage and fatherhood, and consequently could claim no legacy + or inheritance, the same, as vacant, belonging to the Roman People, who + were the public parent. But these informers struck much deeper: by them + the whole city, all Italy, and the Roman citizens in every part of the + Empire, were infested and persecuted: numbers were stripped of their + entire fortunes, and terror had seized all; when Tiberius, for a check to + this evil, chose twenty noblemen, five who were formerly Consuls, five who + were formerly Praetors, with ten other Senators, to review that law. By + them many of its intricacies were explained, its strictness qualified; and + hence some present alleviation was yielded. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius about this time, to the Senate recommended Nero, one of the sons + of Germanicus, now seventeen years of age, and desired "that he might be + exempted from executing the office of the Vigintivirate, {Footnote: + Officers for distributing the public lands; for regulating the mint, the + roads, and the execution of criminals.} and have leave to sue for the + Quaestorship five years sooner than the laws directed." A piece of + mockery, this request to all who heard it: but, Tiberius pretended "that + the same concessions had been decreed to himself and his brother Drusus, + at the request of Augustus." Nor do I doubt, but there were then such who + secretly ridiculed that sort of petitions from Augustus: such policy was + however natural to that Prince, while he was but yet laying the + foundations of the Imperial power, and while the Republic and its late + laws were still fresh in the minds of men: besides, the relation was + lighter between Augustus and his wife's sons, than between a grandfather + and his grandsons. To the grant of the Quaestorship was added a seat in + the College of Pontiffs; and the first day he entered the Forum in his + manly robe, a donative of corn and money was distributed to the populace, + who exulted to behold a son of Germanicus now of age. Their joy was soon + heightened by his marriage with Julia, the daughter of Drusus. But as + these transactions were attended with public applauses; so the intended + marriage of the daughter of Sejanus with the son of Claudius was received + with popular indignation. By this alliance the nobility of the Claudian + house seemed stained; and by it Sejanus, already suspected of aspiring + views, was lifted still higher. + </p> + <p> + At the end of this year died Lucius Volusius and Sallustius Crispus; great + and eminent men. The family of Volusius was ancient, but, in the exercise + of public offices, rose never higher than the Praetorship; it was he, who + honoured it with the Consulship: he was likewise created Censor for + modelling the classes of the equestrian order; and first accumulated the + wealth which gave that family such immense grandeur. Crispus was born of + an equestrian house, great nephew by a sister to Caius Sallustius, the + renowned Roman historian, and by him adopted: the way to the great offices + was open to him; but, in imitation of Maecenas, he lived without the + dignity of Senator, yet outwent in power many who were distinguished with + Consulships and triumphs: his manner of living, his dress and daintiness + were different from the ways of antiquity; and, in expense and affluence, + he bordered rather upon luxury. He possessed however a vigour of spirit + equal to great affairs, and exerted the greater promptness for that he hid + it in a show of indolence and sloth: he was therefore, in the time of + Maecenas, the next in favour, afterwards chief confidant in all the secret + counsels of Augustus and Tiberius, and privy and consenting to the order + for slaying Agrippa Posthumus. In his old age he preserved with the Prince + rather the outside than the vitals of authority: the same had happened to + Maecenas. It is the fate of power, which is rarely perpetual; perhaps from + satiety on both sides, when Princes have no more to grant, and Ministers + no more to crave. + </p> + <p> + Next followed the Consulship of Tiberius and Drusus; to Tiberius the + fourth, to Drusus the second: a Consulship remarkable, for that in it the + father and son were colleagues. There was indeed the same fellowship + between Tiberius and Germanicus, two years before; but besides the + distastes of jealousy in the uncle, the ties of blood were not so near. In + the beginning of the year, Tiberius, on pretence of his health, retired to + Campania; either already meditating a long and perpetual retirement; or to + leave to Drusus, in his father's absence, the honour of executing the + Consulship alone: and there happened a thing which, small in itself, yet + as it produced mighty contestation, furnished the young Consul with matter + of popular affection. Domitius Corbulo, formerly Praetor, complained to + the Senate of Lucius Sylla, a noble youth, "that in the show of + gladiators, Sylla would not yield him place." Age, domestic custom, and + the ancient men were for Corbulo: on the other side, Mamercus Scaurus, + Lucius Arruntius, and others laboured for their kinsman Sylla: warm + speeches were made, and the examples of our ancestors were urged, "who by + severe decrees had censured and restrained the irreverence of the youth." + Drusus interposed with arguments proper for calming animosities, and + Corbulo had satisfaction made him by Scaurus, who was to Sylla both + father-in-law and uncle, and the most copious orator of that age. The same + Corbulo, exclaiming against "the condition of most of the roads through + Italy, that through the fraud of the undertakers and negligence of the + overseers, they were broken and unpassable;" undertook of his own accord + the cure of that abuse; an undertaking which he executed not so much to + the advantage of the public as to the ruin of many private men in their + fortunes and reputation, by his violent mulcts and unjust judgments and + forfeitures. + </p> + <p> + Upon this occasion Caecina Severus proposed, "that no magistrate should go + into any province accompanied by his wife." He introduced this motion with + a long preface, "that he lived with his own in perfect concord, by her he + had six children; and what he offered to the public he had practised + himself, having during forty years' service left her still behind him, + confined to Italy. It was not indeed, without cause, established of old, + that women should neither be carried by their husbands into confederate + nations nor foreign. A train of women introduced luxury in peace, by their + fears retarded war, and made a Roman army resemble, in their march, a + mixed host of barbarians. The sex was not tender only and unfit for + travel, but, if suffered, cruel, aspiring, and greedy of authority: they + even marched amongst the soldiers, and were obeyed by the officers. A + woman had lately presided at the exercises of the troops, and at the + decursions of the legions. The Senate themselves might remember, that as + often as any of the magistrates were charged with plundering the + provinces, their wives were always engaged in the guilt. To the ladies, + the most profligate in the province applied; by them all affairs were + undertaken, by them transacted: at home two distinct courts were kept, and + abroad the wife had her distinct train and attendance. The ladies, too, + issued distinct orders, but more imperious and better obeyed. Such + feminine excesses were formerly restrained by the Oppian, and other laws; + but now these restraints were violated, women ruled all things, their + families, the Forum, and even the armies." + </p> + <p> + This speech was heard by few with approbation, and many proclaimed their + dissent; "for, that neither was that the point in debate, nor was Caecina + considerable enough to censure so weighty an affair." He was presently + answered by Valerius Messalinus, who was the son of Messala, and inherited + a sparkling of his father's eloquence: "that many rigorous institutions of + the ancients were softened and changed for the better: for, neither was + Rome now, as of old, beset with wars, nor Italy with hostile provinces; + and a few concessions were made to the conveniences of women, who were so + far from burdening the provinces, that to their own husbands there they + were no burden. As to honours, attendance and expense, they enjoyed them + in common with their husbands, who could receive no embarrassment from + their company in time of peace. To war indeed we must go equipped and + unencumbered; but after the fatigues of war, what was more allowable than + the consolations of a wife? But it seemed the wives of some magistrates + had given a loose to ambition and avarice. And were the magistrates + themselves free from these excesses? were not most of them governed by + many exorbitant appetites? did we therefore send none into the provinces? + It was added, that the husbands were corrupted by their corrupt wives: and + were therefore all single men uncorrupt? The Oppian Laws were once thought + necessary, because the exigencies of the State required their severity: + they were afterwards relaxed and mollified, because that too was expedient + for the State. In vain we covered our own sloth with borrowed names: if + the wife broke bounds, the husband ought to bear the blame. It was + moreover unjustly judged, for the weak and uxorious spirit of one or a + few, to bereave all others of the fellowship of their wives, the natural + partners of their prosperity and distress. Besides, the sex, weak by + nature, would be left defenceless, exposed to the luxurious bent of their + native passions, and a prey to the allurements of adulterers: scarce under + the eye and restraint of the husband was the marriage bed preserved + inviolate: what must be the consequence, when by an absence of many years, + the ties of marriage would be forgot, forgot as it were in a divorce? It + became them, therefore, so to cure the evils abroad as not to forget the + enormities at Rome." To this Drusus added somewhat concerning his own + wedlock. "Princes," he said, "were frequently obliged to visit the remote + parts of the Empire: how often did the deified Augustus travel to the + East, how often to the West, still accompanied with Livia? He himself too + had taken a progress to Illyricum, and, if it were expedient, was ready to + visit other nations; but not always with an easy spirit, if he were to be + torn from his dear wife, her by whom he had so many children." Thus was + Caecina's motion eluded. + </p> + <p> + When the Senate met next, they had a letter from Tiberius. In it he + affected to chide the fathers, "that upon him they cast all public cares;" + and named them M. Lepidus and Junius Blesus, to choose either for + Proconsul of Africa. They were then both heard as to this nomination: + Lepidus excused himself with earnestness; he pleaded "his bodily frailty, + the tender age of his children, and a daughter fit for marriage." There + was another reason too, of which he said nothing; but it was easily + understood: Blesus was uncle to Sejanus, and therefore had the prevailing + interest. Blesus too made a show of refusing, but not with the like + positiveness, and was heard with partiality by the flatterers of power. + </p> + <p> + The same year the cities of Gaul, stimulated by their excessive debts, + began a rebellion. The most vehement incendiaries were Julius Florus and + Julius Sacrovir; the first amongst those of Treves, the second amongst the + Aeduans. They were both distinguished by their nobility, and by the good + services of their ancestors, who thence had acquired of old the right of + Roman citizens; a privilege rare in those days, and then only the prize of + virtue. When by secret meetings, they had gained those who were most + prompt to rebel; with such as were desperate through indigence, or, from + guilt of past crimes, forced to commit more; they agreed that Florus + should begin the insurrection in Belgia; Sacrovir amongst the neighbouring + Gauls. In order to this, they had many consultations and cabals, where + they uttered seditious harangues; they urged "their tribute without end, + their devouring usury, the pride and cruelty of their Governors: that they + had now a glorious opportunity to recover their liberty; for that since + the report of the murder of Germanicus, discord had seized the Roman + soldiery: they need only consider their own strength and numbers; while + Italy was poor and exhausted; the Roman populace weak and unwarlike, the + Roman armies destitute of all vigour but that derived from foreigners." + </p> + <p> + Scarce one city remained untainted with the seeds of this rebellion; but + it first broke at Angiers and Tours. The former were reduced by Acilius + Aviola, a legate, with the assistance of a cohort drawn from the garrison + at Lyons. Those of Tours were suppressed by the same Aviola, assisted with + a detachment sent from the legions, by Visellius Varro, + lieutenant-governor of lower Germany. Some of the chiefs of the Gauls had + likewise joined him with succours, the better to disguise their defection, + and to push it with more effect hereafter. Even Sacrovir was beheld + engaged in fight for the Romans, with his head bare, a <i>demonstration</i>, + he pretended, <i>of his bravery</i>; but the prisoners averred, that "he + did it to be known to his countrymen, and to escape their darts." + </p> + <p> + An account of all this was laid before Tiberius, who slighted it, and by + hesitation fostered the war. Florus the while pushed his designs, and + tried to debauch a regiment of horse, levied at Treves, and kept under our + pay and discipline: he would have engaged them to begin the war, by + putting to the sword the Roman merchants; and some few were corrupted, but + the body remained in their allegiance. A rabble however, of his own + followers and desperate debtors, took arms and were making to the forest + of Arden, when the legions sent from both armies by Visellius and Caius + Silius, through different routes to intercept them, marred their march: + and Julius Indus, one of the same country with Florus, at enmity with him, + and therefore more eager to engage him, was despatched forward with a + chosen band, and broke the ill-appointed multitude. Florus by lurking from + place to place, frustrated the search of the conquerors: but at last, when + he saw all the passes beset with soldiers, he fell by his own hands. This + was the issue of the insurrection at Treves. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the Aeduans the revolt was stronger, as much stronger as the state + was more opulent; and the forces to suppress it were to be brought from + afar. Augustodunum, {Footnote: Autun.} the capital of the nation, was + seized by Sacrovir, and in it all the noble youth of Gaul, who were there + instructed in the liberal arts. By securing these pledges he aimed to bind + in his interest their parents and relations; and at the same time + distributed to the young men the arms, which he had caused to be secretly + made. He had forty thousand men, the fifth part armed like our legions, + the rest with poles, hangers, and other weapons used by hunters. To the + number were added such of the slaves as had been appointed to be + gladiators; these were covered, after the fashion of the country, with a + continued armour of iron; and styled <i>Crupellarii</i>; a sort of militia + unwieldy at exercising their own weapons, and impenetrable by those of + others. These forces were still increased by volunteers from the + neighbouring cities, where, though the public body did not hitherto avow + the revolt, yet the zeal of particulars was manifest: they had likewise + leisure to increase from the contention of the two Roman generals; a + contention for some time undecided, while each demanded the command in + that war. At length Varro, old and infirm, yielded to the superior vigour + of Silius. + </p> + <p> + Now at Rome, "not only the insurrection of Treves and of the Aeduans, but + likewise, that threescore and four cities of Gaul had revolted; that the + Germans had joined in the revolt, and that Spain fluctuated;" were reports + all believed with the usual aggravations of fame. The best men grieved in + sympathy for their country: many from hatred of the present government and + thirst of change, rejoiced in their own perils: they inveighed against + Tiberius, "that in such a mighty uproar of rebellion, he was only employed + in perusing the informations of the State accusers." They asked, "did he + mean to surrender Julius Sacrovir to the Senate, to try him for treason?" + They exulted, "that there were at last found men, who would with arms + restrain his bloody orders for private murders." And declared "that even + war was a happy change for a most wretched peace." So much the more for + this, Tiberius affected to appear wrapped up in security and unconcern; he + neither changed place nor countenance, but behaved himself at that time as + at other times; whether from elevation of mind, or whether he had learned + that the state of things was not alarming, and only heightened by vulgar + representation. + </p> + <p> + Silius the while sending forward a band of auxiliaries, marched with two + legions, and in his march ravaged the villages of the Sequanians, next + neighbours to the Aeduans, and their associates in arms. He then advanced + towards Augustodunum; a hasty march, the standard-bearers mutually vying + in expedition, and the common men breathing ardour and eagerness: they + desired, "that no time might be wasted in the usual refreshments, none of + their nights in sleep; let them only see and confront the foe: they wanted + no more, to be victorious." Twelve miles from Augustodunum, Sacrovir + appeared with his forces upon the plains: in the front he had placed the + iron troop; his cohorts in the wings; the half-armed in the rear: he + himself, upon a fine horse, attended by the other chiefs, addressed + himself to them from rank to rank; he reminded them "of the glorious + achievements of the ancient Gauls; of the victorious mischiefs they had + brought upon the Romans; of the liberty and renown attending victory; of + their redoubled and intolerable servitude, if once more vanquished." + </p> + <p> + A short speech; and an unattentive, and disheartened audience! For, the + embattled legions approached; and the crowd of townsmen, ill appointed and + novices in war, stood astonished, bereft of the present use of eyes and + hearing. On the other side, Silius, though he presumed the victory, and + thence might have spared exhortations, yet called to his men, "that they + might be with reason ashamed that they, the conquerors of Germany, should + be thus led against a rabble of Gauls as against an equal enemy: one + cohort had newly defeated the rebels of Tours; one regiment of horse, + those of Treves; a handful of this very army had routed the Sequanians: + the present Aeduans, as they are more abounding in wealth, as they wallow + more in voluptuousness, are by so much more soft and unwarlike: this is + what you are now to prove, and your task to prevent their escape." His + words were returned with a mighty cry. Instantly the horse surrounded the + foe; the foot attacked their front, and the wings were presently routed: + the iron band gave some short obstruction, as the bars of their coats + withstood the strokes of sword and pike: but the soldiers had recourse to + their hatchets and pick-axes; and, as if they had battered a wall, hewed + their bodies and armour: others with clubs, and some with forks, beat down + the helpless lumps, who as they lay stretched along, without one struggle + to rise, were left for dead. Sacrovir fled first to Augustodunum; and + thence, fearful of being surrendered, to a neighbouring town, accompanied + by his most faithful adherents. There he slew himself; and the rest, one + another: having first set the town on fire, by which they were all + consumed. + </p> + <p> + Now at last Tiberius wrote to the Senate about this war, and at once + acquainted them with its rise and conclusion, neither aggravating facts + nor lessening them; but added "that it was conducted by the fidelity and + bravery of his lieutenants, guided by his counsels." He likewise assigned + the reasons why neither he, nor Drusus, went to that war; "that the Empire + was an immense body; and it became not the dignity of a Prince, upon the + revolt of one or two towns, to desert the capital, whence motion was + derived to the whole: but since the alarm was over, he would visit those + nations and settle them." The Senate decreed vows and supplications for + his return, with other customary honours. Only Cornelius Dolabella, while + he strove to outdo others, fell into ridiculous sycophancy, and moved + "that from Campania he should enter Rome in the triumph of ovation." This + occasioned a letter from Tiberius: in it he declared, "he was not so + destitute of glory, that after having in his youth subdued the fiercest + nations, and enjoyed or slighted so many triumphs, he should now in his + old age seek empty honours from a short progress about the suburbs of + Rome." + </p> + <p> + Caius Sulpitius and Decimus Haterius were the following Consuls. Their + year was exempt from disturbances abroad; but at home some severe blow was + apprehended against luxury, which prevailed monstrously in all things that + create a profusion of money. But as the more pernicious articles of + expense were covered by concealing their prices; therefore from the + excesses of the table, which were become the common subject of daily + animadversion, apprehensions were raised of some rigid correction from a + Prince, who observed himself the ancient parsimony. For, Caius Bibulus + having begun the complaint, the other Aediles took it up, and argued "that + the sumptuary laws were despised; the pomp and expense of plate and + entertainments, in spite of restraints, increased daily, and by moderate + penalties were not to be stopped." This grievance thus represented to the + Senate, was by them referred entire to the Emperor. Tiberius having long + weighed with himself whether such an abandoned propensity to prodigality + could be stemmed; whether the stemming it would not bring heavier evils + upon the public; how dishonourable it would be to attempt what could not + be effected, or at least effected by the disgrace of the nobility, and by + the subjecting illustrious men to infamous punishments; wrote at last to + the Senate in this manner: + </p> + <p> + "In other matters, Conscript Fathers, perhaps it might be more expedient + for you to consult me in the Senate; and for me to declare there, what I + judge for the public weal: but in the debate of this affair, it was best + that my eyes were withdrawn; lest, while you marked the countenances and + terror of particulars charged with scandalous luxury, I too should have + observed them, and, as it were, caught them in it. Had the vigilant + Aediles first asked counsel of me, I know not whether I should not have + advised them rather to have passed by potent and inveterate corruptions, + than only make it manifest, what enormities are an overmatch for us: but + they in truth have done their duty, as I would have all other magistrates + fulfil theirs. But for myself, it is neither commendable to be silent; nor + does it belong to my station to speak out; since I neither bear the + character of an Aedile, nor of a Praetor, nor of a Consul: something still + greater and higher is required of a Prince. Every one is ready to assume + to himself the credit of whatever is well done, while upon the Prince + alone are thrown the miscarriages of all. But what is it, that I am first + to prohibit, what excess retrench to the ancient standard? Am I to begin + with that of our country seats, spacious without bounds; and with the + number of domestics, a number distributed into nations in private + families? or with the quantity of plate, silver, and gold? or with the + pictures, and works, and statues of brass, the wonders of art? or with the + gorgeous vestments, promiscuously worn by men and women? or with what is + peculiar to the women, those precious stones, for the purchase of which + our corn is carried into foreign and hostile nations. + </p> + <p> + "I am not ignorant that at entertainments and in conversation, these + excesses are censured, and a regulation is required: and yet if an equal + law were made, if equal penalties were prescribed, these very censurers + would loudly complain, <i>that the State was utterly overturned, that + snares and destruction were prepared for every illustrious house, that no + men could be guiltless, and all men would be the prey of informers</i>. + And yet bodily diseases grown inveterate and strengthened by time, cannot + be checked but by medicines rigid and violent: it is the same with the + soul: the sick and raging soul, itself corrupted and scattering its + corruption, is not to be qualified but by remedies equally strong with its + own flaming lusts. So many laws made by our ancestors, so many added by + the deified Augustus; the former being lost in oblivion, and (which is + more heinous) the latter in contempt, have only served to render luxury + more secure. When we covet a thing yet unforbid, we are apt to fear that + it may be forbid; but when once we can with impunity and defiance overleap + prohibited bounds, there remains afterwards nor fear nor shame. How + therefore did parsimony prevail of old? It was because, every one was a + law to himself; it was because we were then only masters of one city: nor + afterwards, while our dominion was confined only to Italy, had we found + the same instigations to voluptuousness. By foreign conquests, we learned + to waste the property of others; and in the Civil Wars, to consume our + own. What a mighty matter is it that the Aediles remonstrate! how little + to be weighed in the balance with others? It is wonderful that nobody + represents, that Italy is in constant want of foreign supplies; that the + lives of the Roman People are daily at the mercy of uncertain seas and of + tempests: were it not for our supports from the provinces; supports, by + which the masters, and their slaves, and their estates, are maintained; + would our own groves and villas maintain us? This care therefore, + Conscript Fathers, is the business of the Prince; and by the neglect of + this care, the foundations of the State would be dissolved. The cure of + other defects depends upon our own private spirits: some of us, shame will + reclaim; necessity will mend the poor; satiety the rich. Or if any of the + Magistrates, from a confidence of his own firmness and perseverance, will + undertake to stem the progress of so great an evil; he has both my + praises, and my acknowledgment, that he discharges me of part of my + fatigues: but if such will only impeach corruptions, and when they have + gained the glory, would leave upon me the indignation (indignation of + their own raising); believe me, Conscript Fathers, I am not fond of + bearing resentments: I already suffer many for the Commonwealth; many that + are grievous and almost all unjust; and therefore with reason I intreat + that I may not be loaded with such as are wantonly and vainly raised, and + promise no advantage to you nor to me." + </p> + <p> + The Senate, upon reading the Emperor's letter, released the Aediles from + this pursuit: and the luxury of the table which, from the battle of Actium + till the revolution made by Galba, flowed, for the space of an hundred + years, in all profusion; at last gradually declined. The causes of this + change are worth knowing. Formerly the great families, great in nobility + or abounding in riches, were carried away with a passion for magnificence: + for even then it was allowed to court the good graces of the Roman People, + with the favour of kings, and confederate nations; and to be courted by + them: so that each was distinguished by the lustre of popularity and + dependances, in proportion to his affluence, the splendour of his house, + and the figure he made. But after Imperial fury had long raged in the + slaughter of the Grandees, and the greatness of reputation was become the + sure mark of destruction; the rest grew wiser: besides, new men frequently + chosen Senators from the municipal towns, from the colonies, and even from + the provinces, brought into the Senate their own domestic parsimony; and + though, by fortune or industry, many of them grew wealthy as they grew + old, yet their former frugal spirit continued. But above all, Vespasian + proved the promoter of thrifty living, being himself the pattern of + ancient economy in his person and table: hence the compliance of the + public with the manners of the Prince, and an emulation to practise them; + an incitement more prevalent than the terrors of laws and all their + penalties. Or perhaps all human things go a certain round; and, as in the + revolutions of time, there are also vicissitudes in manners: nor indeed + have our ancestors excelled us in all things; our own age has produced + many excellences worthy of praise and the imitation of posterity. Let us + still preserve this strife in virtue with our forefathers. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius having gained the fame of moderation; because, by rejecting the + project for reforming luxury, he had disarmed the growing hopes of the + accusers; wrote to the Senate, to desire the <i>Tribunitial Power</i> for + Drusus. Augustus had devised this title, as best suiting the unbounded + height of his views; while avoiding the odious name of <i>King</i> or <i>Dictator</i>, + he was yet obliged to use some particular appellation, under it to control + all other powers in the State. He afterwards assumed Marcus Agrippa into a + fellowship in it; and, upon his death, Tiberius; that none might doubt, + who was to be his successor. By this means, he conceived, he should defeat + the aspiring views of others: besides, he confided in the moderation of + Tiberius, and in the mightiness of his own authority. By his example, + Tiberius now advanced Drusus to the supreme Magistracy; whereas, while + Germanicus yet lived, he acted without distinction towards both. In the + beginning of his letter he besought the Gods "that by his counsels the + Republic might prosper," and then added a modest testimony concerning the + qualities and behaviour of the young Prince, without aggravation or false + embellishments; "that he had a wife and three children, and was of the + same age with himself, when called by the deified Augustus to that office: + that Drusus was not now by him adopted a partner in the toils of + government, precipitately; but after eight years' experience made of his + qualifications; after seditions suppressed, wars concluded, the honour of + triumph, and two Consulships." + </p> + <p> + The Senators had foreseen this address; hence they received it with the + more elaborate adulation. However, they could devise nothing to decree, + but "statues to the two Princes, altars to the Gods, arches," and other + usual honours: only that Marcus Silanus strove to honour the Princes by + the disgrace of the Consulship: he proposed "that all records public and + private should, for their date, be inscribed no more with the names of the + Consuls, but of those who exercised the Tribunitial power." But Haterius + Agrippa, by moving to have "the decrees of that day engraved in letters of + gold, and hung up in the Senate," became an object of derision; for that, + as he was an ancient man, he could reap from his most abominable flattery + no other fruit but that of infamy. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius, while he fortified the vitals of his own domination, afforded + the Senate a shadow of their ancient jurisdiction; by referring to their + examination petitions and claims from the provinces. For there had now + prevailed amongst the Greek cities a latitude of instituting sanctuaries + at pleasure. Hence the temples were filled with the most profligate + fugitive slaves: here debtors found protection against their creditors; + and hither were admitted such as were pursued for capital crimes. Nor was + any force of Magistracy or laws sufficient to bridle the mad zeal of the + people, who confounding the sacred villainies of men with the worship + peculiar to the Gods, seditiously defended these profane sanctuaries. It + was therefore ordered that these cities should send deputies to represent + their claims. Some of the cities voluntarily relinquished the nominal + privileges, which they had arbitrarily assumed: many confided in their + rights; a confidence grounded on the antiquity of their superstitions, or + on the merits of their kind offices to the Roman People. Glorious to the + Senate was the appearance of that day, when the grants from our ancestors, + the engagements of our confederates, the ordinances of kings, such kings + who had reigned as yet independent of the Roman power; and when even the + sacred worship of the Gods were now all subjected to their inspection, and + their judgment free, as of old, to ratify or abolish with absolute power. + </p> + <p> + First of all the Ephesians applied. They alleged, that "Diana and Apollo + were not, according to the credulity of the vulgar, born at Delos: in + their territory flowed the river Cenchris; where also stood the Ortygian + Grove: there the big-bellied Latona, leaning upon an olive tree, which + even then remained, was delivered of these deities; and thence by their + appointment the Grove became sacred. Thither Apollo himself, after his + slaughter of the Cyclops, retired for a sanctuary from the wrath of + Jupiter: soon after, the victorious Bacchus pardoned the suppliant + Amazons, who sought refuge at the altar of Diana: by the concession of + Hercules, when he reigned in Lydia, her temple was dignified with an + augmentation of immunities; nor during the Persian monarchy were they + abridged: they were next maintained by the Macedonians, and then by us." + </p> + <p> + The Magnesians next asserted their claim, founded on an establishment of + Lucius Scipio, confirmed by another of Sylla: the former after the defeat + of Antiochus; the latter after that of Mithridates, having, as a testimony + of the faith and bravery of the Magnesians, dignified their temple of the + Leucophrynaean Diana with the privileges of an inviolable sanctuary. After + them, the Aphrodisians and Stratoniceans produced a grant from Caesar the + Dictator, for their early services to his party; and another lately from + Augustus, with a commendation inserted, "that with zeal unshaken towards + the Roman People, they had borne the irruption of the Parthians." But + these two people adored different deities: Aphrodisium was a city devoted + to Venus; that of Stratonicea maintained the worship of Jupiter and of + Diana Trivia. Those of Hierocaesarea exhibited claims of higher antiquity, + "that they possessed the Persian Diana, and her temple consecrated by King + Cyrus." They likewise pleaded the authorities of Perpenna, Isauricus, and + of many more Roman captains, who had allowed the same sacred immunity not + to the temple only, but to a precinct two miles round it. Those of Cyprus + pleaded right of sanctuary to three of their temples: the most ancient + founded by Aerias to the Paphian Venus; another by his son Amathus to the + Amathusian Venus; the third to the Salaminian Jupiter by Teucer, the son + of Telamon, when he fled from the fury of his father. + </p> + <p> + The deputies too of other cities were heard. But the Senate tired with so + many, and because there was a contention begun amongst particular parties + for particular cities; gave power to the Consuls "to search into the + validity of their several pretensions, and whether in them no fraud was + interwoven;" with orders "to lay the whole matter once more before the + Senate." The Consuls reported that, besides the cities already mentioned, + "they had found the temple of AEsculapius at Pergamus to be a genuine + sanctuary: the rest claimed upon originals, from the darkness of + antiquity, altogether obscure. Smyrna particularly pleaded an oracle of + Apollo, in obedience to which they had dedicated a temple to Venus + Stratonices; as did the Isle of Tenos an oracular order from the same God, + to erect to Neptune a statue and temple. Sardis urged a later authority, + namely, a grant from the Great Alexander; and Miletus insisted on one from + King Darius: as to the deities of these two cities; one worshipped Diana; + the other, Apollo. And Crete too demanded the privilege of sanctuary, to a + statue of the deified Augustus." Hence diverse orders of Senate were made, + by which, though great reverence was expressed towards the deities, yet + the extent of the sanctuaries was limited; and the several people were + enjoined "to hang up in each temple the present decree engraven in brass, + as a sacred memorial, and a restraint against their lapsing, under the + colour of religion, into the abuses and claims of superstition." + </p> + <p> + At the same time, a vehement distemper having seized Livia, obliged the + Emperor to hasten his return to Rome; seeing hitherto the mother and son + lived in apparent unanimity; or perhaps mutually disguised their hate: + for, not long before, Livia, having dedicated a statue to the deified + Augustus, near the theatre of Marcellus, had the name of Tiberius + inscribed after her own. This he was believed to have resented heinously, + as a degrading the dignity of the Prince; but to have buried his + resentment under dark dissimulation. Upon this occasion, therefore, the + Senate decreed "supplications to the Gods; with the celebration of the + greater Roman games, under the direction of the Pontifs, the Augurs, the + College of Fifteen, assisted by the College of Seven, and the Fraternity + of Augustal Priests." Lucius Apronius had moved, that "with the rest might + preside the company of heralds." Tiberius opposed it; he distinguished + between the jurisdiction of the priests and theirs; "for that at no time + had the heralds arrived to so much pre-eminence: but for the Augustal + Fraternity, they were therefore added, because they exercised a priesthood + peculiar to that family for which the present vows and solemnities were + made," It is no part of my purpose to trace all the votes of particular + men, unless they are memorable for integrity, or for notorious infamy: + this I conceive to be the principal duty of an historian, that he suppress + no instance of virtue; and that by the dread of future infamy and the + censures of posterity, men may be deterred from detestable actions and + prostitute speeches. In short, such was the abomination of those times, so + prevailing the contagion of flattery, that not only the first nobles, + whose obnoxious splendour found protection only in obsequiousness; but all + who had been Consuls, a great part of such as had been Praetors, and even + many of the unregistered Senators, strove for priority in the vileness and + excess of their votes. There is a tradition, that Tiberius, as often as he + went out of the Senate, was wont to cry out in Greek, <i>Oh men prepared + for bondage!</i> Yes, even Tiberius, he who could not bear public liberty, + nauseated this prostitute tameness of slaves. