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Talbot + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +Project Gutenberg's Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War, by Frederick A. Talbot + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War + +Author: Frederick A. Talbot + +Release Date: July 21, 2008 [EBook #793] +Last Updated: February 7, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AEROPLANES AND DIRIGIBLES OF WAR *** + + + +Produced by an Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + AEROPLANES AND DIRIGIBLES OF WAR + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Frederick A. Talbot + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a><br /> <br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> THE INTRODUCTION OF + AIRCRAFT INTO MILITARY OPERATIONS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> + CHAPTER II. </a> THE MILITARY USES of THE CAPTIVE BALLOON + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> GERMANY'S + RISE TO MILITARY AIRSHIP SUPREMACY <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> + CHAPTER IV. </a> AIRSHIPS OF WAR <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> GERMANY'S AERIAL + DREADNOUGHT FLEET <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> THE + MILITARY VALUE OF GERMANY'S AERIAL FLEET <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> AEROPLANES OF WAR + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> SCOUTING + FROM THE SKIES <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> THE + AIRMAN AND ARTILLERY <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> BOMB-THROWING + FROM AIR-CRAFT <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> ARMOURED + AEROPLANES <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> BATTLES + IN THE AIR <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> TRICKS + AND RUSES TO BAFFLE THE AIRMAN <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0014"> + CHAPTER XIV. </a> ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS. MOBILE WEAPONS. <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS. + IMMOBILE WEAPONS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. </a> MINING + THE AIR <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII. </a> WIRELESS + IN AVIATION <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> AIRCRAFT + AND NAVAL OPERATIONS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. + </a> THE NAVIES of THE AIR <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + Ever since the earliest days of the great conquest of the air, first by + the dirigible balloon and then by the aeroplane, their use in time of war + has been a fruitful theme for discussion. But their arrival was of too + recent a date, their many utilities too unexplored to provide anything + other than theories, many obviously untenable, others avowedly + problematical. + </p> + <p> + Yet the part airships have played in the Greatest War has come as a + surprise even to their most convinced advocates. For every expectation + shattered, they have shown a more than compensating possibility of + usefulness. + </p> + <p> + In this volume an endeavour has been made to record their achievements, + under the stern test of trial, as an axiom of war, and to explain, in + untechnical language, the many services to which they have been and may be + applied. + </p> + <p> + In the preparation of the work I have received assistance from many + sources—British, French, Russian and German—from official + reports and from men who have played a part in the War in the Air. The + information concerning German military aircraft has been obtained from + Government documents, most of which were placed at my disposal before the + outbreak of war. + </p> + <p> + The use of aircraft has changed the whole art and science of warfare. With + its disabilities well in hand, with its strength but half revealed, the + aerial service has revolutionised strategy and shorn the unexpected attack + of half its terrors. The Fourth Arm is now an invaluable part of the + complex military machine. + </p> + <p> + F. A. TALBOT. <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. THE INTRODUCTION OF AIRCRAFT INTO MILITARY OPERATIONS + </h2> + <p> + It is a curious circumstance that an invention, which is hailed as being + one of the greatest achievements ever recorded in the march of + civilisation, should be devoted essentially to the maiming of humanity and + the destruction of property. In no other trend of human endeavour is this + factor so potently demonstrated as in connection with Man's Conquest of + the Air. + </p> + <p> + The dogged struggle against the blind forces of Nature was waged + tenaciously and perseveringly for centuries. But the measure of success + recorded from time to time was so disappointing as to convey the + impression, except in a limited circle, that the problem was impossible of + solution. In the meantime wondrous changes had taken place in the methods + of transportation by land and sea. The steam and electric railway, steam + propulsion of vessels, and mechanical movement along the highroads had + been evolved and advanced to a high standard of perfection, to the untold + advantage of the community. Consequently it was argued, if only a system + of travel along the aerial highways could be established, then all other + methods of mechanical transportation would be rendered, if not entirely + obsolete, at least antiquated. + </p> + <p> + At last man triumphed over Nature—at least to such a degree as to + inspire the confidence of the world at large, and to bring aerial travel + and transportation within range of realisation. But what has been the + result? The discovery is not devoted to the interests of peace and + economic development, but to extermination and destruction. + </p> + <p> + At the same time this development may be explained. The airship and + aeroplane in the present stage of evolution possess no economic value. + True, cross-country cruises by airship have been inaugurated, and, up to a + point, have proved popularly, if not commercially, successful, while + tentative efforts have been made to utilise the aeroplane as a + mail-carrier. Still, from the view-point of the community at large aerial + travel is as remote as it was centuries ago. + </p> + <p> + It is somewhat interesting to observe how history is repeating itself. + When the Montgolfiers succeeded in lifting themselves into the air by + means of a vessel inflated with hot air, the new vehicle was hailed not so + much as one possessed of commercial possibilities, but as an engine of + war! When the indomitable courage and perseverance of Count von Zeppelin + in the face of discouraging disasters and flagrant failures, at last + commanded the attention of the German Emperor, the latter regarded the + Zeppelin craft, not from the interests of peace, but as a military weapon, + and the whole of the subsequent efforts of the Imperial admirer were + devoted to the perfection of the airship in this one direction. + </p> + <p> + Other nations, when they embarked on an identical line of development, + considered the airship from a similar point of view. In fact, outside + Germany, there was very little private initiative in this field. + Experiments and developments were undertaken by the military or naval, and + in some instances by both branches, of the respective Powers. Consequently + the aerial craft, whether it be a dirigible airship, or an aeroplane, can + only be regarded from the military point of view. + </p> + <p> + Despite the achievements which have been recorded by human endeavour in + the field of aerial travel, the balloon per se has by no means been + superseded. It still remains an invaluable adjunct to the fighting + machine. In Great Britain its value in this direction has never been + ignored: of late, indeed, it has rather been developed. The captive + balloon is regarded as an indispensable unit to both field and sea + operations. This fact was emphasised very strongly in connection with the + British naval attacks upon the German forces in Flanders, and it + contributed to the discomfiture of the German hordes in a very emphatic + manner. + </p> + <p> + The captive balloon may be operated from any spot where facilities exist + for anchoring the paying out cable together with winding facilities for + the latter. Consequently, if exigencies demand, it maybe operated from the + deck of a warship so long as the latter is stationary, or even from an + automobile. It is of small cubic capacity, inasmuch as it is only + necessary for the bag to contain sufficient gas to lift one or two men to + a height of about 500 or 600 feet. + </p> + <p> + When used in the field the balloon is generally inflated at the base, to + be towed or carried forward by a squad of men while floating in the air, + perhaps at a height of 10 feet. A dozen men will suffice for this duty as + a rule, and in calm weather little difficulty is encountered in moving + from point to point. This method possesses many advantages. The balloon + can be inflated with greater ease at the base, where it is immune from + interference by hostile fire. Moreover, the facilities for obtaining the + requisite inflating agent—hydrogen or coal gas—are more + convenient at such a point. If the base be far removed from the spot at + which it is desired to operate the balloon, the latter is inflated at a + convenient point nearer the requisite position, advantage being taken of + the protective covering offered by a copse or other natural obstacle. + </p> + <p> + As is well known, balloons played an important part during the siege of + Paris in 1870-1, not only in connection with daring attempts to + communicate with the outer world, but in reconnoitring the German + positions around the beleaguered city. But this was not the first military + application of the aerial vessel; it was used by the French against the + Austrians in the battle of Fleurus, and also during the American Civil + War. These operations, however, were of a sporadic character; they were + not part and parcel of an organised military section. + </p> + <p> + It is not generally known that the British War office virtually pioneered + the military use of balloons, and subsequently the methods perfected in + Britain became recognised as a kind of "standard" and were adopted + generally by the Powers with such modifications as local exigencies seemed + to demand. + </p> + <p> + The British military balloon department was inaugurated at Chatham under + Captain Templer in 1879. It was devoted essentially to the employment of + captive balloons in war, and in 1880 a company of the Royal Engineers was + detailed to the care of this work in the field. Six years previously the + French military department had adopted the captive balloon under Colonel + Laussedat, who was assisted among others by the well-known Captain Renard. + Germany was somewhat later in the field; the military value of captive + balloons was not appreciated and taken into serious consideration here + until 1884. But although British efforts were preceded by the French the + latter did not develop the idea upon accepted military lines. + </p> + <p> + The British authorities were confronted with many searching problems. One + of the earliest and greatest difficulties encountered was in connection + with the gas for inflation. Coal gas was not always readily available, so + that hydrogen had to be depended upon for the most part. But then another + difficulty arose. This was the manufacture of the requisite gas. Various + methods were tested, such as the electrolytic decomposition of water, the + decomposition of sulphuric acid by means of iron, the reaction between + slaked lime and zinc, and so forth. + </p> + <p> + But the drawbacks to every process, especially upon the field of battle, + when operations have to be conducted under extreme difficulties and at + high pressure, were speedily recognised. While other nations concentrated + their energies upon the simplification of hydrogen-manufacturing apparatus + for use upon the battle-field, Great Britain abandoned all such processes + in toto. Our military organisation preferred to carry out the production + of the necessary gas at a convenient manufacturing centre and to transport + it, stored in steel cylinders under pressure, to the actual scene of + operations. The method proved a great success, and in this way it was + found possible to inflate a military balloon in the short space of 20 + minutes, whereas, under the conditions of making gas upon the spot, a + period of four hours or more was necessary, owing to the fact that the + manufacturing process is relatively slow and intricate. The practicability + of the British idea and its perfection served to establish the captive + balloon as a military unit. + </p> + <p> + The British military ballooning department has always ranked as the + foremost of its type among the Powers, although its work has been carried + out so unostentatiously that the outside world has gleaned very little + information concerning its operations. Captain Templer was an + indefatigable worker and he brought the ballooning section to a high + degree of efficiency from the military point of view. + </p> + <p> + But the British Government was peculiarly favoured, if such a term may be + used. Our little wars in various parts of the world contributed valuable + information and experience which was fully turned to account. Captive + balloons for reconnoitring purposes were used by the British army for the + first time at Suakim in 1885, and the section established its value very + convincingly. The French military balloon department gained its first + experience in this field in the previous year, a balloon detachment having + been dispatched to Tonkin in 1884. In both the Tonkin and Soudan + campaigns, invaluable work was accomplished by the balloon sections, with + the result that this aerial vehicle has come to be regarded as an + indispensable military adjunct. Indeed the activity of the German military + ballooning section was directly attributable to the Anglo-French + achievements therewith. + </p> + <p> + In this work, however, the British force speedily displayed its + superiority and initiative. The use of compressed hydrogen was adopted, + and within the course of a few years the other Powers, realising the + advantages which the British department had thus obtained, decided to + follow its example. The gas is stored in cylinders under a pressure + varying from six to ten or more atmospheres; in other words from about 80 + to 140 or more pounds per square inch. Special military wagons have been + designed for the transport of these cylinders, and they are attached to + the balloon train. + </p> + <p> + The balloon itself is light, and made of such materials as to reduce the + weight thereof to the minimum. The British balloons are probably the + smallest used by any of the Powers, but at the same time they are the most + expensive. They are made of goldbeater's skin, and range in capacity from + 7,000 to 10,000 cubic feet, the majority being of the former capacity. The + French balloon on the other hand has a capacity exceeding 18,000 cubic + feet, although a smaller vessel of 9,000 cubic feet capacity, known as an + auxiliary, and carrying a single observer, is used. + </p> + <p> + The Germans, on the other hand, with their Teutonic love of the immense, + favour far larger vessels. At the same time the military balloon section + of the German Army eclipses that of any other nations is attached to the + Intelligence Department, and is under the direct control of the General + Staff. Balloon stations are dotted all over the country, including + Heligoland and Kiel, while regular sections are attached to the Navy for + operating captive balloons from warships. Although the Zeppelin and + aeroplane forces have come to the front in Germany, and have relegated the + captive balloon somewhat to the limbo of things that were, the latter + section has never been disbanded; in fact, during the present campaign it + has undergone a somewhat spirited revival. + </p> + <p> + The South African campaign emphasised the value of the British balloon + section of the Army, and revealed services to which it was specially + adapted, but which had previously more or less been ignored. The British + Army possessed indifferent maps of the Orange Free State and the + Transvaal. This lamentable deficiency was remedied in great measure by + recourse to topographical photographs taken from the captive balloons. The + guides thus obtained were found to be of extreme value. + </p> + <p> + During the early stages of the war the hydrogen was shipped in cylinders + from the homeland, but subsequently a manufacturing plant of such capacity + as to meet all requirements was established in South Africa. The cylinders + were charged at this point and dispatched to the scene of action, so that + it became unnecessary to transport the commodity from Britain. The captive + balloon revealed the impregnability of Spion Kop, enabled Lord Roberts to + ascertain the position of the Boer guns at the Battle of Paardeburg, and + proved of invaluable assistance to the forces of General White during the + siege of Ladysmith. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. THE MILITARY USES of THE CAPTIVE BALLOON + </h2> + <p> + Although the captive balloon is recognised as indispensable in military + operations, its uses are somewhat limited. It can be employed only in + comparatively still weather. The reason is obvious. It is essential that + the balloon should assume a vertical line in relation to its winding plant + upon the ground beneath, so that it may attain the maximum elevation + possible: in other words, the balloon should be directly above the station + below, so that if 100 yards of cable are paid out the aerostat may be 100 + yards above the ground. If a wind is blowing, the helpless craft is + certain to be caught thereby and driven forwards or backwards, so that it + assumes an angle to its station. If this become acute the vessel will be + tilted, rendering the position of the observers somewhat precarious, and + at the same time observing efficiency will be impaired. + </p> + <p> + This point may be appreciated more easily by reference to the accompanying + diagram. A represents the ground station and B the position of the captive + balloon when sent aloft in calm weather, 300 feet of cable being paid out. + A wind arises and blows the vessel forward to the position C. At this + point the height of the craft in relation to the ground has been reduced, + and the reduction must increase proportionately as the strength of the + wind increases and forces the balloon still more towards the ground. At + the same time, owing to the tilt given to the car, observation is rendered + more difficult and eventually becomes extremely dangerous. + </p> + <p> + A wind, if of appreciable strength, develops another and graver danger. + Greater strain will be imposed upon the cable, while if the wind be gusty, + there is the risk that the vessel will be torn away from its anchoring + rope and possibly lost. Thus it will be seen that the effective + utilisation of a captive balloon is completely governed by meteorological + conditions, and often it is impossible to use it in weather which + exercises but little influence upon dirigibles or aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + The captive balloon equipment comprises the balloon, together with the + observer's basket, the wire-cable whereby it is anchored and controlled, + and the winding apparatus. Formerly a steam engine was necessary for the + paying in and out of the cable, but nowadays this is accomplished by means + of a petrol-driven motor, an oil-engine, or even by the engine of an + automobile. The length of cable varies according to the capacity of the + balloon and the maximum operating height. + </p> + <p> + The average British balloon is able to lift about 290 or 300 pounds, which + may be taken to represent the weight of two observers. On the other hand, + the French and German balloons are able to carry four times this weight, + with the exception of the French auxiliaries, which are designed to lift + one observer only. The balloons of the two latter Powers have also a + greater maximum altitude; it is possible to ascend to a height of some + 2,000 feet in one of these. + </p> + <p> + The observing station is connected with the winding crew below either by a + telephone, or some other signalling system, the method practised varying + according to circumstances. In turn the winding station is connected with + the officer in charge of the artillery, the fire of which the captive + balloon is directing. The balloon observer is generally equipped with + various instruments, such as telescope, photographic cameras, and so + forth, so as to be able, if necessary, to prepare a topographical survey + of the country below. By this means the absence of reliable maps may be + remedied, or if not regarded, as sufficiently correct they may be checked + and counter-checked by the data gained aloft. + </p> + <p> + Seeing that the gas has to be transported in cylinders, which are weighty, + it is incumbent that the waste of this commodity should be reduced to the + minimum. The balloon cannot be deflated at night and re-inflated in the + morning—it must be maintained in the inflated condition the whole + time it is required for operation. + </p> + <p> + There are various methods of consummating this end. One method is to haul + in the balloon and to peg it down on all sides, completing the anchorage + by the attachment of bags filled with earth to the network. While this + process is satisfactory in calm weather, it is impracticable in heavy + winds, which are likely to spring up suddenly. Consequently a second + method is practised. This is to dig a pit into the ground of sufficient + size to receive the balloon. When the latter is hauled in it is lowered + into this pit and there pegged down and anchored. Thus it is perfectly + safe during the roughest weather, as none of its bulk is exposed above the + ground level. Furthermore it is not a conspicuous object for the + concentration of hostile fire. + </p> + <p> + In some instances, and where the military department is possessed of an + elaborate equipment such as characterises the German army, when + reconnaissance is completed and the balloon is to be removed to another + point, the gas is pumped back into the cylinders for further use. Such an + economical proceeding is pretty and well adapted to manoeuvres, but it is + scarcely feasible in actual warfare, for the simple reason that the + pumping takes time. Consequently the general procedure, when the balloon + has completed its work, is to permit the gas to escape into the air in the + usual manner, and to draw a fresh supply of gas from further cylinders + when the occasion arises for re-inflation. + </p> + <p> + Although the familiar spherical balloon has proved perfectly adequate for + reconnoitring in the British and French armies, the German authorities + maintained that it was not satisfactory in anything but calm weather. + Accordingly scientific initiative was stimulated with a view to the + evolution of a superior vessel. These endeavours culminated in the + Parseval-Siegsfeld captive balloon, which has a quaint appearance. It has + the form of a bulky cylinder with hemispherical extremities. At one end of + the balloon there is a surrounding outer bag, reminiscent of a cancerous + growth. The lower end of this is open. This attachment serves the purpose + of a ballonet. The wind blowing against the opening, which faces it, + charges the ballonet with air. This action, it is claimed, serves to + steady the main vessel, somewhat in the manner of the tail of a kite, + thereby enabling observations to be made as easily and correctly in rough + as in calm weather. The appearance of the balloon while aloft is certainly + curious. It appears to be rearing up on end, as if the extremity saddled + with the ballonet were weighted. + </p> + <p> + British and French captive balloon authorities are disposed to discount + the steadying effect of this attachment, and, indeed, to maintain that it + is a distinct disadvantage. It may hold the vessel steadier for the + purpose of observation, but at the same time it renders the balloon a + steadier target for hostile fire. On the other hand, the swaying of a + spherical balloon with the wind materially contributes to its safety. A + moving object, particularly when its oscillations are irregular and + incalculable, is an extremely difficult object at which to take effective + aim. + </p> + <p> + Seeing that even a small captive balloon is of appreciable dimensions—from + 25 to 33 feet or more in diameter—one might consider it an easy + object to hit. But experience has proved otherwise. In the first place the + colour of the balloon is distinctly protective. The golden or yellowish + tinge harmonises well with the daylight, even in gloomy weather, while at + night-time it blends excellently with the moonlight. For effective + observations a high altitude is undesirable. At a height of 600 feet the + horizon is about 28 miles from the observer, as compared with the 3 miles + constituting the range of vision from the ground over perfectly flat + country. Thus it will be seen that the "spotter" up aloft has the command + of a considerable tract. + </p> + <p> + Various ways and means of finding the range of a captive balloon have been + prepared, and tables innumerable are available for committal to memory, + while those weapons especially designed for aerial targets are fitted with + excellent range-finders and other instruments. The Germans, with + characteristic thoroughness, have devoted considerable attention to this + subject, but from the results which they have achieved up to the present + this guiding knowledge appears to be more spectacular and impressive than + effective. + </p> + <p> + To put a captive balloon out of action one must either riddle the + envelope, causing it to leak like a sieve, blow the vessel to pieces, or + ignite the highly inflammable gas with which it is inflated. Individual + rifle fire will inflict no tangible damage. A bullet, if it finds its + billet, will merely pass through the envelope and leave two small + punctures. True, these vents will allow the gas to escape, but this action + will proceed so slowly as to permit the vessel to remain aloft long enough + to enable the observer to complete his work. A lucky rifle volley, or the + stream of bullets from a machine gun may riddle the envelope, + precipitating a hurried descent, owing to the greater number of + perforations through which the gas is able to escape, but as a rule the + observer will be able to land safely. + </p> + <p> + Consequently the general practice is to shatter the aerostat, and to this + end either shrapnel, high explosive, or incendiary shells will be used. + The former must explode quite close to the balloon in order to achieve the + desired end, while the incendiary shell must actually strike it, so as to + fire the gas. The high explosive shell may explode effectually some feet + away from the vessel, inasmuch as in this instance dependence is placed + upon the terrific concussion produced by the explosion which, acting upon + the fragile fabric of the balloon, brings about a complete collapse of the + envelope. If a shrapnel is well placed and explodes immediately above the + balloon, the envelope will be torn to shreds and a violent explosion of + the gas will be precipitated. But as a matter of fact, it is extremely + difficult to place a shrapnel shell so as to consummate this end. The + range is not picked up easily, while the timing of the fuse to bring about + the explosion of the shell at the critical moment is invariably a complex + problem. + </p> + <p> + One favourite method of finding the range of a balloon is shown in the + accompanying diagrams. The artillery battery is at B and the captive + balloon, C, is anchored at A. On either side of B and at a specified + distance, observers O1 and O2 respectively are stationed. First a shell is + fired at "long" range, possibly the maximum range of the gun. It bursts at + D. As it has burst immediately in the line of sight of B, but with the + smoke obscured by the figure of the balloon C, it is obvious to B that the + explosion has occurred behind the objective, but at what distance he + cannot tell. To O1 and O2, however, it is seen to have burst at a + considerable distance behind C though to the former it appears to have + burst to the left and to the second observer to the right of the target. + </p> + <p> + Another shell, at "short" range, is now fired, and it bursts at E. The + explosion takes place in the line of sight of B, who knows that he has + fired short of the balloon because the latter is eclipsed by the smoke. + But the two observers see that it is very short, and here again the + explosion appears to O1 to have occurred to the right of the target, while + to O2 it has evidently burst to the left of the aerostat, as revealed by + the relation of the position of the balloon to the bursting of the shell + shown in Fig. 3. + </p> + <p> + A third round is fired, and the shell explodes at F. In this instance the + explosion takes place below the balloon. Both the observers and the + artillery man concur in their deductions upon the point at which the shell + burst. But the shell must explode above the balloon, and accordingly a + fourth round is discharged and the shell bursts at G. + </p> + <p> + This appears to be above the balloon, inasmuch as the lines of sight of + the two observers and B converge at this point. But whether the explosion + occurs immediately above the vessel as is desired, it is impossible to say + definitely, because it may explode too far behind to be effective. + Consequently, if this shell should prove abortive, the practice is to + decrease the range gradually with each succeeding round until the + explosion occurs at the critical point, when, of course, the balloon is + destroyed. An interesting idea of the difficulty of picking up the range + of a captive balloon may be gathered from the fact that some ten minutes + are required to complete the operation. + </p> + <p> + But success is due more to luck than judgment. In the foregoing + explanation it is premised that the aerial vessel remains stationary, + which is an extremely unlikely contingency. While those upon the ground + are striving to pick up the range, the observer is equally active in his + efforts to baffle his opponents. The observer follows each successive, + round with keen interest, and when the shells appear to be bursting at + uncomfortably close quarters naturally he intimates to his colleagues + below that he desires his position to be changed, either by ascending to a + higher point or descending. In fact, he may be content to come to the + ground. Nor must the fact be overlooked that while the enemy is trying to + place the observer hors de combat, he is revealing the position of his + artillery, and the observer is equally industrious in picking up the range + of the hostile guns for the benefit of his friends below. + </p> + <p> + When the captive balloon is aloft in a wind the chances of the enemy + picking up the range thereof are extremely slender, as it is continually + swinging to and fro. While there is always the possibility of a shell + bursting at such a lucky moment as to demolish the aerial target, it is + generally conceded to be impossible to induce a shell to burst within 100 + yards of a balloon, no matter how skilfully the hostile battery may be + operated. + </p> + <p> + The value of the captive balloon has been demonstrated very strikingly + throughout the attack upon the entrenched German positions in Flanders. + Owing to the undulating character of the dunes the "spotters" upon the + British monitors and battle ships are unable to obtain a sweeping view of + the country. Accordingly captive balloons are sent aloft in some cases + from the deck of the monitors, and in others from a suitable point upon + the beach itself. The aerial observer from his point of vantage is able to + pick up the positions of the German forces and artillery with ease and to + communicate the data thus gained to the British vessels, although + subjected to heavy and continuous hostile fire. The difficulty of hitting + a captive balloon has been graphically emphasised, inasmuch as the German + artillerists have failed to bring down a solitary balloon. On the other + hand the observer in the air is able to signal the results of each salvo + fired from the British battleships as they manoeuvre at full speed up and + down the coastline, while he keeps the fire of the monitors concentrated + upon the German positions until the latter have been rendered untenable or + demolished. The accuracy of the British gun-fire has astonished even the + Germans, but it has been directly attributable to the rangefinder perched + in the car of the captive balloon and his rapid transmission of + information to the vessels below. + </p> + <p> + The enthusiastic supporters of aerial navigation maintained that the + dirigible and the aeroplane would supersede the captive balloon + completely. But as a matter of fact the present conflict has established + the value of this factor more firmly than ever. There is not the slightest + possibility that the captive balloon sections of the belligerents will be + disbanded, especially those which have the fruits of experience to guide + them. The airship and the aeroplane have accomplished wonders, but despite + their achievements the captive balloon has fully substantiated its value + as a military unit in its particular field of operations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. GERMANY'S RISE TO MILITARY AIRSHIP SUPREMACY + </h2> + <p> + Two incidents in the history of aviation stand out with exceptional + prominence. The one is the evolution of the Zeppelin airship—a story + teeming with romance and affording striking and illuminating glimpses of + dogged perseverance, grim determination in the face of repeated disasters, + and the blind courageous faith of the inventor in the creation of his own + brain. The second is the remarkable growth of Germany's military airship + organisation, which has been so rapid and complete as to enable her to + assume supremacy in this field, and that within the short span of a single + decade. + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin has always aroused the world's attention, although this + interest has fluctuated. Regarded at first as a wonderful achievement of + genius, afterwards as a freak, then as the ready butt for universal + ridicule, and finally with awe, if not with absolute terror—such in + brief is the history of this craft of the air. + </p> + <p> + Count von Zeppelin can scarcely be regarded as an ordinary man. He took up + the subject of flight at an age which the majority of individuals regard + as the opportune moment for retirement from activity, and, knowing nothing + about mechanical engineering, he concentrated his energies upon the study + of this science to enable him to master the difficulties of a mechanical + character incidental to the realisation of his grand idea. His energy and + indomitable perseverance are equalled by his ardent patriotism, because, + although the Fatherland discounted his idea when other Powers were ready + to consider it, and indeed made him tempting offers for the acquisition of + his handiwork, he stoutly declined all such solicitations, declaring that + his invention, if such it may be termed, was for his own country and none + other. + </p> + <p> + Count von Zeppelin developed his line of study and thought for one reason + only. As an old campaigner and a student of military affairs he realised + the shortcomings of the existing methods of scouting and reconnoitring. He + appreciated more than any other man of the day perhaps, that if the + commander-in-chief of an army were provided with facilities for gazing + down upon the scene of operations, and were able to take advantage of all + the information accruing to the man above who sees all, he would hold a + superior position, and be able to dispose his forces and to arrange his + plan of campaign to the most decisive advantage. In other words, Zeppelin + conceived and developed his airship for one field of application and that + alone-military operations. Although it has achieved certain successes in + other directions these have been subsidiary to the primary intention, and + have merely served to emphasise its military value. + </p> + <p> + Von Zeppelin was handicapped in his line of thought and investigation from + the very first. He dreamed big things upon a big scale. The colossal + always makes a peculiar and irresistible appeal to the Teutonic nature. So + he contemplated the perfection of a big dirigible, eclipsing in every + respect anything ever attempted or likely to be attempted by rival + countries. Unfortunately, the realisation of the "colossal" entails an + equally colossal financial reserve, and the creator of this form of + airship for years suffered from financial cramp in its worst + manifestation. Probably it was to the benefit of the world at large that + Fortune played him such sorry tricks. It retarded the growth of German + ambitions in one direction very effectively. + </p> + <p> + As is well known Zeppelin evolved what may be termed an individual line of + thought in connection with his airship activities. He adopted what is + known as the indeformable airship: that is to say the rigid, as opposed to + the semi-rigid and flexible craft. As a result of patient experiment and + continued researches he came to the conclusion that a huge outer envelope + taking the form of a polygonal cylinder with hemispherical ends, + constructed upon substantial lines with a metallic skeleton encased within + an impermeable skin, and charged with a number of smaller balloon-shaped + vessels containing the lifting agent—hydrogen gas—would fulfil + his requirements to the greatest advantage. Model after model was built + upon these lines. Each was subjected to searching tests with the + invariable result attending such work with models. Some fulfilled the + expectations of the inventor, others resolutely declined to illustrate his + reasonings in any direction. + </p> + <p> + The inevitable happened. When a promising model was completed finally the + inventor learned to his sorrow what every inventor realises in time. His + fortune and the resources of others had been poured down the sink of + experiment. To carry the idea from the model to the practical stage + required more money, and it was not forthcoming. The inventor sought to + enlist the practical sympathy of his country, only to learn that in + Germany, as in other lands, the axiom concerning the prophet, honour, and + country prevails. No exuberant inventor received such a cold douche from a + Government as did Count Zeppelin from the Prussian authorities. For two + years further work was brought practically to a standstill: nothing could + be done unless the sinews of war were forthcoming. His friends, who had + assisted him financially with his models, now concluded that their aid had + been misplaced. + </p> + <p> + The inventor, though disappointed, was by no means cast down. He clung + tenaciously to his pet scheme and to such effect that in 1896 a German + Engineering Society advanced him some funds to continue his researches. + This support sufficed to keep things going for another two years, during + which time a full-sized vessel was built. The grand idea began to + crystallise rapidly, with the result that when a public company was formed + in 1898, sufficient funds were rendered available to enable the first + craft to be constructed. It aroused considerable attention, as well it + might, seeing that it eclipsed anything which had previously been + attempted in connection with dirigibles. It was no less than 420 feet in + length, by 38 feet in diameter, and was fitted with two cars, each of + which carried a sixteen horse-power motor driving independent propellers + rigidly attached to the body of the vessel. The propellers were both + vertical and horizontal, for the purpose of driving the ship in the two + planes—vertical and horizontal respectively. + </p> + <p> + The vessel was of great scientific interest, owing to the ingenuity of its + design and construction. The metallic skeleton was built up from aluminium + and over this was stretched the fabric of the envelope, care being + observed to reduce skin friction, as well as to achieve impermeability. + But it was the internal arrangement of the gas-lifting balloons which + provoked the greatest concern. The hull was divided into compartments, + each complete in itself, and each containing a small balloon inflated with + hydrogen. It was sub-division as practised in connection with vessels + ploughing the water applied to aerial craft, the purpose being somewhat + the same. As a ship of the seas will keep afloat so long as a certain + number of its subdivisions remain watertight, so would the Zeppelin keep + aloft if a certain number of the gas compartments retained their charges + of hydrogen. There were no fewer than seventeen of these gas-balloons + arranged in a single line within the envelope. Beneath the hull and + extending the full length of the latter was a passage which not only + served as a corridor for communication between the cars, but also to + receive a weight attached to a cable worked by a winch. By the movement of + this weight the bow or stem of the vessel could be tilted to assist ascent + and descent. + </p> + <p> + The construction of the vessel subsequently proved to be the easiest and + most straightforward part of the whole undertaking. There were other and + more serious problems to be solved. How would such a monster craft come to + earth? How could she be manipulated upon the ground? How could she be + docked? Upon these three points previous experience was silent. One German + inventor who likewise had dreamed big things, and had carried them into + execution, paid for his temerity and ambitions with his life, while his + craft was reduced to a mass of twisted and torn metal. Under these + circumstances Count Zeppelin decided to carry out his flights over the + waters of the Bodensee and to house his craft within a floating dock. In + this manner two uncertain factors might be effectively subjugated. + </p> + <p> + Another problem had been ingeniously overcome. The outer envelope + presented an immense surface to the atmosphere, while temperature was + certain to play an uncertain part in the behaviour of the craft. The + question was to reduce to the minimum the radiation of heat and cold to + the bags containing the gas. This end was achieved by leaving a slight air + space between the inflated gas balloons and the inner surface of the hull. + </p> + <p> + The first ascent was made on July 2nd, 1900, but was disappointing, + several breakdowns of the mechanism occurring while the vessel was in + mid-air, which rendered it unmanageable, although a short flight was made + which sufficed to show that an independent speed of 13 feet per second + could be attained. The vessel descended and was made fast in her dock, the + descent being effected safely, while manoeuvring into dock was successful. + At least three points about which the inventor had been in doubt appeared + to be solved—his airship could be driven through the air and could + be steered; it could be brought to earth safely; and it could be docked. + </p> + <p> + The repairs to the mechanism were carried out and on October 17th and 21st + of the same year further flights were made. By this time certain + influential Teuton aeronautical experts who had previously ridiculed + Zeppelin's idea had made a perfect volte-face. They became staunch + admirers of the system, while other meteorological savants participated in + the trials for the express purpose of ascertaining just what the ship + could do. As a result of elaborate trigonometrical calculations it was + ascertained that the airship attained an independent speed of 30 feet per + second, which exceeded anything previously achieved. The craft proved to + be perfectly manageable in the air, and answered her helm, thus complying + with the terms of dirigibility. The creator was flushed with his triumph, + but at the same time was doomed to experience misfortune. In its descent + the airship came to "earth" with such a shock that it was extensively + damaged. The cost of repairing the vessel was so heavy that the company + declined to shoulder the liability, and as the Count was unable to defray + the expense the wreck was abandoned. + </p> + <p> + Although a certain meed of success had been achieved the outlook seemed + very black for the inventor. No one had any faith in his idea. He made + imploring appeals for further money, embarked upon lecturing campaigns, + wrote aviation articles for the Press, and canvassed possible supporters + in the effort to raise funds for his next enterprise. Two years passed, + but the fruits of the propaganda were meagre. It was at this juncture, + when everything appeared to be impossible, that Count Zeppelin discovered + his greatest friend. The German Emperor, with an eye ever fixed upon new + developments, had followed Zeppelin's uphill struggle, and at last, in + 1902, came to his aid by writing a letter which ran:— + </p> + <p> + "Since your varied flights have been reported to me it is a great pleasure + to me to express my acknowledgment of your patience and your labours, and + the endurance with which you have pressed on through manifold hindrances + till success was near. The advantages of your system have given your ship + the greatest attainable speed and dirigibility, and the important results + you have obtained have produced an epoch-making step forward in the + construction of airships and leave laid down a valuable basis for future + experiments." + </p> + <p> + This Imperial appreciation of what had been accomplished proved to be the + turning point in the inventor's fortunes. It stimulated financial support, + and the second airship was taken in hand. But misfortune still pursued + him. Accidents were of almost daily occurrence. Defects were revealed here + and weaknesses somewhere else. So soon as one trouble was overcome another + made itself manifest. The result was that the whole of the money collected + by his hard work was expended before the ship could take to the air. A + further crash and blasting of cherished hopes appeared imminent, but at + this moment another Royal personage came to the inventor's aid. + </p> + <p> + The King of Wurtemberg took a personal interest in his subject's uphill + struggle, and the Wurtemberg Government granted him the proceeds of a + lottery. With this money, and with what he succeeded in raising by hook + and by crook, and by mortgaging his remaining property, a round L20,000 + was obtained. With this capital a third ship was taken in hand, and in + 1905 it was launched. It was a distinct improvement upon its predecessors. + The airship was 414 feet in length by 38 feet in diameter, was equipped + with 17 gas balloons having an aggregate capacity of 367,000 cubic feet of + hydrogen, was equipped with two 85 horse-power motors driving four + propellers, and displaced 9 tons. All the imperfections incidental to the + previous craft had been eliminated, while the ship followed improved lines + in its mechanical and structural details. + </p> + <p> + The trials with this vessel commenced on November 30th, 1905, but ill-luck + had not been eluded. The airship was moored upon a raft which was to be + towed out into the lake to enable the dirigible to ascend. But something + went wrong with the arrangements. A strong wind caught the ungainly + airship, she dipped her nose into the water, and