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diff --git a/79292-h/79292-h.htm b/79292-h/79292-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..38aef78 --- /dev/null +++ b/79292-h/79292-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17503 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Rest days: a study in early law and morality | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +a { + text-decoration: none; +} + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +h1,h2 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; +} + +h2.nobreak { + page-break-before: avoid; +} + +hr.chap { + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; + width: 65%; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; +} + +img.w100 { + width: 100%; +} + +div.chapter { + page-break-before: always; +} + +ul { + list-style-type: none; +} + +li.indx { + margin-top: .5em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.ifrst { + margin-top: 2em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.isub1 { + padding-left: 4em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +p { + margin-top: 0.5em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + text-indent: 1em; +} + +table { + margin: 1em auto 1em auto; + max-width: 40em; + border-collapse: collapse; +} + +td { + padding-left: 0.25em; + padding-right: 0.25em; + text-indent: 1em; + vertical-align: top; + text-align: justify; +} + +.tdc { + text-align: center; + padding: 0.75em 0.25em 0.5em 0.25em; +} + +blockquote { + margin: 1.5em 10%; +} + +.center { + text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; +} + +figcaption p { + text-align: center; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-size: 90%; + text-indent: 0; +} + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.footnotes { + margin-top: 1em; + border: dashed 1px; +} + +.footnote { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; +} + +.footnote .label { + position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right; +} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none; +} + +.gothic { + font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Old English', serif; +} + +.hanging { + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +.larger { + font-size: 150%; +} + +.noindent { + text-indent: 0; +} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + right: 4%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; +} + +.poetry-container { + text-align: center; +} + +.poetry { + display: inline-block; + text-align: left; +} + +.poetry .stanza { + margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; +} + +.poetry .verse { + padding-left: 3em; +} + +.poetry .indent0 { + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.right { + text-align: right; +} + +.smaller { + font-size: 80%; +} + +.smcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; +} + +.allsmcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; + text-transform: lowercase; +} + +.titlepage { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 3em; + text-indent: 0; +} + +.transnote { + background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + text-align: center; + font-size: smaller; + padding: 0.5em; +} + +.x-ebookmaker img { + max-width: 100%; + width: auto; + height: auto; +} + +.x-ebookmaker .poetry { + display: block; + margin-left: 1.5em; +} + +.x-ebookmaker blockquote { + margin: 1.5em 5%; +} + +/* Illustration classes */ +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} + </style> + </head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79292 ***</div> + +<main> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[i]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage larger">REST DAYS</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="macmillan" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/macmillan.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +<p class="center">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br> +<span class="smaller">NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS<br> +ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">MACMILLAN & CO., Limited</span><br> +<span class="smaller">LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br> +MELBOURNE</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.</span><br> +<span class="smaller">TORONTO</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage larger">REST DAYS</p> + +<p class="titlepage"><i>A Study in Early Law and Morality</i></p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br> +<span class="smcap">HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D.</span><br> +<span class="smaller">PROFESSOR OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA<br> +AUTHOR OF “PRIMITIVE SECRET SOCIETIES”</span></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>“The study of their own species is doubtless the most interesting +and important that can claim the attention of mankind; and this +science, like all others, it is impossible to improve by abstract +speculation, merely. A regular series of authenticated facts is +what alone can enable us to rise towards a perfect knowledge in +it.”—<span class="smcap">William Marsden</span>, <i>The History of Sumatra</i>, +London, 1811, Preface.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="gothic">New York</span><br> +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br> +<span class="smaller">1916</span></p> + +<p class="center smaller"><i>All rights reserved</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1916,<br> +By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.</span></p> + +<p class="center smaller">Set up and printed. Published May, 1916.</p> + +<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="gothic">Norwood Press</span><br> +J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.<br> +Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="gothic">To</span><br> +MY WIFE</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> + +</div> + +<p>What perhaps might be described as the first edition of +this work appeared in 1911 in the <i>University Studies</i> of the +University of Nebraska. The title of the original monograph +has been retained for the present volume, in which +the same line of argument is followed and the same conclusions +are reached. After a lapse of nearly five years I have +not felt the necessity of modifying, to any essential degree, +the results of the earlier investigation. The book, then, +differs from its predecessor chiefly in providing a more +extensive collection of the relevant data.</p> + +<p>Although much has been written on the Jewish Sabbath +and the Christian Sunday, and on the assumed Babylonian +prototype of these institutions, little inquiry has hitherto +been made into the rest days so commonly observed outside +the Semitic area in antiquity and later ages. The principal +reason for this neglect of the comparative aspects of +the subject must doubtless be found in the still imperfect +appreciation of the fact that the great institutions of modern +civilization have their roots in the beliefs and customs, and +often in the superstitions, of savage and barbarian society. +It will be the task of social anthropology, by an impressive +accumulation of evidence, to make this truth a commonplace +of popular knowledge.</p> + +<p>Among the friends and correspondents who have aided +me by criticisms and suggestions I wish particularly to mention +Dr. Crawford H. Toy, now Professor Emeritus in +Harvard University, and Dr. Louis H. Gray, now Assistant +Editor of Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>. +Mr. G. D. Swezey, Professor of Astronomy in the University +of Nebraska, was good enough to help me in some +troublesome details relating to the calendar. The late +Walter Kendall Jewett, formerly University Librarian, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span>the kindest and most genial of men, put at my disposal +many books which otherwise would have been difficult of +access. To my honoured colleague, Professor George +Elliott Howard, I owe the inspiration, reaching back to +undergraduate days, which comes from association with one +whose devotion to scholarly ideals is matched only by his +enthusiasm for social service. Finally, I must acknowledge +my obligation to Chancellor Samuel Avery, whose interest +in the book has made possible its publication at this time.</p> + +<p class="right">HUTTON WEBSTER.</p> + +<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Lincoln, Nebraska</span>,<br> +February, 1916.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="ERRATA">ERRATA</h2> + +</div> + +<p><a href="#Page_80">Page 80</a>, note 2, <i>read</i>: p. 156; Macrobius, <i>Satur-</i></p> + +<p><a href="#Page_92">Page 92</a>, note, <i>read</i>: αὖον ἀπὸ χλωροῦ τάμνειν αἴθωνι +σιδήρῳ</p> + +<div class="transnote"> +<p class="center">Transcriber’s Note: The errata have been corrected.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> + +</div> + +<nav> + + +<table> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">INTRODUCTION</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Observance of days of abstinence and quiescence not unknown + in the lower culture, p. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.—Probable + origin of the sabbatarian regulations in primitive taboos, pp. + <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.—<i>Tabu</i> in + Polynesia and equivalent customs in other parts of the world, pp. + <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.—Classification + of taboos, p. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.—Characteristics of taboos, + pp. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.—Their + animistic sanctions, pp. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a + href="#Page_6">6</a>.—Reasons for imposing taboos which necessitate + abstinence and quiescence, pp. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a + href="#Page_7">7</a>.—Connection of communal taboos with those + observed by individuals, p. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER I<br> + <span class="smcap">Tabooed Days at Critical Epochs</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The institution of taboo in the Hawaiian Islands, pp. <a + href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.—Observance + there of tabooed days, pp. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a + href="#Page_10">10</a>.—Likeness between the Hawaiian Sabbaths + and the sabbatarian regulations introduced by missionaries, p. + <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.—Communal taboos imposed when a chief + temple was consecrated, pp. <a href="#Page_11">11-13</a>; at + the time of the celebration of the New Year’s festival, p. <a + href="#Page_13">13</a>; and in connection with the taking of certain + fish, p. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.—The four regular <i>tabu</i> + periods in the Hawaiian month, pp. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.—Tabooed days observed in the + Society Islands, the Marquesas Islands, and New Zealand, pp. + <a href="#Page_15">15-17</a>.—In the Tonga Islands a period of + taboo imposed at the time of the first-fruits’ sacrifice, pp. + <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.—Days kept + sacred to certain gods in Samoa and other parts of Polynesia, + pp. <a href="#Page_19">19-21</a>.—Tabooed days of the Fijians, + pp. <a href="#Page_21">21-24</a>.—Other instances of communal + rest days in Polynesia, pp. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a + href="#Page_25">25</a>.—General significance of the Polynesian + evidence, p. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.—Tabooed days not + unknown in New Guinea, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.—Tabooed + days in Borneo, pp. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a + href="#Page_27">27</a>.—Those observed by the Kayan of + Sarawak and Dutch Borneo, pp. <a href="#Page_27">27-33</a>; + by the Iban or Sea Dyak, pp. <a href="#Page_33">33-35</a>; + and by the Land Dyak, pp. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a + href="#Page_37">37</a>.—General significance of the Bornean + evidence, pp. <a href="#Page_37">37-39</a>.—Observance of seasons + of communal repose confined to the Indonesian population of Borneo, + pp. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.—Tabooed + days in the Nicobar Islands, pp. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,<span + class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; + in Bali and Nias, pp. <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>; in the Mentawi + Islands, pp. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; + in Formosa, p. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; and in the + Philippine Archipelago, pp. <a href="#Page_44">44-49</a>.—The + <i>genna</i> among the Naga tribes of Manipur, pp. <a + href="#Page_49">49-53</a>.—<i>Genna</i> customs among other peoples + of Assam, pp. <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>.—Customs allied to the + <i>genna</i> in Burma, pp. <a href="#Page_55">55-58</a>.—Indo-China + probably the centre of diffusion of the <i>genna</i>, p. <a + href="#Page_58">58</a>.—Resemblance of communal rest days to the + practice of the <i>couvade</i>, pp. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a + href="#Page_59">59</a>.—Psychological and sociological aspects + of these communal regulations, pp. <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a + href="#Page_60">60</a>.—Days of abstinence and quiescence mark + crises in the community life, pp. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a + href="#Page_61">61</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER II<br> + <span class="smcap">Tabooed Days after a Death and on Related Occasions</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Prohibition of work and other forms of activity a common + regulation following a death, p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.—The + animistic explanation of this taboo, pp. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, + <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.—Belief in the pollution of death, p. <a + href="#Page_63">63</a>.—Many instances of communal taboos imposing + abstinence and quiescence to be found among semi-civilized peoples + in various parts of the world: in the East Indian Archipelago, pp. + <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; among the + tribes of Borneo, p. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; in Assam, pp. <a + href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>; in India and + Tibet, pp. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; + throughout Africa, pp. <a href="#Page_67">67-70</a>; in + Madagascar, p. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>; in North America, + especially among the Eskimo, pp. <a href="#Page_70">70-73</a>; + and among some Siberian tribes, pp. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, + <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.—Survivals of such taboos in + the funeral observances of civilized peoples, p. <a + href="#Page_74">74</a>.—Similar regulations imposed in connection + with feasts of the dead and ceremonies of demon-expulsion, pp. <a + href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.—The evidence + from Africa, pp. <a href="#Page_75">75-78</a>.—Unlucky days + observed by the Athenians in connection with the festivals of the + Genesia and the Anthesteria, pp. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a + href="#Page_80">80</a>.—Unlucky days observed by the Romans in + connection with the festivals of the Parentalia and the Lemuria, pp. + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.—The Hebrew + Day of Atonement, pp. <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a>.—The Feast of + Sacrifices in Islam, p. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.—World-wide + diffusion of the custom of observing tabooed days after a death and + on related occasions, p. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER III<br> + <span class="smcap">Holy Days</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Characteristics of religious festivals, p. <a + href="#Page_85">85</a>.—Festival times often marked by + cessation of labour, pp. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a + href="#Page_86">86</a>.—Origin of the conception of a “holy” day, pp. + <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.—Consecration of + holy days to particular divinities, pp. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, + <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.—Connection between tabooed days and + holy days, p. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.—The taboo element + in the festivals observed by Dravidian peoples of<span + class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span> India, pp. <a + href="#Page_88">88-90</a>.—The Hebrew Day of First-fruits, pp. + <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.—Greek holy + days, p. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.—The Athenian Plynteria, + pp. <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.—The + Roman Vestalia, pp. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a + href="#Page_94">94</a>.—Ferial days of the Romans as tabooed days, + pp. <a href="#Page_94">94-100</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER IV<br> + <span class="smcap">Market Days</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The observance of periodic rest days confined to + agricultural peoples, pp. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a + href="#Page_102">102</a>.—Connection of these days with the + institution of the market, pp. <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a + href="#Page_103">103</a>.—The evidence for market weeks and market + days in various parts of the world: in New Guinea and Melanesia, + pp. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>; + in Celebes, Sumatra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula, pp. <a + href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; in + Tonkin, Siam, and Assam, pp. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a + href="#Page_106">106</a>; throughout the central parts of Africa, + pp. <a href="#Page_106">106-108</a>; among the Congo negroes, pp. + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; and among + the Guinea negroes, pp. <a href="#Page_110">110-117</a>.—Origin + of the market week in Africa, pp. <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, + <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.—Sabbatarian features of the west + African market day, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.—Market + weeks and market days in ancient Mexico and Peru, pp. <a + href="#Page_118">118-120</a>.—The Roman nundinal day, pp. <a + href="#Page_120">120-123</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER V<br> + <span class="smcap">Lunar Superstitions and Festivals</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Great importance assigned to the moon by primitive peoples, + pp. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.—The + lunar rays often believed to be deleterious to both children + and adults, pp. <a href="#Page_125">125-127</a>.—The moon + supposed to cause menstruation and impregnation, pp. <a + href="#Page_127">127-130</a>.—Influence of the moon on the tides, + p. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.—Belief that the moon affects + the growth of vegetation, pp. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a + href="#Page_131">131</a>.—Doctrine of lunar sympathy, p. <a + href="#Page_131">131</a>.—The waxing moon commonly regarded + as favourable, the waning moon as unfavourable, for business + of various sorts, pp. <a href="#Page_131">131-134</a>.—Lunar + eclipses sometimes marked by a general suspension of activity, + pp. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.—The + <i>interlunium</i> often observed by a cessation of labour, + pp. <a href="#Page_136">136-140</a>.—Ceremonies performed at + new moon, pp. <a href="#Page_140">140-142</a>.—Seasons of + abstinence and restriction at new moon and full moon, p. <a + href="#Page_143">143</a>.—Tabooed days in connection with the + lunar changes found among the Bantu peoples of Africa, pp. <a + href="#Page_144">144-148</a>.—Lunar taboos in modern India, pp. + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.—The + <i>upavasatha</i> of the Aryans of ancient India, pp. <a + href="#Page_149">149-151</a>.—Sabbatarian observance of lunar days + in post-Vedic times, pp. <a href="#Page_151">151-154</a>.—The + <i>posaha</i> of Jainism, pp. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.—The Buddhist Sabbath, or + <i>uposatha</i>, pp. <a href="#Page_155">155-158</a>.—Introduction + of the <i>uposatha</i> into<span class="pagenum" + id="Page_xii">[xii]</span> Ceylon, Burma, Siam, and + Cambodia, pp. <a href="#Page_158">158-162</a>.—The Buddhist + Sabbath in Tibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan, pp. <a + href="#Page_162">162-164</a>.—Lunar days observed in Indonesia, pp. + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.—Lunar + festivals of the ancient Iranians, pp. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, + <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.—Lunar festivals in ancient Egypt, pp. + <a href="#Page_166">166-169</a>.—The Greek Noumenia and Dichomenia, + pp. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.—The + Roman Kalends, Nones, and Ides, p. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.—The + <i>dies postriduani</i>, pp. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a + href="#Page_171">171</a>.—Lunar festivals in heathen Europe, p. <a + href="#Page_172">172</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER VI<br> + <span class="smcap">Lunar Calendars and the Week</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Beginnings of the calendar, p. <a + href="#Page_173">173</a>.—The moon as the measure of time, + pp. <a href="#Page_173">173-175</a>.—Popular calendars + based on the moon, pp. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, + <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.—The lunar year, pp. <a + href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.—Adjustment of + the lunar year to the solar year, pp. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, + <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.—Calendarizing of the lunation, p. <a + href="#Page_178">178</a>.—Commencement of the lunar month, pp. + <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.—Phases + of the moon often named and used for time-reckonings, pp. <a + href="#Page_180">180-182</a>.—Bipartite division of the lunation, pp. + <a href="#Page_182">182-186</a>.—Shorter divisions of the lunation, + pp. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.—The + decade, pp. <a href="#Page_188">188-192</a>.—The ennead, pp. <a + href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.—The octad, pp. + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.—Six-day + weeks, p. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.—The pentad, pp. + <a href="#Page_194">194-196</a>.—The hebdomad, pp. <a + href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.—Diffusion of + the hebdomadal cycle: in Africa, pp. <a href="#Page_197">197-199</a>; + in India, pp. <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a>; in southeastern + Asia, p. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>; in China and Japan, pp. + <a href="#Page_202">202-204</a>; and in the Malay Peninsula + and the Malay Archipelago, pp. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a + href="#Page_205">205</a>.—The Arabic week and the Mohammedan Sabbath, + pp. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.—Mystic + numbers in general, pp. <a href="#Page_206">206-208</a>.—Seven + as a mystic number among semi-civilized peoples, pp. <a + href="#Page_208">208-211</a>.—Symbolism of seven in ancient India, + Greece, and Babylonia, pp. <a href="#Page_211">211-212</a>.—The + seven planets and planetary deities of the Babylonians, pp. + <a href="#Page_213">213-215</a>.—The planetary week, pp. <a + href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.—Theories + of its origin, pp. <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a>.—Spread of the + planetary week in the Roman Empire, pp. <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, + <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.—Adoption of the planetary designations + of the weekdays by the Christians, pp. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, + <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.—Spread of the planetary week among + Romance, Germanic, and Slavic peoples during the early Middle Ages, + pp. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER VII<br> + <span class="smcap">The Babylonian “Evil Days” and the Shabattum</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The “evil days” of the months of Elul II and Markheshwan, pp. + <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.—Possible + explanations of the origin of these days, pp. <a + href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.—The<span + class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span> Babylonian lunar + month, p. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.—Determination of the + beginning of the month, pp. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, + <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.—Adjustment of septenary + divisions to the lunation, pp. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, + <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.—Association of septenary + divisions with successive phases of the moon, pp. <a + href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.—The + seven-day cycles in Babylonia not true “weeks,” pp. <a + href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.—Special + significance attached to the seventh day, pp. <a + href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.—Taboo + in Babylonia, pp. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a + href="#Page_232">232</a>.—Prohibitions observed on the seventh + day, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.—Their connection with + primitive taboos, pp. <a href="#Page_232">232-234</a>.—How far + the seventh day was marked by a general abstention from labour, + pp. <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.—The + term <i>shabattum</i>, pp. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a + href="#Page_236">236</a>.—Various explanations of its meaning, + pp. <a href="#Page_236">236-238</a>.—<i>Shabattum</i> applied to + the fifteenth day of the month, pp. <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, + <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.—Festival observance of new moon and + full moon by the Babylonians, pp. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a + href="#Page_240">240</a>.—Probable connection of the <i>shabattum</i> + with the “evil days,” pp. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a + href="#Page_241">241</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER VIII<br> + <span class="smcap">The Hebrew Sabbath</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The Sabbath an ancient institution, pp. <a + href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.—The + theory of its origin in the worship of Saturn untenable, pp. <a + href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.—Connection of + the Sabbath Day with Saturday, pp. <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a + href="#Page_245">245</a>.—The Sabbath, with the seven-day week, not + borrowed from Egypt or Babylonia, pp. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.—Importance of the moon to the + early Hebrews, pp. <a href="#Page_246">246-248</a>.—The + festival of the new moon, pp. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, + <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.—Observance of the new-moon day + by abstinence from work, pp. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a + href="#Page_250">250</a>.—Religious significance attached to + the day of full moon, pp. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a + href="#Page_251">251</a>.—The Sabbath originally the full-moon + day, p. <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.—Early association of new + moon and the Sabbath, pp. <a href="#Page_251">251-253</a>.—The + term <i>shabbath</i> later applied to every seventh day of the + month, p. <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.—Differences between the + Hebrew seven-day week and the septenary cycle of the Babylonians, + pp. <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.—The + Hebrew week probably at first no periodic but connected + with the lunation, pp. <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a + href="#Page_255">255</a>.—Obsolescence of the new-moon day as a + day of rest, p. <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, + <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.—Character of the + Sabbath in pre-Exilic times, p. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.—Various + sabbatarian regulations to be explained as taboos, pp. <a + href="#Page_256">256-262</a>.—Revival in post-Exilic times + of the austere significance attached to the Sabbath, pp. <a + href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.—Strict + observance of the Sabbath rest according to the rules of + pharisaic Judaism, pp. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a + href="#Page_264">264</a>.—The Sabbath as a day of gladness and + good cheer, pp. <a href="#Page_264">264-266</a>.—Introduction of + the Sabbath into the Roman world, pp. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, + <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.—The Lord’s Day as observed by the + early<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</span> Christians, + pp. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.—Their + adoption of the pagan designation Sunday, p. <a + href="#Page_268">268</a>.—Ecclesiastical recognition of Saturday as a + holy day, p. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.—The Lord’s Day not at first + marked by abstinence from labour, pp. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.—Beginning of Sunday legislation, pp. <a + href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CHAPTER IX<br> + <span class="smcap">Unlucky Days</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The belief in unlucky days frequently a result of erroneous + association of ideas, pp. <a href="#Page_272">272-274</a>.—The + observation of natural phenomena sometimes accounts for the unlucky + character attached to certain times, pp. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.—The conception of unluckiness sometimes + deduced from the assumed critical nature of certain periods, such + as epagomenal months and days, p. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.—The + Twelve Days in ancient India, pp. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, + <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.—European folklore of the Twelve + Days, pp. <a href="#Page_277">277-279</a>.—Unlucky character of + the five supplementary days in the Mexican and Maya calendars, + pp. <a href="#Page_279">279-281</a>.—The five supplementary + days among the ancient Egyptians, Persians, and Armenians, pp. + <a href="#Page_281">281-283</a>.—Epagomenal days in the French + Republican calendar, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.—Some + unlucky days observed in southeastern Europe probably + derived from the holy days of classical antiquity, pp. <a + href="#Page_283">283-285</a>.—Likeness between tabooed days + and the unlucky days observed in southeastern Asia, pp. <a + href="#Page_285">285-288</a>.—The Toda rest days, pp. <a + href="#Page_288">288-292</a>.—Rest days of the Siah Posh Kafirs, pp. + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.—Unlucky + days among the Malagasy, pp. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a + href="#Page_295">295</a>.—Egyptian calendars of lucky and unlucky + days, pp. <a href="#Page_295">295-297</a>.—A Babylonian calendar, + pp. <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.—The + Hesiodic calendar, pp. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a + href="#Page_299">299</a>.—Unlucky days observed during the + Middle Ages, pp. <a href="#Page_299">299-301</a>.—Decline + of the superstition after the Reformation, p. <a + href="#Page_301">301</a>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">CONCLUSION</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The observance of tabooed and unlucky days exerts a + hampering influence on social and economic progress, pp. <a + href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.—Non-working + days in Hawaii, in Ashanti, and among the Hopi Indians + of Arizona, p. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.—The numerous + religious festivals held in modern China and Korea and in + ancient Egypt and Greece, pp. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a + href="#Page_304">304</a>.—Excessive development of Roman festivals, + pp. <a href="#Page_304">304-306</a>.—Holy days in the religious + calendar of Christendom, pp. <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a + href="#Page_307">307</a>.—Passage of the holy day into the holiday, + pp. <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</nav> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p> + +<h1>REST DAYS</h1> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The custom of refraining from labour on certain +occasions is by no means unknown to peoples in the +lower stages of culture. Associated practices include +the discontinuance of public gatherings, the closing of +the house or of the village against all strangers, the +extinguishing of lights, and fasting, either partial or +complete. Bright and gay dresses may be laid aside, +bathing and anointing given up, and songs, dances, +and loud noises forbidden. Under these conditions +the cessation of labour merges into a cessation of all +the usual activities. The day of rest becomes a day +of abstinence and quiescence.</p> + +<p>It might be thought that such observances, especially +those which impose a period of rest, have a rationalistic +basis and arise from man’s need of relaxation and idleness +as a relief from daily toil and the harsh conditions +of existence. Yet for the vast proportion of the rest +days observed by primitive peoples it would be rash +to assume an origin in considerations of practical +utility. A survey of the evidence to be submitted +indicates that the sabbatarian regulations have arisen +chiefly, if not wholly, as pure superstitions, the product +of an all-too-logical intellect or of a disordered fancy. +In the last analysis they are based primarily on fear, +that “fear of things invisible,” which Hobbes, foreshadowing +modern anthropological theories, regarded +as “the natural seed of religion.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> They find their +clearest expression in the “taboos,” or prohibitions, +first noticed among the natives of the South Seas, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>but now known to exist in many other regions of the +aboriginal world.⁠<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>“Taboo,” from the Polynesian <i>tabu</i>, is one of the +few words which the languages of the Pacific have +contributed to our English speech. <i>Tabu</i> appears to +be, properly, the Tonga term, <i>tapu</i>, the word as found +in Samoa, the Marquesas Islands, the Society Islands, +and New Zealand, and <i>kapu</i>, the Hawaiian expression.⁠<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> +The etymology of <i>tapu</i> is uncertain, though an attempt +has been made to derive it from <i>ta</i>, to mark, and <i>pu</i>, +an adverb of intensity. The compound <i>tapu</i> would +then mean “marked thoroughly,” and would come to +signify “sacred” in a secondary sense, since sacred +things and places were commonly indicated in a particular +manner.⁠<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The word <i>tapua’i</i> means “to abstain +from all work, games, etc.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>⁠—a translation which indicates +how intimately the idea of abstinence was +associated with the notion of <i>tapu</i>.</p> + +<p>In all the Polynesian languages <i>tapu</i> or <i>tabu</i> appears +to have been employed with an adjectival meaning, +referring to something holy, sacred, and inviolable, or +to something polluted and accursed. The word, we +learn, did not imply any moral quality, but expressed +“a connection with the gods, or a separation from +ordinary purposes, and exclusive appropriation to +persons or things considered sacred; sometimes it +means devoted as by a vow.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> In a derivative sense +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span><i>tabu</i> came naturally to signify “forbidden” or “prohibited”;⁠<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> +and this is the most general meaning of +the word in its anglicized form. But in anthropological +usage the term “taboo” refers, not to all negative regulations +or prohibitions, but to those only which are +supported by a supernatural sanction and the violation +of which is visited with a supernatural punishment.</p> + +<p>The progress of comparative research has shown that +conceptions very similar to the Polynesian <i>tabu</i> have a +wide prevalence in the lower culture and even among +peoples of archaic civilization. The Melanesian <i>tambu</i>, +though never signifying any inherent holiness or awfulness, +does refer to the sacred and unapproachable character +which things may possess when solemnly cursed +in the name of a powerful ghost or spirit.⁠<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Among +the natives of the Gabun colony of French Equatorial +Africa <i>orunda</i> meant, originally, “prohibited from human +use.” Under missionary hands the word developed +into its related sense of “sacred to spiritual +use,” and in the Mpongwe Scriptures <i>orunda</i> serves +as the translation of our word “holy.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The Malagasy +equivalent of <i>tabu</i> is <i>fady</i>, which means, primarily, +“dangerous,” but which has the derivative meanings +<i>sacré</i>, “prohibited,” “ill-omened,” “unlucky.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Anthropologically, +it is no far cry from such expressions +to the Greek ἅγιος or to the Latin <i>sacer</i>, since each of +these terms conveys the twin ideas of sanctity and +pollution.⁠<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span></p> + +<p>It is convenient to distinguish between taboos which +are artificially imposed and those which follow inevitably +as the consequence of particular acts or as the +outcome of certain situations. Thus, a chief may set +a taboo over the common crops until harvest time, or +a private individual may protect his own property +through the use of the same supernatural machinery: +these are prohibitions analogous to the laws of an advanced +society, though supported by sanctions both +human and divine. On the other hand, new-born +children with their mothers, strangers, manslayers, and +mourners are frequently subjected to taboos which +exist in the social consciousness rather as well-defined +customs of anonymous origin than as specific ordinances +laid down by some superior authority. In +both cases, however, it is legitimate to suppose that a +reason has always existed for the ascription of the <i>tabu</i> +character to persons and things—although an explanation +may not now be forthcoming and although the +ideas on which the practice was once based may have +become obscure or meaningless with the lapse of time.</p> + +<p>A comparative study of the taboos observed by primitive +peoples indicates that originally things or persons +are tabooed because they are considered dangerous, +mysterious, abnormal, uncanny, “awful”—because +they are felt to be potent for weal or woe in the life of +man. Primitive psychology, refining these ideas and +applying them to different classes of phenomena, produces +the cognate notions of pollution and sanctity. +The corpse is unclean; the shedder of human blood +is likewise unclean; but the chief or king, who belongs +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>to a superior order of beings, is sacrosanct or holy. +These characteristics are easily regarded as infectious, +as capable of transmission, not alone by physical contact, +but also by sight and mere proximity. It is +probably true that, in using such expressions as “contagion” +and “infection,” we are resorting to a refined +terminology to express what must be really simpler +in the thought of the savage. Living in a mental +stage where distinctions of cause and effect are not +clearly drawn, where a rigid distinction of the natural +and the supernatural can scarcely be said to exist at +all, he finds no difficulty in imagining an universe in +which all things have power, after their kind, a power +for good or a power for ill—in other words, have +<i>mana</i>. This now-familiar Melanesian term, like the +Algonkin <i>manitou</i>, the Iroquoian <i>orenda</i>, and the +Siouan <i>wakanda</i>, may be said to express early man’s +sense of those ever-present, though vague and impersonal, +forces immanent in nature.⁠<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>At the same time the fact must be recognized that +the majority of taboos are now supported by animistic +beliefs of a much more precise character. The penalty +for the infraction of a taboo is generally death or some +physical ailment supposed to be inflicted by the offended +spirits or demons.⁠<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The Polynesian <i>atua</i>, by entering +the body of any impious person, caused disease or +“intestinal embarrassment”: the culprit forthwith +swelled up and died. The same demonic beings, if +angered, might visit entire tribes with an epidemic, +or send down lightning and fire from heaven, or bring +about the unsuccessful issue of a war.⁠<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Among the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>Kayan and other pagan tribes of Borneo the minor +spirits, or <i>toh</i>, play a considerable part in the regulation +of conduct. They are the powers that bring +misfortunes upon an entire house or village when any +member of it ignores taboos or otherwise violates +tribal customs, without performing the propitiatory +rites demanded by the occasion. “Thus on them, +rather than on the gods, are founded the effective +sanctions of prohibitive rules of conduct.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> Among +the Akikuyu of British East Africa, who possess a most +elaborate system of taboos, it is a general belief that +any one in the condition of <i>thahu</i> becomes emaciated +and ill or breaks out in eruptions and boils. If the +<i>thahu</i> is not removed, the patient will die. “In many +cases this undoubtedly happens by the process of auto-suggestion, +as it never occurs to the Kikuyu mind to be +skeptical in a matter of this kind. It is said that the +<i>thahu</i> condition is caused by the <i>ngoma</i>, or spirits of +departed ancestors, but the process does not seem to +have been analyzed any further.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The Babylonians, +again, appear to have entertained very definite conceptions +of taboo, and conceptions, equally definite, +of the evil spirits which vexed the soul and body of +one who had infringed a <i>mamit</i>, or prohibition with a +supernatural penalty.⁠<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> With the progress of religious +conceptions the punishment of the taboo-breaker +may come to be regarded as an important function +of the tribal or national god, whose chief concern is the +maintenance of the customary moral rules.</p> + +<p>Since persons, objects, and even actions are all +liable to infection, prudence dictates a variety of precautions: +the dangerous individual or thing is removed +to a safe distance; or is carefully isolated; or is subjected +to a series of insulating regulations. The entire +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>community is interested in such proceedings, +and on certain occasions may itself be placed under a +rigid quarantine. When this happens, a period of +abstinence and quiescence is regarded as the surest +means of avoiding dangers felt to threaten each and +every member of the social group. Nor will the procedure +greatly differ where distinctly animistic ideas +prevail, and when the impending danger is specifically +attributed to the action of spiritual beings or of gods. +In the latter case, it is true, the idea of propitiation +becomes increasingly prominent, since it is often felt +to be necessary to appease by various rites and ceremonies +the supernatural powers responsible for the +visitation. The two conceptions of abstinence and +propitiation are not, indeed, always sharply distinguishable +in concrete cases, and with advancing culture +they tend to become more and more closely +conjoined.</p> + +<p>It is highly probable that the origin of some of the +communal regulations is to be sought in the taboos +observed by persons at such great and critical seasons +as birth, puberty, marriage, and death.⁠<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Comparative +studies have indicated how numerous are the prohibitions +which attach to these times of high solemnity +and significance; and it is reasonable to suppose that, +with the deepening sense of social solidarity, observances +once confined to the individual alone, or to his +immediate connections, would often pass over into rites +performed by the community at large. Some evidence +tending to substantiate this opinion will be presented +incidentally as the investigation proceeds.