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK IV. — A.D. 23-28. + </h2> + <p> + When Caius Asinius and Caius Antistius were Consuls, Tiberius was in his + ninth year; the State composed, and his family flourishing (for the death + of Germanicus he reckoned amongst the incidents of his prosperity) when + suddenly fortune began to grow boisterous, and he himself to tyrannise, or + to furnish others with the weapons of tyranny. The beginning and cause of + this turn arose from Aelius Sejanus, captain of the Praetorian cohorts. Of + his power I have above made mention; I shall now explain his original, his + manners, and by what black deeds he strove to snatch the sovereignty. He + was born at Vulsinii, son to Sejus Strabo, a Roman knight; in his early + youth, he was a follower of Caius Caesar (grandson of Augustus) and lay + then under the contumely of having for hire exposed himself to the + constupration of Apicius; a debauchee wealthy and profuse: next by various + artifices he so enchanted Tiberius, that he who to all others was dark and + unsearchable, became to Sejanus alone destitute of all restraint and + caution: nor did he so much accomplish this by any superior efforts of + policy (for at his own stratagems he was vanquished by others) as by the + rage of the Gods against the Roman State, to which he proved alike + destructive when he flourished and when he fell. His person was hardy and + equal to fatigues; his spirit daring but covered; sedulous to disguise his + own counsels, dexterous to blacken others; alike fawning and imperious; to + appearance exactly modest; but in his heart fostering the lust of + domination; and, with this view, engaged at one time in profusion, + largesses, and luxury; and again, often laid out in application and + vigilance; qualities no less pernicious, when personated by ambition for + the acquiring of Empire. + </p> + <p> + The authority of his command over the guards, which was but moderate + before his time, he extended, by gathering into one camp all the + Praetorian cohorts then dispersed over the city; that thus united, they + might all at once receive his orders, and by continually beholding their + own numbers and strength, conceive confidence in themselves and prove a + terror to all other men. He pretended, "that the soldiers, while they + lived scattered, lived loose and debauched; that when gathered into a + body, there could, in any hasty emergency, be more reliance upon their + succour; and that when encamped, remote from the allurements of the town, + they would in their discipline be more exact and severe." When the + encampment was finished, he began gradually to allure the affections of + the soldiers, by all the ways of affability, court, and familiarity: it + was he too who chose the Centurions, he who chose the Tribunes. Neither in + his pursuits of ambition did the Senate escape him; but by distinguishing + his followers in it with offices and provinces, he cultivated power and a + party there: for, to all this Tiberius was entirely resigned; and even so + passionate for him, that not in conversation only, but in public, in his + speeches to the Senate and people, he treated and extolled him, as <i>the + sharer of his burdens</i>; nay, allowed his effigies to be publicly + adored, in the several theatres, in all places of popular convention, and + even amongst the Eagles of the legions. + </p> + <p> + But to his designs were many retardments: the Imperial house was full of + Caesars; the Emperor's son a grown man, and his grandsons of age: and + because the cutting them off all at once, was dangerous; the treason he + meditated, required a gradation of murders. He however chose the darkest + method, and to begin with Drusus; against whom he was transported with a + fresh motive of rage. For, Drusus impatient of a rival, and in his temper + inflammable, had upon some occasional contest, shaken his fist at Sejanus, + and, as he prepared to resist, given him a blow on the face. As he + therefore cast about for every expedient of revenge, the readiest seemed + to apply to Livia his wife: she was the sister of Germanicus, and from an + uncomely person in her childhood, grew afterwards to excel in loveliness. + As his passion for this lady was vehement, he tempted her to adultery, and + having fulfilled the first iniquity (nor will a woman, who has sacrificed + her chastity, stick at any other) he carried her greater lengths, to the + views of marriage, a partnership in the Empire, and even the murder of her + husband. Thus she, the niece of Augustus, the daughter-in-law of Tiberius, + the mother of children by Drusus, defiled herself, her ancestors, and her + posterity, with a municipal adulterer; and all to exchange an honourable + condition possessed, for pursuits flagitious and uncertain. Into a + fellowship in the guilt was assumed Eudemus, physician to Livia; and, + under colour of his profession, frequently with her in private. Sejanus + too, to avoid the jealousy of the adulteress, discharged from his bed + Apicata his wife, her by whom he had three children. But still the + mightiness of the iniquity terrified them, and thence created caution, + delays, and frequently opposite counsels. + </p> + <p> + During this, in the beginning of the year, Drusus one of the sons of + Germanicus, put on the manly robe; and upon him the Senate conferred the + same honours decreed before to his brother Nero. A speech was added by + Tiberius with a large encomium upon his son, "that with the tenderness of + a father he used the children of his brother." For, Drusus, however rare + it be for power and unanimity to subsist together, was esteemed + benevolent, certainly not ill-disposed, towards these youths. Now again + was revived by Tiberius the proposal of a progress into the Provinces; a + stale proposal, always hollow, but often feigned. He pretended "the + multitude of veterans discharged, and thence the necessity of recruiting + the armies; that volunteers were wanting, or if already such there were, + they were chiefly the necessitous and vagabonds, and destitute of the like + modesty and courage." He likewise cursorily recounted the number of the + legions, and what countries they defended: a detail which I think it + behoves me also to repeat; that thence may appear what was then the + complement of the Roman forces, what kings their confederates, and how + much more narrow the limits of the Empire. + </p> + <p> + Italy was on each side guarded by two fleets; one at Misenum, one at + Ravenna; and the coast joining to Gaul, by the galleys taken by Augustus + at the battle of Actium, and sent powerfully manned to Forojulium. + {Footnote: Fréjus.} But the chief strength lay upon the Rhine; they were + eight legions, a common guard upon the Germans and the Gauls. The + reduction of Spain, lately completed, was maintained by three. Mauritania + was possessed by King Juba; a realm which he held as a gift from the Roman + People: the rest of Africa by two legions; and Egypt by the like number. + Four legions kept in subjection all the mighty range of country, extending + from the next limits of Syria, as far as the Euphrates, and bordering upon + the Iberians, Albanians, and other Principalities, who by our might are + protected against Foreign Powers. Thrace was held by Rhoemetalces, and the + sons of Cotys; and both banks of the Danube by four legions; two in + Pannonia, two in Moesia. In Dalmatia likewise were placed two; who, by the + situation of the country, were at hand to support the former, and had not + far to march into Italy, were any sudden succours required there: though + Rome too had her peculiar soldiery; three city cohorts, and nine + Praetorian, enlisted chiefly out of Etruria and Umbria, or from the + ancient Latium and the old Roman colonies. In the several Provinces, + besides, were disposed, according to their situation and necessity, the + fleets of the several confederates, with their squadrons and battalions; a + number of forces not much different from all the rest: but the particular + detail would be uncertain; since, according to the exigency of times, they + often shifted stations, with numbers sometimes enlarged, sometimes + reduced. + </p> + <p> + It will, I believe, fall in properly here to review also the other parts + of the Administration, and by what measures it was hitherto conducted, + till with the beginning of this year the Government of Tiberius began to + wax worse. First then, all public, and every private business of moment, + was determined by the Senate: to the great men he allowed liberty of + debate: those who in their debates lapsed into flattery, he checked: in + conferring preferments, he was guided by merit, by ancient nobility, + renown in war abroad, by civil accomplishments at home; insomuch that it + was manifest, his choice could not have been better. There remained to the + Consuls, there remained to the Praetors the useful marks of their + dignities; to inferior magistrates the independent exercise of their + charges; and the laws, where the power of the Prince was not concerned, + were in proper force. The tributes, duties, and all public receipts, were + directed by companies of Roman knights: the management of his own revenue + he committed only to those of the most noted qualifications; mostly known + by himself, and to some known by reputation alone: and when once taken, + they were continued, without all restriction of term; since most grew old + in the same employments. The populace were indeed aggrieved by the dearth + of provisions; but without any fault of the Prince: nay, he spared no + possible expense nor pains to remedy the effects of barrenness in the + earth, and of wrecks at sea. He provided that the Provinces should not be + oppressed with new impositions; and that no extortion, or violence should + be committed by the magistrates in raising the old: there were no infamous + corporal punishments, no confiscations of goods. + </p> + <p> + The Emperor's possessions through Italy, were thin; the behaviour of his + slaves modest; the freedmen who managed his house, few; and in his + disputes with particulars, the courts were open and the law equal. All + which restraints he observed, not, in truth, in the ways of complaisance + and popularity; but always stern, and for the most part terrible; yet + still he retained them, till by the death of Drusus they were abandoned: + for, while he lived they continued; because Sejanus, while he was but + laying the foundations of his power, studied to recommend himself by good + counsels. He then had besides, an avenger to dread, one who disguised not + his enmity, but was frequent in his complaints; "that when the son was in + his prime, another was called, as coadjutor, to the Government; nay, how + little was wanting to his being declared colleague in the Empire? That the + first advances to sovereignty are steep and perilous; but, once you are + entered, parties and instruments are ready to espouse you. Already a camp + for the guards was formed, by the pleasure and authority of the captain: + into whose hands the soldiers were delivered: in the theatre of Pompey his + statue was beheld: in his grandchildren would be mixed the blood of the + Drusi with that of Sejanus. After all this what remained but to supplicate + his modesty to rest contented." Nor was it rarely that he uttered these + disgusts, nor to a few; besides, his wife being debauched, all his secrets + were betrayed. + </p> + <p> + Sejanus therefore judging it time to despatch, chose such a poison as by + operating gradually, might preserve the appearances of a casual disease. + This was administered to Drusus by Lygdus the eunuch, as, eight years + after, was learnt. Now during all the days of his illness, Tiberius + disclosed no symptoms of anguish (perhaps from ostentation of a firmness + of spirit) nay, when he had expired, and while he was yet unburied, he + entered the Senate; and finding the Consuls placed upon a common seat, as + a testimony of their grief; he admonished them of their dignity and + station: and as the Senators burst into tears, he smothered his rising + sighs, and, by a speech uttered without hesitation, animated them. "He, in + truth, was not ignorant," he said, "that he might be censured, for having + thus in the first throbs of sorrow, beheld the face of the Senate; when + most of those who feel the fresh pangs of mourning, can scarce endure the + soothings of their kindred, scarce behold the day: neither were such to be + condemned of weakness: but for himself, he had more powerful consolations; + such as arose from embracing the Commonwealth, and pursuing her welfare." + He then lamented "the extreme age of his mother, the tender years of his + grandsons, his own days in declension;" and desired that, "as the only + alleviation of the present evils, the children of Germanicus might be + introduced." The Consuls therefore went for them, and having with kind + words fortified their young minds, presented them to the Emperor. He took + them by the hand and said, "Conscript Fathers, these infants, bereft of + their father, I committed to their uncle; and besought him that, though he + had issue of his own, he would rear and nourish them no otherwise than as + the immediate offspring of his blood; that he would appropriate them as + stays to himself and posterity. Drusus being snatched from us, to you I + address the same prayers; and in the presence of the Gods, in the face of + your country, I adjure you, receive into your protection, take under your + tuition the great-grandchildren of Augustus; children, descended from + ancestors the most glorious in the State: towards them fulfil your own, + fulfil my duty. To you, Nero; to you, Drusus, these Senators are in the + stead of a father; and such is the situation of your birth, that on the + Commonwealth must light all the good and evil which befalls you." + </p> + <p> + All this was heard with much weeping, and followed with propitious prayers + and vows: and had he only gone thus far, and in his speech observed a + medium, he had left the souls of his hearers full of sympathy and + applause. But, by renewing an old project, always chimerical and so often + ridiculed, about "restoring the Republic, reinstating it again in the + Consuls, or whoever else would undertake the administration;" he forfeited + his faith even in assertions which were commendable and sincere. To the + memory of Drusus were decreed the same solemnities as to that of + Germanicus; with many super-added; agreeably to the genius of flattery, + which delights in variety and improvements. Most signal was the lustre of + the funeral in a conspicuous procession of images; when at it appeared in + a pompous train, Aeneas, father of the Julian race; all the kings of Alba, + and Romulus founder of Rome; next the Sabine nobility, Attus Clausus, and + his descendants of the Claudian family. + </p> + <p> + In relating the death of Drusus, I have followed the greatest part of our + historians, and the most faithful: I would not however omit a rumour which + in those times was so prevailing that it is not extinguished in ours; + "that Sejanus having by adultery gained Livia to the murder, had likewise + engaged by constupration the affections and concurrence of Lygdus the + eunuch; because Lygdus was, for his youth and loveliness, dear to his + master, and one of his chief attendants: that when the time and place of + poisoning, were by the conspirators concerted; the eunuch carried his + boldness so high, as to charge upon Drusus a design of poisoning Tiberius; + and secretly warning the Emperor of this, advised him to shun the first + draught offered him in the next entertainment at his son's: that the old + man possessed with this fictitious treason, after he had sate down to + table, having received the cup delivered it to Drusus, who ignorantly and + gaily drank it off: that this heightened the jealousy and apprehensions of + Tiberius, as if through fear and shame his son had swallowed the same + death, which for his father he had contrived." + </p> + <p> + These bruitings of the populace, besides that they are supported by no + certain author, may be easily refuted. For, who of common prudence (much + less Tiberius so long practised in great affairs) would to his own son, + without hearing him, present the mortal bane; with his own hands too, and + cutting off for ever all possibility of retraction? Why would he not + rather have tortured the minister of the poison? Why not inquired into the + author of the poison? Why not observed towards his only son, a son + hitherto convicted of no iniquity, that slowness and hesitation, which, + even in his proceedings against strangers, was inherent in him? But as + Sejanus was reckoned the framer of every wickedness, therefore, from the + excessive fondness of Tiberius towards him, and from the hatred of all + others towards both, things the most fabulous and direful were believed of + them; besides that common fame is ever most fraught with tales of horror + upon the departure of Princes: in truth, the plan and process of the + murder were first discovered by Apicata, wife of Sejanus, and laid open + upon the rack by Eudemus and Lygdus. Nor has any writer appeared so + outrageous to charge it upon Tiberius; though in other instances they have + sedulously collected and inflamed every action of his. My own purpose in + recounting and censuring this rumour, was to blast, by so glaring an + example, the credit of groundless tales; and to request of those into + whose hands our present undertaking shall come, that they would not prefer + hearsays, void of credibility and rashly swallowed, to the narrations of + truth not adulterated with romance. + </p> + <p> + To proceed; whilst Tiberius was pronouncing in public the panegyric of his + son, the Senate and People assumed the port and accent of mourners, rather + in appearance than cordially; and in their hearts exulted to see the house + of Germanicus begin to revive. But this dawn of fortune, and the conduct + of Agrippina, ill disguising her hopes, quickened the overthrow of that + house. For Sejanus, when he saw the death of Drusus pass unrevenged upon + his murderers, and no public lamentation following it; undaunted as he was + in villainy since his first efforts had succeeded; cast about in himself, + how he might destroy the sons of Germanicus, whose succession to the + Empire was now unquestionable. They were three; and, from the + distinguished fidelity of their governors, and incorruptible chastity of + Agrippina, could not be all circumvented by poison. He therefore chose to + attack her another way; to raise alarms from the haughtiness and contumacy + of her spirit; to rouse the old hatred of Livia the elder, and the guilty + mind of his late accomplice, Livia the younger; that to the Emperor they + might represent her "as elated with the credit and renown of her + fruitfulness; and that confiding in it, and in the zeal of the populace, + she grasped with open arms at the Empire." The young Livia acted in this + engagement by crafty calumniators; amongst whom she had particularly + chosen Julius Posthumus, a man every way qualified for her purposes; as he + was the adulterer of Mutilia Prisca, and thence a confidant of her + grandmother's; (for over the mind of the Empress, Prisca had powerful + influence) and by their means the old woman, in her own nature tender and + anxious of power, was rendered utterly irreconcilable to the widow of her + grandson. Such too as were nearest the person of Agrippina, were promoted + to be continually enraging her tempestuous heart by perverse + representations. + </p> + <p> + This year also brought deputations from the Grecian cities; one from the + people of Samos; one from those of Coös; the former to request that the + ancient right of Sanctuary in the Temple of Juno might be confirmed; the + latter to solicit the same confirmation for that of Aesculapius. The + Samians claimed upon a decree of the Council of Amphictyons, the supreme + Judicature of Greece, at the time when the Greeks by their cities founded + in Asia, possessed the maritime coasts. Nor had they of Coös a weaker + title to antiquity; to which likewise accrued the pretensions of the place + to the friendship of Rome: for they had lodged in the Temple of + Aesculapius all the Roman citizens there, when by the order of King + Mithridates, such were universally butchered throughout all the cities of + Asia and the Isles. And now after many complaints from the Praetors, for + the most part ineffectual, the Emperor at last made a representation to + the Senate, concerning the licentiousness of the players; "that in many + instances they raised seditious tumults, and violated the public peace; + and, in many, promoted debauchery in private families: that the <i>Oscan + Farce</i>, formerly only the contemptible delight of the vulgar, was risen + to such a prevailing pitch of credit and enormity, that it required the + authority of the Senate to check it." The players therefore were driven + out of Italy. + </p> + <p> + The same year carried off one of the twins of Drusus, and thence afflicted + the Emperor with fresh woe; nor with less for the death of a particular + friend. It was Lucillius Longus, the inseparable companion of all the + traverses of his fortune smiling or sad; and, of all the Senators, the + only one who accompanied him in his retirement at Rhodes. For this reason, + though but a new man, the Senate decreed him a public funeral; and a + statue to be placed, at the expense of the Treasury, in the square of + Augustus. For by the Senate, even yet, all affairs were transacted; + insomuch that Lucillius Capito, the Emperor's Comptroller in Asia, was, at + the accusation of the Province, brought upon his defence before them: the + Emperor too upon this occasion protested with great earnestness, "that + from him Lucillius had no authority but over his slaves, and in collecting + his domestic rents: that if he had usurped the jurisdiction of Praetor, + and employed military force, he had so far violated his orders; they + should therefore hear the allegations of the Province." Thus the accused + was upon trial condemned. For this just vengeance, and that inflicted the + year before on Caius Silanus, the cities of Asia decreed a temple to + Tiberius, and his mother, and the Senate; and obtained leave to build it. + For this concession Nero made a speech of thanks to the Senators and his + grandfather; a speech which charmed the affections of his hearers, who, as + they were full of the memory of Germanicus, fancied it was him they heard, + and him they saw. There was also in the youth himself an engaging modesty, + and a gracefulness becoming a princely person: ornaments which, by the + known hatred that threatened him from Sejanus, became still more dear and + adored. + </p> + <p> + I am aware that most of the transactions which I have already related, or + shall hereafter relate, may perhaps appear minute, and too trivial to be + remembered. But, none must compare these my annals with the writings of + those who compiled the story of the ancient Roman People. They had for + their subjects mighty wars, potent cities sacked, great kings routed and + taken captive: or if they sometimes reviewed the domestic affairs of Rome, + they there found the mutual strife and animosities of the Consuls and + Tribunes; the agrarian and frumentary laws, pushed and opposed; and the + lasting struggles between the nobles and populace. Large and noble topics + these, at home and abroad, and recounted by the old historians with full + room and free scope. To me remains a straitened task, and void of glory; + steady peace, or short intervals of war; the proceedings at Rome sad and + affecting; and a Prince careless of extending the Empire: nor yet will it + be without its profit to look minutely into such transactions, as however + small at first view, give rise and motion to great events. + </p> + <p> + For, all nations and cities are governed either by the populace, by the + nobility, or by single rulers. As to the frame of a state chosen and + compacted out of all these three, it is easier applauded than + accomplished; or if accomplished, cannot be of long duration. So that, as + during the Republic, either when the power of the people prevailed, or + when the Senate bore the chief sway; it was necessary to know the genius + of the commonalty, and by what measures they were to be humoured and + restrained; and such too who were thoroughly acquainted with the spirit of + the Senate and leading men, came to be esteemed skilful in the times, and + men of prowess: so now when that establishment is changed, and the present + situation such as if one ruled all; it is of advantage to collect and + record these later incidents, as matters of public example and + instruction; since few can by their own wisdom distinguish between things + crooked and upright; few between counsels pernicious and profitable; and + since most men are taught by the fate of others. But the present detail, + however instructive, yet brings scanty delight. It is by the descriptions + and accounts of nations; by the variety of battles; by the brave fall of + illustrious captains, that the soul of the reader is engaged and + refreshed. For myself, I can only give a sad display of cruel orders, + incessant accusations, faithless friendships, the destruction of + innocents, and endless trials, all attended with the same issue, death and + condemnation: an obvious round of repetition and satiety! Besides that the + old historians are rarely censured; nor is any man now concerned whether + they chiefly magnify the Roman or Carthaginian armies. But, of many who + under Tiberius suffered punishment, or were marked with infamy, the + posterity are still subsisting; or if the families themselves are extinct, + there are others found, who from a similitude of manners, think that, in + reciting the evil doings of others, they themselves are charged: nay, even + virtue and a glorious name create foes, as they expose in a light too + obvious the opposite characters. But I return to my undertaking. + </p> + <p> + Whilst Cornelius Cossus and Asinius Agrippa were Consuls, Cremutius Cordus + was arraigned for that, "having published annals and in them praised + Brutus, he had styled Cassius the last of the Romans:" a new crime, then + first created. Satrius Secundus and Pinarius Natta were his accusers; + creatures of Sejanus: a mortal omen this to the accused; besides that + Tiberius received his defence with a countenance settled into cruelty. He + began it on this wise, casting away all hopes of life: + </p> + <p> + "As to facts, I am so guiltless, Conscript Fathers, that my words only are + accused: but neither are any words of mine pointed against the Emperor, or + his mother; who are the only persons comprehended in the law concerning + violated majesty. It is alleged that I have praised Brutus and Cassius; + men whose lives and actions have been compiled by a cloud of writers, and + their memory treated by none but with honour. Titus Livius, an historian + eminently famous for eloquence and veracity, signalised Pompey with such + abundant encomiums, that he was thence by Augustus named Pompeianus; nor + did this prejudice their common friendship. Neither Scipio, nor Afranius, + nor even this same Cassius, nor this same Brutus, are anywhere mentioned + by him as <i>traitors</i> and <i>parricides</i>, the common nicknames now + bestowed on them; but often, as great and memorable men. The writings of + Asinius Pollio have conveyed down the memory of the same men, under + honourable characters. Corvinus Messala gloried to have had Cassius for + his general: and yet both Pollio and Corvinus became signally powerful in + wealth and honours under Augustus. That book of Cicero's, in which he + exalted Cato to the skies; what other animadversion did it draw from + Caesar the Dictator, than a written reply, in the same style and equality + as if before his judges he had made it? The letters of Marc Anthony; the + speeches of Brutus, are full of reproaches, and recriminations against + Augustus; false in truth, but urged with signal asperity: the poems of + Bibaculus and those of Catullus, stuffed with virulent satires against the + Caesars, are still read. But even the deified Julius, even the deified + Augustus, bore all these invectives and disdained them; whether with + greater moderation or wisdom, I cannot easily say. For, if they are + despised, they fade away; if you wax wroth, you seem to avow them to be + just. + </p> + <p> + "Instances from the Greeks I bring none: with them not the freedom only, + but even the licentiousness of speech, is unpunished: or if any correction + is returned, it is only by revenging words with words. It has been ever + allowed, without restriction or rebuke, to pass our judgment upon those + whom death has withdrawn from the influence of affection and hate. Are + Cassius and Brutus now in arms? do they at present fill with armed troops + the fields of Philippi? or do I fire the Roman People, by inflammatory + harangues, with the spirit of civil rage? Brutus and Cassius, now above + seventy years slain, are still known in their statues, which even the + conqueror did not abolish: and as these exhibit their persons, why not the + historian their characters? Impartial posterity to every man repays his + proper praise: nor will there be wanting such as, if my death is + determined, will not only revive the story of Cassius and Brutus, but even + my story." Having thus said he withdrew from the Senate, and ended his + life by abstinence. The Fathers condemned the books to be by the Aediles + burned; but they still continued concealed and dispersed: hence we may + justly mock the stupidity of those, who imagine that they can, by present + power, extinguish the lights and memory of succeeding times: for, quite + otherwise, the punishment of writers exalts the credit of the writings: + nor did ever foreign kings, or any else, reap other fruit from it, than + infamy to themselves, and glory to the sufferers. + </p> + <p> + To proceed; for this whole year there was such an incessant torrent of + accusations, that even during the solemnity of the Latin festival, when + Drusus for his inauguration, as Governor of Rome, had ascended the + Tribunal, he was accosted by Calpurnius Salvianus with a charge against + Sextus Marius: a proceeding openly resented by the Emperor, and thence + Salvianus was banished. The city of Cyzicus was next accused, "of not + observing the established worship of the deified Augustus;" with + additional crimes, "of violences committed upon some Roman citizens." Thus + that city lost her liberties; which by her behaviour during the + Mithridatic war, she had purchased; having in it sustained a siege; and as + much by her own bravery, as by the aid of Lucullus, repulsed the king, But + Fonteius Capito, who had as Proconsul governed Asia, was acquitted, upon + proof that the crimes brought against him by Vibius Serenus were forged: + and yet the forgery drew no penalty upon Serenus: nay, the public hate + rendered him the more secure: for, every accuser, the more eager and + incessant he was, the more sacred and inviolable he became: the sorry and + impotent were surrendered to chastisement. + </p> + <p> + About the same time, the furthermost Spain besought the Senate by their + ambassadors, "that after the example of Asia, they might erect a temple to + Tiberius and his mother." Upon this occasion, the Emperor, always resolute + in contemning honours, and now judging it proper to confute those, who + exposed him to the popular censure, of having deviated into ambition; + spoke in this manner: "I know, Conscript Fathers, that it is generally + blamed, and ascribed to a defect of firmness in me, that when the cities + of Asia petitioned for this very thing, I withstood them not. I shall + therefore now unfold at once the motives of my silence then, and the rules + which for the future I am determined to observe. Since the deified + Augustus had not opposed the founding at Pergamus a temple to himself and + the city of Rome; I, with whom all his actions and sayings have the force + of laws, followed an example already approved; and followed it the more + cheerfully, because to the worship bestowed upon me, that of the Senate + was annexed. But as the indulging of this, in one instance, will find + pardon; so a general latitude of being adored through every province, + under the sacred representations of the Deities, would denote a vain + spirit; a heart swelled with ambition. The glory too of Augustus will + vanish, if by the promiscuous courtship of flattery it comes to be + vulgarly prostituted. + </p> + <p> + "For myself, Conscript Fathers, I am a mortal man; I am confined to the + functions of human nature; and if I well supply the principal place + amongst you, it suffices me. This I acknowledge to you; and this + acknowledgment, I would have posterity to remember. They will do abundant + right to my memory, if they believe me to have been worthy of my + ancestors; watchful of the Roman state; unmoved in perils, and in + maintaining the public interest, fearless of private enmities. These are + the temples which in your breasts I would raise; these the fairest + portraitures, and such as will endure. As to temples and statues of stone, + if the idol adored in them comes to be hated by posterity, they are + despised as his sepulchres. Hence it is I here invoke the Gods, that to + the end of my life they would grant me a spirit undisturbed, and + discerning in duties human and divine: and hence too I here implore our + citizens and allies, that whenever my dissolution comes, they would with + approbation and benevolent testimonies of remembrance, celebrate my + actions and retain the odour of my name." And thenceforward he persevered + in slighting upon all occasions, and even in private conversation, this + divine worship of himself. A conduct which was by some ascribed to + modesty; by many to a conscious diffidence; by others to degeneracy of + spirit. "Since the most sublime amongst men naturally covet the most + exalted honours: thus Hercules and Bacchus amongst the Greeks, and with us + Romulus, were added to the society of the Gods: Augustus too had chosen + the nobler part, and hoped for deification: all the other gratifications + of Princes were instantly procured: one only was to be pursued insatiably; + the praise and perpetuity of their name. For by contemning fame, the + virtues that procure it, are contemned." + </p> + <p> + Now Sejanus, intoxicated with excess of fortune, and moreover stimulated + by the importunity of Livia, who, with the restless passion of a woman, + craved the promised marriage, composed a memorial to the Emperor. For, it + was then the custom to apply to him in writing, though he were present. + This of Sejanus was thus conceived: "That such had been towards him the + benevolence of Augustus; such and so numerous, since, the instances of + affection from Tiberius, that he was thence accustomed, without applying + to the Gods, to carry his hopes and prayers directly to the Emperors: yet + of them he had never sought a blaze of honours: watching and toils like + those of common soldiers, for the safeguard of the Prince, had been his + choice and ambition. However what was most glorious for him he had + attained; to be thought worthy of alliance with the Emperor: hence the + source of his present hopes: and, since he had heard that Augustus, in the + disposal of his daughter, had not been without thoughts even of some of + the Roman knights; he begged that if a husband were sought for Livia, + Tiberius would remember his friend; one whose ambition aimed no higher + than the pure and disinterested glory of the affinity: for that he would + never abandon the burden of his present trust; but hold it sufficient to + be, by that means, enabled to support his house against the injurious + wrath of Agrippina; and in this he only consulted the security of his + children. For himself; his own life would be abundantly long, whenever + finally spent in the ministry of such a Prince." + </p> + <p> + For a present answer, Tiberius praised the loyalty of Sejanus; + recapitulated cursorily the instances of his own favours towards him, and + required time, as it were for a thorough deliberation. At last he made + this reply: "That all other men were, in their pursuits, guided by the + notions of convenience: far different was the lot and situation of + Princes, who were in their action to consider chiefly the applause and + good liking of the public: he therefore did not delude Sejanus with an + obvious and plausible answer; that Livia could herself determine whether, + after Drusus, she ought again to marry, or still persist his widow, and + that she had a mother and grandmother, nearer relations and more + interested to advise. He would deal more candidly with him: and first as + to the enmity of Agrippina; it would flame out with fresh fury, if by the + marriage of Livia, the family of the Caesars were rent as it were into two + contending parties: that even as things stood, the emulation of these + ladies broke into frequent sallies, and, by their animosities, his + grandsons were instigated different ways. What would be the consequence, + if, by such a marriage, the strife were inflamed? For you are deceived, + Sejanus, if you think to continue then in the same rank as now; or that + Livia, she who was first the wife of the young Caius Caesar, and + afterwards the wife of Drusus, will be of a temper to grow old with a + husband no higher than a Roman knight: nay, allowing that I suffered you + afterwards to remain what you are; do you believe that they who saw her + father, they who saw her brother, and the ancestors of our house, covered + with the supreme dignities, will ever suffer it? You in truth propose, + yourself, to stand still in the same station: but the great magistrates + and grandees of the state, those very magistrates and grandees who, in + spite of yourself, break in upon you, and in all affairs court you as + their oracle, make no secret of maintaining that you have long since + exceeded the bounds of the Equestrian Order, and far outgone in power all + the confidants of my father; and from their hatred to you, they also + censure me. But still, Augustus deliberated about giving his daughter to a + Roman knight. Where is the wonder, if perplexed with a crowd of + distracting cares, and apprised to what an unbounded height above others + he raised whomsoever he dignified with such a match, he talked of + Proculeius, and some like him; remarkable for the retiredness of their + life, and nowise engaged in the affairs of state? But if we are influenced + by the hesitation of Augustus, how much more powerful is the decision; + since he bestowed his daughter on Agrippa, and then on me? These are + considerations which in friendship I have not withheld: however, neither + your own inclinations, nor those of Livia, shall be ever thwarted by me. + The secret and constant purposes of my own heart towards you, and with + what further ties of affinity, I am contriving to bind you still faster to + me; I at present forbear to recount. Thus much only I will declare, that + there is nothing so high but those abilities, and your singular zeal and + fidelity towards me, may justly claim: as when opportunity presents, + either in Senate, or in a popular assembly, I shall not fail to testify." + </p> + <p> + In answer to this, Sejanus no longer soliciting the marriage, but filled + with higher apprehensions, besought him "to resist the dark suggestions of + suspicion; to despise the pratings of the vulgar, nor to admit the hostile + breath of envy." And as he was puzzled about the crowds which incessantly + haunted his house; lest by keeping them off he might impair his power; or + by encouraging them, furnish a handle for criminal imputations; he came to + this result, that he would urge the Emperor out of Rome, to spend his life + remote from thence in delightful retirements. From this counsel he foresaw + many advantages: upon himself would depend all access to the Emperor; all + letters and expresses would, as the soldiers were the carriers, be in + great measure under his direction; in a little time, the Prince, now in + declining age, and then softened by recess, would more easily transfer + upon him the whole charge of the Empire: he should be removed from the + multitude of