as the motor was set + going she was driven deeper into the lake, the vessel only being saved by + hurried deflation. + </p> + <p> + Six weeks were occupied in repairs, but another ascent was made on January + 17th, 1906. The trials were fairly satisfactory, but inconclusive. One of + the motors went wrong, and the longitudinal stability was found to be + indifferent. The vessel was brought down, and was to be anchored, but the + Fates ruled otherwise. A strong wind caught her during the night and she + was speedily reduced to indistinguishable scrap. + </p> + <p> + Despite catastrophe the inventor wrestled gamely with his project. The + lessons taught by one disaster were taken to heart, and arrangements to + prevent the recurrence thereof incorporated in the succeeding craft. + Unfortunately, however, as soon as one defect was remedied another + asserted itself. It was this persistent revelation of the unexpected which + caused another period of indifference towards his invention. Probably + nothing more would have been heard of the Zeppelin after this last + accident had it not been for the intervention of the Prussian Government + at the direct instigation of the Kaiser, who had now taken Count Zeppelin + under his wing. A State lottery was inaugurated, the proceeds of which + were handed over to the indefatigable inventor, together with an assurance + that if he could keep aloft 24 hours without coming to earth in the + meantime, and could cover 450 miles within this period, the Government + would repay the whole of the money he had lavished upon his idea, and + liquidate all the debts he had incurred in connection therewith. + </p> + <p> + Another craft was built, larger than its predecessors, and equipped with + two motors developing 170 horse-power. Upon completion it was submitted to + several preliminary flights, which were so eminently successful that the + inventor decided to make a trial trip under conditions closely analogous + to those imposed for the Government test. On June 20th, 1908, at 8:26 a.m. + the craft ascended and remained aloft for 12 hours, during which time it + made an encouraging circular tour. Flushed with this success, the Count + considered that the official award was within reach, and that all his + previous disasters and misfortunes were on the eve of redemption. + </p> + <p> + The crucial test was essayed on August 5th, 1908. Accompanied by twelve + observers the vessel ascended and travelled without incident for eight + hours. Then a slight mishap demanded attention, but was speedily repaired, + and was ignored officially as being too trivial to influence the main + issue. Victory appeared within measurable distance: the arduous toil of + many patient years was about to be rewarded. The airship was within sight + of home when it had to descend owing to the development of another motor + fault. But as it approached the ground, Nature, as if infuriated at the + conquest, rose up in rebellion. A sudden squall struck the unwieldy + monster. Within a few moments it became unmanageable, and through some + inscrutable cause, it caught fire, with the result that within a few + moments it was reduced to a tangled mass of metallic framework. + </p> + <p> + It was a catastrophe that would have completely vanquished many an + inventor, but the Count was saved the gall of defeat. His flight, which + was remarkable, inasmuch as he had covered 380 miles within 24 hours, + including two unavoidable descents, struck the Teuton imagination. The + seeds so carefully planted by the "Most High of Prussia" now bore fruit. + The German nation sympathised with the indomitable inventor, appreciated + his genius, and promptly poured forth a stream of subscriptions to enable + him to build another vessel. The intimation that other Powers had + approached the Count for the acquisition of his idea became known far and + wide, together with the circumstance that he had unequivocally refused all + offers. He was striving for the Fatherland, and his unselfish patriotism + appealed to one and all. Such an attitude deserved hearty national + appreciation, and the members of the great German public emptied their + pockets to such a degree that within a few weeks a sum of L300,000 or + $1,500,000 was voluntarily subscribed. + </p> + <p> + All financial embarrassments and distresses were now completely removed + from the Count's mind. He could forge ahead untrammelled by anxiety and + worry. Another Zeppelin was built and it created a world's record. It + remained aloft for 38 hours, during which time it covered 690 miles, and, + although it came to grief upon alighting, by colliding with a tree, the + final incident passed unnoticed. Germany was in advance of the world. It + had an airship which could go anywhere, irrespective of climatic + conditions, and in true Teuton perspective the craft was viewed from the + military standpoint. Here was a means of obtaining the mastery of the air: + a formidable engine of invasion and aerial attack had been perfected. + Consequently the Grand Idea must be supported with unbounded enthusiasm. + The Count was hailed by his august master as "The greatest German of the + twentieth century," and in this appreciation the populace wholeheartedly + concurred. Whether such a panegyric from such an auspicious quarter is + praise indeed or the equivalent of complete condemnation, history alone + will be able to judge, but when one reflects, at this moment, upon the + achievements of this aircraft during the present conflagration, the + unprejudiced will be rather inclined to hazard the opinion that Imperial + Teuton praise is a synonym for damnation. + </p> + <p> + Although the Zeppelin was accepted as a perfect machine it has never been + possible to disperse the atmosphere of disaster with which it has been + enveloped from the first. Vessel after vessel has gone up in smoke and + flame: few craft of this type have enjoyed more than an evanescent + existence; and each successive catastrophe has proved more terrible than + its predecessor. But the Teutonic nation has been induced to pin its whole + faith on this airship, notwithstanding that the more levelheaded engineers + of other countries have always maintained the craft to be a "mechanical + monstrosity" condemned from its design and principles of construction to + disaster. Unshaken by this adverse criticism, Germany rests assured that + by means of its Zeppelins it will achieve that universal supremacy which + it is convinced is its Destiny. + </p> + <p> + This blind child-like faith has been responsible for the establishment and + development of the Zeppelin factories. At Friedrichshafen the facilities + are adequate to produce two of these vessels per month, while another + factory of a similar capacity has been established at Berlin. + Unfortunately such big craft demand large docks to accommodate them, and + in turn a large structure of this character constitutes an easy mark for + hostile attack, as the raiding airmen of the Allies have proved very + convincingly. + </p> + <p> + But the Zeppelin must not be under-rated. Magnificent performances have + been recorded by these vessels, such as the round 1,000 miles' trip in + 1909, and several other equally brilliant feats since that date. It is + quite true that each astounding achievement has been attended by an + equally stupendous accident, but that is accepted as a mere incidental + detail by the faithful Teutonic nation. Many vivid prophecies of the + forthcoming flights by Zeppelin have been uttered, and it is quite + probable that more than one will be fulfilled, but success will be + attributable rather to accident than design. + </p> + <p> + Although the Zeppelin is the main stake of the German people in matters + pertaining to aerial conquest, other types of airships have not been + ignored, as related in another chapter. They have been fostered upon a + smaller but equally effective scale. The semi-rigid Parseval and Gross + craft have met with whole-hearted support, since they have established + their value as vessels of the air, which is tantamount to the acceptance + of their military value. + </p> + <p> + The Parseval is pronounced by experts to be the finest expression of + aeronautical engineering so far as Teuton effort is concerned. Certainly + it has placed many notable flights to its credit. The Gross airship is an + equally serviceable craft, its lines of design and construction closely + following those of the early French supple airships. There are several + other craft which have become more or less recognised by the German nation + as substantial units of war, such as the Ruthemberg, Siemens-Schukert, and + so forth, all of which have proved their serviceability more or less + conclusively. But in the somewhat constricted Teuton mind the Zeppelin and + the Zeppelin only represents the ultima Thule of aerial navigation and the + means for asserting the universal character of Pan-Germanism as well as + "Kultur." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. AIRSHIPS OF WAR + </h2> + <p> + So much has been said and written concerning the Zeppelin airship, + particularly in its military aspect, that all other developments in this + field have sunk into insignificance so far as the general public is + concerned. The Zeppelin dirigible has come to be generally regarded as the + one and only form of practical lighter-than-air type of aircraft. + Moreover, the name has been driven home with such effect that it is + regarded as the generic term for all German airships. + </p> + <p> + These are grievous fallacies. The Zeppelin is merely one of a variety of + types, even in Germany, although at the moment it probably ranks as the + solitary survivor of the rigid system of construction. At one time, owing + to the earnestness with which the advantages of this form of design were + discussed, and in view of the fact that the Zeppelin certainly appeared to + triumph when all other designs failed, Great Britain was tempted to + embrace the rigid form of construction. The building of an immense vessel + of this class was actively supported and it was aptly christened the + "May-fly." Opponents of the movement tempered their emphatic condemnatory + criticism so far as to remark that it MAY FLY, but as events proved it + never did. The colossal craft broke its back before it ever ventured into + the air, and this solitary experience proving so disastrous, the rigid + form of construction was abandoned once and for all. The venture was not + in vain; it brought home to the British authorities more convincingly than + anything else that the Zeppelin was a mechanical monstrosity. The French + never even contemplated the construction of such a craft at that time, + estimating it at its true value, and the British failure certainly served + to support French antagonism to the idea. Subsequently, however, an + attempt at rigid construction was made in France with the "Spiess" + airship, mainly as a concession to public clamour. + </p> + <p> + Even in Germany itself the defects of the Zeppelin were recognised and a + decided effort to eliminate them was made by Professor Schutte in + co-operation with a manufacturer of Mannheim named Lanz. The joint product + of their ambitions, the Schutte-Lanz, is declared to be superior to the + Zeppelin, but so far it has failed to justify any of the claims of its + designers. This vessel, which also favours the colossal, is likewise of + the rigid type, but realising the inherent dangers accruing from the + employment of metal for the framework, its constructors have used wood, + reinforced and strengthened where necessary by metallic angle-iron, + plates, and bracing; this utilisation of metal is, however, carried out + very sparingly. The first vessel of this class was a huge failure, while + subsequent craft have not proved much more successful. + </p> + <p> + In fact, one of the largest German airships ever designed, L4, is, or + rather was, a Schutte-Lanz, with a capacity of 918,000 cubic feet, but + over 6,000 pounds lighter than a Zeppelin of almost similar dimensions. I + say "was" since L4 is no more. The pride of its creators evinced a + stronger preference for Davy Jones' Locker than its designed realm. Yet + several craft of this type have been built and have been mistaken for + Zeppelins owing to the similarity of the broad principles of design and + their huge dimensions. In one vital respect they are decidedly inferior to + their contemporary—they are not so speedy. + </p> + <p> + The most successful of the German lighter-than-air machines are those + known respectively as the semi rigid and non-rigid types, the best + examples of which are the Gross and Parseval craft. Virtually they are + Teutonic editions of the successful French craft of identical design by + which they were anticipated. The Lebaudy is possibly the most famous of + the French efforts in this direction. The gas-bag has an asymmetrical + shape, and is pointed at both ends, although the prow is blunter or + rounder than the stem. The gas-bag comprises a single chamber for the + inflating agent, the distended shape of the envelope being sustained by + means of an air-ballonet. By varying the contents of the latter through + the agency of a pump the tension of the gas in the lifting envelope can be + maintained, and the shape of the inflated balloon preserved under all + conditions. + </p> + <p> + Beneath the gas-bag is a long strengthened girder, and from this in turn + the car is suspended. It is the introduction of this rigid girder which is + responsible for the descriptive generic term of "semi-rigid." On the other + hand the "non-rigid" type may be roughly described as a pisciform balloon + fitted with propelling machinery, inasmuch as the car containing the + driving machinery is suspended from the balloon in the manner of the car + in the ordinary drifting vessel. So far as the French effort is concerned + the Bayard-Clement type is the best example of the non-rigid system; it is + represented in Germany by the Parseval class. + </p> + <p> + The Gross airship has been definitely adopted as a military machine by the + German authorities, and figures in the "M" class. The "M-IV" completed in + 1913 is the largest of this type, and differs from its prototypes in that + it carries two cars, each fitted with motors, whereas the earlier machines + were equipped with a single gondola after the French pattern. This vessel + measures 320 feet in length, has a maximum diameter of 44 1/2 feet, + displaces 13 tons, and is fitted with motors developing 450 horse-power, + which is sufficient to give it a speed of 47 miles per hour. This vessel + represents a huge advance upon its predecessors of this design, inasmuch + as the latter were about 245 feet in length by 36 1/4 feet in diameter, + and displaced only six tons, while the single car was provided with a + motor developing only 150 horse-power, the speed being 28 miles per hour. + Thus it will be seen that a huge development has suddenly taken place, a + result due no doubt to the co-operation of the well-known engineer + Basenach. The "M-IV" is essentially an experiment and great secrecy has + been maintained in regard to the trials which have been carried out + therewith, the authorities merely vouchsafing the fact that the airship + has proved completely successful in every respect; conclusive testimony of + this is offered by the inclusion of the vessel in the active aerial fleet + of Germany. + </p> + <p> + But it is the Parseval which is regarded as the finest type of airship + flying the German flag. This vessel is the product of slow evolution, for + it is admitted to be a power-driven balloon. Even the broad lines of the + latter are preserved, the shape being that of a cylinder with rounded + ends. It is the direct outcome of the "Drachen-Balloon," perfected by + Parseval and Siegsfeld, the captive balloon which is an indispensable part + of the German military equipment. + </p> + <p> + The complete success of the suspension system in this captive balloon + prompted Parseval to continue his researches and experiments in regard to + the application of power to the vessel, so as to induce it to move + independently of the wind. The suspension system and the car are the + outstanding features of the craft. It is non-rigid in the strictest + interpretation of the term, although, owing to the incorporation of the + steadying hollow "mattress" (as it is called by its inventor), the + strength of the suspension system, and the substantial character of the + car, it conveys an impression of great solidity. The thinnest rope, both + manilla and steel, in the suspension system is as thick as a man's finger, + while the car, measuring 30 feet in length by 6 feet in width, carried out + in wood, is a striking example of the maximum of strength with the minimum + of weight, being as steady and as solid as a boat's deck. The propellers + are collapsible, although in the latest craft of this class they are + semi-rigid. + </p> + <p> + The mechanical equipment is also interesting. There are two propellers, + and two motors, each nominally driving one propeller. But should one motor + break down, or motives of economy, such as husbanding of fuel, render it + advisable to run upon one engine, then the two propellers may be driven by + either of the motors. + </p> + <p> + The inventor has perfected an ingenious, simple, and highly efficient + coupling device to attain this end, but to ensure that the propeller + output is of the maximum efficiency in relation to the engine, the pitch + of the propellers may be altered and even reversed while the engine is + running. When one motor only is being used, the pitch is lowered until the + propellers revolve at the speed which they would attain if both engines + were in operation. This adjustment of the propeller pitch to the most + economical engine revolutions is a distinctive characteristic, and + contributes to the efficiency and reliability of the Parseval dirigible to + a very pronounced degree. + </p> + <p> + Steering in the vertical plane is also carried out upon distinctive lines. + There are no planes for vertical steering, but movement is accomplished by + tilting the craft and thus driving the gas from one end of the balloon to + the other. This is effected by the manipulation of the air-ballonets, one + of which is placed at the prow and stem of the gas bag respectively. If it + is desired to descend the gas is driven from the forward to the after end + of the envelope, merely by inflating the bow ballonet with air by means of + a pump placed in the car. If ascent is required, the after-ballonet is + inflated, thereby driving the gas to the forward end of the balloon, the + buoyancy of which is thus increased. The outstanding feature of the + "Drachen-Balloon" is incorporated in the airship. This is the automatic + operation of the safety valve on the gas-bag directly by the air + ballonets. If these ballonets empty owing to the pressure of the gas + within the envelope, a rope system disposed within the balloon and + connecting the ballonets and the gas-valve at the top is stretched taut, + thereby opening the gas-valve. In this manner the gas-pressure becomes + reduced until the ballonets are enabled to exercise their intended + function. This is a safety precaution of inestimable value. + </p> + <p> + The Parseval is probably the easiest dirigible to handle, inasmuch as it + involves no more skill or knowledge than that required for an ordinary + free balloon. Its movements in the vertical plane are not dissimilar to + those of the aeroplane, inasmuch as ascent and descent are normally + conducted in a "screwing" manner, the only exception being of course in + abrupt descent caused by the ripping of the emergency-valve. On one + occasion, it is stated, one of the latest machines of this type, when + conducting experimental flights, absolutely refused to descend, producing + infinite amusement both among the crowd and those on board. + </p> + <p> + The development of the Parseval is directly attributable to the influence + and intimate interest of the Kaiser, and undoubtedly this represents the + wisest step he ever made in the realm of aeronautics. It certainly has + enabled the German military machine to become possessed of a significant + fleet of what may be described as a really efficient and reliable type of + dirigible. The exact number of military Parsevals in commission is + unknown, but there are several classes thereof, in the nature of aerial + cruisers and vedettes. + </p> + <p> + The largest and most powerful class are those known as the B type, + measuring about 240 feet in length by 40 feet maximum diameter, of 223,000 + cubic feet capacity, and fitted with two motorsand two propellers. This + vessel carries about 10 passengers, can climb to a maximum height of + approximately 8,500 feet, and is capable of remaining in the air for + twenty hours upon a single fuel charge. While this is the largest and most + serviceable type of Parseval designed for military duties, there is + another, the A class, 200 feet in length with accommodation for six + passengers in addition to the crew of three, which is capable of attaining + a maximum altitude of 6,700 feet, and has an endurance capacity of 15 + hours. This class also is fitted with twin propellers and motors. In + addition there are the C and E classes, carrying from four to eight + passengers, while the vedettes are represented by the D and F classes, + which have a maximum altitude of 2,000 feet and can remain aloft for only + five hours upon a single fuel charge. These smaller vessels, however, have + the advantage of requiring only one or two men to handle them. The present + military Parseval dirigible is made in one of these five standardised + classes, experience having established their efficiency for the specified + military services for which they are built. In point of speed they compare + favourably with the latest types of Zeppelin, the speeds of the larger + types ranging from 32 to 48 miles per hour with a motor effort of 360 to + 400 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + So far as the French airships of war are concerned, the fleet is somewhat + heterogeneous, although the non-rigid type prevails. The French aerial + navy is represented by the Bayard-Clement, Astra, Zodiac, and the + Government-built machines. Although the rigid type never has met with + favour in France, there is yet a solitary example of this system of + construction—the Spiess, which is 460 feet in length by 47 feet in + diameter and has a displacement of 20 tons. The semi-rigid craft are + represented by the Lebaudy type, the largest of which measures 293 feet in + length by 51 feet in diameter, and has a displacement of 10 tons. + </p> + <p> + One may feel disposed to wonder why the French should be apparently + backward in this form of aerial craft, but this may be explained by the + fact that the era of experiment had not been concluded at the time war was + declared, with the result that it has been somewhat difficult to determine + which type would meet the military requirements of the country to the best + advantage. Moreover, the French military authorities evinced a certain + disposition to relegate the dirigible to a minor position, convinced that + it had been superseded by the heavier-than-air machine. Taken on the + whole, the French airship fleet is inferior to the German in point of + speed, if not numerically, but this deficiency is more than + counterbalanced by the skill and ability of the men manning their craft, + who certainly are superior to their contemporaries in Germany, combined + with the proved character of such craft as are in service. + </p> + <p> + The same criticism may be said to apply to Great Britain. That country was + backward in matters pertaining to the airship, because its experiments + were carried out spasmodically while dependence was reposed somewhat too + much upon foreign effort. The British airships are small and of low speed + comparatively speaking. Here again it was the advance of the aeroplane + which was responsible for the manifestation of a somewhat indifferent if + not lethargic feeling towards the airship. Undoubtedly the experiments + carried out in Great Britain were somewhat disappointing. The one and only + attempt to out-Zeppelin the Zeppelin resulted in disaster to the craft + before she took to the air, while the smaller craft carried out upon far + less ambitious lines were not inspiritingly successful. Latterly the + non-rigid system has been embraced exclusively, the craft being virtually + mechanically driven balloons. They have proved efficient and reliable so + far as they go, but it is the personal element in this instance also which + has contributed so materially to any successes achieved with them. + </p> + <p> + But although Great Britain and France apparently lagged behind the + Germans, appreciable enterprise was manifested in another direction. The + airship was not absolutely abandoned: vigilance was maintained for a + superior type of craft. It was an instance of weighing the advantages + against the disadvantages of the existing types and then evolving for a + design which should possess the former without any of the latter. This end + appears to be achieved with the Astra type of dirigible, the story of the + development of which offers an interesting chapter in the annals of + aeronautics. + </p> + <p> + In all lighter-than-air machines the resistance to the air offered by the + suspension ropes is considerable, and the reduction of this resistance has + proved one of the most perplexing problems in the evolution of the + dirigible. The air is broken up in such a manner by the ropes that it is + converted into a brake or drag with the inevitable result that the speed + undergoes a severe diminution. A full-rigged airship such as the Parseval, + for instance, may present a picturesque appearance, but it is severely + unscientific, inasmuch as if it were possible to eliminateor to reduce the + air-resistance offered by the ropes, the speed efficiency might be raised + by some sixty per cent and that without any augmentation of the propelling + effort. As a matter of fact Zeppelin solved this vexatious problem + unconsciously. In his monster craft the resistance to the air is reduced + to a remarkable degree, which explains why these vessels, despite all + their other defects are able to show such a turn of speed. + </p> + <p> + It was this feature of the Zeppelin which induced Great Britain to build + the May-fly and which likewise induced the French Government to stimulate + dirigible design and construction among native manufacturers, at the same + time, however, insisting that such craft should be equal at least in speed + to the Zeppelins. The response to this invitation was the Spiess, which + with its speed of 45 miles per hour ranked, until 1914, as one of the + fastest dirigibles in the French service. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime a Spanish engineer, Senor Torres, had been quietly working + out a new idea. He realised the shortcomings of the prevailing types of + airships some eleven years ago, and unostentatiously and painstakingly set + out to eliminate them by the perfection of a new type of craft. He + perfected his idea, which was certainly novel, and then sought the + assistance of the Spanish Government. But his fatherland was not adapted + to the prosecution of the project. He strove to induce the authorities to + permit even a small vessel to be built, but in vain. He then approached + the French Astra Company. His ambition was to build a vessel as large as + the current Zeppelin, merely to emphasise the value of his improvement + upon a sufficiently large scale, and to enable comparative data concerning + the two designs to be obtained. But the bogey of expense at first proved + insuperable. However, the French company, decided to give the invention a + trial, and to this end a small "vedette" of about 53,000 cubic feet + displacement was built. + </p> + <p> + Although an unpretentious little vessel, it certainly served to emphasise + the importance of the Torres idea. It was pitted against the "Colonel + Renard," the finest ship at that time in the French aerial service, which + had proved the fastest airship in commission, and which also was a product + of the Astra Company. But this fine craft was completely outclassed by the + puny Astra-Torres. + </p> + <p> + The builders and the inventor were now additionally anxious to illustrate + more emphatically the features of this design and to build a far larger + vessel. The opportunity was offered by the British Government, which had + been following the experiments with the small Astra-Torres in France. An + order was given for a vessel of 282,500 cubic feet displacement; in this + instance it was ranged against another formidable rival—the + Parseval. But the latter also failed to hold its own against the Spanish + invention, inasmuch as the Astra-Torres built for the British authorities + exceeded a speed of 50 miles per hour in the official tests. This vessel + is still doing valuable duty, being attached to the British air-service in + France. + </p> + <p> + The achievements of the British vessel were not lost upon the French + Government, which forthwith placed an order for a huge vessel of 812,200 + cubic feet capacity, equipped with motors developing 1,000 horse-power, + which it was confidently expected would enable a speed of 60 miles per + hour to be attained. Thus France would be able to meet the Germans upon + fairly level terms, inasmuch as the speed of the latest Zeppelins does not + exceed 60 miles per hour. So confident were the authorities that a second + order for an even larger vessel was placed before the first large craft + was completed. + </p> + <p> + This latter vessel is larger than any Zeppelin yet built, seeing that it + displaces 38 tons, and is fitted with motors developing 1,000 horse-power. + It has recently been completed, and although the results of the trials, as + well as the dimensions of the craft have not been published, it is well + known that the speed has exceeded 60 miles per hour, so that France now + possesses the speediest dirigible in the world. + </p> + <p> + The Torres invention has been described as wonderful, scientifically + perfect and extremely simple. The vessel belongs to the non-rigid class, + but the whole of the suspension system is placed within the gas-bag, so + that the air-resistance offered by ropes is virtually eliminated in its + entirety, for the simple reason that practically no ropes are placed + outside the envelope. The general principle of design may be gathered from + the accompanying diagram. It is as if three sausage-shaped balloons were + disposed pyramidally—two lying side by side with one super-imposed, + with the bags connected at the points where the circular sections come + into contact. Thus the external appearance of the envelope is decidedly + unusual, comprising three symmetrical ridges. At the points where the + three bags come into contact cloth bands are stretched across the arcs, + thereby forming a cord. The suspension system is attached to the upper + corners of the inverted triangle thus formed, and converges in straight + lines through the gas space. The bracing terminates in collecting rings + from which a short vertical cable extends downwards through a special + accordion sleeve to pass through the lower wall of the envelope. These + sleeves are of special design, the idea being to permit the gas to escape + under pressure arising from expansion and at the same time to provide + ample play for the cable which is necessary in a flexible airship. + </p> + <p> + This cable emerges from the envelope only at the point or points where the + car or cars is or are placed. In the British airship of this type there is + only one car, but the larger French vessels are equipped with two cars + placed tandem-wise. The vertical cable, after extending downwards a + certain distance, is divided, one rope being attached to one, and the + second to the other side of the car. The two-bladed propellers are + disposed on either side of the car, in each of which a 500 horse-power + motor is placed. + </p> + <p> + The Astra-Torres type of dirigible may be said to represent the latest + expression in airship design and construction. The invention has given + complete satisfaction, and has proved strikingly successful. The French + Government has completed arrangements for the acquisition of larger and + more powerful vessels of this design, being now in the position to contest + every step that is made by Germany in this field. The type has also been + embraced by the Russian military authorities. The Astra-Torres airship has + a rakish appearance, and although the lines of the gas-bag are admitted to + increase frictional resistance, this is regarded as a minor defect, + especially when the many advantages of the invention are taken into + consideration. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. GERMANY'S AERIAL DREADNOUGHT FLEET + </h2> + <p> + Although Germany, as compared with France, was relatively slow to + recognise the immense possibilities of aircraft, particularly dirigibles, + in the military sense, once the Zeppelin had received the well-wishes of + the Emperor William, Teuton activities were so pronounced as to enable the + leeway to be made up within a very short while. While the Zeppelin + commanded the greatest attention owing to the interesting co-operation of + the German Emperor, the other types met with official and royal + recognition and encouragement as already mentioned. France, which had held + premier position in regard to the aerial fleet of dirigibles for so long, + was completely out-classed, not only in dimensions but also in speed, as + well as radius of action and strategical distribution of the aerial + forces. + </p> + <p> + The German nation forged ahead at a great pace and was able to establish a + distinct supremacy, at least on paper. In the light of recent events it is + apparent that the German military authorities realised that the dawn of + "The Day" was approaching rapidly, and that it behoved them to be as fully + prepared in the air as upon the land. It was immaterial that the Zeppelin + was the synonym for disaster. By standardisation its cost could be reduced + while construction could be expedited. Furthermore, when the matter was + regarded in its broadest aspect, the fact was appreciated that forty + Zeppelins could be built at the cost of one super-Dreadnought, so that + adequate allowance could be made for accidents now and then, since a + Zeppelin catastrophe, no matter how complete it may be, is regarded by the + Teuton as a mere incident inseparable from progressive development. + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of the year 1914 France relied upon being strengthened by + a round dozen new dirigibles. Seven of these were to be of 20,000 cubic + metres' capacity and possessed of a speed of 47 miles per hour. While the + existing fleet was numerically strong, this strength was more apparent + than real, for the simple reason that a large number of craft were in + dry-dock undergoing repair or overhaul while many of the units were merely + under test and could not be regarded therefore as in the effective fleet. + True, there were a certain number of private craft which were liable to be + commandeered when the occasion arose, but they could not be considered as + decided acquisitions for the simple reason that many were purely + experimental units. + </p> + <p> + Aerial vessels, like their consorts upon the water, have been divided into + distinctive classes. Thus there are the aerial cruisers comprising vessels + exceeding 282,000 cubic feet in capacity; scouts which include those + varying between 176,600 and 282,000 cubic feet capacity; and vedettes, + which take in all the small or mosquito craft. At the end of 1913, France + possessed only four of the first-named craft in actual commission and thus + immediately available for war, these being the Adjutant Vincenot, Adjutant + Reau, Dupuy de Lome, and the Transaerien. The first three are of 197,800 + cubic feet. All, however, were privately owned. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, Germany had no fewer than ten huge vessels, ranging + from 353,000 to 776,900 cubic feet capacity, three of which, the Victoria + Luise, Suchard, and Hansa, though owned privately, were immediately + available for war. Of these the largest was the Zeppelin naval vessel + "L-1" 525 feet in length, by 50 feet diameter, of 776,900 cubic feet + capacity, equipped with engines developing 510 horse-power, and with a + speed of 51.8 miles per hour. + </p> + <p> + At the end of 1913 the effective aerial fleet of Germany comprised twenty + large craft, so far in advance of the French aerial cruisers as to be + worthy of the name bestowed upon them—"Aerial Dreadnoughts." This + merely represented the fleet available for immediate use and did not + include the four gigantic Suchard-Schutte craft, each of 847,500 cubic + feet, which were under construction, and which were being hurried forward + to come into commission early in 1914. + </p> + <p> + But the most interesting factor, apart from the possession of such a huge + fleet of dirigible air-craft, was their distribution at strategical points + throughout the Empire as if in readiness for the coming combat. They were + literally dotted about the country. Adequate harbouring facilities had + been provided at Konigsberg, Berlin, Posen, Breslau, Kiel, Hamburg, + Wilhelmshaven, Dusseldorf, Cologne, Frankfort, Metz, Mannheim, Strasburg, + and other places, with elaborate headquarters, of course, at + Friedrichshafen upon Lake Constance. The Zeppelin workshops, harbouring + facilities, and testing grounds at the latter point had undergone complete + remodelling, while tools of the latest type had been provided to + facilitate the rapid construction and overhaul of the monster Zeppelin + dirigibles. Nothing had been left to chance; not an item was perfunctorily + completed. The whole organisation was perfect, both in equipment and + operation. Each of the above stations possessed provision for an aerial + Dreadnought as well as one or more aerial cruisers, in addition to scouts + or vedettes. + </p> + <p> + Upon the outbreak of hostilities Germany's dirigible fleet was in a + condition of complete preparedness, was better organised, and better + equipped than that of any of her rivals. At the same time it constituted + more of a paper than a fighting array for reasons which I will explain + later. But there was another point which had escaped general observation. + Standardisation of parts and the installation of the desired machinery had + accomplished one greatly desired end—the construction of new craft + had been accelerated. Before the war an interesting experiment was carried + out to determine how speedily a vessel could be built. The result proved + that a dirigible of the most powerful type could be completed within eight + weeks and forthwith the various constructional establishments were brought + into line so as to maintain this rate of building. + </p> + <p> + The growth of the Zeppelin, although built upon disaster, has been + amazing. The craft of 1906 had a capacity of 430,000 cubic feet and a + speed of 36 miles per hour. In 1911 the creator of this type launched a + huge craft having a capacity of 627,000 cubic feet. In the meantime speed + had likewise been augmented by the use of more powerful motors until 52 + miles an hour was attained. But this by no means represented the limit. + The foregoing vessels had been designed for land service purely and + simply, but now the German authorities demanded similar craft for naval + use, possessed of high speed and greater radius of action. Count Zeppelin + rose to the occasion, and on October 7th, 1912, launched at + Friedrichshafen the monster craft "L-I," 525 feet in length, 50 feet in + diameter, of 776,900 cubic feet capacity, a displacement of 22 tons and + equipped with three sets of motors aggregating more than 500 horse-power, + and capable of imparting a speed of 52 miles per hour. + </p> + <p> + The appearance of this craft was hailed with intense delight by the German + nation, while the naval department considered her to be a wonderful + acquisition, especially after the searching reliability trial. In charge + of Count Zeppelin and manned by a crew of 22 officers and men together + with nearly three tons of fuel—the fuel capacity conveys some idea + of her possible radius of action—she travelled from Friedrichshafen + to Johannisthal in 32 hours. On this remarkable journey another point was + established which was of far-reaching significance. The vessel was + equipped with wireless telegraphy and therewith she kept in touch with the + earth below throughout the journey, dropping and picking up wireless + stations as she progressed with complete facility. This was a distinct + achievement, inasmuch as the vessel having been constructed especially for + naval operations she would be able to keep in touch with the warships + below, guiding them unerringly during their movement. + </p> + <p> + The cross-country trip having proved so completely successful the + authorities were induced to believe that travelling over water would be + equally satisfactory. Accordingly the "L-I" was dispatched to the island + of Heligoland, the intention being to participate in naval manoeuvres in + order to provide some reliable data as to the value of these craft + operating in conjunction with warships. But in these tests German ambition + and pride received a check. The huge Zeppelin was manoeuvring over the + North Sea within easy reach of Heligoland, when she was caught by one of + those sudden storms peculiar to that stretch of salt water. In a moment + she was stricken helpless; her motive power was overwhelmed by the blind + forces of Nature. The wind caught her as it would a soap-bubble and hurled + her into the sea, precipitating the most disastrous calamity in the annals + of aeronautics, since not only was the ship lost, but fifteen of her crew + of 22 officers and men were drowned. + </p> + <p> + The catastrophe created consternation in German aeronautical circles. A + searching inquiry was held to explain the disaster, but as usual it failed + to yield much material information. It is a curious circumstance, but + every successive Zeppelin disaster, and their number is legion, has been + attributable to a new cause. In this instance the accident was + additionally disturbing, inasmuch as the ship had been flying across + country continuously for about twelve months and had covered more miles + than any preceding craft of her type. No scientific explanation for the + disaster was forthcoming, but the commander of the vessel, who sank with + his ship, had previously ventured his personal opinion that the vessel was + over-loaded to meet the calls of ambition, was by no means seaworthy, and + that sooner or later she would be caught by a heavy broadside wind and + rendered helpless, or that she would make a headlong dive to destruction. + It is a significant fact that he never had any faith in the airship, at + least for sea duty, though in response to official command he carried out + his duties faithfully and with a blind resignation to Fate. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, owing to the success of the "L-I" in cross-country operations, + another and more powerful craft, the "L-II" had been taken in hand, and + this was constructed also for naval use. While shorter than her consort, + being only 487 feet over all, this vessel had a greater beam—55 + feet. This latter increase was decided because it was conceded to be an + easier matter to provide for greater beam than enhanced length in the + existing air-ship harbours. The "L-II" displaced 27 tons—five tons + in excess of her predecessor. In this vessel many innovations were + introduced, such as the provision of the passage-way connecting the cars + within the hull, instead of outside the latter as had hitherto been the + practice, while the three cars were placed more closely together than + formerly. The motors were of an improved type, giving an aggregate output + of 900 horse-power, and were divided into four separate units, housed in + two engine-rooms, the front car being a replica in every detail of the + navigating bridge of a warship. + </p> + <p> + This vessel was regarded as a distinct improvement upon the "L-I," + although the latter could boast some great achievements. But her glory was + short-lived. In the course of the Government trials, while some 900 feet + aloft, the huge vessel suddenly exploded and was burned in the air, a mass + of broken and twisted metal-work falling to the ground. Of the 28 officers + and men, including members of the Admiralty Board who were conducting the + official trials, all but one were killed outright, and the solitary + exception was so terribly burned as to survive the fall for only a few + hours. + </p> + <p> + The accident was remarkable and demonstrated very convincingly that + although Count Zeppelin apparently had made huge strides in aerial + navigation through the passage of years, yet in reality he had made no + progress at all. He committed the identical error that characterised the + effort of Severo Pax ten years previously, and the disaster was directly + attributable to the self-same cause as that which overwhelmed the Severo + airship. The gas, escaping from the balloons housed in the hull, collected + in the confined passage-way communicating with the cars, came into contact + with a naked light, possibly the exhaust from the motors, and instantly + detonated with terrific force, blowing the airship to fragments and + setting fire to all the inflammable materials. + </p> + <p> + In this airship Zeppelin committed an unpardonable blunder. He had ignored + the factor of "internal safety," and had deliberately flown in the face of + the official rule which had been laid down in France after the Severo + disaster, which absolutely forbade the inclusion of such confined spaces + as Zeppelin had incorporated. This catastrophe coming so closely as it did + upon the preceding disaster to the pride of the German aerial fleet + somewhat shook public confidence in these craft, while aeronautical + authorities of other countries described the Zeppelin more vehemently than + ever as a "mechanical monstrosity" and a "scientific curiosity." + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin has come to be feared in a general manner, but this result is + due rather to stories sedulously circulated, and which may be easily + traced to Teutonic sources. Very few data of a reliable character have + been allowed to filter through official circles. We have been told + somewhat verbosely of what it can accomplish and of its high degree of + efficiency and speed. But can credence be placed in these statements? + </p> + <p> + When Zeppelin IV made its unexpected descent at Luneville, and was + promptly seized by the French authorities, the German War office evinced + distinct signs of uneasiness. The reason was speedily forth coming. The + captain of the craft which had been captured forgot to destroy his log and + other records of data concerning the vessel which had been scientifically + collected during the journey. All this information fell into the hands of + the French military department, and it proved a wondrous revelation. It + enabled the French to value the Zeppelin at its true worth, which was by + no means comparable to the estimate based on reports skilfully circulated + for the benefit of the world at large. + </p> + <p> + Recently the French military department permitted the results of their + expert official examination to be made public. From close investigation of + the log-book and the diagrams which had been prepared, it was found that + the maximum speed attained by Zeppelin IV during this momentous flight was + only 45 miles per hour! It was ascertained, moreover, that the load was + 10,560 pounds, and the ascensional effort 45,100 pounds. The fuel + consumption had averaged 297 pounds per hour, while the fuel tanks carried + sufficient for a flight of about seven hours. The airship had attained a + maximum height of about 6,230 feet, to reach which 6,600 pounds of ballast + had to be discarded. Moreover, it was proved that a Zeppelin, if + travelling under military conditions with full armament and ammunition + aboard, could carry sufficient fuel for only ten hours at the utmost, + during which, if the slightest head-wind prevailed, it could not cover + more than 340 miles on the one fuel charge. + </p> + <p> + This information has certainly proved a revelation and has contributed to + the indifference with which the Parisians regard a Zeppelin raid. At the + outbreak of war the Zeppelin station nearest to Paris was at Metz, but to + make the raid from that point the airship was forced to cover a round 500 + miles. It is scarcely to be supposed that perfectly calm weather would + prevail during the whole period of the flight, so that a raid would be + attended by considerable risk. That this handicap was recognised in German + military circles is borne out by the fact that a temporary Zeppelin hangar + was established at a point considerably nearer the French capital, for the + purpose of enabling a raid to be carried out with a greater possibility of + success. + </p> + <p> + The capture of Zeppelin IV revealed another important fact. The critical + flying height of the airship is between 3,300 and 4,000 feet. To attempt a + raid at such an altitude would be to court certain disaster, inasmuch as + the vessel would have to run the gauntlet of the whole of the French + artillery, which it is admitted has a maximum range exceeding the flying + altitude of the Zeppelin. That the above calculation is within reason is + supported by the statements of Count Zeppelin himself, who has declared + that his airships are useless at a height exceeding 5,000 feet. + Confirmatory evidence upon this point is offered by the raid upon the + British East Coast towns, when it is stated that the aircraft were + manoeuvring at a height not exceeding 2,000 feet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. THE MILITARY VALUE OF GERMANY'S AERIAL FLEET + </h2> + <p> + Although the Zeppelin undoubtedly has been over-rated by the forces to + which it is attached, at the same time it must not be under-estimated by + its detractors. Larger and more powerful vessels of this type have been, + and still are being, constructed, culminating, so far as is known, in the + "L-5," which is stated to have a capacity of about 1,000,000 cubic feet, + and to possess an average speed of 65 miles per hour. + </p> + <p> + While it is generally maintained that the Zeppelins will prove formidable + in attack, greater reliance is being placed upon the demoralising or + terrifying effect which they are able to exercise. Owing to the fact that + from 3 to 5 tons of fuel—say 900 to 1,500 gallons of gasoline or + petrol—can be carried aboard, giving them a wide radius of action, + it is doubtful whether they could travel from Cologne to London and back + upon a single fuel charge, since such a raid would entail a journey of + about 600 miles. The latest types of this craft are said to possess a high + ascensional speed, which offers a distinct protection against aeroplane + attack. According to such official information as has been vouchsafed, a + Zeppelin, when hard pressed, is able to rise vertically 3,500 feet in + about three minutes. This is far in excess of the ascensional speed of + even the speediest aeroplane, of course, the penalty for such a factor has + to be paid: the loss of gas is appreciable and may lead to the craft's + ultimate undoing. At the same time, however, it is able to maintain the + superior position as compared with the aeroplane for a considerable + period: the upper reaches of the air are its sanctuary. + </p> + <p> + Nor must the nocturnal activities of the Zeppelin be overlooked. So far as + night operations by these vessels are concerned, little has leaked out, so + that the possibilities of the airship in this direction are still somewhat + hypothetical. The fact remains, however, that it is night movements which + perhaps are the most to be dreaded by the enemy. According to official + German sources of information the latest types of Zeppelins are engined by + "noiseless" motors. There is nothing remarkable in this feature, since the + modern motor-car virtually answers to this description, although in this + instance quietness is obtained for the most part by recourse to the + sleeve-valve engine. Still, the ordinary Otto-cycle internal combustion + engine can be rendered almost silent by the utilisation of adequate + muffling devices, which, in the Zeppelin, are more possible of + incorporation than in the aeroplane, because the extra weight imposed by + this acquisition is a minor consideration in comparison with the lifting + power of the vessel. + </p> + <p> + Night operations, however, have not proved eminently successful. The very + darkness which protects the aerial prowler also serves a similar purpose + in connection with its prey. But aerial operations under the cover of + darkness are guided not so much by the glare of lights from below as + betrayal by sound. The difference between villages and cities may be + distinguished from aloft, say at 1,500 to 3,000 feet, by the hum which + life and movement emit, and this is the best guide to the aerial scout or + battleship. The German authorities have made a special study of this + peculiar problem, and have conducted innumerable tests upon the darkest + nights, when even the sheen of the moon has been unavailable, for the + express purpose of training the aerial navigators to discover their + position from the different sounds reaching them from below. In other + words, the corsair in the skies depends more upon compass and sound than + upon compass and vision when operating after dark. The searchlights with + which the Zeppelins are equipped are provided merely for illuminating a + supposed position. They are not brought into service until the navigator + concludes that he has arrived above the desired point: the ray of light + which is then projected is merely to assist the crew in the discharge of + the missiles of destruction. + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin, however, owing to its speed, both in the horizontal and + vertical planes, is essentially a unit for daylight operations. The other + airships which Germany possesses, and which for the most part are of the + non-rigid type, are condemned to daylight operations from the character of + their design. Owing to their low speeds they may be dismissed as + impossible aerial vessels for hazardous work and are not regarded by the + German authorities as all-round airships of war. + </p> + <p> + Craft of the air are judged in Germany from the one standard only. This + may be a Teutonic failing, but it is quite in keeping with the Teutonic + spirit of militarism. Commercialism is a secondary factor. To the German + Emperor an airship is much what a new manufacturing process or machine is + to the American. Whereas the latter asks, "How much will it save me on the + dollar?" to the War Lord of Germany—and an airship notwithstanding + its other recommendatory features is judged solely from this standpoint—the + question is "What are its military qualifications?" + </p> + <p> + When the semi-rigid airship "V-I" was brought before the notice of the + German military department the pressing point concerning its military + recommendations arose at once. The inventor had foreseen this issue and + was optimistic. Thereupon the authorities asked if the inventor were + prepared to justify his claims. The retort was positive. Forthwith the + Junkers decided to submit it to the test. + </p> + <p> + This ship is of quite a distinctive type. It is an aerial cruiser, and the + inventor claims that it combines all the essential qualifications of the + Zeppelin and of the competitors of the latter, in addition to the + advantage of being capable of dissection, transportation in parts, and + rapid re-erection at any desired spot. The length of the vessel is about + 270 feet; maximum diameter approximately 42 feet, and capacity about + 300,000 cubic feet. The outstanding feature is a rigid keel-frame forming + a covered passage way below the envelope or gas-bag, combined with easy + access to all parts of the craft while under way, together with an + artificial stiffening which dispenses with the necessity of attaching any + additional cars. The frame is so designed that the load, as well as the + ballast and fuel tanks, may be distributed as desired, and at the same + time it ensures an advantageous disposition of the steering mechanism, far + removed from the centre of rotation at the stern, without any overloading + of the latter. + </p> + <p> + The lifting part of the airship comprises a single gas bag fitted with two + ballonets provided to ensure the requisite gas-tension in the main + envelope, while at the same time permitting, in times of emergency, a + rapid change of altitude. Self-contained blowers contribute to the + preservation of the shape of the envelope, the blowers and the ballonets + being under the control of the pilot. Planes resembling Venetian blinds + facilitate vertical steering, while the suspension of the keel is carried + out in such a manner as to secure uniformity of weight upon the gas bag. + The propelling power comprises two sets of internal combustion engines, + each developing 130 horse-power, the transmission being through rubber + belting. The propellers, built of wood, make 350 revolutions per minute, + and are set as closely as possible to the centre of resistance. + </p> + <p> + But the most salient characteristic of this machine is its portability. It + can be dismantled and transported by wagons to any desired spot, the + suspension frame being constructed in units, each of which is sufficiently + small to be accommodated in an ordinary vehicle. Upon arrival the parts + may be put together speedily and easily. The authorities submitted the + airship to exacting trials and were so impressed by its characteristics + and the claims of the inventor that undoubtedly it will be brought into + service during the present crisis. + </p> + <p> + At the same time the whole faith of the German military staff so far as + airship operations are concerned, is pinned to the Zeppelin. + Notwithstanding its many drawbacks it is the vessel which will be used for + the invasion of Great Britain. Even the harbour question, which is + admitted to be somewhat acute, has been solved to a certain degree. At + strategical points permanent harbours or airship sheds have been + established. Seeing that the airships demand considerable skill in docking + and undocking, and that it is impossible to achieve these operations + against the wind, swinging sheds have been adopted. + </p> + <p> + On water the practice is to anchor a floating harbour at one end, leaving + the structure to swing round with the wind. But on dry land such a dock is + impossible. Accordingly turntable sheds have been adopted. The shed is + mounted upon a double turn-table, there being two circular tracks the one + near the centre of the shed and the other towards its extremities. The + shed is mounted upon a centre pivot and wheels engaged with these inner + and outer tracks. In this manner the shed may be swung round to the most + favourable point of the compass according to the wind. + </p> + <p> + In the field, however, such practices are impossible, and the issue in + this connection has been overcome by recourse to what may be termed + portable harbours. They resemble the tents of peripatetic circuses and + travelling exhibitions. There is a network of vertical steel members which + may be set with facility and speed and which are stayed by means of wire + guys. At the top of the outer vertical posts pulleys are provided whereby + the outer skin or canvas forming the walls may be hauled into position, + while at the apex of the roof further pulleys ensure the proper placing of + the roofing. The airship is able to enter or leave from either end + according to conditions. The material is fireproofed as a precautionary + measure, but at the same time the modern aerial bomb is able to penetrate + the roofing without any difficulty and to explode against the airship + anchored within. + </p> + <p> + The one great objection to the Zeppelin harbour is the huge target it + offers to hostile attack, which, in the event of a vessel being moored + within, is inevitably serious. Thus, for instance, upon the occasion of + the air raids conducted by Lieutenant Collet and of Squadron Commander + Briggs and his colleagues at Dusseldorf and Friedrichshafen respectively, + little difficulty was experienced in destroying the airships riding at + anchor. The target offered by the shed is so extensive that it would be + scarcely possible for a flying enemy to miss it. A bomb dropped from a + reasonable height, say 500 feet, would be almost certain to strike some + part of the building, and a Zeppelin is an easy vessel to destroy. The + firing of one balloon is sufficient to detonate the whole, for the simple + reason that hydrogen gas is continuously oozing through the bags in which + it is contained. According to a recent statement the Germans are said to + be utilising an inert or non-inflammable gas, equal in lifting power to + hydrogen, for the inflation of military craft, but scientific thought does + not entertain this statement with any degree of seriousness. No gas as + light as hydrogen and non-explosive is known to commerce. + </p> + <p> + Will Germany invade Great Britain by air? This is the absorbing topic of + the moment—one which has created intense interest and a certain + feeling of alarm among the timorous. Although sporadic raids are + considered to be possible and likely to be carried out with a varying + measure of success—such as that made upon the British East Coast—eminent + authorities ridicule an invasion in force. The risk would be enormous, + although there is no doubt that Germany, which has always maintained that + an invasion of this character will be made, will be compelled to essay + such a task, in order to satisfy public opinion, and to justify official + statements. It is a moot point, however, whether the invaders ever will + succeed in making good their escape, unless Nature proves exceptionally + kind. + </p> + <p> + The situation is best summed up in the unbiassed report of General George + P. Scriven, Chief Signal officer of the United States Army to the U.S. + Secretary of War. In this report, which deals exhaustively with the + history, construction and achievements of airships, such an invasion is + described as fantastic and impracticable. Writing on November 10th, 1914, + the officer declares that "he is not prepared to recommend the American + Army to take up seriously the question of constructing dirigibles, as they + are not worth their cost as offensive machines, while for reconnaissance + or defence they are of far less value than aeroplanes." In his words, + "Dirigibles are seemingly useless in defence against the aeroplane or + gun-fire." + </p> + <p> + In order to be able to make an invasion in force upon Great Britain's + cities extremely favourable weather must prevail, and the treacherous + nature of the weather conditions of the North Sea are known fully well + both to British and Teuton navigators. Seeing that the majority of the + Zeppelin pilots are drawn from the Navy and mercantile marine, and thus + are conversant with the peculiarities and characteristics of this stretch + of salt water, it is only logical to suppose that their knowledge will + exert a powerful influence in any such decision, the recommendations of + the meteorological savants not withstanding. + </p> + <p> + When the Zeppelin pride of the German Navy "L-1" was hurled to destruction + by a typical North Sea squall, Captain Blew of the Victoria Luise, a + Zeppelin with many great achievements to her credit, whose navigator was + formerly in the Navy, and thus is familiar with the whole issue, explained + that this atmospheric liveliness of the North Sea prevails for the most + part in the latitude of Norway, but that it frequently extends as far + south as the gate of the Channel. He related furthermore that the rain + squalls are of tropical violence, while the vertical thrusts of air are + such that no dirigible as yet constructed could ever hope to live in them. + Under such conditions, he continued, the gas is certain to cool intensely, + and the hull must then become waterlogged, not to mention the downward + thrust of the rain. Under such conditions buoyancy must be imperilled to + such a degree as to demand the jettisoning of every piece of ballast, fuel + and other removable weight, including even the steadying and vertical + planes. When this has been done, he pointed out, nothing is left with + which to combat the upward vertical thrusts of the air. To attempt to run + before the wind is to court positive disaster, as the wind is certain to + gain the mastery. Once the airship loses steering way and is rendered + uncontrollable it becomes the sport of the forces of Nature, with the + result that destruction is merely a matter of minutes, or even seconds. + </p> + <p> + Every navigator who knows the North Sea will support these conclusions. + Squalls and blizzards in winter, and thunderstorms in summer, rise with + startling suddenness and rage with terrific destructive fury. Such + conditions must react against the attempt of an aerial invasion in force, + unless it be made in the character of the last throw by a desperate + gambler, with good fortune favouring the dash to a certain degree. But + lesser and more insignificant Zeppelin raids are likely to be somewhat + frequent, and to be made at every favourable climatic opportunity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. AEROPLANES OF WAR + </h2> + <p> + Owing to the fertility of inventors and the resultant multiplicity of + designs it is impossible to describe every type of heavier-than-air + machine which has been submitted to the exacting requirements of military + duty. The variety is infinite and the salient fact has already been + established that many of the models which have proved reliable and + efficient under normal conditions are unsuited to military operations. The + early days of the war enabled those of doubtful value to be eliminated, + the result being that those machines which are now in use represent the + survival of the fittest. Experience has furthermore emphasised the + necessity of reducing the number of types to the absolute minimum. This + weeding-out process is being continued and there is no doubt that by the + time the war is concluded the number of approved types of aeroplanes of + military value will have been reduced to a score or less. The + inconveniences and disadvantages arising from the utilisation of a wide + variety of different types are manifold, the greatest being the necessity + of carrying a varied assortment of spare parts, and confusion in the + repair and overhauling shops. + </p> + <p> + The methodical Teuton was the first to grasp the significance of these + drawbacks; he has accordingly carried standardisation to a high degree of + efficiency, as is shown in another chapter. At a later date France + appreciated the wisdom of the German practice, and within a short time + after the outbreak of hostilities promptly ruled out certain types of + machines which were regarded as unsuitable. In this instance the process + of elimination created considerable surprise, inasmuch as it involved an + embargo on the use of certain machines, which under peace conditions had + achieved an international reputation, and were held to represent the + finest expression of aeronautical science in France as far as aeroplane + developments are concerned. + </p> + <p> + Possibly the German machine which is most familiar, by name, to the + general public is the Taube, or, as it is sometimes called, the Etrich + monoplane, from the circumstance that it was evolved by the Austrian + engineer Igo Etrich in collaboration with his colleague Wels. These two + experimenters embarked on the study of dynamic flight contemporaneously + with Maxim, Langley, Kress, and many other well-known pioneers, but it was + not until 1908 that their first practical machine was completed. Its + success was instantaneous, many notable flights being placed to its + credit, while some idea of the perfection of its design may be gathered + from the fact that the machine of to-day is substantially identical with + that used seven years ago, the alterations which have been effected + meanwhile being merely modifications in minor details. + </p> + <p> + The design of this machine follows very closely the lines of a bird in + flight—hence its colloquial description, "Taube," or "dove." Indeed + the analogy to the bird is so close that the ribs of the frame resemble + the feathers of a bird. The supporting plane is shaped in the manner of a + bird's distended wing, and is tipped up at the rear ends to ensure + stability. The tail also resembles that of a bird very closely. + </p> + <p> + This aeroplane, especially the latest type, is very speedy, and it has + proved extremely reliable. It is very sharp in turning and extremely + sensitive to its rudder, which renders it a first-class craft for + reconnoitring duty. The latest machines are fitted with motors developing + from 120 to 150 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + The "Taube" commanded attention in Germany for the reason that it + indicated the first departure from the adherence to the French designs + which up to that time had been followed somewhat slavishly, owing to the + absence of native initiative. + </p> + <p> + The individuality of character revealed in the "Taube" appealed to the + German instinct, with the result that the machine achieved a greater + reputation than might have been the case had it been pitted against other + types of essentially Teutonic origin. The Taube was subsequently tested + both in France and Great Britain, but failed to raise an equal degree of + enthusiasm, owing to the manifestation of certain defects which marred its + utility. This practical experience tended to prove that the Taube, like + the Zeppelin, possessed a local reputation somewhat of the paper type. The + Germans, however, were by no means disappointed by such adverse criticism, + but promptly set to work to eliminate defects with a view to securing an + all-round improvement. + </p> + <p> + The most successful of these endeavours is represented in the + Taube-Rumpler aeroplane, which may be described as an improved edition of + Etrich's original idea. As a matter of fact the modifications were of so + slight, though important, a character that many machines generically + described as Taubes are in reality Rumplers, but the difference is beyond + detection by the ordinary and unpractised observer. + </p> + <p> + In the Rumpler machine the wings, like those of the Taube, assume broadly + the form and shape of those of the pigeon or dove in flight. The early + Rumpler machines suffered from sluggish control, but in the later types + this defect has been overcome. In the early models the wings were + flexible, but in the present craft they are rigid, although fitted with + tips or ailerons. The supporting truss beneath the wings, which was such + an outstanding feature of its prototype, has been dispensed with, the + usual I-beam longitudinals being used in its stead. The latest machines + fitted with 100-120 horse-power Mercedes motors have a fine turn of speed, + possess an enhanced ascensional effort, and are far simpler to control. + </p> + <p> + Other German machines which are used in the military service are the Gotha + and the Albatross. The former is a monoplane, and here again the influence + of Etrich upon German aeroplane developments is strongly manifested, the + shape of the bird's wing being retained. In the Gotha the truss which + Etrich introduced is a prominent characteristic. The Albatross is a + biplane, but this craft has proved to be somewhat slow and may be said to + be confined to what might be described as the heavier aerial military + duties, where great endurance and reliability are essential. As the war + proceeds, doubtless Teuton ingenuity will be responsible for the + appearance of new types, as well as certain modifications in the detail + construction of the existing machines, but there is every indication that + the broad lines of Etrich's conception will be retained in all monoplanes. + </p> + <p> + There is one point in which Germany has excelled. Wood is not employed in + the construction of these heavier-than-air craft. Steel and the lighter + tough alloys are exclusively used. In this way the minimum of weight + consistent with the maximum of strength policy is carried out. Moreover + the manufacture of component parts is facilitated and accelerated to a + remarkable degree by the use of metal, while the tasks of fitting and + repairing are notably expedited by the practice of standardisation. + Germany is also manifesting commendable enterprise in the perfection of + light powerful motors for these dynamic machines. The latest types of + explosion-motors range from 100 to 150 horse-power; the advantages of + these are obvious. + </p> + <p> + Upon the outbreak of hostilities the French possessed an enormous number + and variety of aeroplanes and this aerial fleet had been brought to a high + standard of organisation. The aerial fleet is sub-divided into squadrons + called "escadrilles," each of which comprises six machines and pilots. + These units are kept up to strength, wastage being made up from reserves, + so as to maintain the requisite homogeneity. + </p> + <p> + But ere the war had been in progress many weeks an official order was + issued forbidding the employment of the Bleriot, Deperdussin, Nieuport, + and R.E.P. monoplanes. Those which received official approval included the + Caudron, Henry, and Maurice Farman, Morane-Saulnier, and Voisin machines. + </p> + <p> + This drastic order came somewhat as a thunderbolt, and the reason for the + decree has not been satisfactorily revealed. Suffice to say that in one + stroke the efficiency and numerical strength of the French aerial navy + were reduced very appreciably. For instance, it is stated that there were + thirty escadrilles of Bleriot monoplanes together with pilots at the + front, in addition to thirty mixed escadrilles of the other prohibited + types with their fliers. Moreover a round 33 escadrilles of all the + various types were in reserve. The effect of the military order was to + reduce the effective strength by no fewer than 558 aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + Seeing that the French aerial force was placed at a great disadvantage + numerically by this action, there seems to be ample justification for the + hostile criticism which the decree of prohibition aroused in certain + circles, especially when it is remembered that there was not an equal + number of the accepted machines available to take the place of those which + had been ruled out of court. One effect of this decree was to throw some + 400 expert aviators upon the waiting list for the simple reason that + machines were unavailable. Some of the best aviation skill and knowledge + which France possesses were affected by the order. It is stated that + accomplished aviators, such as Vedrines, were unable to obtain machines. + </p> + <p> + It will be seen that the ultimate effect of the French military decree was + to reduce the number of types to about four, each of which was allotted a + specific duty. But whereas three different bi-planes are on the approved + list there is only one monoplane—the Morane-Saulaier. This machine, + however, has a great turn of speed, and it is also able to climb at a very + fast pace. In these respects it is superior to the crack craft of Germany, + so that time after time the latter have refused battle in the skies, and + have hurried back to their lines. + </p> + <p> + The Morane-Saulnier is the French mosquito craft of the air and like the + insect, it is avowedly aggressive. In fact, its duties are confined to the + work of chasing and bringing down the enemy, for which work its high + manoeuvring capacity is excellently adapted. Its aggressive armament + comprises a mitrailleuse. Unfortunately, however, the factory responsible + for the production of this machine is at present handicapped by the + limitations of its manufacturing plant, which when pushed to the utmost + extent cannot turn out more than about ten machines per week. No doubt + this deficiency will be remedied as the war proceeds by extension of the + works or by allotting orders to other establishments, but at the time of + the decree the manufacturing capacity was scarcely sufficient to make good + the wastage, which was somewhat heavy. + </p> + <p> + As far as biplanes are concerned the Caudron is the fastest in flight and + is likewise extremely quick in manoeuvring. It is a very small machine and + is extremely light, but the fact that it can climb at the rate of over 330 + feet per minute is a distinct advantage in its favour. It supplements the + Morane-Saulnier monoplane in the specific duty of the latter, while it is + also employed for discovering the enemy's artillery and communicating the + range of the latter to the French and British artillery. In this latter + work it has played a very prominent part and to it is due in no small + measure that deadly accuracy of the artillery of the Allies which has now + become so famous. This applies especially to those tactics, where the + field artillery dashes up to a position, discharges a number of rounds in + rapid succession, or indulges in rafale firing, and then limbering up, + rushes away before the enemy can reply. + </p> + <p> + As is well known the Farman biplanes possess high endurance qualities. + They can remain aloft for many hours at a stretch and are remarkably + reliable. Owing to these qualities they are utilised for prolonged and + searching reconnoitring duties such as strategical reconnaissances as + distinct from the hurried and tactical reconnaissances carried out by + fleeter machines. While they are not so speedy as the monoplanes of the + German military establishment, endurance in this instance is preferable to + pace. A thorough survey of the enemy's position over the whole of his + military zone, which stretches back for a distance of 30 miles or so from + the outer line of trenches, is of incalculable value to a commander who is + contemplating any decisive movement or who is somewhat in doubt as to the + precise character of his antagonist's tactics. + </p> + <p> + The French aerial fleet has been particularly active in its work of + raiding hostile positions and submitting them to a fusillade of bombs from + the clouds. The machine which is allotted this specific task is the Voisin + biplane. This is due to the fact that this machine is able to carry a + great weight. It was speedily discovered that in bomb-raids it is + essential for an aeroplane to be able to carry a somewhat large supply of + missiles, owing to the high percentage of misses which attends these + operations. A raid by a machine capable of carrying only, say, + half-a-dozen projectiles, is virtually a waste of fuel, and the endurance + limitations of the fast machines reacts against their profitable use in + this work. On the other hand, the fact that the Voisin machine is able to + carry a large supply of bombs renders it an ideal craft for this purpose; + hence the official decision to confine it to this work. + </p> + <p> + So far as the British efforts in aerial work are concerned there is no + such display of rigid selection as characterises the practice of the + French and German military authorities. Britain's position in the air has + been extensively due to private enterprise, and this is still being + encouraged. Moreover at the beginning of the war Britain was numerically + far inferior both to her antagonist and to her ally. Consequently it was a + wise move to encourage the private manufacture of machines which had + already established their value. The consequence is that a variety of + machines figure in the British aerial navy. Private initiative is + excellently seconded by the Government manufacturing aeroplane factory, + while the training of pilots is likewise being carried out upon a + comprehensive scale. British manufacture may be divided into two broad + classes—the production of aeroplanes and of waterplanes + respectively. Although there is a diversity of types there is a + conspicuous homogeneity for the most part, as was evidenced by the British + raid carried out on February 11-12, when a fleet of 34 machines raided the + various German military centres established along the coast of Flanders. + </p> + <p> + Considerable secrecy has been displayed by the British Government + concerning the types of machines that are being utilised, although ample + evidence exists from the producing activity of the various establishments + that all available types which have demonstrated their reliability and + efficiency are being turned to useful purpose. The Avro and Sopwith + warplanes with their very high speeds have proved remarkably successful. + </p> + <p> + So far as manufacturing is concerned the Royal Aerial Factory may be said + to constitute the back bone of the British aerial fleet. This factory + fulfils various purposes. It is not only engaged in the manufacture of + machines, and the development of aeroplanes for specific duties, but also + carries out the inspection and testing of machines built by private firms. + Every machine is submitted to an exacting test before it is passed into + the service. + </p> + <p> + Three broad types of Government machines are manufactured at this + establishment. There is that designed essentially for scouting operations, + in which speed is the all-important factor and which is of the tractor + type. Another is the "Reconnoitring" machine known officially as the + "R.E." to-day, but formerly as the "B.E" (Bleriot-Experimental), a + considerable number of which are in commission. + </p> + <p> + This machine is also of the tractor type, carrying a pilot and an + observer, and has a maximum speed of 40-50 miles per hour. If required it + can further be fitted with an automatic gun for defence and attack. The + third craft is essentially a fighting machine. Owing to the introduction + of the machine-gun which is fixed in the prow, with the marksman + immediately behind it, the screw is placed at the rear. The pilot has his + seat behind the gunner. The outstanding feature of these machines is the + high factor of safety, which attribute has astonished some of the foremost + aviation experts in the world. + </p> + <p> + Great Britain lagged behind her Continental rivals in the development of + the Fourth Arm, especially in matters pertaining to motive power. For some + time reliance was placed upon foreign light highspeed explosion motors, + but private enterprise was encouraged, with the result that British Motors + comparing favourably in every respect with the best productions upon the + Continent are now available. Development is still proceeding, and there is + every evidence that in the near future entire reliance will be placed upon + the native motor. + </p> + <p> + Undoubtedly, as the war progresses, many valuable lessons will be learned + which will exercise an important bearing upon the design and construction + of warplanes. The ordeals to which the machines are submitted in military + duties are far more severe than any imposed by the conditions of commerce. + Accordingly there is every indication that the conflict upon the Continent + will represent a distinctive epoch in aeroplane design and construction. + Many problems still await solution, such as the capacity to hover over a + position, and it is quite possible that these complex and baffling + questions will be settled definitely as the result of operations in the + field. The aeroplane has reached a certain stage of evolution: further + progress is virtually impossible unless something revolutionary is + revealed, perfected, and brought to the practical stage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. SCOUTING FROM THE SKIES + </h2> + <p> + From the moment when human flight was lifted from the rut of experiment to + the field of practical application, many theories, interesting and + illuminating, concerning the utility of the Fourth Arm as a military unit + were advanced. The general consensus of expert opinion was that the flying + machine would be useful to glean information concerning the movements of + an enemy, rather than as a weapon of offence. + </p> + <p> + The war is substantiating this argument very completely. Although + bomb-dropping is practised somewhat extensively, the results achieved are + rather moral than material in their effects. Here and there startling + successes have been recorded especially upon the British side, but these + triumphs are outnumbered by the failures in this direction, and merely + serve to emphasise the views of the theorists. + </p> + <p> + The argument was also advanced that, in this particular work, the + aeroplane would prove more valuable than the dirigible, but actual + campaigning has proved conclusively that the dirigible and the + heavier-than-air machines have their respective fields of utility in the + capacity of scouts. In fact in the very earliest days of the war, the + British airships, though small and slow in movement, proved more + serviceable for this duty than their dynamic consorts. This result was + probably due to the fact that military strategy and tactics were somewhat + nonplussed by the appearance of this new factor. At the time it was an + entirely unknown quantity. It is true that aircraft had been employed in + the Balkan and the Italo-Ottoman campaigns, but upon such a limited scale + as to afford no comprehensive idea of their military value and + possibilities. + </p> + <p> + The belligerents, therefore, were caught somewhat at a disadvantage, and + an appreciable period of time elapsed before the significance of the + aerial force could be appreciated, while means of counter acting or + nullifying its influences had to be evolved simultaneously, and according + to the exigencies of the moment. At all events, the protagonists were + somewhat loth to utilise the dirigible upon an elaborate scale or in an + aggressive manner. It was employed more after the fashion of a captive + balloon, being sent aloft from a point well behind the front lines of the + force to which it was attached, and well out of the range of hostile guns. + Its manoeuvres were somewhat circumscribed, and were carried out at a safe + distance from the enemy, dependence being placed upon the advantages of an + elevated position for the gathering of information. + </p> + <p> + But as the campaign progressed, the airships became more daring. Their + ability to soar to a great height offered them complete protection against + gun-fire, and accordingly sallies over the hostile lines were carried out. + But even here a certain hesitancy became manifest. This was perfectly + excusable, for the simple reason that the dirigible, above all, is a + fair-weather craft, and disasters, which had overtaken these vessels time + after time, rendered prudence imperative. Moreover, but little was known + of the range and destructiveness of anti-aircraft guns. + </p> + <p> + In the duty of reconnoitring the dirigible possesses one great advantage + over its heavier-than-air rival. It can remain virtually stationary in the + air, the propellers revolving at just sufficient speed to off-set the wind + and tendencies to drift. In other words, it has the power of hovering over + a position, thereby enabling the observers to complete their task + carefully and with deliberation. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the means of enabling an aeroplane to hover still + remain to be discovered. It must travel at a certain speed through the air + to maintain its dynamic equilibrium, and this speed is often too high to + enable the airman to complete his reconnaissance with sufficient accuracy + to be of value to the forces below. All that the aeroplane can do is to + circle above a certain position until the observer is satisfied with the + data he has collected. + </p> + <p> + But hovering on the part of the dirigible is not without conspicuous + drawbacks. The work of observation cannot be conducted with any degree of + accuracy at an excessive altitude. Experience has proved that the range of + the latest types of anti-aircraft weapons is in excess of anticipations. + The result is that the airship is useless when hovering beyond the zone of + fire. The atmospheric haze, even in the clearest weather, obstructs the + observer's vision. The caprices of this obstacle are extraordinary, as + anyone who has indulged in ballooning knows fully well. On a clear + summer's day I have been able to see the ground beneath with perfect + distinctness from a height of 4,500 feet, yet when the craft had ascended + a further two or three hundred feet, the panorama was blurred. A film of + haze lies between the balloon and the ground beneath. And the character of + this haze is continually changing, so that the aerial observer's task is + rendered additionally difficult. Its effects are particularly notice able + when one attempts to photograph the view unfolded below. Plate after plate + may be exposed and nothing will be revealed. Yet at a slightly lower + altitude the plates may be exposed and perfectly sharp and well-defined + images will be obtained. + </p> + <p> + Seeing that the photographic eye is keener and more searching than the + human organ of sight, it is obvious that this haze constitutes a very + formidable obstacle. German military observers, who have accompanied the + Zeppelins and Parsevals on numerous aerial journeys under varying + conditions of weather, have repeatedly drawn attention to this factor and + its caprices, and have not hesitated to venture the opinion that it would + interfere seriously with military aerial reconnaissances, and also that it + would tend to render such work extremely hazardous at times. + </p> + <p> + When these conditions prevail the dirigible must carry out its work upon + the broad lines of the aeroplane. It must descend to the level where a + clear view of the ground may be obtained, and in the interests of safety + it has to keep on the move. To attempt to hover within 4,000 feet of the + ground is to court certain disaster, inasmuch as the vessel offers a + magnificent and steady target which the average gunner, equipped with the + latest sighting devices and the most recent types of guns, scarcely could + fail to hit. + </p> + <p> + But the airman in the aeroplane is able to descend to a comparatively low + level in safety. The speed and mobility of his machine constitute his + protection. He can vary his altitude, perhaps only thirty or forty feet, + with ease and rapidity, and this erratic movement is more than sufficient + to perplex the marksmen below, although the airman is endangered if a + rafale is fired in such a manner as to cover a wide zone. + </p> + <p> + Although the aeroplane may travel rapidly it is not too fleet for a keen + observer who is skilled in his peculiar task. He may only gather a rough + idea of the disposition of troops, their movements, the lines of + communication, and other details which are indispensable to his commander, + but in the main the intelligence will be fairly accurate. Undulating + flight enables him to determine speedily the altitude at which he is able + to obtain the clearest views of the country beneath. Moreover, owing to + his speed he is able to complete his task in far less time than his + colleague operating in the dirigible, the result being that the + information placed at the disposal of his superior officers is more to the + moment, and accordingly of greater value. + </p> + <p> + Reconnoitring by aeroplane may be divided into two broad categories, + which, though correlated to a certain degree, are distinctive, because + each constitutes a specific phase in military operations. They are known + respectively as "tactical" and "strategical" movements. The first is + somewhat limited in its scope as compared with the latter, and has + invariably to be carried out rapidly, whereas the strategical + reconnaissance may occupy several hours. + </p> + <p> + The tactical reconnaissance concerns the corps or divisional commander to + which the warplane is attached, and consequently its task is confined to + the observation of the line immediately facing the particular corps or + division. The aviator does not necessarily penetrate beyond the lines of + the enemy, but, as a rule limits his flight to some distance from his + outermost defences. The airman must possess a quick eye, because his + especial duty is to note the disposition of the troops immediately facing + him, the placing of the artillery, and any local movements of the forces + that may be in progress. Consequently the aviator engaged on this service + may be absent from his lines for only a few minutes, comparatively + speaking; the intelligence he acquires must be speedily communicated to + the force to which he is attached, because it may influence a local + movement. + </p> + <p> + The strategical reconnaissance, on the other hand, affects the whole plan + of campaign. The aviators told off for this duty are attached to the staff + of the Commander-in-Chief, and the work has to be carried out upon a far + more comprehensive and elaborate scale, while the airmen are called upon + to penetrate well into the hostile territory to a point thirty, forty, or + more miles beyond the outposts. + </p> + <p> + The procedure is to instruct the flier either to carry out his + observations of the territory generally, or to report at length upon a + specified stretch of country. In the latter event he may fly to and fro + over the area in question until he has acquired all the data it is + possible to collect. His work not only comprises the general disposition + of troops, defences, placing of artillery, points where reserves are being + held, high-roads, railways, base camps, and so forth, but he is also + instructed to bring back as correct an idea as possible of what the enemy + proposes to do, so that his Commander-in-Chief may adjust his moves + accordingly. In order to perform this task with the requisite degree of + thoroughness it is often necessary for the airman to remain in the air for + several hours continuously, not returning, in fact, until he has completed + the allotted duty. + </p> + <p> + The airman engaged in strategical aerial reconnaissance must possess, + above all things, what is known as a "military" eye concerning the country + he traverses. He must form tolerably correct estimates of the forces + beneath and their character. He must possess the ability to read a map + rapidly as he moves through the air and to note upon it all information + which is likely to be of service to the General Staff. The ability to + prepare military sketches rapidly and intelligibly is a valuable + attribute, and skill in aerial photography is a decidedly useful + acquisition. + </p> + <p> + Such men must be of considerable stamina, inasmuch as great demands are + made upon their powers of endurance. Being aloft for several hours imposes + a severe tax upon the nervous system, while it must also be borne in mind + that all sorts and conditions