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br> +<span class="smaller">TABOOED DAYS AT CRITICAL EPOCHS</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>Our knowledge of taboo within the Polynesian area +rests chiefly on the vague and unsatisfactory accounts +by early missionaries, who were unable to describe +much more than its exterior aspects, its origin and inner +significance having quite escaped their consideration. +Fundamentally, the system of taboos formed a religious +institution, if religion be understood in its broadest +sense as a recognition of the supernatural. The +Polynesian belief that the violator of a taboo would be +punished by the offended <i>atua</i>, or spirits, readily lent +itself to priestcraft and statecraft and so became in the +hands of the ruling classes an <i>instrumentum regni</i>, a +powerful engine of social and political control. In +Hawaii, where the superstitions in question reached +their most elaborate and grotesque development, communal +taboos could be imposed only by the priests, +although this action was often taken at the instance +of the civil authorities. Police officers were even +appointed to make sure that all prohibitions were +strictly observed. For every breach of the rules the +death penalty was inflicted, unless the delinquent had +some very powerful friends who themselves were either +priests or chiefs.</p> + +<p>The range of these Hawaiian taboos, as extended for +reasons of state or religion, was very wide. We are +told that idols, temples, the persons and names of the +king and his family, the persons of the priests, and the +houses and clothes of the king and priests were always +<i>tabu</i>. Certain much-prized articles of food, besides +almost everything offered in sacrifice, were reserved +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>by taboos for gods and men; hence women, except in +cases of particular indulgence, were restricted from using +them. Sometimes an entire island or district was +tabooed and no one was allowed to approach it.⁠<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The institution of taboo also included regulations +for the special observance of certain times and seasons. +Their duration was various, and apparently much +longer in remote ages than in the period immediately +preceding the arrival of the missionaries. In Hawaii, +before the reign of Kamehameha II, forty days was the +usual length of time. There were also periods of ten +days and of five days, and sometimes of only one day. +Tradition declares, however, that once a taboo was in +force for thirty years and that during this time the +men were not allowed to trim their beards. A tabooed +period kept for five years is also mentioned. Elsewhere +in the South Seas less extensive periods prevailed, +the longest known being at Huahine, one of the Society +Islands, where a season of abstinence is said to have +lasted for ten or twelve years.⁠<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The observance of such taboos varied according as +they were common or strict. When a common season +prevailed, the men were required only to abstain +from their usual duties and to attend at the <i>heiau</i>, or +temple, where prayers were offered every morning and +evening. During a period strictly tabooed the regulations +had a sterner character, and in consequence a +general gloom and silence pervaded the whole district +or island. Every fire and light was extinguished; +canoes were not launched; no person bathed; and no +one was to be seen out of doors, save those whose presence +was required at the temple. Even the lower +creation felt the force of the law: “no dog must bark, +no pig must grunt, no cock must crow—or the <i>tabu</i> +would be broken, and fail to accomplish the object +designed. On these occasions they tied up the mouths +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>of the dogs and pigs, and put the fowls under a calabash, +or fastened a piece of cloth over their eyes.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> +From another account we learn that any one found in +a canoe on a <i>tabu</i> day incurred the death penalty, and +that the same Draconian punishment was meted out +to the individual who indulged in carnal pleasures +or made only a noise at such a time.⁠<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The sabbatarian regulations introduced by Christian +missionaries among their Hawaiian adherents +presented no sharp contrast to the rigours of the old dispensation. +The natives even called Sunday <i>la tabu</i>, +“the tabooed day.” No food was cooked on that +day, the meals being all prepared on the previous +Saturday; no fires were kindled; and no canoes +were paddled. The people neither fished nor tilled the +soil and, if on a journey, they halted until the sacred +day was over.⁠<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> In Tahiti, also, the Sunday rest was +rigidly maintained. On that day no canoes were +launched, and no person was seen abroad except on the +road to church or when returning from divine service. +The success of the missionaries in introducing this +strict observance of Sunday was, we learn, “ascribed +by themselves in a great degree to its analogy to the +taboo days of heathen times.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span></p> + +<p>Communal taboos were observed by the Hawaiian +Islanders generally in connection with important religious +ceremonies. Of these, one of the most elaborate +was the consecration of a <i>luakini</i>, or chief temple. The +rites, which were often performed just before a war +in order to insure victory, occupied ten or more days. +After a solemn purification of the island or district all +the people were summoned to divine service, during +which a priest sprinkled them with holy water, <i>i.e.</i>, +salt water mixed with a little turmeric, some moss, and +a bunch of a sacred fern. “The next thing in order was +to bring down the principal idol, called the <i>hakuohia</i>, +from the forest. A great procession was formed, consisting +of the king, the <i>hakuohia</i> priest, and a crowd of +attendants carrying idols and various offerings, and +leading a human victim. The tree had been selected +and the axe consecrated the day before. On arriving +at the tree, the priest recited the appropriate <i>aha</i> +[prayer] amid dead silence, after which the king pronounced +the <i>amama</i> [spell], and killed the hog with a +single blow. The priest inquired whether any sound +of man or beast or bird or cricket had been heard during +the <i>aha</i>, and if not, it was a good omen. The +doomed man was then brought forward, and offered +to the god by the king, after which his body was buried +at the foot of the tree. The consecrated hog was baked +in an oven on the spot, while the tree was cut down, +trimmed, and covered with <i>ieie</i> vines. After the company +had feasted, a procession was formed with the +feather-gods in front, followed by the chiefs and people +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>with <i>pala</i> fern, <i>ohia</i>-branches, etc., and others carrying +the new idol.... The inhabitants remained indoors, +for it was death to meet the procession, and all fires +were strictly forbidden. The images were finally +carried to the <i>heiau</i>, where they were deposited with +shoutings and beating of drums.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Following this +rite came a long series of services at the <i>heiau</i>. The +night of the great <i>aha</i> “was the most solemn and critical +of all. The omens were carefully observed, and prayers +were offered in every house for the success of the +coming <i>aha</i>, and for auspicious weather, that there +might be no wind or rain, no thunder or lightning, no +high surf, and no sound of man or beast to mar the +ceremonies. If the sky was clear and everything +favourable, between midnight and morning the king +and high-priest entered the small house, called <i>waiea</i>, +to perform the great <i>aha</i> (<i>hulahula</i>), while the congregation +sat in front of the <i>mana</i> house, listening and +watching in profound silence. The king stood listening +intently and holding a pig, while the high-priest, +clad in white <i>kapa</i>, and holding a <i>lama</i> rod wound with +<i>aloa</i> (white <i>kapa</i>), recited the long prayer. At its +close the king killed the pig with a single blow, and +offered it up with a short prayer to the four great +gods. The priests then asked the king whether the +<i>aha</i> was perfect, and whether he had heard the voice +of man or dog or mouse or fowl, or anything else during +the prayer. If not, he tapped the large drum as +a signal that it was over, and they both went out to +question the assembly outside. If no one had heard +a sound during the ceremony, the high-priest congratulated +the king, and predicted for him victory and long +life. The people then raised loud shouts of <i>Lele wale +ka aha e!</i> which were repeated by all who heard them, +and so the news travelled far and wide.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Such were +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>some of the ceremonies at the dedication of an important +temple.⁠<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Communal taboos also marked the celebration by +the Hawaiians of the great <i>makahiki</i>, or New Year’s +festival, sacred to the god Lono. On the twenty-third +of the month Welehu, which nearly corresponded to +November, Lono’s image was decorated and, when +night came on, all the people went to bathe in the sea. +This rite of purification having been accomplished, +men and women donned new clothing in preparation +for the festival which began at sunrise on the morrow. +During the four days of its continuance no fishing, no +bathing, no pounding of <i>kapa</i>, and no beating of +drums or blowing of conchs was permitted. Land +and sky and sea were <i>tabu</i> to Lono, and only feasting +and games were allowed. The high-priest was +blindfolded and remained in seclusion. On the fifth +day the bandage was removed from his eyes and canoes +were allowed to put to sea. On the sixth day the <i>tabu</i> +season began again and continued for about twenty +days longer. The festivities at length drew to a close, +the ornaments of Lono’s image were packed up and +deposited in the temple for use another year, and all +restrictions on fishing and farming were taken off—<i>noa +ka makahiki</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span></p> + +<p>In old Hawaii, as in the other Polynesian islands, +fishing formed one of the chief means of livelihood +and ranked next to agriculture in importance. The +fishermen, who composed almost a distinct class, +observed many religious rites peculiar to themselves. +For instance, a man would not venture to use a new +net or to build and launch a new canoe, without prayer +and sacrifice to his gods. Communal regulations relating +to fishing were imposed twice a year in connection +with two sacred fish, the <i>aku</i>, or bonito, and the <i>opelu</i>. +Each was <i>tabu</i> by turns for six months. In Hinaiaelee +(July) the taboo began on the first night of the month, +at which time no fire might be kindled, and no sound +of man or beast or fowl might break the profound silence. +The following morning the high-priest repaired +to the house of Ku-ula, the god of fishermen, to offer +a pig and to recite the great <i>aha</i>, as during a dedication. +Meanwhile a man was sent to the woods to +gather <i>pala</i> fern. All that day a solemn rest was observed +on shore. Next morning the head fisherman, +wearing a white <i>malo</i>, or girdle, took the sacred fern +and a new net in his canoe and put to sea. After +prayers to his tutelary deities and to Ku the fisherman +proceeded to cast the net. If he and his crew made a +haul of <i>opelu</i>, they paddled joyfully for the shore and +presented the fish to the high-priest, who sent some to +the king and placed the rest on the altar in the temple. +Next day the <i>opelu</i> became <i>noa</i>, or free to all, but the +<i>aku</i> in its turn was prohibited to human use for six +months, and was not to be eaten on pain of death.⁠<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Hawaiian religious system included a remarkable +approximation to the institution of a weekly +Sabbath. In every lunar month there were four tabu +periods, dedicated severally to the four great gods of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>the native pantheon. The first was that of Ku, from +the third to the sixth night; the second, that of Hua, +at full moon, including the fourteenth and fifteenth +nights; the third, that of Kaloa, on the twenty-fourth +and twenty-fifth nights; and the fourth, that of Kane, +on the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth nights. +During these <i>tabu</i> periods a devout king generally +remained in the <i>heiau</i>, busy with prayer and sacrifice. +Women at such times were forbidden to enter canoes, +and sexual intercourse was also prohibited.⁠<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The occasions when seasons of communal abstinence +and quiescence were enforced in the Society Islands, +the Marquesas Islands, Samoa, and New Zealand were +not always the same as in the Hawaiian group. Divergencies +of custom might well be expected among the +widely scattered divisions of the Polynesian race. +But, if such rites as those for the dedication of a temple +or for the observance of four <i>tabu</i> periods in every +month were confined to the Hawaiians, some other +ceremonies, notably those connected with fishing, +were much alike throughout the entire Pacific area.</p> + +<p>In the Society and the Marquesas islands the bonito +fishing in November or December opened with a ceremony +removing the prohibition which had previously +rested on the capture of that fish. A strict taboo of +all activity marked the first day of the proceedings: +no one could approach the seashore, or make a fire, or +cook food, or even eat before the going-down of the +sun. The customary employments of the men in +canoe-building and house-building, of the women in +the preparation of cloths, mats, and thread, were abandoned; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>“in a word, all work was forbidden; it was a +day of silence and of devotion.” Meanwhile the priests +remained in the <i>marai</i>, or temple, engaged in prayer; +and their assistants prepared an altar to receive the +first-fruits of the fishing. At nightfall the single canoe +which had gone forth to the fishing returned with the +catch of bonito. Several of the largest fish were +placed on the altar, and the others were entirely consumed +in a blazing fire before the altar. The fish +caught on this day belonged to the gods and those on +the following day to the high-priest; but on the third +day fishing was opened to all.⁠<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Among the Maori +of New Zealand the preparations for mackerel fishing +included the observance of various taboos. Every +one concerned in making or mending nets, the ground +where the nets were made, and the river, on the banks +of which the work went on, were in a state of sacredness. +Nobody might walk over the ground, no canoe might +pass up and down the river, no fire might be made +within a prescribed distance, and no food might be +prepared, until the holy season came to an end.⁠<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> In +this instance only fishermen and their assistants appear +to have been subject to the restrictions. The Maori, +however, observed communal taboos in connection +with the planting of the <i>kumara</i>, or sweet potato, +formerly the most important agricultural product of +New Zealand and the chief reliance of the natives for +food. An old chief of Mokoia Island, Lake Rotorua, +has described how, when the time to plant <i>kumara</i> +arrived, the priests went forth to the woods for branches +of the sacred <i>mapau</i> tree. “On that day and the day +following, everything was <i>tapu</i>. The people fasted and +did no cooking. The waters of the lake were <i>tapu</i>; +no canoes were allowed to put out and no fishing was +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>done.” The priests took the <i>mapau</i> twigs to the stone +image of the <i>kumara</i>-god (still kept on the island), +and laying them on the idol, prayed for an abundant +harvest. In the evening they went to the gardens +and stuck the branches in the earth. The skull of a +tribal chief of <i>ariki</i> rank was disinterred and placed +beside the <i>mapau</i> sticks, in order that the <i>mana</i>, or +magical power of the dead chieftain, might guard the +plantation and assist in securing a bountiful harvest.⁠<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Still another critical epoch when the Maori subjected +themselves to communal taboos occurred at the beginning +of a war. Hostilities having been decided on, +the first thing necessary was to take the auspices by +casting the <i>niu</i>. One of the leading priests procured +a quantity of fern-stalks, some of which represented +spears, and the remainder, warriors. The warrior-sticks +were stuck in a mat and a fern-stalk was hurled +at each one. If the missile fell on the left side of the +warrior-stick, this was a sign that the person whom it +represented would fall in battle, if on the right side, +that he would live. A similar procedure was enacted +with sticks named for enemies, and for the men, women, +and children who were to be left at home. On the +completion of the <i>niu</i> ceremony, the priests lifted the +taboo which had rested over the settlement, a taboo +imposing abstinence from food, but not, apparently, +from work.⁠<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span></p> + +<p>The sacrifice of first-fruits seems to have formed a +regular part of the religious system of the Polynesian +peoples, for we possess specific references to it among +the Hawaiians, the Samoans, the New Zealanders, +the natives of the Society Islands, and those of the +Tonga Islands. In the latter group the ceremony, +called <i>inachi</i>, generally took place about October. +It was observed with scrupulous care, since the people +believed that to neglect it would bring upon them the +vengeance of the gods. We are fortunate in possessing +a detailed description of the ceremony by an eye-witness +of it.⁠<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> According to William Mariner the +word <i>inachi</i> referred to that portion of the fruits of +the earth and of other eatables which was offered to +the god in the person of the divine chief Tooitonga, +an allotment made once a year, just before the yam +crop had arrived at maturity. On the day before the +ceremony the first-fruits of the yam season were dug +up, ornamented with ribbons, and dyed red, in preparation +for the procession on the morrow. “The sun +has scarcely set when the sound of the conch begins +again to echo through the island, increasing as the +night advances. At the <i>mooa</i> [capital] and all the +plantations the voices of men and women are heard +singing <i>Nófo, óooa tegger gnaoóe, óooa gnaoóe</i>, ‘Rest +thou, doing no work; thou shalt not work.’⁠<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> This +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>increases till midnight, men generally singing the first +part of the sentence, and the women the last, to produce +a more pleasing effect: it then subsides for three +or four hours, and again increases as the sun rises. +Nobody, however, is seen stirring out in the public +roads till about eight o’clock, when the people from +all quarters of the island are seen advancing towards +the <i>mooa</i>, and canoes from all the other islands landing +their men; so that all the inhabitants of Tonga seem +approaching by sea and land, singing and sounding +the conch. At the <i>mooa</i> itself the universal bustle +of preparation is seen and heard; and the different +processions entering from various quarters, of men +and women, all dressed up in new <i>gnatoos</i>, ornamented +with red ribbons and wreaths of flowers, and the men +armed with spears and clubs, betoken the importance +of the ceremony about to be performed.” The proceedings +consisted in the solemn presentation of the +first-fruits to the divine chief at the grave of his predecessor, +and closed with a feast and dance. Then the +people returned to their homes, perfectly assured of +the protection of the gods.</p> + +<p>The natives of Samoa possessed a remarkably complex +pantheon of household and village gods, the recipients +of prayer and sacrifice, and, in the case of the +village gods, honoured with temples, priests, and annual +festivals. The Samoans had also war-gods, who in +character resembled the other deities, since they were +supposed to be incarnate in animals or embodied in +inanimate objects.⁠<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> One of these militant divinities +was the cuttle-fish (<i>fe’e</i>), said to have been imported +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>from Fiji. In one place Fe’e was a general village +god whose province was not confined to war. “The +month of May was sacred to his worship. No traveller +was then allowed to pass through the village by the +public road; nor was any canoe allowed in the lagoon +off that part of the settlement. There was great +feasting, too, on these occasions, and also games, club +exercise, spear-throwing, wrestling, etc.... In another +district three months were sacred to the worship +of Fe’e. During that time any one passing along the +road, or in the lagoon, would be beaten, if not killed, +for insulting the god. For the first month torches and +all other lights were forbidden, as the god was about +and did not wish to be seen. White turbans were +also forbidden during the festivities, and confined to +war. At this time, also, all unsightly burdens—such +as a log of firewood on the shoulder—were forbidden, +lest it should be considered by the god as a mockery of +his <i>tentacula</i>.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> Another village god, who rejoiced +in the name of Titi Usi, or Glittering Leaf Girdle, +received worship at the new moon. “At that time +all work was suspended for a day or two. The cocoanut-leaf +blinds were kept down, and the people sat +still in their houses. Any one walking in front of the +house risked a beating. After prayer and feasting +a man went about and blew a shell-trumpet as a sign +to all that the ceremonies were over, and that the usual +routine of village and family life might be resumed.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> +The festivals of the other village deities of Samoa seem +not to have been marked by compulsory cessation of +activity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The observance of regular periods consecrated to +the gods has been noticed in some other parts of Polynesia. +At Fakaofo, or Bowditch Island, in the Union +group, the month of May was devoted to the worship +of the great god Tui Tokelau. All work was then +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>laid aside. The people assembled from the three islands +of the group to enjoy feasting and dancing. They +prayed to their divinity for life, health, and a plentiful +supply of fish and cocoanuts.⁠<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> In tiny Manahiki, +or Humphrey Island, the natives had special days for +worship, every three or four months. At such times +heaps of food were collected in the place of public +assembly, and the king, who was high-priest as well, +prayed for food and life and health in behalf of his +people.⁠<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> We are told, also, that when the god Ratu-mai-Mbulu +visited the Fiji Islands, the inhabitants +lived very quietly for an entire month, lest they should +disturb the deity in his task of making the fruit-trees +blossom and bear fruit. During this Lenten season +the natives did not plant or build or sail on the ocean +or go to war. The priests announced the time of the +god’s advent and departure.⁠<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> According to a later +account Ratu-mai-Mbulu (Lord from Hades) was +probably a deity of foreign extraction. “Through +him the earth gives her increase. In December he +comes forth from Mbulu, and pours sap into the fruit-trees, +and pushes the young yam shoots through the +soil. Throughout that moon it is <i>tabu</i> to beat the drum, +to sound the conch-shell, to dance, to plant, to fight, +or to sing at sea, lest Ratu-mai-Mbulu be disturbed, +and quit the earth before his work is completed. At +the end of the month the priest sounds the consecrated +shell; the people raise a great shout, carrying the good +news from village to village; and pleasure and toil +are again free to all.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The descriptions of Polynesian customs by early +observers, though frequently the only accounts we +possess, are sometimes very brief and obscure. These +remarks apply to a curious ceremony annually performed +by some Fijian tribes. The time of its celebration +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>was determined by the appearance of a certain +sea-slug, which swarms out in dense shoals from +the coral reefs on a single day of the year, usually in +November during the last quarter of the moon. The +arrival of the sea-slugs furnished the signal for a general +feast at those places where they were taken. +Hostilities were suspended between rival communities +for four days, and a taboo was laid to prevent noise +or disturbance during this period. No labour might +be done and no person might be seen outside his house. +“In Ovolau the ceremony begins by a man ascending +a tree and praying for fine weather and winds throughout +the year. Thereupon a tremendous clatter, with +drumming and shouting, is raised by all the people +inside of the houses for about half an hour, and then +a dead quiet ensues for four days, during which they +are feasting on the <i>mbalolo</i>. If in any dwelling a noise +is made, as by a child crying, a forfeit (<i>ori</i>) is immediately +exacted by the chief.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> According to another +account the rule requiring quiescence was so strictly +observed that not even a leaf might be plucked or the +offal removed from the houses. During these four +days the men lived in their special club-house (<i>mbure</i>), +and the women and children remained shut up in the +family abodes. At daylight, on the expiry of the fourth +night, the whole town was in an uproar; and men +and boys scampered about, knocking with sticks at +the doors of the dwellings and crying <i>Sinariba</i>. This +concluded the ceremony.⁠<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> It would seem that these +accounts refer to a Fijian New Year’s festival, which, +like that of the Hawaiians, was held in November for +a period of four days, and was marked by communal +taboos imposing abstinence and quiescence.⁠<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span></p> + +<p>The western tribes of Viti Levu, largest of the Fiji +Islands, in traditions, language, and physical type are +recognized as distinctly Melanesian. In former days +these tribes possessed a secret association known as +<i>nanga</i>, or <i>mbaki</i>, which closely resembled the secret +societies so common in the Melanesian Archipelago. +It is highly probable, therefore, that, at least in its +known form, the <i>nanga</i> was a late importation into +the island of Viti Levu. Initiation into the <i>nanga</i> +was supposed to bring the youth of the tribe into +relations with the ancestral spirits, who were represented, +at the time of the ceremonies, by the elders +and by some of the middle-aged men. The sanctuary +and lodge of the association formed the earthly dwelling-place +of the spirits; it was a tabernacle as holy +to these Fijians as was the structure in the Wilderness +to the Israelites; there the first-fruits of the +yam harvest were solemnly presented to the ancestors; +and there the young men of Viti Levu were +introduced to the mysteries of the tribe. When the +<i>nanga</i> enclosure was being raised for the initiatory +performances, the people suspended all other work. +Not even food-planting might be done at such a time. +“If any impious person transgressed this law, ‘he +would only plant evil to himself and to his kinsfolk.’”⁠<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>In this instance there was no attribution of the sacred +period to any particular divinity, though all the ceremonies +connected with the <i>nanga</i> were supposed to +be directed by the ancestral spirits.</p> + +<p>The scanty records of aboriginal Polynesian society +also contain some passing references to the observance +of communal rest days on certain occasions when +the social consciousness had been deeply moved by +untoward and disastrous events. In Futuna, or Erronan, +an island which lies close to the dividing line +between Polynesia and Melanesia, the custom of taboo +is said to be very common. “They go so far as to +<i>tapu</i> the day—<i>e.g.</i>, to interdict all work in order to +please the gods, or to avert the hurricanes.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> In +Hawaii a <i>tabu</i> period was declared during the sickness +of chiefs.⁠<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> In Samoa the death of a chief of high rank +was followed by the suspension of all work in the +settlement for from ten to thirty days, until the funeral +ceremonies were performed. During this time no +stranger might approach the stricken village; a luckless +wayfarer, pushing in by accident, would have been +promptly clubbed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> This Samoan regulation, as we +shall see, is only a particular instance of a widespread +primitive custom. Communal rest days are still +observed in some parts of Micronesia, as on the island +of Yap, one of the Carolines. Here two aged “wizards,” +before whom all important questions come for +decision, have the power of imposing taboos on an +entire village. The periods of seclusion have been +known to last for six months. The critical epochs, +when such interdicts are enforced, occur during a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>time of drought, famine, or sickness, after a death of +a chief or famous man, and before a fishing expedition.⁠<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> +“In short, any great public event is thus celebrated, +and, in fact, there is always a <i>tabu</i> in full swing somewhere +or other, to the great disgust of the traders, who +only see in these enforced holidays an excuse for idling, +drunkenness and debauchery.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The accounts preserved in the older literature relating +to Polynesia thus make it evident that communal +taboos occurred at critical, or especially important, +seasons. The prohibitions were negative in character, +required a period of abstinence sometimes verging +upon complete quiescence, and were closely connected +with the aristocratic and theocratic organization of +Polynesian society. At the same time the communal +regulations, artificially created, are to be assimilated +to those which rested upon individuals alone and arose +spontaneously as a result of various circumstances. +Every description of aboriginal culture, from Hawaii +to New Zealand, contains numerous references to the +network of taboos which invested private life. All +persons dangerously ill, all mothers at childbirth, together +with their infants, all persons who handled a +corpse or assisted at a funeral, were deemed unclean +and hence were subjected to a rigid quarantine, a protective +measure necessary for the safety of the social +group. If we assume that the individual taboos represent +the earlier phase of the institution, then the communal +taboos may be regarded as merely an extension +to the body politic of these simpler and more rudimentary +customs. The probability of such a transition +will be strengthened by a consideration of the +tabooed days found among some other primitive +peoples.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p> + +<p>Seasons of communal abstinence are not found in +Australia, and only faint indications of them exist +within the Melanesian area, that great island group +which extends from New Guinea to the Fiji Archipelago. +In New Guinea itself a few instances of the custom +under consideration have been noted, all within the +British possessions there.⁠<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Among the Roro-speaking +tribes, inhabiting the strip of coast from Cape Possession +in the west to Kabadi in the east, it is said that +an entire village will mourn for a chief or influential +man “by abstaining from fishing, hunting, and pot-making, +and by reducing garden-work to a minimum.” +The period of mourning lasts from six to ten days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In +the neighbourhood of Port Moresby are the Motu and +Koita tribes, some of whose customs were described, +many years ago, by a native missionary who long laboured +in New Guinea. Among these tribes, we are +told, “fishing work lays the people under a number of +restrictions. There must be no talking; any one causing +another to speak prevents his getting any fish. +If the fishermen are going on a turtle expedition, all +must be still throughout the village. None go about +among the houses, or on the public road. All go up +to their houses and sit still. No sound of a voice, or +chopping firewood, or any movement is allowed, until +it is supposed that the fishing party is clear of the +lagoon, and out into the deep ocean, and then the +villagers resume their usual occupation.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> These +taboos in connection with fishing closely resemble +the regulations so common in Polynesia.</p> + +<p>The Indonesian inhabitants of Borneo are divided +into a large number of tribes, among which the Kayan, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>the Sea Dyak, and the Land Dyak are perhaps the +best known. All these peoples till the soil and live +in long communal houses situated on the banks of the +rivers. Though now spread over a wide area in Borneo, +the different tribes possess in common many social and +religious customs, notably the cult of omen animals, +together with the observance of numerous taboos which +are regularly enforced at the time of rice (<i>padi</i>) planting +and harvesting, sometimes also at mid-harvest.⁠<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> +The taboos found among the Kayan on the Baram +River, Sarawak, have been well described by a recent +traveller, whose picturesque narrative deserves an +extended notice.⁠<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> “During the days devoted to search +for omens in reference to the sites of the rice-fields, +and also again in reference to the planting, the Kayan +refrain from their usual daily occupations, and neither +leave their houses themselves nor allow strangers to +enter. These days of seclusion are termed <i>permantong +padi</i>, or <i>lali padi</i>, and correspond very closely to taboo +elsewhere.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The rude agricultural methods of the Kayan start +with the preliminary process of clearing a site in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>dense jungle. The work is extremely tedious and if, +after all the heavy labour, the crops should fail or be +destroyed by monkeys, birds, or beetles, the entire +household feels that some act has been committed +whereby the displeasure of the spirits is aroused. +Accordingly, before beginning so arduous a task, it +is essential to take omens from the actions of certain +birds, mammals, and reptiles, called <i>amau</i>, which are +supposed to be in the confidence of the spirits.⁠<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> A +patch of jungle having been tentatively selected, the +work begins with the removal of the dense undergrowth. +During this preliminary stage, while the labour is less +heavy than it will be later, when trees must be felled, +the household is not as yet under a taboo. Each +person, nevertheless, keeps a sharp eye for evil omens. +Should a native on the way to the clearing see any +one of four ominous animals, a certain species of snake, +a deer, a civet cat, or a rain-bird, the site will be at +once abandoned, regardless of the work already done +there. Wilfully to ignore such a warning “not only +compromises the abundance and quality of the crops, +but also the health, or even the life, of the whole household.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>If no evil omens are observed for three days, the +Kayan workers feel sufficiently encouraged to proceed +to the next stage of felling the heavy timber on the +site, which has now been stripped of its underbrush. +Then ensues an elaborate series of auguries. While +the various families making up the household of a +communal dwelling remain secluded on the long veranda, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>or in their small private rooms, sitting very still +all day and smoking and talking, two hawk-men +are off in the forest looking for a hawk, called <i>niho</i>. +Three days must be devoted to this search: if the hawk +is seen on the first day, but not on the two days following, +the omen is unfavourable. The people will +continue the preparation of the soil, but they expect +poor crops, a result pretty certain to follow their half-hearted +and discouraged labours. On the second day +the search is continued, and if the hawk is seen, the +omen is favourable, but not completely so. If the +third day’s search again reveals a hawk, the two men +return at once to the house and spread the good news. +Every one now watches the actions of the hawk. +“Should he sail away out of sight without once flapping +his wings all are delighted; it means that the +clearing of the jungle may now continue prosperously, +and that neither attack of enemies nor accident to the +workers need be feared. Should the hawk flap his +wings, it follows that some men, in felling the jungle, +will be badly cut by their axes or perhaps crushed under +falling trees. All instantly avert their eyes from the +flapping hawk, lest the bird should recognize them in +the fields and select them as victims.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>There now occurs a brief respite of the <i>lali</i> observance, +and the people may leave their houses. But +the same formalities must be observed by the natives +while search is made for four other ominous animals. +In each case there is a period of seclusion and abstinence +lasting for three days. These are all the omens +that must be consulted before the heavy timber may +be felled, the ground burned over, and the rice planted.</p> + +<p>Such are the various taboos which affect the inmates +of a communal house or village, before the crop is +started. Other regulations concern outsiders. From +the hour when the real labour of felling the jungle +begins and until the seed-planting is completed, no +stranger may enter house or field. Should a neighbour, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>by accident or necessity, come within the tabooed +district, he must atone for the trespass by making a +small payment, called <i>usut</i>. It consists, ordinarily, +of a few beads or an iron implement. These objects +are placed in a basket and hung up in the rice-field +till they rust away or disappear. It is a special duty +of the women to see that this <i>usut</i> is paid.</p> + +<p>The <i>lali</i> ordinances of the Kayan are not confined to +the time of seed-planting. Once more, when the crop +is all harvested, the house is closed to strangers. For +eight days no one may go away on an expedition or +return to the village from abroad. Another season +of restriction follows during the period when the rice +is being stored in the granaries. “But as soon as this +harvesting is over, a general feast is prepared, and merriment +of all sorts makes up for the weariness of the +long day’s work. The women don every stitch of +their finery and every bead to their name; some even +assume men’s clothes, and carry shield, spear, and +<i>parang</i>. In the evening all join in a long procession +round the house; guests are invited to participate in +the festivities, and ‘jest and youthful jollity’ rule the +hour; the brimming cup passes freely, and to the +harmonious strains of the <i>kaluri</i> the women ‘trip it as +they go,’ or leap in war-dances in imitation of the +men.” After this festival there follows yet another +period of taboo, ten days in length, when no one is +allowed to do a stroke of any work that resembles the +cultivation of rice: “should any restless creature +express a desire for active work, he is scoffed at and +scorned as a spoil-sport and kill-joy.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>These customs of the Kayan of Sarawak are significant +as showing how for a Bornean community the +whole period of farming, from the initial task of selecting +a site to the final storing of the rice in the granaries, +is supposed to be subject to supernatural influences. +Planting and harvesting are critical times, when every +precaution must be taken to win the approval, and to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>thwart the ill will, of the spirits which affect the tribal +life. If we turn, now, to the Kayan on the Mendalam +River in Dutch Borneo, we shall find here also a community +of primitive farmers who depend mainly on +the rice crop for subsistence, and by whom all agricultural +operations have been invested with a religious +significance. Without the consent of the spirits no +farm work may be undertaken; without a strict regimen +of sacrifices and taboos their aid cannot be secured +for the growth and maturity of the crops. A traveller, +who has described in detail the agricultural rites of +the Kayan, tells us that the sowing festival lasts several +weeks and that during this period certain communal +regulations are enforced. On the first day of the +festival every one, save the very old and the very young, +must refrain from bathing; then for eight successive +days no work may be done and no intercourse may be +held with neighbouring communities. The custom of +excluding strangers at this time has a purely religious +meaning: the presence of strangers, so the Kayan +believe, would frighten or annoy the spirits and consequently +endanger the welfare of the crops.⁠<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> Following +the rites at sowing come those which inaugurate the +hoeing of the fields, and finally the New Year’s festival, +eight days in duration, when the harvest has been +safely garnered and the long period of labour and anxiety +is at an end.⁠<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>But the critical occasions demanding the observance +of taboos are not confined by the Kayan to agricultural +occupations. Every important undertaking may be +commenced only when favourable omens have been +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>vouchsafed by the good spirits, and when the spirits +of evil intent have been pacified by many acts of +abstinence. These aborigines, for example, entertain +the belief that house-building, which necessarily involves +the cutting-down of many trees, is a dangerous +occupation, because it arouses the animosity of the +tree-spirits. Hence some Kayan villages, after the +erection of a communal house, observe a period of +penance for an entire year. The Ulu-Ayar Dyak +on the Mandai River, when they use the valuable +ironwood as timber, feel it necessary, in consequence, +to deny themselves various dainties for three years.⁠<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> +To the Kayan on the Mahakam River in Dutch Borneo, +the building of a chiefs house, in which task all take +part by contributing either materials or labour, forms +a matter of great moment. Dr. Nieuwenhuis, who +witnessed the ceremonies on such an occasion, tells us +that the regulations enforced begin with the collection +of materials for the new dwelling. Nothing may be +done at full moon, a time when important business is +always suspended.⁠<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> During the search for satisfactory +trees and while these are being turned into piles, planks, +and shingles, watch is kept for spirit-warnings as +revealed by the flight and cries of the ominous birds. +Work on the house always terminates at nightfall, +when birds are silent. Important stages in the construction +of the house, such as the sinking of the piles +and the placing of the finely carved wooden figureheads +at the two ends of the ridgepole, are signalized +by appropriate sacrifices to the spirits. When a sufficient +quantity of shingles has been prepared for covering +the roof, another offering, consisting of a fat pig +and two chickens, is made to the spirits. Then follows +a rest period, called <i>melo</i>,⁠<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> two days in length. +During this time a strip of rattan is stretched around +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>the house to indicate that no one may enter it. While +the house is being shingled, any untoward event will +interrupt the progress of the work. For instance, +should a man tumble off the roof, it would be necessary +to perform another sacrifice and to declare a <i>melo</i> lasting +eight days. Thus anxiously and seriously does the +Kayan conduct himself in all the crises of his tribal +life.⁠<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Among the most numerous and powerful of the Bornean +tribes are the Iban, or Sea Dyak, who occupy +much of the country between the Baram River in +Sarawak and the Kapuas River in Dutch Borneo. +Throughout this extensive district the Iban use the +same language and possess substantially uniform customs. +A Christianized native, who has given to us a +remarkably intimate description of the religious observances +of his people, thus sets forth the omens and incidents +which require abstention from work.</p> + +<p>“When at night the Iban dreams of insult, anger, or +that he has been bitten by a snake, crushed by a falling +tree, waylaid by a ghost, chased by a crocodile, +the following day he rests from all work: to go abroad +or about his work after such dreams would cause him +to be wounded, hurt by falling wood, or shot by an +arrow from the evil spirits’ blowpipe. On the frequent +recurrence of such dreams the medicine-man is +called in, who rubs the patient’s body with a charm +which makes him invisible to the evil spirits. This +ceremony is called <i>bedinding</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the shielding.... +To dream of being enveloped by a swarm of bees, of +being overwhelmed by falling earth, that the waist-cloth +has rotted away, or of eating rice from a winnowing-fan, +will deter the Iban from going on the warpath, +for they tell of defeat and of being overpowered +by the enemy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span></p> + +<p>“To hear the cry of a bird of evil omen on first waking +in the morning, or on rising up from the morning +meal, prevents the Iban from going to his work on +that day.... When the Iban is setting out to his +work and has descended the ladder leading from his +house, if the note of a bird of any kind is heard at the +same time as his foot first touches the ground, he must +turn back. The cry of the <i>kikeh senabong</i>, gazelle, or +deer, heard on the path, will cause him to give up work +for that day. The same happens if these omens are +heard as he enters the field; arrives at the <i>pankalan</i>, +<i>i.e.