such as to make their court, attended him at Rome; and thence + one source of envy would be stopped. So that by discharging the empty + phantoms of power, he should augment the essentials. He therefore began by + little and little to rail at the hurry of business at Rome, the throng of + people, the flock of suitors: he applauded "retirement and quiet; where, + while they were separate from irksome fatigues, nor exposed to the + discontents and resentments of particulars, all affairs of moment were + best despatched." + </p> + <p> + Next were heard ambassadors from the Lacedaemonians and Messenians, about + the right that each people claimed to the Temple of Diana Limenetis; which + the Lacedaemonians asserted to be theirs, "founded in their territory, and + dedicated by their ancestors," and offered as proofs the ancient authority + of their annals, and the hymns of the old poets. "It had been in truth + taken from them by the superior force of Philip of Macedon, when at war + with him; but restored afterwards by the judicial decision of Julius + Caesar and Marc Anthony." The Messenians, on the contrary, pleaded, "the + ancient partition of Peloponnesus amongst the descendants of Hercules; + whence the territory where the temple stood, had fallen to their king; and + the monuments of that allotment still remained, engraven in stone and old + tables of brass; but, if the testimony of histories and poets were + appealed to; they themselves had the most and the fullest. Nor had Philip, + in his decision, acted by power, but from equity: the same afterwards was + the adjudgment of King Antigonus; the same that of the Roman commander + Mummius. Thus too the Milesians had awarded, they who were by both sides + chosen arbitrators: and thus lastly it had been determined by Atidius + Geminus, Praetor of Achaia." The Messenians therefore gained the suit. The + citizens also of Segestum applied on behalf of "the Temple of Venus on + Mount Eryx; which fallen through age, they desired might be restored." + They represented the story of its origin and antiquity; a well-pleasing + flattery to Tiberius; who frankly took upon himself the charge, as kinsman + to the Goddess. Then was discussed the petition from the citizens of + Marseilles; and what they claimed, according to the precedent of Publius + Rutilius, was approved: for Rutilius, though by a law expelled from Rome, + had been by those of Smyrna adopted a citizen: and as Volcatius Moschus, + another exile, had found at Marseilles the same privilege and reception, + he had to their Republic, as to his country, left his estate. + </p> + <p> + During the same Consuls, a bloody assassination was perpetrated in the + nethermost Spain, by a boor in the territory of Termes. By him, Lucius + Piso, Governor of the Province, as he travelled careless and unattended, + relying on the established peace, was surprised, and despatched at one + deadly blow. The assassin however escaped to a forest, by the fleetness of + his horse; and there dismissed him: from thence travelling over rocks and + pathless places, he baffled his pursuers: but their ignorance of his + person was soon removed; for his horse being taken and shown through the + neighbouring villages, it was thence learned who was the owner; so that he + too was found; but when put to the rack to declare his accomplices, he + proclaimed with a mighty and assured voice, in the language of his + country, "that in vain they questioned him; his associates might stand + safely by and witness his constancy: and that no force of torture could be + so exquisite as from him to extort a discovery." Next day as he was + dragged back to the rack, he burst with a vehement effort from his guard, + and dashed his head so desperately against a stone, that he instantly + expired. Piso is believed to have been assassinated by a plot of the + Termestinians; as in exacting the repayment of some money, seized from the + public, he acted with more asperity, than a rough people could bear. + </p> + <p> + In the Consulship of Lentulus Getulicus and Caius Calvisius, the triumphal + ensigns were decreed to Poppeus Sabinus for having routed some clans of + Thracians, who living wildly on the high mountains, acted thence with the + more outrage and contumacy. The ground of their late commotion, not to + mention the savage genius of the people, was their scorn and impatience, + to have recruits raised amongst them, and all their stoutest men enlisted + in our armies; accustomed as they were not even to obey their native kings + further than their own humour, nor to aid them with forces but under + captains of their own choosing, nor to fight against any enemy but their + own borderers. Their discontents too were inflamed by a rumour which then + ran current amongst them; that they were to be dispersed into different + regions; and exterminated from their own, to be mixed with other nations. + But before they took arms and began hostilities, they sent ambassadors to + Sabinus, to represent "their past friendship and submission, and that the + same should continue, if they were provoked by no fresh impositions: but, + if like a people subdued by war, they were doomed to bondage; they had + able men and steel, and souls determined upon liberty or death." The + ambassadors at the same time pointed to their strongholds founded upon + precipices; and boasted that they had thither conveyed their wives and + parents; and threatened a war intricate, hazardous and bloody. + </p> + <p> + Sabinus amused them with gentle answers till he could draw together his + army; while Pomponius Labeo was advancing with a legion from Moesia, and + King Rhoemetalces with a body of Thracians who had not renounced their + allegiance. With these, and what forces he had of his own, he marched + towards the foe, now settled in the passes of the forest: some more bold + presented themselves upon the hills: against the last, the Roman general + first bent his forces in battle, and without difficulty drove them thence, + but with small slaughter of the Barbarians, because of their immediate + refuge. Here he straight raised an encampment, and with a stout band took + possession of a hill, which extended with an even narrow ridge to the next + fortress, which was garrisoned by a great host of armed men and rabble: + and as the most resolute were, in the way of the nation, rioting without + the fortification in dances and songs, he forthwith despatched against + them his select archers. These, while they only poured in volleys of + arrows at a distance did thick and extensive execution; but, approaching + too near, were by a sudden sally put in disorder. They were however + supported by a cohort of the Sigambrians, purposely posted by Sabinus in + readiness against an exigency; a people these, equally terrible in the + boisterous and mixed uproar of their voices and arms. + </p> + <p> + He afterwards pitched his camp nearer to the enemy; having in his former + entrenchments left the Thracians, whom I have mentioned to have joined us. + To them too was permitted "to lay waste, burn, and plunder; on condition + that their ravages were confined to the day; and that, at nights, they + kept within the camp, secure under guard." This restriction was at first + observed; but, anon lapsing into luxury, and grown opulent in plunder, + they neglected their guards, and resigned themselves to gaiety and + banquetting, to the intoxication and sloth of wine and sleep. The enemy + therefore apprised of their negligence, formed themselves into two bands; + one to set upon the plunderers; the other to assault the Roman camp, with + no hopes of taking it; but only that the soldiers alarmed with shouts and + darts, and all intent upon their own defence, might not hear the din of + the other battle: moreover to heighten the terror, it was to be done by + night. Those who assailed the lines of the legions were easily repulsed: + but, the auxiliary Thracians were terrified with the sudden encounter, as + they were utterly unprepared. Part of them lay along the entrenchments; + many were roaming abroad; and both were slain with the keener vengeance, + as they were upbraided "for fugitives and traitors, who bore arms to + establish servitude over their country and themselves." + </p> + <p> + Next day Sabinus drew up his army in view of the enemy, on ground equal to + both; to try, if elated with their success by night, they would venture a + battle: and, when they still kept within the fortress, or on the cluster + of hills, he began to begird them with a siege; and strengthening his old + lines and adding new, enclosed a circuit of four miles. Then to deprive + them of water and forage, he straitened his entrenchment by degrees, and + hemmed them in still closer. A bulwark was also raised, whence the enemy + now within throw, were annoyed with discharges of stones, darts, and fire. + But nothing aggrieved them so vehemently as thirst, whilst only a single + fountain remained amongst a huge multitude of armed men and families: + their horses too and cattle, penned up with the people, after the + barbarous manner of the country, perished for want of provender: amongst + the carcasses of beasts lay those of men; some dead of thirst, some of + their wounds; a noisome mixture of misery and death; all was foul and + tainted with putrefaction, stench, and filthy contamination. To these + distresses also accrued another, and of all calamities the most + consummate, the calamity of discord: some were disposed to surrender; + others proposed present death, and to fall upon one another. There were + some too who advised a sally, and to die avenging their deaths. Nor were + these last mean men, though dissenting from the rest. + </p> + <p> + But there was one of their leaders, his name Dinis, a man stricken in + years, who, by long experience, acquainted with the power and clemency of + the Romans, argued, "that they must lay down their arms, the same being + the sole cure for their pressing calamities;" and was the first who + submitted, with his wife and children to the conqueror. There followed him + all that were weak through sex or age, and such as had a greater passion + for life than glory. The young men were parted between Tarsa and Turesis; + both determined to fall with liberty: but Tarsa declared earnestly "for + instant death; and that by it all hopes and fears were at once to be + extinguished;" and setting an example, buried his sword in his breast. Nor + were there wanting some who despatched themselves the same way. Turesis + and his band stayed for night: of which our General was aware. The guards + were therefore strengthened with extraordinary reinforcements: and now + with the night, darkness prevailed, its horror heightened by outrageous + rain; and the enemy with tumultuous shouts, and by turns with vast + silence, alarmed and puzzled the besiegers. Sabinus therefore going round + the camp, warned the soldiers, "that they should not be misguided by the + deceitful voice of uproar, nor trust to a feigned calm, and thence open an + advantage to the enemy, who by these wiles sought it; but keep immovably + to their several posts; nor throw their darts at random." + </p> + <p> + Just then came the Barbarians, pouring in distinct droves: here, with + stones, with wooden javelins hardened in the fire, and with the broken + limbs of trees, they battered the palisade: there with hurdles, faggots + and dead bodies, they filled the trench: by others, bridges and ladders, + both before framed, were planted against the battlements; these they + violently grappled and tore, and struggled hand to hand with those who + opposed them. The Romans, on the other side, beat them back with their + bucklers, drove them down with darts, and hurled upon them great mural + stakes and heaps of stones. On both sides were powerful stimulations: on + ours the hopes of victory almost gained, if we persisted; and thence the + more glaring infamy, if we recoiled: on theirs, the last struggle for + their life; most of them, too, inspired with the affecting presence of + their mothers and wives, and made desperate by their dolorous wailings. + The night was an advantage to the cowardly and the brave; by it, the + former became more resolute; by it, the latter hid their fear: blows were + dealt, the striker knew not upon whom; and wounds received, the wounded + knew not whence: such was the utter indistinction of friend and foe. To + heighten the general jumble and blind confusion, the echo from the + cavities of the mountain represented to the Romans the shouts of the enemy + as behind them: hence in some places they deserted their lines, as + believing them already broken and entered: and yet such of the enemy, as + broke through, were very few. All the rest, their most resolute champions + being wounded or slain, were at the returning light driven back to their + fort; where they were at length forced to surrender; as did the places + circumjacent of their own accord. The remainder could then be neither + forced nor famished; as they were protected by a furious winter, always + sudden about Mount Haemus. + </p> + <p> + At Rome, discord shook the Prince's family: and, to begin the series of + destruction, which was to end in Agrippina, Claudia Pulchra her cousin was + accused; Domitius Afer the accuser. This man, just out of the Praetorship, + in estimation small, but hasty to signalise himself by some notable + exploit however heinous, alleged against her the "crimes of prostitution, + of adultery with Furnius, of magical execrations and poison prepared + against the life of the Emperor." Agrippina ever vehement, and then in a + flame for the peril of her kinswoman, flew to Tiberius, and by chance + found him sacrificing to the Emperor his father. Having got this handle + for upbraiding him, she told him "that it ill became the same man to slay + victims to the deified Augustus and to persecute his children: his divine + spirit was not transfused into dumb statues: the genuine images of + Augustus were the living descendants from his celestial blood: she herself + was one; one sensible of impending danger, and now in the mournful state + of a supplicant. In vain were foreign crimes pretended against Pulchra; + when the only cause of her concerted overthrow was her affection for + Agrippina, foolishly carried even to adoration; forgetful as she was of + the fate of Sosia, a condemned sufferer for the same fault." All these + bitter words drew small answer from the dark breast of Tiberius: he + rebuked her by quoting a Greek verse; "That she was therefore aggrieved, + because she did not reign:" Pulchra and Furnius were condemned. Afer, + having thus displayed his genius, and gained a declaration from Tiberius, + pronouncing him <i>eloquent in his own independent right</i>, was ranked + with the most celebrated orators: afterwards in prosecuting accusations, + or in protecting the accused, he flourished more in the fame of eloquence + than in that of uprightness: however, old age eminently sunk the credit + and vigour of his eloquence; while, with parts decayed, he still retained + a passion for haranguing. {Footnote: Dum fessa mente, retinet silentii + inpatientiam.} + </p> + <p> + Agrippina still fostering her wrath, and seized too with a bodily + disorder, received the Emperor, come purposely to see her, with many tears + and long silence. At last she accosted him with invidious expostulations + and prayers; "that he would relieve her solitude, and give her a husband. + She was still endowed with proper youth; to virtuous women there was no + consolation but that of marriage; and Rome afforded illustrious men who + would readily assent to entertain the wife of Germanicus, and his + children." Tiberius was not ignorant to what mighty power in the state, + that demand tended; but, that he might betray no tokens of resentment or + fear, he left her, though instant with him, without an answer. This + passage, not related by the authors of our annals, I found in the + commentaries of her daughter Agrippina; her, who was the mother of the + Emperor Nero, and has published her own life with the fortunes of her + family. + </p> + <p> + As to Agrippina; still grieving and void of foresight, she was yet more + sensibly dismayed by an artifice of Sejanus, who employed such, as under + colour of friendship warned her, "that poison was prepared for her, and + that she must shun eating at her father-in-law's table." She was a + stranger to all dissimulation: so that as she sat near him at table, she + continued stately and unmoved; not a word, not a look escaped her, and she + touched no part of the meat. Tiberius observed her, whether accidentally, + or that he was before apprised; and, to be convinced by a more powerful + experiment, praising the apples that stood before him, presented some with + his own hand to his daughter-in-law. This only increased the suspicion of + Agrippina; and, without ever putting them to her mouth, she delivered them + to the servants. For all this, the reserved Tiberius let not a word drop + from him openly; but, turning to his mother; "There was no wonder," he + said, "if he had really taken harsh measures with her, who thus charged + him as a poisoner." Hence a rumour spread, "that her doom was contrived; + and that the Emperor not daring to pursue it publicly, chose to have her + despatched in secret." + </p> + <p> + Tiberius, as a means to divert upon other matters the popular talk, + attended assiduously the deliberations of the Senate; and there heard for + many days the several Ambassadors from Asia, mutually contending, "in what + city should be built the temple lately decreed." For this honour eleven + cities strove, with equal ambition, though different in power: nor did the + pleas urged by all, greatly vary; namely, "the antiquity of their + original, and their distinguished zeal for the Roman People, during their + several wars with Perseus, Aristonicus, and other kings." But the + Trallians, the Laodiceans, the Magnesians and those of the Hypaepis, were + at once dismissed, as insufficient for the charge. Nor, in truth, had they + of Ilium, who represented, "that Troy was the mother of Rome," any + superior advantage, besides the glory of antiquity. The plea of the + Halicarnassians took some short consideration: they asserted, "that for + twelve hundred years, no earthquake had shaken their town; and that they + would fix in a solid rock the foundations of the temple." The same + considerations were urged by the inhabitants of Pergamus; where already + was erected a temple to Augustus; a distinction which was judged + sufficient for them. The cities too of Ephesus and Miletus seemed fully + employed in the ceremonies of their own distinct deities; the former in + those of Diana; the other, in those of Apollo. Thus the dispute was + confined to Sardis and Smyrna. The first recited a decree of the + Etrurians, which owned them for kinsmen: "for that Tyrrhenus and Lydus, + sons of King Atys, having between them divided their people, because of + their multitude, Lydus re-settled in his native country; and it became the + lot of Tyrrhenus to find out a fresh residence; and by the names of these + chiefs the parted people came afterwards to be called, Lydians in Asia, + Tyrrhenians in Italy. That the opulence of the Lydians spread yet farther, + by their colonies sent under Pelops into Greece, which from him afterwards + took its name." They likewise urged "the letters of our Generals; their + mutual leagues with us during the war of Macedon; their plenty of rivers, + temperate climate, and the fertility of the circumjacent country." + </p> + <p> + The Smyrnaeans having likewise recounted their ancient establishment, + "whether Tantalus, the son of Jupiter; or Theseus, the son also of a God; + or one of the old Amazons, were their founder;" proceeded to + considerations in which they chiefly trusted; their friendly offices to + the Roman People, having aided them with a naval force, not in their + foreign wars only, but in those which infested Italy. "It was they who + first reared a temple to the City of Rome, in the Consulship of Marcus + Porcius; then, in truth, when the power of the Roman People was already + mighty, but however not yet raised to its highest glory; for the city of + Carthage still stood, and potent kings governed Asia. Witness too their + generosity to Sylla, when the condition of his army ready to famish in a + cruel winter and a scarcity of clothes, being related to the citizens of + Smyrna then assembled; all that were present divested themselves of their + raiments, and sent them to our legions." Thus when the votes of the + Senators were gathered, the pretensions of Smyrna were preferred. It was + also moved by Vibius Marsus, that Lentulus, to whom had fallen the + province of Asia, should be attended by a Legate extraordinary, to + supervise the building of the temple; and as Lentulus himself through + modesty declined to choose one, several who had been Praetors were drawn + by lot, and the lot fell upon Valerius Naso. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, according to a purpose long meditated, and from time to + time deferred, Tiberius at last retired to Campania; in profession, to + dedicate a temple to Jupiter at Capua, and one at Nola to Augustus; but in + truth determined to remove, for ever, from Rome. The cause of his + departure, I have before referred to the stratagems of Sejanus; but though + in it I have followed most of our authors; yet, since after the execution + of Sejanus, he persisted for six years in the like dark recess; I am + rather influenced by a stronger probability, that the ground of his + absence is more justly to be ascribed to his own spirit, while he strove + to hide in the shades of solitude, what in deeds he proclaimed, the rage + of his cruelty and lust. There were those who believed that, in his old + age, he was ashamed of the figure of his person; for he was very lean, + long and stooping, his head bald, his face ulcerous, and for the most + besmeared with salves: he was moreover wont, during his recess at Rhodes, + to avoid the public, and cover his debauches in secrecy. It is also + related that he was driven from Rome by the restless aspiring of his + mother, whom he scorned to admit a partner in the sovereignty; nor yet + could entirely seclude, since as her gift he had received the sovereignty + itself. For, Augustus had deliberated about setting Germanicus at the head + of the Roman state; his sister's grandson, and one adored by all men: but + subdued by the solicitations of his wife, he adopted Tiberius; and caused + Tiberius to adopt Germanicus. With this grandeur of her own procuring, + Livia upbraided her son; and even reclaimed it. + </p> + <p> + His going was narrowly accompanied; by one Senator, Cocceius Nerva, + formerly Consul, and accomplished in the knowledge of the laws; and, + besides Sejanus, by one dignified Roman knight, Curtius Atticus. The rest + were men of letters, chiefly Greeks; whose conversation pleased and amused + him. The skilled in astrology declared, "that he had left Rome in such a + conjunction of the planets, as for ever to exclude his return." Hence a + source of destruction to many, who conjectured his end to be at hand, and + published their conjectures: for, it was an event too incredible to be + foreseen, that for eleven years he should of choice be withdrawn from his + country. The sequel discovered the short bounds between the art and the + falsehood of the art, and what obscurities perplex even the facts it + happens to foretell. <i>That he should never return to Rome</i>, proved + not to be falsely said: as to everything else about him they were + perfectly in the dark; since he still lived, never far distant, sometimes + in the adjacent champain, sometimes on the neighbouring shore, often under + the very walls of the city; and died at last in the fulness and extremity + of age. + </p> + <p> + There happened to Tiberius, about that time, an accident, which, as it + threatened his life, fired the empty prognostics at Rome; but to himself + proved matter of more confidence in the friendship and faith of Sejanus. + They were eating in a cave at a villa, thence called <i>Spelunca</i>, + between the Amyclean Sea and the mountains of Fondi: it was a native cave, + and its mouth fell suddenly in, and buried under it some of the + attendants: hence dread seized all, and they who were celebrating the + entertainment fled: as to Sejanus; he covered the Emperor's body with his + own, and stooping upon his knees and hands, exposed himself to the + descending ruin; such was the posture he was found in by the soldiers, who + came to their relief. He grew mightier from thence; and being now + considered by Tiberius as one regardless of himself, all his counsels, + however bloody and destructive, were listened to with blind credulity: so + that he assumed the office of a judge against the offspring of Germanicus, + and suborned such as were to act the parts of accusers, and especially to + pursue and blacken Nero, the next in succession; a young Prince modest + indeed, but forgetful of that restraint and circumspection which his + present situation required. He was misguided by his freedmen and the + retainers to his house; who eager to be masters of power, animated him + with intemperate counsels; "that he would show a spirit resolute and + assured; it was what the Roman People wished, what the armies longed for: + nor would Sejanus dare then to resist; though he now equally insulted the + tameness of an old man and the sloth of a young one." + </p> + <p> + While he listened to these and the like suggestions, there escaped him, no + expressions, in truth, of any criminal purpose; but sometimes such as were + resentful and unguarded: these were catched up by the spies placed upon + him, and charged against him with aggravations; neither was he allowed the + privilege of clearing himself. Several threatening appearances moreover + dismayed him: some avoided to meet him; others having just paid him the + salute, turned instantly away: many, in the midst of conversation, broke + off and left him; while the creatures of Sejanus stood still fearlessly by + and sneered upon him. For Tiberius; he always entertained him with a stern + face, or a hollow smile; and whether the youth spoke or said nothing, + there were crimes in his words, crimes in his silence: nor was he safe + even at the dead of night; since his uneasiness and watchings, nay, his + very sighs and dreams were, by his wife, divulged to her mother Livia, and + by Livia to Sejanus; who had also drawn his brother Drusus into the + combination, by tempting him with the immediate prospect of Empire, if his + elder brother, already sinking, were once set effectually aside. The + genius of Druses naturally furious, instigated besides by a passion for + power, and by the usual hate and competition between brothers, was further + kindled by the partiality of Agrippina, who was fonder of Nero. However, + Sejanus did not so far favour Drusus, but that against him too he was even + then ripening the studied measures of future destruction; as he knew him + to be violent, and thence more obnoxious to snares. + </p> + <p> + In the end of the year departed these eminent persons; Asinius Agrippa, of + ancestors more illustrious than ancient, and in his own character not + unworthy of them: and Quintus Haterius, of a Senatorian family, and + himself, while he yet lived, famous for eloquence: but the monuments of + his genius, since published, are not equally esteemed. In truth, he + prevailed more by rapidity than accuracy: insomuch that, as the elaborate + compositions of others flourish after them; so that enchanting melody of + voice in Haterius, with that fluency of words which was personal to him, + died with him. + </p> + <p> + In the Consulship of Marcus Licinius and Lucius Calpurnius, the casualty + of an instant, its beginning unforeseen, and ended as soon as begun, + equalled in calamity the slaughter and overthrow of mighty armies. One + Atilius had undertaken to erect an amphitheatre at Fidena, {Footnote: + Castel Giubileo, near Rome.} there to exhibit a combat of gladiators: he + was of the race of freedmen, and as he began it from no exuberance of + wealth, nor to court popularity amongst the inhabitants, but purely for + the meanness of gain, he neither established solid foundations, nor raised + the timber-work with sufficient compactness. Thither thronged from Rome + those of every sex and age, eager for such shows; as during the reign of + Tiberius they were debarred from diversions at home; and, the nearer the + place, the greater the crowds: hence the calamity was the more dreadful; + for, as the theatre was surcharged with the multitude, the structure + burst, and sinking violently in, while its extremities rushed impetuously + out, huge was the press of people, who intent upon the gladiators within, + or gathered round the walls, were crushed by the deadly ruin, and even + buried under it. And verily, they who in the first fury of the havoc were + smitten with final death, escaped as far as in such a doleful disaster + they could escape, the misery of torture: much more to be lamented were + those, who bereft of joints and pieces of their body, were yet not + forsaken of life; those who by day could with their eyes behold their + wives and children imprisoned in the same ruins; and by night could + distinguish them by their groans, and howlings. + </p> + <p> + Now others from abroad excited by the sad tidings, found here their + several sorrows: one bewailed his brother, one his kinsman, another his + parents: even they whose friends or kindred were absent on a different + account, were yet terrified: for, as it was not hitherto distinctly known + upon whom the destruction had lighted, the dread was widened by + uncertainty. When the ruins began to be removed, great about the dead was + the concourse of the living; frequent the kisses and embraces of + tenderness and sorrow: and even frequent the contention about the + propriety of the dead; where the features distorted by death or bruises, + or where parity of age or resemblance of person, had confounded the slain, + and led into mistakes their several claimers. Fifty thousand souls were + destroyed or maimed by this sad stroke: it was therefore for the future + provided by a decree of Senate, "that no man under the qualification of + four hundred thousand sesterces, {Footnote: £3,300.} should exhibit the + spectacle of gladiators; and no amphitheatre should be founded but upon + ground manifestly solid." Atilius was punished with exile. To conclude; + during the fresh pangs of this calamity, the doors of the Grandees were + thrown open; medicines were everywhere furnished; they who administered + medicines, were everywhere employed to attend: and at that juncture the + city though sorrowful of aspect, seemed to have recalled the public spirit + of the ancient Romans; who, after great battles, constantly relieved the + wounded, sustained them by liberality, and restored them with care. + </p> + <p> + The public agonies from this terrible blow, were not yet deadened, when + another supervened; and the city felt the affliction and violence of fire, + which with uncommon rage utterly consumed Mount Caelius. "It was a deadly + and mournful year," they said, "and under boding omens the Prince had + formed the design of his absence." It is the way this of the multitude; + who to malignant counsels are wont to ascribe events altogether + fortuitous. But the Emperor dissipated their murmurs, by bestowing on each + sufferer money to the value of his sufferings: hence he had the thanks of + men of rank, in the Senate; and was by the populace rewarded with + applauses, "for that without the views of ambition, without the + application of friends, he had of his own accord even sought out the + unknown, and by his bounty relieved them." It was likewise moved and + decreed in Senate, "that Mount Caelius should be for the future styled <i>Mount + Augustus</i>, since there the statue of Tiberius, standing in the house of + Junius the Senator, escaped unhurt in the flames, though devouring all + round them:" it was remembered, that the same rare exemption had formerly + happened to Claudia Pulchra; that her statue being twice spared by the + fury of fire, had thence been placed and consecrated by our ancestors in + the Temple of the Mother of the Gods. Thus sacred were the Claudian race, + and dear to the deities; and therefore the place, where the Gods had + testified such mighty honour towards the Prince, ought to be dignified + with consecration. + </p> + <p> + It will not be impertinent to insert here, that this mount was of old + named <i>Querquetulanus</i>, from a grove of oak which grew thick upon it. + It was afterwards called <i>Mount Caelius</i>, from Caeles Vibenna, who + having led to Rome a body of Tuscan auxiliaries, was presented with that + settlement by Tarquinius Priscus, or some other of our kings; for in this + particular, writers differ: about other circumstances there remains no + dispute; that these forces were very numerous, and extended their + dwellings all along the plain below, as far as the Forum. Hence the <i>Tuscan + Street</i>, so called after these strangers. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius, having dedicated the temples in Campania; though he had by an + edict warned the public, "that none should interrupt his quiet;" and + though soldiers were posted to keep off all confluence from the + neighbouring towns; nevertheless, hating the towns themselves, and the + colonies, and every part in the continent, imprisoned himself in Capreae, + {Footnote: Capri.} an island disjoined from the point of the Cape of + Surrentum by a channel of three miles. I should chiefly believe that he + was taken with its solitude, as the sea above it is void of havens, as the + stations for the smallest vessels are few and difficult, and as none could + put in unperceived by the Guards. The genius of the climate is mild in + winter, from the shelter of a mountain which intercepts the rigour of the + winds: its summers are refreshed by gales from the west; and the sea open + all round it, makes a delightful view: from thence too was beheld a most + lovely landscape, before the eruptions of Mount Vesuvius had changed the + face of the prospect. It is the tradition of fame that the Greeks occupied + the opposite region, and that Capreae was particularly inhabited by the + Teleboi. However it were, Tiberius then confined his retirement to twelve + villas, their names famous of old and their structure sumptuous. And the + more intent he had formerly been upon public cares, he became now so much + the more buried in dark debauches, and resigned over to mischievous + privacy: for, there remained still in him his old bent to suspicions, and + rash faith in informers; qualities which even at Rome Sejanus had always + fostered, and here inflamed more vigorously; his devices against Agrippina + and Nero being no longer a secret. About them guards were placed, by whom + every petty circumstance, the messages they sent or received, their visits + and company, their open behaviour, their private conversation, were all as + it were minuted into journals: there were others, too, instructed to warn + them to fly to the armies in Germany; or that embracing the statue of the + deified Augustus in the great Forum, they would there implore the aid and + protection of the Senate and People of Rome. And these counsels, though + rejected by them, were fathered and charged upon them, as just ripe for + execution. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK V. — A.D. 29-31. + </h2> + <p> + In the Consulship of Rubellius and Fusius, each surnamed Geminus, died + Julia Augusta, the mother of Tiberius, in the extremity of age. She was + descended from the Claudian house; adopted through her father into the + Livian family; into the Julian, by Augustus; and both by adoption and + descent, signally noble: her first marriage was with Tiberius Nero; and by + him she had children: her husband, after the surrender of Perusia, + {Footnote: Perugia.} in the Civil War, became a fugitive; but, upon peace + made between Sextus Pompeius and the Triumvirate, returned to Rome. + Afterwards, Octavius Caesar smitten with her beauty, snatched her from her + husband; whether with or against her own inclinations, is uncertain; but + with such precipitation, that, without staying for her delivery, he + married her yet big with child by Tiberius. Henceforward she had no issue; + but, by the marriage of Germanicus and Agrippina, her blood came to be + mixed with that of Augustus in their great-grandchildren. In her domestic + deportment, she conformed to the venerable model of antiquity; but with + more complaisance than was allowed by the ladies of old: an easy courteous + wife, an ambitious mother; and well comporting with the nice arts of her + husband, and the dissimulation of her son: her funeral was moderate, and + her last will lay long unfulfilled: her encomium was pronounced in public + by Caligula, her grandson, {Footnote: Great-grandson.} afterwards Emperor. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius by a letter excused himself to the Senate, for not having paid + his last offices to his mother; and, though he rioted in private luxury + without abatement, pleaded "the multitude of public affairs." He likewise + abridged the honours decreed to her memory, and, of a large number, + admitted but very few: for this restriction he pretended modesty, and + added, "that no religious worship should be appointed her; for that the + contrary was her own choice." Nay, in a part of the same letter, he + censured <i>feminine friendships</i>; obliquely upbraiding the Consul + Fusius, a man highly distinguished by the favour of Augusta, and dexterous + to engage and cajole the affections of women; a gay talker, and one + accustomed to play upon Tiberius with biting sarcasms; the impressions of + which never die in the hearts of Princes. + </p> + <p> + From this moment, the domination waxed completely outrageous and + devouring: for while she lived, some refuge still remained, as the + observance of Tiberius towards his mother was ever inviolate; nor durst + Sejanus arrogate precedence of the authority of a parent: but now, as let + loose from all restraint, they broke out with unbridled fury: so that + letters were despatched avowedly against Agrippina and Nero; and as they + were read in the Senate soon after the death of Augusta, the people + believed them to have been sent before and by her suppressed. The + expressions were elaborately bitter; and yet by them no hostile purpose of + taking arms, no endeavour to change the State, was objected to the youth; + but only "the love of boys, and other impure pleasures:" against Agrippina + he durst not even feign so much; and therefore arraigned "her haughty + looks, her impetuous and stubborn spirit." The Senate were struck with + deep silence and affright: but, as particular men will always be drawing + personal favour from public miseries, there were some who, having no hopes + founded upon uprightness, demanded that "they should proceed upon the + letters:" amongst these the foremost in zeal was Cotta Messalinus, with a + terrible motion: but, the other leading men, and chiefly the magistrates, + were embarrassed by fear: for Tiberius, though he had sent them a flaming + invective, left all the rest a riddle. + </p> + <p> + In the Senate was one Junius Rusticus, appointed by the Emperor to keep a + journal of their proceedings, and therefore thought well acquainted with + his purposes. This man, by some fatal impulse (for he had never before + shown any instance of magnanimity) or blinded by deceitful policy, while + forgetful of present and impending dangers, he dreaded future + possibilities, joined the party that hesitated, and even warned the + Consuls "not to begin the debate:" he argued "that in a short moment the + highest affairs might take a new turn: and an interval ought to be allowed + to the old man to change his passion into remorse." At the same time, the + people, carrying with them the images of Agrippina and Nero, gathered + about the Senate, and proclaiming their good wishes for the prosperity of + the Emperor, cried earnestly, "that the letters were counterfeit; and, + against the consent of the Prince, the doom of his family was pursued:" so + that nothing tragical was that day transacted. There were also dispersed + amongst them several speeches, said to have been uttered in Senate by the + Consulars, as their motions and advices against Sejanus; but all framed, + and with the more petulance as the several authors exercised their + satirical wit in the dark. Hence Sejanus boiled with greater rage, and + hence had a handle for branding the Senate, "that by them the anguish and + resentments of the Prince were despised: the people were revolted; popular + and disaffected harangues were publicly read and listened to: new and + arbitrary acts of Senate were passed and published: what more remained, + but to arm the populace and place at their head, as leaders and Imperial + commanders, those whose images they had already chosen for standards?" + </p> + <p> + Tiberius having therefore repeated his reproaches against his grandson and + daughter-in-law: having chastised the people by an edict, and complained + to the Senate, "that by the fraud of a single Senator the Imperial dignity + should be battled and insulted, required that the whole affair should be + left to himself, entire and untouched." The Senate hesitated no longer, + but instantly proceeded, not now in truth to decree penalties and capital + vengeance; for that was forbid them; but to testify "how ready they were + to inflict just punishments, and that they were only interrupted by the + power and pleasure of the Prince."