of weather are likely to be encountered, + more particularly during the winter. Hail, rain, and blizzards may be + experienced in turn, while the extreme cold which often prevails in the + higher altitudes during the winter season is a fearful enemy to combat. + Often an airman upon his return from such a reconnaissance has been + discovered to be so numbed and dazed as a result of the prolonged + exposure, that considerable time has elapsed before he has been + sufficiently restored to set forth the results of his observations in a + coherent, intelligible manner for the benefit of the General Staff. Under + these circumstances it is not surprising that the most skilful and + experienced aviators are generally reserved for this particular work. In + addition to the natural accidents to which the strategical aerial observer + is exposed, the dangers arising from hostile gun-fire must not be + overlooked. He is manoeuvring the whole time over the enemy's firing zone, + where anti-aircraft weapons are disposed strategically, and where every + effort is made by artillery to bring him down, or compel him to repair to + such a height as to render observation with any degree of accuracy + well-nigh impossible. + </p> + <p> + The methods practised by the German aerial scout vary widely, and are + governed in no small measure by the intrepidity and skill of the airman + himself. One practice is to proceed alone upon long flights over the + enemy's lines, penetrating just as far into hostile territory as the pilot + considers advisable, and keeping, of course, within the limits of the + radius of action of the machine, as represented by the fuel supply, the + while carefully taking mental stock of all that he observes below. It is a + kind of roving commission without any definite aim in view beyond the + collection of general intelligence. + </p> + <p> + This work, while productive and valuable to a certain degree, is attended + with grave danger, as the German airmen have repeatedly found to their + cost. Success is influenced very materially by the accuracy of the + airman's judgment. A slight miscalculation of the velocity and direction + of the wind, or failure to detect any variations in the climatic + conditions, is sufficient to prove his undoing. German airmen who essayed + journeys of discovery in this manner, often failed to regain their lines + because they ventured too far, misjudged the speed of the wind which was + following them on the outward run, and ultimately were forced to earth + owing to the exhaustion of the fuel supply during the homeward trip; the + increased task imposed upon the motor, which had to battle hard to make + headway, caused the fuel consumption per mile to exceed calculations. + </p> + <p> + Then the venturesome airman cannot neglect another factor which is adverse + to his success. Hostile airmen lie in wait, and a fleet of aeroplanes is + kept ready for instant service. They permit the invader to penetrate well + into their territory and then ascend behind him to cut off his retreat. + True, the invader has the advantage of being on the wing, while the ether + is wide and deep, without any defined channels of communication. But nine + times out of ten the adventurous scout is trapped. His chances of escape + are slender, because his antagonists dispose themselves strategically in + the air. The invader outpaces one, but in so doing comes within range of + another. He is so harassed that he either has to give fight, or, finding + his retreat hopelessly cut off, he makes a determined dash, trusting to + his high speed to carry him to safety. In these driving tactics the French + and British airmen have proved themselves adepts, more particularly the + latter, as the chase appeals to their sporting instincts. There is nothing + so exhilarating as a quarry who displays a determination to run the + gauntlet. + </p> + <p> + The roving Teuton scout was considerably in evidence in the early days of + the war, but two or three weeks' experience emphasised the sad fact that, + in aerial strategy, he was hopelessly outmatched by his opponents. His + advantage of speed was nullified by the superior tactical and strategical + acumen of his antagonists, the result being that the German airman, who + has merely been trained along certain lines, who is in many cases nothing + more than a cog-wheel in a machine, and who is proverbially slow-witted, + has concluded that he is no match for the airmen of the Allies. He found + from bitter experience that nothing afforded the Anglo-French military + aviators such keen delight as to lie in wait for a "rover," and then to + swoop into the air to round him up. + </p> + <p> + The proportion of these individual scouts who were either brought down, or + only just succeeded in reaching safety within their own lines, and who + were able to exhibit serious wounds as evidence of the severity of the + aerial tussle, or the narrowness of the escape, has unnerved the Teuton + airmen as a body to a very considerable extent. Often, even when an + aeroplane descended within the German lines, it was found that the roving + airman had paid the penalty for his rashness with his life, so that his + journey had proved in vain, because all the intelligence he had gained had + died with him, or, if committed to paper, was so unintelligible as to + prove useless. + </p> + <p> + It was the success of the British airmen in this particular field of duty + which was responsible for the momentous declaration in Field-Marshal Sir + John French's famous despatch:—"The British Flying Corps has + succeeded in establishing an individual ascendancy, which is as + serviceable to us as it is damaging to the enemy.... The enemy have been + less enterprising in their flights. Something in the direction of the + mastery of the air has already been gained." + </p> + <p> + The methods of the British airmen are in vivid contrast to the practice of + the venturesome Teuton aerial rovers described above. While individual + flights are undertaken they are not of unknown duration or mileage. The + man is given a definite duty to perform and he ascends merely to fulfil + it, returning with the information at the earliest possible moment. It is + aerial scouting with a method. The intelligence is required and obtained + for a specific purpose, to govern a contemplated move in the grim game of + war. + </p> + <p> + Even then the flight is often undertaken by two or more airmen for the + purpose of checking and counterchecking information gained, or to ensure + such data being brought back to headquarters, since it is quite possible + that one of the party may fall a victim to hostile fire. By operating upon + these lines there is very little likelihood of the mission proving a + complete failure. Even when raids upon certain places such as Dusseldorf, + Friedrichshafen or Cuxhaven are planned, complete dependence is not placed + on one individual. The machine is accompanied, so that the possibility of + the appointed task being consummated is transformed almost into a + certainty. + </p> + <p> + The French flying men work upon broadly similar lines. Their fleet is + divided into small squadrons each numbering four, six, or more machines, + according to the nature of the contemplated task. Each airman is given an + area of territory which is to be reconnoitred thoroughly. In this way + perhaps one hundred or more miles of the enemy's front are searched for + information at one and the same time. The units of the squadron start out, + each taking the appointed direction according to the preconceived plan, + and each steering by the aid of compass and map. They are urged to + complete the work with all speed and to return to a secret rendezvous. + </p> + <p> + Later the air is alive with the whirring of motors. The machines are + coming back and all converging to one point. They vol-plane to the earth + and gracefully settle down within a short distance of each other at the + rendezvous. The pilots collect and each relates the intelligence he has + gained. The data are collated and in this manner the General Staff is able + to learn exactly what is transpiring over a long stretch of the hostile + lines, and a considerable distance to the rear of his advance works. + Possibly five hundred square miles have been reconnoitred in this manner. + Troops have been massed here, lines of communication extend somewhere + else, while convoys are moving at a third place. But all has been + observed, and the commanding officer is in a position to re-arrange his + forces accordingly. It is a remarkable example of method in military + tactics and strategy, and conveys a striking idea of the degree to which + aerial operations have been organised. + </p> + <p> + After due deliberation it is decided that the convoys shall be raided, or + that massed troops shall be thrown into confusion, if not dispersed. The + squadron is ordered to prepare for another aerial journey. The roads along + which the convoys are moving are indicated upon the map, or the position + of the massed troops in bivouac is similarly shown. The airmen load their + machines with a full charge of bombs. When all is ready the leader + ascends, followed in rapid succession by the other units, and they whirr + through the air in single file. It now becomes a grim game of + follow-my-leader. + </p> + <p> + The leader detects the convoy, swoops down, suddenly launches his + missiles, and re-ascends. He does not deviate a foot from his path to + observe the effects of his discharge, as the succeeding aeroplane is close + behind him. If the leader has missed then the next airman may correct his + error. One after another the machines repeat the manoeuvre, in precisely + the same manner as the units of a battleship squadron emulate the leading + vessel when attacking the foe. The tactical evolutions have been laid + down, and there is rigid adherence thereto, because only thereby may + success be achieved. When the last war-plane has completed its work, the + leader swings round and repeats the dash upon the foe. A hail of bullets + may scream around the men in the air, but one and all follow faithfully in + the leader's trail. One or more machines may fail in the attack, and may + even meet with disaster, but nothing interferes with the movements of the + squadron as a whole. It is the homogeneity of the attacking fleet which + tells, and which undermines the moral of the enemy, even if it does not + wreak decisive material devastation. The work accomplished to the best of + their ability, the airmen speed back to their lines in the same formation. + </p> + <p> + At first sight reconnoitring from aloft may appear a simple operation, but + a little reflection will reveal the difficulties and arduousness of the + work. The observer, whether he be specially deputed, or whether the work + be placed in the hand of the pilot himself—in this event the + operation is rendered additionally trying, as he also has to attend to his + machine must keep his eyes glued to the ground beneath and at the same + time be able to read the configuration of the panorama revealed to him. He + must also keep in touch with his map and compass, so as to be positive of + his position and direction. He must be a first-class judge of distances + and heights. + </p> + <p> + When flying rapidly at a height of 4,000 feet or more, the country below + appears as a perfect plane, or flat stretch, although as a matter of fact + it may be extremely undulating. Consequently, it is by no means a simple + matter to distinguish eminences and depressions, or to determine the + respective and relative heights of hills. + </p> + <p> + If a rough sketch is required, the observer must be rapid in thought, + quick in determination, and facile with his pencil, as the machine, no + matter how it may be slowed down, is moving at a relatively high speed. He + must consult his map and compass frequently, since an airman who loses his + bearings is useless to his commander-in-chief. He must have an eagle eye, + so as to be able to search the country unfolded below, in order to gather + all the information which is likely to be of value to his superior + officers. He must be able to judge accurately the numbers of troops + arrayed beneath him, the lines of the defensive works, to distinguish the + defended from the dummy lines which are thrown up to baffle him, and to + detect instantly the movement of the troops and the direction, as well as + the roads, along which they are proceeding. Reserves and their complement, + artillery, railway-lines, roads, and bridges, if any, over streams and + railways must be noted—in short he must obtain an eye photograph of + the country he observes and grasp exactly what is happening there. In + winter, with the thermometer well down, a blood-freezing wind blowing, + wreaths of clouds drifting below and obscuring vision for minutes at a + time, the rain possibly pelting down as if presaging a second deluge, the + plight of the vigilant human eye aloft is far from enviable. + </p> + <p> + Upon the return of the machine to its base, the report must be prepared + without delay. The picture recorded by the eye has to be set down clearly + and intelligibly with the utmost speed. The requisite indications must be + made accurately upon the map. Nothing of importance must be omitted: the + most trivial detail is often of vital importance. + </p> + <p> + A facile pencil is of inestimable value in such operations. While aloft + the observer does not trust to his memory or his eye picture, but commits + the essential factors to paper in the form of a code, or what may perhaps + be described more accurately as a shorthand pictorial interpretation of + the things he has witnessed. To the man in the street such a record would + be unintelligible, but it is pregnant with meaning, and when worked out + for the guidance of the superior officers is a mass of invaluable detail. + </p> + <p> + At times it so happens that the airman has not been able to complete his + duty within the time anticipated by those below. But he has gathered + certain information which he wishes to communicate without coming to + earth. Such data may be dropped from the clouds in the form of maps or + messages. Although wireless telegraphy is available for this purpose, it + suffers from certain drawbacks. If the enemy possesses an equipment which + is within range of that of the air-craft and the force to which it + belongs, communications may be nullified by the enemy throwing out a + continuous stream of useless signals which "jamb" the intelligence of + their opponents. + </p> + <p> + If a message—written in code—or a map is to be dropped from + aloft it is enclosed within a special metallic cylinder, fitted with a + vane tail to ensure direction of flight when launched, and with a + detonating head. This is dropped overboard. When it strikes the ground the + detonator fires a charge which emits a report without damaging the message + container, and at the same time fires a combustible charge emitting + considerable smoke. The noise attracts anyone in the vicinity of the spot + where the message has fallen, while at the same time the clouds of smoke + guide one to the point and enable the cylinder to be recovered. This + device is extensively used by the German aviators, and has proved highly + serviceable; a similar contrivance is adopted by French airmen. + </p> + <p> + There is one phase of aerial activity which remains to be demonstrated. + This is the utilisation of aerial craft by the defenders of a besieged + position such as a ring of fortifications or fortified city. The utility + of the Fourth Arm in this province has been the subject of considerable + speculation. Expert opinion maintains that the advantage in this + particular connection would rest with the besiegers. The latter would be + able to ascertain the character of the defences and the defending + gun-force, by means of the aerial scout, who would prove of inestimable + value in directing the fire of the besieging forces. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand it is maintained that an aerial fleet would be useless + to the beleaguered. In the first place the latter would experience grave + difficulties in ascertaining the positions of the attacking and + fortress-reducing artillery, inasmuch as this could be masked effectively, + and it is thought that the aerial force of the besieged would be speedily + reduced to impotence, since it would be subjected to an effective + concentrated fire from the ring of besieging anti-aircraft guns and other + weapons. In other words, the theory prevails that an aerial fleet, no + matter how efficient, would be rendered ineffective for the simple reason + that it would be the initial object of the besieger's attack. Possibly the + stem test of experience will reveal the fallacy of these contentions as + emphatically as it has disproved others. But there is one point upon which + authorities are unanimous. If the artillery of the investing forces is + exposed and readily distinguishable, the aerial forces of the beleaguered + will bring about its speedy annihilation, as the defensive artillery will + be concentrated upon that of the besiegers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. THE AIRMAN AND ARTILLERY + </h2> + <p> + There is one field in which the airman has achieved distinctive triumphs. + This is in the guidance of artillery fire. The modern battle depends first + and foremost upon the fierce effectiveness of big-gun assault, but to + ensure this reliable direction is imperative. No force has proved so + invaluable for this purpose as the man of-the-air, and consequently this + is the province in which he has been exceptionally and successfully + active. + </p> + <p> + It will be recalled that in the Japanese investiture of Port Arthur during + the Russo-Japanese war, thousands of lives were expended upon the + retention and assault of 203 Metre Hill. It was the most blood-stained + spot upon the whole of the Eastern Asiatic battlefield. General Nogi threw + thousands after thousands of his warriors against this rampart while the + Russians defended it no less resolutely. It was captured and re-captured; + in fact, the fighting round this eminence was so intense that it appeared + to the outsider to be more important to both sides than even Port Arthur + itself. + </p> + <p> + Yet if General Nogi had been in the possession of a single aeroplane or + dirigible it is safe to assert that scarcely one hundred Japanese or + Russian soldiers would have met their fate upon this hill. Its value to + the Japanese lay in one sole factor. The Japanese heavy guns shelling the + harbour and the fleet it contained were posted upon the further side of + this eminence and the fire of these weapons was more or less haphazard. No + means of directing the artillery upon the vital points were available; 203 + Metre Hill interrupted the line of sight. The Japanese thereupon resolved + to capture the hill, while the Russians, equally appreciative of the + obstruction it offered to their enemy, as valiantly strove to hold it. + Once the hill was captured and the fire of the Japanese guns could be + directed, the fate of the fortress was sealed. + </p> + <p> + Similar conditions have prevailed during the present campaign, especially + in the western theatre of war, where the ruggedness of the country has + tended to render artillery fire ineffective and expensive unless + efficiently controlled. When the German Army attacked the line of the + British forces so vehemently and compelled the retreat at Mons, the + devastating fire of the enemy's artillery was directed almost exclusively + by their airmen, who hovered over the British lines, indicating exactly + the point where gun-fire could work the maximum of havoc. The instant + concentration of massed artillery fire upon the indicated positions + speedily rendered one position after another untenable. + </p> + <p> + The Germans maintained the upper hand until at last the aerial forces of + the British Expeditionary Army came into action. These airmen attacked the + Teuton aerial craft without the slightest hesitation, and in a short while + rendered cloudland absolutely unhealthy. The sequel was interesting. As if + suddenly blinded, the German artillery fire immediately deteriorated. On + the other hand, the British artillery, now having the benefit of aerial + guidance, was able to repay the German onslaughts with interest, and + speedily compelled that elaborate digging-in of the infantry lines which + has now become so characteristic of the opposing forces. + </p> + <p> + So far as the British lines are concerned the men in the trenches keep a + sharp look-out for hostile aeroplanes. The moment one is observed to be + advancing, all the men seclude themselves and maintain their concealment. + To do otherwise is to court a raking artillery outburst. The German + aeroplane, detecting the tendency of the trenches describes in the air the + location of the vulnerable spot and the precise disposition by flying + immediately above the line. Twice the manoeuvre is repeated, the second + movement evidently being in the character of a check upon the first + observation, and in accordance with instructions, whereupon the Tommies, + to quote their own words, "know they are in for it!" Ere the aeroplane has + completed the second manoeuvre the German guns ring out. + </p> + <p> + The facility with which artillery fire can be concentrated through the + medium of the aeroplane is amazing. In one instance, according to the + story related to me by an officer, "a number of our men were resting in an + open field immediately behind the second line of trenches, being in fact + the reserves intended for the relief of the front lines during the + following night. An aeroplane hove in sight. The men dropped their kits + and got under cover in an adjacent wood. The aeroplane was flying at a + great height and evidently laboured under the impression that the kits + were men. Twice it flew over the field in the usual manner, and then the + storm of shrapnel, 'Jack Johnsons' and other tokens from the Kaiser rained + upon the confined space. A round four hundred shells were dropped into + that field in the short period of ten minutes, and the range was so + accurate that no single shell fell outside the space. Had the men not + hurried to cover not one would have been left alive to tell the tale, + because every square foot of the land was searched through and through. We + laughed at the short-sightedness of the airman who had contributed to such + a waste of valuable shot and shell, but at the same time appreciated the + narrowness of our own escape." + </p> + <p> + The above instance is by no means isolated. It has happened time after + time. The slightest sign of activity in a trench when a "Taube" is + overhead suffices to cause the trench to be blown to fragments, and time + after time the British soldiers have had to lie prone in their trenches + and suffer partial burial as an alternative to being riddled by shrapnel. + </p> + <p> + The method of ascertaining the range of the target from the indications + given by the aeroplane are of the simplest character. The German method is + for the aerial craft to fly over the position, and when in vertical line + therewith to discharge a handful of tinsel, which, in falling, glitters in + the sunlight, or to launch a smoking missile which answers the same + purpose as a projectile provided with a tracer. This smoke-ball being + dropped over the position leaves a trail of black or whitish smoke + according to the climatic conditions which prevail, the object being to + enable the signal to be picked up with the greatest facility. The height + at which the aerial craft is flying being known, a little triangulation + upon the part of the observer at the firing point enables him to calculate + the range and to have the guns laid accordingly. + </p> + <p> + When the aerial craft has been entrusted with the especial duty of + directing artillery-fire, a system of communication between the aerial + observer and the officer in charge of the artillery is established, + conducted, of course, by code. In the British Army, signalling is both + visual and audible. In daylight visual signalling is carried out by means + of coloured flags or streamers and smoke-signals, while audible + communication is effected by means of a powerful horn working upon the + siren principle and similar to those used by automobiles. Both flags and + sound-signals, however, are restricted owing to the comparatively short + distances over which they can be read with any degree of accuracy. The + smoke-signal therefore appears to be the most satisfactory and reliable, + as the German airmen have proved conclusively, for the simple reason that + the trail of smoke may be picked up with comparative ease, even at a + distance, by means of field glasses. The tinsel too, is readily + distinguishable, particularly in bright weather, for the glittering + surface, catching the sun-light, acts some what in the manner of a + heliograph. + </p> + <p> + The progress of the airman is followed by two officers at the base from + which he started. One is equipped with the director, while the second + takes the range. Directly this has been found as a result of calculation, + the guns are laid ready for firing. In those cases where the enemy's + artillery is concealed perhaps behind a hill, the airman is of + incalculable value, inasmuch as he is able to reveal a position which + otherwise would have to be found by considerable haphazard firing, and + which, even if followed by a captive balloon anchored above the firing + point, might resist correction. + </p> + <p> + The accuracy of the airman's work in communicating the range has been + responsible for the high efficiency of the British and French artillery. + The latter, with the 75 millimetre quick-firing gun, is particularly + adapted to following up the results of the aeroplane's reconnaissance, + especially with the system of rafale fire, because the whole position can + be searched through and through within a minute or two. According to + information which has been given to me by our artillery officers, the + British system also has proved disastrous to the enemy. The practice is to + get the range as communicated by the aeroplane, to bring the artillery + into position speedily, to discharge salvo after salvo with all speed for + a few minutes, and then to wheel the artillery away before any hostile + fire can be returned. The celerity with which the British artillery comes + into, and goes out of, action has astonished even our own authorities. + This mobility is of unique value: it is taking advantage of a somewhat + slow-witted enemy with interest. By the time the Germans have opened fire + upon the point whence the British guns were discharged, the latter have + disappeared and are ready to let fly from another point, some distance + away, so that the hostile fire is abortive. Mobility of such a character + is decidedly unnerving and baffling even to a quick-witted opponent. + </p> + <p> + In his search for hostile artillery the airman runs grave risks and + displays remarkable resource. It is invariably decided, before he sets + out, that he shall always return to a certain altitude to communicate + signals. Time after time the guns of the enemy have been concealed so + cunningly from aerial observation as to pass unnoticed. This trait became + more pronounced as the campaigns of the Aisne progressed. Accordingly the + airman adopts a daring procedure. He swoops down over suspicious places, + where he thinks guns may be lurking, hoping that the enemy will betray its + presence. The ruse is invariably successful. The airman makes a sudden + dive towards the earth. The soldiers in hiding below, who have become + somewhat demoralised by the accuracy of the British aerial bomb-throwers, + have an attack of nerves. They open a spirited fusillade in the hope of + bringing the airman to earth. But their very excitement contributes to his + safety. The shots are fired without careful aim and expend themselves + harmlessly. Sweeping once more upwards, the airman regains the + pre-determined level, performs a certain evolution in the air which warns + the observer at his base that he has made a discovery, and promptly drops + his guiding signal directly over the point from which he has drawn fire. + </p> + <p> + Operations at night are conducted by means of coloured lights or an + electrical searchlight system. In the former instance three lights are + generally carried—white, red, and green—each of which has a + distinctive meaning. If reliance is placed upon the electric light + signalling lamp, then communications are in code. But night operations are + somewhat difficult and extremely dangerous, except when the elements are + propitious. There is the ground mist which blots everything from sight, + rendering reconnaissance purely speculative. But on a clear night the + airman is more likely to prove successful. He keeps a vigilant eye upon + all ground-lights and by close observation is able to determine their + significance. It is for this reason that no lights of any description are + permitted in the advance trenches. The striking of a match may easily + betray a position to the alert eye above. + </p> + <p> + So far as the British Army is concerned a complete code is in operation + for communicating between aeroplanes and the ground at night. Very's + lights are used for this purpose, it being possible to distinguish the + respective colours at a distance of six miles and from an altitude of + 2,000 feet. The lights are used both by the aeroplane and the battery of + artillery. + </p> + <p> + The code is varied frequently, but the following conveys a rough idea of + how communication is carried out by this means under cover of darkness. + The aeroplane has located its objective and has returned to the + pre-arranged altitude. A red light is thrown by the airman. It indicates + that he is directly over the enemy's position. A similarly coloured light + is shown by the artillery officer, which intimates to the airman that his + signal has been observed and that the range has been taken. + </p> + <p> + In observing the effects of artillery fire a code of signals is employed + between the airman and the artillery officer to indicate whether the shot + is "long" or "short," to the right or to the left of the mark, while + others intimate whether the fuse is correctly timed or otherwise. It is + necessary to change the code fairly frequently, not only lest it should + fall into the enemy's hands, but also to baffle the hostile forces; + otherwise, after a little experience, the latter would be able to divine + the significance of the signals, and, in anticipation of being greeted + with a warm fusillade, would complete hurried arrangements to mitigate its + effects, if not to vacate the position until the bombardment had ceased. + </p> + <p> + Sufficient experience has already been gathered, however, to prove the + salient fact that the airman is destined to play an important part in the + direction and control of artillery-fire. Already he has been responsible + for a re-arrangement of strategy and tactics. The man aloft holds such a + superior position as to defy subjugation; the alternative is to render his + work more difficult, if not absolutely impossible. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. BOMB-THROWING FROM AIR-CRAFT + </h2> + <p> + During the piping times of peace the utility of aircraft as weapons of + offence was discussed freely in an academic manner. It was urged that the + usefulness of such vessels in this particular field would be restricted to + bomb-throwing. So far these contentions have been substantiated during the + present campaign. At the same time it was averred that even as a + bomb-thrower the ship of the air would prove an uncertain quantity, and + that the results achieved would be quite contrary to expectations. Here + again theory has been supported by practice, inasmuch as the damage + wrought by bombs has been comparatively insignificant. + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin raids upon Antwerp and Britain were a fiasco in the military + sense. The damage inflicted by the bombs was not at all in proportion to + the quantity of explosive used. True, in the case of Antwerp, it + demoralised the civilian population somewhat effectively, which perhaps + was the desired end, but the military results were nil. + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin, and indeed all dirigibles of large size, have one advantage + over aeroplanes. They are able to throw bombs of larger size and charged + with greater quantities of high explosive and shrapnel than those which + can be hurled from heavier-than-air machines. Thus it has been stated that + the largest Zeppelins can drop single charges exceeding one ton in weight, + but such a statement is not to be credited. + </p> + <p> + The shell generally used by the Zeppelin measures about 47 inches in + length by 8 1/2 inches in diameter, and varies in weight from 200 to 242 + pounds. Where destruction pure and simple is desired, the shell is charged + with a high explosive such as picric acid or T.N.T., the colloquial + abbreviation for the devastating agent scientifically known as + "Trinitrotoluene," the base of which, in common with all the high + explosives used by the different powers and variously known as lyddite, + melinite, cheddite, and so forth, is picric acid. Such a bomb, if it + strikes the objective, a building, for instance, fairly and squarely, may + inflict widespread material damage. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, where it is desired to scatter death, as well as + destruction, far and wide, an elaborate form of shrapnel shell is + utilised. The shell in addition to a bursting charge, contains bullets, + pieces of iron, and other metallic fragments. When the shell bursts, their + contents, together with the pieces of the shell which is likewise broken + up by the explosion, are hurled in all directions over a radius of some 50 + yards or more, according to the bursting charge. + </p> + <p> + These shells are fired upon impact, a detonator exploding the main charge. + The detonator, comprising fulminate of mercury, is placed in the head or + tail of the missile. To secure perfect detonation and to distribute the + death-dealing contents evenly in all directions, it is essential that the + bomb should strike the ground almost at right angles: otherwise the + contents are hurled irregularly and perhaps in one direction only. One + great objection to the percussion system, as the method of impact + detonation is called, is that the damage may be localised. A bomb launched + from a height of say 1,000 feet attains terrific velocity, due to the + force of gravity in conjunction with its own weight, in consonance with + the law concerning a falling body, by the time it reaches the ground. It + buries itself to a certain depth before bursting so that the forces of the + explosion become somewhat muffled as it were. A huge deep hole—a + miniature volcano crater—is formed, while all the glass in the + immediate vicinity of the explosion may be shattered by the concussion, + and the walls of adjacent buildings be bespattered with shrapnel. + </p> + <p> + Although it is stated that an airship is able to drop a single missile + weighing one ton in weight, there has been no attempt to prove the + contention by practice. In all probability the heaviest shell launched + from a Zeppelin has not exceeded 300 pounds. There is one cogent reason + for such a belief. A bomb weighing one ton is equivalent to a similar + weight of ballast. If this were discarded suddenly the equilibrium of the + dirigible would be seriously disturbed—it would exert a tendency to + fly upwards at a rapid speed. It is doubtful whether the planes + controlling movement in the vertical plane would ever be able to + counteract this enormous vertical thrust. Something would have to submit + to the strain. Even if the dirigible displaced say 20 tons, and a bomb + weighing one ton were discharged, the weight of the balloon would be + decreased suddenly by approximately five per cent, so that it would shoot + upwards at an alarming speed, and some seconds would elapse before control + was regained. + </p> + <p> + The method of launching bombs from airships varies considerably. Some are + released from a cradle, being tilted into position ready for firing, while + others are discharged from a tube somewhat reminiscent of that used for + firing torpedoes, with the exception that little or no initial impetus is + imparted to the missile; the velocity it attains is essentially + gravitational. + </p> + <p> + The French favour the tube-launching method since thereby it is stated to + be possible to take more accurate aim. The objective is sighted and the + bomb launched at the critical moment. In some instances the French employ + an automatic detonator which corresponds in a certain measure to the + time-fuse of a shrapnel shell fired from a gun. + </p> + <p> + The bomb-thrower reads the altitude of his airship as indicated by his + barometer or other recording instrument, and by means of a table at his + command ascertains in a moment the time which will elapse before the bomb + strikes the ground. The automatic detonator is set in motion and the bomb + released to explode approximately at the height to which it is set. When + it bursts the full force of the explosion is distributed downwards and + laterally. Owing to the difficulty of ensuring the explosion of the bomb + at the exact height desired, it is also made to explode upon impact so as + to make doubly sure of its efficacy. + </p> + <p> + Firing timed bombs from aloft, however, is not free from excitement and + danger, as the experience of a French airman demonstrates. His dirigible + had been commanded to make a night-raid upon a railway station which was a + strategical junction for the movement of the enemy's troops. Although the + hostile searchlights were active, the airship contrived to slip between + the spokes of light without being observed. By descending to a + comparatively low altitude the pilot was able to pick up the objective. + </p> + <p> + Three projectiles were discharged in rapid succession and then the + searchlights, being concentrated, struck the airship, revealing its + presence to the troops below. Instantly a spirited fusillade broke out. + The airmen, by throwing ballast and other portable articles overboard + pell-mell, rose rapidly, pursued by the hostile shells. + </p> + <p> + In the upward travel the bomb-thrower decided to have a parting shot. The + airship was steadied momentarily to enable the range to be taken, the + automatic detonator was set going and the bomb slipped into the launching + tube. But for some reason or other the missile jambed. + </p> + <p> + The situation was desperate. In a few seconds the bomb would burst and + shatter the airship. The bomb-thrower grabbed a tool and climbing into the + rigging below hacked away at the bomb-throwing tube until the whole + equipment was cut adrift and fell clear of the vessel. Almost instantly + there was a terrific explosion in mid-air. The blast of air caused the + vessel to roll and pitch in a disconcerting manner, but as the airman + permitted the craft to continue its upward course unchecked, she soon + steadied herself and was brought under control once more. + </p> + <p> + The bomb carried by aeroplanes differs consider ably from that used by + dirigibles, is smaller and more convenient to handle, though considering + its weight and size it is remarkably destructive. In this instance + complete reliance is placed upon detonation by impact. The latest types of + British war-plane bombs have been made particularly formidable, those + employed in the "raids in force" ranging up to 95 pounds in weight. + </p> + <p> + The type of bomb which has proved to be the most successful is + pear-shaped. The tail spindle is given an arrow-head shape, the vanes + being utilised to steady the downward flight of the missile. In falling + the bomb spins round, the rotating speed increasing as the projectile + gathers velocity. The vanes act as a guide, keeping the projectile in as + vertical a plane as possible, and ensuring that the rounded head shall + strike the ground. The earlier types of bombs were not fitted with these + vanes, the result being that sometimes they turned over and over as they + fell through the air, while more often than not they failed to explode + upon striking the ground. + </p> + <p> + The method of launching the bomb also varies considerably, experience not + having indicated the most efficient method of consummating this end. In + some cases the bombs are carried in a cradle placed beneath the aeroplane + and launched merely by tilting them in a kind of sling, one by one, to + enable them to drop to the ground, this action being controlled by means + of a lever. In another instance they are dropped over the side of the car + by the pilot, the tail of the bomb being fitted with a swivel and ring to + facilitate the operation. Some of the French aviators favour a still + simpler method. The bomb is attached to a thread and lowered over the + side. At the critical moment it is released simply by severing the thread. + Such aeroplane bombs, however, constitute a menace to the machine and to + the pilot. Should the bomb be struck by hostile rifle or shell fire while + the machine is aloft, an explosion is probable; while should the aero + plane make an abrupt descent the missiles are likely to be detonated. + </p> + <p> + A bomb which circumvents this menace and which in fact will explode only + when it strikes the ground is that devised by Mr. Marten-Hale. This + projectile follows the usual pear-shape, and has a rotating tail to + preserve direction when in flight. The detonator is held away from the + main charge by a collar and ball-bearing which are held in place by the + projecting end of a screw-releasing spindle. When the bomb is dropped the + rotating tail causes the spindle to screw upwards until the projection + moves away from the steel balls, thereby allowing them to fall inward when + the collar and the detonator are released. In order to bring about this + action the bomb must have a fall of at least 200 feet. + </p> + <p> + When the bomb strikes the ground the detonator falls down on the charge, + fires the latter, and thus brings about the bursting of the bomb. The + projectile is of the shrapnel type. It weighs 20 pounds complete, is + charged with some four pounds of T.N.T., and carries 340 steel balls, + which represent a weight of 5 3/4 pounds. + </p> + <p> + The firing mechanism is extremely sensitive and the bomb will burst upon + impact with the hull of an airship, water, or soft soil. This projectile, + when discharged, speedily assumes the vertical position, so that there is + every probability that it will strike the ground fairly and squarely, + although at the same time such an impact is not imperative, because it + will explode even if the angle of incidence be only 5 degrees. It is + remarkably steady in its flight, the balancing and the design of the tail + frustrating completely any tendency to wobble or to turn turtle while + falling. + </p> + <p> + Other types of missile may be used. For instance, incendiary bombs have + been thrown with success in certain instances. These bombs are similar in + shape to the shrapnel projectile, but are charged with petrol or some + other equally highly inflammable mixture, and fitted with a detonator. + When they strike the objective the bursting charge breaks up the shell, + releasing the contents, and simultaneously ignites the combustible. + </p> + <p> + Another shell is the smoke-bomb, which, up to the present, has been used + only upon a restricted scale. This missile is charged with a certain + quantity of explosive to burst the shell, and a substance which, when + ignited, emits copious clouds of dense smoke. The scope of such a shell is + somewhat restricted, it is used only for the purpose of obstructing + hostile artillery fire. The shells are dropped in front of the artillery + position and the clouds of smoke which are emitted naturally inter fere + with the operations of the gunners. These bombs have also been used with + advantage to denote the position of concealed hostile artillery, although + their utility in this connection is somewhat uncertain, owing to the + difficulty of dropping the bomb so accurately as to enable the + range-finders to pick up the range. + </p> + <p> + Dropping bombs from aloft appears to be a very simple operation, but as a + matter of fact it is an extremely difficult matter to strike the target, + especially from a high altitude. So far as the aeroplane is concerned it + is somewhat at a disadvantage as compared with the airship, as the latter + is able to hover over a position, and, if a spring-gun is employed to + impart an initial velocity to the missile, there is a greater probability + of the projectile striking the target provided it has been well-aimed. But + even then other conditions are likely to arise, such as air-currents, + which may swing the missile to one side of the objective. Consequently + adequate allowance has to be made for windage, which is a very difficult + factor to calculate from aloft. + </p> + <p> + Bomb-dropping from an aeroplane is even more difficult. If for instance + the aeroplane is speeding along at 60 miles an hour, the bomb when + released will have a speed in the horizontal plane of 60 miles an hour, + because momentarily it is travelling at the speed of the aeroplane. + Consequently the shell will describe a curved trajectory, somewhat similar + to that shown in Fig. 7. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, if the aeroplane is travelling slowly, say at 20 miles + an hour, the curve of the trajectory will be flatter, and if a head wind + be prevailing it may even be swept backwards somewhat after it has lost + its forward momentum, and describe a trajectory similar to that in Fig. 8. + </p> + <p> + A bomb released from an altitude of 1000 feet seldom, if ever, makes a + bee-line for the earth, even if dropped from a stationary airship. + Accordingly, the airman has to release the bomb before he reaches the + target below. The determination of the critical moment for the release is + not easy, inasmuch as the airman has to take into his calculations the + speed of his machine, his altitude, and the direction and velocity of the + air-currents. + </p> + <p> + The difficulty of aiming has been demonstrated upon several occasions at + aviation meetings and other similar gatherings. Monsieur Michelin, who has + done so much for aviation in France, offered a prize of L1,00—$5,000—in + 1912 for bomb-dropping from an aeroplane. The target was a rectangular + space marked out upon the ground, measuring 170 feet long by 40 feet + broad, and the missiles had to be dropped from a height of 2,400 feet. The + prize was won by the well-known American airman, Lieutenant Riley E. + Scott, formerly of the United States Army. He dropped his bombs in groups + of three. The first round fell clear of the target, but eight of the + remaining missiles fell within the area. + </p> + <p> + In the German competition which was held at Gotha in September of the same + year the results were somewhat disappointing. Two targets were provided. + The one represented a military bivouac occupying a superficies of 330 + square feet, and the other a captive balloon resembling a Zeppelin. The + prizes offered were L500, L200, and L80—$2,500, $1,000 and $400—respectively, + and were awarded to those who made the greatest number of hits. The + conditions were by no means so onerous as those imposed in the Michelin + contest, inasmuch as the altitude limit was set at 660 feet, while no + machine was to descend within 165 feet. The first competitor completely + failed to hit the balloon. The second competitor flying at 800 feet landed + seven bombs within the square, but only one other competitor succeeded in + placing one bomb within the space. + </p> + <p> + Bomb-dropping under the above conditions, however, is vastly dissimilar + from such work under the grim realities of war. The airman has to act + quickly, take his enemy by surprise, avail himself of any protective + covering which may exist, and incur great risks. The opposing forces are + overwhelmingly against him. The modern rifle, if fired vertically into the + air, will hurl the bullet to a height of about 5,000 feet, while the + weapons which have been designed to combat aircraft have a range of 10,000 + feet or more. + </p> + <p> + At the latter altitude aggressive tactics are useless. The airman is + unable to obtain a clear sharp view of the country beneath owing to the + interference offered to vision by atmospheric haze, even in the dearest of + weather. In order to obtain reasonable accuracy of aim the corsair of the + sky must fly at about 400 feet. In this respect, however, the aeroplane is + at a decided advantage, as compared with the dirigible. The machine offers + a considerably smaller target and moves with much greater speed. + Experience of the war has shown that to attempt to hurl bombs from an + extreme height is merely a waste of ammunition. True, they do a certain + amount of damage, but this is due to luck, not judgment. + </p> + <p> + For success in aerial bomb operations the human element is mainly + responsible. The daring airman is likely to achieve the greatest results, + as events have proved, especially when his raid is sudden and takes the + enemy by surprise. The raids carried out by Marix, Collet, Briggs, + Babington, Sippe and many others have established this fact + incontrovertibly. In all these operations the airmen succeeded because of + their intrepidity and their decision to take advantage of cover, otherwise + a prevailing mist or low-lying clouds. Flight-Lieutenant Collet approached + the Zeppelin shed at Dusseldorf at an altitude of 6,000 feet. There was a + bank of mist below, which he encountered at 1,500 feet. He traversed the + depth of this layer and emerged therefrom at a height of only 400 feet + above the ground. His objective was barely a quarter of a mile ahead. + Travelling at high speed he launched his bombs with what proved to be + deadly precision, and disappeared into cover almost before the enemy had + grasped his intentions. Lieutenant-Commander, now Flight-Commander, Marix + was even more daring. Apparently he had no mist in which to conceal + himself but trusted almost entirely to the speed of his machine, which + probably at times notched 90 miles per hour. Although his advent was + detected and he was greeted with a spirited fusillade he clung to his + determined idea. He headed straight for the Zeppelin shed, launched two + bombs and swung into the higher reaches of the air without a moment's + hesitation. His aim was deadly, since both bombs found their mark, and the + Zeppelin docked within was blown up. The intrepid airman experienced + several narrow escapes, for his aeroplane was struck twenty times, and one + or two of the control wires were cut by passing bullets. + </p> + <p> + The raid carried out by Commanders Briggs and Babington in company with + Lieutenant Sippe upon the Zeppelin workshops at Friedrichshafen was even + more daring. Leaving the Allies' lines they ascended to an altitude of + 4,500 feet, and at this height held to the pre-arranged course until they + encountered a mist, which while protecting them from the alert eyes of the + enemy below, was responsible for the separation of the raiders, so that + each was forced to act independently and to trust to the compass to bring + him out of the ordeal successfully. Lieutenant Sippe sighted Lake + Constance, and taking advantage of the mist lying low upon the water, + descended to such an extent that he found himself only a few feet above + the roofs of the houses. Swinging round to the Lake he descended still + lower until at last he was practically skimming the surface of the Lake, + since he flew at the amazingly low height of barely seven feet off the + water. There is no doubt that the noise of his motor was heard plainly by + the enemy, but the mist completely enveloped him, and owing to the strange + pranks that fog plays with sound deceived his antagonists. + </p> + <p> + At last, climbing above the bank of vapour, he found that he had overshot + the mark, so he turned quickly and sped backwards. At the same time he + discovered that he had been preceded by Commander Briggs, who was + bombarding the shed furiously, and who himself was the object of a + concentrated fire. Swooping down once more, Lieutenant Sippe turned, + rained his bombs upon the objective beneath, drawing fire upon himself, + but co-operating with Commander Babington, who had now reached the scene, + he manoeuvred above the works and continued the bombardment until their + ammunition was expended, when they sped home-wards under the cover of the + mist. Considering the intensity of the hostile fire, it is surprising that + the aeroplanes were not smashed to fragments. Undoubtedly the high speed + of the machines and the zigzagging courses which were followed nonplussed + the enemy. Commander Briggs was not so fortunate as his colleagues; a + bullet pierced his petrol tank, compelling a hurried descent. + </p> + <p> + The most amazing feature of these aerial raids has been the remarkably low + height at which the airmen have ventured to fly. While such a procedure + facilitates marksmanship it increases the hazards. The airmen have to + trust implicitly to the fleetness of their craft and to their own nerve. + Bearing in mind the vulnerability of the average aeroplane, and the + general absence of protective armouring against rifle fire at almost + point-blank range, it shows the important part which the human element is + compelled to play in bomb-dropping operations. + </p> + <p> + Another missile which has been introduced by the French airmen, and which + is extremely deadly when hurled against dense masses of men, is the steel + arrow, or "flechette" as it is called. It is a fiendish projectile + consisting in reality of a pencil of solid polished steel, 4 3/4 inches in + length. The lower end has a sharp tapering point, 5/8ths of an inch in + length. For a distance of 1 1/8th of an inch above this point the + cylindrical form of the pencil is preserved, but for the succeeding three + inches to the upper end, the pencil is provided with four equally spaced + angle flanges or vanes. This flanging of the upper end or tail ensures the + arrow spinning rapidly as it falls through the air, and at the same times + preserves its vertical position during its descent. The weight of the + arrow is two-thirds of an ounce. + </p> + <p> + The method of launching this fearsome projectile is ingenious. A hundred + or even more are packed in a vertical position in a special receptacle, + placed upon the floor of the aeroplane, preferably near the foot of the + pilot or observer. This receptacle is fitted with a bottom moving in the + manner of a trap-door, and is opened by pressing a lever. The aviator has + merely to depress this pedal with his foot, when the box is opened and the + whole of the contents are released. The fall at first is somewhat erratic, + but this is an advantage, as it enables the darts to scatter and to cover + a wide area. As the rotary motion of the arrows increases during the fall, + the direct line of flight becomes more pronounced until at last they + assume a vertical direction free from all wobbling, so that when they + alight upon the target they are quite plumb. + </p> + <p> + When launched from a height they strike the objective with terrific force, + and will readily penetrate a soldier's helmet and skull. Indeed, when + released at a height of 4,000 feet they have been known to pierce a + mounted soldier's head, and pass vertically through his body and that of + his horse also. Time after time German soldiers have found themselves + pinned to the ground through the arrow striking and penetrating their + feet. Owing to the extremely light weight of the darts they can be + launched in batches of hundreds at a time, and in a promiscuous manner + when the objective is a massed body of infantry or cavalry, or a transport + convoy. They are extremely effective when thrown among horses even from a + comparatively low altitude, not so much from the fatalities they produce, + as from the fact that they precipitate a stampede among the animals, which + is generally sufficiently serious and frantic to throw cavalry or a + transport-train into wild confusion. + </p> + <p> + Although aerial craft, when skilfully handled, have proved highly + successful as weapons of offence, the possibilities of such aggression as + yet are scarcely realised; aerial tactics are in their infancy. + Developments are moving rapidly. Great efforts are being centred upon the + evolution of more formidable missiles to be launched from the clouds. The + airman is destined to inspire far greater awe than at present, to exercise + a still more demoralising influence, and to work infinitely more + destruction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. ARMOURED AEROPLANES + </h2> + <p> + The stern test of war has served to reveal conclusively the fact that + aerial craft can be put out of action readily and effectively, when once + the marksman has picked up the range, whether the gunner be conducting his + operations with an anti-aircraft gun stationed upon the ground, or from a + hostile machine. It will be remembered that Flight-Commander Briggs, on + the occasion of the daring British raid upon the Zeppelin sheds at + Friedrichshafen, was brought to the ground by a bullet which penetrated + his fuel tank. Several other vessels, British, German, French, and Russian + alike, have been thrown out of action in a similar manner, and invariably + the craft which has been disabled suddenly in this way has fallen + precipitately to earth in the fatal headlong dive. + </p> + <p> + Previous to the outbreak of hostilities there was considerable divergence + of opinion upon this subject. The general opinion was that the outspread + wings and the stays which constituted the weakest parts of the structure + were most susceptible to gun-fire, and thus were likely to fail. But + practice has proved that it is the driving mechanism which is the most + vulnerable part of the aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + This vulnerability of the essential feature of the flying machine is a + decisive weakness, and exposes the aviator to a constant menace. It may be + quite true that less than one bullet in a thousand may hit the machine, + but when the lucky missile does find its billet its effect is complete. + The fact must not be overlooked that the gunners who work the batteries of + anti-aircraft guns are becoming more and more expert as a result of + practice, so that as time progresses and improved guns for such duty are + rendered available, the work of the aviator is likely to become more + dangerous and difficult. Experience has proved that the high velocity gun + of to-day is able to hurl its projectile or shell to an extreme height—far + greater than was previously considered possible—so that considerable + discretion has to be exercised by the airman, who literally bears his life + in his hands. + </p> + <p> + Although elaborate trials were carried out upon the testing ranges with + the weapons devised especially for firing upon flying machines, captive + balloons being employed as targets, the data thus obtained were neither + conclusive nor illuminating. The actual experiences of airmen have given + us some very instructive facts upon this point for the first time. + </p> + <p> + It was formerly held that the zone of fire that is to be considered as a + serious danger was within a height of about 4,500 feet. But this estimate + was well within the mark. Airmen have found that the modern projectiles + devised for this phase of operations are able to inflict distinctly + serious damage at an altitude of 9,000 feet. The shell itself may have but + little of its imparted velocity remaining at this altitude, but it must be + remembered that when the missile bursts, the contents thereof are given an + independent velocity, and a wide cone of dispersion, which is quite + sufficient to achieve the desired end, inasmuch as the mechanism of the + modern aeroplane and dirigible is somewhat delicate. + </p> + <p> + It was for this reason that the possibility of armouring the airship was + discussed seriously, and many interesting experiments in this field were + carried out. At the same time it was decided that the armouring should be + effected upon lines analogous to that prevailing in warship engineering. + The craft should not only be provided with defensive but also with + aggressive armament. This decision was not viewed with general + approbation. It was pointed out that questions of weight would arise, + especially in relation to the speed of the machine. Increased weight, + unless it were accompanied by a proportionate augmentation of power in the + motor, would react against the efficiency and utility of the machine, + would appreciably reduce its speed, and would affect its climbing powers + very adversely. In some quarters it was maintained that as a result the + machine would even prove unsuited to military operations, inasmuch as high + speed is the primary factor in these. + </p> + <p> + Consequently it was decided by the foremost aviating experts that machines + would have to be classified and allotted to particular spheres of work, + just as warships are built in accordance with the special duty which they + are expected to perform. In reconnaissance, speed is imperative, because + such work in the air coincides with that of the torpedo-boat or scout upon + the seas. It is designed to acquire information respecting the movements + of the enemy, so as to assist the heavier arms in the plan of campaign. On + the other hand, the fighting corsair of the skies might be likened to the + cruiser or battleship. It need not possess such a high turn of speed, but + must be equipped with hard-hitting powers and be protected against + attacking fire. + </p> + <p> + One attempt to secure the adequate protection against gun-fire from the + ground assumed the installation of bullet-proof steel plating, about one + fifth of an inch thick, below the tank and the motor respectively. The + disposition of the plating was such as to offer the minimum of resistance + to the air and yet to present a plane surface to the ground below. So far + as it went this protection was completely effective, but it failed to + armour the vital parts against lateral, cross and downward fire while + aloft. As the latter is more to be feared than the fire from the ground, + seeing that it may be directed at point blank range, this was a decided + defect and the armour was subsequently abandoned as useless. + </p> + <p> + The only effective method of achieving the desired end is to armour the + whole of the carriage or fuselage of the adroplane, and this was the + principle adopted by the Vickers Company. The Vickers military aeroplane + is essentially a military machine. It is built of steel throughout. The + skeleton of the machine is formed of an alloy which combines the qualities + of aluminium and steel to ensure toughness, strength, and lightness. In + fact, metal is employed liberally throughout, except in connection with + the wings, which follow the usual lines of construction. The body of the + car is sheathed with steel plating which is bullet proof against rifle or + even shrapnel fire. The car is designed to carry two persons; the seats + are therefore disposed tandem-wise, with the observer or gunner occupying + the front seat. + </p> + <p> + The defensive armament is adequate for ordinary purposes. Being fitted + with a 100 horse-power motor, fairly high speeds are attainable, although + the velocity is not equal to that of machines constructed upon + conventional lines, inasmuch as there is an appreciable increase in + weight. + </p> + <p> + The car is short and designed upon excellent stream lines, so that the + minimum of resistance to the air is offered, while at the same time the + balancing is perfect. The sides of the car are brought up high enough to + protect the aviators, only their heads being visible when they are seated. + The prow of the car follows the lines generally adopted in high speed + torpedo boat design; there is a sharp knife edge stem with an enclosed + fo'c's'le, the latter housing the gun. + </p> + <p> + Another craft, designed for scouting operations, may be likened to the + mosquito craft of the seas. This machine, while a biplane like the + military aeroplane, is of lighter construction, everything being + sacrificed to speed in this instance. It is fitted with a 100 horse-power + motor and is designed to carry an observer if required. There is no + offensive armament, however. The fuel tank capacity, moreover, is limited, + being only sufficient for a two or three hours' flight. While this is + adequate for general reconnoitring, which for the most part entails short + high speed flights, there are occasions when the Staff demands more + prolonged observations conducted over a greater radius. This requisition + can be met by eliminating the observer, whose duties in this instance must + be assumed by the pilot, and substituting in place of the former, a second + fuel tank of sufficient capacity for a flight of four or five hours, + thereby bringing the term of action in the air to about 6 1/4 hours. This + machine travels at a very high speed and is eminently adapted to its + specific duty, but it is of limited service for general purposes. + </p> + <p> + The arming of an aeroplane, to enable it to defend itself against hostile + attack or to participate in raiding operations upon the aerial fleet of + the enemy, appears to be a simple task, but as a matter of fact it is an + undertaking beset with difficulties innumerable. This is especially the + case where the aeroplane is of the tractive type, that is to say where the + propellers are placed in the forefront of the machine and in their + revolution serve to draw the machine forward. All other considerations + must necessarily be sacrificed to the mounting of the propeller. + Consequently it is by no means easy to allot a position for the + installation of a gun, or if such should be found there is grave risk of + the angle of fire being severely restricted. In fact, in many instances + the mounting of a gun is out of the question: it becomes a greater menace + to the machine than to the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The French aeronautical section of the military department devoted + considerable study to this subject, but found the problem almost + insurmount able. Monsieur Loiseau met with the greatest measure of + success, and his system is being practised in the present campaign. This + principle is essentially adapted to tractor aeroplanes. Forward of the + pilot a special position is reserved for the gunner. A special mounting is + provided towards the prow, and upon the upper face of the body of the + machine. The gun mounting is disposed in such a manner that it is able to + command a wide arc of fire in the vertical plane over the nose of the + machine and more particularly in the downward direction. + </p> + <p> + The marksman is provided with a special seat, but when he comes into + action he has to stand to manipulate his weapon. The lower part of his + body is protected by a front shield of steel plate, a fifth of an inch in + thickness, while a light railing extending upon either side and behind + enables the gunner to maintain his position when the aeroplane is banking + and climbing. The machine gun, of the Hotchkiss type, is mounted upon a + swivel attached to a tripod, while the latter is built into the bracing of + the car, so as to ensure a fairly steady gun platform. + </p> + <p> + While the gun in the hands of a trained marksman may be manipulated with + destructive effect, the drawbacks to the arrangement are obvious. The + gunner occupies a very exposed position, and, although the bullet-proof + shield serves to break the effects of wind when travelling at high speed + which renders the sighting and training of the weapon extremely difficult, + yet he offers a conspicuous target, more particularly when the enemy is + able to assume the upper position in the air as a result of superior speed + in travelling. The gun, however, may be elevated to about 60 degrees, + which elevation may be accentuated by the inclination of the aeroplane + when climbing, while the facility with which the weapon may be moved + through the horizontal plane is distinctly favourable. + </p> + <p> + But the aerial marksman suffers from one very pronounced defect: he has a + severely restricted survey of everything below, since his vision is + interrupted by the planes. The result is that an enemy who has lost + ascendancy of position is comparatively safe if he is able to fly + immediately below his adversary: the mitrailleuse of the latter cannot be + trained upon him. On the other hand the enemy, if equipped with repeating + rifles or automatic pistols, is able to inflict appreciable damage upon + the craft overhead, the difficulties of firing vertically into the air + notwithstanding. + </p> + <p> + In the Vickers system, where the propeller is mounted behind the car, the + aeroplane thus operating upon the pusher principle, the nose of the car is + occupied by the arm, which is a rifle calibre machine gun fitted upon a + special mounting. The prow is provided with an embrasure for the weapon + and the latter is so installed as to command an angle of 30 degrees on all + sides of the longitudinal axis of the machine when in flight. In this + instance the marksman is provided with complete protection on all sides, + inasmuch as his position is in the prow, where the hood of the fo'c's'le + shields him from overhead attack. The gun is protected by a special shield + which moves with the gun barrel. This shield is provided with mica + windows, through which the gunner is able to sight his arm, so that he is + not inconvenienced in any way by the wind draught. + </p> + <p> + One shortcoming of such methods of arming an aeroplane will be observed. + Ahead firing only is possible; the weapon cannot be trained astern, while + similarly the line of fire on either broadside is severely limited. This + is one reason why the machine-gun armament of aerial craft of the + heavier-than-air type has not undergone extensive development. In many + instances the pilot and observer have expressed their preference for + repeating high velocity rifles over any form of fixed gun mounting, and + have recourse to the latter only when the conditions are extremely + favourable to its effective employment. + </p> + <p> + Efforts are now being made to equip the military type of aeroplane with + both forward and astern firing guns. The urgency of astern fire has been + brought home very vividly. Suppose, for instance, two hostile aeroplanes, + A and B, are in the air. A has the advantage at first, but B is speedier + and rapidly overhauls A. During the whole period of the overhauling + movement the gun of B can be directed upon A, while the latter, owing to + the arc of training being limited to c d cannot reply. Obviously in the + running fight it would be to the advantage of B, although the fleeter + machine, to keep behind A (position 1), but the latter is making towards + its own lines. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances A must be headed off, so B crowds on speed to + consummate this end. But in the overtaking process B renders his gun-fire + ineffective, inasmuch as B passes beyond the arc of his gun which is + represented by e f. But in so doing B comes within the firing arc of A + (position 9). To minimise this danger B ascends to a higher level to + obtain the paramount position. + </p> + <p> + If, however, B were equipped with an astern gun the aeroplane A would be + within the fire of B when the forward gun of the latter could not be used. + Similarly if A were also fitted with an astern gun it would be able to + attack its pursuer the whole time B was to its rear and in this event, if + its gun-fire were superior, it would be able to keep the latter to a safe + distance, or compel B to manoeuvre into a superior position, which would + entail a certain loss of time. + </p> + <p> + An astern firing gun would be valuable to B in another sense. Directly it + had passed A or brought the latter within the zone of its astern gun it + could maintain its fire at the most advantageous range, because owing to + its speed it would be able to dictate the distance over which shots should + be exchanged and if mounted with a superior weapon would be able to keep + beyond the range of A's guns while at the same time it would keep A within + range of its own gun and consequently rake the latter. In the interests of + self-preservation A would be compelled to change its course; in fact, B + would be able to drive it in any direction he desired, as he would command + A's movements by gun-fire. + </p> + <p> + The value of combined ahead and astern firing has been appreciated, but + there is one difficulty which at the moment appears to be insuperable the + clearance of the propeller. At the moment astern-firing, if such it may be + called, is maintained by repeating rifles, but this armament is not to be + compared with machine-gun firing, as the latter with its capacity to pour + 400 to 600 shots a minute, is far more deadly, particularly when the + weapon is manipulated by a crack gunner. + </p> + <p> + Up to the present the offensive armament of aeroplanes has been confined + to light machine guns such as the Hotchkiss, Berthier, Schwartlose, and + Maxim weapons. So far as the arming of aeroplanes is concerned the + indispensable condition is light weight. With airships this factor is not + so vital, the result being that some dirigibles are mounted with guns, + throwing one pound bursting shells, fitted either with delay action or + percussion fuses, the former for preference. These shells are given a wide + cone of dispersion. Experiments are also being made with a gun similar to + the pom-pom which proved so useful in South Africa, the gun throwing small + shells varying from four to eight ounces in weight at high velocity and in + rapid succession. While such missiles would not be likely to inflict + appreciable damage upon an armoured aeroplane, they would nevertheless be + disconcerting to the aviators subjected to such fire, and in aerial + combats the successful undermining of the adversary's moral is of far + greater importance than in land operations, since immediately ascendancy + in the artillery operations is attained the final issue is a matter of + moments. + </p> + <p> + But the most devastating arm which has yet been contrived for aerial + operations is the light machine gun which has recently been perfected. The + one objective with this weapon is to disable the hostile aircraft's + machinery. It fires an armour piercing projectile which, striking the + motor of any aircraft, would instantly put the latter out of action. The + shell has a diameter of about.75 inch and weighs about four ounces. The + gun is a hybrid of the mitrailleuse and the French "Soixante-quinze," + combining the firing rapidity of the former with the recoil mechanism of + the latter. This missile has established its ability to penetrate the + defensive armouring of any aeroplane and the motor of the machine at 1,000 + yards' range. This offensive arm is now being manufactured, so that it is + likely to be seen in the near future as the main armament of aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + At the moment widespread efforts are being made in the direction of + increasing the offensive efficiency of aircraft. It is one of the phases + of ingenuity which has been stimulated into activity as a result of the + war. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. BATTLES IN THE AIR + </h2> + <p> + Ever since the days of Jules Verne no theme has proved so popular in + fiction as fighting in the air. It was a subject which lent itself to + vivid imagination and spirited picturesque portrayal. Discussion might be + provoked, but it inevitably proved abortive, inasmuch as there was a + complete absence of data based upon actual experience. The novelist was + without any theory: he avowedly depended upon the brilliance of his + imagination. The critic could only theorise, and no matter how dogmatic + his reasonings, they were certainly as unconvincing as those of the object + of his attack. + </p> + <p> + But truth has proved stranger than fiction. The imaginative pictures of + the novelist have not only been fulfilled but surpassed, while the + theorising critic has been utterly confounded. Fighting in the air has + become so inseparable from the military operations of to-day that it + occurs with startling frequency. A contest between hostile aeroplanes, + hundreds of feet above the earth, is no longer regarded as a dramatic, + thrilling spectacle: it has become as matter-of-fact as a bayonet melee + between opposed forces of infantry. + </p> + <p> + A duel in the clouds differs from any other form of encounter. It is + fought mercilessly: there can be no question of quarter or surrender. The + white flag is no protection, for the simple reason that science and + mechanical ingenuity have failed, so far, to devise a means of taking an + aeroplane in tow. The victor has no possible method of forcing the + vanquished to the ground in his own territory except driving. If such a + move be made there is the risk that the latter will take the advantage of + a critical opportunity to effect his escape, or to turn the tables. For + these reasons the fight is fought to a conclusive finish. + </p> + <p> + To aspire to success in these combats waged in the trackless blue, speed, + initiative, and daring are essential. Success falls to the swift in every + instance. An aeroplane travelling at a high speed, and pursuing an + undulating or irregular trajectory is almost impossible to hit from the + ground, as sighting is so extremely difficult. Sighting from another + machine, which likewise is travelling rapidly, and pursuing an irregular + path, is far more so. Unless the attacker can approach relatively closely + to his enemy the possibility of hitting him is extremely remote. Rifle or + gun-fire must be absolutely point blank. + </p> + <p> + When a marauding aeroplane is espied the attacking corsair immediately + struggles for the strategical position, which is above his adversary. To + fire upwards from one aeroplane at another is virtually impossible, at + least with any degree of accuracy. The marksman is at a hopeless + disadvantage. If the pilot be unaccompanied and entirely dependent upon + his own resources he cannot hope to fire vertically above him, for the + simple reason that in so doing he must relinquish control of his machine. + A rifle cannot possibly be sighted under such conditions, inasmuch as it + demands that the rifleman shall lean back so as to obtain control of his + weapon and to bring it to bear upon his objective. Even if a long range + Mauser or other automatic pistol of the latest type be employed, two hands + are necessary for firing purposes, more particularly as, under such + conditions, the machine, if not kept under control, is apt to lurch and + pitch disconcertingly. + </p> + <p> + Even a colleague carried for the express purpose of aggression is + handicapped. If he has a machinegun, such as a Maxim or a mitrailleuse, it + is almost out of the question to train it vertically. Its useful vertical + training arc is probably limited to about 80 degrees, and at this + elevation the gunner has to assume an extremely uncomfortable position, + especially upon an aeroplane, where, under the best of circumstances, he + is somewhat cramped. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand the man in the aeroplane above holds the dominating + position. He is immediately above his adversary and firing may be carried + out with facility. The conditions are wholly in his favour. Sighting and + firing downwards, even if absolutely vertically, imposes the minimum + physical effort, with the result that the marksman is able to bring a + steadier aim upon his adversary. Even if the machine be carrying only the + pilot, the latter is able to fire upon his enemy without necessarily + releasing control of his motor, even for a moment. + </p> + <p> + If he is a skilled sharpshooter, and the exigencies demand, he can level, + sight, and fire his weapon with one hand, while under such circumstances + an automatic self-loading pistol can be trained upon the objective with + the greatest ease. If the warplane be carrying a second person, acting as + a gunner, the latter can maintain an effective rifle fusillade, and, at + the same time, manipulate his machine-gun with no great effort, + maintaining rifle fire until the pilot, by manoeuvring, can enable the + mitrailleuse or Maxim to be used to the greatest advantage. + </p> + <p> + Hence the wonderful display of tactical operations when two hostile + aeroplanes sight one another. The hunted at first endeavours to learn the + turn of speed which his antagonist commands. If the latter is inferior, + the pursued can either profit from his advantage and race away to safety, + or at once begin to manoeuvre for position. If he is made of stern stuff, + he attempts the latter feat without delay. The pursuer, if he realises + that he is out classed in pace, divines that his quarry will start + climbing if he intends to show fight, so he begins to climb also. + </p> + <p> + Now success in this tactical move will accrue to the machine which + possesses the finest climbing powers, and here again, of course, speed is + certain to count. But, on the other hand, the prowess of the aviator—the + human element once more—must not be ignored. The war has + demonstrated very convincingly that the personal quality of the aviator + often becomes the decisive factor. + </p> + <p> + A spirited contest in the air is one of the grimmest and most thrilling + spectacles possible to conceive, and it displays the skill of the aviator + in a striking manner. Daring sweeps, startling wheels, breathless + vol-planes, and remarkable climbs are carried out. One wonders how the + machine can possibly withstand the racking strains to which it is + subjected. The average aeroplane demands space in which to describe a + turn, and the wheel has to be manipulated carefully and dexterously, an + operation requiring considerable judgment on the part of the helmsman. + </p> + <p> + But in an aerial duel discretion is flung to the winds. The pilot jambs + his helm over in his keen struggle to gain the superior position, causing + the machine to groan and almost to heel over. The stem stresses of war + have served to reveal the perfection of the modern aeroplane together with + the remarkable strength of its construction. In one or two instances, when + a victor has come to earth, subsequent examination has revealed the + enormous strains to which the aeroplane has been subjected. The machine + has been distorted; wires have been broken—wires which have + succumbed to the enormous stresses which have been imposed and have not + been snapped by rifle fire. One well-known British airman, who was + formerly a daring automobilist, confided to me that a fight in the air "is + the finest reliability trial for an aeroplane that was ever devised!" + </p> + <p> + In these desperate struggles for aerial supremacy the one party endeavours + to bring his opponent well within the point-blank range of his armament: + the other on his part strives just as valiantly to keep well out of reach. + The latter knows fully well that his opponent is at a serious disadvantage + when beyond point-blank range, for the simple reason that in sighting the + rifle or automatic pistol, it is difficult, if not impossible while aloft, + to judge distances accurately, and to make the correct allowances for + windage. + </p> + <p> + If, however, the dominating aviator is armed with a machine gun he + occupies the superior position, because he can pour a steady hail of lead + upon his enemy. The employment of such a weapon when the contest is being + waged over friendly territory has many drawbacks. Damage is likely to be + inflicted among innocent observers on the earth below; the airman is + likely to bombard his friends. For this very reason promiscuous firing, in + the hope of a lucky shot finding a billet in the hostile machine, is not + practised. Both parties appear to reserve their fire until they have drawn + within what may be described as fighting distance, otherwise point blank + range, which may be anything up to 300 yards. + </p> + <p> + Some of the battles between the German and the French or British + aeroplanes have been waged with a total disregard of the consequences. + Both realise that one or the other must perish, and each is equally + determined to triumph. It is doubtful whether the animosity between the + opposing forces is manifested anywhere so acutely as in the air. In some + instances the combat has commenced at 300 feet or so above the earth, and + has been fought so desperately, the machines climbing and endeavouring to + outmanoeuvre each other, that an altitude of over 5,000 feet has been + attained before they have come to close grips. + </p> + <p> + The French aviator is nimble, and impetuous: the German aviator is daring, + but slow in thought: the British airman is a master of strategy, quick in + thought, and prepared to risk anything to achieve his end. The German + airman is sent aloft to reconnoitre the enemy and to communicate his + information to his headquarters. That is his assigned duty and he performs + it mechanically, declining to fight, as the welfare of his colleagues + below is considered to be of more vital importance than his personal + superiority in an aerial contest. But if he is cornered he fights with a + terrible and fatalistic desperation. + </p> + <p> + The bravery of the German airmen is appreciated by the Allies. The French + flying-man, with his traditional love for individual combat, seeks and + keenly enjoys a duel. The British airman regards such a contest as a mere + incident in the round of duty, but willingly accepts the challenge when it + is offered. It is this manifestation of what may be described as + acquiescence in any development that enabled the British flying corps, + although numerically inferior, to gain its mastery of the air so + unostentatiously and yet so completely. + </p> + <p> + All things considered an aeroplane duel is regarded as a fairly equal + combat. But what of a duel between an aeroplane and a dirigible? Which + holds the advantage? This question has not been settled, at any rate + conclusively, but it is generally conceded that up to a certain point the + dirigible is superior. It certainly offers a huge and attractive target, + but rifle fire at its prominent gas-bag is not going to cause much havoc. + The punctures of the envelope may represent so many vents through which + the gas within may effect a gradual escape, but considerable time must + elapse before the effect of such a bombardment becomes pronounced in its + result, unless the gas-bag is absolutely riddled with machine gun-fire, + when descent must be accelerated. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, it is to be presumed that the dirigible is armed. In + this event it has a distinct advantage. It has a steady gun-platform + enabling the weapons of offence to be trained more easily and an enhanced + accuracy of fire to be obtained. In order to achieve success it is + practically imperative that an aeroplane should obtain a position above + the dirigible, but the latter can ascend in a much shorter space of time, + because its ascent is vertical, whereas the aeroplane must describe a + spiral in climbing. Under these circumstances it is relatively easy for + the airship to outmanoeuvre the aeroplane in the vertical plane, and to + hold the dominating position. + </p> + <p> + But even should the aeroplane obtain the upper position it is not regarded + with fear. Some of the latest Zeppelins have a machine gun mounted upon + the upper surface of the envelope, which can be trained through 360 + degrees and elevated to about 80 degrees vertical. Owing to the steady gun + platform offered it holds command in gun-fire, so that the aeroplane, + unless the aviator is exceptionally daring, will not venture within the + range of the dirigible. It is stated, however, that this upper gun has + proved unsatisfactory, owing to the stresses and strains imposed upon the + framework of the envelope of the Zeppelin during firing, and it has + apparently been abandoned. The position, however, is still available for a + sniper or sharpshooter. + </p> + <p> + The position in the sky between two such combatants is closely analogous + to that of a torpedo boat and a Dreadnought. The latter, so long as it can + keep the former at arm's, or rather gun's, distance is perfectly safe. The + torpedo boat can only aspire to harass its enemy by buzzing around, hoping + that a lucky opportunity will develop to enable it to rush in and to + launch its torpedo. It is the same with the aeroplane when arrayed against + a Zeppelin. It is the mosquito craft of the air. + </p> + <p> + How then can a heavier-than-air machine triumph over the unwieldy + lighter-than-air antagonist? Two solutions are available. If it can get + above the dirigible the adroplane may bring about the dirigible's + destruction by the successful launch of a bomb. The detonation of the + latter would fire the hydrogen within the gas-bag or bags, in which event + the airship would fall to earth a tangled wreck. Even if the airship were + inflated with a non-inflammable gas—the Germans claim that their + Zeppelins now are so inflated—the damage wrought by the bomb would + be so severe as to destroy the airship's buoyancy, and it would be forced + to the ground. + </p> + <p> + The alternative is very much more desperate. It involves ramming the + dirigible. This is undoubtedly possible owing to the speed and facile + control of the aeroplane, but whether the operation would be successful + remains to be proved. The aeroplane would be faced with such a + concentrated hostile fire as to menace its own existence—its forward + rush would be frustrated by the dirigible just as a naval vessel parries + the ramming tactics of an enemy by sinking the latter before she reaches + her target, while if it did crash into the hull of the dirigible, tearing + it to shreds, firing its gas, or destroying its equilibrium, both + protagonists would perish in the fatal dive to earth. For this reason + ramming in mid-air is not likely to be essayed except when the situation + is desperate. + </p> + <p> + What happens when two aeroplanes meet in dire combat in mid-air and one is + vanquished? Does the unfortunate vessel drop to earth like a stone, or + does it descend steadily and reach the ground uninjured? So far as actual + experience has proved, either one of the foregoing contingencies may + happen. In one such duel the German aeroplane was observed to start + suddenly upon a vol-plane to the ground. Its descending flight carried it + beyond the lines of the Allies into the territory of its friends. Both + came to the conclusion that the aviator had effected his escape. But + subsequent investigation revealed the fact that a lucky bullet from the + Allies' aeroplane had lodged in the brain of the German pilot, killing him + instantly. At the moment when Death over took him the aviator had set his + plane for the descent to the ground, and the machine came to earth in the + manner of a glider. + </p> + <p> + But in other instances the descent has been far more tragic. The + aeroplane, deprived of its motive power, has taken the deadly headlong + dive to earth. It has struck the ground with terrific violence, burying + its nose in the soil, showing incidentally that a flying machine is an + indifferent plough, and has shattered itself, the debris soaked with the + escaping fuel becoming ignited. In any event, after such a fall the + machine is certain to be a wreck. The motor may escape damage, in which + event it is salvaged, the machine subsequently being purposely sacrificed + to the flames, thereby rendering it no longer available to the enemy even + if captured. In many instances the hostile fire has smashed some of the + stays and wires, causing the aeroplane to lose its equilibrium, and + sending it to earth in the manner of the proverbial stone, the aviators + either being dashed to pieces or burned to death. + </p> + <p> + What are the vulnerable parts of the aeroplane? While the deliberate + intention of either combatant is to put his antagonist hors de combat, the + disablement of the machine may be achieved without necessarily killing or + even seriously wounding the hostile airman. The prevailing type of + aeroplane is highly susceptible to derangement: it is like a ship without + armour plate protection. The objective of the antagonist is the motor or + the fuel-tank, the vital parts of the machine, as much as the aviator + seated within. + </p> + <p> + A well-planted shot, which upsets the mechanism of the engine, or a + missile which perforates the fuel tank, thereby depriving the motor of its + sustenance, will ensure victory as conclusively as the death of the + aviator himself. Rifle fire can achieve either of these ends with little + difficulty. Apart from these two nerve-centres, bombardment is not likely + to effect the desired disablement, inasmuch as it cannot be rendered + completely effective. The wings may be riddled like a sieve, but the + equilibrium of the machine is not seriously imperilled thereby. Even many + of the stays may be shot away, but bearing in mind the slender objective + they offer, their destruction is likely to be due more to luck than + judgment. On the other hand, the motor and fuel tank of the conventional + machine offer attractive targets: both may be put out of action readily, + and the disablement of the motive power of an enemy's craft, be it + torpedo-boat, battleship, or aeroplane, immediately places the same at the + assailant's mercy. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, of course, the disablement of the airman brings about the + desired end very effectively. It deprives the driving force of its + controlling hand; The aeroplane becomes like a ship without a rudder: a + vessel whose helmsman has been shot down. It is unmanageable, and likely + to become the sport of the element in which it moves. It is for this + reason that aviators have been urged to direct their fire upon the men and + mechanism of a dirigible in the effort to put it out of action. An + uncontrolled airship is more likely to meet with its doom than an + aeroplane. The latter will inevitably glide to earth, possibly damaging + itself seriously in the process, as events in the war have demonstrated, + but a helpless airship at once becomes the sport of the wind, and anyone + who has assisted, like myself, in the descent of a vessel charged with gas + and floating in the air, can appreciate the difficulties experienced in + landing. An uncontrolled Zeppelin, for instance, would inevitably pile up + in a tangled twisted ruin if forced to descend in the manner of an + ordinary balloon. Consequently the pilot of a dirigible realises to the + full the imperative urgency of keeping beyond the point-blank fire of + aerial mosquito craft. + </p> + <p> + The assiduity with which British aviators are prepared to swarm to the + attack has been responsible for a display of commendable ingenuity on the + part of the German airman. Nature has provided some of its creatures, such + as the octopus, for instance, with the ways and means of baffling its + pursuers. It emits dense clouds of inky fluid when disturbed, and is able + to effect its escape under cover of this screen. + </p> + <p> + The German aviator has emulated the octopus. He carries not only explosive + bombs but smoke balls as well. When he is pursued and he finds himself in + danger of being overtaken, the Teuton aviator ignites these missiles and + throws them overboard. The aeroplane becomes enveloped in a cloud of thick + impenetrable smoke. It is useless to fire haphazard at the cloud, inasmuch + as it does not necessarily cover the aviator. He probably has dashed out + of the cloud in such a way as to put the screen between himself and his + pursuer. + </p> + <p> + In such tactics he has merely profited by a method which is practised + freely upon the water. The torpedo boat flotilla when in danger of being + overwhelmed by superior forces will throw off copious clouds of smoke. + Under this cover it is able to steal away, trusting to the speed of the + craft to carry them well beyond gunshot. The "smoke screen," as it is + called, is an accepted and extensively practised ruse in naval strategy, + and is now adopted by its mosquito colleagues of the air. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. TRICKS AND RUSES TO BAFFLE THE AIRMAN + </h2> + <p> + The airman has not been allowed to hold his undisputed sway in military + operations for long. Desperate situations demand drastic remedies and + already considerable and illuminating ingenuity is being displayed to + baffle and mislead the scout of the skies. + </p> + <p> + It is a somewhat curious and noteworthy fact, that the Germans were among + the first to realise the scope of the airman's activities, and the + significance of their relation to the conveyance of intimate information + and the direction of artillery fire. Consequently, they now spare no + effort to convey illusory information, in the hope that the hostile force + may ultimately make a false move which may culminate in disaster. + </p> + <p> + Thus, for instance, as much endeavour is bestowed upon the fashioning of + dummy trenches as upon the preparation of the actual lines of defence. And + every care will be taken to indicate that the former are strongly held. + The dug-outs are complete and at places are apparently cunningly masked. + If the airman is flying swiftly, he is likely to fail to distinguish the + dummy from the real trenches. To him the defences appear to be far more + elaborate and more strongly held than is the actual case. + </p> + <p> + The advantage of this delusion is obvious when a retreat is being made. It + enables the enemy to withdraw his forces deliberately and in perfect + order, and to assume another and stronger position comparatively at + leisure. The difficulty of detecting the dummies is emphasised, inasmuch + as now, whenever the sound of an aeroplane is heard, or a glimpse thereof + is obtained, the men keep well down and out of sight. Not a sign of + movement is observable. For all the airman may know to the contrary, the + trenches may be completely empty, whereas, as a matter of fact, they are + throbbing with alert infantry, anxious for a struggle with the enemy. + </p> + <p> + This is one instance where the dirigible is superior to the aeroplane. The + latter can only keep circling round and round over the suspicious + position; the movement through the air interferes with close continuous + observation. On the other hand, the dirigible can maintain a stationary + position aloft for hours on end. Then the issue is resolved into a contest + of patience, with the advantage to the airman. The soldiers in the + trenches fret and fume under cover; confined concealment is irksome and is + a supreme test of the nerves. Unless the soldiers are made of very stern + stuff, physical endurance succumbs. Some rash act—apparently very + trivial—may be committed; it suffices for the vigilant sentinel + overhead. He detects the slender sign of life, forms his own conclusions, + and returns to his headquarters with the intelligence that the enemy is + playing "Brer Rabbit." + </p> + <p> + It has also become increasingly difficult for the airman to gather + absolutely trustworthy data concerning the disposition and movement of + troops. Small columns are now strung out along the highways to convey the + impression that the moving troops are in far greater force than is + actually the case, while the main body is under the cover offered by a + friendly wood and is safe from detection. The rapidity with which + thousands of men are able to disappear when the word "Airman" is passed + round is astonishing. They vanish as completely and suddenly as if + swallowed by the earth or dissolved into thin air. They conceal themselves + under bushes, in ditches, lie prone under hedgerows, dart into houses and + outbuildings—in short, take every cover which is available, no + matter how slender it may seem, with baffling alacrity. The attenuated + column, however, is kept moving along the highway for the express purpose + of deceiving the airman. + </p> + <p> + Advancing troops also are now urged to move forward under the shelter of + trees, even if the task entails marching in single or double file, to + escape the prying eyes of the man above. By keeping close to the line of + trunks, thus taking full advantage of the overhanging branches, and + marching in such a manner as to create little dust, it is possible to + escape the aerial scout. + </p> + <p> + The concealment of cavalry, however, is somewhat difficult. An animal, + especially if he be unaccustomed to the noise of the aeroplane, is likely + to become startled, and to give vent to a frightened and vociferous + neighing which invariably provokes a hearty response from his equine + comrades. The sharp ear of the airman does not fail to distinguish this + sound above the music of his motor. Again, he has come to regard all + copses and stretches of undergrowth with suspicion. Such may or may not + harbour the enemy, but there is no risk in making an investigation. He + swoops down, and when a short distance above the apparently innocent + copse, circles round it two or three times. Still undecided, he finally + hurls a bomb. Its detonation invariably proves effective. The horses + stampede and the secret is out. Even foot soldiers must be severely + trained and experienced to resist the natural inclination to break cover + when such a missile is hurled into their midst. + </p> + <p> + Frequently a force, which has laboured under the impression that it is + safe from detection, has revealed its presence unwittingly and upon the + spur of the moment. If the men be steeled against the bomb attack, it is + almost impossible to resist the inclination to take a shot when the + airman, swooping down, ventures so temptingly near as to render him an + enticing target almost impossible to miss. As a rule, however, the + observer is on the alert for such a betrayal of a force's existence. When + the bomb fails to scatter the enemy, or the men are proof against the + temptation to fire a volley, a few rounds from the aeroplane's machine gun + often proves effective. If the copse indeed be empty no harm is done, + beyond the abortive expenditure of a few rounds of ammunition: if it be + occupied, the fruits of the manoeuvre are attractive. Cunning is matched + against cunning, and the struggle for supremacy in the art of craftiness + is keen. + </p> + <p> + The French Flying Corps have had recourse to an ingenious ruse for + accomplishing two ends—the one to draw concealed artillery fire, and + the other to pre-occupy the airmen. Two German aerial scouts observed a + French machine flying at a somewhat venturesome height over their masked + artillery. Divining the reason for the hostile intrepidity they gave + chase. Circling round the French machine they assailed it with machine-gun + fire. The enemy appeared to take no notice but continued his gradual + descent in a steady line. + </p> + <p> + Presently the German airmen, having drawn sufficiently near, observed that + the French aviator was inert. Had he been killed? Everything pointed to + such a conclusion, especially as they had raked the aeroplane fore and aft + with bullets. But still suspicious they continued their circling + movements, their attention so concentrated upon their quarry that they had + not observed another move. It was the crash of guns from their masked + artillery which broke in upon their absorption. Looking round, they + observed three French aeroplanes soaring around and above them at high + speed. Scarcely had they realised the situation before a spirited + mitraireuse fire was rained upon them. One of the German aeroplanes was + speedily disabled. Its fuel tank was riddled and it sank rapidly, finally + crashing to earth in the deadly dive head foremost, and killing both its + occupants in the fall. The second aeroplane hurried away with its pilot + wounded. In the excitement of the aerial melee the first French aeroplane + had been forgotten. It was now scarcely 100 feet above the German + artillery. A capture appeared to be imminent, but the Germans received a + rude surprise. Suddenly the aeroplane exploded and a hail of shrapnel + burst over the heads of the artillerymen. + </p> + <p> + The circumstance was decidedly uncanny, but after two or three such + experiences of exploding aeroplanes the matter was explained. The + apparently helpless aeroplane was merely a glider, which, instead of + carrying a man, had a booby-trap aboard. + </p> + <p> + It appears that the French airmen have found a use for the aeroplanes + which are considered unsafe for further use. The motor and propeller are + removed and the dummy of explosives is strapped into position. The laden + glider is then taken aloft by means of an airship, and in the concealment + of the clouds is released, the rudder being so set as to ensure a gradual + vol-plane towards the suspicious position below. The explosive cargo is + set with a time fuse, the arrangement being that the contents will be + detonated while the machine is near the ground, unless this end is + accelerated by a well-planted shell from an anti-aircraft gun. The decoy + glider is generally accompanied by one or two aeroplanes under control, + which keep under the cover of the clouds until the hostile aviators have + been drawn into the air, when they swoop down to the attack. The raiders + are fully aware that they are not likely to become the target of fire from + the ground, owing to the fact that the enemy's artillery might hit its + friends. Consequently the antagonistic airmen are left to settle their own + account. In the meantime the dummy machine draws nearer to the ground to + explode and to scatter its death-dealing fragments of steel, iron, and + bullets in all directions. + </p> + <p> + Possibly in no other phase of warfare is subterfuge practised so + extensively as in the concealment of guns. The branches of trees + constitute the most complete protection and guns are placed in position + beneath a liberal cover of this character. The branches also offer a + screen for the artillerymen, who can lurk beneath this shelter until the + aeroplane has passed. To complete the illusion dummy guns fashioned from + tree trunks and the wheels of useless limbers are rigged up, and partially + hidden under branches, the idea being to convey the impression to the man + aloft that they are the actual artillery. + </p> + <p> + The aerial scout observes the dummies beneath the sparse covering of + branches. Congratulating himself upon his sharp eyesight, he returns to + his base with the intelligence that he has found the enemy's guns he + indicates their position upon the map, and in some cases returns to notify + the position of the weapons by smoke-ball or tinsel, when they are + immediately subjected to a severe bombardment. He follows the shell-fire + and sees the arms put out of action. He returns to camp satisfied with his + exploit, oblivious of the smiles and laughter of the hostile artillerymen, + who have their guns safely in position and well masked some distance away. + The dummies are imperfectly concealed purposely, so that they may be + discovered by the aerial scout, while the real guns are completely masked + and ready to belch forth from another point. In one or two cases the + dummies have been rigged up in such a manner as to convey the impression, + when seen from aloft, that a whole battery has been put out of action, + barrels and wheels as well as broken limbers strewing the ground in all + directions. + </p> + <p> + Moving masses of soldiers are also resorting to cunning in order to + mislead the airman or to escape his observation. At the battle of Haelen, + during which engagement the German warplanes were exceptionally active, + the Belgian soldiers covered their heads with bundles of wheat snatched + from the standing stooks, and under this cover lurked in a field where the + corn was still standing. From aloft their forms defied detection: the + improvised headgear completely covered them and blended effectively with + the surrounding wheat. In another instance the French misled a German + airman somewhat effectively. What appeared to be cavalry was seen to be + retreating along the country road, and the airman returned hurriedly to + report. A German squadron was dispatched in hasty pursuit. But as it + rounded a copse skirting the road it received a murderous fire at close + quarters, which decimated the ranks and sent the survivors flying for + their lives along the road up which they had ridden so confidently. Had + the aviator been in a position to observe the horses more closely, he + would have found that what appeared to be riders on their backs were in + reality sacks stuffed with straw, dressed in old uniforms, and that a mere + handful of men were driving the animals forward. The cavalrymen had + purposely dismounted and secreted themselves in the wood in anticipation + of such a pursuit as was made. + </p> + <p> + While the Germans do not appear to be so enterprising in this form of + ingenuity they have not been idle. A French airman flying over the Teuton + lines observed the outermost trenches to be alive with men whose helmets + were distinctly visible. The airman reported his observations and the + trench was subjected to terrific shell fire. Subsequently the French made + a spirited charge, but to their dismay found that the outermost German + trench was occupied by dummies fashioned from all sorts of materials and + crowned with helmets! This ruse had enabled the German lines to be + withdrawn to another position in safety and comparatively at leisure. + </p> + <p> + Before war was declared the German military experts were emphasising the + importance of trees for masking troops and guns against aerial + observation. One of the foremost authorities upon military aviation only a + few months ago urged the German Military Staff to encourage the planting + of orchards, not for the purpose of benefiting agriculture or in the + interests of the farmers, but merely for military exigencies. + </p> + <p> + He pointed to the extensive orchards which exist in Alsace-Lorraine and + Baden, the military covering value of which he had determined from + personal experience, having conducted aerial operations while military + were moving to and fro under the cover of the trees. He declared that the + cover was efficient and that under the circumstances the laying out of + extensive orchards in strategical places should be carried out without any + delay. This, he urged, was a national and not a private obligation. He + advocated the bestowal of subsidies on the farmers to encourage the + planting of fruit trees. He suggested that the trees should be provided by + the State, and given to all who were prepared to plant them; that + substantial prizes should be awarded to encourage the rapid growth + thereof, and that annual prizes should be awarded to the man who would + undertake their cultivation and pruning, not from the fruit-yielding point + of view, but for facilitating the movement of troops beneath their dense + branches. + </p> + <p> + He even urged the military acquisition of suitable land and its + determined, skilful, and discreet exploitation by those who loved the + Fatherland. He emphasised the necessity for keeping such orchards under + military control, only vouchsafing sufficient powers to the local + authorities to ensure the desired consummation. He maintained that, if the + work were prosecuted upon the right lines and sufficient financial + assistance were given, the purpose in view could be achieved without + saddling the war department with any unremunerative or excessive burden. + He admitted that the process of raising fruit trees to the stage when they + would afford adequate cover would be tedious and somewhat prolonged, but + argued that the military advantages, such as enabling troops to move below + the welcome shelter with absolute freedom and without physical fatigue, + would be an ample compensation. + </p> + <p> + The utility of such cover to artillery was another factor he did not fail + to emphasise. He dwelt seriously upon the difficulty of rendering + permanent gun emplacements and heavy artillery invisible to the airman by + resort to the usual type of gun shields. The latter may be located with + ease by alert airmen, whereas if the guns were under cover of fruit trees + they would be able to accomplish their deadly mission without betraying + their presence to the aerial scout. Moreover, by pruning the trees in such + a manner as to ensure free movement beneath, the artillery would be able + to advance without betraying the fact to the enemy. + </p> + <p> + This authority vigorously insisted that the work should be carried out + without a moment's delay as it was vital to the Fatherland. In the light + of recent events, and the excellent cover which is offered by the orchards + of the territory he cited as an illustration of his contention, such a + disclosure is pregnant with meaning. It throws a new light upon the + thorough methods with which the Germans carried out their military + preparations, and incidentally shows that they were fully alive to every + possible development. Fruit-raising as a complement to military operations + may be a new line of discussion, but it serves to reveal the German in his + true light, ready for every contingency, and shows how thoroughly he + appreciates the danger from the man in the clouds. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS. MOBILE WEAPONS. + </h2> + <p> + When the airship and the aeroplane became accepted units of warfare it was + only natural that efforts should be concentrated upon the evolution of + ways and means to compass their destruction or, at least, to restrict + their field of activity. But aircraft appeared to have an immense + advantage in combat. They possess virtually unlimited space in which to + manoeuvre, and are able to select the elevation from which to hurl their + missiles of destruction. + </p> + <p> + There is another and even more important factor in their favour. A + projectile fired, or even dropped, from a height, say of 5,000 feet, is + favourably affected by the force of gravity, with the result that it + travels towards the earth with accumulating energy and strikes the ground + with decisive force. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, a missile discharged into space from a weapon on the + earth has to combat this action of gravity, which exercises a powerful + nullifying influence upon its flight and velocity, far in excess of the + mere resistance offered by the air. In other words, whereas the projectile + launched from aloft has the downward pull of the earth or gravitational + force in its favour, the shell fired from the ground in the reverse + direction has to contend against this downward pull and its decelerating + effect. + </p> + <p> + At the time when aircraft entered the realms of warfare very little was + known concerning the altitudes to which projectiles could be hurled + deliberately. Certain conclusive information upon this point was available + in connection with heavy howitzer fire, based on calculations of the + respective angles at which the projectile rose into the air and fell to + the ground, and of the time the missile took to complete its flight from + the gun to the objective. But howitzer fire against aircraft was a sheer + impossibility: it was like using a six-inch gun to kill a fly on a window + pane at a thousand yards' range. Some years ago certain experiments in + aerial firing with a rifle were undertaken in Switzerland. The weapon was + set vertically muzzle upwards and discharged. From the time which elapsed + between the issue of the bullet from the muzzle until it struck the earth + it was possible to make certain deductions, from which it was estimated + that the bullet reached an altitude of 600 feet or so. But this was merely + conjecture. + </p> + <p> + Consequently when artillerists entered upon the study of fighting + air-craft with small arms and light guns, they were compelled to struggle + in the dark to a very pronounced extent, and this darkness was never + satisfactorily dispelled until the present war, for the simple reason that + there were no means of getting conclusive information. The German armament + manufacturers endeavoured to solve the problem by using smoking shells or + missiles fitted with what are known as tracers. By following the + ascensional path of the projectiles as revealed by the smoke it was + possible to draw certain conclusions. But these were by no means + convincing or illuminating, as so many factors affected the issue. + </p> + <p> + Despite the peculiar and complex difficulties associated with the problem + it was attacked some what boldly. In this trying field of artillery + research the prominent German armament manufacturers, Krupp of Essen and + Ehrhardt of Dusseldorf, played a leading part, the result being that + before the airship or the aeroplane was received within the military fold, + the anti-aircraft gun had been brought into the field of applied science. + The sudden levelling-up serves to illustrate the enterprise of the Germans + in this respect as well as their perspicacity in connection with the + military value of aircraft. + </p> + <p> + Any gun we can hope to employ against aircraft with some degree of success + must fulfil special conditions, for it has to deal with a difficult and + elusive foe. Both the lighter-than-air and the heavier than-air craft + possess distinctive features and varying degrees of mobility. Taking the + first-named, the facility with which it can vary its altitude is a + disconcerting factor, and is perplexing to the most skilful gunner, + inasmuch as he is called upon to judge and change the range suddenly. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the artilleryman is favoured in certain directions. The + range of utility of the airship is severely limited. If its avowed mission + is reconnaissance and conclusive information concerning the disposition of + forces, artillery and so forth is required, experience has proved that + such work cannot be carried out satisfactorily or with any degree of + accuracy at a height exceeding 5,000 feet, and a distance beyond six + miles. But even under these circumstances the climatic conditions must be + extremely favourable. If the elements are unpropitious the airship must + venture nearer to its objective. These data were not difficult to collect, + inasmuch as they were more or less available from the results of military + observations with captive balloons, the conditions being somewhat similar. + With the ordinary captive balloon it has been found that, in clear + weather, a radius of about 3 3/4 miles at the maximum elevation + constitutes its range of reliable utility. + </p> + <p> + With the aeroplane, however, the conditions are very dissimilar. In the + first place the machine owing to its diminutive size as compared with the + airship, offers a small and inconspicuous target. Then there is its high + independent speed, which is far beyond that of the airship. Furthermore + its mobility is greater. It can wheel, turn sharply to the right or to the + left, and pursue an irregular undulating flight in the horizontal plane, + which renders it well nigh impossible for a gunner to pick it up. The + machine moves at a higher relative speed than that at which the gun can be + trained. It is the rapid and devious variation which so baffles the + gunner, who unless he be highly skilled and patient, is apt to commence to + fire wildly after striving for a few moments, and in vain, to pick up the + range; he trusts to luck or depends upon blind-shooting, which invariably + results in a waste of ammunition. + </p> + <p> + A gun, to be of tangible destructive efficiency when directed against + aircraft, especially those depending upon the gas-bag for equilibrium, + must be of special design. It must be capable of firing at an angle only a + few degrees less than the absolute vertical, and in order to follow the + rapid and involved movements of its objective, must be so mobile that it + can be trained through a complete circle at any angle of inclination less + than its maximum. At the same time, if the weapon is being used in field + operations it must be mounted upon a carriage of adequate mobility to + enable it to follow the airship, and thereby keep pace with the latter, so + that the aerial craft may be sorely harassed if not actually hit. The + automobile is the obvious vehicle for this duty, and it has accordingly + been extensively used in this service. + </p> + <p> + The automobile and the gun mounted thereon follow widely different lines. + Some vehicles are designed especially for this duty, while others are + improvisations, and be it noted, in passing, that many of the latter have + proved more serviceable than the former. Still, the first-named is to be + preferred, inasmuch as necessarily it is designed to meet the all-round + requirements imposed, and consequently is better able to stand up to the + intended work, whereas the extemporised vehicle is only serviceable under + favourable conditions. + </p> + <p> + The Krupp Company has evolved many designs of anti-aircraft motor-driven + guns—"Archibalds" the British airmen term them with emphatic levity. + They are sturdily-built vehicles fitted with heavy motors, developing from + 40 to 50 horse-power, with the chassis not widely dissimilar from that + adopted for motor-omnibus traffic. Consequently, they are not necessarily + condemned to the high-roads, but within certain limits are able to travel + across country, i.e., upon fields or other level expanses, where the soil + is not unduly soft. + </p> + <p> + But the very character of the problem rendered the evolution of the + vehicle a somewhat perplexing matter. There were many factors which had to + be taken into consideration, and it was possible to meet the imposed + requirements only within certain limits. In the first place, the weight of + the gun itself had to be kept down. It was obviously useless to overload + the chassis. Again, the weight of the projectile and its velocity had to + be borne in mind. A high velocity was imperative. Accordingly, an initial + velocity varying from 2,200 to 2,700 feet per second, according to the + calibre of the gun, was determined. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, as mobility was an indispensable condition, the gun had to be so + mounted that it could be fired from the motor-car even if the latter were + travelling at high speed. This requirement entailed another difficulty. + The gun had to be mounted in such a manner as to enable the gunner to + train it easily and readily through the complete circle and through its + complete range of vertical inclination. As the result of prolonged + experiments it was ascertained that the most suitable arrangement was a + pedestal mounting, either within a turret or upon an open deck. To meet + the weight of the gun, as well as the strains and stresses incidental to + firing, the chassis was strengthened, especially over the rear axle near + which the mounting is placed. + </p> + <p> + The heaviest gun of this type is the 10.5 centimetre (4 1/4-inch) + quick-firer, throwing a shell weighing nearly forty pounds, with an + initial velocity of 2,333 feet per second. This "Archibald" is totally + unprotected. The gun is mounted centrally upon the carriage over the rear + axle, and occupies the centre of the deck between the driver's seat and + that of the gun crew behind. The whole of the deck is clear, thereby + offering no obstruction to the gunner in training the weapon, while the + space may be widened by dropping down the wings of the vehicle. At the + rear is a seat to accommodate the gun crew, beneath which the ammunition + is stowed. When travelling and out of action, the gun lies horizontally, + the muzzle pointing from the rear of the car. + </p> + <p> + To reduce the strains arising from firing, the arm is fitted with what is + known as the "differential recoil." Above the breach is an air recuperator + and a piston, while there is no hydraulic brake such as is generally used. + The compressor is kept under compression while the car is travelling with + the gun out of action, so that the arm is available for instant firing. + This is a departure from the general practice in connection with such + weapons. When the gun is loaded the bolt which holds the compressor back + is withdrawn, either by the hand for manual firing, or by the action of + the automatic closing of the breech when the arm is being used as a + quick-firer. In firing the gun is thrown forward under the pressure of the + released air which occurs at the moment of discharge. The energy of the + recoil brings the gun back and at the same time recharges the compressed + air reservoir. + </p> + <p> + The gun is so mounted upon its pedestal as to enable a maximum vertical + inclination of 75 degrees to be obtained. The mounting system also enables + the weapon to be trained in any desired direction up to the foregoing + maximum elevation throughout a complete circle, and it can be handled with + ease and celerity. A smaller "Archibald" is the 7.5 centimetre (3-inch + gun) throwing a 14.3 pound shell at an initial velocity of about 2,170 + feet per second. + </p> + <p> + The turret anti-aircraft gun carried upon a motor-car differs from the + foregoing very considerably. This is a protected arm. The gun of 7.1 + centimetres—approximately 2.75 inches—is mounted in the same + manner upon the car-deck and over the driving axle, but is enclosed within + a sheet steel turret, which is proof against rifle and machine-gun fire. + This turret resembles the conning-tower of a battleship, and is + sufficiently spacious to house the whole of the gun crew, the internal + diameter being about seven feet. Access to the turret is obtained through + a rear door. This gun has a maximum elevation of about 75 degrees, while + its operation and mechanism are similar to those of the unprotected + weapon. + </p> + <p> + The vehicle itself is practically identical with the armoured motor-car, + which has played such an important part during the present campaign, the + driver being protected by a bullet-proof steel screen similar in design to + the ordinary glass wind-screen fitted to touring automobiles. This is + carried sufficiently high to offer complete protection to his head when + seated at the wheel, while through a small orifice in this shield he is + able to obtain a clear view of the road. The engine and its vital parts + are also adequately protected. The ammunition is carried in a + cupboard-like recess forming part of the driver's seat, encased in + bullet-proof steel sheeting with flap-doors. This device enables the + shells to be withdrawn readily from the side of the car and passed to the + crew within the turret. The caisson is of sufficient dimensions to receive + 69 shells. + </p> + <p> + The Ehrhardt airship fighting ordnance is similarly adapted to motor-car + operations, one type being especially powerful. The whole of the vehicle + is encased in armour-plating impervious to rifle and machine-gun fire. The + driver is provided with a small orifice through which he is able to obtain + a clear uninterrupted view of the road ahead, while the armouring over the + tonneau is carried to a sufficient height to allow head-room to the gun + crew when standing at the gun. All four wheels are of the disk type and + fashioned from heavy sheet steel. The motor develops 40-50 horse-power + and, in one type, in order to mitigate the risk of breakdown or + disablement, all four wheels are driven. The gun, a small quick-firer, is + mounted on a pedestal in a projecting conning-tower. The mounting is + placed behind the driver's seat, and is trained and operated from the + tonneau. The maximum elevation is 75 degrees, and like the gun carriage + bearing the tube guide it can be moved through a complete circle, being + free to rotate in the fixed pivot jack to enable this end to be attained. + </p> + <p> + The foregoing may be said to represent the most powerful types of mobile + anti-aircraft weapons used by the Austro-German forces to-day. Arms of + similar design, roughly speaking, have also been introduced into the + French and Russian services. In addition many semi-armoured weapons of + this character are in operation, some specially built for the work, while + others have been improvised. In the semi-armoured motor-car the carriage + follows the usual lines; it has an open top, the armouring comprising the + body of the tonneau and the diskwheels, which are made of light + bullet-proof steel. Here again the prevailing practice is to mount the gun + as nearly above the rear axle as possible, and to work it from the + tonneau. The maximum elevation is also 75 degrees, with training + throughout the entire circle. + </p> + <p> + Another type comprises a very light machine gun of rifle calibre, and this + is intended for attachment to an ordinary motor car. There is a pedestal + mounting which can be set within the tonneau, while the weapon is pivoted + in an outrigger, the latter being free to rotate in its pivot jack. This + arrangement enables the arm to cover a wide range, while it also admits of + training through an extensive angle of elevation. + </p> + <p> + The Allied forces improvised travelling anti-aircraft offences by mounting + the latest types of Vickers, Hotchkiss, and other machine guns in armoured + motor cars. Some of these have the domed turret form, with the gun + projecting through the roof, while others are protected against hostile + attack from the side only, the carriage being panelled with bullet-proof + steel sheeting. While such weapons are useful, inasmuch as they can + maintain a hot fire ranging up to 750 shots per minute, they are not to be + compared with the "Archibalds," which are able to throw heavy shrapnel and + incendiary shells, and have a vertical range of about 6,000 to 8,000 feet. + </p> + <p> + The improvised motor-gun has not proved a complete success, except in + those instances when the hostile aircraft has ventured to approach + somewhat closely to the ground. The more formidable weapons cannot be + mounted upon ordinary vehicles, inasmuch as the increase in weight, which + is appreciable, impairs the efficiency of the vehicle, and at the same + time enhances the possibility of breakdown at a critical moment. For such + arms a special and substantial chassis is imperative, while the motive + power and gearing must be adapted to the circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Motor-mounted anti-aircraft weapons, however, have not proved an + unqualified success. The fact that the vehicles are condemned to the high + roads, or at least to comparatively smooth and level ground, constitutes a + severe handicap. Again, when travelling at high speed, and this is + essential when pursuing a fast aeroplane, the accurate laying of the + weapon is extremely difficult, owing to the oscillation of the vehicle + itself, especially if the road surface is in a bad condition. The sighting + arrangements are of a wonderfully complete character, as described + elsewhere, but the irregular rolling movement arising from high speed is a + nullifying quantity. It is tolerably easy for the aircraft, especially an + aeroplane, to evade successful pursuit, either by rising to an elevation + beyond the range of the gun, or by carrying out baffling evolutions such + as irregular undulating flight, wheeling, and climbing. According to the + reports of the British and French airmen the "Archibald" has failed to + establish the glowing reputation which was anticipated, for the simple + reason that, unless it has a clear straight road and can maintain its high + speed, it can easily be out-distanced by the fleet human bird. + </p> + <p> + The motor-car suffers from another serious disability. It cannot manoeuvre + with sufficient celerity. For instance, if it is necessary to turn round + in a narrow lane, valuable time is lost in the process, and this the + airman turns to account. In hilly country it is at a still greater + disadvantage, the inclines, gradients, and sinuosities of the roads + restricting its effectiveness very pronouncedly. It must also be + remembered that, relatively speaking, the "Archibald" offers a better + target to the airman than the aeroplane offers to the man behind the + anti-aircraft gun on the motor below. A few well-placed bombs are + sufficient to induce the pursuers to cease their activities. Even if the + missiles fail to strike the motor-car itself they can wreak disaster in + directly by rendering the road impassable or dangerous to negotiate at + high speed. On the whole therefore, the "Archibald" is a greatly + exaggerated weapon of offence against aircraft, and, so far as is known, + has failed to fulfil expectations. In fact, the Germans have practically + abandoned the idea of using it in the manner of a pursuing arm; they work + the weapon as a fixture, depending upon the car merely as a means of + moving it from point to point. Thus, in reality, it has been converted + into a light field-piece, and may almost be included in the category of + fixed weapons for combating aerial operations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS. IMMOBILE WEAPONS + </h2> + <p> + The immobile anti-aircraft gun, as distinct from that attached to a + travelling carriage such as a motor-car, may be subdivided into two + classes. The one is the fixed arm which cannot be moved readily, mounted + upon a permanent emplacement; the other is the field-piece which, while + fired from a stationary position, may be moved from point to point upon a + suitable carriage. The distinction has its parallel in ordinary artillery, + the first-named weapon coinciding with the heavy siege gun, which is built + into and forms part and parcel of the defensive or offensive scheme, while + the second is analogous to the field artillery, which may be wheeled from + position to position. + </p> + <p> + In this phase of artillery the Germans led the way, for the simple reason + that they recognised the military value of aerial navigation years in + advance of their contemporaries. Again, in this field the Krupp + Organisation has played a prominent part. It embarked upon actual + construction of weapons while its rivals in other countries were content + to prepare their drawings, which were filed against "The Day." But it must + not be thought that because the German manufacturers of armaments were + ahead of their contemporaries they dominated the situation. Far from it. + Their competitors in the market of destruction were every whit as keen, as + ingenious, and as enterprising. Kruppism saw a commercial opportunity to + profit from advertisement and seized it: its rivals were content to work + in secret upon paper, to keep pace with the trend of thought, and to + perfect their organisations so as to be ready for the crisis when it + developed. + </p> + <p> + The first Krupp anti-aircraft field-piece was a 6.5 centimetre (2 9/16 + inch) arm. It possessed many interesting features, the most salient of + which was the design of the axle of the carriage. The rigid axle for the + two wheels was replaced by an axle made in two sections, and joined + together in the form of a universal coupling, so that each wheel virtually + possessed its own axle, or rather half-axle. This was connected with the + cradle of the gun in such a manner that the wheels were laterally pivoted + thereon. + </p> + <p> + The result is that each axle can be turned forward together with its + wheel, and thus the wheels have their rims brought into line to form an + arc of a circle, of which the rear end of the spade of the gun carriage + constitutes the centre. This acts as a pivot, about which the gun can be + turned, the pair of wheels forming the runners for the achievement of this + movement. The setting of the weapon in the firing position or its + reversion to the travelling position can be easily and speedily effected + merely by the rotation of a handwheel and gearing. + </p> + <p> + With this gun a maximum elevation of 60 degrees is possible, owing to the + trunnions being carried well behind the breech in combination with the + system of long steady recoil. The balancing spring which encloses the + elevating screw is contained in a protected box. The recoil brake, + together with the spring recuperator, follows the usual Krupp practice in + connection with ordinary field pieces, as does also the automatic + breech-closing and firing mechanism. In fact there is no pronounced + deviation from the prevailing Krupp system, and only such modifications as + are necessary to adapt the arm to its special duty. When the gun is + elevated to high angles the shell, after insertion the breech is prevented + from slipping out by means of a special device, so that the proper and + automatic closing of the breech is not impaired in any way. + </p> + <p> + In such an arm as this, which is designed essentially for high-angle + firing, the sighting and training facilities require to be carried out + upon special lines, inasmuch as the objective is necessarily at a + considerable altitude above the horizon of the gun. In other words, in + firing at a high inclination, distance between the gun and the target + cannot be utilised directly for the back sight. On the other hand, it is + essential that in proportion as the angle from the horizontal increases, + the back sight should be lowered progressively in a manner corresponding + to the distance. + </p> + <p> + To assist the range-finder in his task of sighting it is necessary that he + should be provided with firing tables set out in a convenient form, which, + in conjunction with the telemeter, serve to facilitate training for each + successive round. In this way it is possible to pick up the range quickly + and to keep the objective in the line of fire until it either has been put + hors de combat, or has succeeded in retiring beyond the range of the gun. + </p> + <p> + The sighting arrangements of these Krupp anti-aircraft guns are carried + out upon these lines. Beneath the barrel of the back-sight is an observing + glass with an eye-piece for the artillerist, while above and behind the + observing glass is another eye-piece, to be used in conjunction with the + manipulation of the back-sight. The eye-piece of the observation glass is + so made that it can be turned through a vertical plane in proportion as + the angle of fire increases in relation to the horizontal. The + determination of the distance from the objective and from the + corresponding back-sight as well as the observation of the altitude is + carried out with the aid of the telemeter. This again carries an + observation glass fitted with an eye-piece which can be turned in the + vertical plane in the same manner as that of the fore-sight. By means of + this ingenious sighting device it is possible to ascertain the range and + angle of fire very easily and speedily. + </p> + <p> + The weight of the special Krupp anti-aircraft field-piece, exclusive of + the protecting shield, is approximately identical with that of the + ordinary light artillery field-piece. It throws a shell weighing 8.8 + pounds with an initial velocity of about 2,066 feet per second. + </p> + <p> + Although the German armament manufacturers were among the first to enter + the field with an anti-aircraft gun of this character they were speedily + followed by the French, who devised a superior weapon. In fact, the latter + represented such a decisive advance that the German artillerists did not + hesitate to appropriate their improvements in sundry essential details, + and to incorporate them with their own weapons. This applies especially to + the differential recoil system which is utilised in the small + anti-aircraft guns now mounted upon the roofs of high buildings of cities + throughout Germany for the express purpose of repelling aerial attack. + </p> + <p> + The French system is admitted by the leading artillery technicians of the + world to be the finest which has ever been designed, its remarkable + success being due to the fact that it takes advantage of the laws of + Nature. In this system the gun is drawn back upon its cradle preparatory + to firing. In some instances the barrel is compressed against a spring, + but in the more modern guns it is forced to rest against a cushion of + compressed air contained within a cylinder. When first bringing the gun + into action, the barrel is brought into the preliminary position by + manually compressing the air or spring by means of a lever. Thereafter the + gun works automatically. When the gun is fired the barrel is released and + it flies forward. At a critical point in its forward travel the charge is + fired and the projectile speeds on its way. The kick or recoil serves to + arrest the forward movement of the barrel and finally drives it back again + against the strong spring or cushion of compressed air within the cylinder + to its normal position, when it is ready for the introduction of the next + shell. + </p> + <p> + The outstanding feature of this system is that the projectile is given a + higher initial velocity than is possible with the barrel held rigid at the + moment of discharge, because the shell is already travelling at the moment + of firing. + </p> + <p> + The fixed anti-aircraft guns such as are stationed upon eminences and + buildings are of the quick firing type, the object being to hurl a steady, + continuous stream of missiles upon the swiftly moving aeroplane. Some of + the weapons throw a one-pound shell and are closely similar to the pom-pom + which proved so effective during the South African war. Machine guns also + have been extensively adopted for this duty by all the combatants, their + range of approximately 2,000 yards and rapidity of fire being distinctly + valuable when hostile aircraft descend to an altitude which brings them + within the range of the weapon. + </p> + <p> + The greatest difficulty in connection with this phase of artillery, + however, is not so much the evolution of a serviceable and efficient type + of gun, as the determination of the type of projectile which is likely to + be most effective. While shrapnel is employed somewhat extensively it has + not proved completely satisfactory. It is difficult to set the timing fuse + even after the range has been found approximately, which in itself is no + easy matter when the aircraft is moving rapidly and irregularly, but + reliance is placed thereon in the hope that the machine may happen to be + within the cone of dispersion when the shell bursts, and