</i>, ‘resting place’; when commencing his work; whilst +sharpening his chopper, or after the midday meal.</p> + +<p>“The news of a death occurring in the neighbourhood +or at a distance, the time of full moon,⁠<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> the performance +of ceremonies over the sick by the medicine-man, a +sacrifice to the spirits, are incidents that require all +the villagers to rest from work. Likewise, if some of +the villagers attend a feast in a neighbouring village, +those that remain behind must rest from work lest they +should incur the anger of the guardian spirits of those +attending the feast.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>But these are not all the circumstances under which +an Iban community subjects itself to the rule of abstinence. +Rice-planting here, as among the Kayan, +necessitates certain rest periods, each of three days’ +duration.⁠<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> While a village is under construction, +weaving the native cloth, settling quarrels, and going +on the warpath are forbidden; to break this taboo +would cause a death in the village.⁠<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> When rumours are +abroad of cholera, smallpox, or fever, another season +of seclusion is imposed. The entrance to the village +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>is railed off, and no one is allowed either ingress or +egress for three days, during which time all rest from +work. Meanwhile the village elders have prepared +an offering to the evil spirit of the epidemic. This +sacrifice, together with a winnowing-fan on which is +the figure of man drawn in chalk, is placed in a shed +near the village. The evil spirit, it is thought, will +stop to observe the chalk-drawing and thus will be led +to discover the food which has been left in the shed. +Having satisfied his hunger, he will not seek to enter +the village.⁠<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> The general character of these taboos +as propitiatory rites is further illustrated by some of +the customs relating to agriculture. When the forest +land has been fully cleared and left to dry, sun and +wind become of vital consequence to the Iban, for, if +the people are unable to burn the immense mass of +timber and brush-wood in the jungle, famine stares +them in the face during the year to come. “If it pour +with rain day after day and week after week, and there +is no promise of continued fine weather, they are apt +to imagine that some impurity has defiled the tribe +and that the face of the Great Spirit is hid from them. +So the elders of the people get to work to find it out, +and adjudicate on all cases of incest and bigamy, and +purify the earth with the blood of pigs. Prayers are +offered to Betara⁠<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> from one end of the country to the +other; for the space of three days the villages are +tabooed, and all labour is discontinued; the inhabitants +remain at home and strangers are not admitted. +But if the weather is warm and dry, the farms are +ready in a very few days for the burning.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span></p> + +<p>The seasons of communal abstinence found among +the Land Dyak, who dwell in the southwestern part of +Sarawak, differ only in minor details from those of +other Bornean tribes. There are three principal occasions +when the Land Dyak subject themselves to +<i>pamali</i>, or taboo:</p> + +<p>“The first, <i>pamali mati</i>, is on a house, and on everything +in it for twelve days after the decease of any person +belonging to it: during this time, no one who is not +an inhabitant of the dwelling can enter it, nor are the +persons usually residing in it allowed to speak to such, +nor can anything, on any pretence whatever, be removed +from it, until the twelve days of the prohibition +be expired: its conclusion is marked by the death of +a fowl or pig, according to the circumstances of the +family.</p> + +<p>“The <i>pamali peniakit</i> is undertaken by a whole +village during any sickness which prevails generally +amongst the members of the tribe; it is marked by a +pig slain, and a feast being made in order to propitiate +the divinity who has sent the malady among them; +in its severest form it is of eight days’ continuance, +and during this period everything in the village is at +a standstill, the inhabitants shutting themselves up +from all intercourse with strangers.... The <i>pamali +peniakit</i> is also undertaken by individuals when any +member of the family is sick; thus parents often put +themselves under its regulations, fondly hoping that +by denying themselves for a time the pleasures of intercourse +with their fellow creatures, they will prevail +upon the malignant spirit, which is supposed to have +shed its withering influence over their offspring, to +restore it to its wonted health and strength.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span></p> + +<p>“The <i>pamali omar</i>, or taboo on the farms, occurs +immediately after the whole of the seed is sown: it +lasts four days, and during that period, no person of +the tribe enters any of the plantations on any account; +a pig and feast are, according to their practice, also +necessary. The proper observance of these various +forms of <i>pamali</i> is probably amongst the most ancient +of their customs, and was practised by their tribes +previously to the introduction of the Hindu religion.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> +From another authority we learn that the Land Dyak +recognize a variety of incidents, more or less inimical +to the operations of farming, which suffice to impose +taboos. “If the basket in which the paddy is put as it +is cut during harvesting be upset, that farm must rest +for a day, and a fowl must be killed, or all their paddy +will go rotten. If a tree falls across the farm-path, +a fowl must be killed on the spot, and the path be disused +for one day, or some one will meet with an accident +on it.... At full moon, and on the third day +after it (called <i>bubuk</i>), no farm work may be done, +unless it is wished that the paddy should be devoured +by blight and mildew. In some tribes the unlucky +days are those of the new and full moon, and its first +and third quarters.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In the course of an excellent study of the Land +Dyak festivals,⁠<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Mrs. S. B. Scott argues that they are +far more effective as social observances when accompanied +by the various taboos. The change of occupations +heightens the sacredness of the feast, and also +enables all the inhabitants of a village to join in the +long, elaborate ritual. At the same time the closed +house prevents intrusion and secures the presence of +every member of the community. Furthermore, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>prospect of feasting, drinking, and general excitement +gives an added zest to the labours of the Dyak farmers. +The mid-harvest festival, when this is celebrated, affords +a much needed rest from the heavy work of harvesting; +and the last and greatest of the festivals +comes as a natural period of relaxation after the long +strain of toil and frugality is suddenly relaxed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>That in actual practice the Land Dyak observances +have this outcome, it is impossible to deny. Yet it +must be noticed that similar regulations are in force +on other and quite different occasions. As we have +just seen, the Land Dyak place an interdict, twelve +days in length, upon a house in which any one has died; +the same event also causes a general banning of the +village for one day only.⁠<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Childbirth imposes a taboo +of eight days’ duration on a Land Dyak family;⁠<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> +in this case the regulation does not appear to be extended +to the community at large. Sickness is another +event which puts a family under the ban;⁠<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> when the +sickness assumes an epidemic form and threatens the +general well-being, the rule of abstinence must be +observed by every one in the village. Such evidence +from the Land Dyak customs, confirmed as it is by +the facts relating to the customs of other Bornean +tribes, clearly illustrates the passage of individual +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>taboos, based on gross superstition, into community +ordinances which may sometimes have a real justification +in their social usefulness.</p> + +<p>These Bornean regulations disclose a fairly consistent +effort to adjust the length of the communal taboo +to the importance of the event which it commemorates. +Thus, house-building imposes a shorter season of abstinence +than does planting or sowing; a single death +in the village may require the cessation of activity by +the inhabitants for only one day; but an epidemic +sickness may necessitate a three days’ rest, as among the +Iban, or even eight days’ rest, as among the Land Dyak. +The restrictions themselves appear to be substantially +the same in all instances: the inhabitants “remain in +their houses, in order to eat, drink, and sleep; but +their eating must be moderate, and often consists of +nothing but rice and salt.... People under interdict +may not bathe, touch fire, or employ themselves about +their ordinary occupations.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> To these prohibitions +should be added that of sexual intercourse, a taboo +specifically mentioned for one Bornean tribe, and +probably found among others.⁠<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The close resemblances, even in details, between the +communal taboos observed in different parts of Borneo +must, unquestionably, be attributed to a long-continued +process of diffusion among the various Indonesian +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>tribes. These taboos have not been found, at +any rate have not been described, among the nomadic +hunting tribes, which occupy the interior parts of +Borneo and probably represent an aboriginal population. +Though our knowledge of Bornean ethnography +is still very imperfect, there seems to be no +doubt that the present Indonesian inhabitants are +descended from immigrants into the island at no very +remote date. We are justified, therefore, in seeking +a foreign source for various elements of the existing +Bornean culture. In particular, the practice of observing +communal taboos, in its rudiments, if not in its +completely developed form, may reasonably be regarded +as an importation into Borneo, if similar customs are +found to prevail among other Indonesian peoples.</p> + +<p>Between the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal +and the northern coast of Sumatra lies the archipelago +of the Nicobars. The inhabitants appear to be of +Indonesian type, but more or less intermixed with +Malays and with the natives of Burma and Siam. In +spite of the labours of numerous missionaries the Nicobarese +are said to entertain no conception of a Supreme +Being or of a future state. They have, however, a +very lively belief in evil spirits, which seem to be chiefly +the ghosts of the wicked. These malignant beings, +the source of all misfortune and disease, are propitiated +with offerings or driven out by exorcisms. On +such occasions the Nicobarese hold lengthy festivals, +some of which are accompanied by periods of communal +abstinence. The native name for these enforced +rest days or holidays is <i>anoiila</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Every year the +inhabitants of Kar Nicobar observe the ceremony of +<i>kataphang</i>, at which time the group of buildings, called +the <i>elpanam</i>,⁠<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> is cleaned out and purified to the accompaniment +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>of much singing and dancing. When this +preliminary work is done and the rubbish has been cast +into the sea, the doors of the houses in the <i>elpanam</i> are +closed and the people return to their private abodes in +the village. “Silence has now to be observed for a +full month; no fire or light may be seen; no cheroot +may be smoked. Women and children are interdicted +from coming to the <i>elpanam</i>, and, if they have to come +during the night on urgent affairs (to purchase things), +they have to place a light at the entrance of the <i>elpanam</i> +and then come without noise.... The chief +sufferers by this festival are the Burmans, because the +people cannot supply any nuts nor can they work in +making <i>kopra</i>, for the reason that they cannot go into +the jungle to fetch nuts nor can they come to the +<i>elpanam</i>.” The natives believe that during this time +the evil spirits from the jungle visit the <i>elpanam</i>. +When the month is up, a great feast is given to the +spirits and they are sent back to the jungle.⁠<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Another +Nicobar festival is that of <i>kiala</i>. The word means, +properly, “to take food.” The <i>kiala</i> is celebrated with +much feasting, to which the inhabitants of neighbouring +communities come as guests. At midday a cry of +supplication is heard from each building: “Let our +house be enriched with plenty of food. Let us have +many eatable things from other villages. Let there +come new women to our villages. Let us be happy.” +Then follow in regular sequence a day of rest—<i>anoiila</i>—a +day of pig-hunting in the jungle, a second +<i>anoiila</i>, and a second day of pig-hunting. One more +rest day ends the festival.⁠<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> The exact meaning of these +observances is difficult to make out.</p> + +<p>Very similar customs have been found among the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>people of Bali, an island to the east of Java. When +the Balinese are confronted by some real or imaginary +danger, such as an epidemic, an earthquake, or a lunar +eclipse, they at once take measures to drive away the +evil spirits, or <i>buta</i>, which have caused the ominous +event. This praiseworthy object is supposed to be +accomplished partly by verbal commands “go away! +go away!” addressed to the <i>buta</i>, partly by means of +an unearthly uproar of shouting and knocking. Then +follow two days of absolute silence, the stillness of the +grave. During this period, known as <i>sepi</i>, no one +ventures out of doors and no strangers are admitted +to the village. Even the usual domestic work, including +cooking, is discontinued. The interdict against +all activity is lifted on the third day, but even then +work in the rice-fields and buying and selling in the +market are forbidden. The evil spirits, it is believed, +would like to return at once to their old haunts, hence +they must be led to think that Bali is not Bali, but +some uninhabited island.⁠<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> This period of quiescence +is clearly a means of avoiding contact with the ghostly +powers. The reason given for abstaining from activity—to +make the spirits suppose that Bali is not Bali—may +be taken as a naïve effort to explain a custom +no longer understood. The Balinese have also a +New Year’s festival, which shows the influence of +Buddhism in the date chosen for its observance, the +first five weeks of the Buddhist year. “At this time +the gods are supposed to dwell on the earth, and the +<i>pitara</i> especially return to the bosoms of their families; +hence the constant offerings and the incessant games +and amusements, which are regarded as necessary less +for the living generation than for the <i>pitara</i> and gods +sojourning among them; hence also the cessation +from work and the disinclination to intercourse with +foreigners during this period. Trade and foreigners +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>are not agreeable to the <i>pitara</i>, who desire to see the +old institutions and usages faithfully preserved.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In the island of Nias, lying off the western coast of +Sumatra, the news of an epidemic sickness will cause +a quarantine to be established in every community, +not only against the inhabitants of the infected village, +but against all strangers without discrimination. The +quarantine lasts for eight days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> Probably this taboo +is observed on other occasions, as seems to be the case +with the inhabitants of the Pagi Islands, which form +the southern extension of the Mentawi group. These +islanders are scarcely above the level of culture reached +by Bornean tribes: they live in large communal +houses, practise tattooing assiduously, and worship +the evil spirits which manifest their power in thunder +and lightning, earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods. +The natives, at certain times, are said to remain in +their villages and to exclude all strangers. During +this period of separation from the world they may +neither give nor receive anything, they must refrain +from eating certain articles of food, and they may not +engage in trade.⁠<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> A very competent observer, who +has made a special study of the taboo system in the +Mentawi Islands, describes the seasons of restriction +found there under the name of <i>punän</i>. The “great” +<i>punän</i> arises from any circumstance which vitally +affects the welfare of a community: when a chief +erects a house for himself, when a village is visited by +an epidemic, or when a cocoanut-palm is overthrown +by some <i>force majeure</i>. Similarly, the inauguration +of a superior chief or the choice of a priest requires +the imposition of a “great” <i>punän</i>. The same propitiatory +usage becomes necessary when a villager has +been killed by a crocodile. The “little” <i>punän</i> relates +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>rather to individuals and to families. Many are the +occasions when it is imposed—at house-building, at +the setting-out of a garden, at boat-making, and when +a native leaves his village to settle elsewhere. The +“little” <i>punän</i> is especially obligatory for women +during pregnancy, at birth, and for eight months +thereafter. It occurs also as an accompaniment of +marriage, when there is sickness in a family, and when +some member of the household has died. All crises +in the communal and individual life of the Mentawi +Islanders are thus kept as periods of restriction; in +some cases, however, these rest days have become to +all intents and purposes festivals and holidays.⁠<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The wild and little-known aborigines of Formosa, +who are probably of Indonesian origin, appear to possess +similar customs. Of them it is said, generally, +that “great fasts are held after a sickness or when any +of the tribe have been killed. At such times they will +be silent, and will only eat sufficient food to maintain +life.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Another traveller refers to these communal +fast days under the native name of <i>hiang</i>, and adds +the further fact that at such times strangers are excluded +from the village.⁠<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> A very intelligent observer, +describing the superstitions of the Peiwan, mentions +a curious custom according to which “one who has +unpleasant dreams must confine himself to his house +for the day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> This very scanty information will +doubtless be supplemented by much more evidence, +when the Formosan tribes have been scientifically +studied.</p> + +<p>The Philippine Archipelago contains a great number +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>of Indonesian tribes, among which are the Subanu of +Mindanao, a mountain people occupying the interior +portions of the Zamboanga District, where they have +taken refuge from the raids of their hereditary enemies, +the Moros and Filipinos. The Subanu are described +as a suspicious and superstitious people with a pronounced +belief in spirits—both good and evil. Ceremonies +of propitiation accompany all important undertakings, +such as the clearing of a new plantation, +the building of a house, the beginning of a journey, +hunting, and the harvesting of the crops. Festivals +are held to propitiate these spirits, or to celebrate some +event in which an entire settlement is interested. +From the following account it would seem that the +custom of communal abstinence is frequently observed +by the Subanu. “In contending against the difficulties +of their settlement life the Subanu have gradually +adopted an effective quarantine service against the +spread of infectious diseases like smallpox, measles, +and cholera. Upon the appearance of the first case +among any of the settlement families, the <i>timuai</i> +[communal chief] orders the establishment of the signals +of quarantine, and these are quickly provided. Fences +of poles and split bamboo, or <i>bejuco</i>, are erected across +the main trails leading to the houses of the settlement. +On these fences are placed, in fixed positions, carved +imitations of war weapons, such as spears, <i>kampilan</i>, +<i>barong</i>, and <i>pira</i>, pointed outward to warn the approaching +stranger or visitor to remain away. It is a notice +that death will be visited upon the person who attempts +to enter the settlement while the scourge of disease +prevails.... Near the signal fences are erected +light wooden stands with offerings of various articles +of food to appease the wrath of the gods and cause +them to assist in extirpating the disease. Small sheds +are also sometimes erected near the stands, under +which guards may be stationed to prevent the food +from being taken by wild animals, birds, and mischievous +persons. But the guards go to sleep and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>food (cooked rice, boiled eggs, fruit, tobacco, betel-nut, +cooked chicken, etc.) disappears, whereupon the +guards report that <i>diuata</i> (god) has accepted the gifts +and will drive away the disease. Superstition and +good sense are strangely but effectively mingled in +this scheme of practical and efficacious quarantine; +and the Subanu stand alone among all the tribes and +peoples of Mindanao in devising and operating such +protective measures.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Another Indonesian people of the Philippines are +the Bontoc Igorot, a non-Christian folk dwelling in +northern Luzon. They are mountain farmers and +live in towns made up of political divisions, or <i>ato</i>, +analogous to the wards of an American city. The +business of each <i>ato</i> is conducted by a council of elders. +These Bontoc Igorot observe a sacred rest day, called +<i>tengao</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> It occurs, on an average, about every ten +days during the year, though not with absolute regularity. +Three men, belonging to what might be described +as a hereditary priesthood, fix the time for +the <i>tengao</i>, as for all other ceremonials of the pueblo. +They then inform the elders of each <i>ato</i>, who, in turn, +make a public announcement on the evening preceding +the day. “The small boys, however, are the +true ‘criers.’ They make more noise in the evening +before the rest day, crying <i>Tĕng-aó! whi tĕng-aó!</i> +(‘Rest day! hurrah! rest day!’) than I have heard +from the pueblo at any other time.” The <i>tengao</i> +appears to be marked by the cessation of agricultural +work, but not by abstinence from all activity. “If +a person goes to labour in the fields on a sacred day—not +having heard the announcement, or in disregard +of it—he is fined for ‘breaking the Sabbath.’” The +lawbreaker has to surrender firewood or rice or a small +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>chicken to the value of about ten cents, or the wage +of two days. The fines are then expended in buying +chickens and pigs for certain religious ceremonies, +known as <i>patay</i>. These rites are performed every +new moon for the general well-being of the pueblo.⁠<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> +We are further told that the rest days are selected in +order that “such intimate, important interests as +agriculture and beneficial weather may be given the +amount of attention they deserve. The people have +no calendar for succeeding ceremonial observances, so +a priesthood has developed to fix such days at the opportune +time when needed. They are sacred because +all petitions are made to Lumawig their god, a living, +spirit, hero, and benefactor.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>There seems to be every reason for supposing that +this remarkable institution of an almost periodic +Sabbath is of native origin. The Bontoc Igorot dwell +in a remote and inaccessible region; and they are a +fairly primitive people whose religious ideas have been +unaffected by either Christianity or Mohammedanism. +The <i>tengao</i> itself is apparently confined to this single +tribe of northern Luzon. At the same time the sacred +rest day does not stand without relation to the other +observances of the Igorot. Like the Bornean tribes +they have a number of agricultural ceremonies, religious +in character, and designed to secure an abundant +harvest. Some of these ceremonies are accompanied +by periods of rest. Every year, on the occasion when +<i>camotes</i> are planted, the pueblo priest kills a chicken +or a pig, and petitions Lumawig for so many <i>camotes</i> +“that the ground will crack and burst open.” This +rite takes place in the fifth period of the Igorot year, +called <i>baliling</i>. A similar rite is performed when +black beans are planted. The end of <i>baliling</i> (about +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>the first of September) is marked by a three days’ +rest, known as <i>kopus</i>. At this time one of the priests +charged with the performance of the <i>patay</i> rite addresses +a short supplication to Lumawig and then solemnly +kills a chicken. It is a critical moment for the people +of the pueblo. Should the gall of the fowl be found +white or whitish, this means that disaster will overtake +the community. But a gall with a dark green +colour implies that the spirit enemies of Bontoc are not +revengeful and that the pueblo will enjoy prosperity. +Another occasion when the Igorot rests from labour +comes at the <i>fakil</i> ceremony for rain. It occurs four +times each year, on four succeeding days, and is performed +by four different priests. There is the usual +sacrifice of a pig by the priest, and each night, just +before this rite takes place, all the people cry <i>I-tĕng-aó +ta-ko nan fa-kilʹ!</i>, an expression meaning, “Rest +day! We observe the ceremony for rain!”⁠<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> These +and other instances cited by Professor Jenks indicate +clearly that the Igorot festivals are intended to propitiate +evil-minded spirits and to secure material +blessings from Lumawig, the supreme being.⁠<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> The +evidence from Borneo and other regions suggests +that here in Luzon the rest accompanying some of the +festivals has likewise a propitiatory character, quite +as much as the prayers and sacrifices. The same +interpretation would accordingly apply to the <i>tengao</i>, +though that day seems now to be regarded in some +degree as a holiday. Furthermore, the conjecture is +plausible that the <i>tengao</i> in its earlier form was not a +periodic but an occasional observance, called forth +only by particular emergencies in the communal life. +The present form of this institution gives evidence of +a tendency, doubtless directed by the Igorot priesthood, +to calendarize seasons of taboo at definite and +regular intervals. And the dedication of this “Sabbath” +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>to Lumawig may be only a natural outcome of +the preëminence assigned to that supreme god, who +stands out in such bold relief against the crowd of +ancestral spirits, good and bad, investing the Igorot +world.⁠<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The foregoing examples suffice to show how numerous +are the occasions on which the natives of Indonesia +subject themselves to the rule of abstinence. Assuming, +with modern ethnographers, that the Indonesian +peoples represent an admixture in various proportions +of primitive Indian and southern Mongolian stocks, +we need not be surprised to discover that in certain +parts of southeastern Asia, and notably among the +Tibeto-Burman tribes of Assam and Burma, there +flourishes a system of communal regulations strikingly +similar to those which have just been described.</p> + +<p>The Naga tribes, who are said to resemble more +closely the natives of the Indian Archipelago than +any of the other peoples occupying the hills of Assam, +apply the name <i>genna</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> + to their system of taboos.⁠<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> +The following description refers particularly to the +Naga of Manipur. Here, as in Borneo, the regular +communal taboos are for the most part connected +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>with the crops. Every stage of the rice cultivation +is marked by a village <i>genna</i>, the duration of which +varies. Thus, among the Mao Naga the rice-sowing +necessitates a ten days’ <i>genna</i>, the transplanting of +the rice calls for only one day of restriction, the beginning +of the harvest for four days, and the harvest +home for ten days. At such times the village gates +are shut and neither egress nor ingress is allowed. +“Among all these tribes from the day of the first crop +<i>genna</i> to the final harvest home all other forms of industry +and activity are forbidden. All hunting, fishing, +tree- and grass-cutting, all weaving, pot-making, salt-working, +games of all kinds, bugling, dancing, all +trades are strictly forbidden—are <i>genna</i>—lest the +grain in the ear be lost.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>It is obvious that some of these taboos tend, indirectly, +to produce beneficial effects. The prohibition +of all labour, except agricultural, during the season of +rice-planting and harvesting permits the inhabitants +of a village to devote their time and attention solely +to the care of the crops. And the practical result +of the taboo against hunting is to provide a much-needed +close season for wild animals, “for these sportsmen +spare not the game.” It is equally obvious, +however, that the regulations in question have had no +utilitarian origin. Identical taboos are imposed on +a great variety of other occasions. A rain-compelling +ceremony, when the headman works magic for the +benefit of the entire village, is accompanied by a <i>genna</i>. +General <i>genna</i> are also proclaimed after the occurrence +of unusual phenomena, such as earthquakes, eclipses +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>of the sun or moon, and the appearance of comets. +These events are attributed to supernatural activity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> +The destruction of a village by fire occasions a general +<i>genna</i>, sometimes for three days, before any steps are +taken to rebuild the houses. Such an event indicates +that spirits inimical to the people are about and active; +consequently the mere sight of the burning of a neighbouring +village is enough to require the imposition of +a <i>genna</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> The outbreak of epidemic sickness necessitates +a <i>genna</i>, the purpose of which is clearly prophylactic. +Animal sacrifices of a propitiatory nature are +made at such times. Some of the Mao Naga even +hold a regular village <i>genna</i>, as a means of preventing +all sickness during the year, while the Kabui Naga +observe an annual <i>genna</i> in order to protect themselves +from being hurt by bamboos. The occurrence of +mysterious cases of death requires a <i>genna</i>, for the +purpose of separating the living as soon as possible +from the dangerous dead; in the Mao group it is customary +to hold a village <i>genna</i> when a villager dies, +irrespective of the immediate cause of his decease.⁠<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> +All the Naga communities hold a <i>genna</i> devoted to the +praiseworthy object of finally laying to rest the ghosts +of those who have died during the preceding year. The +rite takes place at the time of cold weather, after the +crops have been reaped. At this annual festival, +“they restore to the living those of their members +who have been in jeopardy of the contagion of death.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> +Communal <i>genna</i> are also enforced in connection with +the first death in the year of any domestic animals; +on the return to the village of a party of warriors with +human heads taken in a foray; when a python—a +serpent closely associated with sickness—is killed and +eaten; during the deliberations of the village council; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>and also when a man rashly allows his private or secret +name to be mentioned in public.⁠<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> We may agree +with an early writer, who, commenting on these practices +among the Angami Naga, remarks that there is +“no end to the reasons on which a <i>kennie</i> must or may +be declared, and as it consists of a general holiday +when no work is done, this Angami Sabbath appears +to be rather a popular institution.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>A survey of these Naga ordinances indicates that +here in Assam they have much the same purpose as in +other regions: they are protective and conciliatory; +to a certain extent they are even compelling, in so far +as the observance of the taboos is supposed to prevent +the evil spirits from inflicting further harm. The +coercive quality of a <i>genna</i> is also illustrated by the +idea that, while the ill effects of an interruption of a +village ceremony are sometimes irremediable, there are +other cases where a repetition of the rite is enough to +avert all disastrous consequences.⁠<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> It is to be observed, +furthermore, that all <i>genna</i> are declared and supervised +by the <i>khullakpa</i>, the secular and religious head of the +village. He acts in a representative capacity, whenever +a rite is to be performed which requires the whole +force of the community behind it, a force which operates +through him. “These village <i>genna</i>,” declares +Mr. Hodson, “seem in many cases to be inspired by +the belief that man, <i>the man</i>, the <i>khullakpa</i>, when fortified +by the whole strength and will of the village, is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>able to control and constrain forces which are beyond +his control if unaided. He relies on coöperative +strength.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In addition to the village <i>genna</i> the Naga are subject +to numerous regulations which affect individuals or +families only, and do not extend to the community +at large. Household <i>genna</i> are occasioned by such +events as the birth of children or of domesticated +animals, the first hair-cutting and ear-piercing, the +naming of children, and finally the death of domesticated +animals in the house. The restrictions apply to +all who are normally inmates of the house, and to any +others, such as midwives, who may be temporarily +members of the family. The duration of these <i>genna</i> +varies not only from tribe to tribe but also from village +to village. The Mayang Khong Naga, in particular, +have worked out an elaborate scale for <i>genna</i> +following the birth of domestic animals. “When a +cow calves, the <i>genna</i> lasts for five days; when a sow +litters, three days’ <i>genna</i> is necessary; while when a +bitch has pups, or a cat has kittens, two days are +ample. A hen hatching out a brood of chickens brings +on a <i>genna</i> of one day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Such observances may +be said to mark the acme of the Naga taboo system, +or, from another point of view, to reduce it to an absurdity.</p> + +<p>The <i>genna</i> custom, which seems to have attained +its most complicated and grotesque development +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>among the Naga, prevails, or in the past has prevailed, +throughout a wide area of Assam. The Hinduised +Meithei of Manipur, whose affinity to the wild hill +tribes such as the Naga and Kuki is admitted, no longer +possess the custom itself, though preserving the memory +of it in their word <i>namungba</i>, or taboo.⁠<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> General +seasons of restriction seem to be unknown among the +Khasi, who inhabit the Khasi and Jaintia hills, except +in a single instance.⁠<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> Their neighbours on the west, +the Garo, a people of Tibeto-Burman stock, have the +equivalent of <i>genna</i> in the word <i>marang</i>, conveying +the ideas of “unlucky” and “unlawful.” But the +Garo custom itself is scarcely socialized: the taboos +relate to individuals, and in only one case extend +to the community at large. This is the prohibition +for any one in a village to labour in the fields on the day +when a child is born. It is believed that should a farm +be visited at such a time the crop would be cursed and +blighted.⁠<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Another Tibeto-Burman people, the Mikir, +who dwell in the Mikir Hills to the northwest of Manipur, +have individual taboos of various kinds and, in +addition, a compulsory village festival called <i>rongker</i>. +It is held annually at the beginning of cultivation. +At this time the gods are invoked for good crops, good +health, and preservation from tigers. There is no +music or dancing during the festival.⁠<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> The <i>genna</i> +exists among the Mishmi and Abor on the frontiers of +northeastern Assam and Tibet.⁠<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The Lushei (sometimes +called Kuki) of the Lushei Hills to the south of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>Manipur have a well-developed system of taboo, here +known as <i>hrilh</i>. Persons subject to <i>hrilh</i> “must do +no work, except necessary household tasks, and must +not leave a prescribed area.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> These restrictions +sometimes affect households only, sometimes entire +villages. They are communally imposed in connection +with the sacrifice performed before a large hunting +party starts out, at the harvest festival, when an epidemic +sickness rages, and on other occasions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> West +of the Lushei dwell the Tippera and Mro tribes, among +whom the communal taboo observed in consequence +of an epidemic goes under the name of <i>khang</i>. “The +quarantine is inaugurated and declared with a certain +degree of ceremony. A sacrifice is offered, and the +village is encircled with a fresh-spun white thread. +The blood of the animal sacrificed is then sprinkled +about the village, and a general sweeping and cleansing +takes place, the houses and gates being decorated with +green boughs. They attach great importance to the +quarantine being kept unbroken. It generally lasts +three days, and during that time no one is allowed to +enter or leave the village. I have known several +murders committed, owing to persons persisting in +breaking the <i>khang</i>.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> The same communal taboo is +observed when a village is being built, and regularly +in July, when the rice requires cultivation.⁠<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> These +tribes formerly lived in the Arakan Hills of Lower +Burma, where identical regulations, known as <i>ya</i>, are +also enforced.⁠<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The <i>genna</i> custom may be traced in various parts +of Burma. From the Naga, Lushei, and other tribes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>of Assam the ethnical transition is unbroken to the +Chin, who occupy the Chindwin valley and the hills +to the west. Probably these aborigines are not unfamiliar +with the <i>genna</i> as a device to avoid a visitation +by demonic powers identified with smallpox, cholera, +and other diseases. We are told that once, when +cholera broke out among some Chin on a visit to Rangoon, +they spent the day hiding under the bushes so +that the cholera-spirit might not find them.⁠<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> The +Kachin (Chingpaw) on the upper Irawadi River, a +people generally regarded as closely akin to the Chin +on the one hand and to the Karen on the other, recognize +six occasions during the year, when no one is +supposed to do any work. The rest days, numbering +sixteen in all, are known collectively as <i>na na ai</i>, +which may be translated “ceremonial holiday.” They +all occur in connection with agriculture—when the +jungle is fired, before and after seed-planting, while +the crop is ripening, and at harvest—as a means of +securing the good will of the <i>nat</i>, or spirits.⁠<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> Similar +customs are still observed by some of the Karen tribes. +Of the Tsawku Karen it is said that their religion consists +entirely in attempts to appease various malignant +spirits. When the inhabitants of a village or the members +of a household are engaged in ceremonies of propitiation, +“they put up a bow with an arrow ready fitted +to the string, or some other sign to indicate that there +is ‘no admittance,’ or that ‘trespassers will be prosecuted +according to law,’ and these insignia are scrupulously +respected.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> The Sawngtung Karen forbid +any one to leave the village on the day of the birth of +a child in it, and no eggs may be kept in the village +while the fields are being reaped. The Taungthu +Karen believe that giving away anything at all on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>sowing or planting days means blight for the crop.⁠<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> +These superstitions no doubt represent decadent forms +of a once-extensive <i>genna</i> system among the Karen. +The <i>genna</i>, again, has been noticed among the Muhso, +or Lalu, a large tribe which has emigrated from China to +the Shan States. The Muhso close their villages +against strangers for five days during an annual festival, +which begins on the Chinese New Year’s Day. +Bamboo gateways and symbols are erected along the +paths approaching a settlement, in order to warn +possible intruders. If an outsider persists in entering +a village, he is kept a prisoner there till the festival is +over. All his possessions, even his clothes, are taken +away from him and he is returned naked to the world. +In explanation of this conduct the natives say that +the spirits, in whose honour the feast is held, are displeased +at the presence of strangers.⁠<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> The Wild Wa, +a head-hunting tribe on the northeastern frontier of +the Shan States, are said to have no regularly recurrent +festivals, but hold them as often as they are +confronted by “particular dangers or necessities.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> +The Miao (Miao-tse), one of the little-known tribes +of southwestern China, celebrate musical festivals +throughout the year. These seem now to be <i>fêtes</i> +pure and simple, though at one time possessing a +religious character. “If asked why they hold these +festivals, they say that if they failed to do so their +crops would be bad; and yet they do not profess +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>to understand how the harvests are influenced by this +custom.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The <i>genna</i>, either in vigorous activity or in attenuated +survival, has now been traced throughout a wide +area in southeastern Asia, and particularly among +the Tibeto-Burman tribes of Assam and Burma. +Modern ethnographers recognize in the Indo-Chinese +an immigrant population, probably from western China, +which for many centuries has been gradually moving +southward along the course of the great rivers emptying +into the Bay of Bengal. The custom of the <i>genna</i> +appears to be one of the most characteristic features +of Indo-Chinese culture; its presence, therefore, +throughout this area must be explained as the result +of diffusion and not of independent origination. Furthermore, +we have found that in the various Indonesian +islands as far as New Guinea, and especially in Borneo, +customs closely akin to that of the <i>genna</i> also belong +to the native culture. It is likely that the ancestors +of the Polynesians passed through these islands on +their way to the Pacific; if this be so, we can understand +why <i>tabu</i> in Polynesia should present so many +obvious resemblances to <i>lali</i> in Borneo and to <i>genna</i> +in Assam. The student whose primary concern is the +wanderings of peoples cannot neglect such evidence +of extensive diffusion, showing how for ages cultural +elements have been drifting from the interior of Asia +over the Indo-Chinese region and the Indian Archipelago, +and thence into the island world of the Pacific.