... + </p> + <p> + {<i>Here begins a lamentable chasm in this "Annal" for almost three years; + and by it we have lost the detail of the most remarkable incidents in this + reign, the exile of Agrippina into the Isle of Pandataria; of Nero, into + that of Pontia; and the murder of both there by the orders of Tiberius: + the conspiracy and execution of Sejanus, with that of all his friends and + dependents: the further wickedness of Livia, and her death.</i>} + </p> + <p> + Now though the rage of the populace was expiring, and though most men were + mollified by former executions; it was determined to condemn the other + children of Sejanus. They were therefore carried both to prison, the boy + sensible of his impending doom; but the girl so ignorant, that she + frequently asked; "For what offence? and whither did they drag her? she + would do so no more; and they might take the rod and whip her." The + writers of that time relate, "that as it was a thing unheard, for a virgin + to suffer capital punishment, she was deflowered by the executioner just + before he tied the rope; and that being both strangled, the tender bodies + of these children were cast into the place where the carcasses of + malefactors are exposed, before they are flung into the Tiber."... + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK VI. — A.D. 32-37. + </h2> + <p> + Cneius Domitius and Camillus Scribonianus had begun their Consulship, when + the Emperor, having crossed the channel between Capreae {Footnote: Capri.} + and Surrentum, {Footnote: Sorrento.} sailed along the shore of Campania; + unresolved whether he should proceed to Rome; or counterfeiting a show of + coming, because he had determined not to come. He often approached to the + neighbourhood of the city, and even visited the gardens upon the Tiber; + but at last resumed his old retirement, the gloomy rocks and solitude of + the sea, ashamed of his cruelties, and abominable lusts; in which he + rioted so outrageously, that after the fashion of royal tyrants, the + children of ingenuous parentage became the objects of his pollution: nor + in them was he struck with a lovely face only, or the graces of their + persons; but in some their amiable and childish innocence, in others their + nobility and the glory of their ancestors, became the provocatives of his + unnatural passion. Then likewise were devised the filthy names, till then + unknown, of the <i>Sellarii</i> and <i>Spintriae</i>, expressing the + odious lewdness of the place, and the manifold postures and methods of + prostitution practised in it. For supplying his lust with these innocent + victims, he entertained, in his service professed procurers, to look them + out and carry them off. The willing they encouraged with presents, the + backward they terrified with threats; and upon such parents or kindred as + withheld the infants, they exercised force, seizure, and, as upon so many + captives, every species of licentious rage. + </p> + <p> + At Rome in the beginning of the year, as if the iniquities of Livia had + been but just discovered, and not even long since punished, furious orders + were passed against her statues too, and memory; with another, "that the + effects of Sejanus should be taken from the public treasury, and placed in + that of the Emperor:" as if this vain translation could any wise avail the + State. And yet such was the motion of these great names, the Scipios, the + Silani, and the Cassii; who urged it, each almost in the same words, but + all with mighty zeal and earnestness: when all on a sudden, Togonius + Gallus, while he would be thrusting his own meanness amongst names so + greatly illustrious, became the object of derision: for he besought the + Prince "to choose a body of Senators of whom twenty, drawn by lot and + under arms, should wait upon him and defend his person, as often as he + entered the Senate." He had been weak enough to credit a letter from the + Emperor, requiring "the guard and protection of one of the Consuls, that + he might return in safety from Capreae to Rome." Tiberius however returned + thanks to the Senate for such an instance of affection; but as he was wont + to mix pleasantry with things serious, he asked, "How was it to be + executed? what Senators were to be chosen? who to be omitted? whether + always the same, or a continued succession? whether young Senators, or + such as had borne dignities? whether those who were Magistrates, or those + exercising no magistracy? moreover what a becoming figure they would make, + grave Senators, men of the gown, under arms at the entrance of the Senate! + in truth he held not his life of such importance, to have it thus + protected by arms." So much in answer to Togonius, without asperity of + words; nor did he farther, than this, press them to cancel the motion. + </p> + <p> + But Junius Gallio escaped not thus. He had proposed "that the Praetorian + soldiers, having accomplished their term of service, should thence acquire + the privilege of sitting in the fourteen rows of the theatre allotted to + the Roman knights." Upon him Tiberius fell with violent wrath, and, as if + present, demanded, what business had he with the soldiers? men whose duty + bound them to observe only the orders of the Emperor, and from the Emperor + alone to receive their rewards. Gallio had forsooth discovered a + recompense which had escaped the sagacity of the deified Augustus? Or was + it not rather a project started by a mercenary of Sejanus, to raise + sedition and discord; a project tending to debauch the rude minds of the + soldiers with the show and bait of new honour; to corrupt their + discipline, and set them loose from military restrictions? This reward, + had the studied flattery of Gallio; who was instantly expelled the Senate, + and then Italy: nay, it became a charge upon him, that his exile would be + too easy, having for the place of it chosen Lesbos, an island noble and + delightful; he was therefore haled back to Rome and confined a prisoner in + the house of a Magistrate. Tiberius in the same letter demanded the doom + of Sextus Paconianus, formerly Praetor, to the extreme joy of the Senate, + as he was a man bold and mischievous, one armed with snares, and + continually diving into the purposes and secret transactions of all men; + and one chosen by Sejanus, for plotting the overthrow of Caligula. When + this was now laid open, the general hate and animosities long since + conceived against him, broke violently out, and had he not offered to make + a discovery, he had been instantly condemned to death. + </p> + <p> + The next impeached was Cotta Messalinus, the author of every the most + bloody counsel, and thence long and intensely hated. The first opportunity + was therefore snatched to fall upon him with a combination of crimes; as + that he had called Caius Caligula by the feminine name of <i>Caia Caligula</i>, + and branded him with constuprations of both kinds; that when he celebrated + among the Priests the birthday of Augusta, he had styled the entertainment + a <i>funeral supper</i>; and that complaining of the great sway of Marcus + Lepidus, and of Lucius Arruntius, with whom he had a suit about money, he + had added; "they indeed will be supported by the Senate, but I by my + little Tiberius." {Footnote: Tiberiolus meus.} Of all this he stood + exposed to conviction by men of the first rank in Rome; who being earnest + to attack him, he appealed to Caesar: from whom soon after a letter was + brought in behalf of Cotta; in it he recounted "the beginning of their + friendship," repeated "his many good services to himself," and desired + "that words perversely construed, and humorous tales told at an + entertainment, might not be wrested into crimes." + </p> + <p> + Most remarkable was the beginning of that letter; for in these words he + introduced it: "What to write you, Conscript Fathers, or in what manner to + write, or what at all not to write at this instant; if I can determine, + may all the Deities, Gods and Goddesses, doom me still to more cruel + agonies than those under which I feel myself perishing daily." So closely + did the bloody horror of his cruelties and infamy haunt this man of blood, + and became his torturers! Nor was it at random what the wisest of all men + {Footnote: Socrates.} was wont to affirm, that if the hearts of tyrants + were displayed, in them might be seen deadly wounds and gorings, and all + the butcheries of fear and rage; seeing what the severity of stripes is to + the body, the same to the soul is the bitter anguish of cruelty, lust, and + execrable pursuits. To Tiberius not his imperial fortune, not his gloomy + and inaccessible solitudes could ensure tranquillity; nor exempt him from + feeling and even avowing the rack in his breast and the avenging furies + that pursued him. + </p> + <p> + After this, it was left to the discretion of the Senate to proceed as they + listed against Caecilianus the Senator, "who had loaded Cotta with many + imputations;" and it was resolved, "to subject him to the same penalties + inflicted upon Aruseius and Sanquinius, the accusers of Lucius Annuntius." + A more signal instance of honour than this had never befallen Cotta; who + noble in truth, but through luxury indigent, and, for the baseness of his + crimes, detestable, was by the dignity of this amends equalled in + character to the most venerable reputation and virtues of Arruntius. + </p> + <p> + About the same time died Lucius Piso, the Pontiff; and, by a felicity, + then rare in so much splendour and elevation, died by the course of + nature. The author he never himself was of any servile motion, and ever + wise in moderating such motions from others, where necessity enforced his + assent. That his father had sustained the sublime office of Censor, I have + before remembered: he himself lived to fourscore years, and for his + warlike feats in Thrace, had obtained the glory of triumph. But from hence + arose his most distinguished glory, that being created Governor of Rome, a + jurisdiction newly instituted, and the more difficult, as not yet settled + into public reverence, he tempered it wonderfully and possessed it long. + </p> + <p> + For, of old, to supply the absence of the Kings, and afterwards of the + Consuls, that the city might not remain without a ruler, a temporary + Magistrate was appointed to administer justice, and watch over exigencies: + and it is said that by Romulus was deputed Denter Romulius; Numa Marcius, + by Tullus Hostilius; and by Tarquin the Proud, Spurius Lucretius. The same + delegation was made by the Consuls; and there remains still a shadow of + the old institution, when during the Latin festival, one is authorised to + discharge the Consular function. Moreover, Augustus during the Civil Wars, + committed to Cilnius Maecenas of the Equestrian Order, the Government of + Rome and of all Italy. Afterwards, when sole master of the Empire, and + moved by the immense multitude of people and the slowness of relief from + the laws, he chose a Consular to bridle the licentiousness of the slaves, + and to awe such turbulent citizens as are only quiet from the dread of + chastisement. Messala Corvinus was the first invested with this authority, + and in a few days dismissed, as a man insufficient to discharge it. It was + then filled by Taurus Statilius, who, though very ancient, sustained it + with signal honour. After him Piso held it for twenty years, with a credit + so high and uninterrupted, that he was distinguished with a public + funeral, by decree of the Senate. + </p> + <p> + A motion was thereafter made in Senate by Quinctilianus, Tribune of the + People, concerning a Book of the Sibyl, which Caninius Gallus, one of the + College of Fifteen, had prayed "might be received by a decree amongst the + rest of that Prophetess." The decree passed without opposition, but was + followed by letters from Tiberius. In them having gently chid the Tribune, + "as young and therefore unskilled in the ancient usages," he upbraided + Gallus, "that he who was so long practised in the science of sacred + ceremonies, should without taking the opinion of his own college, without + the usual reading and deliberation with the other Priests, deal, by + surprise, with a thin Senate, to admit a prophetic book of an uncertain + author." He also advertised them "of the conduct of Augustus, who, to + suppress the multitude of fictious predictions everywhere published under + the solemn name of the Sibyl, had ordained, that within a precise day, + they should be carried to the City Praetor; and made it unlawful to keep + them in private hands." The same had likewise been decreed by our + ancestors, when after the burning of the capitol in the Social War, the + Rhymes of the Sibyl (whether there were but one, or more) were everywhere + sought, in Samos, Ilium, and Erythrae, through Africa too and Sicily and + all the Roman colonies, with injunctions to the Priests, that, as far as + human wit could enable them, they would separate the genuine. Therefore, + upon this occasion also, the book was subjected to the inspection of the + Quindecimvirate. + </p> + <p> + Under the same Consuls, the dearth of corn had nigh raised a sedition. The + populace for many days urged their wants and demands in the public + theatre, with a licentiousness towards the Emperor, higher than usual. He + was alarmed with this bold spirit, and censured the Magistrates and + Senate, "that they had not by the public authority quelled the people." He + recounted "the continued supplies of grain which he had caused to be + imported; from what provinces, and in how much greater abundance than + those procured by Augustus." So that for correcting the populace, a decree + passed framed in the strain of ancient severity: nor less vigorous was the + edict published by the Consuls. His own silence, which he hoped would be + taken by the people as an instance of moderation, was by them imputed to + his pride. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile, the whole band of accusers broke loose upon those who + augmented their wealth by usury, in contradiction to a law of Caesar the + Dictator, "for ascertaining the terms of lending money, and holding + mortgages in Italy;" a law waxed long since obsolete, through the selfish + passions of men, sacrificing public good to private gain. Usury was, in + truth, an inveterate evil in Rome, and the eternal cause of civil discord + and seditions, and therefore restrained even in ancient times, while the + public manners were not yet greatly corrupted. For, first it was ordained + by a law of the twelve tables, "that no man should take higher interest + than twelve in the hundred;" when, before, it was exacted at the pleasure + of the rich. Afterwards by a regulation of the Tribunes it was reduced to + six, and at last was quite abolished. By the people, too, repeated + statutes were made, for obviating all elusions, which by whatever frequent + expedients repressed, were yet through wonderful devices still springing + up afresh. Gracchus the Praetor was therefore now appointed to inquire + into the complaints and allegations of the accusers; but, appalled with + the multitude of those threatened by the accusation, he had recourse to + the Senate. The Fathers also were dismayed (for of this fault not a soul + was guiltless) and sought and obtained impunity from the Prince; and a + year and six months were granted for balancing all accounts between + debtors and creditors, agreeably to the direction of the law. + </p> + <p> + Hence a great scarcity of money: for, besides that all debts were at once + called in; so many delinquents were condemned, that by the sale of their + effects, the current coin was swallowed up in the public treasury, or in + that of the Emperor. Against this stagnation, the Senate had provided, + "that two-thirds of the debts should by every creditor be laid out upon + lands in Italy." But the creditors warned in the whole; {Footnote: + Demanded payment in full.} nor could the debtors without breach of faith + divide the payment. So that at first, meetings and entreaties were tried; + and at last it was contested before the Praetor. And the project applied + as a remedy; namely, that the debtor should sell, and the creditor buy, + had a contrary operation: for the usurers hoarded up all their treasure + for purchasing of lands, and the plenty of estates to be sold, miserably + sinking the price; the more men were indebted, the more difficult they + found it to sell. Many were utterly stripped of their fortunes; and the + ruin of their private patrimony drew headlong with it that of their + reputation and all public preferment. The destruction was going on, when + the Emperor administered relief, by lending a hundred thousand great + sesterces {Footnote: About £830,000.} for three years, without interest; + provided each borrower pawned to the people double the value in + inheritance. {Footnote: Gave a security to the State, on landed property.} + Thus was credit restored; and by degrees private lenders too were found. + </p> + <p> + About the same time, Claudia, daughter to Marcus Silanus, was given in + marriage to Caligula, who had accompanied his grandfather to Capreae, + having always hid under a subdolous guise of modesty, his savage and + inhuman spirit: even upon the condemnation of his mother, even for the + exile of his brothers, not a word escaped him, not a sigh, nor groan. So + blindly observant of Tiberius, that he studied the bent of his temper and + seemed to possess it; practised his looks, imitated the change and fashion + of his dress, and affected his words and manner of expression. Hence the + observation of Passienus the Orator, grew afterwards famous, "that never + lived a better slave nor a worse master." Neither would I omit the presage + of Tiberius concerning Galba, then Consul. Having sent for him and sifted + him upon several subjects, he at last told him in Greek, "and thou, Galba, + shalt hereafter taste of Empire;" signifying his late and short + sovereignty. This he uttered from his skill in astrology, which at Rhodes + he had leisure to learn; and Thrasullus for his teacher, whose capacity he + proved by this following trial. + </p> + <p> + As often as he consulted this way concerning any affair, he retired to the + roof of the house, attended by one freedman trusted with the secret. This + man strong of body, but destitute of letters, guided along the astrologer, + whose art Tiberius meant to try, over solitary precipices (for upon a rock + the house stood) and, as he returned, if any suspicion arose that his + predictions were vain, or that the author designed fraud, cast him + headlong into the sea, to prevent his making discoveries. Thrasullus being + therefore led over the same rocks, and minutely consulted, his answers + were full, and struck Tiberius; as approaching Empire and many future + revolutions were specifically foretold him. The artist was then + questioned, "whether he had calculated his own nativity, and thence + presaged what was to befall him that same year, nay, that very day?" + Thrasullus surveying the positions of the stars, and calculating their + aspects, began at first to hesitate, then to quake, and the more he + meditated, being more and more dismayed with wonder and dread, he at last + cried out, "that over him just then hung a boding danger and well-nigh + fatal." Forthwith Tiberius embraced him, congratulated him "upon his + foresight of perils, and his security from them;" and esteeming his + predictions as so many oracles, held him thenceforward in the rank of his + most intimate friends. + </p> + <p> + For myself, while I listen to these and the like relations, my judgment + wavers, whether things human are in their course and rotation determined + by Fate and immutable necessity, or left to roll at random. For upon this + subject the wisest of the ancients and those addicted to their Sects, are + of opposite sentiments. {Footnote: The Epicureans.} Many are of opinion + "that to the Gods neither the generation of us men nor our death, and in + truth neither men nor the actions of men, are of any importance or + concernment: and thence such numberless calamities afflict the upright, + while pleasure and prosperity surround the wicked." Others {Footnote: The + Stoics.} hold the contrary position, and believe "a Fate to preside over + events; a fate however not resulting from wandering stars, but coeval with + the first principles of things, and operating by the continued connection + of natural causes. Yet their philosophy leaves our course of life in our + own free option; but that after the choice is made, the chain of + consequences is inevitable: neither is that good or evil, which passes for + such in the estimation of the vulgar: many, who seem wounded with + adversity, are yet happy; numbers, that wallow in wealth, are yet most + wretched: since the first often bear with magnanimity the blows of + fortune; and the latter abuse her bounty in baneful pursuits." For the + rest, it is common to multitudes of men "to have each their whole future + fortunes determined from the moment of their birth: or if some events + thwart the prediction, it is through the mistakes of such as pronounce at + random, and thence debase the credit of an art, which, both in ages past + and our own, hath given signal instances of its certainty." For, to avoid + lengthening this digression, I shall remember in its order, how by the son + of this same Thrasullus the Empire was predicted to Nero. + </p> + <p> + During the same Consulship flew abroad the death of Asinius Gallus: that + he perished through famine was undoubted; but whether of his own accord, + or by constraint, was held uncertain. The pleasure of the Emperor being + consulted, "whether he would suffer him to be buried;" he was not ashamed + to grant such a piece of mock mercy, nor even to blame the anticipations + of casualty, which had withdrawn the criminal, before he was publicly + convicted: as if during three intermediate years between his accusation + and his death, there wanted time for the trial of an ancient Consular, and + the father of so many Consulars. Next perished Drusus, condemned by his + grandfather to be starved; but by gnawing the weeds upon which he lay, he + by that miserable nourishment protracted life the space of nine days. Some + authors relate that, in case Sejanus had resisted and taken arms, Macro + had instructions to draw the young man out of confinement (for he was kept + in the palace) and set him at the head of the people: afterwards because a + report ran, "that the Emperor was about to be reconciled to his + daughter-in-law and grandson;" he chose rather to gratify himself by + cruelty, than the public by relenting. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius not satiated with the death of Drusus, even after death pursued + him with cruel invectives, and, in a letter to the Senate, charged him + with "a body foul with prostitution; with a spirit breathing destruction + to his own family, and rage against the Republic;" and ordered to be + recited "the minutes of his words and actions, which had been long and + daily registered," A proceeding more black with horror could not be + devised! That for so many years, there should be those expressly + appointed, who were to note down his looks, his groans, his secret and + extorted murmurs; that his grandfather should delight to hear the + treacherous detail, to read it, and to the public expose it, would appear + a series of fraud, meanness and amazement beyond all measure of faith, + were it not for the letters of Actius the Centurion, and Didymus the + Freedman; who in them declare, particularly, the names of the slaves set + purposely to abuse and provoke Drusus, with the several parts they acted; + how one struck him going out of his chamber, and how another filled him + with terrors and dismay. The Centurion too repeated, as matter of glory, + his own language to Drusus, language full of outrage and barbarity, with + the words uttered by him under the agonies of famine; that, at first, + feigning disorder of spirit, he vented, in the style of a madman, dismal + denunciations against Tiberius; but after all hopes of life had forsaken + him, then, in steady and deliberate imprecations, he invoked the direful + vengeance of the Gods, "that as he had slaughtered his son's wife, + slaughtered the son of his brother, and his son's sons, and with + slaughters had filled his own house; so they would in justice to the + ancestors of the slain, in justice to their posterity, doom him to the + dreadful penalties of so many murders." The Senators, in truth, upon this + raised a mighty din, under colour of detesting these imprecations: but it + was dread which possessed them, and amazement, that he who had been once + so dark in the practice of wickedness, and so subtle in the concealment of + his bloody spirit, was arrived at such an utter insensibility of shame, + that he could thus remove, as it were, the covert of the walls, and + represent his own grandson under the ignominious chastisement of a + Centurion, torn by the barbarous stripes of slaves, and imploring in vain + the last sustenance of life. + </p> + <p> + Before the impressions of this grief were worn away, the death of + Agrippina was published. I suppose she had lived thus long upon the hopes, + which from the execution of Sejanus she had conceived; but, feeling + afterwards no relaxation of cruelty, death grew her choice: unless she + were bereaved of nourishment, and her decease feigned to have been of her + own seeking. For, Tiberius raged against her with abominable imputations, + reproaching her "with lewdness; as the adulteress of Asinius Gallus; and + that upon his death she became weary of life." But these were none of her + crimes: Agrippina impatient of an equal lot, and eager for rule, had + thence sacrificed to masculine ambition all the passions and vices of + women. The Emperor added, "that she departed the same day on which Sejanus + had suffered as a traitor two years before, and that the same ought to be + perpetuated by a public memorial." Nay, he boasted of his clemency, in + "that she had not been strangled, and her body cast into the charnel of + malefactors." For this, as for an instance of mercy the Senate solemnly + thanked him, and decreed "that, on the seventeenth of October, the day of + both their deaths, a yearly offering should be consecrated to Jupiter for + ever." + </p> + <p> + Not long after, Cocceius Nerva, in full prosperity of fortune, in perfect + vigour of body, formed a purpose of dying. As he was the incessant + companion of the Prince, and accomplished in the knowledge of all laws + divine and humane, Tiberius having learnt his design, was earnest to + dissuade him, examined his motives, joined entreaties, and even declared, + "how grievous to his own spirit it would prove, how grievous to his + reputation, if the nearest of his friends should relinquish life, without + any cause for dying." Nerva rejected his reasoning, and completed his + purpose by abstinence. It was alleged, by such as knew his thoughts, that + the more he saw into the dreadful source and increase of public miseries, + the more transported with indignation and fear, he resolved to make an + honest end, in the bloom of his integrity, e'er his life and credit were + assaulted. Moreover the fall of Agrippina, by a reverse hardly credible, + procured that of Plancina. She was formerly married to Cneius Piso; and, + though she exulted publicly for the death of Germanicus, yet when Piso + fell, she was protected by the solicitations of Augusta, nor less by the + known animosity of Agrippina. But as favour and hate were now withdrawn, + justice prevailed, and being questioned for crimes long since sufficiently + manifest, she executed with her own hand that vengeance, which was rather + too slow than too severe, + </p> + <p> + In the Consulship of Paulus Fabius and Lucius Vitellius, after a long + vicissitude of ages, the phoenix arrived in Egypt, and furnished the most + learned of the natives and Greeks with matter of large and various + observations concerning that miraculous bird. The circumstances in which + they agree, with many others, that, however disputed, deserve to be known, + claim a recital here. That it is a creature sacred to the sun, and in the + fashion of its head, and diversity of feathers, distinct from other birds, + all who have described its figure, are agreed; about the length of its + life, relations vary. It is by the vulgar tradition fixed at five hundred + years: but there are those, who extend it to one thousand four hundred and + sixty-one; and assert that the three former phoenixes appeared in reigns + greatly distant, the first under Sesostris, the next under Amasis; and + that one was seen under Ptolomy the third King of Egypt of the Macedonian + race, and flew to the city of Heliopolis, accompanied by a vast host of + other birds gazing upon the wonderful stranger. But these are, in truth, + the obscure accounts of antiquity: between Ptolomy and Tiberius the + interval was shorter, not two hundred and fifty years: hence some have + believed that the present was a spurious phoenix, and derived not its + origin from the territories of Arabia, since it observed nothing of the + instinct which ancient tradition attributes to the genuine: for that the + latter having completed his course of years, just before his death builds + a nest in his native land, and upon it sheds a generative power, from + whence arises a young one, whose first care, when he is grown, is to bury + his father: neither does he undertake it unadvisedly, but by collecting + and fetching loads of myrrh, tries his strength in great journeys; and as + soon as he finds himself equal to the burden, and fit for the long flight, + he rears upon his back his father's body, carries it quite to the altar of + the sun, and then flies away. These are uncertain tales, and their + uncertainty heightened by fables; but that this bird has been sometimes + seen in Egypt, is not questioned. + </p> + <p> + The same year the city suffered the grievous calamity of fire, which burnt + down that part of the Circus contiguous to Mount Aventine and the Mount + itself: a loss which turned to the glory of the Prince, as he paid in + money the value of the houses destroyed. A hundred thousand great + sesterces {Footnote: About £830,000.} he expended in this bounty, which + proved the more grateful to the people as he was ever sparing in private + buildings: in truth, his public works never exceeded two, the Temple of + Augustus and the scene {Footnote: The stage.} of Pompey's Theatre; nor, + when he had finished both, did he dedicate either, whether obstructed by + old age, or despising popularity. For ascertaining the damage of + particulars, the four sons-in-law of Tiberius were appointed, Cneius + Domitius, Cassius Longinus, Marcus Vincinus and Rubellius Blandus; + assisted by Publius Petronius, nominated by the Consuls. To the Emperor + likewise were decreed several honours, variously devised according to the + different drift and genius of such as proposed them. Which of these he + meant to accept, or which to reject, the approaching issue of his days, + has buried in uncertainty. For not long after, Cneius Acerronius and Caius + Pontius commenced Consuls; the last under Tiberius. The power of Macro was + already excessive; who, as he had at no time neglected the favour of + Caligula, courted it now more and more earnestly every day. After the + death of Claudia, whom I have mentioned to have been espoused to the young + Prince, he constrained Ennia his own wife to stimulate the affections of + Caligula and to secure him by a promise of marriage. The truth is, he was + one that denied nothing that opened his way to sovereignty; for although + of a tempestuous genius, he had yet in the school of his grandfather, well + acquired all the hollow guises of dissimulation. + </p> + <p> + His spirit was known to the Emperor; hence he was puzzled about + bequeathing the Empire: and first as to his grandsons; the son of Drusus + was nearer in blood, and dearer in point of affection, but as yet a child; + the son of Germanicus had arrived at the vigour of youth, and the zeal of + the people followed him, a motive this to his grandfather, only to hate + him. He had even debates with himself concerning Claudius, because of + solid age and naturally inclined to honest pursuits; but the defect of his + faculties withstood the choice. In case he sought a successor apart from + his own family, he dreaded lest the memory of Augustus, lest the name of + the Caesars should come to be scorned and insulted. For, it was not so + much any study of his, to gratify the present generation and secure the + Roman State, as to perpetuate to posterity the grandeur of his race. So + that his mind still wavering and his strength decaying, to the decision of + fortune he permitted a counsel to which he was now unequal. Yet he dropped + certain words whence might be gathered that he foresaw the events and + revolutions which were to come to pass after him: for, he upbraided Macro, + by no dark riddle, "that he forsook the setting sun and courted the + rising:" and of Caligula, who upon some occasional discourse ridiculed + Sylla, he foretold, "that he would have all Sylla's vices, and not one of + his virtues." Moreover, as he was, with many tears, embracing the younger + of his grandsons, and perceived the countenance of Caligula implacable and + provoked; "thou," said he, "wilt slay him, and another shall slay thee." + But, however his illness prevailed, he relinquished nothing of his vile + voluptuousness; forcing patience, and feigning health. He was wont too to + ridicule the prescriptions of physicians, and all men who, after the age + of thirty, needed to be informed by any one else, what helped or hurted + their constitutions. + </p> + <p> + At Rome, the while, were sown the sanguinary seeds of executions to be + perpetrated even after Tiberius. Laelius Balbus had with high treason + charged Acutia, some time the wife of Publius Vitellius; and, as the + Senate were, after her condemnation, decreeing a reward to the accuser, + the same was obstructed by the interposition of Junius Otho, Tribune of + the People: hence their mutual hate, which ended in the exile of Otho. + Thereafter Albucilla, who had been married to Satrius Secundus, him that + revealed the conspiracy of Sejanus, and herself famous for many amours, + was impeached of impious rites devised against the Prince. In the charge + were involved, as her associates and adulterers, Cneius Domitius, Vibius + Marsus, and Lucius Arruntius. The noble descent of Domitius I have above + declared: Marsus too was distinguished by the ancient dignities in his + house, and himself illustrious for learning. The minutes, however, + transmitted to the Senate imported, "that in the examination of the + witnesses, and torture of the slaves, Macro had presided:" neither came + these minutes accompanied with any letter from the Emperor against the + accused. Hence it was suspected, that, while he was ill, and perhaps + without his privacy, the accusations were in great measure forged by + Macro, in consequence of his notorious enmity to Arruntius. + </p> + <p> + Domitius therefore by preparing for his defence, and Marsus by seeming + determined to famish, both protracted their lives. Arruntius chose to die; + and to the importunity of his friends, urging him to try delays and + evasions, he answered, "that the same measures were not alike honourable + to all men: his own life was abundantly long; nor had he wherewithal to + reproach himself, save that he had submitted to bear thus far an old age + loaded with anxieties, exposed to daily dangers, and the cruel sport of + power; long hated as he was by Sejanus, now by Macro, always by some + reigning minister; hated through no fault of his own, but as one + irreconcilable to baseness and the iniquities of power. He might, in + truth, outlive and avoid the few and last days of Tiberius: but how escape + the youth of his heir? If upon Tiberius at such an age, and after such + consummate experience, the violent spirit of unbridled dominion had + wrought with such efficacy, as entirely to transport and change him; was + it likely that Caligula, he who had scarce outgrown his childhood, a youth + ignorant of all things, or nursed and principled in the worst, would + follow a course more righteous under the guidance of Macro; the same + Macro, who, for destroying Sejanus, was employed as the more wicked of the + two, and had since by more mischiefs and cruelties torn and afflicted the + Commonweal? For himself; he foresaw a servitude yet more vehement, and + therefore withdrew at once from the agonies of past and of impending + tyranny." Uttering these words, with the spirit of a prophet, he opened + his veins. How wisely Arruntius anticipated death, the following times + will terribly demonstrate. For Albucilla; she aimed at her own life, but + the blow being impotent, she was by order of Senate dragged to execution + in the prison. Against the ministers of her lusts it was decreed, "that + Grasidius Sacerdos, formerly Praetor, should be exiled into an island; + Pontius Fregellanus be degraded from the Senate; and that upon Laelius + Balbus the same penalty be inflicted:" his punishment particularly proved + matter of joy, as he was accounted a man of pestilent eloquence, and + prompt to attack the innocent. + </p> + <p> + About the same time, Sextus Papinius of a Consular family, chose on a + sudden a frightful end, by a desperate and precipitate fall. The cause was + ascribed to his mother, who, after many repulses, had by various + allurements and the stimulations of sensuality, urged him to practices and + embarrassments from whence, only by dying, he could devise an issue. She + was therefore accused in the Senate; and, though in a prostrate posture + she embraced the knees of the Fathers, and pleaded "the tenderness and + grief of a mother, the imbecility of a woman's spirit under such an + affecting calamity;" with other motives of pity in the same doleful + strain; she was banished Rome for ten years, till her younger son were + past the age of lubricity. + </p> + <p> + As to Tiberius; already his body, already his spirits failed him; but his + dissimulation failed him not. He exerted the same vigour of mind, the same + energy in his looks and discourse; and even sometimes studied to be gay, + by it to hide his declension however notorious. So that, after much + shifting of places, he settled at the Promontory of Misenum, in a villa of + which Lucullus was once Lord. There it was discovered that his end was at + hand, by this device. In his train was a physician, his name Charicles, + signal in his profession, one, in truth, not employed to govern the + Prince's health, but wont however to afford his counsel and skill. + Charicles, as if he were departing to attend his own affairs, under the + appearance of paying duty and kissing his hands, touched his pulse. But + the artifice beguiled not Tiberius; for he instantly ordered the + entertainment to be served up; whether incensed, and thence the more + smothering his wrath, is uncertain: but, at table he continued beyond his + wont, as if he meant that honour only for a farewell to his friend. But + for all this Charicles satisfied Macro, "that the flame of life was + expiring, and could not outlast two days." Hence the whole court was + filled with close consultations, and expresses were despatched to the + generals and armies. On the 16th of March, so deep a swoon seized him, + that he was believed to have paid the last debt of mortality: insomuch + that Caligula, in the midst of a great throng, paying their + congratulations, was already appearing abroad, to assume the first offices + of sovereignty, when sudden notice came, "that Tiberius had recovered his + sight and voice, and, to strengthen his fainting spirits, had called for + some refreshment." Hence dread seized all, and the whole concourse about + Caligula dispersed, every man resuming false sorrow, or feigning + ignorance: he himself was struck speechless, and thus fallen from the + highest hopes, waited for present death. Macro continued undismayed, and + ordering the apartment to be cleared, caused the feeble old man to be + smothered with a weight of coverings. Thus expired Tiberius in the + seventy-eighth year of his age. + </p> + <p> + He was the son of Nero, and on both sides a branch of the Claudian House; + though his mother had been ingrafted by adoptions into the Livian, and + next into the Julian stock. From his first infancy, his life was chequered + by various turns and perils: for, then he followed, like an exile, his + proscribed father; and when taken in quality of a step-son into the family + of Augustus, he long struggled there with many potent rivals, during the + lives of Marcellus and Agrippa; next of the young Caesars, Caius and + Lucius. His brother Drusus too eclipsed him, and possessed more eminently + the hearts of the Roman People. But above all, his marriage with Julia, + most egregiously threatened and distressed him; whether he bore the + prostitutions of his wife, or relinquished the daughter of Augustus. Upon + his return thereafter from Rhodes, he occupied for twelve years the + Prince's family, now bereft of heirs, and nigh four-and-twenty ruled the + Roman State. His manners also varied with the several junctures of his + fortune: he was well esteemed while yet a private man; and, in discharging + public dignities under Augustus, of signal reputation: covert and + subdolous in feigning virtue so long as Germanicus and Drusus survived: a + mixed character of good and evil during the days of his mother: detestably + cruel; but secret in his lewdness, while he loved or feared Sejanus: at + last he abandoned himself, at once, to the rage of tyranny and the sway of + his lusts: for, he had then conquered all the checks of shame and fear, + and thenceforth followed only the bent of his own abominable spirit. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + A TREATISE OF THE SITUATION, CUSTOMS, AND PEOPLE OF GERMANY. + </h2> + <p> + The whole of Germany is thus bounded; separated from Gaul, from Rhoetia + and Pannonia, by the rivers Rhine and Danube; from Sarmatia and Dacia by + mutual fear, or by high mountains: the rest is encompassed by the ocean, + which forms huge bays, and comprehends a tract of islands immense in + extent: for we have lately known certain nations and kingdoms there, such + as the war discovered. The Rhine rising in the Rhoetian Alps from a summit + altogether rocky and perpendicular, after a small winding towards the + west, is lost in the Northern Ocean. The Danube issues out of the mountain + Abnoba, one very high but very easy of ascent, and traversing several + nations, falls by six streams into the Euxine Sea; for its seventh channel + is absorbed in the Fenns. + </p> + <p> + The Germans, I am apt to believe, derive their original from no other + people; and are nowise mixed with different nations arriving amongst them: + since anciently those who went in search of new dwellings, travelled not + by land, but were carried in fleets; and into that mighty ocean so + boundless, and, as I may call it, so repugnant and forbidding, ships from + our world rarely enter. Moreover, besides the dangers from a sea + tempestuous, horrid and unknown, who would relinquish Asia, or Africa, or + Italy, to repair to Germany, a region hideous and rude, under a rigorous + climate, dismal to behold or to manure; {Footnote: To cultivate.} unless + the same were his native country? In their old ballads (which amongst them + are the only sort of registers and history) they celebrate <i>Tuisto</i>, + a God sprung from the earth, and <i>Mannus</i> his son, as the fathers and + founders of the nation. To <i>Mannus</i> they assign three sons, after + whose names so many people are called; the Ingaevones, dwelling next the + ocean; the Herminones, in the middle country; and all the rest, + Istaevones. Some, borrowing a warrant from the darkness of antiquity, + maintain that the God had more sons, that thence came more denominations + of people, the Marsians, Cambrians, Suevians, and Vandalians, and that + these are the names truly genuine and original. For the rest, they affirm + Germany to be a recent word, lately bestowed: for that those who first + passed the Rhine and expulsed the Gauls, and are now named Tungrians, were + then called Germans: and thus by degrees the name of a tribe prevailed, + not that of the nation; so that by an appellation at first occasioned by + terror and conquest, they afterwards chose to be distinguished, and + assuming a name lately invented were universally called <i>Germans</i>. + </p> + <p> + They have a tradition that Hercules also had been in their country, and + him above all other heroes they extol in their songs when they advance to + battle. Amongst them too are found that kind of verses by the recital of + which (by them called <i>Barding</i>) they inspire bravery; nay, by such + chanting itself they divine the success of the approaching fight. For, + according to the different din of the battle, they urge furiously, or + shrink timorously. Nor does what they utter, so much seem to be singing as + the voice and exertion of valour. They chiefly study a tone fierce and + harsh, with a broken and unequal murmur, and therefore apply their shields + to their mouths, whence the voice may by rebounding swell with greater + fulness and force. Besides there are some of opinion, that Ulysses, whilst + he wandered about in his long and fabulous voyages, was carried into this + ocean and entered Germany, and that by him Asciburgium was founded and + named, a city at this day standing and inhabited upon the bank of the + Rhine: nay, that in the same place was formerly found an altar dedicated + to Ulysses, with the name of his father Laertes added to his own, and that + upon the confines of Germany and Rhoetia are still extant certain + monuments and tombs inscribed with Greek characters. Traditions these + which I mean not either to confirm with arguments of my own or to refute. + Let every one believe or deny the same according to his own bent. + </p> + <p> + For myself, I concur in opinion with such as suppose the people of Germany + never to have mingled by inter-marriages with other nations, but to have + remained a people pure, and independent, and resembling none but + themselves. Hence amongst such a mighty multitude of men, the same make + and form is found in all, eyes stern and blue, yellow hair, huge bodies, + but vigorous only in the first onset. Of pains and labour they are not + equally patient, nor can they at all endure thrift and heat. To bear + hunger and cold they are hardened by their climate and soil. + </p> + <p> + Their lands, however somewhat different in aspect, yet taken all together + consist of gloomy forests or nasty marshes; lower and moister towards the + confines of Gaul, more mountainous and windy towards Noricum and Pannonia; + very apt to bear grain, but altogether unkindly to fruit trees; abounding + in flocks and herds, but generally small of growth. Nor even in their oxen + is found the usual stateliness, no more than the natural ornaments and + grandeur of head. In the number of their herds they rejoice; and these are + their only, these their most desirable riches. Silver and gold the Gods + have denied them, whether in mercy or in wrath, I am unable to determine. + Yet I would not venture to aver that in Germany no vein of gold or silver + is produced; for who has ever searched? For the use and possession, it is + certain they care not. Amongst them indeed are to be seen vessels of + silver, such as have been presented to their Princes and Ambassadors, but + holden in no other esteem than vessels made of earth. The Germans however + adjoining to our frontiers value gold and silver for the purposes of + commerce, and are wont to distinguish and prefer certain of our coins. + They who live more remote are more primitive and simple in their dealings, + and exchange one commodity for another. The money which they like is the + old and long known, that indented, {Footnote: With milled edges.} or that + impressed with a chariot and two horses. Silver too is what they seek more + than gold, from no fondness or preference, but because small pieces are + more ready in purchasing things cheap and common. + </p> + <p> + Neither in truth do they abound in iron, as from the fashion of their + weapons may be gathered. Swords they rarely use, or the larger spear. They + carry javelins or, in their own language, <i>framms</i>, pointed with a + piece of iron short and narrow, but so sharp and manageable, that with the + same weapon they can fight at a distance or hand to hand, just as need + requires. Nay, the horsemen also are content with a shield and a javelin. + The foot throw likewise weapons missive, each particular is armed with + many, and hurls them a mighty space, all naked or only wearing a light + cassock. In their equipment they show no ostentation; only that their + shields are diversified and adorned with curious colours. With coats of + mail very few are furnished, and hardly upon any is seen a headpiece or + helmet. Their horses are nowise signal either in fashion or in fleetness; + nor taught to wheel and bound, according to the practice of the Romans: + they only move them forward in a line, or turn them right about, with such + compactness and equality that no one is ever behind the rest. To one who + considers the whole it is manifest, that in their foot their principal + strength lies, and therefore they fight intermixed with the horse: for + such is their swiftness as to match and suit with the motions and + engagements of the cavalry. So that the infantry are elected from amongst + the most robust of their youth, and placed in front of the army. The + number to be sent is also ascertained, out of every village <i>an hundred</i>, + and by this very name they continue to be called at home, <i>those of the + hundred band</i>: thus what was at first no more than a number, becomes + thenceforth a title and distinction of honour. In arraying their army, + they divide the whole into distinct battalions formed sharp in front. To + recoil in battle, provided you return again to the attack, passes with + them rather for policy than fear. Even when the combat is no more than + doubtful, they bear away the bodies of their slain. The most glaring + disgrace that can befall them, is to have quitted their shield; nor to one + branded with such ignominy is it lawful to join in their sacrifices, or to + enter into their assemblies; and many who had escaped in the day of + battle, have hanged themselves to put an end to this their infamy. + </p> + <p> + In the choice of kings they are determined by the splendour of their race, + in that of generals by their bravery. Neither is the power of their kings + unbounded or arbitrary: and their generals procure obedience not so much + by the force of their authority as by that of their example, when they + appear enterprising and brave, when they signalise themselves by courage + and prowess; and if they surpass all in admiration and pre-eminence, if + they surpass all at the head of an army. But to none else but the Priests + is it allowed to exercise correction, or to inflict bonds or stripes. Nor + when the Priests do this, is the same considered as a punishment, or + arising from the orders of the general, but from the immediate command of + the Deity, Him whom they believe to accompany them in war. They therefore + carry with them when going to fight, certain images and figures taken out + of their holy groves. What proves the principal incentive to their valour + is, that it is not at random nor by the fortuitous conflux of men that + their troops and pointed battalions are formed, but by the conjunction of + whole families, and tribes of relations. Moreover, close to the field of + battle are lodged all the nearest and most interesting pledges of nature. + Hence they hear the doleful howlings of their wives, hence the cries of + their tender infants. These are to each particular the witnesses whom he + most reverences and dreads; these yield him the praise which affect him + most. Their wounds and maims they carry to their mothers, or to their + wives, neither are their mothers or wives shocked in telling, or in + sucking their bleeding sores. {Footnote: Nec illae numerare aut exigere + plagas pavent.} Nay, to their husbands and sons whilst engaged in battle, + they administer meat and encouragement. + </p> + <p> + In history we find, that some armies already yielding and ready to fly, + have been by the women restored, through their inflexible importunity and + entreaties, presenting their breasts, and showing their impending + captivity; an evil to the Germans then by far most dreadful when it + befalls their women. So that the spirit of such cities as amongst their + hostages are enjoined to send their damsels of quality, is always engaged + more effectually than that of others. They even believe them endowed with + something celestial and the spirit of prophecy. Neither do they disdain to + consult them, nor neglect the responses which they return. In the reign of + the deified Vespasian, we have seen <i>Veleda</i> for a long time, and by + many nations, esteemed and adored as a divinity. In times past they + likewise worshipped <i>Aurinia</i> and several more, from no complaisance + or effort of flattery, nor as Deities of their own creating. + </p> + <p> + Of all the Gods, Mercury is he whom they worship most. To him on certain + stated days it is lawful to offer even human victims. Hercules and Mars + they appease with beasts usually allowed for sacrifice. Some of the + Suevians make likewise immolations to <i>Isis</i>, Concerning the cause + and original of this foreign sacrifice I have found small light; unless + the figure of her image formed like a galley, show that such devotion + arrived from abroad. For the rest, from the grandeur and majesty of beings + celestial, they judge it altogether unsuitable to hold the Gods enclosed + within walls, or to represent them under any human likeness. They + consecrate whole woods and groves, and by the names of the Gods they call + these recesses; divinities these, which only in contemplation and mental + reverence they behold. + </p> + <p> + To the use of lots and auguries, they are addicted beyond all other + nations. Their method of divining by lots is exceeding simple. From a tree + which bears fruit they cut a twig, and divide it into two small pieces. + These they distinguish by so many several marks, and throw them at random + and without order upon a white garment. Then the Priest of the community, + if for the public the lots are consulted, or the father of a family if + about a private concern, after he has solemnly invoked the Gods, with eyes + lifted up to heaven, takes up every piece thrice, and having done thus + forms a judgment according to the marks before made. If the chances have + proved forbidding, they are no more consulted upon the same affair during + the same day: even when they are inviting, yet, for confirmation, the + faith of auguries too is tried. Yea, here also is the known practice of + divining events from the voices and flight of birds. But to this nation it + is peculiar, to learn presages and admonitions divine from horses also. + These are nourished by the State in the same sacred woods and groves, all + milk-white and employed in no earthly labour. These yoked in the holy + chariot, are accompanied by the Priest and the King, or the Chief of the + community, who both carefully observe his actions and neighing. Nor in any + sort of augury is more faith and assurance reposed, not by the populace + only, but even by the nobles, even by the Priests. These account + themselves the ministers of the Gods, and the horses privy to his will. + They have likewise another method of divination, whence to learn the issue + of great and mighty wars. From the nation with whom they are at war they + contrive, it avails not how, to gain a captive: him they engage in combat + with one selected from amongst themselves, each armed after the manner of + his country, and according as the victory falls to this or to the other, + gather a presage of the whole. + </p> + <p> + Affairs of smaller moment the chiefs determine: about matters of higher + consequence the whole nation deliberates; yet in such sort, that whatever + depends upon the pleasure and decision of the people, is examined and + discussed by the chiefs. Where no accident or emergency intervenes, they + assemble upon stated days, either when the moon changes, or is full: since + they believe such seasons to be the most fortunate for beginning all + transactions. Neither in reckoning of time do they count, like us, the + number of days but that of nights. In this style their ordinances are + framed, in this style their diets appointed; and with them the night seems + to lead and govern the day. From their extensive liberty this evil and + default flows, that they meet not at once, nor as men commanded and afraid + to disobey; so that often the second day, nay often the third, is consumed + through the slowness of the members in assembling. They sit down as they + list, promiscuously, like a crowd, and all armed. It is by the Priests + that silence is enjoined, and with the power of correction the Priests are + then invested. Then the King or Chief is heard, as are others, each + according to his precedence in age, or in nobility, or in warlike renown, + or in eloquence; and the influence of every speaker proceeds rather from + his ability to persuade than from any authority to command. If the + proposition displease, they reject it by an inarticulate murmur: if it be + pleasing, they brandish their javelins. The most honourable manner of + signifying their assent, is to express their applause by the sound of + their arms. + </p> + <p> + In the assembly it is allowed to present accusations, and to prosecute + capital offences. Punishments vary according to the quality of the crime. + Traitors and deserters they hang upon trees. Cowards, and sluggards, and + unnatural prostitutes they smother in mud and bogs under an heap of + hurdles. Such diversity in their executions has this view, that in + punishing of glaring iniquities, it behoves likewise to display them to + sight: but effeminacy and pollution must be buried and concealed. In + lighter transgressions too the penalty is measured by the fault, and the + delinquents upon conviction are condemned to pay a certain number of + horses or cattle. Part of this mulct accrues to the King or to the + community, part to him whose wrongs are vindicated, or to his next + kindred. In the same assemblies are also chosen their chiefs or rulers, + such as administer justice in their villages and boroughs. To each of + these are assigned an hundred persons chosen from amongst the populace, to + accompany and assist him, men who help him at once with their authority + and their counsel. + </p> + <p> + Without being armed they transact nothing, whether of public or private + concernment. But it is repugnant to their custom for any man to use arms, + before the community has attested his capacity to wield them. Upon such + testimonial, either one of the rulers, or his father, or some kinsman + dignify the young man in the midst of the assembly, with a shield and + javelin. This amongst them is the <i>manly robe</i>, this the first degree + of honour conferred upon their youth. Before this they seem no more than + part of a private family, but thenceforward part of the Commonweal. The + princely dignity they confer even upon striplings, whose race is eminently + noble, or whose fathers have done great and signal services to the State. + For about the rest, who are more vigorous and long since tried, they crowd + to attend: nor is it any shame to be seen amongst the followers of these. + Nay, there are likewise degrees of followers, higher or lower, just as he + whom they follow judges fit. Mighty too is the emulation amongst these + followers, of each to be first in favour with his Prince; mighty also the + emulation of the Princes, to excel in the number and valour of followers. + This is their principal state, this their chief force, to be at all times + surrounded with a huge band of chosen young men, for ornament and glory in + peace, for security and defence in war. Nor is it amongst his own people + only, but even from the neighbouring communities, that any of their + Princes reaps so much renown and a name so great, when he surpasses in the + number and magnanimity of his followers. For such are courted by + Embassies, and distinguished with presents, and by the terror of their + fame alone often dissipate wars. + </p> + <p> + In the day of battle, it is scandalous to the Prince to be surpassed in + feats of bravery, scandalous to his followers to fail in matching the + bravery of the Prince. But it is infamy during life, and indelible + reproach, to return alive from a battle where their Prince was slain. To + preserve their Prince, to defend him, and to ascribe to his glory all + their own valorous deeds, is the sum and most sacred part of their oath. + The Princes fight for victory; for the Prince his followers fight. Many of + the young nobility, when their own community comes to languish in its + vigour by long peace and inactivity, betake themselves through impatience + to other States which then prove to be in war. For, besides that this + people cannot brook repose, besides that by perilous adventures they more + quickly blazon their fame, they cannot otherwise than by violence and war + support their huge train of retainers. For from the liberality of their + Prince, they demand and enjoy that <i>war-horse</i> of theirs, with that + <i>victorious javelin</i> dyed in the blood of their enemies. In the place + of pay, they are supplied with a daily table and repasts; though grossly + prepared, yet very profuse. For maintaining such liberality and + munificence, a fund is furnished by continual wars and plunder. Nor could + you so easily persuade them to cultivate the ground, or to await the + return of the seasons and produce of the year, as to provoke the foe and + to risk wounds and death: since stupid and spiritless they account it, to + acquire by their sweat what they can gain by their blood. + </p> + <p> + Upon any recess from war, they do not much attend the chase. Much more of + their time they pass in indolence, resigned to sleep and repasts. + {Footnote: "Dediti somno, ciboque:" handed over to sloth and gluttony.} + All the most brave, all the most warlike, apply to nothing at all; but to + their wives, to the ancient men, and to every the most impotent domestic, + trust all the care of their house, and of their lands and possessions. + They themselves loiter. {Footnote: Are rude and lazy.} Such is the amazing + diversity of their nature, that in the same men is found so much delight + in sloth, with so much enmity to tranquillity and repose. The communities + are wont, of their own accord and man by man, to bestow upon their Princes + a certain number of beasts, or a certain portion of grain; a contribution + which passes indeed for a mark of reverence and honour, but serves also to + supply their necessities. They chiefly rejoice in the gifts which come + from the bordering countries, such as are sent not only by particulars but + in the name of the State; curious horses, splendid armour, rich harness, + with collars of silver and gold. Now too they have learnt, what we have + taught them, to receive money. + </p> + <p> + That none of the several people in Germany live together in cities, is + abundantly known; nay, that amongst them none of their dwellings are + suffered to be contiguous. They inhabit apart and distinct, just as a + fountain, or a field, or a wood happened to invite them to settle. They + raise their villages in opposite rows, but not in our manner with the + houses joined one to another. Every man has a vacant space quite round his + own, whether for security against accidents from fire, or that they want + the art of building. With them in truth, is unknown even the use of mortar + and of tiles. In all their structures they employ materials quite gross + and unhewn, void of fashion and comeliness. Some parts they besmear with + an earth so pure and resplendent, that it resembles painting and colours. + They are likewise wont to scoop caves deep in the ground, and over them to + lay great heaps of dung. Thither they retire for shelter in the winter, + and thither convey their grain: for by such close places they mollify the + rigorous and excessive cold. Besides when at any time their enemy invades + them, he can only ravage the open country, but either knows not such + recesses as are invisible and subterraneous; or must suffer them to escape + him, on this very account that he is uncertain where to find them. + </p> + <p> + For their covering a mantle is what they all wear, fastened with a clasp + or, for want of it, with a thorn. As far as this reaches not they are + naked, and lie whole days before the fire. The most wealthy are + distinguished with a vest, not one large and flowing like those of + Sarmatians and Parthians, but girt close about them and expressing the + proportion of every limb. They likewise wear the skins of savage beasts, a + dress which those bordering upon the Rhine use without any fondness or + delicacy, but about which such who live further in the country are more + curious, as void of all apparel introduced by commerce. They choose + certain wild beasts, and, having flayed them, diversify their hides with + many spots, as also with the skins of monsters from the deep, such as are + engendered in the distant ocean and in seas unknown. Neither does the + dress of the women differ from that of the men, save that the women are + orderly attired in linen embroidered with purple, and use no sleeves, so + that all their arms are bare. The upper part of their breast is withal + exposed. Yet the laws of matrimony are severely observed there; nor in the + whole of their manners is ought more praiseworthy than this: for they are + almost the only Barbarians contented with one wife, excepting a very few + amongst them; men of dignity who marry divers wives, from no wantonness or + lubricity, but courted for the lustre of their family into many alliances. + </p> + <p> + To the husband, the wife tenders no dowry; but the husband, to the wife. + The parents and relations attend and declare their approbation of the + presents, not presents adapted to feminine pomp and delicacy, nor such as + serve to deck the new married woman; but oxen and horse accoutred, and a + shield, with a javelin and sword. By virtue of these gifts, she is + espoused. She too on her part brings her husband some arms. This they + esteem the highest tie, these the holy mysteries, and matrimonial Gods. + That the woman may not suppose herself free from the considerations of + fortitude and fighting, or exempt from the casualties of war, the very + first solemnities of her wedding serve to warn her, that she comes to her + husband as a partner in his hazards and fatigues, that she is to suffer + alike with him, to adventure alike, during peace or during war. This the + oxen joined in the same yoke plainly indicate, this the horse ready + equipped, this the present of arms. 'Tis thus she must be content to live, + thus to resign life. The arms which she then receives she must preserve + inviolate, and to her sons restore the same, as presents worthy of them, + such as their wives may again receive, and still resign to her + grandchildren. + </p> + <p> + They therefore live in a state of chastity well secured; corrupted by no + seducing shows and public diversions, by no irritations from banqueting. + Of learning and of any secret intercourse by letters, they are all equally + ignorant, men and women. Amongst a people so numerous, adultery is + exceeding rare; a crime instantly punished, and the punishment left to be + inflicted by the husband. He, having cut off her hair, expells her from + his house naked, in presence of her kindred, and pursues her with stripes + throughout the village. For, to a woman who has prostituted her person, no + pardon is ever granted. However beautiful she be, however young, however + abounding in wealth, a husband she can never find. In truth, nobody turns + vices into mirth there, nor is the practice of corrupting and of yielding + to corruption, called the custom of the Age. Better still do those + communities, in which none but virgins marry, and where to a single + marriage all their views and inclinations are at once confined. Thus, as + they have but one body and one life, they take but one husband, that + beyond him they may have no thought, no further wishes, nor love him only + as their husband but as their marriage. {Footnote: "Sed tamquam + matrimonium ament."} To restrain generation and the increase of children, + is esteemed an abominable sin, as also to kill infants newly born. And + more powerful with them are good manners, than with other people are good + laws. + </p> + <p> + In all their houses the children are reared naked and nasty; and thus grow + into those limbs, into that bulk, which with marvel we behold. They are + all nourished with the milk of their own mothers, and never surrendered to + handmaids and nurses. The lord you cannot discern from the slave, by any + superior delicacy in rearing. Amongst the same cattle they promiscuously + live, upon the same ground they without distinction lie, till at a proper + age the free-born are parted from the rest, and their bravery recommend + them to notice. Slow and late do the young men come to the use of women, + and thus very long preserve the vigour of youth. Neither are the virgins + hastened to wed. They must both have the same sprightly youth, the like + stature, and marry when equal and able-bodied. Thus the robustness of the + parents is inherited by the children. Children are holden in the same + estimation with their mother's brother, as with their father. Some hold + this tie of blood to be most inviolable and binding, and in receiving of + hostages, such pledges are most considered and claimed, as they who at + once possess affections the most unalienable, and the most diffuse + interest in their family. To every man, however, his own children are + heirs and successors: wills they make none: for want of children his next + akin inherits; his own brothers, those of his father, or those of his + mother. To ancient men, the more they abound in descendants, in relations + and affinities, so much the more favour and reverence accrues. From being + childless, no advantage nor estimation is derived. + </p> + <p> + All the enmities of your house, whether of your father or of your kindred, + you must necessarily adopt; as well as all their friendships. Neither are + such enmities unappeasable and permanent: since even for so great a crime + as homicide, compensation is made by a fixed number of sheep and cattle, + and by it the whole family is pacified to content. A temper this, + wholesome to the State; because to a free nation, animosities and faction + are always more menacing and perilous. In social feasts, and deeds of + hospitality, no nation upon earth was ever more liberal and abounding. To + refuse admitting under your roof any man whatsoever, is held wicked and + inhuman. Every man receives every comer, and treats him with repasts as + large as his ability can possibly furnish. When the whole stock is + consumed, he who had treated so hospitably guides and accompanies his + guest to a new scene of hospitality; and both proceed to the next house, + though neither of them invited. Nor avails it, that they were not: they + are there received, with the same frankness and humanity. Between a + stranger and an acquaintance, in dispensing the rules and benefits of + hospitality, no difference is made. Upon your departure, if you ask + anything, it is the custom to grant it; and with the same facility, they + ask of you. In gifts they delight, but neither claim merit from what they + give, nor own any obligation for what they receive. Their manner of + entertaining their guests is familiar and kind. + </p> + <p> + The moment they rise from sleep, which they generally prolong till late in + the day, they bathe, most frequently in warm water; as in a country where + the winter is very long and severe. From bathing, they sit down to meat; + every man apart, upon a particular seat, and at a separate table. They + then proceed to their affairs, all in arms; as in arms, they no less + frequently go to banquet. To continue drinking night and day without + intermission, is a reproach to no man. Frequent then are their broils, as + usual amongst men intoxicated with liquor; and such broils rarely + terminate in angry words, but for the most part in maimings and slaughter. + Moreover in these their feasts, they generally deliberate about + reconciling parties at enmity, about forming affinities, choosing of + Princes, and finally about peace and war. For they judge, that at no + season is the soul more open to thoughts that are artless and upright, or + more fired with such as are great and bold. This people, of themselves + nowise subtile or politic, from the freedom of the place and occasion + acquire still more frankness to disclose the most secret motions and + purposes of their hearts. When therefore the minds of all have been once + laid open and declared, on the day following the several sentiments are + revised and canvassed; and to both conjectures of time, due regard is had. + They consult, when they know not how to dissemble; they determine, when + they cannot mistake. + </p> + <p> + For their drink, they draw a liquor from barley or other grain; and + ferment the same, so as to make it resemble wine. Nay, they who dwell upon + the bank of the Rhine deal in wine. Their food is very simple; wild fruit, + fresh venison, or coagulated milk. They banish hunger without formality, + without curious dressing and curious fare. In extinguishing thirst, they + use not equal temperance. If you will but humour their excess in drinking, + and supply them with as much as they covet, it will be no less easy to + vanquish them by vices than by arms. + </p> + <p> + Of public diversions they have but one sort, and in all their meetings the + same is still exhibited. Young men, such, as make it their pastime, fling + themselves naked and dance amongst sharp swords and the deadly points of + javelins. From habit they acquire their skill, and from their skill a + graceful manner; yet from hence draw no gain or hire: though this + adventurous gaiety has its reward, namely, that of pleasing the + spectators. What is marvellous, playing at dice is one of their most + serious employments; and even sober, they are gamesters: nay, so + desperately do they venture upon the chance of winning or losing, that + when their whole substance is played away, they stake their liberty and + their persons upon one and the last throw. The loser goes calmly into + voluntary bondage. However younger he be, however stronger, he tamely + suffers himself to be bound and sold by the winner. Such is their + perseverance in an evil course: they themselves call it honour. + </p> + <p> + Slaves of this class, they exchange away in commerce, to free themselves + too from the shame of such a victory. Of their other slaves they make not + such use as we do of ours, by distributing amongst them the several + offices and employments of the family. Each of them has a dwelling of his + own, each a household to govern. His lord uses him like a tenant, and + obliges him to pay a quantity of grain, or of cattle, or of cloth. Thus + far only the subserviency of the slave extends. All the other duties in a + family, not the slaves, but the wives and children discharge. To inflict + stripes upon a slave, or to put him in chains, or to doom him to severe + labour, are things rarely seen. To kill them they sometimes are wont, not + through correction or government, but in heat and rage, as they would an + enemy, save that no vengeance or penalty follows. The freedmen very little + surpass the slaves, rarely are of moment in the house; in the community + never, excepting only such nations where arbitrary dominion prevails. For + there they bear higher sway than the free-born, nay, higher than the + nobles. In other countries the inferior condition of freedmen is a proof + of public liberty. + </p> + <p> + To the practice of usury and of increasing money by interest, they are + strangers; and hence is found a better guard against it, than if it were + forbidden. They shift from land to land; and, still appropriating a + portion suitable to the number of hands for manuring, anon parcel out the + whole amongst particulars according to the condition and quality of each. + As the plains are very spacious, the allotments are easily assigned. Every + year they change, and cultivate a fresh soil; yet still there is ground to + spare. For they strive not to bestow labour proportionable to the + fertility and compass of their lands, by planting orchards, by enclosing + meadows, by watering gardens. From the earth, corn only is exacted. Hence + they quarter not the year into so many seasons. Winter, Spring, and + Summer, they understand; and for each have proper appellations. Of the + name and blessings of Autumn, they are equally ignorant. + </p> + <p> + In performing their funerals, they show no state or vainglory. This only + is carefully observed, that with the corpses of their signal men certain + woods be burned. Upon the funeral pile they accumulate neither apparel nor + perfumes. Into the fire, are always thrown the arms of the dead, and + sometimes his horse. With sods of earth only the sepulchre is raised. The + pomp of tedious and elaborate monuments they contemn, as things grievous + to the deceased. Tears and wailings they soon dismiss: their affliction + and woe they long retain. In women, it is reckoned becoming to bewail + their loss; in men, to remember it. This is what in general we have + learned, in the original and customs of the whole people of Germany. I + shall now deduce the institutions and usages of the several people, as far + as they vary one from another; as also an account of what nations from + thence removed, to settle themselves in Gaul. + </p> + <p> + That the Gauls were in times past more puissant and formidable, is related + by the Prince of authors, the deified Julius; {Footnote: Julius Caesar.