that one or more + of the pieces of projectile and bullets may chance to penetrate either the + body of the airman or a vital part of the mechanism. + </p> + <p> + It is this uncertainty which has led to a preference for a direct missile + such as the bullet discharged from a machine gun. A stream of missiles, + even of rifle calibre, maintained at the rate of some 400 shots per minute + is certain to be more effective, provided range and aim are correct, than + shrapnel. But the ordinary rifle-bullet, unless the objective is within + very close range, is not likely to cause much harm, at least not to the + mechanism of the aerial vessel. + </p> + <p> + It is for this reason that greater attention is being devoted, especially + by the French artillerists, to the Chevalier anti-aircraft gun, a weapon + perfected by a Swiss technician resident in Great Britain. It projects a + formidable missile which in fact is an armour-piercing bullet 1/2- to + 3/4-inch in diameter. It is designed for use with an automatic machinegun, + which the inventor has devised more or less upon the well-known French + system. The bullet has a high velocity—about 2,500 feet per second—and + a maximum range of 6,000 to 8,000 feet at the maximum elevation. Should + such a missile strike the motor or other mechanism of the vessel it would + wreak widespread havoc, and probably cause the machine to come to earth. + This arm has been designed for the express purpose of disabling the + aeroplane, and not for the subjugation of the airman, which is a minor + consideration, inasmuch as he is condemned to a descent when his craft + receives a mortal wound. + </p> + <p> + Attempts have been and still are being made to adapt an explosive + projectile to this gun, but so far the measure of success achieved has not + proved very promising. There are immense difficulties connected with the + design of an explosive shell of this class, charged with a high explosive, + especially in connection with the timing. So far as dependence upon + percussive detonation is concerned there is practically no difficulty. + Should such a missile strike, say, the motor of an aeroplane, or even the + hull of the craft itself, the latter would be practically destroyed. But + all things considered, it is concluded that more successful results are + likely to be achieved by the armour-piercing bullet striking the mechanism + than by an explosive projectile. + </p> + <p> + The Krupp company fully realised the difficulties pertaining to the + projectile problem in attacks upon aerial craft. So far as dirigibles are + concerned shrapnel is practically useless, inasmuch as even should the bag + be riddled by the flying fragments, little effective damage would be + wrought—the craft would be able to regain its haven. Accordingly + efforts were concentrated upon the perfection of two new types of + projectiles, both of which were directed more particularly against the + dirigible. The one is the incendiary shell—obus fumigene—while + the other is a shell, the contents of which, upon coming into contact with + the gas contained within the gas-bag, set up certain chemical reactions + which precipitate an explosion and fire. + </p> + <p> + The incendiary shells are charged with a certain compound which is ignited + by means of a fuse during its flight. This fuse arrangement coincides very + closely with that attached to ordinary shrapnel, inasmuch as the timing + may be set to induce ignition at different periods, such as either at the + moment it leaves the gun, before, or when it strikes the envelope of the + dirigible. The shell is fitted with a "tracer," that is to say, upon + becoming ignited it leaves a trail of smoke, corresponding with the trail + of a rocket, so that its passage through the air may be followed with + facility. This shell, however, was designed to fulfil a dual. Not only + will it fire the gaseous contents out of the dirigible, but it has an + explosive effect upon striking an incombustible portion of the aircraft, + such as the machinery, propellers or car, when it will cause sufficient + damage to throw the craft out of action. + </p> + <p> + The elaborate trials which were carried out with the obus fumigene + certainly were spectacular so as they went. Two small spherical balloons, + 10 feet in diameter, and attached to 1,000 feet of cable, were sent aloft. + The anti-aircraft guns themselves were placed about 5,100 feet distant. + Owing to the inclement weather the balloons were unable to attain a height + of more than 200 feet in a direct vertical line above the ground. The guns + were trained and fired, but the one balloon was not hit until the second + round, while the third escaped injury until the fifth round. When struck + they collapsed instantly. Though the test was not particularly conclusive, + and afforded no reliable data, one point was ascertained—the trail + of smoke emitted by the shell enabled its trajectory to be followed with + ease. Upon the conclusion of these trials, which were the most successful + recorded, quick-firing tests in the horizontal plane were carried out. The + best performance in this instance was the discharge of five rounds in + eight seconds. In this instance the paths of the projectiles were simple + and easy to follow, the flight of the shell being observed until it fell + some 18,670 feet away. But the Krupp firm have found that trials upon the + testing ground with a captive balloon differ very materially from stern + tests in the field of actual warfare. Practically nothing has been heard + of the two projectiles during this war, as they have proved an absolute + failure. + </p> + <p> + Some months ago the world was startled by the announcement that the + leading German armament firm had acquired the whole of the interest in an + aerial torpedo which had been evolved by the Swedish artillerist, Gustave + Unge, and it was predicted that in the next war widespread havoc would be + wrought therewith. Remarkable claims were advanced for this projectile, + the foremost being that it would travel for a considerable distance + through the air and alight upon the objective with infallible accuracy. + The torpedo in question was subjected to exacting tests in Great Britain, + which failed to substantiate all the claims which were advanced, and it is + significant to observe that little has been heard of it during the present + conflict. It is urged in certain technical quarters, however, that the + aerial torpedo will prove to be the most successful projectile that can be + used against aircraft. I shall deal with this question in a later chapter. + </p> + <p> + During the early days of the war anti-aircraft artillery appeared to be a + much overrated arm. The successes placed to its credit were insignificant. + This was due to the artillerymen being unfamiliar with the new arm, and + the conditions which prevail when firing into space. Since actual practice + became possible great advances in marksmanship have been recorded, and the + accuracy of such fire to-day is striking. Fortunately the airman possesses + the advantage. He can manoeuvre beyond the range of the hostile weapons. + At the moment 10,000 feet represents the extreme altitude to which + projectiles can be hurled from the arms of this character which are now in + use, and they lack destructiveness at that range, for their velocity is + virtually expended. + </p> + <p> + Picking up the range is still as difficult as ever. The practice followed + by the Germans serves to indicate the Teuton thoroughness of method in + attacking such problems even if success does not ensue. The favourite + German principle of disposing anti-aircraft artillery is to divide the + territory to be protected into equilateral triangles, the sides of which + have a length of about six miles or less, according to the maximum + effective range of the pieces at an elevation of 23 1/2 degrees. + </p> + <p> + The guns are disposed at the corners of the triangles as indicated in + Figs. 13-14. Taking the one triangle as an example, the method of picking + up the range may be explained as follows. The several guns at the comers + of the triangle, each of which can be trained through the 360 degrees in + the horizontal plane, are in telephonic touch with an observer O stationed + some distance away. The airman A enters the area of the triangle. The + observer takes the range and communicates with the gunner B, who fires his + weapon. The shell bursts at 1 emitting a red flame and smoke. The observer + notes the altitude and relative position of the explosion in regard to the + aircraft, while gunner B himself observes whether the shell has burst to + the right or to the left of the objective and corrects accordingly. The + observer commands C to fire, and another shell is launched which emits a + yellow flame and smoke. It bursts at 2 according to the observer, while + gunner C also notes whether it is to the right or to the left of the + target and corrects accordingly. Now gunner D receives the command to fire + and the shell which explodes at 3 throws off a white flame and smoke. + Gunner D likewise observes whether there is any deviation to right or left + of the target and corrects in a similar manner. From the sum of the three + rounds the observer corrects the altitude, completes his calculations, and + communicates his instructions for correction to the three gunners, who now + merely train their weapons for altitude. The objective is to induce the + shells hurled from the three corners of the triangle to burst at a common + point 4, which is considered to be the most critical spot for the aviator. + The fire is then practically concentrated from the three weapons upon the + apex of a triangular cone which is held to bring the machine within the + danger zone. + </p> + <p> + This method of finding the range is carried out quickly—two or three + seconds being occupied in the task. In the early days of the war the + German anti-aircraft artillerymen proved sadly deficient in this work, but + practice improved their fire to a marvellous degree, with the result that + at the moment it is dangerous for an aviator to essay his task within an + altitude of 6,000 feet, which is the range of the average anti-aircraft + gun. + </p> + <p> + The country occupied by a belligerent is divided up in this manner into a + series of triangles. For instance, a machine entering hostile territory + from the east, enters the triangle A-B-C, and consequently comes within + the range of the guns posted at the comers of the triangle. Directly he + crosses the line B-C and enters the adjacent triangle he passes beyond the + range of gun A but comes within the range of the gun posted at D, and + while within the triangular area is under fire from the guns B-C-D. He + turns and crosses the line A-C, but in so doing enters another triangle + A-C-E, and comes range of the gun posted at E. + </p> + <p> + The accompanying diagram represents an area of country divided up into + such triangle and the position of the guns, while the circle round the + latter indicate the training arc of the weapons, each of which is a + complete circle, in the horizontal plane. The dotted line represents the + aviator's line of flight, and it will be seen that no matter how he twists + and turns he is always within the danger zone while flying over hostile + territory. The moment he outdistances one gun he comes within range of + another. + </p> + <p> + The safety of the aviator under these circumstances depends upon his + maintaining an altitude exceeding the range of the guns below, the most + powerful of which have a range of 8,000 to 10,000 feet, or on speed + combined with rapid twisting and turning, or erratic undulating flight, + rendering it extremely difficult for the gun-layer to follow his path with + sufficient celerity to ensure accurate firing. + </p> + <p> + At altitudes ranging between 4,000 and 6,000 feet the aeroplane comes + within the range of rifle and machine-gun firing. The former, however, + unless discharged in volleys with the shots covering a wide area, is not + particularly dangerous, inasmuch as the odds are overwhelmingly against + the rifleman. He is not accustomed to following and firing upon a rapidly + moving objective, the result being that ninety-nine times out of a hundred + he fails to register a hit. On the other hand the advantage accruing from + machine-gun fire is, that owing to the continuous stream of bullets + projected, there is a greater possibility of the gun being trained upon + the objective and putting it hors de combat. + </p> + <p> + But, taking all things into consideration, and notwithstanding the + achievements of the artillerist, the advantages are overwhelmingly on the + side of the aviator. When one reflects upon the total sum of aircraft + which have been brought to earth during the present campaign, it will be + realised that the number of prizes is insignificant in comparison with the + quantity of ammunition expended. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. MINING THE AIR + </h2> + <p> + While the anti-aircraft gun represents the only force which has been + brought to the practical stage for repelling aerial attack, and + incidentally is the sole offensive weapon which has established its + effectiveness, many other schemes have been devised and suggested to + consummate these ends. While some of these schemes are wildly fantastic, + others are feasible within certain limitations, as for instance when + directed against dirigibles. + </p> + <p> + It has been argued that the atmosphere is akin to the salt seas; that an + aerial vessel in its particular element is confronted with dangers + identical with those prevailing among the waters of the earth. But such an + analogy is fallacious: there is no more similarity between the air and the + ocean than there is between an airship and a man-of-war. The waters of the + earth conceal from sight innumerable obstructions, such as rocks, shoals, + sandbanks, and other dangers which cannot by any means be readily + detected. + </p> + <p> + But no such impediments are encountered in the ether. The craft of the air + is virtually a free age in the three dimensions. It can go whither it will + without let or hindrance so long as the mechanical agencies of man are + able to cope with the influences of Nature. It can ascend to a height + which is out of all proportion to the depth to which the submarine can + descend in safety. It is a matter of current knowledge that a submarine + cannot sink to a depth of more than 250 feet: an aerial vessel is able to + ascend to 5,000, 8,000, or even 10,000 feet above the earth, and the + higher the altitude it attains the greater is its degree of safety. The + limit of ascension is governed merely by the physical capacities of those + who are responsible for the aerial vessel's movement. + </p> + <p> + It is for this reason that the defensive measures which are practised in + the waters of the earth are inapplicable to the atmosphere. Movement by, + or in, water is governed by the depth of channels, and these may be + rendered impassable or dangerous to negotiate by the planting of mines. A + passing ship or submarine may circumvent these explosive obstructions, but + such a successful manoeuvre is generally a matter of good luck. So far as + submarines are concerned the fact must not be over looked that movements + in the sea are carried out under blind conditions: the navigator is unable + to see where he is going; the optic faculty is rendered nugatory. Contrast + the disability of the submarine with the privileges of its consort in the + air. The latter is able to profit from vision. The aerial navigator is + able to see every inch of his way, at least during daylight. When darkness + falls he is condemned to the same helplessness as his confrere in the + waters below. + </p> + <p> + A well-known British authority upon aviation suggested that advantage + should be taken of this disability, and that the air should be mined + during periods of darkness and fog to secure protection against aerial + invasion. At first sight the proposal appears to be absolutely grotesque, + but a little reflection will suffice to demonstrate its possibilities when + the area to be defended is comparatively limited. The suggestion merely + proposes to profit from one defect of the dirigible. The latter, when bent + upon a daring expedition, naturally prefers to make a bee-line towards its + objective: fuel considerations as a matter of fact compel it to do so. + Consequently it is possible, within certain limits, to anticipate the + route which an invading craft will follow: the course is practically as + obvious as if the vessel were condemned to a narrow lane marked out by + sign-posts. Moreover, if approaching under cover of night or during thick + weather, it will metaphorically "hug the ground." To attempt to complete + its task at a great height is to court failure, as the range of vision is + necessarily so limited. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances the mining of the air could be carried out upon + the obvious approaches to a threatened area. The mines, comprising large + charges of high-explosive and combustible material, would be attached to + small captive balloons similar to the "sounding balloons" which are so + much used by meteorologists in operations for sounding the upper strata of + the atmosphere. These pilot balloons would be captive, their thin wires + being wound upon winches planted at close intervals along the coast-line. + The balloon-mines themselves would be sent to varying heights, ranging + from 1,000 to 5,000 feet, and with several attached to each cable, the + disposition of the mines in the air in such an irregular manner being in + fact closely similar to the practice adopted in the mining of a channel + for protection against submarines and hostile ships. + </p> + <p> + The suggestion is that these mines should be sent aloft at dusk or upon + the approach of thick and foggy weather, and should be wound in at dawn or + when the atmosphere cleared, inasmuch as in fine weather the floating + aerial menace would be readily detected by the pilot of a dirigible, and + would be carefully avoided. If the network were sufficiently intricate it + would not be easy for an airship travelling at night or in foggy weather + to steer clear of danger, for the wires holding the balloons captive would + be difficult to distinguish. + </p> + <p> + The mines would depend upon detonators to complete their work, and here + again they would bear a close resemblance to sea-mines. By looping the + mines their deadliness could be increased. The unsuspicious airship, + advancing under cover of darkness or thick weather, might foul one of the + wires, and, driving forward, would tend to pull one or more mines against + itself. Under the force of the impact, no matter how gentle, or slight, + one or more of the detonating levers would be moved, causing the mine to + explode, thus bursting the lifting bag of the vessel, and firing its + gaseous contents. An alternative method, especially when a cable carried + only a single mine, would be to wind in the captive balloon directly the + wire was fouled by an invading aerial craft, the process being continued + until the mine was brought against the vessel and thereby detonated. + </p> + <p> + Another proposed mining method differs materially in its application. In + this instance it is suggested that the mines should be sent aloft, but + should not be of the contact type, and should not be fired by impact + detonators, but that dependence should be placed rather upon the + disturbing forces of a severe concussion in the air. The mines would be + floating aloft, and the advance of the airship would be detected. The + elevation of the mines in the vicinity of the invading craft would be + known, while the altitude of the airship in relation thereto could be + calculated. Then, it is proposed that a mine within d certain radius of + the approaching craft, and, of course, below it, should be fired + electrically from the ground. It is maintained that if the charge were + sufficiently heavy and an adequate sheet of flame were produced as a + result of the ignition, an airship within a hundred yards thereof would be + imperilled seriously, while the other mines would also be fired, + communicating ignition from one to the other. The equilibrium of the + airship is so delicate that it can be readily upset, and taking into + account the facts that gas is always exuding from the bag, and that + hydrogen has a tendency to spread somewhat in the manner of oil upon + water, it is argued that the gas would be ignited, and would bring about + the explosion of the airship. + </p> + <p> + Another method has even been advocated. It is averred in authoritative + circles that when the aerial invasion in force of Great Britain is + attempted, the Zeppelins will advance under the cover of clouds. Also that + the craft will make for one objective—London. Doubtless advantage + will be taken of clouds, inasmuch as they will extend a measure of + protection to the craft, and will probably enable the invading fleet to + elude the vigilance of the aeroplane scouts and patrols. Under these + circumstances it is suggested that balloon-mines should be sent aloft and + be concealed in the clouds. It would be impossible to detect the wires + holding them captive, so that the precise location of the lurking danger + would not be divined by the invader. Of course, the chances are that the + invading airship would unconsciously miss the mines; on the other hand the + possibilities are equally great that it would blunder into one of these + traps and be blown to atoms. + </p> + <p> + An English airman has recently suggested a means of mining invading + Zeppelins which differs completely from the foregoing proposals. His idea + is that aeroplanes should be equipped with small mines of the contact + type, charged with high explosives, and that the latter should be lowered + from the aeroplane and be trawled through the atmosphere. As an + illustration I will suppose that a hostile aircraft is sighted by a + patrolling aeroplane. The pilot's companion in the latter immediately + prepares his aerial mine, fixing the detonator, and attaching the mine to + the wire. The latter is then dropped overboard, the wire being paid out + from a winch until it has descended to the level of the hostile craft. The + airman now manoeuvres in the air circling about the airship, dragging his + mine behind him, and endeavouring to throw it across or to bring it into + contact with the airship below. Naturally the latter, directly it observed + the airman's object, would endeavour to elude the pursuing trawling mine, + either by crowding on speed or by rising to a greater altitude. The + aeroplane, however, would have the advantage both in point of speed and + powers of climbing, while there is no doubt that the sight of the mine + swinging in the air would exert a decisive moral effect upon those in the + airship. + </p> + <p> + Attempts to render the mine harmless by discharging it prematurely with + the aid of rifle and machine-gun fire would, of course, be made by the + crew of the airship, but the trawling mine would prove a very difficult + target to strike. If such a missile were used against an airship of the + proportions of a Zeppelin the mine would inevitably be trawled across the + vessel sooner or later. Once the airship had been fouled, the aviator + would merely have to drive ahead, dragging the wire and its charge across + the gas-bag until at last one of the contact levers of the mine was moved + by being dragged against some part of the vessel, when the mine would be + exploded. In such operations the aviator would run a certain risk, as he + would be more or less above the airship, and to a certain degree within + the zone of the ultimate explosion. But there is no doubt that he would + succeed in his "fishing" exploit within a very short time. + </p> + <p> + This ingenious scheme has already been tested upon a small scale and has + been found effective, the trawling bomb being drawn across its target and + fired by contact within a few minutes. The experiment seems to prove that + it would be simpler and more effectual to attack a hostile aircraft such + as a Zeppelin in this manner than to drop free bombs at random. Moreover, + we cannot doubt that the sight of a mine containing even ten or twelve + pounds of high explosive dangling at the end of a wire would precipitate a + retreat on the part of an airship more speedily than any other combative + expedient. + </p> + <p> + The advocate of this mine-trawling method, who is a well-known aviator, + anticipates no difficulty in manoeuvring a mine weighing 30 pounds at the + end of 300 feet of fine wire. Success depends in a great measure on the + skill of the aviator in maintaining a constant tension upon the line until + it falls across its objective. + </p> + <p> + The process calls for a certain manifestation of skill in manoeuvring the + aeroplane in relation to the airship, judgment of distance, and ability to + operate the aeroplane speedily. The rapid ascensional capability of the + airship, as compared with that of the aeroplane, is a disadvantage, but on + the other hand, the superior mobility and speed of the aeroplane would + tell decisively for success. + </p> + <p> + Among the many wonders which the Krupp organisation is stated to have + perfected, and which it is claimed will create considerable surprise, is + the aerial torpedo. Many of the Krupp claims are wildly chimerical, as + events have already proved, but there is no doubt that considerable effort + has been expended upon this latest missile, for which the firm is said to + have paid the inventor upwards of L25,000—$125,000. Curiously enough + the projectile was perfected within gunshot of the British aerodrome of + Hendon and is stated to have been offered to the British Government at the + time, and to have met with a chilling reception. One fact, however, is + well established. The inventor went to Germany, and submitted his idea to + Krupp, by whom it was tested without delay. Upon the completion of the + purchase, the great armament manufacturers did not fail to publish + broadcast the fact that they had acquired a mysterious new terror of the + skies. That was some three years ago, and in the interval the cleverest + brains of the German firm have been steadily devoting their time and + energies to the improvement of the missile, the first appearance of which + was recorded, in a somewhat hazy manner, in the closing days of December. + </p> + <p> + While the exact mechanism of this missile is a secret, the governing + principles of its design and operation are known to a select few + technicians in this country. Strange to say, the projectile was designed + in the first instance in the interests of peace and humanity, but while + engaged upon his experiments the inventor suddenly concluded that it would + be a more profitable asset if devoted to the grim game of war. At the time + the military significance of the airship and the aeroplane were becoming + apparent; hence the sudden diversion of the idea into a destructive + channel. + </p> + <p> + This aerial torpedo is a small missile carrying a charge of high + explosive, such as trinitrotoluene, and depends for its detonation upon + impact or a time fuse. It is launched into the air from a cradle in the + manner of the ordinary torpedo, but the initial velocity is low. The + torpedo is fitted with its own motive power, which comes automatically + into action as the missile climbs into the air. This self-contained energy + is so devised that the maximum power is attained before the missile has + lost the velocity imparted in the first instance, the result being that it + is able to continue its flight in a horizontal direction from the moment + it attains the highest point in its trajectory, which is naturally varied + according to requirements. But there is no secret about the means of + propulsion. The body is charged with a slow-burning combustible, in the + manner of the ordinary rocket, whereby it is given a rapid rotary motion. + </p> + <p> + Furthermore it is stated to be fitted with a small gyroscope in the manner + of the torpedo used in the seas, for the purpose of maintaining direction + during flight, but upon this point there is considerable divergence of + opinion among technicians, the general idea being that the torpedo depends + upon an application of the principle of the ordinary rocket rather than + upon a small engine such as is fitted to the ordinary torpedo. The + employment of a slow combustible ensures the maintenance of the missile in + the air for a period exceeding that of the ordinary shell. It is claimed + by the Germans that this projectile will keep aloft for half-an-hour or + more, but this is a phantasy. Its maintenance of flight is merely a matter + of minutes. + </p> + <p> + The belated appearance of this much-lauded projectile and its restricted + use suggest that it is unreliable, and perhaps no more effective than the + aerial torpedo which appeared in the United States during the + Spanish-American War, and proved a complete failure. An effective and + reliable means of combating or frustrating a dirigible attack, other than + by gun-fire or resort to the drastic remedy of ramming the enemy, has yet + to be devised. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. WIRELESS IN AVIATION + </h2> + <p> + In a previous chapter the various methods of signalling between the ground + and the airman aloft have been described. Seeing that wireless telegraphy + has made such enormous strides and has advanced to such a degree of + perfection, one naturally would conclude that it constitutes an ideal + system of communication under such conditions in military operations. + </p> + <p> + But this is not the case. Wireless is utilised only to a very limited + extent. This is due to two causes. The one is of a technical, the other of + a strategical character. + </p> + <p> + The uninitiated, bearing in mind the comparative ease with which wireless + installations may be established at a relatively small expense, would not + unreasonably think that no serious difficulties of a technical character + could arise: at least none which would defy solution. But these + difficulties exist in two or three different fields, each of which is + peculiarly complex and demands individual treatment. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, there is the weight of the necessary installation. In + the case of the dirigible this may be a secondary consideration, but with + the aeroplane it is a matter of primary and vital importance. Again, under + present conditions, the noise of the motor is apt to render the + intelligent deciphering of messages while aloft a matter of extreme + difficulty, especially as these are communicated in code. The engine noise + might be effectively overcome by the use of a muffler such as, is used + with automobiles, but then there is the further difficulty of vibration. + </p> + <p> + This problem is being attacked in an ingenious manner. It is proposed to + substitute for audible signals visual interpretations, by the aid of an + electric lamp, the fluctuations in which would correspond to the dots and + dashes of the Morse code. Thus the airman would read his messages by sight + instead of by sound. + </p> + <p> + This method, however, is quite in its infancy, and although attractive in + theory and fascinating as a laboratory experiment or when conducted under + experimental conditions, it has not proved reliable or effective in + aeronautical operations. But at the same time it indicates a promising + line of research and development. + </p> + <p> + Then there are the problems of weight and the aerial. So far as present + knowledge goes, the most satisfactory form of aerial yet exploited is that + known as the trailing wire. From 300 to 700 feet of wire are coiled upon a + reel, and when aloft this wire is paid out so that it hangs below the + aeroplane. As a matter of fact, when the machine is travelling at high + speed it trails horizontally astern, but this is immaterial. One + investigator, who strongly disapproves of the trailing aerial, has carried + out experiments with a network of wires laid upon and attached to the + surface of the aeroplane's wings. But the trailing wire is generally + preferred, and certainly up to the present has proved more satisfactory. + </p> + <p> + The greatest obstacle, however, is the necessary apparatus. The average + aeroplane designed for military duty is already loaded to the maximum. As + a rule it carries the pilot and an observer, and invariably includes a + light arm for defence against an aerial enemy, together with an adequate + supply of ammunition, while unless short sharp flights are to be made, the + fuel supply represents an appreciable load. Under these circumstances the + item of weight is a vital consideration. It must be kept within a limit of + 100 pounds, and the less the equipment weighs the more satisfactory it is + likely to prove, other things being equal. + </p> + <p> + The two most successful systems yet exploited are the Dubilier and the + Rouget. The former is an American invention, the latter is of French + origin. Both have been tested by the British Military Aeronautical + Department, and the French authorities have subjected the French system to + rigorous trials. Both systems, within their limitations, have proved + satisfactory. + </p> + <p> + The outstanding feature of the Dubilier system is the production of sine + waves of musical frequency from continuous current, thus dispensing with + the rotary converter. The operating principle is the obtaining of a series + of unidirectional impulses by a condenser discharge, the pulsating + currents following one another at regular intervals at a frequency of 500 + impulses per second, which may be augmented up to 1,000 impulses per + second. The complete weight of such an apparatus is 40 pounds; the + electric generator, which is no larger than the motor used for driving the + ordinary table ventilating fan, accounts for 16 pounds of this total. + Under test at sea, upon the deck of a ship, a range of 250 miles has been + obtained. The British Government carried out a series of experiments with + this system, using a small plant weighing about 30 pounds, with which + communication was maintained up to about 20 miles. + </p> + <p> + In the French system the Reuget transmitter is employed. The apparatus, + including the dynamo, which is extremely small, weighs in all 70 pounds. A + small alternator of 200 watts and 100 volts is coupled direct to the + aeroplane motor, a new clutch coupler being employed for this purpose. By + means of a small transformer the voltage is raised to 30,000 volts, at + which the condenser is charged. In this instance the musical spark method + is employed. + </p> + <p> + The whole of the high tension wiring is placed within a small space so as + not to endanger the pilot, while the transformer is hermetically sealed in + a box with paraffin. The aerial comprises a trailing wire 100 feet in + length, which, however, can be wound in upon its reel within 15 seconds. + This reeled antenna, moreover, is fitted with a safety device whereby the + wire can be cut adrift in the event of an accident befalling the aeroplane + and necessitating an abrupt descent. With this apparatus the French + authorities have been able to maintain communication over a distance of 30 + miles. + </p> + <p> + In maintaining ethereal communication with aeroplanes, however, a portable + or mobile station upon the ground is requisite, and this station must be + within the radius of the aerial transmitter, if messages are to be + received from aloft with any degree of accuracy and reliability. Thus it + will be recognised that the land station is as important as the aeroplane + equipment, and demands similar consideration. + </p> + <p> + A wide variety of systems have been employed to meet these conditions. + There is the travelling automobile station, in which the installation is + mounted upon a motor-car. In this instance the whole equipment is carried + upon a single vehicle, while the antenna is stowed upon the roof and can + be raised or lowered within a few seconds. If motor traction is + unavailable, then animal haulage may be employed, but in this instance the + installation is divided between two vehicles, one carrying the + transmitting and receiving apparatus and the generating plant, the other + the fuel supplies and the aerial, together with spare parts. + </p> + <p> + The motive power is supplied by a small air cooled petrol or gasoline + motor developing eight horse-power, and coupled direct to a 2-kilo watt + alternator. At one end of the shaft of the latter the disk discharger is + mounted, its function being to break up the train of waves into groups of + waves, so as to impart a musical sound to the note produced in the + receiver. A flexible cable transmits the electric current from the + generator to the wagon containing the instruments. The aerial is built up + of masts carried in sections. + </p> + <p> + The Germans employ a mobile apparatus which is very similar, but in this + instance the mast is telescopic. When closed it occupies but little space. + By turning the winch handle the mast is extended, and can be carried to + any height up to a maximum of about 100 feet. The capacity of these mobile + stations varies within wide limits, the range of the largest and most + powerful installations being about 200 miles. The disadvantage of these + systems, however, is that they are condemned to territories where the + ground at the utmost is gently undulating, and where there are roads on + which four-wheeled vehicles can travel. + </p> + <p> + For operation in hilly districts, where only trails are to be found, the + Marconi Company, has perfected what may be described as "pack" and + "knapsack" installations respectively. In the first named the whole of the + installation is mounted upon the backs of four horses. The first carries + the generator set, the second the transmitting instruments, the third the + receiving equipment, and the fourth the detachable mast and stays. + </p> + <p> + The generator is carried upon the horse's saddle, and is fitted with a + pair of legs on each side. On one side of the saddle is mounted a small + highspeed explosion motor, while on the opposite side, in axial alignment + with the motor, is a small dynamo. When it is desired to erect the + installation the saddle carrying this set is removed from the horse's back + and placed upon the ground, the legs acting as the support. A length of + shaft is then slipped into sockets at the inner ends of the motor and + dynamo shafts respectively, thus coupling them directly, while the current + is transmitted through a short length of flexible cable to the + instruments. The mast itself is made in lengths of about four feet, which + are slipped together in the manner of the sections of a fishing rod, and + erected, being supported by means of wire guys. In this manner an antenna + from 40 to 50 feet in height may be obtained. + </p> + <p> + The feature of this set is its compactness, the equal division of the + sections of the installation, and the celerity with which the station may + be set up and dismantled in extremely mountainous country such as the + Vosges, where it is even difficult for a pack-horse to climb to commanding + or suitable positions, there is still another set which has been perfected + by the Marconi Company. This is the "knapsack" set, in which the whole of + the installation, necessarily light, small, and compact, is divided among + four men, and carried in the manner of knapsacks upon their backs. + Although necessarily of limited radius, such an installation is adequate + for communication within the restricted range of air-craft. + </p> + <p> + Greater difficulties have to be overcome in the mounting of a wireless + installation upon a dirigible. When the Zeppelin was finally accepted by + the German Government, the military authorities emphasised the great part + which wireless telegraphy was destined to play in connection with such + craft. But have these anticipations been fulfilled? By no means, as a + little reflection will suffice to prove. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, a wireless outfit is about the most dangerous piece of + equipment which could be carried by such a craft as the Zeppelin unless it + is exceptionally well protected. As is well known the rigidity of this + type of airship is dependent upon a large and complicated network of + aluminium, which constitutes the frame. Such a huge mass of metal + constitutes an excellent collector of electricity from the atmosphere; it + becomes charged to the maximum with electricity. + </p> + <p> + In this manner a formidable contributory source of danger to the airship + is formed. In fact, this was the reason why "Z-IV" vanished suddenly in + smoke and flame upon falling foul of the branches of trees during its + descent. At the time the Zeppelin was a highly charged electrical machine + or battery as it were, insulated by the surrounding air. Directly the + airship touched the trees a short circuit was established, and the + resultant spark sufficed to fire the gas, which is continuously exuding + from the gas bags. + </p> + <p> + After this accident minute calculations were made and it was ascertained + that a potential difference of no less than 100,00 volts existed between + the framework of the dirigible and the trees. This tension sufficed to + produce a spark 4 inches in length. It is not surprising that the + establishment of the electric equilibrium by contact with the trees, which + produced such a spark should fire the hydrogen inflation charge. In fact + the heat generated was so intense that the aluminium metallic framework + was fused. The measurements which were made proved that the gas was + consumed within 15 seconds and the envelope destroyed within 20 seconds. + </p> + <p> + As a result of this disaster endeavours were made to persuade Count + Zeppelin to abandon the use of aluminium for the framework of his balloon + but they were fruitless, a result no doubt due to the fact that the + inventor of the airship of this name has but a superficial knowledge of + the various sciences which bear upon aeronautics, and fully illustrates + the truth of the old adage that "a little learning is a dangerous thing." + Count Zeppelin continues to work upon his original lines, but the danger + of his system of construction was not lost upon another German + investigator, Professor Schiitte, who forthwith embarked upon the + construction of another rigid system, similar to that of Zeppelin, at + Lanz. In this vessel aluminium was completely abandoned in favour of a + framework of ash and poplar. + </p> + <p> + The fact that the aluminium constituted a dangerous collector of + electricity rendered the installation of wireless upon the Zeppelin not + only perilous but difficult. Very serious disturbances of an electrical + nature were set up, with the result that wireless communication between + the travelling dirigible and the ground below was rendered extremely + uncertain. In fact, it has never yet been possible to communicate over + distances exceeding about 150 miles. Apart from this defect, the danger of + operating the wireless is obvious, and it is generally believed in + technical circles that the majority of the Zeppelin disasters from fire + have been directly attributable to this, especially those disasters which + have occurred when the vessel has suddenly exploded before coming into + contact with terrestrial obstructions. + </p> + <p> + In the later vessels of this type the wireless installation is housed in a + well insulated compartment. This insulation has been carried, to an + extreme degree, which indicates that at last the authorities have + recognised the serious menace that wireless offers to the safety of the + craft, with the result that every protective device to avoid disaster from + this cause has been freely adopted. + </p> + <p> + The fact that it is not possible to maintain communication over a distance + exceeding some 20 miles is a severe handicap to the progressive + development of wireless telegraphy in this field. It is a totally + inadequate radius when the operations of the present war are borne in + mind. A round journey of 200, or even more miles is considered a mere + jaunt; it is the long distance flight which counts, and which contributes + to the value of an airman's observations. The general impression is that + the fighting line or zone comprises merely two or three successive + stretches of trenches and other defences, representing a belt five miles + or so in width, but this is a fallacy. The fighting zone is at least 20 + miles in width; that is to say, the occupied territory in which vital + movements take place represents a distance of 20 miles from the foremost + line of trenches to the extreme rear, and then comes the secondary zone, + which may be a further 10 miles or more in depth. Consequently the airman + must fly at least 30 miles in a bee-line to cover the transverse belt of + the enemy's field of operations. Upon the German and Russian sides this + zone is of far greater depth, ranging up to 50 miles or so in width. In + these circumstances the difficulties of ethereal communication 'twixt air + and earth may be realised under the present limitations of radius from + which it is possible to transmit. + </p> + <p> + But there are reasons still more cogent to explain why wireless telegraphy + has not been used upon a more extensive scale during the present campaign. + Wireless communication is not secretive. In other words, its messages may + be picked up by friend and foe alike with equal facility. True, the + messages are sent in code, which may be unintelligible to the enemy. In + this event the opponent endeavours to render the communications + undecipherable to one and all by what is known as "jambing." That is to + say, he sends out an aimless string of signals for the purpose of + confusing senders and receivers, and this is continued without cessation + and at a rapid rate. The result is that messages become blurred and + undecipherable. + </p> + <p> + But there is another danger attending the use of wireless upon the + battlefield. The fact that the stations are of limited range is well known + to the opposing forces, and they are equally well aware of the fact that + aerial craft cannot communicate over long distances. For instance, A sends + his airmen aloft and conversation begins between the clouds and the + ground. Presently the receivers of B begin to record faint signals. They + fluctuate in intensity, but within a few seconds B gathers that an + aeroplane is aloft and communicating with its base. By the aid of the + field telephone B gets into touch with his whole string of wireless + stations and orders a keen look-out and a listening ear to ascertain + whether they have heard the same signals. Some report that the signals are + quite distinct and growing louder, while others declare that the signals + are growing fainter and intermittent. In this manner B is able to deduce + in which direction the aeroplane is flying. Thus if those to the east + report that signals are growing stronger, while the stations on the west + state that they are diminishing, it is obvious that the aeroplane is + flying west to east, and vice versa when the west hears more plainly at + the expense of the east. If, however, both should report that signals are + growing stronger, then it is obvious that the aircraft is advancing + directly towards them. + </p> + <p> + It was this ability to deduce direction from the sound of the signals + which led to the location of the Zeppelin which came down at Luneville + some months previous to the war, and which threatened to develop into a + diplomatic incident of serious importance. The French wireless stations + running south-east to north-west were vigilant, and the outer station on + the north-west side picked up the Zeppelin's conversation. It maintained a + discreet silence, but communicated by telephone to its colleagues behind. + </p> + <p> + Presently No. 2 station came within range, followed by Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, + and so on in turn. Thus the track of the Zeppelin was dogged silently + through the air by its wireless conversation as easily and as positively + as if its flight had been followed by the naked eye. The Zeppelin + travellers were quite ignorant of this action upon the part of the French + and were surprised when they were rounded-up to learn that they had been + tracked so ruthlessly. Every message which the wireless of the Zeppelin + had transmitted had been received and filed by the French. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances it is doubtful whether wireless telegraphy + between aircraft and the forces beneath will be adopted extensively during + the present campaign. Of course, should some radical improvement be + perfected, whereby communication may be rendered absolutely secretive, + while no intimation is conveyed to the enemy that ethereal conversation is + in progress, then the whole situation will be changed, and there may be + remarkable developments. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. AIRCRAFT AND NAVAL OPERATIONS + </h2> + <p> + When once the flying machine had indicated its possibilities in connection + with land operations it was only natural that endeavours should be made to + adapt it to the more rigorous requirements of the naval service. But the + conditions are so vastly dissimilar that only a meagre measure of success + has been recorded. Bomb-throwing from aloft upon the decks of battleships + appeals vividly to the popular imagination, and the widespread destruction + which may be caused by dropping such an agent down the funnel of a vessel + into the boiler-room is a favourite theme among writers of fiction and + artists. But hitting such an objective while it is tearing at high speed + through the water, from a height of several thousand feet is a vastly + different task from throwing sticks and balls at an Aunt Sally on terra + firma: the target is so small and elusive. + </p> + <p> + Practically it is impossible to employ the flying machine, whether it be a + dirigible or an aeroplane, in this field. Many factors militate against + such an application. In the first place there is a very wide difference + between dry land and a stretch of water as an area over which to + manoeuvre. So far as the land is concerned descent is practicable at any + time and almost anywhere. But an attempt to descend upon the open sea even + when the latter is as calm as the proverbial mill-pond is fraught with + considerable danger. The air-currents immediately above the water differ + radically from those prevailing above the surface of the land. Solar + radiation also plays a very vital part. In fact the dirigible dare not + venture to make such a landing even if it be provided with floats. The + chances are a thousand to one that the cars will become water-logged, + rendering re-ascent a matter of extreme difficulty, if not absolutely + impossible. On the other hand, the aeroplane when equipped with floats, is + able to alight upon the water, and to rest thereon for a time. It may even + take in a new supply of fuel if the elements be propitious, and may be + able to re-ascend, but the occasions are rare when such operations can be + carried out successfully. + </p> + <p> + In operations over water the airman is confronted with one serious danger—the + risk of losing his bearings and his way. For instance, many attempts have + been made to cross the North Sea by aeroplane, but only one has proved + successful so far. The intrepid aviator did succeed in passing from the + shore of Britain to the coast of Scandinavia. Many people suppose that + because an airman is equipped with a compass he must be able to find his + way, but this is a fallacy. The aviator is in the same plight as a mariner + who is compelled from circumstances to rely upon his compass alone, and + who is debarred by inclement weather from deciding his precise position by + taking the sun. A ship ploughing the waters has to contend against the + action of cross currents, the speed of which varies considerably, as well + as adverse winds. Unless absolute correction for these influences can be + made the ship will wander considerably from its course. The airman is + placed in a worse position. He has no means of determining the direction + and velocity of the currents prevailing in the atmosphere, and his compass + cannot give him any help in this connection, because it merely indicates + direction. + </p> + <p> + Unless the airman has some means of determining his position, such as + landmarks, he fails to realise the fact that he is drifting, or, even if + he becomes aware of this fact, it is by no means a simple straightforward + matter for him to make adequate allowance for the factor. Side-drift is + the aviator's greatest enemy. It cannot be determined with any degree of + accuracy. If the compass were an infallible guide the airman would be able + to complete a given journey in dense fog just as easily as in clear + weather. It is the action of the cross currents and the unconscious drift + which render movement in the air during fog as impracticable with safety + as manoeuvring through the water under similar conditions. More than one + bold and skilful aviator has essayed the crossing of the English Channel + and, being overtaken by fog, has failed to make the opposite coast. His + compass has given him the proper direction, but the side-drift has proved + his undoing, with the result that he has missed his objective. + </p> + <p> + The fickle character of the winds over the water, especially over such + expanses as the North Sea, constitutes another and seriously adverse + factor. Storms, squalls, gales, and, in winter, blizzards, spring up with + magical suddenness, and are so severe that no aircraft could hope to live + in them. But such visitations are more to be dreaded by the + lighter-than-air than by the heavier-than-air machines. The former offers + a considerable area of resistance to the tempest and is caught up by the + whirlwind before the pilot fully grasps the significant chance of the + natural phenomenon. Once a dirigible is swept out of the hands of its + pilot its doom is sealed. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the speed attainable by the aeroplane constitutes its + safety. It can run before the wind, and meantime can climb steadily and + rapidly to a higher altitude, until at last it enters a contrary wind or + even a tolerably quiescent atmosphere. Even if it encounters the tempest + head on there is no immediate danger if the aviator keep cool. This fact + has been established times out of number and the airman has been + sufficiently skilful and quick-witted to succeed in frustrating the + destructive tactics of his natural enemy. + </p> + <p> + Only a short while ago in France, British airmen who went aloft in a gale + found the latter too strong for them. Although the machine was driven full + speed ahead it was forced backwards at the rate of 10 miles per hour + because the independent speed of the aeroplane was less than the velocity + of the wind. But a dirigible has never succeeded in weathering a gale; its + bulk, area, and weight, combined with its relatively slow movement, are + against it, with the result that it is hurled to destruction. All things + considered, the dirigible is regarded as an impracticable acquisition to a + fleet, except in the eyes of the Germans, who have been induced to place + implicit reliance upon their monsters. The gullible Teuton public + confidently believes that their Dreadnoughts of the air will complete the + destruction of the British fleet, but responsible persons know full well + that they will not play such a part, but must be reserved for scouting. + Hitherto, in naval operations, mosquito water-craft, such as + torpedo-boats, have been employed in this service. But these swift vessels + suffer from one serious disability. The range of vision is necessarily + limited, and a slight mist hanging over the water blinds them; the enemy + may even pass within half-a-mile of them and escape detection. + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin from its position 1,000 feet or more above the water, in + clear weather, has a tremendous range of vision; the horizon is about 40 + miles distant, as compared with approximately 8 miles in the case of the + torpedo-boat. Of course an object, such as a battleship, may be detected + at a far greater range. Consequently the German naval programme is to send + the Zeppelin a certain distance ahead of the battleship squadron. The + dirigible from its coign of vantage would be able to sight a hostile + squadron if it were within visual range and would communicate the fact to + the commander of the fleet below. The latter would decide his course + according to information received; thus he would be enabled to elude his + enemy, or, if the tidings received from the aerial scout should be + favourable, to dispose his vessels in the most favourable array for + attack. + </p> + <p> + The German code of naval tactics does not foreshadow the use of dirigible + aircraft as vessels of attack. Scouting is the primary and indeed the only + useful duty of the dirigible, although it is quite possible that the + aerial craft might participate in a subsequent naval engagement, as, + indeed, has been the case. Its participation, however, would be governed + entirely by climatic conditions. The fact that the dirigible is a weak + unit of attack in naval operations is fully appreciated by all the + belligerents. + </p> + <p> + The picture of a sky "black with Zeppelins" may appeal to the popular + imagination, and may induce the uninitiated to cherish the belief that + such an array would strike terror into the hearts of the foe, but the + naval authorities are well aware that no material advantage would accrue + from such a force. In the first place they would constitute an ideal + target for the enemy's vessels. They would be compelled to draw within + range in order to render their own attack effective, and promiscuous + shooting from below would probably achieve the desired end. One or more of + the hostile aircraft would be hit within a short while. Such disasters + would undoubtedly throw the aerial fleet into confusion, and possibly + might interfere with the tactical developments of its own friends upon the + water below. + </p> + <p> + The shells hurled from the Zeppelins would probably inflict but little + damage upon the warships beneath. Let it be conceded that they weigh about + 500 pounds, which is two-thirds of the weight of the projectile hurled + from the Krupp 128-centimetre howitzer. Such a missile would have but + little destructive effect if dropped from a height of 1,000 feet. To + achieve a result commensurate with that of the 28-centimetre howitzer the + airship would have to launch the missile from a height of about 7,000 + feet. To take aim from such an altitude is impossible, especially at a + rapidly moving target such as a battle-cruiser. + </p> + <p> + The fact must not be forgotten that Count Zeppelin himself has expressed + the opinion, the result of careful and prolonged experiments, that his + craft is practically useless at a height exceeding 5,000 feet. Another + point must not be overlooked. In a spirited naval engagement the + combatants would speedily be obliterated from the view of those aloft by + the thick pall of smoke—the combination of gun-fire and emission + from the furnaces and a blind attack would be just as likely to damage + friend as foe. + </p> + <p> + Even if the aircraft ventured to descend as low as 5,000 feet it would be + faced with another adverse influence. The discharge of the heavy + battleship guns would bring about such an agitation of the air above as to + imperil the delicate equilibrium of an airship. Nor must one overlook the + circumstance that in such an engagement the Zeppelins would become the + prey of hostile aeroplanes. The latter, being swifter and nimbler, would + harry the cumbersome and slow-moving dirigible in the manner of a dog + baiting a bear to such a degree that the dirigible would be compelled to + sheer off to secure its own safety. Desperate bravery and grim + determination may be magnificent physical attributes, ut they would have + to be superhuman to face the stinging recurrent attacks of + mosquito-aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + The limitations of the Zeppelin, and in fact of all dirigible aircraft, + were emphasised upon the occasion of the British aerial raid upon + Cuxhaven. Two Zeppelins bravely put out to overwhelm the cruisers and + torpedo boats which accompanied and supported the British sea-planes, but + when confronted with well-placed firing from the guns of the vessels below + they quickly decided that discretion was the better part of valour and + drew off. In naval operations the aeroplane is a far more formidable foe, + although here again there are many limitations. The first and most serious + is the severely limited radius of action. The aeroplane motor is a hungry + engine, while the fuel capacity of the tank is restricted. The German + military authorities speedily realised the significance of this factor and + its bearing upon useful operations, and forth with carried out elaborate + endurance tests. In numerable flights were made with the express purpose + of determining how long a machine could remain in the air upon a single + fuel supply. + </p> + <p> + The results of these flights were collated and the achievements of each + machine in this direction carefully analysed, a mean average drawn up, and + then pigeon-holed. The results were kept secret, only the more sensational + records being published to the world. As the policy of standardisation in + the construction of aeroplanes was adopted the radius of action of each + type became established. It is true that variations of this factor even + among vessels exactly similar in every respect are inevitable, but it was + possible to establish a reliable mean average for general guidance. + </p> + <p> + The archives of the Berlin military department are crowded with facts and + figures relating to this particular essential, so that the radius of + action, that is the mileage upon a single fuel charge, of any class and + type of machine may be ascertained in a moment. The consequence is that + the military authorities are able to decide the type of aeroplane which is + best suited to a certain projected task. According to the dossier in the + pigeon-hole, wherein the results of the type are filed, the aeroplane will + be able to go so far, and upon arriving at that point will be able to + accomplish so much work, and then be able to return home. Consequently it + is dispatched upon the especial duty without any feeling of uncertainty. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, these experimental processes were too methodical to prove + reliable. The endurance data were prepared from tests carried out in the + aerodrome and from cross-country trials accomplished under ideal or + fair-weather conditions. The result is that calculations have been often + upset somewhat rudely by weather conditions of a totally unexpected + character, which bring home vividly the striking difference between theory + and practice. + </p> + <p> + The British and French aviation authorities have not adopted such + methodical standardisation or rule of thumb inferences, but rather have + fostered individual enterprise and initiative. This stimulation of + research has been responsible for the creation of a type of aeroplane + specially adapted to naval service, and generically known as the water + plane, the outstanding point of difference from the aeroplane being the + substitution of canoes or floats for the wheeled chassis peculiar to the + land machine. The flier is sturdily built, while the floats are + sufficiently substantial to support the craft upon the water in calm + weather. Perhaps it was the insular situation of the British nation which + was responsible for this trend of development, because so far as Britain + is concerned the sea-going aeroplane is in dispensable. But the salient + fact remains that to-day the waterplane service of Great Britain is the + most efficient in the world, the craft being speedy, designed and built to + meet the rough weather conditions which are experienced around these + islands, and ideal vessels for patrol and raiding duties. + </p> + <p> + So far as the British practice is concerned the waterplane is designed to + operate in conjunction with, and not apart from, the Navy. It has been + made the eyes of the Navy in the strictest interpretation of the term. In + any such combination the great difficulty is the establishment of what may + be termed a mobile base, inasmuch as the waterplane must move with the + fleet. This end has been achieved by the evolution of a means of carrying + a waterplane upon, and launching it from, a battleship, if necessary. + </p> + <p> + For this purpose a docking cradle or way has been provided aft where the + aeroplane may be housed until the moment arrives for its employment. + Several vessels have been devoted to this nursing duty and are known as + parent ships to the waterplane service. All that is requisite when the + time arrives for the use of the seaplane is to lift it bodily by derrick + or crane from its cradle and to lower it upon the water. It will be + remembered that the American naval authorities made an experiment with a + scheme for directly launching the warplane from the deck of a battleship + in the orthodox, as well as offering it a spot upon which to alight upon + returning from a flight, while Wing-Commander Samson, R.N., D.S.O., the + famous British airman, repeated the experiment by flying from a similar + launching way installed upon H.M.S. Hibernia. But this practice has many + shortcomings. So far as the British and French navies are concerned, the + former process is preferred. Again, when the waterplane returns from a + flight it is admitted that it is simpler, quicker, and safer for it to + settle upon the water near the parent ship and to be lifted on board. + </p> + <p> + As a sea-scout the waterplane is overwhelmingly superior to the dirigible + as events have conclusively proved. Its greater mobility and speed stand + it in excellent stead because it is able to cover a larger area within a + shorter space of time than its huge and unwieldy contemporary. + Furthermore, it is a difficult target to hit and accordingly is not so + likely to be brought down by hostile fire. There is another point in its + favour. The experience of the war has proved that the numerically inferior + enemy prefers to carry out his naval operations under the cover of the + mist and haze which settle upon the water, and yet are of sufficient depth + to conceal his identity and composition. Such mists as a rule comprise a + relatively thin bank of low-lying vapour, which while enveloping the + surface of the water in an impenetrable pall, yet permits the mast-heads + of the vessels to stand out clearly, although they cannot be detected from + the water-level or even from the control and fighting tops of a warship. A + scouting waterplane, however, is able to observe them and note their + movement, and accordingly can collect useful information concerning the + apparent composition of the hidden force, the course it is following, its + travelling speed, and so forth, which it can convey immediately to its + friends. + </p> + <p> + The aeroplane has established its value in another manner. Coal-burning + vessels when moving at any pronounced speed invariably throw off large + quantities of smoke, which may be detected easily from above, even when + the vessels themselves are completely hidden in the mist. It was this + circumstance which revealed the presence of the British squadron in the + affair of the Bight of Heligoland. + </p> + <p> + The German airman on patrol duty from the adjacent base on the island of + Heligoland detected the presence of this smoke, above the low-lying bank + of fog, although there were no other visible signs of any vessels. Fully + cognisant of the fact that the German Fleet was at anchor in a safe place + he naturally divined that the smoke proceeded from a hostile squadron, + evidently bent upon a raid. He returned to his headquarters, conveyed the + intelligence he had collected to his superior officers, upon receipt of + which a German cruiser squadron was sent out and engaged the British + vessels to its own discomfiture. But for the airman's vigilance and + smartness there is no doubt that the British squadron would have + accomplished a great coup. + </p> + <p> + This incident, however, served to reveal that the aerial scout is prone to + suffer from over-keenness and to collect only a partial amount of + information. Upon this occasion the German watchman detected the presence + of the British torpedo-boat and light cruiser force. Had he continued his + investigations and made a wider sweep he would have discovered the + proximity of the British battle-cruiser squadron which routed the German + force, the latter having acted on incomplete information. + </p> + <p> + While the low-lying sea-fog is the navigator's worst enemy, it is the + airman's greatest friend and protection. It not only preserves him against + visual discovery from below, but is an excellent insulator of sound, so + that his whereabouts is not betrayed by the noise of his motor. It is of + in calculable value in another way. When a fog prevails the sea is + generally as smooth as the pro verbial mirror, enabling the waterplanes to + be brought up under cover to a suitable point from which they may be + dispatched. Upon their release by climbing to a height of a few hundred + feet the airmen are able to reach a clear atmosphere, where by means of + the compass it is possible to advance in approximately the desired + direction, safe from discovery from below owing to the fog. If they are + "spotted" they can dive into its friendly depths, complete their work, and + make for the parent ship. + </p> + <p> + Low-lying sea-fogs are favourable to aerial raids provided the scout is + able to catch sight of the upper parts of landmarks to enable him to be + sure of the correctness of his line of flight-in cases where the distance + is very short compass direction is sufficiently reliable-because the bank + of vapour not only constitutes a perfect screen, but serves as a blanket + to the motor exhaust, if not completely, at least sufficiently to mislead + those below. Fogs, as every mariner will testify, play strange tricks with + the transmission of sound. Hence, although those on the vessels below + might detect a slight hum, it might possibly be so faint as to convey the + impression that the aviator was miles away, when, as a matter of fact, he + was directly overhead. This confusion arising from sound aberration is a + useful protection in itself, as it tends to lure a naval force lying in or + moving through the fog into a false sense of security. + </p> + <p> + The development of the submarine revealed the incontrovertible fact that + this arm would play a prominent part in future operations upon the water: + a presage which has been adequately fulfilled during the present conflict. + The instinct of self-preservation at once provoked a discussion of the + most effective ways and means of disguising its whereabouts when it + travels submerged. To this end the German naval authorities conducted a + series of elaborate and interesting experiments off the island of + Heligoland. As is well known, when one is directly above a stretch of + shallow water, the bottom of the latter can be seen quite distinctly. + Consequently, it was decided to employ aerial craft as detectives. Both + the aeroplane and the dirigible took part in these experiments, being + flown at varying heights, while the submarine was maneouvred at different + depths immediately below. The sum of these investigations proved + conclusively that a submarine may be detected from aloft when moving at a + depth of from 30 to 40 feet. The outline of the submerged craft is + certainly somewhat blurred, but nevertheless it is sufficiently distinct + to enable its identity to be determined really against the background or + bottom of the sea. To combat this detection from an aerial position it + will be necessary inter alia to evolve a more harmonious or protective + colour-scheme for the submarine. Their investigations were responsible for + the inauguration of the elaborate German aerial patrol of harbours, the + base for such aerial operations being established upon the island of + Heligoland. + </p> + <p> + So far the stern test of war as applied to the science of aeronautics has + emphasised the fact that as a naval unit the dirigible is a complete + failure. Whether experience will bring about a modification of these views + time alone will show, but it is certain that existing principles of design + will have to undergo a radical revision to achieve any notable results. + The aeroplane alone has proved successful in this domain, and it is upon + this type of aerial craft that dependence will have to be placed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. THE NAVIES of THE AIR + </h2> + <p> + Less than three years ago the momentous and spectacular race among the + Powers of Europe for the supremacy of the air began. At first the struggle + was confined to two rivals—France and Germany—but as time + progressed and the importance of aerial fleets was recognised, other + nations, notably Great Britain, entered the field. + </p> + <p> + Germany obtained an advantage. Experiment and research were taken up at a + point which had been reached by French effort; further experiments and + researches were carried out in German circles with secret and feverish + haste, with the result that within a short time a pronounced degree of + efficiency according to German ideals had been attained. The degree of + perfection achieved was not regarded with mere academic interest; it + marked the parting of the ways: the point where scientific endeavour + commanded practical appreciation by turning the success of the laboratory + and aerodrome into the channel of commercial manufacture. In other words, + systematic and wholesale production was undertaken upon an extensive + scale. The component parts were standardised and arrangements were + completed with various establishments possessed of the most suitable + machinery to perfect a programme for turning out aeronautical requirements + in a steady, continuous stream from the moment the crisis developed. + </p> + <p> + The wisdom of completing these arrangements in anticipation is now + apparent. Upon the outbreak of hostilities many German establishments + devoted to the production of articles required in the infinite + ramifications of commerce found themselves deprived of their markets, but + there was no risk that their large plants would be brought to a + standstill: the Government ordered the manufacture of aeroplane parts and + motors upon an extensive scale. In this manner not only were the + industrial establishments kept going, but their production of aeronautical + requirements relieved those organisations devoted to the manufacture of + armaments, so that the whole resources and facilities of these could be + concentrated upon the supply of munitions of war. + </p> + <p> + In France the air-fleet, although extensive upon the outbreak of war, was + somewhat heterogeneous. Experiment was still being pursued: no type had + met with definite official recognition, the result being that no + arrangements had been completed for the production of one or more standard + types upon an elaborate scale comparable with that maintained by Germany. + In fact some six months after the outbreak of war there was an appreciable + lack of precision on this point in French military. Many of the types + which had established their success were forbidden by military decree as + mentioned in a previous chapter, while manufacturing arrangements were + still somewhat chaotic. + </p> + <p> + Great Britain was still more backward in the new movement. But this state + of affairs was in a measure due to the division of the Fourth Arm among + the two services. A well-organised Government manufactory for the + production of aeroplanes and other aircraft necessities had been + established, while the private manufacturers had completed preparations + for wholesale production. But it was not until the Admiralty accepted + responsibility for the aerial service that work was essayed in grim + earnest. + </p> + <p> + The allocation of the aerial responsibilities of Great Britain to the + Admiralty was a wise move. Experience has revealed the advantages accruing + from the perfection of homogeneous squadrons upon the water, that is to + say groups of ships which are virtually sister-craft of identical speed, + armament, and so on, thus enabling the whole to act together as a complete + effective unit. As this plan had proved so successful upon the water, the + Admiralty decided to apply it to the fleet designed for service in the air + above. + </p> + <p> + At the time this plan of campaign was definitely settled Great Britain as + an aerial power was a long way behind her most formidable rival, but + strenuous efforts were made to reduce the handicap, and within a short + while the greater part of this leeway had been made up. Upon the outbreak + of war Great Britain undoubtedly was inferior to Germany in point of + numbers of aircraft, but the latter Power was completely outclassed in + efficiency, and from the point of view of PERSONNEL. The British had + developed the waterplane as an essential auxiliary to naval operations, + and here was in advance of her rival, who had practically neglected this + line of experiment and evolution, resting secure in the assurance of her + advisers that the huge dirigibles would be adequate for all exigencies on + the water. + </p> + <p> + Indeed, when war was declared, all the Powers were found more or less + wanting so far as their aerial fleets were concerned. If Germany's huge + aerial navy had been in readiness for instant service when she invaded + Belgium, she would have overcome that little country's resistance in a far + shorter time and with much less waste of life. It was the Belgians who + first brought home to the belligerents the prominent part that aircraft + were destined to play in war, and the military possibilities of the + aeroplane. True, the Belgians had a very small aerial navy, but it was put + to work without delay and accomplished magnificent results, ascertaining + the German positions and dispositions with unerring accuracy and + incredible ease, and thus enabling the commander of the Belgian Army to + dispose his relatively tiny force to the best advantage, and to offer the + most effective resistance. + </p> + <p> + Great Britain's aerial navy, while likewise some what small, was also + ready for instant service. The British Expeditionary force was supported + by a very efficient aerial fleet, the majority of the vessels forming + which flew across the Channel at high speed to the British headquarters in + France so as to be available directly military preparations were begun, + and the value of this support proved to be inestimable, since it speedily + demoralised the numerically superior enemy. + </p> + <p> + France, like Germany, was somewhat dilatory, but this was attributable + rather to the time occupied in the mobilisation of the Fourth Arm than to + lack of energy. There were a round 1,500 aeroplanes ostensibly ready for + service, in addition to some 26 dirigibles. But the fleet was somewhat + scattered, while many of the craft were not immediately available, being + in the shops or in dock for repairs and overhaul. During the period of + mobilisation the so-called standing military force was augmented by about + 500 machines which were acquired from private owners. The aeroplane + factories were also, overhauled and re-organised so as to be in a position + to remedy the inevitable wastage, but these organisation efforts were + somewhat handicapped by the shortage of labour arising from the call to + arms. France, moreover, imperilled her aerial strength by forbidding the + use of 558 machines which were ready for service. + </p> + <p> + Germany's aerial fleet was of similar proportions to that of her Gallic + neighbour, but curiously enough, and in strange contrast, there appeared + to be a lack of readiness in this ramification of the Teuton war machine. + The military establishment possessed about 1,000 machines—active and + reserve—of which it is estimated 700 were available for instant + service. During the period of mobilisation a further 450 machines were + added to the fleet, drawn for the most part from private owners. So far as + the dirigibles were concerned 14 Zeppelins were ready for duty, while + others were under construction or undergoing overhaul and repair. A few + other types were also in commission or acquired during mobilisation, + bringing the dirigible force to 40 machines all told. + </p> + <p> + But the greatest surprise was probably offered by Russia. Very little was + known concerning Russian activities in this particular field, although it + was stated that large orders for machines had been placed with various + foreign manufactories. Certain factories also had been established within + the Empire, although the character of their work and its results and + achievements were concealed from prying eyes. In Russia, however, an + appreciable number of private aeroplanes were in operation, and these, of + course, were placed at the disposal of the authorities the moment the + crisis developed. + </p> + <p> + The British and French aeroplane manufacturers had been busy upon Russian + orders for many months previous to the outbreak of hostilities, while + heavy shipments of component parts had been made, the assembling and + completion of the machines being carried out in the country. It is + generally believed that upon the outbreak of war Russia had a fleet of 800 + aeroplanes in hand, of which total 150 were contributed from private + sources. Even the dirigible had not been overlooked, there being nearly 20 + of these craft attached to the Russian Army, although for the most part + they are small vessels. + </p> + <p> + In comparison with the foregoing large aerial navies, that of Great + Britain appeared to be puny. At the moment Great Britain possesses about + 500 machines, of which about 200 are waterplanes. In addition, according + to the Secretary of the Admiralty, 15 dirigibles should be in service. + Private enterprise is supported by the Government, which maintains a + factory for the manufacture of these craft. + </p> + <p> + During the two years preceding the outbreak of war the various Powers grew + remarkably reticent concerning the composition and enlargement of their + respective aerial fleets. No official figures were published. But at the + same time it is a well-known fact that during the year 1913 France + augmented her flying force by no fewer than 544 aeroplanes. Germany was no + less energetic, the military acquisition in this branch, and during the + self-same year, approaching 700 machines according to the semi-official + reports published in that country. + </p> + <p> + The arrangements concluded for the manufacture of additional craft during + the war are equally remarkable. The principal factory in Germany, (now + devoting its energies to the production of these craft, although in + happier days its normal complement of 4,000 men were responsible for the + production of another commercial article) possesses facilities for turning + out 30 complete aeroplanes per week, according to the statement of its + managing director. But it is averred that this statement is purposely + misleading, inasmuch as during the first fortnight of the campaign it was + producing over 50 aeroplanes per week. It must be remembered that Germany + is responsible for the supply of the majority of such craft for the + Austrian armies, that country purchasing these vessels in large numbers, + because in the early days of the conflict it was notoriously weak in this + arm. Since the declaration of war strenuous efforts have been made to + remedy this state of affairs, particularly upon the unexpected revelation + of Russia's aerial strength. + </p> + <p> + It is computed that upon the outbreak of war the various Powers were in + the position to show an aggregate of 4,980 aircraft of all descriptions, + both for active service and reserve. This is a colossal fleet, but it + serves to convey in a graphic manner the importance attached to the adrial + vessel by the respective belligerents. So far as Germany is concerned she + is sorely in need of additional machines. Her fleet of the air has lost + its formidable character, owing to the fact that it has to be divided + between two frontiers, while she has been further weakened by the enormous + lengths of the two battle-fronts. + </p> + <p> + Russia has been able to concentrate her aerial force, which has proved of + incalculable value to the Grand Duke Nicholas, who has expressed his + appreciation of the services rendered by his fliers. The French likewise + have been favoured by Fortune in this respect. Their aerial navy is + likewise concentrated upon a single frontier, although a pronounced + proportion has been reserved for service upon the Mediterranean sea-board + for co-operation with the fleet. France suffers, however, to a certain + degree from the length of her battle-line, which is over 200 miles in + length. The French aerial fleet has been particularly active in the Vosges + and the Argonne, where the difficult, mountainous, and densely wooded + country has rendered other systems of observation of the enemy's movements + a matter of extreme difficulty. The Germans have laboured under a similar + handicap in this territory, and have likewise been compelled to centre a + considerable proportion of their aerial fleet upon this corner of the + extended battlefield. + </p> + <p> + It is in this region that the greatest wastage has been manifest. I have + been informed by one correspondent who is fighting in this sternly + contested area, that at one time a daily loss of ten German machines was a + fair average, while highwater mark was reached, so far as his own + observations and ability to glean information were concerned by the loss + of 19 machines during a single day. The French wastage, while not so heavy + upon the average, has been considerable at times. + </p> + <p> + The term wastage is somewhat misleading, if not erroneous. It does not + necessarily imply the total loss of a machine, such as its descent upon + hostile territory, but includes damage to machines, no matter how slight, + landing within their own lines. In the difficult country of the Vosges + many aeroplanes have come to earth somewhat heavily, and have suffered + such damage as to render them inoperative, compelling their removal from + the effective list until they have undergone complete overhaul or + reconstruction. Upon occasions this wastage has been so pronounced that + the French aviators, including some of the foremost fliers serving with + the forces, have been without a machine and have been compelled to wait + their turn. + </p> + <p> + I am informed that one day four machines, returning from a reconnaissance + in force, crashed successively to the ground, and each had to be hauled + away to the repair sheds, necessitating withdrawal from service for + several days. Unfortunately the French, owing to their decision to rule + out certain machines as unsuited to military service, have not yet + perfected their organisation for making good this wastage, although + latterly it has been appreciably reduced by greater care among the + aviators in handling their vessels. + </p> + <p> + The fast vessels of the French aerial fleet have proved exceptionally + valuable. With these craft speeds of 95 and 100 miles or more per hour + have been attained under favourable conditions, and pace has proved + distinctly advantageous, inasmuch as it gives the French aviators a + superiority of about 40 per cent over the average German machine. It was + the activity and daring of the French fliers upon these high speed + machines which induced the German airmen to change their tactics. + Individual effort and isolated raiding operations were abandoned in favour + of what might be described as combined or squadron attack. Six or eight + machines advancing together towards the French lines somewhat nonplussed + these fleet French mosquito craft, and to a certain degree nullified their + superiority in pace. Speed was discounted, for the simple reason that the + enemy when so massed evinced a disposition to fight and to follow + harassing tactics when one of the slowest French machines ventured into + the air. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to observe that aerial operations, now that they are + being conducted upon what may be termed methodical lines as distinct from + corsair movements, are following the broad fundamental principles of naval + tactics. Homogeneous squadrons, that is, squadrons composed of vessels of + similar type and armament, put out and follow roughly the "single line + ahead" formation. Upon sighting the enemy there is the manoeuvring for + position advantage which must accrue to the speedier protagonist. One + then, witnesses what might almost be described as an application of the + process of capping the line or "crossing the 'T.'" This tends to throw the + slower squadron into confusion by bending it back upon itself, meanwhile + exposing it to a demoralizing fire. + </p> + <p> + The analogy is not precisely correct but sufficiently so to indicate that + aerial battles will be fought much upon the same lines, as engagements + between vessels upon the water. If the manoeuvres accomplish nothing + beyond breaking up and scattering the foe, the result is satisfactory in + as much as in this event it is possible to exert a driving tendency and to + force him back upon the lines of the superior force, when the scattered + vessels may be brought within the zone of spirited fire from the ground. + </p> + <p> + Attacks in force are more likely to prove successful than individual + raiding tactics, as recent events upon the battlefield of Europe have + demonstrated more or less convincingly. An attack in force is likely to + cause the defenders upon the ground beneath to lose their heads and to + fire wildly and at random, with the result that the airmen may achieve + their object with but little damage to themselves. This method of + attacking in force was essayed for the first time by the British aerial + fleet, which perhaps is not surprising, seeing that the machines are + manned and the operations supervised by officers who have excelled in + naval training, and who are skilled in such movements. + </p> + <p> + No doubt this practice, combined with the daring of the British aviators, + contributed very materially to the utter demoralisation of the German + aerial forces, and was responsible for that hesitancy to attack a position + in the vicinity of the British craft which became so manifest in the + course of a few weeks after the outbreak of hostilities. + </p> + <p> + One of the foremost military experts of the United States, who passed some + time in the fighting zone, expressed his opinion that the British aerial + force is the most efficient among the belligerents when considered as a + unit, the French flier being described by the same authority as most + effective when acting individually, owing to personal intrepidity. As a + scout the French aviator is probably unequalled, because he is quick to + perceive and to collect the data required, and when provided with a fast + machine is remarkably nimble and venturesome in the air. The British + aviators, however, work as a whole, and in the particular phases where + such tactics are profitable have established incontestable superiority. At + first the German aerial force appeared to possess no settled system of + operation. Individual effort was pronounced, but it lacked method. The + Germans have, however, profited from the lessons taught by their + antagonists, and now are emulating their tactics, but owing to their + imperfect training and knowledge the results they achieve appear to be + negligible. + </p> + <p> + The dirigible still remains an unknown quantity in these activities, + although strange to relate, in the early days of the war, the work + accomplished by the British craft, despite their comparatively low speed + and small dimensions, excelled in value that achieved by the warplanes. + This was particularly noticeable in matters pertaining to reconnaissance, + more especially at night, when the British vessels often remained for + hours together in the air, manoeuvring over the hostile lines, and + gathering invaluable information as to the disposition and movements of + the opposing forces. + </p> + <p> + But it is probably in connection with naval operations that the British + aerial fleet excels. The waterplanes have established their supremacy over + the naval dirigible in a striking manner. British endeavour fostered the + waterplane movement and has carried it to a high degree of perfection. The + waterplane is not primarily designed to perform long flights, although + such may be carried out if the exigencies demand. The practice of deputing + certain vessels to art as "parent ships" to a covey of waterplanes has + proved as successful in practice, as in theory. Again, the arrangements + for conveying these machines by such means to a rendezvous, and there + putting them into the water to complete a certain duty, have been + triumphantly vindicated. At the time this idea was embraced it met with a + certain degree of hostile criticism: it was argued that the association of + the two fighting, machines would tend towards confusion, and impair the + efficiency of both. + </p> + <p> + Practice has refuted this theory. The British aerial raids upon Cuxhaven + and other places would have been impossible, and probably valueless as an + effective move, but for the fact that it was possible to release the + machines from a certain point upon the open sea, within easy reach of the + cooperating naval squadron. True, the latter was exposed to hostile attack + from submarines, but as results proved this was easy to repel. The + aircraft were enabled to return to their base, as represented by the + rendezvous, to be picked up, and to communicate the intelligence gained + from their flight to the authorities in a shorter period of time than + would have been possible under any other circumstances, while the risk to + the airmen was proportionately reduced. + </p> + <p> + The fact that the belligerents have built up such huge aerial navies + conclusively proves that the military value of the Fourth Arm has been + fully appreciated. From the results so far achieved there is every + indication that activity in this direction will be increased rather than + diminished. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War, by +Frederick A. Talbot + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AEROPLANES AND DIRIGIBLES OF WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 793-h.htm or 793-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/9/793/ + +Produced by an Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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