</p> + +<p>What general conclusions may be drawn from a +comparative survey of these communal taboos in the +several areas under consideration? In the first place +it seems clear that the various negative regulations, +such as those imposing idleness, fasting, and continence, +closely resemble some of the pains and penalties to +which the savage subjects himself on other occasions. +For instance, the well-known custom of the <i>couvade</i> imposes +on the husband, during the pregnancy of his wife +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>or after the birth of the child, a number of restrictions, +which often include abstention from various sorts of +work, and sometimes from all occupations whatsoever. +The practice of the <i>couvade</i> appears to be an outgrowth +of the idea that under special circumstances the close +ties uniting husband and wife engender a mystic sympathy +between them, so that the acts of the one +affect the welfare of the other. Similar ideas underlie +the numerous rules of abstinence observed by hunters, +fishers, and warriors when absent from home, and by +the relatives and friends whom they have left behind.⁠<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> +We cannot always fathom the savage logic which has +generated the numberless regulations observed at such +critical seasons; but they would seem to be particular +expressions of an ancient doctrine—“In quietness +shall be your strength.”</p> + +<p>In the second place it is difficult to avoid the conclusion +that, however vexatious and burdensome may be +the restrictions resting on a primitive community, +these are not without a definite psychological value. +The consciousness that all the omens have been duly +taken and that all taboos have been properly observed +is itself invigorating; the community goes forward, +henceforth, with renewed strength and confidence to +the tasks which lie before it.⁠<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Finally, it may be pointed out how directly these +communal regulations make for social solidarity. Students +of early society have long recognized the fact +that the institution of taboo, in its individualistic +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>aspects, has helped to nurse in man a sense of reverence +and a power of self-restraint greatly needed under +primitive conditions. Such beneficial results are even +more manifest in the case of communal taboos. For, +when the restrictions are violated by any one, there is +always the feeling that misfortune will overtake the +entire social group, and hence a duty devolves on each +man to see that his neighbour obeys the law. Altruism +becomes a coercive process, and social cohesion +is secured by each member of the group making himself +his brother’s keeper. It is desirable to keep in +mind these positive benefits inherent in the taboo system, +since perhaps excessive attention has been directed +to its hampering influence on society.</p> + +<p>In the three regions which have been selected for +close examination—the Hawaiian Islands, Borneo, +and Assam—it thus appears that there are certain +occasions when the normal current of life is interrupted, +and when what may well be called a crisis presents +itself.⁠<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> In general any time of special significance, inaugurating +a new era or marking the transition from +one state to another, any period of storm and stress, +any epoch when untoward events have occurred or +are expected to occur, may be invested with taboos +designed to meet the emergency in the communal life +and to ward off the threatened danger or disaster. +Periods of abstinence are imposed because of such +unusual, and therefore critical, events as a conflagration, +an epidemic sickness, or an earthquake; after +a death; at the changes of the moon; at the end of +the old year and the beginning of the new year; during +a time devoted to the banning of ghosts and demons; +and in connection with such important undertakings +as the commencement of a war, seed-planting, and +harvest, and the celebration of a solemn religious or +magical ceremony. The peoples whom we have just +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>studied have, so to speak, institutionalized their fears, +working out thereby a protective procedure highly +complex and elaborate. But the conceptions which +generated the tabooed day in Polynesia, Indonesia, +and southeastern Asia are not local and confined; +on the contrary they underlie a wide range of social +phenomena.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br> +<span class="smaller">TABOOED DAYS AFTER A DEATH AND +ON RELATED OCCASIONS</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>Among the lower races perhaps the most common +occasion for the suspension of ordinary occupations is +after a death.⁠<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> The prohibition of work at this time +usually forms only one of a number of regulations, +which also impose partial or complete abstinence from +food and place a ban on loud talking, singing, and the +wearing of ornaments and gay clothing. The taboos +are often confined to the family or at most to the relatives +of the deceased; in other cases they affect the +entire community. The explanation of these rules +must sometimes be sought in animistic conceptions. +The soul of the dead man is supposed to remain for a +time with the body in the grave or near the scenes of +the earthly life. Until the funeral ceremonies are +completed, when the ghost is finally “laid” or departs +for the abode of the dead, prudence requires the survivors +to avoid all conspicuous activity, if they would +not attract the unwelcome attentions of the ghost. +A similar period of quiescence may be considered +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>necessary when the death is attributed to an evil +spirit, which lurks about its quarry and seeks another +victim.</p> + +<p>But earlier, probably, in development, and certainly +far more general, is the belief in the pollution of death.⁠<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> +Primitive peoples seldom recognize a death as due to +what we should call natural causes. Sickness, and +death following on sickness, when not attributed to the +direct action of an evil spirit or of some malevolent +person who has been practising nefarious magic, are +thought to be due to the contaminating miasma of +death. Death is a mysterious atmospherical poison +which extends its defiling influence far and wide. +Hence we have at least one motive for the very common +custom of destroying the house and personal property +of the deceased. Hence arise the taboos of the corpse, +of persons who have anything to do with the corpse, of +the relatives of the deceased, and of mourners, generally. +An obvious application of such ideas requires +that all activities should be abandoned by the survivors +for some time after a death; and, where the +sense of social solidarity is strong, the notion of abstinence +at so critical a season may be extended to the +entire community.⁠<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Communal taboos following a death are not unknown +in Polynesia, Micronesia, and New Guinea,⁠<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> +and may be traced elsewhere in the Oceanic area. In +Timor, when a king dies, no work is done for seven +days thereafter.⁠<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> In Halmahera an entire village will +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>be tabooed in consequence of the death of one of its +members. Violations of the taboo (<i>pomali</i>) are severely +punished.⁠<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> The practice of intermitting work in a +village until a corpse is buried prevails in many of the +Molucca Islands.⁠<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> Among all the non-Christian tribes +of northern Luzon, “there is no field work in an <i>ato</i> on the +day when an adult person is buried.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> The inhabitants +of Kar Nicobar exhibit great fear of ghostly influence +before the funeral ceremonies have been completed. +The corpse of any one who has died in the village is +conveyed at once to the “dead house,” and the inhabitants +proceed to barricade themselves in their houses +and to keep fires burning before the doors. The +houses, canoes, and ground about the village are +covered with palm leaves to prevent the ghost from +entering. Some of the dead man’s pigs are killed, a +few cocoa palms are cut down, and on rare occasions +his house is burnt, or unroofed and left deserted. +“Shaving the head is sometimes indulged in as a sign +of mourning, together with frequent bathing and +abstinence from work.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> The Malay fishermen of +the Patani States in the Malay Peninsula observe +various restrictions and prohibitions, the transgression +of which would bring sickness or misfortune. If a +death occurs in a fishing village, no boat from that +village must go to sea on the following day, and no +one must set out on a land journey. The fisherman +or the traveller who disregarded this injunction would +have no luck and would probably meet with some +disaster.⁠<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span></p> + +<p>Periods of abstinence after a death are observed by +many of the tribes of Borneo, in close connection with +the prevailing institution of taboo. When a death +occurs in an Iban village, the inhabitants give up their +outdoor occupations and remain at home, seven days +in the case of a male, three days for a female, and one +day for an infant. During this time the relatives +of the deceased lay aside their ornaments and bright +dresses, assume deep mourning, and abstain from music +and jollity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Another authority declares that after a +death “it is tabooed to work on the farm: at busy times +for three days; at other times for seven days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> In +the case of a chief’s death the natives refrain from work +for a longer period than is usual when a commoner dies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> +Similar restrictions are found among the Land Dyak,⁠<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> +the Dusun, or Sundyak, of British North Borneo,⁠<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> +and some other tribes. Members of a Kayan household +observe various mourning ceremonies, and in particular +avoid all music, feasts, and jollifications for a period +which varies in length according to the social standing +of the deceased.⁠<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Among the Naga tribes of Manipur, with the notable +exception of the Mao people by whom a village <i>genna</i> +is held whenever a villager dies, it is not necessary or +usual to perform this communal rite in cases of regular +and non-mysterious death. The <i>genna</i> is then confined +to the clan, that is, to the group of individuals who comprise +the heirs of the deceased.⁠<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> But all cases of death +by sudden illness, by accident, by the hand of an enemy, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>and by wild animals or snakes necessitate general or +village <i>genna</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> The same rule prevails when a woman +has died in childbirth.⁠<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> The purpose of these regulations +seems to be that of separating the living as soon +as possible from the dangerous spirits of the dead, or +of avoiding the contagion of death. Among the Khasi +of Assam, who do not observe general seasons of +restriction, clan <i>genna</i> are imposed after a death. The +surviving clansmen are not allowed to work until three +days have elapsed from the time of placing the bones +of the deceased in the clan tomb.⁠<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> In northern Arakan, +Lower Burma, when any native has been killed by a +tiger, crocodile, or other animal, when any woman +resident in the village dies in childbed, or when the +body of a person who died in such a manner is brought +into the village, all intercourse with that village is cut +off until the appearance of the next new moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> Similar +regulations exist among the Lao of northern Siam and +among the savage inhabitants of Indo-China.⁠<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Taboos following a death and imposing abstinence +from work are found in various parts of India. Among +the Muppan, a hill-tribe of Wynaad, Malabar, the +relatives of the deceased do no work on the day after +the funeral, and also partially abstain from food. At +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>a subsequent date they perform a final ceremony to +remove every trace of the death pollution and to give +peace to the departed spirit.⁠<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> In former times the +Kataharayan, a fisher folk living on the Malabar coast, +intermitted their fishing for three days after the death +of a prince of Malabar.⁠<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> Among the Kasuba, a forest +tribe inhabiting the Nilgiri Hills in the Madras Presidency, +fear of pollution requires the relatives of the +deceased to abstain from all kinds of work for an entire +day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> Far away to the north, among the Paharia of +British Sikkim, the same ideas of pollution prevail. +All persons belonging to the household of the deceased +must observe strict silence during the period of mourning, +and they may eat only one meal a day and that +“half a bellyful.” Under such circumstances, we are +told, work in the fields is impossible.⁠<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> With these +regulations may be compared those observed in Tibet, +where rich and respectable men, when their parents +die, abstain for a year from participating in marriage +ceremonies and festivities, and undertake no lengthy +journeys. Upon the demise of the Dalai Lama or of +the Tashi Lama, all work ceases for seven days, public +offices are closed, and markets are suspended. The +people refrain from amusements and festivities and +from going into groves for pleasure, sport, and love-making. +For thirty days women are forbidden to put +on their jewellery, and neither men nor women may +wear new clothes. Thus the land of Tibet goes into +mourning for the loss of one of its great hierarchs.⁠<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Very similar customs are found within the African +area. They seem to be generally observed by the +Bantu peoples of South Africa. Among all the Zulu +tribes it is the rule that no one labours in the fields on the +day following a death, and that after the death of a chief +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>work of every sort is suspended for six months.⁠<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> “If a +person is struck by lightning, the whole kraal fast and +do not even drink water, until the mediciner has performed +his office.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> The Basuto, who form the +eastern branch of the widespread Bechuana people, +abstain from all public work on the day when an +influential person dies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> In Ussindja, a district of German +East Africa, the Sultan Rwoma gave vent to +his sorrow for the loss of a favourite son by forbidding +all agricultural work for six years. Within a few +months, however, famine stared his subjects in the +face, and the grief-stricken father was compelled to +rescind the prohibition.⁠<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> Mourning regulations which +impose abstinence from work have been described +among various tribes of British East Africa occupying +the territory to the east and north of Lake Victoria +Nyanza. The Akikuyu, who observe many restrictions +connected with the corpse, regard the day after +a death as unlucky. “People will not travel, and goats +and sheep will not bear, and all the inhabitants of the +village shave their heads. The women will not go out +for four days. On the next day the sons who have +taken part in the burial do not work.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> The taboos +enforced by the Nandi present some curious resemblances +to those which we have met among Indonesian +peoples. The Nandi, probably in former days a +hunting tribe, have now taken to agriculture and raise +large crops of eleusine grain and millet. Their superstitions +invest the process of farming with many restrictions: +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>no one while in a plantation may carry a spear +or rest a spear on the earth; thigh-bells must not be +worn; a hide must not be dragged along the ground; +whistling is strictly forbidden. Work is prohibited +for an entire day following an earthquake, a phenomenon +which Nandi speculation, in common with other +savage philosophies, attributes to the movement of +underground spirits.⁠<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> If a hailstorm occurs, if a hoe +breaks, or if a beast of prey seizes a goat, no work must +be done in the fields for the rest of the day and for +twenty-four hours afterwards. It is believed that any +sick person who eats the grain when harvested, or who +drinks beer made from the grain, will die, and that +pregnant women will abort. If the owner of a plantation +dies while his crops are ripening, all the grain +must be eaten and none reserved for sowing; otherwise +the grain will rot in the ground.⁠<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> The Nilotic +Kavirondo do not cultivate their fields for three days +after the death of any one of importance, and for ten +days after the death of a chief.⁠<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> Their neighbours, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>Basoga, sometimes extended the days of mourning for +a deceased chief to two months. It is said that the +crops not infrequently suffered because of the strict +abstention from work in the fields.⁠<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> Certain Abyssinian +tribes refrain from ploughing, sowing, and grinding +grain until a corpse is buried.⁠<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Among the Arabs +of Morocco, studied by Professor Westermarck, there is +a prohibition of all work in the village until the funeral +has taken place.⁠<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The belief in the pollution of death is very strong +among the Malagasy. On the decease of a sovereign +many practices are tabooed (<i>fady</i>) to the common +people, such prohibitions extending to various periods +according to the will of the new ruler. Thus, to sing, +to play music, to clap hands, to laugh boisterously, +to dance, to wear ornaments or brightly coloured garments, +to dress or anoint the hair, to wear a hat, to +cut the nails, to clean the teeth, to bathe, to gaze in a +mirror, and to carry the arms akimbo are all <i>fady</i>. +Such tasks as pottery-making, spinning and weaving, +plaiting of mats, carpentry, and metal-working are +often suspended. Furthermore, no, one is allowed to +lie on a bedstead or to ride in a palanquin or on horse-back, +and every one is expected to shave the head and +uncover the shoulders. Many of these regulations, it +is to be noticed, are also enforced after the death of a +near relative.⁠<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In the New World the funeral ceremonies of the rulers +of Mechoacan furnish another illustration of the superstition +under discussion. We are told that when a king +was buried all who had participated in the obsequies +washed themselves and went to dinner in the yard of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>the king’s house, “and having dined they wiped their +hands upon certain locks of cotton-wool, hanging down +their heads, and not speaking a word, except it were to +ask for drink.” These purificatory rites were accompanied +by a season of communal abstinence which +lasted five days, “and in all that time no fire was permitted +to be kindled in the city, except in the king’s +house and temples, nor yet any corn was ground, or +market kept, nor durst any go out of their houses.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> +Among the Seminoles of Florida on the day of a funeral, +and for three days thereafter, the relatives of the deceased +remained at home and abstained from work. +During this time the dead man was supposed to remain +in his grave. Subsequently he took his departure for +an abode in the skies, and mourning then ceased.⁠<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The restrictions following a death appear to be especially +prominent among the Eskimo tribes, who possess +a well-marked system of taboos. In Greenland we +meet the practice of requiring not only the kindred of +the deceased, but likewise all who have lived in the same +house with him to abstain from certain articles of food +and from work for some time after death.⁠<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> Among the +Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Strait after the +death of any person it is forbidden “to scrape the frost +from the window, to shake the beds or to disturb the +shrubs under the bed, to remove oil-drippings from +under the lamp, to scrape hair from skins, to cut snow +for the purpose of melting it, to work on iron, wood, +stone, or ivory. Furthermore, women are forbidden +to comb their hair, to wash their faces, and to dry their +boots and stockings.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> These Eskimo require the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>relatives of the deceased to shut themselves up in his +hut and mourn his loss for three days. During this +time the inhabitants of a village must not use their +dogs, but must walk to the hunting-ground. For one +day at least they are not allowed to go hunting, and the +women refrain from all work whatsoever. Dr. Boas +notes how in the winter a long space of bad weather +occasions privation, since hunters cannot leave their +huts. “If by chance some one should happen to die +during this time, famine is inevitable, for a strict law +forbids the performance of any kind of work during the +days of mourning.” During these three days the soul +of the deceased is supposed to be still with the body, +not having yet gone to the home of the goddess Sedna +in the underworld.⁠<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> According to one account the +Innuit, from the head of Bristol Bay to the Arctic, +require the survivors to refrain from work for twenty +days after a death in the family.⁠<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> This is probably +too broad a statement and does not allow for minor +divergencies of custom throughout so extensive an +area. On the lower Kuskokwim River the Alaskan +villagers abstain from work on the day of a death, +and, in many instances, on the day following such an +event. None of the relatives of the deceased may perform +any labour during the period, four or five days in +length, when the shade is believed to remain with the +body.⁠<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> The rule requiring no work in a village on the +day when a person dies prevails among the Bering +Strait Eskimo. Relatives of the deceased must abstain +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>from activity during the three following days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> +One observer tells of a Point Barrow woman who +declined to sew on clothing, even at his house, because +there was a dead man in the village who had not yet +been carried to the cemetery. She feared that “he +would see her.” But after consultation with her husband +she concluded that it was possible to protect +herself from “him” by tracing with a snow-knife a +circle about herself on the floor. Within this area +she did the sewing required, being very careful to keep +all her work inside it.⁠<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Remarkably similar customs prevail among some of +the Asiatic Eskimo, and incidentally reinforce the +argument for the transmission of cultural elements +between northwestern America and northeastern Asia. +The Reindeer Chukchi forbid any kind of woman’s +work with needle and scraper during the period of the +funeral ceremonies. This rule refers to all the houses +of the camp or village, and even to other settlements +in the vicinity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> The Koryak stopped all work in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>settlement before the last rites to the dead. No one +went hunting or sealing, no one went to fetch wood, +and the women did no sewing. At the present time +this rule is so far abrogated as to apply only to those +in the house where the body lies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> Among the Yakut, +when a man dies, the members of his household may +not execute any work until after the next full moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Taboos of this nature are not confined to savage and +barbarous communities, since the fear of the death pollution +has been felt by various civilized peoples and has +found expression in their funeral ceremonies. Thus, +we learn that in Rabbinical times and among some +modern Jews, during the <i>shib‘a</i>, or seven days of +strict mourning, “the relatives abstain from work and +remain at home, sitting on the floor or on a low bench, +reading the <i>Book of Job</i>, and receiving visits of condolence. +Bereaved children should abstain for a +year from music and recreation.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> Outcroppings of +the same belief occasionally manifest themselves among +the folk of Europe. German peasants abstain from all +work, except what is absolutely necessary, before the +funeral,⁠<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> and the Scotch think that “it is not right to +spin if there be a corpse in the same township.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> +This latter instance furnishes a close parallel to the +Eskimo superstition.</p> + +<p>Feasts of the dead, the primitive All Souls’ days, are +sometimes occasions for abstinence from work. The +same custom may be observed at times devoted to the +public and ceremonial expulsion of ghosts and demons +from the community.⁠<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Here, as elsewhere, we may +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>well raise the query whether such proceedings have +always existed with the particular meaning now assigned +to them; or whether in many instances they may not +hark back to a “pre-animistic” epoch when the evil +influences, instead of being personified under the form +of spirits, were more vaguely regarded as some mysterious +and infectious contamination.</p> + +<p>Rites for commemorating kindly spirits or for expelling +those of evil intent were doubtless first performed +at irregular intervals, as the supposed need for them +arose. They tend, however, to be massed and assigned +to particular times, thus meeting a demand for order +and precision. Their celebration usually takes place +at a period which coincides with well-marked changes +of the seasons, or with one of the great epochs of the +agricultural year, as sowing or harvest. They have a +particular and appropriate association with the end of +the old year or with the beginning of the new year, a +time which, by many primitive peoples, is itself fixed +with reference to seasonal changes or to agricultural +operations.</p> + +<p>Ceremonies of ghost-riddance and demon-riddance, +accompanied by communal abstinence, have already +been noted in Polynesia, Indonesia, and southeastern +Asia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> They are not unknown in Africa. The Basuto, +who do no work on the day when an influential man +dies, also observe as holidays the times of sacrifice or of +great purification. “Hence it is,” writes a French +missionary, “that the law relative to the repose of the +seventh day, so far from finding any objection in the +minds of the natives, appears to them very natural, +and perhaps even more fundamental, than it seems to +certain Christians.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> The Bahima, a Bantu-speaking +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>tribe of Ankole, a district which lies immediately to +the west of Lake Victoria Nyanza, set apart one day +each month for festival purposes. It is then that the +Bahima seek to appease certain ghastly, shrivelled +demons who, though they expend most of their fury +on one another, frequent the kraals and occasionally +take a native by the arm and shake him mercilessly. +These demons are called <i>balubale</i>. Their placation is +said to consist chiefly of drum-beating and beer-drinking. +“There is no work on <i>balubale</i> day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> On the +next-to-the-last day of the year the Swaheli of German +East Africa observe an ancient custom, which probably +antedates Mohammedan influence in this part of Africa. +They parch some millet and pour it, together with ashes, +on the corners of their houses as a prophylactic against +the evil spirits supposed to be particularly troublesome +at this time. Swaheli school-children enjoy a holiday +on the last two days of the year and New Year’s Day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> +The great national <i>fête</i> of the <i>fandroana</i>, marking the +commencement of the Malagasy year, occurs at the new +moon of the month Alahamady, and the first days of +this month are regarded as very unlucky for commoners, +who therefore abstain from all activity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> We may +conjecture that this festival, though traditionally +established only about three centuries ago, in its present +form incorporates observances connected with the new +year as a critical season. Some of the Gold Coast +tribes of west Africa hold a festival toward the end of +August, called <i>affirah-bi</i>, when there is a general remembrance +of the dead. No work may be done during this +festival, which lasts eight days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> The Guinea negroes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>would seem also to perform annual rites for the expulsion +of evil spirits. The ceremony of demon-riddance, +formerly held at Cape Coast Castle, on the Gold Coast, +was intended to drive the devil Abonsam out of the +town by means of an unearthly uproar of shouts, +screams, beating of sticks, rattling of pans, and firing +of guns, in which all the inhabitants joined. “The +custom is preceded by four weeks’ dead silence; no +gun is allowed to be fired, no drum to be beaten, no +palaver to be made between man and man. If, during +these weeks, two natives should disagree and make a +noise in the town, they are immediately taken before +the king and fined heavily. If a dog or pig, sheep or +goat be found at large in the street, it may be killed, or +taken by any one, the former owner not being allowed +to demand any compensation. This silence is designed +to deceive Abonsam, that, being off his guard, he may +be taken by surprise and frightened out of the place. +If any one die during the silence, his relatives are not +allowed to weep until the four weeks have been completed.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Yoruba tribes of the Slave Coast celebrate every +June an All Souls’ festival lasting seven days. It +resembles the <i>affirah-bi</i> rites, but the ceremony is held +in honour of Egungun, who is supposed to have risen +from the dead and after whom a powerful secret society +has been named.⁠<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> Since in west Africa, as in some other +parts of the world, secret societies are intimately related +to the cult of the dead,⁠<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> it may be that the tabooed days, +observed when these organizations hold their ceremonies, +were once connected with feasts of the dead or +expulsion of ghosts. The belief may also exist that the +god of the secret society affects with his holiness the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>day of his public appearance, and so makes it unfit +for business. However, the taboos seem now to be +maintained chiefly as a means of securing the respectful +attention of non-initiates, particularly women. The +presence in Yoruba towns of the bugbear god Oro +compels women to seclude themselves from seven +o’clock in the evening until five o’clock in the morning.⁠<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> +On the great feast days of Oro women must remain +indoors from daybreak till noon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> A native writer +points out that these Oro confinements, as they may +be called, are declared in times of political crisis, when +a new law or other measure of importance is under +consideration, and whenever a sacrifice is offered in +behalf of the community. The streets are then cleared +of all unseemly traffic and of women, in order to permit +the god and his followers to appear abroad without +danger of contamination.⁠<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> Again, in Old Calabar, +when the great <i>egbo</i> society visits a community, all +business is suspended, all doors are shut, and absolute +silence prevails. On the departure of the god and his +attendant mummers, the town-bell is rung in a peculiar +way to indicate that normal occupations may be now +resumed. The cessation of business on the occasion +of these visits of <i>egbo</i> may last a day, but frequently +extends to two or three days. In the latter case, +however, the strict rule of seclusion is relaxed for an +hour or more to permit the holding of the daily market.⁠<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> +During an <i>egbo</i> visitation it would be death for any one +not a member of the order to venture forth; even +members themselves, if their grade is lower than that +which controls the proceedings for the day, would be +severely whipped.⁠<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span></p> + +<p>The festivals of the dead, observed in classical antiquity, +were marked by taboos. Among the Greeks +the rites took place on the so-called ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι, +unlucky days accompanied by complete idleness and +cessation of business. “At such times no one would +address any one else, friends avoided all intercourse +with one another, and even sanctuaries were not used.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> +Ancient authorities also refer to these days as times when +magistrates suspended their functions, when courts were +closed, when sacrifices were not offered and oracular +responses were not delivered, and when people refrained +from any business which it was hoped would have a +prosperous outcome.⁠<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> At Athens the festival of the +Genesia, an annual commemoration of the dead, occurred +on the fifth of Boëdromion, a day which was +included among the ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι.⁠<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> Three more +unlucky days were the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth +of Anthesterion, when the Athenians celebrated the +festival of the Anthesteria. Though in outward semblance +only a brilliant ceremony in honour of Dionysus, +the Anthesteria had also a sombre significance as the +time when the shades of the dead issued from the +underworld and walked the streets.⁠<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> Ropes were +fastened round the temples to keep out the wandering +ghosts, and the people smeared their houses with pitch +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>to catch any rash intruders into the dwellings of living +men. For the entertainment of the unseen guests +during their short stay pots of boiled food were everywhere +placed in the streets; but at the end of the +festival the souls were roughly bidden to depart. The +Anthesteria, in substance, thus formed one of those +numerous ceremonies for the riddance of ghosts by +means of feasting and placation which have so wide a +diffusion in the lower culture.⁠<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Corresponding to the Greek ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι were +the Roman <i>dies religiosi</i>, true days of abstinence, when +it was unlucky to begin a journey or to undertake any +important business. During their continuance temples +and law courts were, or ought to be, closed, magistrates +laid aside the insignia of office, armies did not march, +and no marriages took place.⁠<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> Among the <i>dies religiosi</i> +were those on which the Romans celebrated two festivals +of the dead, the so-called Parentalia in February, +the last month of the old Roman year, and the Lemuria +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>in May. The February celebration, from the thirteenth +to the twenty-first of that month, has been taken to +embody all that was least superstitious and fearful in +the generally terrifying worship of the dead. The +Lemuria (May 9, 11, 13), had rather an opposite character +and probably represents the more ancient rite +for the expulsion of the ghosts of the dead.⁠<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> The three +days in the Roman year, August 24, October 5, and +November 8, when the door of the Lower World was +unclosed for the spirits of the dead to come forth—<i>quibus +mundus patet</i>—were also <i>religiosi</i>, or unlucky. +“When the <i>mundus</i> is open,” said Varro, “the gate of +the doleful underworld gods is open; therefore, it is +not proper on those days for a battle to be fought, +troops to be levied, the army to march forth, a ship to +set sail, or a man to marry.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>To the Hebrews the Day of Atonement was a <i>shabbāth +shabbāthôn</i>,⁠<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> the holiest of rest days, “a Sabbath of +solemn rest,” when “no manner of work” might be performed. +The transgressor of this regulation was threatened +with death: “Whoever doeth any work at all on +that same day, I will destroy from among his people.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> +A similar punishment was prescribed for one who did +not fast on that day; the expression “to afflict your +souls” (<i>‘innā nephesh</i>) was considered by late theologians +to be a synonym for fasting, and as a matter of +fact the Atonement fast was the only one enjoined by +the Law. On the Day of Atonement a goat, laden +with the sins of the people, was sent forth into the wilderness, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>where it was sacrificed to Azazel, a bad angel +or demon. In the later centuries of Jewish history +this rite took on a more spiritual character, as the +ceremonial aspects of sin and atonement became increasingly +prominent.</p> + +<p>The Day of Atonement has been usually considered +a very late institution, unknown in the time of Zechariah +and even in the age of Nehemiah not employed for +the special purpose of a national humiliation. What +seems more probable is that the Day of Atonement was +taken over and adopted into the Priestly Code of post-Exilic +Judaism from a popular and primitive ceremony +of sin-riddance, doubtless of high antiquity. It is +to be observed that the fast was held on the tenth day +of the seventh month, a day which appears to have +marked, originally, the beginning of the new year.⁠<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> +This would have been an appropriate time for an annual +ceremony of purification, since the new year is so frequently +observed with ceremonies of a cathartic or +apotropaic character. Even in late Old Testament +ritual, New Year’s Day, celebrated as the Feast of +Trumpets on the first day of the seventh month, was +also a <i>shabbāth shabbāthôn</i>, a time of “solemn rest” +and of “holy convocation.” No toilsome work might +then be performed; trumpets were to be blown, perhaps +to indicate its solemnity, and special sacrifices +were to be offered.⁠<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> Moreover, certain features of the +Atonement ceremony, especially that of the sin-laden +goat, which has so many parallels among the lower +races,⁠<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> strengthen the probability that the ritual for the +day represents an elaboration of earlier and simpler +customs familiar in pre-Exilic times. If this be true, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>it is not unreasonable to suppose that the “Sabbath of +solemn rest” forms likewise a survival from a still ruder +past, when sin was conceived so materially as a contaminating +influence that common prudence dictated +abstinence from work and other activities at a critical +season devoted to the driving-out of evil.⁠<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Ideas of this sort live long in the minds of men. +The greatest of Mohammedan festivals, the so-called +Feast of Sacrifices, is now celebrated as a means of +securing moral purification and blessing. But the +ceremony rests on a heathen basis, and its principal +feature, an animal sacrifice, was borrowed by Islam from +Arabian paganism. An eminent authority, who has +noticed the striking prevalence of cathartic ceremonies +at the Great Feast, suggests that its primary object +may have been to expel evils which were supposed to +threaten the people at the time of the year when the +sacrifice occurred. “Throughout Morocco the first +day of the feast is kept as a holiday, both by men and +women, and so is generally the second day also, which +in some places is regarded as a particularly dangerous +time. I am told that anybody who should work on that +day would have some grave misfortune—robbers would +kill him at night, or some of his children or animals +would die, or he would be struck with blindness—and +travelling on that day is likewise supposed to be accompanied +with danger. But labour is also suspended on +other days of the feast, especially by the women.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span></p> + +<p>The evidence presented in this chapter raises once +more the perplexing and much-debated problem of the +diffusion of culture. The custom of keeping tabooed +days after a death may be properly described as world-wide, +since it exists in all the continents. And the +observance as Sabbaths of periods devoted to the propitiation +or expulsion of spirits, though less common, +has been also traced among many half-civilized tribes +of Oceania, Asia, and Africa, as well as in classic Greece +and Rome. Within contiguous areas, for example, in +Borneo and the adjoining islands, or among related +peoples, such as the American and Asiatic Eskimo, it +is reasonable to ascribe the uniformity of custom to +long-continued borrowing. Again, the close resemblance +between the Greek and the Roman superstitions +relating to unlucky days—the ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι and the +<i>dies religiosi</i>—is satisfactorily accounted for by the +hypothesis of a common inheritance from prehistoric +antiquity. But where tabooed days are observed for +the same reasons by unrelated peoples, who, as far as +our knowledge reaches, have never been in cultural contact, +the student is obliged to conclude that the beliefs +underlying the custom in question have not been +narrowly limited but belong to the general stock of +primitive ideas. In such cases the doctrine of the +fundamental unity of the human mind seems alone to +be capable of explaining the astonishing similarity of +its products at different times and in different parts of +the world.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br> +<span class="smaller">HOLY DAYS</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>There exists, perhaps, no shorter road to the comprehension +of a religion as a social product than through +the study of its festivals. They are preëminently social +in character; they give expression to the feelings of +an entire community, whether clan, tribe, or nation; +and in their development they are closely associated +with the general progress of society. As civilization +develops, festivals tend to increase in number, to elaborate +their ritual, and to fix more precisely the time and +order of their celebration. It becomes the business of a +particular class—the priesthood—to establish and +maintain a calendar of sacred seasons. We may +assume with some confidence that the priestly attitude +in such matters has not been entirely disinterested. +The holy day, observed with worship, sacrifice, and +offerings, must contribute directly to the well-being +and prestige of the sacerdotal order.</p> + +<p>“The Greeks and the barbarians,” declares an ancient +geographer, “have this in common, that they accompany +their sacred rites by a festal remission of +labour.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> In fact most festivals are celebrated as +holidays, when men give up secular occupations and +devote themselves to religious exercises and relaxation. +Festivals, in consequence, assume with advancing +culture a great significance from the economic and +sociological standpoint. For the peasant and the +artisan they provide welcome relief from physical exertion, +and for all ranks of society their pageants and +processions, their games, feasts, and merry-makings +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>give an outlet to the play instincts of mankind. We +must not conclude, however, that the remission of +labour accompanying a festival has always been dictated +by practical and non-superstitious considerations. +It has been already pointed out that in some fairly +rude communities abstinence from work is a part of the +regular procedure for facing a crisis and the spiritual +dangers supposed to characterize such an occasion. +The rest is a measure of protection and propitiation, +quite as much as the fasts, the sacrifices, and the +prayers by which it may be attended. Where ideas +of this nature prevail, all labour becomes <i>tabu</i>.