} + and hence it is probable that they too have passed into Germany. For what + a small obstacle must be a river, to restrain any nation, as each grew + more potent, from seizing or changing habitations; when as yet all + habitations were common, and not parted or appropriated by the founding + and terror of Monarchies? The region therefore between the Hercynian + Forest and the rivers Moenus {Footnote: Main.} and Rhine, was occupied by + the Helvetians; as was that beyond it by the Boians, both nations of Gaul. + There still remains a place called <i>Boiemum</i>, which denotes the + primitive name and antiquity of the country, although the inhabitants have + been changed. But whether the Araviscans are derived from the Osians, a + nation of Germans passing into Pannonia, or the Osians from the Araviscans + removing from thence into Germany, is a matter undecided; since they both + still use the language, the same customs and the same laws. For, as of old + they lived alike poor and alike free, equal proved the evils and + advantages on each side the river, and common to both people. The + Treverians and Nervians aspire passionately to the reputation of being + descended from the Germans; since by the glory of this original, they + would escape all imputation of resembling the Gauls in person and + effeminacy. Such as dwell upon the bank of the Rhine, the Vangiones, the + Tribocians, and the Nemetes, are without doubt all Germans. The Ubians are + ashamed of their original; though they have a particular honour to boast, + that of having merited an establishment as a Roman Colony, and still + delight to be called <i>Agrippinensians</i>, after the name of their + founder: they indeed formerly came from beyond the Rhine, and, for the + many proofs of their fidelity, were settled upon the very bank of the + river; not to be there confined or guarded themselves, but to guard and + defend that boundary against the rest of the Germans. + </p> + <p> + Of all these nations, the Batavians are the most signal in bravery. They + inhabit not much territory upon the Rhine, but possess an island in it. + They were formerly part of the Cattans, and by means of feuds at home + removed to these dwellings; whence they might become a portion of the + Roman Empire. With them this honour still remains, as also the memorials + of their ancient association with us: for they are not under the contempt + of paying tribute, nor subject to be squeezed by the farmers of the + revenue. Free from all impositions and payments, and only set apart for + the purposes of fighting, they are reserved wholly for the wars, in the + same manner as a magazine of weapons and armour. Under the same degree of + homage are the nation of the Mattiacians. For such is the might and + greatness of the Roman People, as to have carried the awe and esteem of + their Empire beyond the Rhine and the ancient boundaries. Thus the + Mattiacians, living upon the opposite banks, enjoy a settlement and limits + of their own; yet in spirit and inclination are attached to us: in other + things resembling the Batavians, save that as they still breathe their + original air, still possess their primitive soil, they are thence inspired + with superior vigour and keenness. Amongst the people of Germany I would + not reckon those who occupy the lands which are under decimation, though + they be such as dwell beyond the Rhine and the Danube. By several + worthless and vagabond Gauls, and such as poverty rendered daring, that + region was seized as one belonging to no certain possessor: afterwards it + became a skirt of the Empire and part of a province, upon the enlargement + of our bounds and the extending of our garrisons and frontier. + </p> + <p> + Beyond these are the Cattans, whose territories begin at the Hercynian + Forest, and consist not of such wide and marshy plains, as those of the + other communities contained within the vast compass of Germany; but + produce ranges of hills, such as run lofty and contiguous for a long + tract, then by degrees sink and decay. Moreover the Hercynian Forest + attends for a while its native Cattans, then suddenly forsakes them. This + people are distinguished with bodies more hardy and robust, compact limbs, + stern countenances, and greater vigour of spirit. For Germans, they are + men of much sense and address. {Footnote: "Leur intelligence et leur + finesse étonnent, dans des Germains."} They dignify chosen men, listen to + such as are set over them, know how to preserve their post, to discern + occasions, to rebate their own ardour and impatience; how to employ the + day, how to entrench themselves by night. They account fortune amongst + things slippery and uncertain, but bravery amongst such as are + never-failing and secure; and, what is exceeding rare nor ever to be + learnt but by a wholesome course of discipline, in the conduct of the + general they repose more assurance than in the strength of the army. Their + whole forces consist of foot, who besides their arms carry likewise + instruments of iron and their provisions. You may see other Germans + proceed equipped to battle, but the Cattans so as to conduct a war. + {Footnote: "Alios ad proelium ire videas, Chattos ad bellum."} They rarely + venture upon excursions or casual encounters. It is in truth peculiar to + cavalry, suddenly to conquer, or suddenly to fly. Such haste and velocity + rather resembles fear. Patience and deliberation are more akin to + intrepidity. + </p> + <p> + Moreover a custom, practised indeed in other nations of Germany, yet very + rarely and confined only to particulars more daring than the rest, + prevails amongst the Cattans by universal consent. As soon as they arrive + to maturity of years, they let their hair and beards continue to grow, nor + till they have slain an enemy do they ever lay aside this form of + countenance by vow sacred to valour. Over the blood and spoil of a foe + they make bare their face. They allege, that they have now acquitted + themselves of the debt and duty contracted by their birth, and rendered + themselves worthy of their country, worthy of their parents. Upon the + spiritless, cowardly and unwarlike, such deformity of visage still + remains. {Footnote: "Manet squalor."} All the most brave likewise wear an + iron ring (a mark of great dishonour this in that nation) and retain it as + a chain; till by killing an enemy they become released. Many of the + Cattans delight always to bear this terrible aspect; and, when grown white + through age, become awful and conspicuous by such marks, both to the enemy + and their own countrymen. By them in all engagements the first assault is + made: of them the front of the battle is always composed, as men who in + their looks are singular and tremendous. For even during peace they abate + nothing in the grimness and horror of their countenance. They have no + house to inhabit, no land to cultivate, nor any domestic charge or care. + With whomsoever they come to sojourn, by him they are maintained; always + very prodigal of the substance of others, always despising what is their + own, till the feebleness of old age overtakes them, and renders them + unequal to the efforts of such rigid bravery. + </p> + <p> + Next to the Cattans, dwell the Usipians and Tencterians; upon the Rhine + now running in a channel uniform and certain, such as suffices for a + boundary. The Tencterians, besides their wonted glory in war, surpass in + the service and discipline of their cavalry. Nor do the Cattans derive + higher applause from their foot, than the Tencterians from their horse. + Such was the order established by their forefathers, and what their + posterity still pursue. From riding and exercising of horses, their + children borrow their pastimes; in this exercise the young men find matter + for emulating one another, and in this the old men take pleasure to + persevere. Horses are by the father bequeathed as part of his household + and family, horses are conveyed amongst the rights of succession, and as + such the son receives them; but not the eldest son, like other effects, by + priority of birth, but he who happens to be signal in boldness and + superior in war. + </p> + <p> + Contiguous to the Tencterians formerly dwelt the Bructerians, in whose + room it is said the Chamavians and Angrivarians are now settled; they who + expulsed and almost extirpated the Bructerians, with the concurrence of + the neighbouring nations: whether in detestation of their arrogance, or + allured by the love of spoil, or through the special favour of the Gods + towards us Romans. They in truth even vouchsafed to gratify us with the + sight of the battle. In it there fell above sixty thousand souls, without + a blow struck by the Romans; but, what is a circumstance still more + glorious, fell to furnish them with a spectacle of joy and recreation. May + the Gods continue and perpetuate amongst these nations, if not any love + for us, yet by all means this their animosity and hate towards each other: + since whilst the destiny of the Empire thus urges it, fortune cannot more + signally befriend us, than in sowing strife amongst our foes. + </p> + <p> + The Angrivarians and Chamavians are enclosed behind, by the Dulgibinians + and Chasuarians; and by other nations not so much noted: before, the + Frisians face them. The country of Frisia is divided into two; called the + greater and lesser, according to the measure of their strength. Both + nations stretch along the Rhine, quite to the ocean; and surround vast + lakes such as once have borne Roman fleets. We have moreover even ventured + out from thence into the ocean, and upon its coasts common fame has + reported the pillars of Hercules to be still standing: whether it be that + Hercules ever visited these parts, or that to his renowned name we are + wont to ascribe whatever is grand and glorious everywhere. Neither did + Drusus who made the attempt, want boldness to pursue it: but the roughness + of the ocean withstood him, nor would suffer discoveries to be made about + itself, no more than about Hercules. Thenceforward the enterprise was + dropped: nay, more pious and reverential it seemed, to believe the + marvellous feats of the Gods than to know and to prove them. {Footnote: + "Coelum ipsum petimus stultitia."} + </p> + <p> + Hitherto, I have been describing Germany towards the west. To the + northward, it winds away with an immense compass. And first of all occurs + the nation of the Chaucians: who though they begin immediately at the + confines of the Frisians, and occupy part of the shore, extend so far as + to border upon all the several people whom I have already recounted; till + at last, by a circuit, they reach quite to the boundaries of the Cattans. + A region so vast, the Chaucians do not only possess but fill; a people of + all the Germans the most noble, such as would rather maintain their + grandeur by justice than violence. They live in repose, retired from + broils abroad, void of avidity to possess more, free from a spirit of + domineering over others. They provoke no wars, they ravage no countries, + they pursue no plunder. Of their bravery and power, the chief evidence + arises from hence, that, without wronging or oppressing others, they are + come to be superior to all. Yet they are all ready to arm, and if an + exigency require, armies are presently raised, powerful and abounding as + they are in men and horses; and even when they are quiet and their weapons + laid aside, their credit and name continue equally high. + </p> + <p> + Along the side of the Chaucians and Cattans dwell the Cheruscans; a people + who finding no enemy to rouse them, were enfeebled by a peace overlasting + and uniform, but such as they failed not to nourish. A conduct which + proved more pleasing than secure; since treacherous is that repose which + you enjoy amongst neighbours that are very powerful and very fond of rule + and mastership. When recourse is once had to the sword, modesty and fair + dealing will be vainly pleaded by the weaker; names these which are always + assumed by the stronger. Thus the Cheruscans, they who formerly bore the + character of <i>good and upright</i>, are now called <i>cowards and fools</i>; + and the fortune of the Cattans who subdued them, grew immediately to be + wisdom. In the ruin of the Cheruscans, the Fosians, also their neighbours, + were involved; and in their calamities bore an equal share, though in + their prosperity they had been weaker and less considered. + </p> + <p> + In the same winding tract of Germany live the Cimbrians, close to the + ocean; a community now very small, but great in fame. Nay, of their + ancient renown, many and extensive are the traces and monuments still + remaining; even their entrenchments upon either shore, so vast in compass + that from thence you may even now measure the greatness and numerous bands + of that people, and assent to the account of an army so mighty. It was on + the six hundred and fortieth year of Rome, when of the arms of the + Cimbrians the first mention was made, during the Consulship of Caecilius + Metellus and Papirius Carbo. If from that time we count to the second + Consulship of the Emperor Trajan, the interval comprehends near two + hundred and ten years; so long have we been conquering Germany. In a + course of time, so vast between these two periods, many have been the + blows and disasters suffered on each side. In truth neither from the + Samnites, nor from the Carthaginians, nor from both Spains, nor from all + the nations of Gaul, have we received more frequent checks and alarms; nor + even from the Parthians: for, more vigorous and invincible is the liberty + of the Germans than the monarchy of the Arsacides. Indeed, what has the + power of the East to allege to our dishonour; but the fall of Crassus, + that power which was itself overthrown and abased by Ventidius, with the + loss of the great King Pacorus bereft of his life? But by the Germans the + Roman People have been bereft of five armies, all commanded by Consuls; by + the Germans, the commanders of these armies, Carbo, and Cassius, and + Scaurus Aurelius, and Servilius Caepio, as also Marcus Manlius, were all + routed or taken: by the Germans even the Emperor Augustus was bereft of + Varus and three legions. Nor without difficulty and loss of men were they + defeated by Caius Marius in Italy, or by the deified Julius in Gaul, or by + Drusus or Tiberius or Germanicus in their native territories. Soon after, + the mighty menaces of Caligula against them ended in mockery and derision. + Thenceforward they continued quiet, till taking advantage of our domestic + division and civil wars, they stormed and seized the winter entrenchments + of the legions, and aimed at the dominion of Gaul; from whence they were + once more expulsed, and in the times preceding the present, we gained a + triumph over them rather than a victory. + </p> + <p> + I must now proceed to speak of the Suevians, who are not, like the Cattans + and Tencterians, comprehended in a single people; but divided into several + nations all bearing distinct names, though, in general they are entitled + Suevians, and occupy the larger share of Germany. This people are + remarkable for a peculiar custom, that of twisting their hair and binding + it up in a knot. It is thus the Suevians are distinguished from the other + Germans, thus the free Suevians from their slaves. In other nations, + whether from alliance of blood with the Suevians, or, as is usual, from + imitation, this practice is also found, yet rarely, and never exceeds the + years of youth. The Suevians, even when their hair is white through age, + continue to raise it backwards in a manner stern and staring; and often + tie it upon the top of their head only. That of their Princes, is more + accurately disposed, and so far they study to appear agreeable and comely; + but without any culpable intention. For by it, they mean not to make love + or to incite it: they thus dress when proceeding to war, and deck their + heads so as to add to their height and terror in the eyes of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Of all the Suevians, the Semnones recount themselves to be the most + ancient and most noble. The belief of their antiquity is confirmed by + religious mysteries. At a stated time of the year, all the several people + descended from the same stock, assemble by their deputies in a wood; + consecrated by the idolatries of their forefathers, and by superstitious + awe in times of old. There by publicly sacrificing a man, they begin the + horrible solemnity of their barbarous worship. To this grove another sort + of reverence is also paid. No one enters it otherwise than bound with + ligatures, thence professing his subordination and meanness, and the power + of the Deity there. If he fall down, he is not permitted to rise or be + raised, but grovels along upon the ground. And of all their superstition, + this is the drift and tendency; that from this place the nation drew their + original, that here God, the supreme Governor of the world, resides, and + that all things else whatsoever are subject to him and bound to obey him. + The potent condition of the Semnones has increased their influence and + authority, as they inhabit an hundred towns; and from the largeness of + their community it comes, that they hold themselves for the head of the + Suevians. + </p> + <p> + What on the contrary ennobles the Langobards is the smallness of their + number, for that they, who are surrounded with very many and very powerful + nations, derive their security from no obsequiousness or plying; but from + the dint of battle and adventurous deeds. There follow in order the + Reudignians, and Aviones, and Angles, and Varinians, and Eudoses, and + Suardones and Nuithones; all defended by rivers or forests. Nor in one of + these nations does aught remarkable occur, only that they universally join + in the worship of <i>Herthum</i>; that is to say, the Mother Earth. Her + they believe to interpose in the affairs of men, and to visit countries. + In an island of the ocean stands the wood <i>Castum</i>; in it is a + chariot dedicated to the Goddess, covered over with a curtain, and + permitted to be touched by none but the Priest. Whenever the Goddess + enters this her holy vehicle, he perceives her; and with profound + veneration attends the motion of the chariot, which is always drawn by + yoked cows. Then it is that days of rejoicing always ensue, and in all + places whatsoever which she descends to honour with a visit and her + company, feasts and recreation abound. They go not to war; they touch no + arms; fast laid up is every hostile weapon; peace and repose are then only + known, then only beloved, till to the temple the same priest reconducts + the Goddess when well tired with the conversation of mortal beings. Anon + the chariot is washed and purified in a secret lake, as also the curtains; + nay, the Deity herself too, if you choose to believe it. In this office it + is slaves who minister, and they are forthwith doomed to be swallowed up + in the same lake. Hence all men are possessed with mysterious terror; as + well as with a holy ignorance what that must be, which none see but such + as are immediately to perish. Moreover this quarter of the Suevians + stretches to the middle of Germany. + </p> + <p> + The community next adjoining, is that of the Hermondurians; (that I may + now follow the course of the Danube, as a little before I did that of the + Rhine) a people this, faithful to the Romans. So that to them alone of all + the Germans, commerce is permitted; not barely upon the bank of the Rhine, + but more extensively, and even in that glorious colony in the province of + Rhoetia. They travel everywhere at their own discretion and without a + guard; and when to other nations, we show no more than our arms and + encampments, to this people we throw open our houses and dwellings, as to + men who have no longing to possess them. In the territories of the + Hermondurians rises the Elbe, a river very famous and formerly well known + to us; at present we only hear it named. + </p> + <p> + Close by the Hermondurians reside the Nariscans, and next to them the + Marcomanians and Quadians. Amongst these the Marcomanians are most signal + in force and renown; nay, their habitation itself they acquired by their + bravery, as from thence they formerly expulsed the Boians. Nor do the + Nariscans or Quadians degenerate in spirit. Now this is as it were the + frontier of Germany, as far as Germany is washed by the Danube. To the + times within our memory the Marcomanians and Quadians were governed by + kings, who were natives of their own, descended from the noble line of + Maroboduus and Tudrus. At present they are even subject to such as are + foreigners. But the whole strength and sway of their kings is derived from + the authority of the Romans. From our arms, they rarely receive any aid; + from our money very frequently. + </p> + <p> + Nor less powerful are the several people beyond them; namely, the + Marsignians, the Gothinians, the Osians and the Burians, who altogether + enclose the Marcomanians and Quadians behind. Of those, the Marsignians + and the Burians in speech and dress resemble the Suevians. From the Gallic + language spoken by the Gothinians, and from that of Pannonia by the + Osians, it is manifest that neither of these people are Germans; as it is + also from their bearing to pay tribute. Upon them as upon aliens their + tribute is imposed, partly by the Sarmatians, partly by the Quadians. The + Gothinians, to heighten their disgrace, are forced to labour in the iron + mines. By all these several nations but little level country is possessed: + they are seated amongst forests, and upon the ridges and declivities of + mountains. For, Suevia is parted by a continual ridge of mountains; beyond + which, live many distinct nations. Of these the Lygians are most numerous + and extensive, and spread into several communities. It will suffice to + mention the most puissant; even the Arians, Helvicones, Manimians; + Elysians and Naharvalians. Amongst the Naharvalians is shown a grove, + sacred to devotion extremely ancient. Over it a Priest presides apparelled + like a woman; but according to the explication of the Romans, 'tis <i>Castor</i> + and <i>Pollux</i> who are here worshipped. This Divinity is named <i>Alcis</i>. + There are indeed no images here, no traces of an extraneous superstition: + yet their devotion is addressed to young men and to brothers. Now the + Aryans, besides their forces, in which they surpass the several nations + just recounted, are in their persons stern and truculent; and even humour + and improve their natural grimness and ferocity by art and time. They wear + black shields, their bodies are painted black, they choose dark nights for + engaging in battle; and by the very awe and ghastly hue of their army, + strike the enemy with dread, as none can bear this their aspect so + surprising and as it were quite infernal. For, in all battles the eyes are + vanquished first. + </p> + <p> + Beyond the Lygians dwell the Gothones, under the rule of a King; and + thence held in subjection somewhat stricter than the other German nations, + yet not so strict as to extinguish all their liberty. Immediately + adjoining are the Rugians and Lemovians upon the coast of the ocean, and + of these several nations the characteristics are a round shield, a short + sword and kingly government. Next occur the communities of the Suiones, + situated in the ocean itself; and besides their strength in men and arms, + very powerful at sea. The form of their vessels varies thus far from ours, + that they have prows at each end, so as to be always ready to row to shore + without turning; nor are they moved by sails, nor on their sides have + benches of oars placed, but the rowers ply here and there in all parts of + the ship alike, as in some rivers is done, and change their oars from + place to place, just as they shift their course hither or thither. To + wealth also, amongst them, great veneration is paid, and thence a single + ruler governs them, without all restriction of power, and exacting + unlimited obedience. Neither here, as amongst other nations of Germany, + are arms used indifferently by all, but shut up and warded under the care + of a particular keeper, who in truth too is always a slave: since from all + sudden invasions and attacks from their foes, the ocean protects them: + besides that armed bands, when they are not employed, grow easily + debauched and tumultuous. The truth is, it suits not the interest of an + arbitrary Prince, to trust the care and power of arms either with a + nobleman or with a freeman, or indeed with any man above the condition of + a slave. + </p> + <p> + Beyond the Suiones is another sea, one very heavy and almost void of + agitation; and by it the whole globe is thought to be bounded and + environed, for that the reflection of the sun, after his setting, + continues till his rising, so bright as to darken the stars. To this, + popular opinion has added, that the tumult also of his emerging from the + sea is heard, that forms divine are then seen, as likewise the rays about + his head. Only thus far extend the limits of nature, if what fame says be + true. Upon the right of the Suevian Sea the Aestyan nations reside, who + use the same customs and attire with the Suevians; their language more + resembles that of Britain. They worship the Mother of the Gods. As the + characteristic of their national superstition, they wear the images of + wild boars. This alone serves them for arms, this is the safeguard of all, + and by this every worshipper of the Goddess is secured even amidst his + foes. Rare amongst them is the use of weapons of iron, but frequent that + of clubs. In producing of grain and the other fruits of the earth, they + labour with more assiduity and patience than is suitable to the usual + laziness of Germans. Nay, they even search the deep, and of all the rest + are the only people who gather <i>amber</i>. They call it <i>glasing</i>, + and find it amongst the shallows and upon the very shore. But, according + to the ordinary incuriosity and ignorance of Barbarians, they have neither + learnt, nor do they inquire, what is its nature, or from what cause it is + produced. In truth it lay long neglected amongst the other gross + discharges of the sea; till from our luxury, it gained a name and value. + To themselves it is of no use: they gather it rough, they expose it in + pieces coarse and unpolished, and for it receive a price with wonder. You + would however conceive it to be a liquor issuing from trees, for that in + the transparent substance are often seen birds and other animals, such as + at first stuck in the soft gum, and by it, as it hardened, became quite + enclosed. I am apt to believe that, as in the recesses of the East are + found woods and groves dropping frankincense and balms, so in the isles + and continent of the West such gums are extracted by the force and + proximity of the sun; at first liquid and flowing into the next sea, then + thrown by winds and waves upon the opposite shore. If you try the nature + of amber by the application of fire, it kindles like a torch; and feeds a + thick and unctuous flame very high scented, and presently becomes + glutinous like pitch or rosin. + </p> + <p> + Upon the Suiones, border the people Sitones; and, agreeing with them in + all other things, differ from them in one, that here the sovereignty is + exercised by a woman. So notoriously do they degenerate not only from a + state of liberty, but even below a state of bondage. Here end the + territories of the Suevians. + </p> + <p> + Whether amongst the Sarmatians or the Germans I ought to account the + Peucinians, the Venedians, and the Fennians, is what I cannot determine; + though the Peucinians, whom some call Basstarnians, speak the same + language with the Germans, use the same attire, build like them, and live + like them, in that dirtiness and sloth so common to all. Somewhat they are + corrupted into the fashion of the Sarmatians by the intermarriages of the + principal sort with that nation: from whence the Venedians have derived + very many of their customs and a great resemblance. For they are + continually traversing and infesting with robberies all the forests and + mountains lying between the Peucinians and Fennians. Yet they are rather + reckoned amongst the Germans, for that they have fixed houses, and carry + shields, and prefer travelling on foot, and excel in swiftness. Usages + these, all widely differing from those of the Sarmatians, who live on + horseback and dwell in waggons. In wonderful savageness live the nation of + the Fennians, and in beastly poverty, destitute of arms, of horses, and of + homes; their food, the common herbs; their apparel, skins; their bed, the + earth; their only hope in their arrows, which for want of iron they point + with bones. Their common support they have from the chase, women as well + as men; for with these the former wander up and down, and crave a portion + of the prey. Nor other shelter have they even for their babes, against the + violence of tempests and ravening beasts, than to cover them with the + branches of trees twisted together: this a reception for the old men, and + hither resort the young. Such a condition they judge more happy than the + painful occupation of cultivating the ground, than the labour of rearing + houses, than the agitations of hope and fear attending the defence of + their own property or the seizing that of others. Secure against the + designs of men, secure against the malignity of the Gods, they have + accomplished a thing of infinite difficulty; that to them nothing remains + even to be wished. + </p> + <p> + What further accounts we have are fabulous: as that the Hellusians and + Oxiones have the countenances and aspect of men, with the bodies and limbs + of savage beasts. This, as a thing about which I have no certain + information, I shall leave untouched. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE LIFE OF AGRICOLA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE SITUATION, CLIMATE, AND + PEOPLE OF BRITAIN. + </h2> + <p> + Amongst the Ancients, it was common to transmit to posterity the + characters and exploits of memorable men: nor in truth in our own times + has the Age, however indifferent about what concerns itself, failed to + observe the like usage, whenever any spirit eminent for great and signal + virtue has vanquished and triumphed over the blindness of such as cannot + distinguish right from wrong, as well as over the spite of malignants; + for, spite and blindness are evils common to great States and to small. + But, as in those early times there was found greater propensity to feats + of renown, and more scope to perform them; so whoever excelled in a happy + genius was naturally led to display the merits and memory of the virtuous + dead, without all view to court favour, or to gain advantages, but only by + the motives and recompense flowing from a benevolent and conscientious + mind. Indeed there were several who, in recounting their own lives, + concluded, that they thence showed rather a confidence in their own + integrity and demeanour than any mark of arrogance. Neither was the + account which Rutilius and Scaurus gave of themselves, thence the less + credited or the more censured. So true it is, that the several virtues are + best understood and most prized, during the same times in which they are + most easily produced. But to myself, who am going to relate the life of a + person deceased, I find pardon necessary; which I should not have asked, + were I not about to revive and traverse times so sanguinary, and baneful + to all virtue. + </p> + <p> + We find it recorded, that for celebrating the praises of Paetus Thrasea, + Arulenus Rusticus suffered a deadly doom; as did Herennius Senesce, for + those of Helvidius Priscus. Nor upon the persons of the authors only was + this cruelty inflicted, but also upon the books themselves; since to the + Triumvirate of Justice orders were sent, that in the Forum and place of + popular elections, the works of men so illustrious for parts and genius + should be burned. Yes, in this very fire they imagined, that they should + abolish the voice and utterance of the Roman People, with the liberty of + the Senate, and all the ideas and remembrances of humankind. For, they had + besides expelled all the professors of philosophy, {Footnote: When + Vespasian's worthless son "cleared Rome of what most sham'd him:" Domitian + banished Epictetus, and the other philosophers.} and driven every laudable + science into exile, that nought which was worthy and honest might anywhere + be seen. Mighty surely was the testimony which we gave of our patience; + and as our forefathers had beheld the ultimate consummation of liberty, so + did we of bondage, since through dread of informers and inquisitions of + State, we were bereft of the common intercourse of speech and attention. + Nay, with our utterance we had likewise lost our memory; had it been + equally in our power to forget, as to be silent. + </p> + <p> + Now indeed at length our spirit returns. Yet, though from the first dawn + of this very happy age begun by the reign of Nerva, he blended together + two things once found irreconcilable, public liberty and sovereign power; + and though Trajan his adopted successor be daily augmenting the felicity + of the State; insomuch that for the general security not only hopes and + vows are conceived, but even firm assurance follows these vows, and their + full accomplishment is seen; such however is the frailty of man and its + effects, that much more slow is the progress of the remedies than of the + evils; and as human bodies attain their growth by tedious degrees, and are + subject to be destroyed in an instant, so it is much easier to suppress + than to revive the efforts of genius and study. For, upon the mind there + steals a pleasure even in sloth and remissness, and that very inactivity + which was at first hated, is at last loved. Will it not be found that + during a course of fifteen years (a mighty space in the age of mortal man) + numbers perished through fortuitous disasters, and all men noted for + promptness and spirit were cut off by the cruelty of the Emperor? Few we + are, who have escaped; and if I may so speak, we have survived not only + others but even ourselves, when from the middle of our life so many years + were rent; whence from being young we are arrived at old age, from being + old we are nigh come to the utmost verge of mortality, all in a long + course of awful silence. I shall however find no cause of regret from + having framed an historical deduction of our former bondage, as also a + testimony of the public blessings which at present we enjoy; though, in + doing it, my style be negligent and unpolished. To the honour of Agricola + my wife's father, this present book is in the meantime dedicated; and, as + 'tis a declaration of filial duty and affection, will thence be commended, + at least excused. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + A.D. 40. Cnaeus Julius Agricola was born in the ancient and illustrious + Colony of Forojulium, {Footnote: Fréjus.} and both his grandfathers were + Procurators to the Emperors; a dignity peculiar to the Equestrian Order. + His father Julius Graecinus was a Senator, and noted for eloquence and + philosophy. By these his virtues, he earned the wrath of Caligula. For, he + was by him ordered to accuse Marcus Silanus, and put to death for + refusing. His mother was Julia Procilla, a lady of singular chastity. + Under her eye and tender care he was reared, and spent his childhood and + youth in the continual pursuit and cultivation of worthy accomplishments. + What guarded him from the allurements of the vicious (besides his own + virtuous disposition and natural innocence) was, that for the seat and + nursery of his studies, whilst yet very little, he had the city of + Marseilles; a place well tempered and framed, as in it all the politeness + of the Greeks and all the provincial parsimony are blended together. I + remember he was wont to declare, that in his early youth he studied + Philosophy and the Law with more avidity than was allowable to a Roman and + a Senator; till the discretion of his mother checked his spirit, engaged + with passion and ardour in the pursuit. In truth, his superior and + elevated genius thirsted, with more vehemence than caution, after the + loveliness and lustre of a name and renown so mighty and sublime. Reason + and age afterwards qualified his heat; and, what is a task extremely hard, + he satisfied himself with a limited measure of philosophy. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 59-62. The first rudiments of war he learnt in Britain, under that + prudent and vigilant commander Suetonius Paulinus; by whom he was chosen + and distinguished, as his domestic companion. Neither did Agricola behave + licentiously, after the manner of young men, who turn warfare into riot; + nor assumed the title and office of a Tribune without the sufficiency, in + order to use it slothfully in feats of pleasure and absence from duty, but + to know the Province, to be known to the army, to learn of such as had + experience, to follow such as were worthy and brave, to seek for no + exploits for ostentation, to refuse none through fear, and in all his + pursuits was equally zealous and active. Indeed at no time had Britain + been under greater combustions, nor our affairs there more precarious. Our + veterans were slaughtered, our colonies burned down, our armies surprised + and taken. At that juncture the struggle was for life; afterwards, for + victory. Now though all these affairs were transacted by the counsels and + conduct of another than Agricola, and though the stress of the whole, with + the glory of recovering the Province, accrued to the General; they all + however proved to the young man matters of skill, of experience and + stimulation; and there seized his soul a passion for military glory, a + spirit disgustful to the times, when of men signally eminent a malignant + opinion was entertained, and when as much peril arose from a great + character as from a bad. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 62-68. Departing from hence to Rome for the exercise of public + dignities, he there married Domitia Decidiana, a lady splendid in her + descent; and to him, who was aspiring to higher honours, this marriage + proved a great ornament and support. In marvellous unanimity they also + lived, in a course of mutual tenderness and mutual preference; a temper + commendable in both, only that the praise of a good wife rises in + proportion to the contumely of a bad. His lot as Quaestor fell upon Asia, + where he had Salvius Titianus for Proconsul. But neither the Province nor + the Proconsul corrupted his probity, though the country was very rich, + nay, prepared as a prey for men corruptly disposed; and Titianus, a man + bent upon all acts of rapine, was ready, upon the smallest encouragement, + to have purchased a mutual connivance in iniquity. In Asia he was enriched + by the birth of a daughter, tending at once to his consolation and the + support of his family; for the son born to him before, he very soon lost. + The interval between his bearing the office of Quaestor and that of + Tribune of the People, and even the year of his Tribuneship, he passed in + repose and inactivity; as well aware of the spirit of the times under + Nero, when sloth and heaviness served for wisdom. With the like indolence + he held the Praetorship, and in the same quiet and silence. For upon him + the jurisdiction of that dignity fell not. The public pastimes and the + empty gaieties of the office, he exhibited according to the rules of good + sense and to the measure of his wealth, in a manner though remote from + prodigality, yet deserving popular applause. As he was next appointed by + Galba to make research into the gifts and oblations appertaining to the + temples, he proceeded with such diligence and an examination so strict, + that the State suffered from no sacrilege save that of Nero. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 69 and 70. In the year following he suffered a grievous blow in his + spirit and family. For, Otho's fleet, which continued roving upon the + coast and pursuing rapine, whilst they were ravaging Intemelium {Footnote: + Vinitimiglia.} (a part of Liguria) slew the mother of Agricola upon her + estate there, and plundered the estate itself with a great part of her + treasure, which had indeed proved the cause of the murder. As he therefore + went from Rome to solemnise her funeral, he had tidings upon the road that + Vespasian was pursuing the sovereignty, and instantly espoused his party. + In the beginning of this reign all the exercise of power and the + government of the city, were entirely in the hands of Mucianus; for, + Domitian was yet extremely young, and, of the Imperial fortune of his + father, assumed nothing further than a latitude for debauchery. Mucianus, + who had despatched Agricola to levy forces, and found him to have acted in + that trust with uprightness and magnanimity, preferred him to the command + of the twentieth legion; as soon as he was informed, that he who commanded + it before was engaged in seditious practices. Indeed that legion had with + great slowness and reluctance been brought to swear allegiance to + Vespasian, nay, was grown over mighty and even formidable to the + commanders-in-chief: so that their own commander was found void of + authority to control them; though it is uncertain whether from the temper + of the man or from that of the soldiers. Thus Agricola was chosen, at once + to succeed him, and to punish delinquency in them; and exercising + moderation altogether rare, would rather have it thought, that he had + found them unblamable than made them so. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 72. Over Britain at that juncture Vettius Bolanus bore rule, but with + more complacency than suited a province so fierce and untamed. Hence + Agricola restrained his own heat, and held within bounds the ardour of his + spirit, as he was well skilled how to show his obedience, and had + thoroughly learned to blend what was honourable with what was profitable: + soon after this, Britain received for its Governor Petilius Cerialis, one + of Consular quality. The virtue and abilities of Agricola had now ample + space for producing suitable effects. But to him at first Cerialis + communicated only the dangers and fatigues: with him anon he likewise + shared the glory; frequently, for trial of his prowess, committed to his + conduct a part of the army; sometimes, according to the measure of his + success, set him at the head of forces still larger. Nor did Agricola ever + vaunt his exploits to blazon his own fame. To his general, as to the + Author of all, he, as his instrument and inferior, still ascribed his good + fortune. Thus from his bravery in the execution of his orders, from his + modesty in recounting his deeds of bravery, he escaped envy, yet failed + not to gain glory. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 73-78. Upon his return from commanding a legion, the deified + Vespasian raised him to the rank of a patrician, and afterwards invested + him with the government of the Province of Aquitaine; a government of the + foremost dignity, and given as previous to the Consulship, to which that + Prince had destined him. There are many who believe, that to military men + subtilty of spirit is wanting; for that in camps the direction of process + and authority, is rather rough and void of formality; and that where hands + and force are chiefly used, there the address and refinements usual to + Courts are not exercised. Yet Agricola, assisted by his natural prudence, + though he was then engaged only with men of peace and the robe, acquitted + himself with great facility and great uprightness. He carefully + distinguished the seasons of business and the seasons of recess. Whenever + he sat in Council or upon the Tribunals of justice, he was grave, + attentive, awful, generally addicted to compassion. The moment he had + fulfilled the duties of his office, he personated no longer the man of + power: he had then cast off all sternness, all airs of State, and all + rigour. Nay, what is very rarely to be seen, his complaisance neither + weakened his authority, nor did his severity make him less amiable. It + were an injury to the virtues of so great a man, to particularise his just + dealings, his temperance, and the cleanness of his hands. {Footnote: + "Integritatem atque abstinentiam referre."} In truth glory itself was what + he pursued, not by any ostentation of bravery, nor by any strain of + artifice or address; though of that pursuit even the best men are often + fond. Thus he was far from maintaining any competition with his equals in + station, far from any contest with the Procurators of the Prince: since, + to conquer in this contention he judged to be no glory; and to be crushed + by them were disgrace. His administration here lasted hardly three years, + ere he was recalled to the present possession of the Consulship. With this + employment there accrued the public opinion, that for his province Britain + would be assigned him, from no words which had dropped from him about it, + but because he was deemed equal to the office. Common fame does not always + err; sometimes it even directs the public choice. To myself yet very + young, whilst he was Consul, he contracted his daughter, a young lady even + then of excellent hopes, and, at the end of his Consulship, presented her + in marriage. He was then forthwith promoted to the government of Britain, + as also invested with the honour of the Pontificate. + </p> + <p> + The account which I shall here present of the situation and people of + Britain, a subject about which many authors have written, comes not from + any design of setting up my own exactness and genius against theirs, but + only because the country was then first thoroughly subdued. So that such + matters as former writers have, without knowing them, embellished with + eloquence, will by me be recounted according to the truth of evidence and + discoveries. Of all the islands which have reached the knowledge of the + Romans, Britain is the largest. It extends towards Germany to the east, + towards Spain to the west. To the south it looks towards Gaul. Its + northern shore, beyond which there is no land, is beaten by a sea vast and + boundless. {Footnote: "Belluosus, qui remotis Obstrepit Oceanus + Britannis."} Britain is by Livy and Fabius Rusticus, the former the most + eloquent of the ancient historians, the latter of the moderns, compared in + shape to an oblong shield, or a broad knife with two edges. And such in + effect is its figure on this side Caledonia, whence common opinion has + thus also fashioned the whole. But a tract of territory huge and + unmeasurable stretches forward to the uttermost shore, and straitening by + degrees, terminates like a wedge. Round the coast of this sea, which + beyond it has no land, the Roman fleet now first sailed, and thence proved + Britain to be an island, as also discovered and subdued the Isles of + Orkney till then unknown. Thule was likewise descried, hitherto hid by + winter under eternal snow. This sea they report to be slow and stagnate, + difficult to the rowers, and indeed hardly to be raised by the force of + winds. This I conjecture to be because land and mountains, which are the + cause and materials of tempests, very rarely occur in proportion to the + mighty mass of water, a mass so deep and uninterrupted as not to be easily + agitated. An inquiry into the nature of the ocean and of the tide, is not + the purpose of this work, and about it many have written. One thing I + would add, that nowhere is the power of the sea more extensive than here, + forcing back the waters of many rivers, or carrying them away with its + own; nor is its flux and ebbings confined to the banks and shore; but it + works and winds itself far into the country, nay forms bays in rocks and + mountains, as if the same were its native bed. + </p> + <p> + For the rest; who were the first inhabitants of Britain, whether natives + of its own, or foreigners, can be little known amongst a people thus + barbarous. In their looks and persons they vary; from whence arguments and + inferences are formed. For, the red hair of the Caledonians and their + large limbs, testify their descent to be from Germany. The swarthy + complexion of the Silures, and their hair, which is generally curled, with + their situation opposite to the coast of Spain, furnish ground to believe, + that the ancient Iberians had arrived from thence here, and taken + possession of the territory. They who live next to Gaul are also like the + Gauls; whether it be that the spirit of the original stock from which they + sprang, still remains, or whether in countries near adjoining, the genius + of the climate confers the same form and disposition upon the bodies of + men. To one who considers the whole, it seems however credible, that the + Gauls at first occupied this their neighbouring coast. That their sacred + rites are the same, you may learn from their being possessed with the same + superstition of every sort. Their speech does not much vary. In daring and + dangers they are prompted by the like boldness, and with the like affright + avoid them when they approach. In the Britons however superior ferocity + and defiance is found, as in a people not yet softened by a long peace. + For we learn from history, that the Gauls too flourished in warlike + prowess and renown: amongst them afterwards, together with peace and + idleness, there entered effeminacy; and thus with the loss of their + liberty they lost their spirit and magnanimity. The same happened to those + of the Britons who were conquered long ago. The rest still continue such + as the Gauls once were. + </p> + <p> + Their principal force consists in their foot. Some nations amongst them + make also war in chariots. The more honourable person always drives: under + his leading his followers fight. They were formerly subject to Kings. They + are now swayed by several chiefs, and rent into factions and parties, + according to the humour and passions of those their leaders. Nor against + nations thus powerful does aught so much avail us, as that they consult + not in a body for the security of the whole. It is rare that two or three + communities assemble and unite to repulse any public danger threatening to + all. So that whilst only a single community fought at a time, they were + every one vanquished. The sky from frequent clouds and rain is dull and + hazy. Excessive cold they feel not. Their days in length surpass ours. + Their nights are very clear, and at the extremity of the country, very + short; so that between the setting and return of the day, you perceive but + small interval. They affirm, that were it not for the intervention of + clouds, the rays of the sun would be seen in the night, and that he doth + not rise and fall, but only pass by: for that the extremities of the + earth, which are level, yielding but a low shadow, prevent darkness from + rising high and spreading; and thence night is far short of reaching the + stars and the sky. The soil is such, that except the olive and the vine, + and other vegetables, which are wont to be raised in hotter climes, it + readily bears all fruits and grain, and is very fertile. It quickly + produces, but its productions ripen slowly; and of both these effects + there is the same cause, the extreme humidity of the earth and of the sky. + Britain yields gold and silver, with other metals, all which prove the + prize and reward of the Conquerors. The sea also breeds pearls, but of a + dark and livid hue, a defect by some ascribed to the unskilfulness of such + as gather them. For, in the Red Sea they are pulled from the rocks alive + and vigorous. In Britain they are gathered at random, such as the sea + casts them upon the shore. For myself; I am much apter to believe, that + nature has failed to give the pearls perfection, than that we fail in + avarice. {Footnote: "Ego facilius crediderim naturam margaritis de esse; + quam nobis avaritiam."} + </p> + <p> + The Britons themselves are a people who cheerfully comply with the levies + of men, and with the imposition of taxes, and with all the duties enjoined + by Government; provided they receive no illegal treatment and insults from + their governors: those they bear with impatience. Nor have the Romans any + further subdued them than only to obey just laws, but never to submit to + be slaves. Even the deified Julius Caesar, the first of all the Romans who + entered Britain with an army, though by gaining a battle he frightened the + natives, and became master of the coast; {Footnote: Caesar conquered to + the north of the Thames.} yet may be thought to have rather presented + posterity with a view of the country, than to have conveyed down the + possession. Anon the civil wars ensued, and against the Commonwealth were + turned the arms of her own chiefs and leaders. Thus Britain was long + forgot, and continued to be so even during peace. This was what Augustus + called <i>Reason of State</i>, but what Tiberius styled the <i>Ordinance + of Augustus</i>. That Caligula meditated an invasion of Britain in person, + is well known: but he possessed a spirit, as precipitate and wild, so + presently surfeited with any design whatever; besides that all his mighty + efforts against Germany were quite baffled. The deified Claudius + accomplished the undertaking; having thither transported the legions, with + a number of auxiliary forces, and associated Vespasian into the direction + of the design: an incident which proved the introduction to his + approaching fortune. There, nations were subdued, Kings taken captive, and + Vespasian placed to advantage in the eye of the Fates. + </p> + <p> + The first Governor of Consular quality, was Aulus Plautius, then Ostorius + Scapula, both signal in war: and by degrees the nearest part of Britain + was reduced into the condition of a Province. To secure it, a colony of + veterans was likewise settled. To the British King Cogidunus certain + communities were given, a Prince who even till our times continued in + perfect fidelity to us. For, with the Roman People it is a custom long + since received, and practised of old, that for establishing the bondage of + nations, they are to employ even Kings as their instruments. Afterwards + followed Didius Gallus, and just preserved what acquisitions his + predecessors had made; only that further in the island he raised some + forts, and very few they were, purely for the name and opinion of having + enlarged his government. Next to Didius came Veranius, and died in less + than a year. Then immediately succeeded Suetonius Paulinus, who during two + years commanded with success, subdued fresh nations and established + garrisons. Trusting to these he went to assail the Isle of Anglesey, as a + place which supplied the revolters with succours, and thus left the + country behind him exposed to the enemy. + </p> + <p> + For, the Britons, when through the absence of the Governor they were eased + of their fear, began to commune together concerning the miseries of + bondage, to recount their several grievances, and so to construe and + heighten their injuries as effectually to inflame their resentments. + "Their patience," they said, "availed them nothing, further than to invite + the imposition of heavier burdens upon a people who thus tamely bore any. + In times past they had only a single King: they were now surrendered to + two. One of these the Governor-General, tyrannised over their bodies and + lives; the Imperial Procurator, who was the other, over their substance + and fortunes. Equally pernicious to their subjects was any variance + between these their rulers, as their good intelligence and unanimity. + Against them the one employed his own predatory bands, as did the other + his Centurions and their men; and both exercised violence alike, both + treated them with equal insults and contumely. To such height was + oppression grown, that nothing whatever was exempt from their avarice, + nothing whatever from their lust. He who in the day of battle spoiled + others, was always stronger than they. But here it was chiefly by the + cowardly and effeminate that their houses were seized, their children + forced away, and their men obliged to enlist; as if their country were the + only thing for which the Britons knew not how to die. In truth, what a + small force would all the soldiers arrived in the island appear; would the + Britons but compute their own numbers? It was from this consideration that + Germany had thrown off the same yoke, though a country defended only by a + river, and not like this, by the ocean. To animate themselves to take + arms, they had their country, their wives, their parents; whilst these + their oppressors were prompted by nothing but their avarice and + sensuality: nor would they fail to withdraw from the island, as even the + deified Julius had withdrawn, would the natives but imitate the bravery of + their forefathers, and not be dismayed with the issue of an encounter or + two. Amongst people like themselves reduced to misery, superior ardour was + ever found, as also greater firmness and perseverance. Towards the + Britons, at this juncture even the Gods manifested compassion, since they + thus kept the Roman General at such a distance, thus held the Roman army + confined in another island. Nay, already they themselves had gained a + point the most difficult to be gained, that they could now deliberate + about measures common to all: for, doubtless more perilous it were to be + discovered forming such counsels, than openly to put them in execution." + </p> + <p> + When with these and the like reasons they had instigated one another, they + unanimously took arms under the leading of Boudicea, {Footnote: Boadicea.} + a woman of royal descent; for, in conferring sovereignty, they make no + distinction of sexes. They then forthwith assailed on every side the + soldiers dispersed here and there in forts, and having stormed and sacked + the several garrisons, fell upon the colony itself, as the seat and centre + of public servitude: nor was any kind of cruelty omitted, with which rage + and victory could possibly inspire the hearts of Barbarians. In truth, had + not Paulinus, upon learning the revolt of the Province, come with notable + speed to its relief, Britain had been lost. Yet by the success of a single + battle, he reduced the country to its old subjection, though several + continued in arms, such namely as were conscious of inciting the + rebellion, and under personal dread from the spirit of the Governor. He, + though otherwise a signal commander, yet treated such as had surrendered + themselves in a manner very imperious; and, as one who likewise avenged + his own particular injury, thence exerted the greater rigour. Insomuch + that in his room Petronius Turpilianus was sent, as one whose behaviour + would prove more relenting, one who being unacquainted with the + delinquencies of the enemies, would be more gentle in accepting their + remorse and submission. Turpilianus, when he had quite appeased the late + commotions, ventured upon nothing further, and then delivered the Province + to Trebellius Maximus. He, still more unwarlike and inactive than his + predecessor, and nowise trained in camps and armies, maintained the + tranquillity of the Province by a method of softness and complaisance. The + Barbarians had now likewise learned to forgive such vices as humoured them + in pleasure and ease. Moreover, the civil wars which then intervened, + furnished a proper excuse for the lazy behaviour of the Governor. But he + found himself greatly embarrassed with faction and discord; for that the + soldiers, who had ever been inured to expeditions and feats in the field, + were through idleness grown turbulent and licentious. Trebellius, by + flight and lurking, escaped the present fury of the army: he afterwards + resumed the command, but with an authority altogether precarious, without + all spirit and destitute of all dignity; as if between him and them + articles had been settled, that the soldiers should retain their + licentious behaviour, and the General be permitted to enjoy his life. + During this mutiny no blood was spilled. Neither did Vettius Bolanus, as + the civil war yet subsisted, exert any discipline in Britain. Towards the + enemy there still remained the same sloth and negligence, with the same + insolent spirit in the camp: this difference only there was, that Bolanus + was a man perfectly innocent; and being subject to no hate, as he was free + from all crimes, he had instead of authority over them, only gained their + affections. + </p> + <p> + But, when Vespasian had, with the possession of the world, also recovered + Britain, in it were seen great commanders, noble armies, and the hopes of + the enemy quite abated, Petilius Cerialis, particularly, at his first + entrance, struck them at once with general terror, by attacking the + community of the Brigantes, reckoned the most populous of the whole + Province. There followed many encounters, such as sometimes proved very + bloody. So that he held most part of their country as his conquest, or + continued to ravage it by war. In truth, though the exploits of Cerialis + would have eclipsed the vigilance and fame of any other successor, yet + Julius Frontinus sustained in his turn the mighty task; and, as he was a + man as great and able as he found scope and safety to be, he by the sword + utterly subdued the powerful and warlike nation of the Silures; though + besides the bravery of the enemy, he was likewise obliged to struggle with + the difficulties of places and situation. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 78. Such was the condition in which Agricola found Britain, such to + have been the vicissitudes of the war there, upon his arrival about the + middle of summer, a time when the Roman soldiers, supposing the service of + the season to be concluded, were securely bent upon inaction and repose, + as were the enemy upon any opportunity to annoy the Romans. The Community + of the Ordovicans had not long before his coming slaughtered, almost + entirely, a band of horse stationed upon their confines; and by an essay + so notable the Province in general became roused; while such as were + intent upon present war, commended the action as an example and a call to + the whole, and others were for delaying till they had discovered the + spirit of the new Lieutenant-General. Now though the summer was over, + though the troops were severed and lay dispersed over the Province, though + the soldiers had assured themselves of rest for the residue of the year (a + heavy obstacle and very discouraging to one who is commencing war), nay, + though many judged it better only to guard the places which were + threatened and precarious; yet Agricola determined to meet the danger. + Hence drawing together the choice bands of the legions, with a small body + of auxiliaries, he led them against the Ordovicans; and as these dared not + descend into equal ground, he, who by sharing equal danger, would inspire + his men with equal courage, marching in person before his army, conducted + them to the encounter upon the ascent. Almost the whole nation was here + cut off; but as he was well aware, that it behoved him to urge and + maintain this his fame, and that with the issue of his first attempts all + the rest would correspond, he conceived a design to reduce the Isle of + Anglesey, a conquest from which Paulinus was recalled by the general + revolt of Britain, as above I have recounted. But, as this counsel was + suddenly concerted, and therefore ships were found wanting, such was the + firmness and capacity of the General, that without ships he transported + his men. From the auxiliaries he detached all their chosen men, such as + knew the fords, and according to the usage of their country were dexterous + in swimming, so as, in the water, at once to manage themselves, and their + horses and arms. These, unencumbered with any of their baggage, he caused + to make a descent and onset so sudden, that the enemy were quite struck + with consternation, as men who apprehended nothing but a fleet and + transports, and a formal invasion by sea, and now believed no enterprise + difficult and insurmountable to such as came thus determined to war. Thus + they sued for peace and even surrendered the island; and thence Agricola + was already considered as a very great and even renowned commander: for + that, at his first entrance into the Province, a time which other + governors are wont to waste in show and parade, or in courting compliment + and addresses, he preferred feats of labour and of peril. Nor did he apply + this his good fortune and success to any purpose of vainglory: so that + upon the bridling of such as were vanquished before, he would not bestow + the title of an expedition or of victory; nor in truth would he so much as + with the bare honour of the laurel distinguish these his exploits. But + even by disguising his fame, he enlarged it; as men considered how vast + must be his future views, when he thus smothered in silence deeds so + noble. + </p> + <p> + For the rest; as he was acquainted with the temper of the people in his + Province; as he had also learned from the conduct and experience of + others, that little is gained by arms where grievances and oppressions + follow, he determined to cut off all the causes of war. Beginning + therefore with himself and those appertaining to him, he checked and + regulated his own household; a task which to many proves not less + difficult than that of governing a province. By none of his domestics, + bond or freed, was aught that concerned the public transacted. In raising + the soldiers to a superior class, he was swayed by no personal interest or + partiality, nor by the recommendation and suit of the Centurions, but by + his own opinion and persuasion, that the best soldiers were ever the most + faithful. All that passed he would know; though all that was amiss he + would not punish. Upon small offences he bestowed pardon; for such as were + great he exercised proportionable severity. Nor did he always exact the + punishment assigned, but frequently was satisfied with compunction and + remorse. In conferring offices and employments he rather chose men who + would not transgress, than such as he must afterwards condemn for + transgressing. Though the imposition of tribute and of grain had been + augmented, yet he softened it by causing a just and equal distribution of + all public burdens; since he abolished whatever exactions had been devised + for the lucre of particulars, and were therefore borne with more regret + than the tribute itself. For, the inhabitants were forced to bear the + mockery of attending at their own barns, locked up by the publicans, and + of purchasing their own corn of the monopolists, nay, of selling it + afterwards back again at a poor price. They were moreover enjoined to take + long journeys, and carry grain across the several countries to places + extremely distant; insomuch that the several communities, instead of + supplying the winter-quarters which lay adjoining, must furnish such as + were remote and difficultly travelled, to the end, that what was easy to + be had by all, might produce gain to a few. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 79. By suppressing these grievances immediately in his first year, he + gained a high character to a state of peace; a state which, either through + the neglect or connivance of his predecessors, was till then dreaded no + less than that of war. But, upon the coming of summer, he assembled his + army; then proceeded to commend such of the men who in marching observed + their duty and rank, and to check such as were loose and straggling. He + himself always chose the ground for encamping: the salt marshes, friths, + and woods he himself always first examined, and to the enemies all the + while allowed not a moment's quiet or recess, but was ever distressing + them with sudden incursions and ravages. Then, having sufficiently alarmed + and terrified them, his next course was to spare them, thus to tempt them + with the sweetness and allurements of peace. By this conduct, several + communities which till that day had asserted a state of equality and + independence, came to lay down all hostility, gave hostages, and were + begirt with garrisons and fortresses, erected with such just contrivance + and care, that no part of Britain hitherto known escaped thenceforward + from being annoyed by them. + </p> + <p> + The following winter was employed in measures extremely advantageous and + salutary. For, to the end that these people, thus wild and dispersed over + the country, and thence easily instigated to war, might by a taste of + pleasures be reconciled to inactivity and repose, he first privately + exhorted them, then publicly assisted them, to build temples, houses and + places of assembling. Upon such as were willing and assiduous in these + pursuits he heaped commendations, and reproofs upon the lifeless and slow. + So that a competition for this distinction and honour, had all the force + of necessity. He was already taking care to have the sons of their chiefs + taught the liberal sciences, already preferring the natural capacity of + the Britons to the studied acquirements of the Gauls; and such was his + success, that they who had so lately scorned to learn the Roman language, + were become fond of acquiring the Roman eloquence. Thence they began to + honour our apparel, and the use of the Roman gown grew frequent amongst + them. {Footnote: "Inde etiam habitus nostri honor, et frequens toga."} By + degrees they proceeded to the incitements and charms of vice and + dissoluteness, to magnificent galleries, sumptuous bagnios, and all the + stimulations and elegance of banqueting. Nay, all this innovation was by + the unexperienced styled politeness and humanity, when it was indeed part + of their bondage. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 80. During the third year of his command, in pursuit of his conquests + he discovered new people, by continuing his devastations through the + several nations quite to the mouth of the Tay: so the frith is called. + Whence such terror seized the foe, that they durst not attack our army + though sorely shaken and annoyed by terrible tempests: nay, the Romans had + even time to secure possession by erecting forts. It was observed of + Agricola by men of experience, that never had any captain more sagely + chosen his stations for commodiousness and situation; for that no place of + strength founded by him, was ever taken by violence, or abandoned upon + articles or despair. From these their strongholds frequent excursions were + made; for, against any long siege they were supplied with provisions for a + year. Thus they passed the winter there without all apprehension: every + single fort defended itself. So that in all their attempts upon them the + enemies were baffled, and thence reduced to utter despair; for that they + could not, as formerly they were wont, repair their losses in the summer + by their success in the winter; since now whether it were winter or + summer, they were equally defeated. Neither did Agricola ever arrogate to + himself the glory of exploits performed by others: were he a Centurion or + were he Commander of a legion, in the General he was sure to find a + sincere witness of his achievements. By some he is said to have been over + sharp in his reproofs, since he was one who, as to them that were good he + abounded in courtesy, appeared withal stern and unpleasant to the bad. But + from his anger no spleen remained. In him you had no dark reserves, no + boding silence to fear. More honourable he thought it to give open offence + than to foster secret hate. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 81. The fourth summer was employed in settling and securing what + territories he had overrun: indeed would the bravery of the armies and the + glory of the Roman name, have suffered it, there had been then found in + Britain itself a boundary to our conquests there. For, into the rivers + Glota and Bodotria {Footnote: The Clyde and Forth.} the tide from each + opposite sea flows so vastly far up the country, that their heads are + parted only by a narrow neck of land, which was now secured with + garrisons. Thus of all on this side we were already masters; since the + enemy were driven as it were into another island. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 82. In the fifth year of the war, Agricola passing the Frith, himself + in the first ship that landed, in many and successful encounters subdued + nations till that time unknown, and placed forces in that part of Britain + which fronts Ireland, more from future views than from any present fear. + In truth Ireland, as it lies just between Britain and Spain, and is + capable of an easy communication with the coast of Gaul, would have proved + of infinite use in linking together these powerful limbs of the Empire. In + size it is inferior to Britain, but surpasses the islands in our sea. In + soil and climate, as also in the temper and manners of the natives, it + varies little from Britain. Its ports and landings are better known, + through the frequency of commerce and merchants. A petty King of the + country, expelled by domestic dissension, was already received into + protection by Agricola, and under the appearance of friendship, reserved + for a proper occasion. By him I have often heard it declared, that with a + single legion and a few auxiliaries Ireland might be conquered and + preserved; nay, that such an acquisition were of moment for the securing + of Britain, if, on all sides the Roman arms were seen, and all national + liberty banished as it were out of sight. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 83. For the rest; on the summer which began the sixth year of his + administration, as it was apprehended, that the nations forward would + universally take arms, and that the ways were all infested with the + enemy's host, his first step was to coast and explore the large + communities beyond Bodotria {Footnote: The Forth.} by the means of his + fleet, which was from the beginning employed by him as part of his forces, + and in attending him at this time made a glorious appearance, when thus by + sea and land the war was urged. In truth, the same camp often contained + the foot and the horse and the marines, all intermixed, and rejoicing in + common, severally magnifying their own feats, their own hazards and + adventures: here were displayed the horrors of steep mountains and dismal + forests; there the outrages of waves and tempests. These boasted their + exploits by land and against the foe: those the vanquished ocean; all + vying together according to the usual vaunts and ostentation of soldiers. + Upon the Britons also, as from the captives was learned, the sight of the + fleet brought much consternation and dismay; as if, now that their + solitary ocean and recesses of the deep were disclosed and invaded, the + last refuge of the vanquished was cut off. To action and arms, the several + people inhabiting Caledonia had immediate recourse, and advanced with + great parade, made still greater by common rumour (as usual in things that + are unknown), for that they daringly assailed our forts, and by thus + insulting and defying us, created much fear and alarm. Nay, there were + some who covering real cowardice under the guise of prudence and counsel, + exhorted a return to the nether side of Bodotria, {Footnote: To retreat + south of the Forth.} for that it were more eligible to retire back than to + be driven. He was apprised the while, that the enemy meant to attack him + in divers bands: so that, as they surpassed him in numbers and in the + knowledge of the country, he too divided his army into three parts, and + thus marched, to prevent their surrounding him. + </p> + <p> + As soon as this disposition of his was known to the enemy, they suddenly + changed theirs, and all in a body proceeded to fall upon the ninth legion + as the least sufficient and weakest of all; and, as the assault was in the + night they slew the guards and entered the trenches, aided by the general + sleep or general dismay there. They were already pursuing the fight in the + camp itself, when Agricola having from his spies learnt what route the + enemy had taken, and closely following their track, commanded the lightest + of his foot and cavalry to charge them, whilst yet engaged, in the rear, + and the whole army presently after to give a mighty shout. Moreover at + break of day, the Roman banners were beheld refulgent. Thus were the + Britons dismayed with double peril and distress; and to the Romans their + courage returned. Hence seeing their lives secure, they now maintained the + conflict for glory. They even returned the attack upon the enemy: insomuch + that in the very gates of the camp a bloody encounter ensued, till the + enemy were quite routed; for both these our armies exerted their might, + the one contending to show that they had brought relief, the other to + appear not to have wanted assistance. Indeed, had not the woods and + marshes served for shelter to the fugitives, by this victory the war had + been determined. + </p> + <p> + By this success, with such valour gained, and followed with such renown, + the army was become elated and resolute. With fierce din they cried, "That + to their bravery nothing could prove insurmountable. They must penetrate + into the heart of Caledonia, and advance in a continual succession of + battles, till they had at last found the utmost limits of Britain." Thus + it was that they, who a little before had been so wary and so wise, were + now, after the event was determined, grown full of boasts and intrepidity. + Such is the lot of warfare, very unequal and unjust: in success all men + assume part: the disasters are all imputed to one. Now the Britons, + conjecturing the victory to proceed not from superior courage, but from + circumstances improved and the address of our General, lost nothing of + their spirit and defiance, but armed their young men, removed their wives + and children into places of security, and in general conventions of their + several communities engaged them in a league ratified by solemn + sacrifices. And thus they mutually retired for the winter, with minds on + both sides abundantly irritated. + </p> + <p> + During the same summer, a cohort of Usipians levied in Germany and thence + transported to Britain, adventured upon a feat very desperate and + memorable. When they had slain the Centurion and soldiers placed amongst + them for training them in discipline, and to serve them for patterns and + directors, they embarked in three pinnaces, forcing the pilots to conduct + them; and since one of these forsook them and fled away, they suspected + and therefore killed the other two. As the attempt was not yet divulged, + their launching into the deep was beheld as a wonder. Anon they were + tossed hither and thither at the mercy of the waves: and, as they often + engaged for spoil with several of the Britons, obliging them to defend + their property thus invaded, in which conflicts they frequently proved + victorious, and were sometimes defeated, they were at last reduced to want + so pressing, as to feed upon one another, first upon the weakest, then + upon whomsoever the lot fell. In this manner were they carried round about + Britain, and having lost their vessels through ignorance how to manage + them, they were accounted robbers and pirates, and fell into the hands + first of the Suevians, afterwards of the Frisians. Nay, as they were + bought and sold for slaves, some of them, through change of masters, were + brought over to our side of the Rhine, and grew famous from the discovery + of an adventure so extraordinary. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 84. In the beginning of the summer, Agricola suffered a sore blow in + his family, by losing his son born about a year before. A misfortune which + he neither bore with an ostentation of firmness and unconcern, like many + other men of magnanimity, nor with lamentations and tears worthy only of + women. Besides that for this affliction, war proved one of his remedies. + When therefore he had sent forward the navy, which by committing + devastations in several places, would not fail to spread a mighty and + perplexing terror, he put himself at the head of his army lightly + equipped, and to it had added some of the bravest Britons, such as had + been well proved through a long course of peace. Thus he arrived at the + Grampian Hills, upon which the enemy were already encamped. For, the + Britons, nothing daunted by the issue of the former battle, and boldly + waiting either to take vengeance or to suffer bondage, taught withal at + last, that a general union was the best way to repel common danger, had by + embassies and confederacies drawn together the forces of all their + communities. Even then were to be seen thirty thousand men in arms, and + their youth from every quarter were still continuing to flock in, as were + also such of their elderly men as were yet vigorous and hale, they who + were signal in war, and now carried with them their several ensigns of + honour formerly gained in the field. And now Galgacus, he who amongst + their several leaders surpassed all in valour and descent, is said to have + spoke in this strain to the multitude all very pressing for battle, + </p> + <p> + "Whenever I contemplate the causes of the war, and the necessity to which + we are reduced, great is my confidence that this day and this union of + yours will prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain. For, + besides that bondage is what we have never borne, we are so beset that + beyond us there is no further land; nor in truth is there any security + left us from the sea whilst the Roman fleet is hovering upon our coasts. + Thus the same expedient which proves honourable to brave men, is to + cowards too become the safest of all others, even present recourse to + battle and arms. The other Britons, in their past conflicts with the + Romans, whence they found various success, had still a remaining source of + hope and succour in this our nation. For, of all the people of Britain we + are the noblest, and thence placed in its innermost regions, and, as we + behold not so much as the coasts of such as are slaves, we thus preserve + even our eyes free and unprofaned by the sight of lawless and usurped + rule. To us who are the utmost inhabitants of the earth, to us the last + who enjoy liberty, this extremity of the globe, this remote tract unknown + even to common fame, has to this day proved the only protection and + defence. At present the utmost boundary of Britain is laid open; and to + conquer parts unknown, is thought matter of great pomp and boasting. + Beyond us no more people are found, nor aught save seas and rocks; and + already the Romans have advanced into the heart of our country. Against + their pride and domineering you will find it in vain to seek a remedy or + refuge from any obsequiousness or humble behaviour of yours. Plunderers of + the earth these, who in their universal devastations finding countries to + fail them, investigate and rob even the sea. If the enemy be wealthy, he + inflames their avarice; if poor, their ambition. They are general + spoilers, such as neither the eastern world nor the western can satiate. + They only of all men thirst after acquisitions both poor and rich, with + equal avidity and passion. To spoil, to butcher, and to commit every kind + of violence, they style by a lying name, <i>Government</i>; and when they + have spread a general desolation, they call it <i>Peace</i>. {Footnote: + "Ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant."} + </p> + <p> + "Dearest to every man are his children and kindred, by the contrivance and + designation of nature. These are snatched from us for recruits, and doomed + to bondage in other parts of the earth. Our wives and sisters, however + they escape rapes and violence as from open enemies, are debauched under + the appearance and privilege of friendship and hospitality. Our fortunes + and possessions they exhaust for tribute, our grain for their provisions. + Even our bodies and limbs are extenuated and wasted, while we are doomed + to the drudgery of making cuts through woods, and drains in bogs, under + continual blows and outrages. Such as are born to be slaves are but once + sold, and thenceforward nourished by their lords. Britain is daily paying + for its servitude, is daily feeding it. Moreover, as in a tribe of + household slaves, he who comes last serves for sport to all his fellows; + so in this ancient state of slavery to which the world is reduced, we, as + the freshest slaves and thence held the most contemptible, are now + designed to destruction. For, we have no fields to cultivate, nor mines to + dig, nor ports to make; works for which they might be tempted to spare us + alive: besides that ever distasteful to rulers is magnanimity and a daring + spirit in their subjects. Indeed our very situation, so solitary and + remote, the more security it affords to us, does but raise the greater + jealousy in them. Seeing therefore you are thus bereft of all hopes of + mercy, rouse now at last all your courage, both you to whom life is + dearest, and you to whom glory. The Brigantes, even under the leading of a + woman, burned their colony, stormed their entrenchments, and, had not such + success degenerated into sloth, might have quite cast off the yoke of + slavery. Let us who still preserve our forces entire, us who are still + unsubdued, and want not to acquire liberty but only to secure it, manifest + at once, upon the first encounter, what kind of men they are that + Caledonia has reserved for her own vindication and defence. + </p> + <p> + "Do you indeed believe the Romans to be equally brave and vigorous in war, + as during peace they are vicious and dissolute? From our quarrels and + divisions it is that they have derived their renown, and thus convert the + faults of their enemies to the glory of their own army; an army compounded + of many nations so different, that as it is success alone which holds them + together, misfortunes and disasters will surely dissolve them. Unless you + suppose that the Germans there, that the Gauls, and many of the Britons + (whom with shame I mention), men who however have been all much longer + their enemies than their slaves, are yet attached to them by any real + fidelity and affection, whilst presenting their blood to establish a + domination altogether foreign and unnatural to them all. What restrains + them is no more than awe and terror, frail bonds of endearment; and when + these are removed, such who cease to fear, will immediately begin to + manifest their hate. Amongst us is found whatever can stimulate men to + victory. The Romans have no wives to hearten and to urge them. They have + here no fathers and mothers to upbraid them for flying. Many of them have + no country at all, or at least their country is elsewhere. But a few in + number they are, ignorant of the region and thence struck with dread, + whilst to their eyes, whatever they behold around them, is all wild and + strange, even the air and sky, with the woods and the sea; so that the + Gods have in some sort delivered them enclosed and bound into our hands. + </p> + <p> + "Be not dismayed with things of mere show, and with a glare of gold and of + silver: this is what can neither wound, nor save. In the very host of the + enemy we shall find bands of our own. The Britons will own and espouse + their own genuine cause. The Gauls will recollect their former liberty. + What the Usipians have lately done, the other Germans will do, and abandon + the Romans. Thereafter nothing remains to be feared. Their forts are + ungarrisoned; their colonies replenished with the aged and infirm; and + between the people and their magistrates, whilst the former are averse to + obedience, and the latter rule with injustice, the municipal cities are + weakened and full of dissensions. Here you see a general, here an army: + there you may behold tributes and the mines, with all the other train of + calamities and curses ever pursuing men enslaved. Whether all these are to + be for ever imposed, or whether we forthwith avenge ourselves for the + attempt, this very field must determine. As therefore you advance to + battle, look back upon your ancestors, look forward to your posterity." + </p> + <p> + They received his speech joyfully, with chantings, and terrible din, and + many dissonant shouts, after the manner of barbarians. Already too their + bands moved, and the glittering of their arms appeared, as all the most + resolute were running to the front: moreover the army was forming in + battle array; when Agricola; who indeed saw his soldiers full of alacrity, + and hardly to be restrained even by express cautions, yet chose to + discourse to them in the following strain. "It is now the eighth year, my + fellow-soldiers, since through the virtue and auspicious fortune of the + Roman Empire, and by your own services and fidelity you have been pursuing + the conquest of Britain. In so many expeditions that you have undertaken, + in so many battles as you have fought, you have still had constant + occasion either to be exerting your bravery against the foe, or your + patience and pains even against the obstacles of nature. Neither, during + all these struggles, have we found any cause of mutual regret, I to have + conducted such soldiers, or you to have followed such a captain. We have + both passed the limits which we found, I those known to the ancient + governors, you those of former armies; and we possess the very extremity + of Britain, not only in the bruitings of fame and vulgar rumour, but + possess it with our camps and arms. Britain is entirely discovered, and + entirely subdued. In truth, as the army has been marching, whilst in + passing morasses and mountains and rivers you have been fatigued and + distressed, I was wont to hear every man remarkably brave ask, <i>When + shall we see the enemy, when be led to battle?</i> Already they are come, + roused from their fastnesses and lurking holes. Here you see the end of + all your wishes, here scope for all your valour, and all things promising + and propitious, if you conquer; but all cross and disastrous, should you + be vanquished. For, as to have thus marched over a tract of country so + immense, to have passed through gloomy forests, to have crossed arms of + the deep, is matter of glory and applause whilst we advance against the + enemy; so if we fly before them, whatever is now most in our favour, will + then prove most to our peril. We know not the situation of the country so + well as they know it; we have not provisions so abundant as they have: but + we have limbs and arms; and in these, all things. For myself; it is a rule + long since settled by me, that safety there is none either to the army or + to the general, in turning their backs upon the foe. Hence it is not only + more eligible to lose life honourably than to save it basely, but security + and renown both arise from the same source. Neither would it be a fate + void of glory to fall in this the utmost verge of earth and of nature. + </p> + <p> + "Were the people now arrayed against you such as were new to you, were you + to engage with bands never before tried, I should animate you by the + examples of other armies. At present, only recollect and enumerate your + own signal exploits, only ask and consult your own eyes. These are they + whom but the last year you utterly discomfited, only by the terror of your + shouting, when, trusting to the darkness of the night, they by stealth + attacked a single legion. These are they who of all the Britons are the + most abandoned to fear and flight, and thence happen thus long to survive + all the rest. It is with us as with those who make inroads into woods and + forests. As beasts of the greatest strength there, are driven thence by + the superior force of such as pursue them, and as the timorous and + spiritless fly even at the cry of the pursuers: in like manner, all the + bravest Britons are long since fallen by the sword. They that remain are + only a crowd, fearful and effeminate: nor can you consider them as men + whom you have therefore reached, because they have persisted to oppose + you, but as such whom you have surprised as the last and forlorn of all, + who struck with dread and bereft of spirit, stand benumbed in yonder + field, whence you may gain over them a glorious and memorable victory. + Here complete all your expeditions and efforts: here close a struggle of + fifty years with one great and important day, so that to the army may not + be imputed either the procrastination of the war, or any cause for + reviving it." + </p> + <p> + Apparent, even whilst Agricola spoke, was the ardour of the soldiers, + mighty their transport and applause at the end of his speech, and + instantly they flew to their arms. Thus inflamed and urging to engage, he + formed them so that the strong band of auxiliary foot, who were eight + thousand men, composed the centre. The wings were environed with three + thousand horse. The legions without advancing stood embattled just without + the entrenchment; for that mighty would be the glory of the victory, were + it, by sparing them, gained without spilling any Roman blood; and they + were still a sure stay and succour, should the rest be repulsed. The + British host was ranged upon the rising grounds, at once for show and + terror, in such sort that the first band stood upon the plain, and the + rest rose successively upon the brows of the hills, one rank close above + another, as if they had been linked together. Their cavalry and chariots + of war filled the interjacent field with great tumult and boundings to and + fro. Agricola then, fearing from the surpassing multitude of the enemy, + that he might be beset at once in the front and on each flank, opened and + extended his host. Yet, though thence his ranks must prove more relaxed, + and many advised him to bring on the legions, he, who rather entertained a + spirit of hope, and in all difficulties was ever firm, dismissed his horse + and advanced on foot before the banners. + </p> + <p> + In the beginning of the onset the conflict was maintained at a distance. + The Britons, they who were possessed at once of bravery and skill, armed + with their huge swords and small bucklers, quite eluded our missive + weapons, or beat them quite off, whilst of their own they poured a torrent + upon us, till Agricola encouraged three Batavian cohorts and two of the + Tungrians, to close with the enemy and bring them to an engagement hand to + hand; as what was with those veteran soldiers a long practice, and become + familiar, but to the enemy very uneasy and embarrassing, as they were + armed with very little targets and with swords of enormous size. For, the + swords of the Britons, which are blunt at the end, are unfit for grapling + and cannot support a close encounter. Hence the Batavians thickened their + blows, wounded them with the iron bosses of their bucklers, mangled their + faces, and, bearing down all who withstood them upon the plain, were + already carrying the attack up to the hills: insomuch that the rest of the + cohorts, incited by emulation and sudden ardour, joined with those and + made havoc of all whom they encountered. Nay, such was the impetuosity and + hurry of the victory, that many were left behind but half dead, others not + so much as wounded. In the meantime their troops of cavalry took to + flight: the chariots of war mingled with the battalions of foot; and + though they had so lately struck terror, were now themselves beset and + entangled with our thick bands, as also with the unevenness and intricacy + of the place. Of a combat of cavalry this bore not the least appearance: + since here, standing obstinately foot to foot, they pressed to overthrow + each other by the weight and bodies of their horses. Moreover the + war-chariots, now abandoned and straggling, as also the horses destitute + of managers and thence wild and affrighted, were running hither and + thither just as the next fright drove them; insomuch that all of their own + side, who met them or crossed their way, were beaten down by them. + </p> + <p> + Now those of the Britons who were lodged upon the ridges of the hills and + had hitherto no share in the encounter, like men yet pressed by no peril + looked with scorn upon our forces as but few in number, and began to + descend softly and to surround them in the rear, whilst they were urging + their victory. But Agricola, who had apprehended this very design, + despatched to engage them four squadrons of horse, such as he had reserved + near him for the sudden exigencies of the field; and by this providence of + his, the more furiously they had advanced, the more keenly were they + repulsed and utterly routed. Thus against the Britons themselves their own + devices were turned; and by the order of the General, the squadrons of + cavalry which charged in front, wheeled about and assailed the enemy + behind. Then in truth, all over the open fields was to be seen a spectacle + prodigious and tragical, incessant pursuits, wounds and captivity, and the + present captives always slaughtered, as often as others occurred to be + taken. Now the enemy behaved just as they happened to be prompted by their + several humours. Sometimes they fled in large troops with all their arms, + before a smaller number that pursued them: others, quite unarmed, rushed + into peril, and desperately presented themselves to instant death. On all + sides lay scattered arms and carcasses, and mangled limbs, and the ground + was dyed with blood. Nay, now and then even by the vanquished was exerted + notable wrath and bravery. When once they drew near the woods, they + rejoined and rallied, and thus circumvented the foremost pursuers, such + as, without knowing the country, had rashly ventured too far. Whence we + must have suffered some notable disaster, from such confidence void of + caution, had not Agricola who was assiduously visiting every quarter, + ordered the stoutest cohorts lightly equipped to range themselves in the + form of a toil {Footnote: A net or web, to encompass them; such as + Herodotus describes, for clearing out a vanquished enemy.} to invest them, + also some of the cavalry to dismount, and enter the strait passes, and the + rest of the horse, at the same time, to beat the more open and passable + parts of the woods. Now, as soon as they perceived our forces to continue + the pursuit with ranks regular and close, they betook themselves to open + flight, in no united bands as before, no one man regarding or awaiting + another; but quite scattered, and each shunning any companion, they all + made to places far remote and desert. What ended the pursuit was night and + a satiety of slaughter. Of the enemy were slain ten thousand. There fell + of our men three hundred and forty, amongst these Aulus Atticus, commander + of a cohort; one by his own youthful heart, as also by a fiery horse, + hurried into the midst of the enemies. + </p> + <p> + It was indeed a night of great joy to the conquerors, both from victory + and spoil. The Britons, who wandered in despair, men and women uttering in + concert their dismal wailings, dragged along their wounded, called to such + as were unhurt, deserted their houses, nay, in rage even set them on fire; + made choice of lurking holes, then instantly forsook them; then met to + consult, and from their counsels gathered some hope: sometimes, upon + beholding their dearest pledges of nature, their spirits became utterly + sunk and dejected; sometimes, by the same sight, they were roused into + resolution and fury. Nay, 'tis very certain, that some murdered their + children and wives, as an act of compassion and tenderness. The next day + produced a more ample display of the victory; on all sides a profound + silence, solitary hills, thick smoke rising from the houses on fire, and + not a living soul to be found by the scouts. When from these, who had been + despatched out every way, it was learnt, that whither the enemy had fled + no certain traces could be discovered, and that they had nowhere rallied + in bodies; when the summer was likewise passed and thence an impossibility + of extending the operations of war, he conducted his army into the borders + of the Horestians. After he had there received hostages, he ordered the + Admiral of the Fleet to sail round Britain. For this expedition he was + furnished with proper forces, and before him was already gone forth the + terror of the Roman power: he himself the while led on his foot and horse + with a slow pace, that thus the minds of these new nations might be awed + and dismayed even by prolonging his march through them: he then lodged his + army in garrisons for the winter. The fleet too having found a favourable + sea, entered with great fame, into the harbour of Rhutupium: {Footnote: + Supposed to be Sandwich Haven.} for, from thence it had sailed, and + coasting along the nethermost shore of Britain, thither returned. + </p> + <p> + With this course and situation of things Agricola by letters acquainted + the Emperor; tidings which, however modestly recounted, without all + ostentation, or any pomp of words, Domitian received as with joy in his + countenance, so with anguish in his soul: such was his custom. His heart + indeed smote him for his late mock triumph over the Germans, which he knew + to be held in public derision; as to adorn it he had purchased a number of + slaves, who were so decked in their habits and hair, as to resemble + captives in war. But here a victory mighty and certain, gained by the + slaughter of so many thousands of the enemy, was universally sounded by + the voice of fame, and received with vast applause. Terrible above all + things it was to him, that the name of a private man should be exalted + above that of the Prince. In vain had he driven from the public tribunals + all pursuits of popular evidence and fame, in vain smothered the lustre of + every civil accomplishment, if any other than himself possessed the glory + of excelling in war: nay, however he might dissemble every other distaste, + yet to the person of the Emperor properly appertained the virtue and + praise of being a great General. Tortured with these anxious thoughts, and + indulging his humour of being shut up in secret, a certain indication that + he was fostering some sanguinary purpose, he at last judged it the best + course, upon this occasion, to hide and reserve his rancour till the first + flights of fame were passed, and the affection of the army cooled. For, + Agricola held yet the administration of Britain. + </p> + <p> + To him therefore he caused to be decreed in Senate the triumphal + ornaments, a statue crowned with laurel, with whatever else is bestowed + instead of a real triumph, and heightened this his compliment with many + expressions full of esteem and honour. He directed moreover a general + expectation to be raised, that to Agricola was destined the Province of + Syria, a Government then vacant by the death of Atilius Rufus, a man of + Consular quality, since the same was reserved only for men of illustrious + rank. Many there were who believed, that an Imperial freedman, one much + trusted with the secret designs of his master, was by him despatched to + carry the instrument appointing Agricola Governor of Syria, with orders to + deliver it to him, were he still in Britain; that the freedman met + Agricola crossing the Channel, and without once speaking to him, returned + directly to Domitian. It is uncertain whether this account be true, or + only a fiction framed in conformity to the character and genius of the + Prince. To his successor, in the meantime, Agricola had surrendered the + Province now settled in perfect peace and security. Moreover, to prevent + all remarks upon the manner of his entry into Rome, from any popular + distinction paid him, and any concourse of people to meet him, he utterly + declined this observance of his friends, and came into the city by night; + and by night, as he was directed, went to the palace. He was there + received by the Emperor, with a short embrace, but without a word said; + then passed, undistinguished, amongst the crowd of servile courtiers. Now + in order to soften with other and different virtues the reputation of a + military man, a name ever distasteful to those who live themselves in + idleness, he resigned himself entirely to indolence and repose. In his + dress he was modest; in his conversation courteous and free, and never + found accompanied with more than one or two of his friends. Insomuch that + many, such especially as are wont to judge of great men by their retinue + and parade, all calculated to gain popular admiration, when they had + beheld and observed Agricola, sought to know whence proceeded his mighty + fame: there were indeed but few who could account for the motives of his + conduct. + </p> + <p> + Frequently, during the course of that time, was he accused in his absence + before Domitian, and in his absence also acquitted. What threatened his + life was no crime of his, nor complaint of any particular for injuries + received, nor aught else save the glorious character of the man, and the + spirit of the Emperor hating all excellence and every virtue. With these + causes there concurred the most mischievous sort of all enemies, they who + extolled him in order to destroy him. Moreover in the Commonwealth there + ensued such times as would not permit the name of Agricola to remain + unmentioned: so many were the armies which we had lost in Moesia, in + Dacia, in Germany, in Pannonia; all by the wretched conduct of our + Generals, either altogether impotent or foolhardy: so many withal were the + brave officers, with so many bands of men overthrown and taken. Neither + was the question and contest now about maintaining the limits of the + Empire and guarding the rivers which served for its boundaries, but about + defending the standing encampments of the legions and preserving our own + territories. Thus, when public misfortunes were following one another in a + continual train, when every year was become signal for calamities and + slaughters, Agricola was by the common voice of the populace required for + the command of our armies. For, all men were comparing his vigour, his + firmness, and his mind trained in war, with the sloth and timidity of the + others. With discourses of this strain, it is certain that even the ears + of Domitian himself were teased; whilst all the best of his freedmen + advised and pressed him to this choice, out of pure affection and duty, as + did the worst out of virulence and envy; and to whatever appeared most + malignant that Prince was ever prone. In this manner was Agricola, as well + through his own virtues as through the base management of others, pushed + upon a precipice even of glory. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 90. The year was now arrived when to the lot of Agricola was to fall + the Proconsulship of Asia or of Africa: and, as Civica had been lately + murdered (even whilst Proconsul of the former Province), Agricola was + neither unprepared what course to pursue, nor Domitian unfurnished with an + example to follow. It happened too, that certain persons, men apprised of + the secret purposes of the Prince, made it their business to accost + Agricola and ask him, whether he meant in earnest to take possession of + his Province. Nay, they began, at first indeed with some reserve, to extol + a life of tranquillity and repose; anon they proffered their good offices + to procure his demission and excuse: at last, throwing off all disguise, + and proceeding at once to dissuade and to intimidate him, they prevailed + with him to be carried, with this as his suit, to Domitian. He, already + prepared to dissemble his sentiments, and assuming a mien of haughtiness, + not only received the petition of Agricola to be excused, but when he had + granted it, suffered himself to be presented with formal thanks, Nor was + he ashamed of conferring a grace so unpopular and odious. To Agricola + however he gave not the salary which was wont to be paid to Proconsuls, + and which he himself had continued to some. Whether he were affronted that + it was not asked, or whether restrained by his own guilty mind, lest he + might seem to have purchased with money what he had hindered by his + interposition and power. It is the nature of men, that whomsoever they + injure they hate. Now Domitian was in his temper apt to be suddenly + transported into rage, and, in proportion as he smothered his vengeance, + the more irreconcilable he always certainly proved. Yet by the prudence + and moderation of Agricola, he was softened. For, by no contumacy of his, + nor by any vain ostentation of a spirit of liberty ill-timed, did he court + fame or urge his fate. Let such who are wont to admire things daring and + forbidden, know, that even under evil Princes great men may be produced, + and that by the means of modesty and observance, provided these be + accompanied with application and vigour, they may rise to an equal measure + of public estimation and praise with that of many, who through a conduct + very stubborn and precipitate, but of no advantage to the Commonweal, have + distinguished themselves by dying only to gain a great name. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 93. Afflicting to us his family proved the end of his life, sorrowful + to his friends; and even to foreigners and such as knew him not, matter of + trouble and condolence. The commonalty likewise, and such people as were + void of employment, {Footnote: Or it may be thus translated: "The body of + the people though chiefly intent upon such affairs as concerned not the + State."—GORDON. Burnouf is better: "Ce peuple, qu'occupent d'autres + intérêts."} were not only frequent in their visits to his house, but in + all public places, in all particular companies made him the subject of + their conversation. Nor, when his death was divulged, was there a soul + found who either rejoiced at it, or presently forgot it. What heightened + the public commiseration and concern, was a prevailing rumour that he was + despatched by poison. That there was any proof of this, I dare not aver. + Yet it is true, that during the whole course of his illness, Domitian + caused frequent visits to be made him, indeed much more frequent than + Princes are wont to make, both by his favourite freedmen and most trusty + physicians; whether through real concern for his health, or solicitude to + learn the probability of his death. It is well known that on the day in + which he expired, continual accounts were, by messengers purposely placed, + every instant transmitted to the Emperor, how fast his end was + approaching; and no one believed, that he would thus quicken such tidings, + had he been to feel any sorrow from hearing them. In his face however and + even in his spirit, he affected to show some guise of grief; for, he was + now secure against the object of his hate, and could more easily dissemble + his present joy, than lately his fear. It was abundantly notorious how + much it rejoiced him, upon reading the last will of Agricola, to find + himself left joint heir with his excellent wife and tender daughter. This + he took to have been done out of judgment and choice, and in pure honour + to himself. So blind and corrupt was his mind rendered by continual + flattery, as not to know, that to no Prince but a bad one will any good + father bequeath his fortune. + </p> + <p> + Agricola was born on the 13th of June, during the third Consulship of the + Emperor Caligula. He died on the 24th of August, during the Consulship of + Collega and Priscus, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. If posterity be + desirous to know his make and stature; in his person he was rather genteel + and regular than tall. {Footnote: Decentior quam sublimior fuit.} In his + aspect there was nothing terrible. His looks were extremely graceful and + pleasing. A good man you would have readily believed him, and been glad to + have found that he was a great man. Nay, though he was snatched away + whilst his age was yet in full vigour, if however his life be measured by + his glory, he attained to a mighty length of days. For, every true + felicity and acquisition, namely, all such as arise from virtue, he had + already enjoyed to the full. As he had been likewise dignified with the + Consular and triumphal honours, what more could fortune add to his lustre + and renown? After enormous wealth he sought not: an honourable share he + possessed. As behind him he left surviving his daughter and his wife, he + may be even accounted happy; since by dying whilst his credit was nowise + impaired, his fame in its full splendour, his relations and friends yet in + a state of security, he escaped the evils to come. For, as before us he + was wont to express his wishes, that he might survive to see this truly + blessed Age, and Trajan swaying the sovereignty, wishes which he uttered + with presages as of what would surely ensue; so it was a wondrous + consolation attending the quickness of his death, that thence he evaded + the misery of the latter times, when Domitian, who had ceased to exert his + tyranny by starts only and intermissions, was come now to rend the + Commonwealth by cruelties without all respite, and to overthrow it as it + were by one great and deadly stroke. + </p> + <p> + For, Agricola saw not the Court of the Senate besieged, nor the Senate + enclosed by armed men, nor the butchery of so many men of Consular + dignity, nor the flight and exile of so many ladies of the prime nobility, + all effected in one continued havoc. Till then Carus Metius, the accuser, + was only considerable for having been victorious in one bloody process; + till then the cruel motions of Messallinus rang only within the palace at + Alba; {Footnote: A country palace of Domitian.} and in those days Massa + Bebius (afterwards so exercised in arraigning the innocent) was himself + arraigned as a criminal. Presently after we, with our own hands, dragged + Helvidius to prison and execution: we beheld the melancholy doom of + Mauricus and Rusticus: we found ourselves besprinkled with the innocent + blood of Senecio. Even Nero withheld his eyes from scenes of cruelty, he + indeed ordered murders to be perpetrated, but saw not the perpetration. + The principal part of our miseries under Domitian, was to be obliged to + see him and be seen by him, at a time when all our sighs and sorrows were + watched and marked down for condemnation; when that cruel countenance of + his, always covered with a settled red, whence he hardened himself against + all shame and blushing, served him to mark and recount all the pale + horrors at once possessing so many men. Thou therefore, Agricola, art + happy, not only as thy life was glorious, but as thy death was seasonable. + According to the account of such who heard thy last words, thou didst + accept thy fate cheerfully and with firmness, as if thou thus didst thy + part to show the Emperor to be guiltless. But to myself and thy daughter, + besides the anguish of having our father snatched from us, it proves a + fresh accession of sorrow, that we had not an opportunity to attend thee + in thy sickness, to solace thy sinking spirits, to please ourselves with + seeing thee, please ourselves with embracing thee. Doubtless, we should + have greedily received thy instructions and sayings, and engraved them for + ever upon our hearts. This is our woe, this a wound to our spirit, that by + the lot of long absence from thee thou wast already lost to us for four + years before thy death. There is no question, excellent father, but that + with whatever thy condition required thou wast honourably supplied, as + thou wast attended by thy wife, one so full of tenderness for her husband: + yet fewer tears accompanied thy course, and during thy last moments + somewhat was wanting to satisfy thine eyes. + </p> + <p> + If for the <i>Manes</i> of the just any place be found; if, as + philosophers hold, great spirits perish not with the body, pleasing be thy + repose. Moreover, recall us thy family from this our weakness in + regretting thee, and from these our effeminate wailings, to the + contemplation of thy virtues, for which it were unjust to lament or to + mourn. Let us rather adorn thy memory with deathless praises and (as far + as our infirmities will allow) by pursuing and adopting thy excellencies. + This is true honour, this the natural duty incumbent upon every near + relation. This is also what I would recommend to thy daughter and thy + wife, so to reverence the memory of a father, and a husband, as to be ever + ruminating upon all his doings, upon all his sayings, and rather to adore + his immortal name, rather the image of his mind than that of his person. + Not that I mean to condemn the use of statues, such as are framed of + marble or brass. But as the persons of men are frail and perishing, so are + likewise the portraitures of men. The form of the soul is eternal, such as + you cannot represent and preserve by the craft of hands or by materials + foreign to its nature, nor otherwise than by a similitude and conformity + of manners. Whatever we loved in Agricola, whatever we admired, remains, + and will for ever remain implanted in the hearts of men, through an + eternity of ages, and conveyed down in the voice of fame, in the record of + things. For, many of the great ancients, by being buried in oblivion, have + thence reaped the fate of men altogether mean and inglorious: but Agricola + shall ever survive in his history here composed and transmitted to + posterity. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Reign of Tiberius, Out of the +First Six Annals of Tacitus, by Tacitus + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REIGN OF TIBERIUS *** + +***** This file should be named 7959-h.htm or 7959-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/9/5/7959/ + + +Text file produced by Anne Soulard, Tiffany Vergon, Charles Aldarondo, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +HTML file produced by David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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