</p> + +<p>As we pass from savagery to barbarism and from +animism to polytheism, the notion of taboo, at first +vague and indeterminate, tends to differentiate into +the twin concepts of impurity and holiness. This +differentiation, indeed, is never perfectly accomplished +even by peoples which have reached some measure of +civilization; and the lower races find still greater difficulty +in distinguishing between what is dangerous, +because polluted, and what is dangerous, because +sacred. The “holy” thing and the “unclean” +thing possess alike the mystic potency, the magico-spiritual +power, the <i>mana</i> or <i>orenda</i>, to employ a +terminology which expresses early man’s sense of being +ever surrounded by unknown agencies, among which he +must walk warily, if he is to walk in safety.⁠<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>To the primitive mind the sanctity which attaches to +the divine chief and king, to such objects of special +reverence as bull-roarers, idols, and altars, and also to +certain places and shrines, is sufficiently material to be +transmissible and to be capable of infecting with its +mysterious qualities whatever is done at a particular +time. The notion of the transmissibility of holiness +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>might seem of itself to furnish a sufficient reason for +abstaining from ordinary occupations on a sacred day: +the power that blesses can also blast. In practice, +however, this idea appears to mingle quite inextricably +with the opposite though related conception that what +is holy can be contaminated by contact with the secular +and the profane. Furthermore, when holy days come +to be definitely consecrated to deities, who at such +times are believed to be present among their worshippers, +it is easy to see how the belief arises that a god +is pleased and flattered by the enforced idleness of his +devotees. Abstinence from work then takes its place +among other rites as a recognized way of expressing a +proper reverence for the divinity; while, conversely, +to labour on his holy day implies a disrespectful attitude +toward him. These are sentiments reasonably +certain of continued development, as priestly influence +becomes predominant in any community. “The Lord +thy God is a jealous God.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The consecration of a particular day to a divinity is a +common feature of polytheistic cults. Had we definite +information concerning the origin and development +of the great deities of the higher religions, it would +probably appear that in most instances their connection +with particular days is a secondary rather than a primary +formation. In other words a period dedicated +to a god and observed by his worshippers with abstinence +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>from labour may once have been a season of +taboo for other and quite different reasons. Some pertinent +instances of tabooed days which grew into holy +days have already engaged our attention.⁠<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> Thus, in the +comparatively well-developed religious system of the +Hawaiians the New Year’s festival was consecrated to +the god Lono; but the same festival in Fiji was not +associated with any particular divinity. Again, the +Hawaiians observed in every month four <i>tabu</i> periods, +which were severally dedicated to the great gods of the +native pantheon, Ku, Hua, Kaloa, and Kane. That +these Sabbaths had originally no connection with any +divinity and arose in consequence of superstitious beliefs +regarding lunar phenomena is a highly probable conclusion, +when we recall the numerous taboos attaching to the +phases of the moon, for instance, among the Dyak tribes +of Borneo. Once more, the attribution of the Bontoc +Igorot <i>tengao</i>, or rest day, to Lumawig, the only god +throughout the Bontoc culture area, cannot be earlier +than the emergence of this supreme being from the +crowd of spirits in which the native so firmly believes. +Lastly, we have seen how, in the case of the Athenian +Anthesteria, the attribution of the festival to Dionysus +and the cheerful associations with which the fancy of +the Greeks invested it represent a comparatively late +development.</p> + +<p>If many holy days of polytheistic cults were once +tabooed days, it follows that a taboo element may be +looked for in various religious celebrations which in outward +semblance have only a festive, happy character. +Particularly does this seem to be true of the numerous +rites observed by the Dravidian peoples of India. +The Kota, an aboriginal tribe of the Nilgiri Hills, hold +an annual feast, called <i>kambata</i> or <i>kamata</i>, in honour of +Kamataraya. It lasts about a fortnight. On the +second day of the festival no work may be done except +digging clay and making pots.⁠<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> The Uraon keep three +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>great feasts during the year. The first, known as +<i>sarhul</i>, occurs in May. Its object is said to be the +celebration of the mystical marriage of the sun-god +with the earth-goddess, in order that they may become +fruitful and consequently bestow good crops. At the +same time the Uraon take care to propitiate all the +village spirits, lest the latter should frustrate the efforts +of Sun and Earth to increase and multiply. On the +eve of the appointed day no one is allowed to plough +his fields.⁠<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> In Bengal, Mother Earth is the object of +much devotion. The goddess generally manifests herself +as the benignant source of all things, the giver of the +fruits of the earth. But sometimes she brings disease +and hence requires propitiation. The chief festival +in her honour occurs at the end of the hot season, when +she is supposed to suffer from the impurity common +to women. All ploughing, sowing, and other work +cease at this time, and Bengali widows refrain from +eating cooked rice.⁠<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> A very similar festival, called +<i>ucharal</i>, is celebrated by the natives of the Malabar +coast at the end of January, when Mother Earth has +her annual menstruation. For three days at this time +the people stop all work, except hunting: the house +may not be cleaned; the daily smearing of the floor +with cow-dung is discontinued; and even gardens may +not be watered.⁠<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> The village rites observed by the +Telugu, Kanarese, and Tamil peoples of southern India, +in honour of their local deities, though unattended by +compulsory abstinence from labour, are clearly of a +propitiatory character. In this respect they are analogous +to the <i>genna</i> customs in Assam. Usually the +people hold no regular festival, but perform their rites +of sacrifice only when some great misfortune—an outbreak +of cholera, smallpox, cattle disease, or drought—has +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>convinced them that evil spirits are about and +active. “I have dignified,” writes the Bishop of +Madras, “the periodical sacrifices to the village goddesses +by the name of festivals. But the term is a +misnomer. There is really nothing of a festal character +about them. They are only gloomy and weird +rites for the propitiation of angry deities or the driving +away of evil spirits, and it is very difficult to detect +any traces of a spirit of thankfulness or praise. Even +the term worship is hardly correct. The object of +all the various rites and ceremonies is not to worship +the deity in any true sense of the word, but simply +to propitiate and avert its wrath.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> The propitiatory +feature is not absent from some of the purely Hindu +festivals, which in this respect may have been affected +by the cults of the aboriginal peoples of India.⁠<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>One of the Hebrew agricultural festivals described +in the Old Testament furnishes an instance of what +seem to be ancient taboos surviving in a developed religious +ritual. In the post-Exilic calendar the Day +of First-fruits, inaugurating the Feast of Weeks, was +declared to be a time of “holy convocation,” when no +“servile work” was allowable.⁠<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> Now, primitive peoples +quite commonly observe various ceremonies in connection +with first-fruits, particularly a sacramental eating +of them preliminary to general use.⁠<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> With advancing +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>culture this rite tends to be replaced by an act of +definite sacrifice of a portion of the first-fruits to the +spirits or the gods, who have it in their power to give +or to withhold the crops. The rite of first-fruits marks +a time of peculiar solemnity, when gratitude to the +supernatural powers mingles with fear of the hostile +influences which may affect injuriously the grain that +lies still ungathered. So critical an epoch is frequently +inaugurated by a ceremonial cleansing or purgation of +the community; and the rite itself may require fasting +and continence on the part of those who celebrate it. +In at least one case previously noticed, the ceremonial +inbringing of first-fruits formed an occasion for abstaining +from all secular activities.⁠<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> Since a like restriction +was attached to the Hebrew Day of First-fruits, +we may surmise with some probability that +abstinence from labour at this time was observed by +the early Hebrews as a primitive taboo long before the +festival was definitely consecrated to Jehovah. It is +difficult to avoid the same conclusion with respect +to the sabbatarian rules which invested other agricultural +festivals of the Hebrews.⁠<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Greeks in late classical times appear to have +regarded their religious festivals much as we regard our +holidays. “The gods,” said Plato, “in pity for the toils +which our race is born to undergo have appointed holy +festivals, by which men alternate rest and labour.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> +With this remark, indicating that for the philosophic +thinker the process of rationalization had begun, it is +interesting to compare the statement of a modern +scholar that among the Greeks “the time occupied by +the feast of the gods was as sacred, <i>i.e.</i>, as much subject +to taboos, as was the whole of the Jewish Sabbath.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>The unlucky days (ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι) observed by the +Athenians included the twenty-fifth or twenty-ninth +of Thargelion, a day devoted to the celebration of the +Plynteria, the washing festival of their patron goddess. +On this occasion Athene’s image was borne in procession +to the sea, divested of its adornments, and laved +in the purifying waters. Plutarch’s biography of +Alcibiades contains a significant reference to the ceremony. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>At the time when that brilliant though shifty +Greek returned from exile to his native city, the people +were holding the Plynteria, in Athene’s honour. On +that day “the Praxiergidæ solemnize their secret rites: +they remove all the ornaments from her image and cover +it up. Hence the Athenians regard this day as most +unlucky, and do no work on it. It seemed as though +the goddess were receiving him in no friendly fashion, +for she hid her face from his as if to banish him from +her sight.” Xenophon, also, referring to the return +of Alcibiades at the time of the Plynteria, declares that +“none of the Athenians would venture to transact +any serious business on this day.” And Pollux informs +us that the sanctuaries were roped round at the Plynteria, +as at other unlucky times, doubtless to avoid +their being tainted with the pollution of the day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> +The Athenians themselves ascribed the unluckiness of +the day of the Plynteria to the fact of Athene’s absence +from the city during the festival. It is probable, however, +that the Plynteria was at one time a rite of purification +preliminary to the bringing-in of the first-fruits, +and hence a rite which must have existed long before +its ascription to the protecting deity of Athens.⁠<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> So +considered, the Plynteria as a rest day affords a close +parallel to the Tongan <i>inachi</i> and the Hebrew Day of +First-fruits.</p> + +<p>With the Plynteria may be profitably compared the +better-known Roman festival of the Vestalia. The +Athenian ceremonies came in May, the Roman, in +June, but they were alike in content. The nine days +devoted to the Vestalia were ill-omened (<i>religiosi</i>). +During their celebration the innermost sanctuary of +Vesta, shut all the rest of the year, was opened to the +matrons of Rome, who crowded to it barefooted, while +the Vestals themselves offered the sacred cakes made +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>of the first ears of corn plucked a month previously. +On the ninth day (June 15) the temple was swept and +the refuse thrown into the Tiber. Then the <i>dies +religiosi</i> came to an end, as soon as the last act of cleansing +had been duly performed—<i>Quando stercus delatum +fas</i>, “When the rubbish has been carried away.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Roman religious festivals, of which a few, as we +have seen, were celebrated on <i>dies religiosi</i>,⁠<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> went collectively +under the name of <i>feriæ</i> (<i>dies feriati</i>).⁠<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> The +public <i>feriæ</i>, numbering sixty-one in republican times, +were all consecrated to deities of the state cults. As +illustrating the Roman prejudice against even numbers +as unlucky, it is interesting to note that, with two +exceptions, all these older <i>feriæ</i> occurred on days which, +reckoning from the beginning of the month, would be +denoted by odd numbers. The same superstition +required that, where a festival occupied more than one +day in a month, there should be an interval of one or +three days between the beginning and close of its celebration, +as in the case of the Lemuria on the ninth, +eleventh, and thirteenth of February. The ferial +days were of prehistoric origin, though the testimony +of tradition assigned them to Romulus and particularly +to Numa, the priestly king who was believed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>to have organized the Roman religion. Considering the +great antiquity of the <i>feriæ</i>, it becomes a legitimate +inquiry how far they resemble the festivals observed +in modern times by peoples scarcely inferior in culture +to the Romans at the dawn of their history. What +likeness, in other words, can be traced between the +<i>feriæ</i> and days <i>tabu</i>?</p> + +<p>The ancients made a fundamental distinction between +public and private <i>feriæ</i>. The former included all +festivals which were celebrated by the community at +large, the latter, those which appertained to individuals, +families, <i>gentes</i>, sacred colleges, and other social groups +within the body politic. Since the Roman state +religion was based on the religion of the family and the +<i>gens</i>, we are entitled to believe that the <i>feriæ privatæ</i> +provided the model for the <i>feriæ publicæ</i>; and this view +is confirmed by numerous analogies elsewhere.⁠<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> The +festivals observed by <i>gentes</i> are little known and appear +to have become obsolete at an early date; the family +festivals, on the other hand, flourished throughout antiquity. +All important epochs in the life of a Roman +housefather and his children—birth, naming, assumption +of the <i>toga virilis</i>, marriage, and death—were kept +as ferial days. The <i>feriæ denicales</i> are especially noteworthy, +for they show that the Romans shared the +superstitious notions of many primitive peoples concerning +the noxious influence of death. These ceremonies, +which took place a few days after the funeral, +were for the purpose of purifying the house and its +inmates from the death contagion.⁠<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> Abstinence from +labour formed a special feature of all family festivals: +they were rest days for both man and beast. As that +model economist, Cato the Elder, remarked, “For +mules, horses, and asses there are no other holidays +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>than those of the family.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> However, we must +probably include, as an exception to Cato’s statement, +the festival of the Paganalia, or <i>feriæ sementivæ</i>, which +came in January after the seed had been sown. During +this time the plough rested by command of the gods, +and not the farmer only, but also his slaves and animal +servants, enjoyed holiday idleness. The festival had +a distinctly prophylactic character, being marked by +prayers, offerings, and other rites designed to ward off +evil influences from the crops.⁠<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> The Paganalia, as its +name indicates, was an old village rite which survived +into historic times and became incorporated in the +public <i>feriæ</i> of the Roman city. But before turning to +this division of our subject it may be pointed out that +among the private <i>feriæ</i> were also included those which +were observed by individuals only, as a means of removing +the taint of some impurity which rested upon them. +A man who had pronounced accidentally the names of +certain mysterious divinities was expected to celebrate +a private festival as a means of expiation (<i>ferias observabat</i>). +The Flaminica, or wife of the Flamen Dialis, +who with her husband was subject to many restrictions, +became tabooed—<i>feriata</i>—if she heard thunder, +and might not engage in her religious duties until she +had performed an act of lustration (<i>donec placasset +deos</i>).⁠<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The public <i>feriæ</i> were also occasions for abstinence, +purification, and propitiation. On the calendars they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>are marked <i>nefasti</i>, indicating that at such times all +political and judicial business must be suspended. +In the later period of the Roman Republic unscrupulous +consuls sometimes put this regulation to a base use +by ordering special <i>feriæ</i> for all comitial days, so as to +stave off legislation by their rivals.⁠<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> The gods, on +ferial days, demanded the service of men by visits to +the temples and by prayers and sacrifices. Hence +the <i>feriæ</i> formed public holidays, when even slaves +enjoyed a cessation of toil. “Let contentions of every +kind cease on the sacred festivals, and let servants +enjoy them with a remission of labour; for this purpose +they were appointed at certain seasons.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> These +words of Cicero reflect, however, not the original purpose +of the <i>feriæ</i> but only the interpretation put upon +them by a rationalistic thinker in a sophisticated age. +We may assume with confidence that the ferial days +were not established as a boon to the labourer. The +regulations enforced on the <i>feriæ</i> indicate how, in Roman +belief, it was essential that their holiness should not be +polluted by unseemly activity. The <i>rex sacrorum</i> and +<i>flamines</i>, whose lives were passed in an odour of sanctity, +were not allowed even to see any work being done during +the celebration of <i>feriæ</i>; hence, when these officials +went out, heralds preceded them to enjoin the people +from working in their presence. An accidental neglect +of such admonitions was punished with a fine and +atonement was made by the sacrifice of a pig. An +intentional disobedience constituted a crime beyond +the power of atonement.⁠<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In the later centuries of the republic, with the decay +of supernaturalism, questions began to be raised as +to what kinds of work might legitimately be done on +the public <i>feriæ</i>. The pontiff Umbro declared that it +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>was no violation of them for a person to do any work +which had reference to the gods, or the offering of +sacrifices—<i>ad deos pertinens sacrorumve causa</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> All +labour was likewise allowable which was necessary to +supply the urgent wants of life. The pontiff Scævola +held that any work might be done, if suffering and +injury were caused by its neglect or delay—<i>licet quod +prætermissum noceret</i>. If a house threatened to tumble +down on a ferial day, the inhabitants might take the +requisite measures to repair it at this time. And +should a man’s oxe fall into a pit, he might employ workmen +to lift it out without polluting the <i>feriæ</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> Cato +thought that on holidays a farmer might repair ditches, +pave the public roads, and make everything neat and +clean about his premises.⁠<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Vergil, writing when this +rationalistic movement had culminated, asserts that +“even on holy days some work is permitted by the laws +of God and man. The strictest worshipper has never +scrupled to drain the fields, plant a hedge to protect a +crop, set snares for birds, fire the brambles, or wash his +bleating sheep for health’s sake in the stream.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Such +interpretations indicate that in late classical antiquity +the burdens of the old tabooed days were being gradually +lifted, and their observance adjusted to the social +and economic needs of a progressive community.</p> + +<p>Corresponding to the private <i>feriæ</i> observed by individuals +on special occasions were those public holidays +which had to be kept by the community at large, in +consequence of some unusual and terrifying event. +Certain natural phenomena resulted in the cessation of +all activity by the people and the institution of extraordinary +festivals (<i>feriæ imperativæ</i>). These were +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>decreed by the magistrates, acting on the advice of the +priests and with the consent of the Senate. Festivals +of this sort were anonymous; they were dedicated +neither to god nor goddess—<i>sive deo sive deæ</i>—for +the divine author of the portent was obviously unknown. +Numerous instances of the celebration of extraordinary +<i>feriæ</i> are noticed by classical historians, especially by +Livy. During the reign of Tullus Hostilius, the third +of Rome’s legendary kings, a rain of stones on the Alban +Mount led to the institution of a nine days’ festival. +Shortly after the establishment of the republic an aurora +borealis so terrified the people that they kept a three +days’ festival. About half a century after the sack +of Rome by the Gauls a rain of stones, accompanied by +an obscuration of the sun, made it necessary for the +Senate to appoint a dictator whose special business it +was to appease the supernatural powers by appointing +holidays and performing ceremonies. When Hannibal +was in Italy, threatening the life of the Roman commonwealth, +Heaven seemed to multiply portents, and +Livy particularly mentions two occasions when a +shower of stones provoked compulsory holidays for the +usual period (<i>novemdiales feriæ</i>). Earthquakes always +aroused superstitious fears and made it necessary to +celebrate propitiatory <i>feriæ</i>. In the year 193 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> the +frequent earthquakes led to the institution of so many +festivals that all public business was blocked; the +Senate could not meet and the consuls were constantly +employed in rites of propitiation. Under these circumstances, +so Livy tells us, the people grew weary, +not only of the earthquakes but also of the <i>feriæ</i> appointed +to expiate them, and an edict was passed that, +whenever <i>feriæ</i> were ordered to be observed on a certain +day, in consequence of an earthquake, no fresh disturbance +of the sort was to be reported on that same +day. Only a year after the publication of this amusing +edict the Romans were terrified by earthquake shocks +which lasted for thirty-eight days, a period which was +marked by a total cessation of business. And more +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>than two hundred years later the emperor Claudius, +when an earthquake happened at Rome, never failed +to appoint holidays for sacred rites. Similar ceremonies, +<i>pro valetudine populi</i>, were sometimes performed +to drive away a devastating pestilence.⁠<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>To the ancient Romans the celebration of ferial days +thus provided an appropriate and effectual method of +meeting a crisis. Like the tabooed days observed in +Polynesia, Indonesia, and southeastern Asia at the +present time, the <i>feriæ</i> were occasions for the propitiation +of supernatural and hostile powers. As such they +must have been, originally, periods of gloom and not of +joy. That subsequently, when superstition had in +some measure relaxed its grip, they became festive occasions, +celebrated so luxuriously that both Sulla and +Augustus felt themselves obliged to promulgate laws +restricting expenditures in connection with them,⁠<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> may +be taken as only another instance of man’s ineradicable +tendency to convert his fast days into feast days.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br> +<span class="smaller">MARKET DAYS</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>Rest days, more or less regular in occurrence and +following at short intervals after periods of continuous +labour, are frequently observed by primitive agriculturists. +Sabbaths of this sort seem to be unknown +among migratory hunting and fishing peoples or among +nomadic pastoral tribes.⁠<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> A wandering hunter requires +no regular day of rest, since his life passes in alternations +of continuous labour, while following the chase, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>and of almost uninterrupted idleness, after a successful +hunt. For the shepherd there can be no relaxation +of the diurnal duties, for every morning the cattle +must be driven abroad to pasture, they must be watched +and watered, and at night they must be milked. And, +as Rudolf von Ihering has suggested, the shepherd, +compared with the farmer, scarcely needs a regular +rest day; his occupation causes him so little continuous +exertion that he can pursue it all the year round +without any injury to his health. A farmer, however, +is benefited by a period of rest recurring more or less +regularly, and, though agricultural pursuits are dependent +on the seasons and weather, he is usually +able to postpone his work for a brief period without +serious loss. It might be argued, therefore, that the +change from pastoral to agricultural life would itself +be sufficient to call into existence the institution of a +periodic rest day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> The evidence to be submitted +suggests, however, that the connection of the rest day +with the farmer’s pursuits is secondary, rather than +direct, and is due to the obvious fact that the Sabbath +institution implies a settled life, a more or less developed +form of social organization and government, and something +approaching a calendar system.</p> + +<p>The greater number of periodic rest days observed +by agricultural peoples in the lower stages of culture +are associated with the institution of the market.⁠<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> +Days on which markets regularly take place are not +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>infrequently characterized by sabbatarian regulations. +It is necessary, therefore, to present in some detail the +evidence for market weeks and market days in various +parts of the world.⁠<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Some Australian tribes have established trade centres, +where there are periodical meetings for the purpose +of exchanging the products and manufactures of neighbouring +communities. More or less bartering occurs +also in connection with great tribal convocations, especially +those for the initiation ceremonies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> Necessarily, +such gatherings take place at infrequent intervals. +The beginnings of regular markets may, however, be +traced in certain parts of New Guinea and among some +of the Melanesian Islands. The natives of the Mekeo +District of British New Guinea are said to hold markets, +every fifth day at Mawaia and Mohu (on the banks +of the Angabunga River), and at other intervals elsewhere. +Women from several villages will assemble +at some appointed place, usually on the boundary +between two tribes, and there will exchange their products +for commodities from other localities. The bartering +lies entirely in the hands of the women, who, +however, are accompanied by a few armed men acting +as a guard.⁠<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> The Kerepunu of Hood Peninsula, to +the east of Port Moresby, are described by a missionary +who knew them well as most industrious farmers: +every morning men, women, and children go to work +in the fields and return only at nightfall. “They have +a rule, to which they strictly adhere all the year round, +of working for two days and resting the third.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>Kerepunu rest day may have originated in a practice, +now lapsed, of holding a market every third day, since +there is evidence for the former existence of markets +in the neighbourhood of Port Moresby.⁠<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> The natives +of Patipi and Roembatti, on the MacCluer Gulf in the +extreme western part of Dutch New Guinea, have +markets, which as a rule recur every fifth day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> In +the Gazelle Peninsula, Bismarck Archipelago, markets +at which the women buy and sell take place every third +day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> In New Caledonia, where each tribe is divided +into sea-folk and bush-folk, the former being cocoa-tree +planters and fishers, the latter being yam-growers, +there is said to be a lively market conducted each week +by the women. “The ladies [<i>sic</i>] of each section of +the tribe sit down in rows with their produce before +them, and barter is transacted in dances, with a good +deal of manœuvring.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> In some parts of old Polynesia +markets were held at stated periods, but, unfortunately, +no record seems to have been made of the +time intervals in popular use.⁠<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Markets take place in Celebes,⁠<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> Sumatra, and Java, +usually every fifth day, but sometimes at shorter intervals. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>Among the Batta of Sumatra a market occurs +every third, fourth, or fifth day, according to a regular +succession and in a designated place, until the round +of participating villages has been made. At Batta +markets all hostilities are suspended, and it is sometimes +required that every man who carries a musket in the +market place shall put a green bough in the muzzle, +as a token of his peaceful intentions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> The Javanese +<i>pasar</i>, or market week, consisted of five days—<i>lege</i> +(or <i>manis</i>), <i>pahing</i> (or <i>pa</i>), <i>pon</i>, <i>wage</i>, and <i>kaliwon</i>. +The principal use of the Javanese week was to determine +the markets or fairs held in the important towns.⁠<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The <i>pasar</i> spread from Java to the island of Bali, +where it is employed in combination with the week of +seven days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> In the Malay Peninsula, side by side +with the ordinary seven-day week, there is a popular +cycle of five days used for the determination of lucky +and unlucky days. The names of the days are those of +Hindu divinities, but the cycle itself is probably of +Javanese origin.⁠<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Markets recurring every fifth day are found among +the Indo-Chinese, as in Tonkin⁠<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> and the various Lao +states of northern Siam.⁠<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> Among the Shan all work +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>ceases on market days, except what is necessarily +involved in buying and selling. Every native tries +to be in his own village when the market takes place +there, not only to trade but also to exchange news and +gossip. The centre of the village becomes a forum, +where every subject is fully discussed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> “The Shan +is a born trader, and the great feature of life in this +country is the bazaar, which is held on every fifth day +at all the chief villages of the states.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> Another +traveller tells us that on the first three of the five days +constituting the Shan market week small bazaars are +held in different parts of the country, but no trading +takes place anywhere on the fourth day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> The Khasi +of Assam have a great market every eighth day, from +which circumstance they have developed a week of +eight days. “The reason of the eight-day week is +because the markets are usually held every eighth day. +The names of the days of the week are not those of +planets, but of places where the principal markets +are held, or used to be held, in the Khasi and Jaintia +hills.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> It may be regarded as certain that this eight-day +period arose from a doubling of an earlier four-day +cycle, as has been the case among certain African +peoples. Even now in the Wár country, lying to the +south of the Khasi and Jaintia District, markets are +usually held every fourth day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Throughout the central parts of Africa, from the +British and German possessions in the east to those of +the Portuguese and French in the west, there are numerous +market places where neighbouring communities +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>meet regularly to exchange their productions. Usually +every fourth day is a market day, observed with the +cessation of ordinary occupations, and by the Wanika +of British East Africa, according to missionary testimony, +with feasting and carousing.⁠<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> In the same part +of British East Africa the Wagiriama possess a week of +four days, each with its name.⁠<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> Among the Akikuyu, +who employ thirty-day months beginning with new +moon, there is a week of four days, the latter being +indicated by the names of the different markets held +on them. Each market is held on the fourth day of +the cycle, and no two markets in the same neighbourhood +occur on the same day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> The Akikuyu market +places in populous districts are often not more than +seven miles apart. The site chosen for a market is +usually a hill-top, sufficiently open and accessible to +accommodate the natives who may assemble there to +the number of four or five thousand. All in all the +market forms a very important feature of Akikuyu +society.⁠<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> The Wachaga of German East Africa, who +dwell on the southern slopes of mighty Kilimanjaro, +the highest mountain in Africa, hold a daily market, +so ordered as to recur every third day in one of three +neighbouring settlements. The days of this three-day +week are separately named, and hence the Wachaga +always know where the market is to be held. The +markets, which are said to be very ancient, are visited +only by women.⁠<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> The English missionary, David +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>Livingstone, has described the markets held by the +Manyema, who occupy part of the territory between +Lake Tanganyika and the Congo. As many as three +thousand people, chiefly women, may sometimes be +seen in the <i>chitoka</i>, or market place. The market is +held to-day in one locality, to-morrow in another, and +so on till the cycle of four days is completed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> Among +the natives on the lower Lomami River, near the equator, +markets are described as recurring every third +day,⁠<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> and among the Bakuba (Bushongo), who occupy +the valley of the Sankuru River, every fifth day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> The +Baluba, whose territory lies between the Sankuru and +Kasai rivers, hold important markets. A German +explorer who was present at one of them described the +market place as neutral ground, where even members +of hostile tribes might appear without danger. The +chief, in whose honour this primitive fair was held, +kept peace and order, assisted by half a dozen stalwart +guards carrying broad axes on their shoulders. Whenever +any dispute arose, these policemen were immediately +on the scene of action.⁠<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> The four-day market +week is found among various tribes, such as the Bayaka,⁠<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> +Bambala,⁠<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> and Bahuana,⁠<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> + occupying the region between +the Loange and Kwango rivers, tributaries of the +Kasai.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p> + +<p>The market week (<i>lumingu</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a>⁠), four days in length, +appears to be generally diffused among the peoples on +both banks of the lower Congo. A missionary, long +resident in this part of Africa, tells us that here the +week consists of four days, named <i>nkandu</i>, <i>konzo</i>, +<i>nkenge</i>, and <i>nsona</i> in the cataract region. The markets +are designated after the days of the week and the towns +near which they are held. For instance, the Manyama +market is known as <i>nsona a Manyama</i>, because it is +held on <i>nsona</i> day. The great trade markets, however, +usually occur every eighth day, for the convenience of +traders and to insure a good attendance. At the +smaller, local markets, held every fourth day, exchanges +are limited to goats, fowls, and foodstuffs. Every +one wants to increase the attendance at these local +markets; hence it may be declared a penal offence for +a woman to go to her farm on the market day. “In +some parts another day of the short week is declared +to be an unlucky day for farming operations. This is +no lingering trace of the idea of a Sabbath, for the day +fixed is most arbitrary, two adjacent villages avoiding +different days, while in others the women will work +any day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> An early explorer, referring to the custom +of observing <i>nsona</i> as a rest day, declares that +“on this day they refrain from working in the plantations, +under the superstitious notion that the crop +would fail; they, however, perform any other kind of +work.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> In Loango, where the natives have a month +of twenty-eight days reckoned from new moon, seven +weeks are counted to the month. The four weekdays +are called, respectively, <i>nsona</i>, <i>nduka</i>, <i>ntono</i>, and +<i>nsilu</i>, the first being regarded as a day of rest.⁠<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> Another +writer describes <i>sona</i> (<i>nsona</i>) as the men’s day +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>of rest, but the women’s market day, when the latter +buy and sell in the market. At this time it is regarded +as wrong for husbands to have intercourse with their +wives. On another day, <i>ntona</i> (<i>ntono</i>), the women +may not plant, and burials take place.⁠<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> With these +accounts it is interesting to compare the statement of +an old writer, according to whom the Loango negroes +“never work above three days in succession; the fourth +is for them a general rest day, during which they are +not allowed to engage in tillage. The men, who repose +habitually, work still less on that day. They +walk, sport, and go to market. The missionaries have +been unable to procure from the negroes any explanation +of this period of four days, which forms their +week.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The market is a well-developed institution among +the semi-civilized negroes about the Gulf of Guinea. +In this part of Africa the sabbatarian character of the +market day is specially pronounced. Markets every +third, fifth, eighth, or tenth day have been noticed +in the interior districts of Kamerun. Market days +are observed with abstinence from work of every sort, +including farm labour; indeed, says an observer, +they may be considered the Sundays of the native +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>calendar.⁠<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> In Old Calabar the week consists of eight +days. The weekdays are named from peculiar rites +of the <i>egbo</i> secret society performed thereon, or from +the markets which occur on them. That the week +here originally contained four days only is obvious +from the circumstance that the names applied to the +second group of four days are the same as those which +the four days of the first group receive, except for being +preceded in each case by the adjective “little.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> +The Ibo and other tribes of the Niger Delta (Southern +Nigeria) observe <i>eke</i>, the first day of the four-day week, +as the appropriate time for abstaining from toilsome +labour and for marketing. Natives are forbidden +to climb a cocoanut tree on <i>eke</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> Among the Asaba +people, a branch of the powerful Ibo tribe, there seems +not to be any communal regulation respecting the +observance of <i>eke</i>: “the days for rest, for public market, +and for work vary with the individual according to the +particular governing <i>juju</i> [fetish] as determined by the +medicine man.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> Among the Edo, or Bini, of Southern +Nigeria the week is everywhere a recognized period +of time. It is, properly speaking, four days in length, +this being the interval between the two markets in any +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>given locality. Occasionally, as in the Ida District, +markets are found every eighth day, “but the names +applied to the intervening days clearly show that a +four-day week was the primary one.” One of the four +days is commonly known as the rest day, when men +often stay at home—though farm work is not absolutely +forbidden—and when women go to the market.⁠<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The excellent studies of the late Lieutenant-Colonel +Ellis, supplemented by later accounts, furnish a considerable +amount of information regarding the rest +days observed by the Yoruba-speaking and Ewe-speaking +peoples of the Slave Coast and by the Tshi-speaking +and Ga-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast. +Some of these African Sabbaths are kept only by families +or by the inhabitants of a single locality. Among +the Tshi, for example, on the day sacred to the tutelary +deity of a family all its members wear white or light-coloured +clothes, mark themselves with white clay, and +abstain from work. The day sacred to the tutelary +deity of a town is celebrated in the same manner.⁠<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span></p> + +<p>In this part of west Africa particular days of the week +are assigned to the gods worshipped by different classes +of the community. The Yoruba keep the first day of +the week as a general Sabbath, but each of the remaining +days is a period of rest only for the followers of +the god to which it is dedicated.⁠<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> For the adherents +of a god to violate the day sacred to him is a serious +offence, punishable with a fine, and in former times, +with death. The notion prevails that, if the honour +of the god is not vindicated by his followers, all will +suffer for the neglect. “The Sabbath-breaker is, in +fact, killed by the other worshippers of the god from +motives of self-protection.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> While the first day of the +Tshi week is a general Sabbath, <i>bna-da</i>, the second day, +is the fishermen’s holiday. Any fisherman who ventures +forth on this day is fined and his catch thrown +into the sea. In former times he would have been put +to death.⁠<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> The fifth day, <i>iffi-da</i>, of the Tshi week is +the regular rest day for farmers.⁠<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> Similarly, among +the Ewe every tribal deity, with one exception, has a +sacred day, observed by his followers to the accompaniment +of much eating, drinking, and dancing.⁠<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>All these west African peoples divide the month into +weeks and keep one weekday as a general Sabbath. +Among the Yoruba, whose week is said to consist of +five days,⁠<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> the first day (<i>ako-ojo</i>) “is considered unlucky, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>and no business of importance is ever undertaken +on it. On this day all the temples are swept +out, and water, for the use of the gods, is brought in +procession.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> The Ewe of Dahomey are said to observe +every fourth day as a holiday, “not kept holy, +but devoted to the will of the working classes; in short, +a sort of remuneration to the slave for the three days’ +labour.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> Weeks of four, five, and six days, usually +ending in a general market day which is also a rest day, +have been observed in various parts of Togo.⁠<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span></p> + +<p>The week of seven days is not unknown to the Guinea +negroes. Its presence in the hinterland of Togo is +clearly due to the influence of Islam; in fact, the market +day here recurs on Friday, the Mohammedan +Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> Some of the Ewe peoples nearer the Slave +Coast also use a seven-day cycle, which appears to +have been borrowed by them from their neighbours, +the Tshi tribes of the Gold Coast.⁠<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> The Tshi keep +<i>adjwo-da</i>, the first day of their seven-day week, as a +general Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> The Ga of the Gold Coast, who also +have the seven-day week, observe the first day as a +communal Sabbath. Its name, <i>dsu</i>, means “purification,” +a term which seems also to have been used +as a title of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span></p> + +<p>Although market weeks of varying length have been +reported among some of the other Sudanese negroes +south of the Niger,⁠<a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> it is clear that the Mohammedan +advance in this region has brought with it the week of +seven days and the custom of holding a market every +seventh day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> Similarly, in other parts of Africa, as +on the lower Congo, the European week of seven days +has taken the place of the shorter native cycles, with +the result that, where earlier the market came every +fourth day, at present it recurs every seventh day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> +These facts make it practically certain that the seven-day +week, found among the Ewe, Tshi, and Ga, was +originally taken over from Islam. Lieutenant-Colonel +Ellis, indeed, regarded it as a purely African institution,⁠<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> +but he himself pointed out that Mohammedan +states were formed to the north of the forest country +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>of the Gold Coast as early as the eleventh century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, +and that the period since then has been long enough +to allow the new mode of reckoning to become known +throughout the entire country. The Tshi, who seem +to have moved from the Sudan interior to the coast +districts at no very remote period, doubtless took with +them their septenary mode of reckoning, which, as we +have seen, they communicated to the Ewe and the Ga.</p> + +<p>The market, with its accompaniments, the market +week and the market day, has thus been shown to +prevail throughout equatorial Africa, on the Guinea +coast, and in the basin of the Niger and the Nile.⁠<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> +The wide diffusion of this institution is doubtless in +large measure the outcome of borrowing from tribe to +tribe. A market, however, tends naturally to come +into existence whenever neighbouring peoples have +goods to exchange and the willingness to exchange +them. The market place is originally in some neutral +district on the tribal borders, where all hostilities must +cease. In process of time the increasing friendliness +between communities makes it possible for the market +to be held in the different settlements according to a +definite and well-known sequence. With the regular +market is inseparably connected the market week, the +length of which varies from three to ten days. The +shorter intervals of three, four, and five days reflect +the simple economy of primitive life, since the market +must recur with sufficient frequency to permit neighbouring +communities, who keep on hand no large stocks +of food and other necessaries, to obtain them from one +another. The longer cycles of six, eight, and ten days, +much less common, apparently arise by doubling the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>earlier period, whenever it is desired to hold a great +market for the produce of a wide area. That the +recurrence of the market determines the length of the +week is made obvious by the practice of naming the +several weekdays from the markets that take place on +them.⁠<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> Thus there comes into existence a definite +and recognized cycle of time, shorter than the lunar +month and in origin unconnected with it, a true periodic +week, running continuously from month to month +and from year to year.</p> + +<p>A market day is necessarily more or less of a rest +day. Those who attend a market must abandon for +the time being their usual occupations. It is also a +holiday, affording opportunities for social intercourse, +sports, and amusements of all sorts. Such seems to +be the character of most of the market days found in +southeastern Asia and the adjacent islands, as well as +in some parts of Africa. On the lower Congo, however, +the market day sometimes bears an unlucky character, +and a distinct tendency exists to attach various restrictions +to it. In the Guinea region the market day +often, though not always, coincides with the general +day of rest observed by an entire community. As +such it may be consecrated to a god. The same practice, +we have seen, prevails in respect to the holy days +of individuals, families, towns, and particular classes +of the community. This extensive development of +sabbatarian regulations appears to be peculiar to west +Africa.</p> + +<p>The market week and the market day, though apparently +unknown to the ruder tribes of America, formed +a feature of those more advanced civilizations which +were developed in the valleys of Mexico and Central +America, and on the lofty tablelands of Colombia and +Peru. Each important pueblo of Mexico held a market +(<i>tianguiztli</i>) every fifth day, it being provided that +neighbouring pueblos should observe different days, +in order to secure a regular sequence of markets. All +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>adults were obliged by law to resort to the <i>tianguiztli</i>, +and severe penalties were imposed on those who exchanged +commodities anywhere but at the appointed +place and at the appointed time. The market days of +old Mexico thus appear as compulsory holidays, when +the people relinquished their usual occupations and +assembled in great numbers, not only to buy and sell, +but also, as we are told, to engage in games and festivities.⁠<a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> +The five-day market week also existed in +various parts of Central America.⁠<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> In the Colombian +Andes, among the Muysca (Chibcha) of Bogota, who +had attained a degree of civilization far in advance of +that reached by the other aborigines of Colombia, +regular markets took place, apparently every third +day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> If the Muysca week consisted only of three +days, that of the Peruvians extended to ten days, ending +in a holiday which was also a market day. The +institution was attributed to the Apu-Ccapac-Ynca, +whose beneficent activities gained for him the appellation +of Pachacutec, “Reformer of the World.” To +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>an old chronicler, himself of Ynca blood, this Peruvian +Sabbath appeared to be devised solely for utilitarian +ends. “In order that labour might not be so continuous +as to become oppressive, the Ynca ordained that +there should be three holidays every month, in which +the people should divert themselves with various games. +He also commanded that there should be three fairs +every month, when the labourers in the field should +come to market and hear anything that the Ynca or his +council might have ordained. They called these +assemblies <i>catu</i>, and they took place on the holidays.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> +Considering how frequently eight and ten-day weeks +have arisen by doubling periods of four and five days, +respectively, it seems not unlikely that the Peruvian +decade grew out of an earlier market week of five days +similar to the Mexican institution.</p> + +<p>Another important instance of the market week and +the market day in archaic civilizations is that of the +Roman <i>nundinum</i> and <i>nundinæ</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> The nundinal cycle, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>eight days in length, began (or closed) with a day +when the peasants came to Rome for purposes of +trade. The nundinal day, however, was more than a +market day. At this time the ordinary occupations +were interrupted; school-children enjoyed a holiday; +and sumptuous banquets celebrated the festive +occasion.</p> + +<p>The origin and early development of the <i>nundinæ</i> +are veiled in obscurity. The institution enjoyed a +high antiquity, tradition ascribing it now to Romulus, +now to Servius Tullius, and now to the first consuls.⁠<a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> +In historic times the <i>nundinæ</i> present themselves as +the market days and holidays of a laborious peasantry; +it may be questioned, indeed, whether they were ever +anything else. It seems probable that, at least from +the middle of the fifth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the <i>nundinæ</i> could +be used for the settlement of judicial business, as is +indicated by a passage in the Twelve Tables referring +to them.⁠<a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> Furthermore, there is reason to believe +that, until the passage of the Hortensian law in 287 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, +the nundinal days were available for meetings of the +public assemblies. This unfortunate piece of legislation +effectually debarred the rural voters from participation +in law-making on the very occasions when the +largest number of them would naturally be in the capital +city.⁠<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> The classical writers were uncertain whether +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>the <i>nundinæ</i> should properly be included among the +ferial days, that is, among the days which belonged to +gods and not to men.⁠<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> In Varro’s time the pontiffs +held that the <i>nundinæ</i> were not <i>feriatæ</i>, but many +writers, cited by Macrobius, maintained the contrary +opinion. The <i>nundinæ</i> certainly never became public +festivals in the technical sense, though they were dedicated +to Jupiter, to whom the Flaminica Dialis sacrificed +a bull on their recurrence.⁠<a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> In this consecration +to a deity the <i>nundinæ</i> further resembled some of the +west African market days.</p> + +<p>The Roman <i>nundinum</i> and <i>nundinæ</i> have much +historic interest. The eight-day cycle, as a periodic +week unconnected with the lunar month, presented a +close parallel to the Jewish week of seven days. Further +parallels existed in the absence of names for the weekdays, +Roman and Jewish, and in the special observance +of one day of each week by abstention from the +customary occupations. It is scarcely surprising to +find, therefore, that the Roman <i>nundinæ</i>, together with +the <i>feriæ</i>, contributed to the development of the Christian +Sunday. The earliest Sunday law is the brief +edict of Constantine (321 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), enacting that magistrates, +city people, and artisans were to rest “on the +venerable day of the Sun.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> This legislation by +Constantine probably bore no relation to Christianity; +it appears, on the contrary, that the emperor, in his +capacity of Pontifex Maximus, was only adding the +day of the Sun, the worship of which was then firmly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>established in the Roman Empire, to the other ferial +days of the sacred calendar. Much significance must +be attached to that part of Constantine’s edict permitting +agricultural labour on Sunday, “since it frequently +happens that the sowing of grain and planting of vines +cannot be so advantageously performed on any other +day.” In this particular the emperor was following +the long-accepted rule as to the observance of the +<i>feriæ</i> in country districts.⁠<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> Another regulation of +Constantine’s, expressly appointing markets to be held +on Sunday, doubtless represents an effort to assimilate +the old Roman nundinal day to the new weekly Sunday.⁠<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> +With the final triumph of Christianity over +paganism the old <i>feriæ</i> and the <i>nundinæ</i> were abolished, +Sunday, with the other Christian festivals, being substituted +in their place.⁠<a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a>⁠</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br> +<span class="smaller">LUNAR SUPERSTITIONS AND FESTIVALS</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>There is good reason for believing that among many +primitive peoples the moon, rather than the sun, the +planets, or any of the constellations, first excited the +imagination and aroused feelings of superstitious awe +or of religious veneration. The worship of the moon +is widespread; and in various mythologies that luminary, +often conceived as masculine, plays the most +important part among the heavenly bodies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> “That +the moon has certain effects on moist substances, that +they are apparently subject to her influences, that, for +instance, increase and decrease in ebb and flow develop +periodically and parallel with the moon’s phases, all +this is well known to the inhabitants of seashores and +seafaring people. Likewise physicians are well aware +that she affects the <i>humores</i> of sick people, and that +the fever-days revolve parallel with the moon’s course. +Physical scholars know that the life of animals and +plants depends upon the moon, and experimentalists +know that she influences marrow and brain, eggs and +the sediments of wine in casks and jugs, that she excites +the minds of people who sleep in full moonlight, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>that she affects (?) linen clothes which are exposed to +it. Peasants know how the moon acts upon fields of +cucumbers, melons, cotton, etc., and even make the +times for the various kinds of sowing, planting, and +grafting, and for the covering of the cattle depend +upon the course of the moon. Lastly, astronomers +know that meteorologic occurrences depend upon the +various phases through which the moon passes in her +revolutions.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> This succinct statement, by a learned +Mohammedan of the eleventh century, of the reasons +which led early philosophers to attach a special significance +to the moon, may well serve as a text for elucidation +and illustration.</p> + +<p>It is a widespread and ancient belief, found among +peoples in all stages of culture, that the lunar rays are +deleterious, especially to little children. Some Brazilian +Indians, for instance, believe that the moon makes +babies ill; hence mothers, immediately after delivery, +will hide themselves and their infants in the thickest +part of the forest, in order to prevent the moonlight +from falling on them.⁠<a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> Yao boys, when undergoing +initiation into manhood, are told to avoid not only a +menstruating woman but also the sight of the new moon, +since both are dangerous.⁠<a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> Greek nurses took special +pains never to show their charges to the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> In +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>modern Germany it is an injunction of peasant folklore +never to point out the moon to young children.⁠<a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Moonshine may also be deemed injurious to adults. +Certain Queensland aborigines will not stare long at +the moon, for by doing so a heavy rain is likely to result.⁠<a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> +The Bushmen of South Africa avoid looking at the +moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> The Chukchi of northeastern Siberia believe +that a man who looks too long at the moon may be +bereft of his wits, or may be carried away altogether. +The moon, think the Chukchi, has a lasso with which he +catches the unlucky starer.⁠<a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> When an English traveller +in Arabia was noticed gazing at the radiant desert +moon, the Bedouin said, “Look not so fixedly on him; +it is not wholesome.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> The same idea seems to have +found expression in one of the most beautiful of the +<i>Psalms</i>: “The sun shall not smite thee by day, nor the +moon by night.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> Two New Testament passages +illustrate the belief that epilepsy may be caused by the +lunar rays.⁠<a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> Similarly, the Babylonians believed that +Sin, the moon-god, could provoke leprosy, dropsy, +and, above all, fever, which, like the lunar phases, +has its periods of growth, culmination, and decline.⁠<a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> +Plutarch refers to the assumed fact that those who +sleep abroad under the beams of the moon are not +easily wakened, but seem stupid and senseless.⁠<a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> This +fear of the noxious influences of moonshine may be +traced from classical times to the present day. French +peasants consider it dangerous to sleep in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>moonlight.⁠<a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> German peasants subject themselves to a long +list of restrictions: no work, and especially no spinning, +must be done in the moonlight, for the spun yarn +would not hold, or the spinner would be spinning for +her child a hangman’s halter or the linen of a shroud; +no waggon or tools should be left exposed to the moonshine, +for they would soon be broken; washed clothes +should not be hung out to dry in the moonlight, for he +who wore them would become moonstruck; one who +sews by moonlight sews his own graveclothes; water +from a spring or well in which the moon shines should +not be drunk, since this would be to absorb the evil +influences of the moon; one should never look long +at the moon, under penalty of getting a goitre; the +lunar rays should never penetrate into the kitchen, +or otherwise the maid would break many dishes.⁠<a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> +So numerous, indeed, are these lunar superstitions +that throughout Germany Monday, as partaking of +the qualities of the moon from which it is named, is +generally an unlucky day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> In various parts of the +United States the belief prevails that it is dangerous +to sleep with the moon shining on the face. If fish +are exposed to moonshine, they will spoil.⁠<a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Various peoples have noticed that monthly periodicity +belongs to women and moon alike, and, joining +these observations, have supposed that the lunar +changes cause menstruation, or that the first appearance +of the menses is the result of defloration induced +by the moon. As a natural outcome of such beliefs +the moon is credited with the power of impregnation +and is associated with childbirth.⁠<a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> Such superstitions +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>are widespread. In the native legends of the Euahlayi, +a tribe of New South Wales, Bahloo, the moon, is a +very important personage. He it is who creates the +girl babies. Euahlayi mothers are very careful not to +look at the full moon or to let their babies do so, for +an attack of thrush, an affection common in newly +born children, would be the result. Bahloo has also +a spiteful way of punishing a woman who stares at +him by sending to her the dreaded twins.⁠<a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> In Saibai +and Yam, two islands in Torres Straits, it is believed +that the moon, in the shape of a man, embraces a girl +when she is full-grown, and that the halo around the +moon represents her blood. This story is also told on +the neighbouring coast of British New Guinea.⁠<a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> Here, +as well as in some parts of Melanesia, natives ascribe +menstruation to the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> The Tuhoe, a Maori +tribe, believe that the moon is the permanent (or true) +husband of all women, because the latter menstruate +when the moon appears. “According to the knowledge +of our ancestors and elders,” say the Tuhoe, “the +marriage of man and wife is a matter of no moment, +the moon is the real husband.” And the women themselves, +on seeing the new moon, say, “The <i>tane</i> (husband) +of all women in the world has appeared.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> The +Jaluo, a tribe of Nilotic stock living in the district of +Kavirondo, British East Africa, ascribe menstruation +to the influence of the new moon and believe that +women can become pregnant only at this time.⁠<a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>Baganda suppose that menstruation is caused by the +moon, either when new or waning.⁠<a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> Similar beliefs +are entertained by the negroes of the western Sudan, +who commonly give to this female function the name +of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> The Greenlanders believe that the +moon, conceived as a masculine divinity, possesses the +power of impregnation; as a consequence young girls +are afraid to look long at this luminary, “imagining +they might get a child by the bargain.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> The Lengua +Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco associate the moon +with marriage. Young girls will address the moon +with the appeal “Moon, moon, I want to get married.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> +Indian women in Peru are said to have prayed to the +moon to give them an easy delivery.⁠<a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> In old Egyptian +belief the moon was supposed to make women fruitful, +and the waxing moon to develop the germ in the +mother’s body.⁠<a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> The association of human fertility +with the moon may perhaps explain why Ishtar, the +mother-goddess of Babylonian mythology, came to +be regarded as a daughter of Sin, the moon-god. In +this capacity she presided over childbirth.⁠<a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> The Iranian +peoples supposed that the moon contained a bull +whose semen was another form of <i>haoma</i>, the intoxicating +decoction of the moon-plant.⁠<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> The position of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>Hera as a goddess of marriage and childbirth has been +explained by the assumption that she played an ancient +rôle as a moon-deity. Artemis, with whom Selene, +or the divine personification of the moon, came to +be identified, was regularly associated with childbirth. +The Roman Juno was connected with the moon as +Juno-Lucina, it being held that she aided women +during confinement. Ancient mythologers found it +easy to identify the Italian Diana, originally a goddess +who looked after women in their time of peril, with +the Greek Artemis, who had the same functions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> +Modern French folklore still contains references to +the idea that the moon can cause impregnation; in +Basse-Bretagne, for example, it is thought that a young +woman who exposes her person to the lunar rays may +conceive and bear a child.⁠<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The influence of the moon on the tides furnishes +another element of mystery in the lunar phenomena. +So primitive a people as the Andaman Islanders habitually +refer tidal movements to the action of the moon; +and the same connection between things lunar and +things terrestrial has been recognized by other peoples, +such as the Hawaiians, the ancient Babylonians, and +the modern Chinese.⁠<a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> That changes in the moon are +associated with weather changes as cause and effect +is an ancient superstition not yet obsolete in rural +communities.⁠<a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Comparative studies have shown how very general +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>is the belief that the moon exerts great influence on +growth, particularly on the growth of vegetation, and +on all human life and activity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> For this opinion there +appear to have been two principal causes. Observation +showed that moisture in the air and soil are favourable +to organic growth and, further, that atmospheric +moisture is greater at night than during the day. It +was reasonable to suppose the moon itself to be the +source of dew and moisture, especially when it was +also noticed that the dew is heaviest on cloudless +nights. These beliefs were entertained by the ancients, +who attributed heat to the sun, but moisture to the +moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Another fallacy has had an even greater part in +generating these lunar fancies. The apparent growth +of the moon in the first half of the lunation is associated +with the ripening of plants and fruits, the increase +of animals, and hence with the prosperous issue of +human undertakings. From this doctrine of lunar +sympathy have arisen numerous rules for the guidance +of shepherds and husbandmen, which had a wide prevalence +in antiquity and still survive with almost undiminished +vigour among the superstitious classes of +to-day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The doctrine of lunar sympathy, by a natural extension, +may also account for the common belief that +“the same things which grow with the waxing, dwindle +with the waning, moon,”⁠<a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> and therefore that all business +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>done in the latter half of a lunation is doomed to +failure. The Toda appear to regard the first half of +the month as the auspicious time for their numerous +ceremonies. “I met with no case,” says Dr. Rivers, +“in which any ceremony was appointed for the period +of the full moon or for the second half of the moon’s +period.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> The Andaman Islanders abstain from work +during the first few evenings of the third quarter of +the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> The Buriat are said never to undertake +anything of importance between the full and the new +moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> The Tatars, according to the account of an +Italian friar who in the thirteenth century made an +adventurous journey to Mongolia, began any new +enterprise “at new moon, or when the moon is full.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> +The Mandingo paid great attention to the changes of +the moon and thought it “very unlucky to begin a +journey or any other work of consequence in the last +quarter.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> Of the Sudanese negroes, generally, it +is said that they are much influenced in their undertakings +by the appearance of the new moon. For +instance, a journey which has been decided upon during +the last quarter of the moon is always postponed +until the new moon. No chief would presume to lead +out his tribesmen on a war party before the appearance +of the crescent.⁠<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> The Nandi celebrate their very +important circumcision festival, as well as all marriage +ceremonies, during the waxing moon, but perform +their mourning rites during the waning moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> +The Hova and other tribes of Madagascar regard the +waning of the moon as “an unfavourable time for any +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>important undertaking.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> Similar beliefs were entertained +by the early Germans, who, according to Cæsar, +despaired of victory if they engaged in battle before +the new moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> Tacitus, with fuller knowledge, declares +that the Germans considered the new moon and +the full moon as the most auspicious seasons for beginning +any enterprise.⁠<a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> This superstition seems still to +linger in some districts of Germany, where it is commonly +held that any work begun when the moon is on +the increase is sure to succeed, and that the full moon +brings everything to perfection; whereas business +undertaken during the waning moon is doomed to +failure.⁠<a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> A like belief was that of the Scottish Highlanders, +to whom the moon in her increase, full growth, +and wane was “the emblem of a rising, flourishing, and +declining fortune. At the last period of her revolution +they carefully avoid to engage in any business of importance; +but the first and the middle they seize with +avidity, presaging the most auspicious issue to their +undertakings.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> On the other hand the people of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>Thermià (Kythnos), one of the Cyclades, believe that +you should never do any work, if you can help it, on +the days preceding full moon, while for grafting, planting, +cutting trees, and bleaching clothes those days are +best which follow the full moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> And an English +antiquarian of the seventeenth century declares that, +according to the rules of astrology, “it is not good to +undertake any business of importance in the new of +the moon; and not better just at the full of the moon; +but worst of all in an eclipse.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Eclipses of the moon are sometimes considered unfavourable +for work, and may also be accompanied by +fasting and other forms of abstinence. During such +times of uncanny and terrifying darkness it is thought +to be wise to avoid every sort of activity, as well as +the consumption of food which may be tainted with +mysterious evil.⁠<a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> Among the Wasania, a tribe of +British East Africa, no cohabitation takes place during +an eclipse.⁠<a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> Lunar and solar eclipses are among the +phenomena which require a Naga community to declare +a <i>genna</i> and give up its ordinary occupations.⁠<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> +When the Toda know that an eclipse is about to occur, +they abstain from meat and drink; when it is over, +they have a feast and eat a special food prepared on +all ceremonial occasions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> In southern India it is a +common custom, when an eclipse occurs, for the people +to retire into their houses and remain behind closed +doors. “The time is in all respects inauspicious, and +no work begun or completed during this period can +meet with success; indeed, so great is the dread, that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>no one would think of initiating any important work +at this time.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> The natives of northern India are +said to consider it a great crime to partake of food, +drink water, or answer the calls of nature during an +eclipse.⁠<a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> Such a period is considered most unlucky for +commencing any business of importance. A pregnant +woman will do no work during an eclipse, as otherwise +her child would be deformed. Among high-caste +Hindus no food which has been in the house during +an eclipse of the sun or the moon may be eaten. It +must be given away, and all earthen vessels in use in +the house at the time must be broken.⁠<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> The Chinese +formerly observed lunar eclipses by a general suspension +of business.⁠<a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> The fatal delay which led to the +destruction of the Athenian fleet and army before +Syracuse was the result of a lunar eclipse, as interpreted +by the soothsayers and the incompetent, superstitious +Nicias.⁠<a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> Among the Jews there were formerly many +who abstained from food on the day of an eclipse of the +moon, a portent which they regarded as evil.⁠<a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> This +belief, as has been noted, prevailed in England at least +as late as the seventeenth century.⁠<a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p> + +<p>Various peoples have supposed that the moon, during +the period of her invisibility, descends to the underworld. +This conception has played a noteworthy part +in generating superstitions concerning tabooed and +unlucky days. The Akamba, a tribe of British East +Africa, believe that on the day which completes the +month no child is born and no domestic animal gives +birth. One of the Akamba clans is called <i>mu-mwei</i> +(<i>mwei</i> signifying moon), and by the members of this +clan no house may be swept on the last day of the +month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> The Akikuyu, a tribe related to the Akamba, +regard the moon as the sun’s wife, and suppose that +when the moon comes to maturity the sun fights with +her and kills her. While she is “dead,” as the natives +say, no journeys are undertaken, no sacrifices are +offered, and no sheep are killed. It is further considered +that goats and sheep will not bear on the day +after the disappearance of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> The Wagiriama +keep as Sabbaths the odd days at the end of the month, +before the appearance of the new moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> Some tribes +of equatorial Africa believe that the new moon is especially +ill-humoured and hungry on the day when she +emerges from darkness. “She looks down over our +country,” the natives declare, “and seeks whom she +can devour, and we poor black men are very much +afraid of her on that account, and we hide ourselves +from her sight on that night.” People who die between +new and full moon are said to be those whom the +new moon saw at this fateful time, in spite of all the +precautions they took.⁠<a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> The missionary, David Livingstone, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>while sojourning at Lake Nyassa, discovered +that the natives in this region regarded the <i>interlunium</i> +as distinctly unlucky. On one occasion his men delayed +an expedition till they had seen the new moon. +We must have the new moon, they said, for a lucky +starting.⁠<a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> The “dark day” of the moon was considered +by the Zulu as inauspicious for engaging in battle.⁠<a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>A superstitious attitude toward the <i>interlunium</i> +appears to be very prevalent among the Dravidian +peoples of India. The Kanarese of Hyderabad and +Mysore do not work in the fields on the last day of +the month. If a child is born at this time, they believe +that some one in the family will die. If a cow or a +buffalo has a calf at such a time, it must be sold. On +the evening before new moon no one may eat cooked +food. The new moon is consecrated to the dead.⁠<a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> +The Saoria of the Rajmahal Hills, who regard Sunday +as unlucky and do not work in the fields, pay visits, +or get married on this day, observe much the same +restrictions during the period of the moon’s invisibility. +Marriages will not be fruitful if consummated +during the dark of the moon, and in general the time +is associated with bad luck and sickness.⁠<a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> The same +belief is found elsewhere in northern India, sometimes +with beneficial results, as appears from the following +description, which applies to the district of Rohtak. +“To-day (29th November, 1883), in passing through +the Jât and Ahîr villages in Rohtak, I noticed that no +work was being done at the wells or in the fields, and +that the peasants, usually so hard at work, were idling +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>in the village instead. On inquiring the reason, I +was told that to-day was the <i>amâwas</i>, the last day of +the moon, and that on this day of the month the bullocks +are always given a rest. The men themselves +do any work that is to be done without using the cattle, +but no one yokes his bullocks in the plough or at +the well, or, if he can help it, in the cart. I noticed +that some of the peasants were busy making thorn-fences, +or doing other light work, but no bullocks were +at work anywhere, and as there is little to be done at +this season without their help, the custom practically +gave the men a rest also, and the unusual idleness gave +the villages a sort of Sunday look. The bullocks are +given this rest once a month, on the last day of the +moon, and also on the <i>makar kâ sankrânt</i>, which comes +about January, when the sun enters into the sign of +Capricorn (<i>makar</i>), and on the <i>dîwâlî</i> and <i>gôrdhan</i> +(the day after the <i>dîwâlî</i>) in the middle of Kârtik +(October). Except on these fifteen days it is lawful +for a man to yoke his cattle on all other days of the +year, but these particular days are strictly a Sabbath +for the cattle, and no one thinks of yoking them on +these days. If any one did, it would be a sin (<i>pâp</i>), +and his fellows would at once stop him. There is no +such Sabbath for man, and it is not thought wrong +(<i>pâp</i>) for a man to work on any day of the year, though, +of course, there are many holidays (<i>têohâr</i>), on which +little work is done.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>These superstitions relating to the dark of the moon +have not been confined to the natives of Africa and the +aborigines of India. They meet us among peoples +of archaic civilization and they survive among the +peasantry of European lands. To the Babylonians, +who paid particular attention to all lunar phenomena, +the disappearance of the moon at the end of the month +occasioned much anxiety. The day when the moon +could no longer be seen in the heavens was called the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>“day of sorrow” (<i>ûm bubbuli</i>, literally, the “day of the +snatching away”). The absence of the moon was +reckoned at three days, and during this time prayers +were recited and solemn expiatory rites were prescribed, +primarily for the king, who, as the representative of +his people, had to take special care not to provoke the +gods to anger at so critical a season. We still have +one of the prayers recited by the ruler in his sanctuary +and addressed to the moon-god Sin. The thirtieth +day of the month is here described as the god’s “holy +day” or “festival.” The prayer concludes with an +allusion to an eclipse, from which it appears that the +Babylonians, knowing neither the cause nor nature of +such a phenomenon, supposed that, unless the gods +were pacified during the moon’s temporary obscuration, +there would follow the more terrifying portent +of an eclipse.⁠<a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> Modern Arabs consider the last day +or last three days of the month to be unfavourable for +any sort of undertaking.⁠<a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> By the Athenians these +three days were called ἀσέλινοι, because on them the +moonlight was extinguished. They were classed with +the other unlucky days (ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι) of popular +superstition. During the ἀσέλινοι it was necessary +to sacrifice to the underworld gods in order to +avoid their anger.⁠<a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> Selene at this time was supposed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>to descend to the underworld and the abode of shades; +hence the moon came to be associated with Persephone.⁠<a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> +The Romans do not appear to have marked the <i>interlunium</i> +or <i>intermenstruum</i> by any special observances. +European folklore, however, still preserves traces of +the ancient superstition, as in the Cornish belief that +a child, so unfortunate as to be born at this time, will +never live to attain the age of puberty. Hence the +saying, “No moon, no man.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> Similar beliefs would +seem to survive in the very common idea that the three +days before the new moon are especially unlucky and +likely to be attended by storms and winds.⁠<a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>We may well believe that the different appearances +of the moon were the first celestial phenomena observed +with any degree of continuous attention by primitive +man. Not only are the phases of the moon marked +by striking variations in her form and in the amount +of light she radiates, but from night to night she follows +a regular path through the sky, changing her elevation +above the horizon and appearing to occupy at her +successive phases different quarters of the heavens. +Such phenomena present elements of mystery not +found in the sun’s prosaic course. A survey of the +anthropological evidence appears to indicate, as might +indeed be expected, that of the lunar phases it is particularly +the new moon which awakens interest and attention. +The first appearance of that luminary in the +western sky after sunset is often hailed with various +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>ceremonial observances. The Indians of the Ucayali +River in Peru are said to greet the appearance of the new +moon with great joy. They make long speeches to her, +accompanied with vehement gesticulations, imploring +her protection and begging that she invigorate their +bodies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> Certain tribes of southern California, afterwards +gathered into the Mission of San Juan Capistrano, +celebrated the new moon with dances, saying, +“As the moon dieth and cometh to life again, so we +also, having to die, will again live.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> The Dakota +and other Plains Indians, when the moon does not +shine, “say the moon is dead; and some call the three +last days of it the naked days. The moon’s first +appearance they term its coming to life again.” At +this time they stretch forth their hands toward the +moon and repeat joyful expressions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> The Creek and +Cherokee Indians, according to an early writer, “assemble +and feast at the appearance of the new moon, +when they seem to be in great mirth and gladness, but, +I believe, make no offerings to that planet.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> Similar +observances have been noted in various parts of +Africa. An old traveller recites how, at the appearance +of every new moon, the Congo negroes, “fall on their +knees, or else cry out, standing and clapping their hands, +‘So may I renew my life as thou art renewed.’” But if +the sky was clouded, they did nothing, believing that the +moon had lost its virtue.⁠<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> The Mandingo, on the first +appearance of the new moon, “which they look upon to +be newly created,” say a short prayer.⁠<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> The Bushmen +had their special seasons of merry-making, when the +dance was never neglected. “Dancing began with the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>new moon, as an expression of joy that the dark nights +had ended, and was continued at the full moon, that they +might avail themselves of the delicious coolness after the +heat of the day, and the brilliancy of the moonlight in +this portion of the southern hemisphere.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>It has been suggested that in many cases the ceremonies +at new moon have a magical aspect. On this +theory the first appearance of the luminary, with its +promise of growth and increase, would be greeted +with rites intended to renew and strengthen, by means +of sympathetic magic, the life of man.⁠<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> Though it is +true that in process of time ideas of a magico-religious +character may attach themselves to lunar phenomena, +and especially to new moon, there seems to be little +reason for assuming them to be original and primary. +Most of the foregoing examples, indeed, may be more +simply interpreted as a naïve expression of man’s +delight at the return of the moon to the world, after +an absence at once mysterious and portentous. Still +less necessary is the assumption, so commonly made, +that all lunar ceremonies are acts of worship addressed +to the moon as a divinity. Religious festivals appear +in the first instance to be fixed at new moon or full +moon because these are the two most striking periods +of the lunation and mark, respectively, the beginning +and middle of the lunar month.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p> + +<p>Among many peoples in both the lower and the +higher culture the time of new moon and full moon, +much less commonly of each half moon, forms a season +of restriction and abstinence. The lunar day is sometimes +a holy day dedicated to a god, who may be identified +with the moon itself. Instances of this sort are +to be correlated with the general course of religious +development, involving, as it does, the emergence of +polytheistic cults and the schematization of the ritual. +But under more primitive conditions the lunar day is a +tabooed day, quite independent of any association +with a deity. It seems idle to seek a particularistic +explanation for the taboos observed on such an occasion. +We have already noticed the sympathetic influence +which the waxing and waning of the moon is supposed +to exert on human activities. Furthermore, +we have seen that the new moon, rising as it were from +the dead, is thought to be pregnant with meaning for +the life of man. Her very newness is an element of +interest; her contrasts, in shape, size, and position in +the heavens, to the old moon further deepen the impression +of her significance; and her function of inaugurating +the month not only gives to her a special place +in primitive calendar systems but also invests her +with the emotional importance belonging to the commencement +of any new period. These ideas of lunar +influence are naturally extended to the full moon, +which, as will be shown, is commonly regarded as +marking the division of the lunar month into two equal +parts, and in some instances to the half moons, as +indicating the other prominent stages in a lunation. +The phases of the moon thus come to be considered +critical times and to be marked not only by religious +exercises but also by fasting and cessation of the customary +occupations.⁠<a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span></p> + +<p>Lunar taboos, involving abstinence and quiescence, +are commonly observed in Polynesia and Indonesia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> +Various African peoples likewise entertain pronounced +beliefs regarding the unfavourable influence of the +moon’s changes on human activities. The Zulu welcome +the first appearance of the new moon with demonstrations +of joy, but on the day following they abstain +from all labour, “thinking if anything is sown on those +days they can never reap the benefits thereof.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> The +Bapiri, a tribe of the Bechuana stock, stay at home at +new moon and do not go out to the fields. “They +believe that if they should set about their labour at +such a season, the millet would remain in the ground +without sprouting, or that the ear would fail to fill, +or that it would be destroyed by rust.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> Of another +Bechuana tribe, the Makololo, in the neighbourhood of +the Leeambye River, Livingstone remarks, “There is +no stated day of rest in any part of this country except +the day after the appearance of the new moon, and the +people then refrain only from going to their gardens.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> +An earlier writer, referring to the Bechuana, says that +when the new moon appears, “all must cease from work, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>and keep what is called in England a holiday.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> To +the north of the Bechuana, in the upper basin of the +Zambesi, live the Barotse, by whom the new moon is +made an occasion for great festivities. “It is a general +holiday; men of all ranks sing and dance, while the +women assemble apart and give vent to strident howls +of their own.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> Similarly, among all the people from +Nyassaland to Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika the first +night of the new moon is a public festival, sometimes +celebrated by a dance in which the men alone participate.⁠<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> +The Baziba, who dwell to the west and southwest +of Lake Victoria Nyanza, are said to be one of +the few tribes in this part of Africa having “a recognized +day of rest, independently of the Christians’ +Sabbath. The two first days of every moon are universal +holidays.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>A superstitious observance of the new-moon day is +found among some of the tribes and peoples occupying +British East Africa. The Akamba, whose beliefs +regarding the <i>interlunium</i> have been already mentioned,⁠<a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> +also consider it very unlucky to move cattle +or livestock of any kind from one place or another, or +even to give presents of any stock, during the first +four days of the new moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> Well-marked Sabbaths +are kept by some sections of the Baganda, the great +tribe, or rather nation, occupying Uganda. At the +temple estate of the god Mukasa, the most important +Baganda deity, there was a week’s rest, <i>bwerende</i>, on +the appearance of each new moon; no special gatherings +were held during this period, but the people did +the minimum of work, even the cutting of firewood +being forbidden. All preparations for the festival +were made beforehand, in order that the women should +not be obliged to perform any labour other than +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>cooking.⁠<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> In Budu, a district of Uganda, there is a curious +worship of the python, conducted by members of the +Heart clan. The sacred snake, which bears the title +of Selwanga, is kept in a temple and receives worship +at the new moon. When this appears, the people +repair to the shrine of the python and make their +offerings. No work may be done on the estate for +seven days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> Again, the principal chief of the district +of Singo, who was shield-bearer to the king of the +Baganda, “had to observe a taboo each full moon, +namely, to abstain from food from noon of the day of +the full moon until the following morning, and also to +live apart from his wives during that time. ‘It is +full moon, the Mukwenda may not eat,’ was a saying +among the people.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> The Banyoro, a Bantu people +related to the Baganda, who inhabit the country to +the northwest of Uganda, performed every full moon a +ceremony which has been thus described: “In the +afternoon all the drums in the place were beaten, and +everybody shouted, as no one dared keep silent for +fear of offending the moon. The king posted men at +the cross-roads and seized every one who passed along. +These unfortunate folk were brought in to him and +offered as a propitiatory sacrifice for the whole country +to the evil spirits. The hair of the victims was put +into cow horns and their blood was poured on to it, +the horns being then kept by different people as charms +against sickness and trouble. After this the king appeared +swathed in barkcloths, taking up his position +in his council hall, his subjects coming to do obeisance +to him. A dead silence prevailed, for no one was allowed +to even cough in his presence.... As the +full moon rose the feasting began, and the drinking +and dancing continued till dawn. The king’s chief +wife had to sit by her intoxicated spouse and pinch +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>his arm or bite his finger, to prevent sleep; for a man +to slumber during full moon brought disaster to the +household.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> New moon, as well as full moon, seems +to have been observed by the Banyoro, for Speke found +the palace of the king of Unyoro shut up, because the +new moon had been seen for the first time on the preceding +evening.⁠<a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> The same explorer describes a like +custom found among the Bahima, or Wahuma, of +Ankole, a region lying to the southwest of Uganda. +“On the first appearance of the new moon every month, +the king shuts himself up, contemplating and arranging +his magic horns—the horns of wild animals stuffed +with charm-powder—for two or three days. These +may be counted his Sundays or church festivals which +he dedicates to devotion.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>New-moon and full-moon festivals, accompanied +by abstinence from secular activities, are thus seen to +form a common feature of native life in southern and +eastern Africa. The custom of keeping them as rest +days is apparently confined to Bantu peoples, who +arose from a mixture of Hamites with the true negroes. +No sabbatarian regulations are discoverable among the +Bushmen, representing the aborigines of southern Africa, +or among the non-Bantu tribes of eastern Africa. +It may be argued, therefore, that these African Sabbaths +are of foreign parentage, being derived remotely +from Hamitic and Himyaritic (Semitic) immigrants +into Africa. The argument is strengthened by the +fact that lunar festivals may be traced to a remote +antiquity, both in Egypt and in western Asia. In any +case, however, they must have been much modified +with their transmission from tribe to tribe and from +century to century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span></p> + +<p>None of the natives of southern and eastern Africa +who observe new moon and full moon as seasons of +abstinence appear to be familiar with the market week +and the market day. On the other hand, in central +and western Africa, where markets are so generally +found and where the market day is kept as a holiday, +lunar festivals accompanied by a cessation of labour +are very rare.⁠<a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> Lieutenant-Colonel Ellis, who was +much impressed with the resemblance of the west-African +rest day to the Hebrew Sabbath, supposed +that both were once lunar festivals, connected with +moon-worship and celebrated on the first day of the +new moon. “This holy day, before the invention of +weeks, recurred monthly, but after the lunar month +was divided, it recurred weekly, and was held on the +first day of the week.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> His theory, however plausible +at first sight, breaks down when we remember +that the keeping of moon-days as Sabbaths does not +necessarily imply worship of the moon as a deity; that +full moon, as well as new moon, may be observed +festively with abstinence from labour; and, finally, +that the market week did not arise as a subdivision of +the month, but was in origin quite independent of the +lunation. The restrictions attending market days have +nothing to do with superstitions relating to the moon.</p> + +<p>Lunar taboos are not unknown in modern India. +The natives of northern India regard the new moon as +an unfavourable time for undertaking important business.⁠<a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> +The Kanarese, whose customs and beliefs +relating to the last day of the lunar month have already +been noticed, do not plough their fields at new +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>moon and full moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> The Badaga of the Nilgiri +Hills in southeastern India think that children born +on the day of the new moon, the full moon, or any one +of the three days immediately preceding the full moon, +will be unfortunate throughout life.⁠<a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> The Korava +regard the day after new moon as unlucky for starting +out from home.⁠<a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> Similar superstitions are doubtless +to be found among other Dravidian peoples.</p> + +<p>The Aryans of ancient India observed two sacred +periods in every month, new moon and full moon, +with sacrifices to the gods.⁠<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> The simpler forms of the +rite were gradually extended into an elaborate ritual. +Every Brahmanical householder was required to perform +two half-monthly sacrifices for a period of thirty +years, after he had set up a home of his own. According +to some authorities these sacrifices were obligatory +for the rest of his life. The ceremony usually occupied +the greater part of two consecutive days. While the +first day was to be chiefly occupied with preparatory +rites and the taking of the vow of abstinence (<i>vrata</i>) +by the sacrificer and his wife, the second day was reserved +for the performance of the main ceremony.⁠<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> +Since it was permitted to compress the two days’ rites +of the full-moon sacrifice into a single day, the conjecture +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>is plausible that originally only one day was +assigned to the observances of abstinence and sacrifice.⁠<a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> +The ritualistic requirements for this ceremony +do not expressly include the cessation of labour by the +Brahmanical householder and his family. It might +be argued, therefore, that the new-moon and full-moon +observances were not originally dictated by a +superstitious regard for the lunar phases. The fasting +on the <i>upavasatha</i> day would then be merely a rite +preliminary to the sacrifice on the following day; and +the association of the two ceremonies with new and +full moon would mean only that these two divisions +of a lunar month were selected as convenient and conspicuous +periods for the performance of religious duties. +But the evidence at our disposal enables us to attach a +deeper significance to the ancient Aryan rite.</p> + +<p>In the first place it is well known that the <i>upavasatha</i> +was a fast preparatory to the offering of the “moon +plant,” the intoxicating <i>soma</i>, whose personification +and deification are assigned to a date earlier than that +of the Vedas themselves. A very competent scholar, +after pointing out that in Vedic literature the moon +takes a much higher rank than the sun, being regarded +as the creator and ruler of the world, has argued that +everywhere in the <i>Rig-Veda soma</i> and the moon are +identified, and that the terrestrial plant is merely a +symbolic representation of the luminary. According +to this view the moon-god as Soma forms the centre +of Vedic religion.⁠<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> The theory, thus unequivocally +stated, has not won wide acceptance; according to +the commoner view Soma as a god is ordinarily celebrated +in the Vedic hymns only as a personification +of the beverage; and his identification with the moon +is to be explained as a secondary mythological formation. +Certain instances of such identification are met +in a few of the latest hymns of the <i>Rig-Veda</i>; and in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span><i>Atharva-Veda</i> Soma several times means the moon. +Post-Vedic writings regularly refer to Soma as the +moon, which, when drunk by the gods, begins to wane.⁠<a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In the second place the two half-monthly sacrifices +were characterized by restrictions which can best be +described as taboos. The Brahmanical householder +was obliged to abstain from certain kinds of food, especially +meat, and from sexual intercourse. He might +not cut hair, beard, or nails. He should sleep, not on +a bed, but on the ground. The directions for the ceremonies, +as given in the <i>Grihya-sûtra of Gobhila</i>, further +require the worshipper not to set out on a journey; if +he is away from home even at a distant place, to return +to his house; not to sell goods (though he may buy them +from others); and to speak as little as possible.⁠<a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> It +is obvious that the scrupulous observance of all these +regulations would convert the <i>upavasatha</i> day into a +Sabbath, marked, not only by fasting, but also by the +cessation of most secular activities.</p> + +<p>In post-Vedic times the sabbatarian quality of lunar +days becomes increasingly prominent. In the <i>Institutes +of Vishnu</i> the new moon is mentioned as a +penitential fast day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> A variety of lunar penances is +prescribed in the <i>Laws of Manu</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> The same lawbook +sets forth that “on the (night of) new moon and the +eighth (lunar day), and also on the (night of) full +moon and the fourteenth (lunar day), let a Brahman +who has finished his student’s course be always (as) +a student, even in season,” that is, let him remain +chaste.⁠<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> According to the <i>Vishnu Purana</i>, a relatively +late production of Brahmanical thought, there +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>are “certain days on which unguents, flesh, and women +are unlawful, as the eighth and fourteenth lunar days, +new moon and full moon, and the entrance of the sun +into a new sign. On these occasions the wise will +restrain their appetites, and occupy themselves in the +worship of the gods, as enjoined by holy writ, in meditation, +and in prayer; and he who behaves differently +will fall into a hell where ordure will be his food.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> +It is also said that he who attends to secular affairs +on the days of the <i>parvans</i> (new moon and full moon) +will be punished hereafter in a hell of blood.⁠<a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> For +modern Brahmans the new-moon and full-moon days +are regularly fast days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>With the development of the complex ritual of +Brahmanism holy and unlucky days became almost +identical with days when the sacred books should not +be read. The code of Manu requires a learned Brahman +not to recite the Veda on the new-moon day, or on the +fourteenth and eighth days of each half-month, or +on the full-moon day. It is said that “the new-moon +day destroys the teacher, the fourteenth day the pupil, +the eighth and full-moon days destroy all remembrance +of the Veda; let him therefore avoid reading on those +days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> This injunction, moreover, is repeated for a +great variety of other critical occasions: during a +heavy thunderstorm; during an eclipse; and when +an earthquake occurs. A like prohibition is enforced +after events causing pollution; a Brahman, for example, +should not read the Veda in a village through +which a corpse has been taken, or near a burning-ground.⁠<a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> +Similar prohibitions are set forth at great +length in the lawbook of Gautama. The Veda ought +not to be studied and recited when there is a thunderstorm, +an earthquake, an eclipse or a fall of meteors; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>on the day of the new moon (on the latter occasion +reading may be interrupted for two days); on the full +moon of three months of the year, and so forth.⁠<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> In +the <i>Vishnu Purana</i> we read that “on the days called +<i>parvans</i>, on periods of impurity, upon unseasonable +thunder, at the occurrence of eclipses or atmospheric +portents, a wise man must desist from the study of the +Vedas.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a> Some of these taboos have endured till +the present time, the eighth day of each fortnight, held +sacred to the goddess Durga, being a period when no +study is allowable for a pious Hindu.⁠<a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Vedic ceremonies at new moon and full moon +appear to have influenced the Hindu festival of Bhaskara +Saptami, which takes place on the twenty-second +of the month Magha, the seventh day of the light +fortnight (4th of February). “This day is in an especial +degree sacred to the sun. Abstinence is to be +practised on the day preceding; and in the morning +before sunrise, or at the first appearance of dawn, +bathing is to be performed until sunrise; a rigid fast +is to be observed throughout the day, worship is to be +offered the sun, presents are to be made to the Brahmans, +and in the evening the worshipper is to hold a +family feast; one of the observances of the day is +abstinence from study, neither teacher nor scholar +being allowed to open a book.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> For the proper +observance of the festival it is also necessary that the +sun should be worshipped in his own temple, with +prayers and offerings on the sixth day, during which +abstinence is to be practised, and at night the worshipper +should sleep on the ground. In upper India +the festival day is also called Achala Saptami, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>fixed or immovable seventh, or Jayanti Saptami, the +victorious seventh, and so forth. “Whatever the +designation, the worship of the sun is the prominent +ceremony of the seventh of the light half of Magha. +The same may be said, however, of the seventh lunar +day throughout the year, chiefly of one seventh in each +fortnight, that of the moon’s increase; but also of the +seventh day of the moon’s wane.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> The religious +books declare that whoever worships the sun on the +seventh day of the moon’s increase, with fasting and +offerings of white oblations, as white flowers and the +like, and whoever fasts on the seventh of the moon’s +wane and offers to the sun red flowers and articles of a +red colour, is purified from all iniquity and goes after +death to the solar sphere. “The worship of the sun, +on the seventh of the dark fortnight, seems to have +gone out of use, but that on the seventh of the light +fortnight is strongly recommended in various authorities, +beginning with this seventh of Magha and continuing +throughout the year.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> The selection of the +seventh day of each fortnight as the time of the festival +may have been due to the symbolic significance of +that number, while the choice of the sun as the object +of adoration doubtless reflects the commanding position +which that luminary assumed in post-Vedic times. +The close resemblance between these Hindu ceremonies +of sun-worship and those prescribed in the Vedas for +the observance of new moon and full moon suggests, +however, that there has been a partial fusion of the +two festivals.</p> + +<p>The Vedic observance of new moon and full moon +survived in the ritual of both Jainism and Buddhism, +the two great monastic sects which arose in the sixth +century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> out of the bosom of Brahmanism. The +Jain ceremony, known as <i>posaha</i>, is declared to have +been specially instituted for those who said that “we +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>cannot, submitting to the tonsure, renounce the life +of a householder and enter the monastic state, but we +shall strictly observe the <i>posaha</i> on the fourteenth and +eighth days of each fortnight (on the new-moon and) +full-moon days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> The faithful householder “should +never neglect the <i>posaha</i> fast in both fortnights, not +even for a single night.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> In the Jain scriptures, the +<i>posaha</i> is further defined as the observance of a fast +or the eating once only on the two holy days of each +fortnight, “after having given up bathing, unguents, +ornaments, company of women, odours, incense, lights, +etc., and assumed renunciation as an ornament.” The +<i>posaha</i> is thus distinguished by the four abstinences +from food, bodily attentions, sexual intercourse, and +daily work.⁠<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> The keeping of the <i>posaha</i> at the present +day is especially connected with the holy fast of Pajjusaṇa +at the close of the Jain religious year. The +observance of the rite at other times by laymen appears +to be dying out.⁠<a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Buddhist Sabbath, or <i>uposatha</i>, like the Jain +<i>posaha</i>, owed its existence remotely to the Vedic lunar +rites. As celebrated anciently in India and in modern +times in Nepal and Ceylon, the <i>uposatha</i> falls on the +day of the new moon, on the day of the full moon, and +on the two days which are eighth from new and full +moon. The <i>uposatha</i> is marked not only by fasting +but also by abstinence from secular activities: during +its continuance buying and selling, work and business, +hunting and fishing are forbidden, and all schools and +courts of justice are closed. Whoever observes the +<i>uposatha</i> rigidly must abstain from food between sunrise +and sunset. Since no cooking is allowed to taint +the sanctity of the <i>uposatha</i>, the pious Buddhist prepares +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span>his evening meal in the early morning before the +sun appears.⁠<a id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The <i>uposatha</i>, as contrasted with the <i>upavasatha</i>, is +a ceremony attached to all four of the lunar phases, +instead of to two only; moreover, it is a rest day as +well as a fast day. How may it be shown that the +Buddhist institution forms a natural outgrowth of +the earlier Brahmanical rite?</p> + +<p>The origin of the custom of observing four days in +the lunar month as <i>uposatha</i> is involved in some obscurity. +According to Buddhist tradition the monks of +non-Buddhistic sects were accustomed to assemble +at the middle and close of every half-month for the +purpose of proclaiming their teachings. The Buddhists +also adopted the custom of these periodical meetings +on the fourteenth or fifteenth and eighth day of +each half-month, a custom by them attributed to the +Buddha himself.⁠<a id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> There seems to be not the slightest +ground for supposing that the number of Buddhist +Sabbaths was originally two, but was afterwards increased +to four in every month. The words of the +canon are: “I prescribe that you assemble on the +fourteenth, fifteenth, and eighth day of each [half] +month.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a> In the <i>Dhammika Sutta</i> the wording is: +“Then having with a believing mind kept abstinence +(<i>uposatha</i>) on the fourteenth, fifteenth, and eighth +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>days of the half-month,” etc.⁠<a id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a> When Buddhism arose, +the custom of keeping the eighth day of each lunar +fortnight, in addition to new moon and full moon, +appears to have been well-established in both Brahmanism +and the non-Buddhistic sects, a circumstance +which led to the adoption of all four periods by +Buddhists as well.⁠<a id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> Two of these days (at new moon +and full moon) are devoted to the special ceremony of +reading, in an assembly of at least four monks, the <i>patimokkha</i>, +or the disciplinary and penal code of Buddhism, +according to the regulation laid down by the Buddha.⁠<a id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In the <i>Sutta Nipâta</i>, a collection of seventy didactic +poems belonging to the Pitakas, or sacred books of the +southern Buddhists, Eight Precepts or Moral Commandments +are enumerated. Five of these are binding +on every Buddhist, whether mendicant or layman, +but the remaining three are not obligatory for the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>laity. The precepts are: (1) not to destroy life; (2) +not to commit theft; (3) not to tell lies; (4) not to +drink intoxicating liquors; (5) not to indulge in unlawful +sexual intercourse; (6) not to eat unseasonable +food at night; (7) not to wear garlands or use perfumes; +and (8) not to sleep on a raised couch.⁠<a id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> These +precepts are said to constitute the eight-fold fast, or +<i>uposatha</i>, declared by the Buddha. Their special +observance on the <i>uposatha</i> day is inculcated, and to +break any of them on that day is considered highly +irreligious. Instead of observing lunar taboos, the +Buddhists were to keep the <i>uposatha</i> by a special fulfillment +of the moral law, with clean garments and with +clean minds; one of the many instances in which the +founder of Buddhism gave a spiritual meaning to an +earlier superstitious rite. That the <i>uposatha</i>, marked +as it was by fasting, avoidance of sexual intercourse, and +refraining from wearing wreaths and using perfumes, +should have come to be regarded as a rest day seems +to be only the natural result of its observance as a season +of abstinence. The <i>uposatha</i> is thus discovered +among the earliest institutions of Buddhism; in its +origin it could have owed nothing to Jewish or Christian +influence; in its diffusion throughout southeastern +Asia it appears to have remained unaffected by the +influence of Islam. If these conclusions be accepted, +the Buddhist Sabbath dates back, remotely, to taboos +observed at changes of the moon.</p> + +<p>Buddhism was early introduced into Ceylon. The +Sabbath still observed there by the Sinhalese falls on +the four <i>poya</i> days of the month, the days of the changes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> Missionaries from Ceylon carried the +new faith to Burma, at least as early as the fifth century +<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> According to an old traveller the “eighth +day of the increasing moon, the fifteenth or full moon, +the eighth of the decreasing moon, and the last day of +the moon, are religiously observed by Birmans (<i>sic</i>) as +sacred festivals. On these hebdomadal holidays no +public business is transacted in the Rhoom: mercantile +dealings are suspended; handicraft is forbidden; and +the strictly pious take no sustenance between the rising +and the setting of the sun; but the latter instance +of self-denial is not very common, and, as I understood, +is rarely practised, except in the metropolis, +where the appearance of sanctity is sometimes assumed +as a ladder by which the crafty attempt to climb to +promotion.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a> According to a more recent and sympathetic +account there are “four <i>ubone</i>, or duty days, +in every lunar month, on which all good Burmans are +expected to go and worship at the pagodas. These +are the eighth of the crescent, the full moon, the eighth +of the waning, and the change, of which the second and +the fourth are the more sacred. As the monks have +nothing to do with looking after the spiritual state of +the people, it is entirely a matter to be settled by one’s +self whether any particular worship day is to be observed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span>or not. If you conclude that strict religious +observances are only necessary for your spiritual well-being +on the day of the full moon, or at any rate that +you may leave out the eighth of the crescent and waning +moon, then the <i>ubone</i> does not concern you at all, +and you may proceed about your ordinary business +without being considered a reprobate. The very +devout may go to the pagoda on all the four sacred +days of the month; but if you choose to omit one or +several, or substitute an ordinary day for that provided +by religious custom, there is no one to take you +to task for it. Were a Burman never to go to the pagoda +at all, or fail to do so for any considerable time, +he would indeed soon get a very bad character among +his neighbours, and might even be formally excommunicated +by the <i>yahan</i>. There is, however, practically +no constraint save the force of public opinion. But +the duties of worship are so light, and so dependent in +their details upon yourself, and there is so much amusement +to be got out of a visit to the pagoda on an <i>ubone</i>, +that few, even of the most worldly-minded, miss any +great number of the appointed days, and a special +festival is always carefully observed.... It must +not, however, be supposed that all the people take this +easy-going and frivolous view of duty days. Diligent +seekers after <i>kutho</i> behave very differently. They do +not merely limit themselves to the customary forms of +worship and offerings. They sleep little, or not at +all, the night before; telling their beads instead, and +reading good books, some of the discourses of the +Buddha, or portions of the greater <i>zat</i>. All necessary +business is transacted the day previous to the <i>ubone</i>, +and neighbours are exhorted to observe the festival +properly. After one simple dish in the morning, they +eat nothing for the rest of the day; or perhaps on certain +occasions do not break their fast till after midday, +a custom very general on the first day of Lent. +Instead of staying in the noisy <i>zayat</i>, where the assembled +people are talking of light matters, laughing and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>diverting themselves, they retire to a <i>tazaung</i> on the +pagoda platform or to some place shaded by trees; +there they finger the hundred and eight beads of their +rosary, muttering, ‘All is transient, sorrowful, and +vain; the Lord, the Law, the Assembly; the three +precious things’; and meditate on the example of the +Lord Buddha and the excellence of his Law. To vary +the monotony of this performance, they go for an hour +or two to one of the monasteries to talk with the prior +or some learned brother, or perhaps to hear him read +and expound one of the <i>jataka</i>, or birth-stories. So the +duty day passes. By sunset most of the worshippers +are making their way back to their homes; but a +few zealous spirits remain all night in the <i>zayat</i>, and +only return with daylight on the following morning. +This simple round of celebration is repeated four times +in every lunar month, with here and there a feast day +of some particular shrine thrown in, when the only +difference is that there is greater ceremony and a more +or less large influx of strangers, according to the sanctity +of the pagoda.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Siamese Sabbath (<i>wan phra</i>) was also an institution +introduced by Buddhist missionaries. An old +writer describes it as follows: “Their Sunday, called +by them <i>vampra</i>, is always the fourth day of the moon; +in each month they have two great ones, at the new +and full moon, and two less solemn, on the seventh +and twenty-first. This day does not exempt them +from labour, since only fishing is forbidden to them. +Those who transgress this prohibition pay a fine and +are thrown into prison, as having profaned the sanctity +of the day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> A later writer declares that hunting +is also forbidden, and adds that on these days one cannot +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>find fresh fish and meat in the shops.⁠<a id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> In former +times the temples were crowded with worshippers, +who brought their offerings and listened to the hymns, +prayers, and moral discourses addressed to them by +the Buddhist priests.⁠<a id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> But we are told that now a +majority of the temples stand empty on the <i>wan phra</i>, +and what worshippers there are consist invariably +of women. Since the adoption of the solar calendar +in 1889 the <i>wan phra</i> has been superseded to a large +extent for civil purposes by Sunday.⁠<a id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a> The Buddhist +Sabbath is also found in Cambodia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In some districts of Tibet the monthly Buddhist +festivals (<i>du-zang</i>) are four in number, following the +successive phases of the moon. In other parts of the +country only three festivals are celebrated—at new +moon, first quarter, and full moon. On these days +no animal food ought to be eaten and no animal killed; +those who break this rule are threatened with severe +punishment in a future existence. “To abstain from +worldly occupations is, however, not enacted, and as +the Buddhist laymen in the Himalaya and western +Tibet are not very fond of passing the whole day in +prayers and in the temples, these holy days are not +particularly marked in the habits of the population.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> +As elsewhere in Buddhist lands the new-moon and full-moon +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>Sabbaths are of most importance, since on these +occasions the <i>patimokkha</i> is recited in the monasteries, +accompanied by a public confession of sins.⁠<a id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> However, +in Tibet there appears never to have been much +uniformity as to the times for the observance of the +<i>uposatha</i>, the practice varying with different provinces +and sects.⁠<a id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a> In Bhutan, where Buddhism was introduced +by missionaries from Tibet, the eighth, fourteenth, +twenty-fourth, and thirtieth of the month are +said to be the holy days, while the Mongolians have the +thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth, the three days +being brought together perhaps because of the great +distance which separates the monasteries from the +temple.⁠<a id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a> Among the Kalmucks on the Volga, to the +north of the Caspian, the <i>uposatha</i> is generally observed +thrice a month—the eighth day after new moon, the +fifteenth, and the thirtieth.⁠<a id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The <i>uposatha</i> is not unknown among the Buddhists +of China. The Chinese <i>Ts’ing-kwei</i>, or “Regulations +of the Priesthood,” a Buddhist document, enumerates, +among others, four festivals to be kept each month, at +new moon and full moon, and on the eighth and twenty-third +days. These are called <i>kin-ming sï-chai</i>, “the +four feasts illustriously decreed”; they may be regarded +as a variant of the <i>uposatha</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> Among non-Buddhists +there is another custom of observing on +the new and full moon of each month a ceremony, +anciently in honour of the moon, but now particularly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>addressed to various deities, especially the gods of +wealth. It was formerly the rule to sacrifice a bullock +to the moon at this time. During the festival the +courts of justice and <i>yaman</i>, or government residences, +are closed. Offerings are made in the Confucian temples, +and even the family gods receive their meed of +worship. The householder on this day enjoys a better +meal than usual, without, however, intermitting his +ordinary occupations.⁠<a id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> There is no reason to believe +that this Chinese festival owes anything to contact +with Buddhism. Its independent origin, in connection +with an early cult of the moon and perhaps at a +remote period with various lunar taboos, becomes, +therefore, something more than a conjecture.</p> + +<p>The Buddhist Sabbath penetrated to Japan. An +old writer tells us that in Japan there are three monthly +holidays connected with the moon, though now immovable +feasts. “The first is called <i>isitatz</i>, and is the +first day of each month. It deserves rather to be called +a day of compliments and mutual civilities, than a +church or Sunday.” The second holiday is on the +fifteenth of each month, “being the day of the full +moon. The gods of the country have a greater share +in the visits the Japanese make on this day, than their +friends and relations.” The third festival occurs on +the twenty-eighth of each month, “being the day of +the new moon, or the last day of the decreasing moon. +Not near so much regard is had to this, than there is +to either of the two former, and the Sintos [Shinto] +temples are very little crowded on it. There is a +greater concourse of people on this day at the Budsos +[Buddhist] temples, it being one of the monthly holidays +sacred to Amida.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Buddhism and Brahmanism, spreading beyond the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>confines of continental Asia, carried the custom of +keeping lunar festivals into some parts of Indonesia. +In Bali, where the <i>padanda</i>, or Brahmans, have preserved +many features of the old Vedic religion, fasts +and sacrifices are still obligatory on the householder at +new moon and full moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> In Kar Nicobar Buddhist +influence from Burma is seen in the custom of observing +a rest day on the seventh day of the moon, at full +moon, and on the twenty-second day of the moon, but +only during seven lunar months of the year.⁠<a id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> The +Nicobarese have given to this imported Buddhist +Sabbath their native name <i>anoiila</i>, which is regularly +applied to the rest days or holidays observed by them +on various critical occasions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>We pass now from the lunar festivals found in ancient +and modern India and in those countries of southeastern +Asia which have been long affected by the cultural influence +of India to similar observances among peoples +of archaic civilization. The ancient Iranians appear +to have celebrated four lunar days in each month, +for the oldest part of the Avesta contains the following +passage: “I dedicate, I perform (the sacrifice) for the +month (gods), the time-divisions of Asa, for the between-moon +[<i>i.e.</i>, the new moon], ... for the full +moon, and for the intervening seventh(s),” in other +words, for the first, eighth, fifteenth, and twenty-third +days, which were all dedicated to Ahura Mazda.⁠<a id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>The choice of these four lunar days was due to the +division of the Avesta thirty-day month into two unequal +parts, containing fourteen and sixteen days, respectively, +and to the further subdivision of each part +so as to form two groups of seven days and two of +eight days. This arrangement had the practical advantage +of permitting a quadripartite division of the +month without a remainder. There is no evidence +that the four groups formed civil weeks, or that the +first day of each group was observed as a Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Although the Egyptians had abandoned the old +lunar year and lunar month, perhaps as early as the +beginning of the fourth millenium <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the people +continued for many centuries to observe as festivals +the first and fifteenth days of the month. In the earlier +calendar these would have coincided with the two significant +epochs of the lunation, namely, new moon and +full moon. The “monthly feasts” and the “half-monthly +feasts” are mentioned in the very ancient +texts preserved in the pyramids at Sakkara of kings +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>of the Sixth Dynasty.⁠<a id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> They are referred to in the +<i>Book of the Dead</i>, in the directions requiring special +chapters of that work to be recited on the first day of +the month, apparently when it coincides with new +moon, and on the last day of the sixth month of the +Egyptian year, when that day coincides with the full +moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a> That they were practised under the Twelfth +Dynasty appears clearly from the well-known inscription +of Khnumhotep II, cut on the walls of the chapel +chamber in his tomb at Benihasan. Khnumhotep +II, a local ruler of the sixteenth nome in Upper Egypt, +sets forth in this inscription a somewhat vainglorious +account of his buildings and his piety. Among other +things he says, “I endowed him [the mortuary priest] +with fields and peasants; I commanded the mortuary +offering of bread, beer, oxen, and geese, at every feast +of the necropolis: at the feast of the first of the year, of +New Year’s Day, of the great year, of the little year, +of the last of the year, the great feast, at the great +Rekeh, at the little Rekeh, at the feast of the five intercalary +days, at —— ——, at the twelve monthly +feasts, at the twelve mid-monthly feasts; every feast of +the happy living, and of the dead.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> Again, there is +an explicit reference to new-moon festivals under the +Thirteenth Dynasty in a celebrated inscription placed +by Thothmes III (1501-1447 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) on the walls of the +great temple of Amon at Karnak. This inscription +describes the numerous campaigns made by the Egyptian +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>king in Syria. The account of the battle of +Megiddo opens as follows: “Year 23, first (month) of +the third season (ninth month), on the twenty-first +day, the day of the feast of the new moon, corresponding +to the royal coronation, early in the morning, behold, +command was given to the entire army to move.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> +The significance of this lunar festival is further set +forth in the inscriptions on the ceiling of the pronaos of +the temple of Dendera, where the phases of the moon are +portrayed together with other astronomical matters. +The thirty days of the month are here given their +eponymic names and are arranged in two divisions, +according as they belong to the decreasing or to the +increasing moon. Four lunar days are brought into +special prominence as associated with the chief phases +of the moon, viz., 1st lunar day = “festival of new +moon”; 7th lunar day = “festival of the first quarter”; +15th lunar day = “festival of the fifteenth,” +and 23d lunar day = “festival of the third quarter.” +In this inscription full moon on the fifteenth of the lunar +month, repeatedly mentioned in poetical terms as “the +eye of the moon,” seems to have been regarded as the +most significant of the lunar phases.⁠<a id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> The oldest +traces of this important list of lunar days belong to the +Eighteenth and Nineteenth dynasties; the latest +date from Ptolemaic and Roman times.⁠<a id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> The evidence, +then, fully warrants the conclusion that from the earliest +period the Egyptians included the celebrations at +new moon and full moon among the most important +of their religious ceremonies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> In late classical times +the lunar festivals appear to have been consecrated to +Osiris, whose identification with the moon is reasonably +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>certain.⁠<a id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> But to what extent, if any, they were +accompanied by the imposition of taboos remains +problematical.</p> + +<p>The evidence for lunar rites among the Greeks must +be pieced together from scattered references in the +classical writers. The day of the visible new moon +(νουμηνία), marking the beginning of the lunar month, +appears to have been ceremonially observed throughout +the Greek world.⁠<a id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> The Noumenia was particularly +associated with Apollo and also with Hera, a goddess +who seems to have had an ancient rôle as a moon deity. +The antiquity of the Noumenia may be judged from +the references to it in the <i>Odyssey</i>, where no other +general festival than that of Apollo is mentioned. In +the island of Ithaca a feast of Apollo on the new-moon +day was in progress at the time of the trial of Odysseus’s +bow. Is it not the holy day of Apollo, ask the suitors? +Who on such a day could stretch the bow?⁠<a id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> The first +of the month is holy, declares Hesiod.⁠<a id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> In Athens, +and doubtless in other Greek cities, the Noumenia continued +to be in historic times a day of repose, when all +public activities, except of a religious character, were +intermitted.⁠<a id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> Private business, however, was not suspended +on the Noumenia; the markets, especially +those for the purchase of slaves, were then particularly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>frequented; the time was regarded as the most favourable +for marriage; and in the homes there was much +feasting and good cheer.⁠<a id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a> The Dichomenia (διχομηνία), +or full-moon day, appears also to have been a regular +monthly festival in Greece, though of lesser importance +than the Noumenia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Roman month was originally lunar, and at +all periods was divided by the real or imaginary phases +of the moon. The Kalends, or day of the visible new +moon, were sacred to Juno, a goddess, who, like the +Greek Hera, was particularly associated with the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> +On the Kalends one of the pontiffs performed a sacrifice, +with the assistance of the <i>rex sacrorum</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> Pious +Romans also celebrated the new-moon day with offerings +and prayers to the family gods.⁠<a id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a> The Ides, or +day of the full moon, were consecrated to Jupiter, but +the Nones, which may originally have marked the +moon’s first quarter, were not sacred to any deity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> +The Kalends of March, June, and October, the Nones +of July, and the Ides of all the months were numbered +among the <i>feriæ publicæ</i>, or sacred festivals attended +by a compulsory remission of labour, of the Roman +state religion.⁠<a id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The taboos which at Rome invested the lunar phases +appear to have lingered into the historic age under yet +another guise. Among the unlucky days (<i>dies religiosi</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a>⁠) +of the Roman calendar were those following +the Kalends, Nones, and Ides. The thirty-six <i>dies +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>postriduani</i> were regarded as unsuitable for many purposes, +both public and private: for battles, levies, +sacred rites, journeys, and marriages.⁠<a id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> We are told +that they owed their unlucky quality to a pronouncement +of the Senate and pontiffs, in consequence of the +grave defeat of the Allia on the 18th of Quinctilis +(July). According to the story preserved by Gellius +one of the senators publicly declared that on the day +following the Ides the Roman commander had performed +sacred rites with a view to engaging the Gauls, +only to experience an overwhelming defeat two days +later. Many other senators called to mind that on +sundry occasions, when sacrifices on the day following +the Kalends, Nones, or Ides had been performed to +secure the favour of the gods in battle, not victory but +disaster followed. In consequence these days were +declared unfit for public sacrifices.⁠<a id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> It is obvious +that this traditional explanation of the <i>dies postriduani</i> +must be far from the real truth. Unlucky days +are not generated in such an artificial fashion or on so +wholesale a scale. We may with some confidence +regard the prohibitions accompanying these days as +real survivals of primitive taboos at new moon, first +quarter, and full moon, their assumed historic significance +being only the conscious fiction of a later and +more sophisticated age.⁠<a id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p> + +<p>The scanty records on which we must rely for our +knowledge of the heathen inhabitants of central and +northern Europe, before they came into contact with +Rome and Christianity, furnish no certain evidence +that they celebrated lunar festivals. According to +Strabo the Celtiberians and their neighbours to the +north sacrificed every full moon to a nameless god, the +ceremony taking place at night and being accompanied +by dancing.⁠<a id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> Again, Tacitus, who mentions the custom +of the Germans of holding their assemblies on +“fixed days” (<i>certi dies</i>), either at the new moon or the +full moon, also refers to the <i>certi dies</i> on which they +think it lawful to propitiate Mercury, their chief god, +with human sacrifices.⁠<a id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> Such statements may mean +much or little. Having traced lunar festivals among +the Aryans of India, the Iranians, the Greeks, and the +Romans, it might reasonably be supposed that the +Celts and Germans were also familiar with them.</p> + +<p>But the festive observance of the two great epochs +of the lunation was by no means confined in antiquity +to Indo-Germanic peoples. The Chinese and Egyptian +festivals at new moon and full moon reach back into +the past as far as the historical eye can follow them; +while in Semitic lands, as we shall learn, the same rites +occupied a most conspicuous place in the religious +calendar. Not unjust was the remark of Isidore of +Seville, a famous scholar of the Middle Ages, that the +ancients, just as the Hebrews, were accustomed to +celebrate the beginnings of all the months—<i>apud +veteres enim omnium mensium principia colebantur, +sicut et apud Hebræos</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a>⁠</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br> +<span class="smaller">LUNAR CALENDARS AND THE WEEK</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>The calendar forms one of the most important of +social institutions and registers in its gradual improvement +from age to age the onward march of culture. +The first attempts at calendar-making were naturally +of the rudest sort, for they were based on the untutored +experience and observation of common men. With +the progress of society the regulation of calendrical +matters tended to fall into the hands of the sacerdotal +class, partly because priests alone enjoyed the leisure +necessary for prolonged researches, but chiefly because +the calendar, on which depends the orderly sequence of +holy days and festivals, was itself an affair of religion.⁠<a id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>It is clear that the alternations of night and day +must have furnished man with his most elementary +conceptions of the passage of time. A longer cycle was +naturally suggested by the lunar phenomena, so striking, +so obvious, and marked by stages so readily determined. +A survey of the anthropological data indicates +that among savage and barbarous peoples the +moon is the measure of time, and that the period of a +lunation furnishes the customary unit for longer +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>reckonings.⁠<a id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> Lunar months are general throughout Australia, +Melanesia, Polynesia, Africa, and America, +wherever primitive calendars have not been supplanted +by more refined calculations borrowed from advanced +peoples. The computation of time by moons naturally +formed the basis of those early calendars which were +framed by peoples just rising into civilization. In +Mexico and Yucatan the year of twelve moon-months +preceded the introduction of the solar year; and the +ancient Peruvians, in some respects so advanced, always +continued to reckon by the succession of lunations.⁠<a id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a> +There can be no doubt that the solar calendar +in use among the Egyptians at the very dawn of their +history had been preceded by a more primitive reckoning +of the year in lunations. It is enough to point +out in this connection that the Egyptians regularly +employed the figure of a crescent moon as the hieroglyph +for “month.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> The calendars of Semitic peoples, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>notably those of the Babylonians and Hebrews, +were based on the moon;⁠<a id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> and the prophet Mohammed, +when enjoining on his followers the observance +of the pure lunar year, in place of the lunisolar +year used by the Arabians before the Hegira, was in +reality reverting to a still more primitive mode of +counting time. Lunisolar calendars, in which the +primary unit is the lunation, were known, long before +the Christian era, to every civilization in the Old +World from the Roman in the west to the Chinese in +the east. Linguistic researches indicate that in most, +if not all, Indo-European languages, the names for moon +and month originally coincided.⁠<a id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> In Max Müller’s +poetical language the moon was “the golden hand on +the dark dial of heaven.”</p> + +<p>The need of observing the moons, apart from religious +or superstitious reasons, was no doubt mainly +connected with economic considerations. To the savage +it is of supreme importance to be able to anticipate +the different periods of the year which bring with them +different supplies of natural food; and for this purpose +the moons afford a convenient basis of reckoning. +Hence we find that very generally among primitive +peoples the moons are named after the moulting, migrating, +and pairing of animals, or after the budding, +blossoming, and ripening of the fruits of the earth. +Again, most shepherd tribes reckon time by moons. +In the pastoral stage it is probable that the necessity +of calculating the various periods of gestation and the +proper time for breeding, so that young animals might +be brought into the world at seasons most favourable +to their health and maintenance, contributed to the +observation of the moon and to the formation of lunar +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>calendars. If the desirability of observing the successive +moons was felt by frugivorous and pastoral peoples, +it will be readily seen how the introduction of +agricultural operations, often accompanied by religious +ceremonies and festivals, rendered definite and clearly +marked divisions of time a matter of the greatest moment. +It is therefore probable that rude popular +calendars based on the moon were in use long before +more accurate observations were made by primitive +astronomers. There is much evidence for the practice +of naming the moon-months after the different agricultural +operations, such as planting and harvesting, +which occur in them. Among the Chinese, Japanese, +Babylonians, Hebrews, Celts, Germans, and Slavs, +the early epithets of some or all of the months are +connected with agriculture and the farmer’s life. And +the Roman Aprilis, Maius, and Junius, from which our +own month-names have been taken, are believed to +have been originally seasonal designations, referring +to the sprouting, growth, and maturity of vegetation.</p> + +<p>A lunar month does not necessarily imply a lunar +year. Of not a few savage and half-civilized peoples +it is expressly said that they have but vague notions +of a year as a fixed period of time, and that they can +refer to events more than a few months past only as +happening after some noteworthy event, such as a +flood, a drought, an earthquake, a comet, or the death +of a chief. The foundation of yearly reckonings must +be sought in the observation of rhythmical natural +phenomena—the alternation of the seasons, the recurrence +of periodical winds, the varying length of day as +determined by the sun’s elevation, and especially the +rising and setting of the Pleiades.⁠<a id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> In order to adapt +the same moons to the same seasons as they successively +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>occurred, or to the course of the sun, or to the +rising and setting of the Pleiades, the number of moons +was usually taken at twelve, giving the lunar year of +three hundred and fifty-four days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary in this connection to discuss fully +the various methods which have been employed to +adjust the pure lunar year of twelve synodic months +to the seasonal or solar year. Some primitive peoples +adopt the expedient of counting thirteen lunations to +the year. A more common and accurate procedure is +to intercalate the thirteenth month, usually in every +second or third year. Familiar illustrations are furnished +by the Hindus, Babylonians, Jews, and Greeks +in antiquity; among modern peoples, by the natives +of Burma, Siam, China, and Japan.⁠<a id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> The methods of +intercalation employed are historically numerous, the +details are often obscure, and in no instance were the +results wholly successful. The difficulties arising from +such attempts to coördinate incoördinable quantities +must have been the prime cause of the adoption of +calendars in which the month, instead of denoting the +moon’s synodic revolution, received an arbitrary number +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>of days approaching the twelfth part of a solar +year.</p> + +<p>The period of a lunation seems to have been generally +estimated, in the first instance, at thirty days, a calculation +found in the lunar calendars of many half-civilized +peoples, and still employed at the present day +on all occasions when absolute accuracy is not considered +necessary. Indeed, if lunations be used, it is more +exact to count by thirty days than by twenty-nine. +When the moon’s synodic revolution came to be more +accurately measured by calculating an average from +the number of days comprised in several successive +lunations, the true length (about twenty-nine and one-half +days) could be conveniently calendarized only by +periods of twenty-nine and thirty days in alternation. +Such vacillating months were used by the Hawaiians +and the New Zealanders; they were familiar to the +Jews, the later Babylonians, and the Greeks; and they +are still found throughout the Mohammedan world, +and among various peoples of southeastern Asia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>People who reckon by moons naturally begin their +lunar month with the first appearance of the luminous +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>crescent in the western sky.⁠<a id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> The real moon being +invisible for two or three days, various expedients are +adopted in order to secure regularity in lunar reckonings. +Thus, the Toda keep a record of the number of +days from new moon to full moon and from that to the +next new moon. The full moon is counted as being +on the fifteenth day after the new moon, and the new +moon as being on the sixteenth day after the full moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> +The Basuto begin their month on the day when the +new moon is visible, though they count two more days +when the moon cannot be seen at all in the heavens.⁠<a id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> +Still other devices were employed in antiquity by the +Babylonians, Hebrews, and Romans.⁠<a id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span></p> + +<p>The lunar month, which in rude communities provides +a satisfactory chronological unit, does not meet +the needs of an advancing society. Shorter periods +become desirable, and these may be found in the +division of the lunation. There is much evidence +that primitive peoples watch the lunar phases with +keen interest, often name them, and sometimes use +them for the purpose of reckoning time. The natives +of Victoria are said to employ ordinal numbers only +in numbering the days of the month for making appointments. +As their months are marked by the reappearance +of the moon, their ordinal numbers do not go +beyond twenty-eight.⁠<a id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> The Dieri and related tribes +of South Australia reckon by lunar phases; “when +anticipating a grand ceremony they refer to the first +or last quarter of the moon.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a> The central Australians, +who regard the moon as a male deity, have +distinct names applied to new moon, first quarter, full +moon, and last quarter.⁠<a id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a> In German New Guinea +the phases of the moon are employed for all time-units +greater than a day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> The natives of New Britain are +close observers of the phases of the moon (<i>kalang</i>) and +have separate terms for them.⁠<a id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> The New Caledonians +count by lunar months, “each divided into four weeks, +following the four phases of the moon.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> The Kayan +on the Mendalam River in Dutch Borneo name eight +phases of the waxing and waning moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> The Dyak +tribes on the Mahakam and Barito rivers in Dutch +Borneo “reckon their time by the full moon, half +moon, and new moon.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a> In those parts of Sumatra +where the seven-day week has not been introduced, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>it is a common practice to calculate by the days of +the moon’s age.⁠<a id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> The very primitive peoples occupying +Nias and the Mentawi Islands off the western coast +of Sumatra distinguish four phases of the moon and +give to them appropriate names.⁠<a id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> Not only do the +Nicobarese possess terms to denote the chief phases +of the lunation, but they are also able to indicate any +particular day in the lunar month with perfect clearness, +since each day has its particular name.⁠<a id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> The +Andaman Islanders, possessing no extended enumeration, +do not count the moons in the year, but nevertheless +employ appropriate words to designate the +lunar phases.⁠<a id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a> The Bontoc and Ibaloi Igorot have +noted and named eight phases of the moon; these, +however, are said to be seldom used for counting time.⁠<a id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a> +Throughout the Caroline Islands (Yap, Lamotrek, +Ponape, Uleai) the successive days of the month receive +names indicating the moon’s age.⁠<a id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> In Polynesia every +night in the month had its distinct name derived from +the changing aspects of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a> The Nandi of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>British East Africa similarly designate the successive +nights of a lunar month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> The Bini of Southern +Nigeria even appoint special persons to observe the +changes of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> The Ho tribes of Togo and the +Hottentots of South Africa employ separate terms for +all the lunar phases.⁠<a id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a> In South America the Karaja +of Brazil, in addition to noting and naming the four +most conspicuous phases of the moon, also distinguish +a fifth phase, which occurs between first quarter and +full moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> Of the North American Indians it has +been said, generally, that the “alternations of day and +night and the changes of the moon and the seasons +formed the basis of their [calendar] systems.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a> In +the words of the <i>Koran</i> the phases of the moon are +“indications of time for men.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Since new moon and full moon are the most conspicuous +lunar phases, it has been a common practice to +recognize two periods in the lunation, as marked by the +waxing and the waning moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> This two-fold division +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>of the month does not seem to be employed for calendrical +purposes by the Australian aborigines, but in some +parts of Melanesia the two halves of the lunation +receive appropriate names and the full moon itself +bears a particular designation.⁠<a id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> The Maori of New +Zealand, who sometimes “divide the month into halves +or fortnights by ‘moon-growing’ and ‘moon-lessening,’”⁠<a id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a> +are the only Polynesian people to adopt this +mode of reckoning. It is met, also, in Malaysia (Java, +Sumatra, Bali, Nias, etc.), but only where Indian culture +has penetrated.⁠<a id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The division of the month into two parts is found +among most Indo-European peoples. In India the +recognition of the “light” and “dark” halves of the +month goes back to Vedic antiquity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> Modern Hindus +divide the month into two fortnights, the days of which +are reckoned continuously as those of the increasing +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>or decreasing moon. The full-moon day (<i>amavus</i>) is +held in great sanctity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a> Like customs prevail in Ceylon, +Burma, Siam, Indo-China, and other parts of +Asia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> The bipartite division of the month was familiar +to the ancient Persians⁠<a id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> + and to the early Greeks.⁠<a id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a> +The fifteenth of the month was regularly called by +the Greeks the full-moon day (Dichomenia, διχομηνία) +even after the introduction of the sequence of twenty-nine +day and thirty-day months.⁠<a id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a> In “hollow” months +of twenty-nine days the full moon, of course, would +fall on the fourteenth day, except when an extra day +was intercalated every thirty-two or thirty-three +months.⁠<a id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> The Roman <i>kalendæ</i> and <i>idus</i> corresponded +to the Greek νουμηνία and διχομηνία.⁠<a id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> The Kalends +were so named because in early times the pontiffs had +been accustomed to make a public announcement +(<i>calare</i>) whether five or seven days should be reckoned +from new moon to the first quarter.⁠<a id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> The Ides thus +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>fell on the thirteenth or fifteenth day of the month, +according as the Nones occurred on the fifth or seventh +day. The Roman belief in the virtue of odd numbers +doubtless explains this choice of dates for both Nones +and Ides.⁠<a id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> Among the ancient Germans new moon and +full moon appear as the most prominent lunar phases.⁠<a id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a> +The division of the lunation into two parts, the first +of fifteen days, the second of fourteen or fifteen days, +according as the month had twenty-nine or thirty days, +is clearly indicated for the Celtic peoples.⁠<a id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> In the +Calendar of Coligny the days of each half-month are +numbered consecutively, following what must have +been the old Indo-European practice. The second +half of the month is always preceded by the title <i>atenoux</i>, +doubtless indicating full moon, and variously translated +“great night” or “renewal.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> That this Gallic +calendar presents no exceptional custom is obvious +from the constant occurrence in the literature of the +insular Celts of such expressions as the Welsh <i>pythewnos</i>, +a fortnight (literally “a fifteen night”), and the Irish +<i>cóicthiges</i>, which has the same meaning.⁠<a id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> With these +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>terms may be compared our English “fortnight” (O. E. +<i>feówertȳne niht</i>).</p> + +<p>The bipartite division of the month may be traced +even more widely. It was recognized by the Egyptians, +who appear to have counted the days by the decreasing +and increasing moon and to have regarded the full +moon (<i>mḥ</i>) as the most important of the lunar phases.⁠<a id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> +For Semitic peoples, notably the Babylonians and +Hebrews, new moon and full moon enjoyed significance +not only as religious festivals but also as the most +conspicuous periods of the lunation. A primitive +cycle of thirteen days used for ritual purposes by the +ancient Mexicans may have been originally suggested +by the number of months in the lunar year, but the +choice of this number seems also to have been affected +by the recognition of thirteen visible stages of the +moon’s increase (<i>mextozoliztli</i>, the moon’s waking) and +thirteen visible stages of her decrease (<i>mecochiliztli</i>, +the moon’s sleep).⁠<a id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a> In both Colombia and Peru the +half-months were reckoned by the waxing and the +waning of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span></p> + +<p>From the division of the month into two fortnights, +at once the simplest, earliest, and most widespread +form of the week, we pass to the consideration of those +shorter cycles of time which are found in various parts +of the world. It might appear at first sight that all +civil weeks of five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten days +would likewise have a natural origin in divisions, either +of the true lunation or of the conventional month. +But the evidence which has been presented for the +existence of market weeks shows that these arose quite +independently of the lunar month, and that only at a +subsequent period, when they came into general use +for calendrical purposes, were they adjusted to the +length of the moon’s monthly course. Some interesting +examples of this process of adjustment may be +studied among the negroes of west Africa. Thus, the +Yoruba week consists of five days, and six of them are +supposed to make a lunar month. As a matter of +fact, since the first day of the first week always commences +with the appearance of the new moon, the month +really contains five weeks of five days’ duration, and +one of four days and a half, approximately.⁠<a id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> Again, +the Tshi tribes of the Gold Coast, having chosen seven-day +weeks, find it necessary to begin them at different +hours of the day. Some of their weeks, termed <i>n’ehsŭn</i>, +“It is seven,” may have eight days and six nights, others +the reverse, and others seven days and nights, with a +fractional part of a day or night.⁠<a id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> Such are the expedients +adopted by some semi-civilized peoples, whose +months are strictly lunar, to avoid the difficulty presented +by the fact that the length of the lunation +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>(twenty-nine and a half days) does not permit of subdivision +into exactly equal parts.</p> + +<p>One of the most common forms of the week is the +decade. When not based on the institution of the +market, it seems reasonable to suppose that this cycle +was originally suggested by the increase, culmination, +and decrease of the moon, as shown by the waxing +crescent, the more or less full disk, and the waning +crescent. If it be held that the arrangement by decades +was based rather on denary arithmetic, we may +at least feel confident that it would not have been chosen +except for its close approximation to the length of the +lunar month. As a matter of fact, such a sequence +represents the true course of the lunation in days more +correctly than a nine-day, or an eight-day, or even a +seven-day week. A division of the month into decades +is definitely attributed to the Maori of New Zealand, +who doubtless were obliged to count only nine days in +the third and last decade of every other month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> The +arrangement of the four Hawaiian <i>tabu</i> periods, of +which the first three came at intervals of ten days, argues +strongly in favour of a division of time into decades, +or <i>anahulu</i>. This term, though now obsolete, occurs +frequently in ancient legends and songs as a measure +of time comprising ten days. The fourth monthly +<i>tabu</i> period, sacred to the god Kane, was celebrated on +the twenty-seventh of the month, only three days +after the festival of Kaloa, from which circumstance +it has been plausibly regarded as of later introduction +than the others.⁠<a id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> A curious division of the month into +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>three parts prevails in some of the Caroline Islands. +In Yap, for instance, the thirty-day month is divided +into <i>pul</i>, or new moon, lasting thirteen days, <i>botrau</i>, +or full moon, lasting nine days, and <i>lumor</i>, or darkness, +continuing to the end of the month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a> Lunar decades +are found in southeastern Asia. The Chingpaw or +Kachin of Upper Burma, whose primitive year consists +of twelve lunar months uncorrected by intercalation +and arbitrarily adjusted to the successive seasons, recognize +three divisions of the month, each of ten days’ +duration. The first, called <i>shitta pyaw</i>, includes ten +days of the waxing moon; the last, called <i>shitta si</i>, +includes ten days of the waning moon. The intervening +period bears no special name, though the full moon +itself is called <i>shitta lai</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> The peoples of French Indo-China +(Cochin-China, Anam, and Tonkin) regularly +divide the month into three decades, but this arrangement +is now being gradually superseded by the European +week of seven days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> Probably the Indo-Chinese +custom was borrowed from the Chinese, among whom +it has long been a common practice to speak of anything +as happening in the first, middle, or last decade of any +particular month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> A similar system has not yet become +obsolete in Japan, where the ten-day periods are +known as the upper, middle, and lower decades.⁠<a id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> +Various African peoples use the ten-day cycle. Among +the Wagiriama of British East Africa the three decades +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>(<i>makumi</i>) exist side by side with the market week four +days in length.⁠<a id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a> The Sofalese of Portuguese East +Africa are said to have divided the month into three +periods each of ten days, the first day of the first week +being the festival of the new moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> Among the +Tofoke, a Congo tribe, the lunar month consists of +three parts, reckoned, respectively, from new moon +to the increasing half moon, from this to the decreasing +half moon, and thence to the end of the month. Each +of these phases bears a distinct name.⁠<a id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> The Ahanta +of the Gold Coast divide the lunar month into three +periods, two of ten days’ duration, and the third lasting +till the next new moon appears, that is, for about +nine days and a half.⁠<a id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a> These decades seem to be quite +independent of the market weeks, sometimes ten days +long, which are also found in Africa. On the other +hand the Peruvian decades, previously noticed, were +clearly connected with the institution of the market.⁠<a id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> +The sole instance of a week discoverable among the Indians +of North America is found among the Zuñi of northeastern +New Mexico, a Pueblo tribe leading a sedentary +existence and in many respects advanced in culture. By +the Zuñi “the month is divided into three parts, each +part being called <i>topĭnta as temla</i>, ‘one ten.’”⁠<a id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span></p> + +<p>A ten-day week was employed in antiquity by the +Egyptians. The hieroglyphic expression meaning “the +ten days” is found in inscriptions belonging to the +age of the Pyramid-builders. The names applied to +each of the three decades—<i>hati</i>, that of the beginning, +<i>abi</i>, that of the middle, and <i>pahu</i>, that of the end—are +perhaps somewhat less ancient, the earliest definite +use of these appellations being found in the time of the +Tenth Dynasty. The decades ran continuously from +month to month. Since the Egyptian year consisted +of three hundred and sixty-five days, it was necessary, +however, in alternate years to begin the reckoning of +the decades on the sixth, instead of on the first, of the +month. According to an inscription dating from the +time of the Third Dynasty, the first day of each decade +was marked by sacrifices, and later records contain +frequent instances of a religious observance of this +day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Greek decades betray in their names, μὴν +ἱστάμενος (waxing), μεσῶν (central), and φθίνων +(waning), an association with the moon. The days of +the last decade were usually counted backward; in +“hollow” months, the day corresponding to the twenty-ninth +of “full” months was omitted, so that the decade +really contained only nine days. By the Athenians +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span>the last day of the third decade was styled ἕνη καὶ νέα +(“old and new moon”), as being the day which belonged +in part to the preceding (theoretical) month of twenty-nine +and a half days and in part to the following month. +No clearer illustration could be afforded of lunar weeks +adjusted to the lunar month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> The Greek arrangement +by decades must have been very old. Unknown +to Homer, it appears in Hesiod’s <i>Works and Days</i> side +by side with the still earlier division of the month into +two parts determined by full moon. Hesiod, who tells +his Bœotian farmer to avoid the thirteenth of the waxing +month for the commencement of sowing, and who +declares that the fourth, whether of the waning or of +the waxing month, is “a very fateful day,” also uses +such expressions as the “first sixth,” “first ninth,” +“middle third,” “middle fourth,” and “the fourth +which follows the twentieth of the month.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a> This +unequivocal evidence for the use of the decades as +early as the middle of the eighth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> seems to +dispose of the theory⁠<a id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a> that they were an importation +from Egypt.</p> + +<p>The evidence for the existence of weeks of nine days +is very obscure. They are found in west Africa, but +only as market weeks unconnected with the lunation. +Efforts have been made to discover traces of such +periods among various Indo-Germanic peoples, particularly +the Greeks of the Homeric and pre-Homeric +age.⁠<a id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> There are, indeed, numerous illustrations in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>older literature of cycles of nine days (as also of nine +years), but no evidence at all that these were ever +employed for civil purposes as regular divisions of +the month. The same remark applies to the so-called +weeks of nine days among the ancient Germans,⁠<a id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> and +to the frequent mention in old Irish and Welsh texts +of periods of three days and nights and of nine days +and nights.⁠<a id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Market weeks, eight days in length, which seem to +have developed from earlier periods of four days, are +found in Assam, in certain parts of Africa, perhaps at +one time among the Indians of Colombia, and in antiquity +among the Romans.⁠<a id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> Such market weeks are +independent of the moon and run unfettered through +the months and years. On the other hand a week of +eight days, called <i>‘sāmĕn</i>, which exists among the +northern Abyssinians, is clearly adjusted to the length +of the lunation. Every month consists, theoretically, +of four weeks, of which the first two are those of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>increasing moon and the last two those of the decreasing +moon. In practice, however, the people are compelled +to count only six days in their fourth and last +week.⁠<a id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> This Abyssinian cycle possibly may have originated +as a market week, since elsewhere in Africa +market weeks of four or more days have been adjusted, +somewhat artificially, to the length of the lunation.</p> + +<p>Six-day weeks, connected with the market and probably +derived from an earlier week of three days’ duration, +are found in Africa.⁠<a id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> There are also a few instances +of the same cycle where a connection with the +market does not certainly appear. The Lolo, Pula, +and other aboriginal tribes of southwestern China +keep a “Sabbath,” as a rule every sixth day. No +ploughing may take place at this time, and in some +places the women are not allowed even to sew or wash +clothes.⁠<a id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> The Bawenda, who occupy the northeast +corner of the Transvaal, are said also to use a week +of six days, though only three of these are separately +named.⁠<a id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The numerous five-day weeks found in the Malay +Archipelago, southeastern Asia, and Africa all exist in +connection with the market.⁠<a id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> On the other hand this +cycle seems to be sometimes independent of the market. +An Egyptian calendar, belonging to the second century +<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> but probably based on much older material, +divides the year for astrological purposes into weeks +of five days, each week corresponding to the sixth part +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>of one of the signs or constellations of the zodiac. +The calendar also gives the name of the presiding +deity of each sign, together with the omens, portents, +and favourable or unfavourable characteristics that +belong to it.⁠<a id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> A five-day period, <i>khamushtu</i>, employed +as a sixth of the month, appears to have been familiar +to the Assyro-Babylonians in the third millenium <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> +We do not know how far the <i>khamushtu</i> entered into +the civil life of the Mesopotamian peoples, but from the +circumstance that this system of computing short +time-intervals was used in mercantile and monetary +transactions it may be surmised that we here have to +do with a very ancient form of the market week.⁠<a id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> +Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform texts also contain +traces of five-day periods associated with the successive +changes of the moon and dedicated to various divinities; +but it is not certain that these later cycles were +derived from the <i>khamushtu</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> The whole subject is +obscure and may well await future discoveries for its +complete elucidation. Finally, there is evidence that +the old Scandinavian peoples employed time-intervals +of five days, of which six were counted to the month. +Here, again, we are at a loss to determine how far this +pentad, called <i>fimt</i>, was regularly used as a civil week +in heathen times. After the introduction of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span>hebdomadal cycle into northern lands, the term survived +as a standing phrase in Norse laws and popular +sayings.⁠<a id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The preceding pages have presented much evidence +to show how carefully primitive peoples watch the +changes of the moon and describe them by appropriate +names. The four lunar phases provide, indeed, an +obvious means of calculating the passage of time; and +they are often used for this purpose in the absence of +any recognized calendrical unit shorter than the lunar +month. The length of the lunation being approximately +twenty-nine and a half days, a single phase +occupies about seven and three-eighths days, which +must be calendarized as seven days, since it is necessary +to employ a round number. It is not a valid argument +against the natural origin of the hebdomadal +cycle to urge that seven does not form an exact division +of the lunar month. No other number will divide +the lunation without a remainder. However, the +hebdomad furnishes a less satisfactory time-unit than +the decade, the former falling short of a quarter of +the month by more than nine hours, the latter exceeding +a third of the lunation by rather less than four +hours. This circumstance may account for the otherwise +remarkable fact that, while the ten-day lunar +week is found in many parts of the world, the week of +seven days occurs in the lower culture and among peoples +of archaic civilization only as a borrowed institution, +which can be traced ultimately to Semitic +lands and Semitic antiquity.</p> + +<p>The prevalence of the seven-day week throughout +the world furnishes a most impressive instance of the +diffusion of a cultural element. Its introduction into +the Pacific area during the nineteenth century and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>among the aborigines of America as the result of their +contact with European civilization is well known.⁠<a id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> +In Africa it has been spread by Judaism, Christianity, +and Islam; in southeastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago +the original disseminators were Hindus, followed +later by Arabs and Europeans. This imported +week has sometimes provided a cycle of time shorter +than the lunar month, where none existed before; in +other cases it has supplanted a native cycle usually +associated with the market. Together with the week +has often gone the Jewish, Christian or Mohammedan +rest day.</p> + +<p>In Madagascar and along the east coast of Africa +Arab influence, continuing for many centuries, naturally +left its impress on the calendar. The names of the +Malagasy weekdays are of Arabic origin.⁠<a id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a> Previous +to the introduction of Christianity under Radama I +(1810-1828) no rest day was communally observed, +though each god had a sacred day when those who were +its special votaries abstained from work.⁠<a id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> The Swaheli, +who occupy the coast lands north and south of +Zanzibar, use a seven-day week, beginning with Friday, +the Mohammedan Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a> Some peculiar arrangements +are found among the Masai of eastern equatorial +Africa, a warlike race clearly distinguished by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>language, customs, and appearance from the Bantu +peoples. The Masai seem to be connected with the +so-called Nilotic group, and their ancient home has +been placed in the region between Lake Rudolf and +the Nile. At the present time they dwell much farther +south both in British and German territory. The +Masai count time by moon months, generally taken at +thirty days in length. The month does not begin +with the visible new moon, but on the fourth day +thereafter. In addition they have a week of seven +days, each one separately named. The seventh day, +which ends, and does not begin, the week, is called +<i>essubat ’n oloṅ</i>, “the good day.” According to Masai +tradition this week in remote times began on the new-moon +day, but now it is reckoned continuously without +regard to the lunation. Furthermore, the Masai +appear to have once divided the months into decades, +as is still indicated by their expression, <i>ne̱gera</i>, applied +to the tenth, twentieth, and thirtieth days. This +term comes from a verbal form meaning “to be silent.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a> +There can be little question that the Masai seven-day +week was borrowed from Jewish or Christian sources, +while the decade arrangement may have been affected +remotely by cultural contact with peoples influenced +by ancient Egypt. Most of the interior tribes of +British East Africa recognize no subdivision of the +lunar month. But among the Rendile and Burkeneji, +who inhabit the steppes east of Lake Rudolf, we find +a week of seven days. Three of these days are marked +by restrictions. The first day, <i>hahat</i>, is a fast day, +at which time animals cannot be slaughtered for food. +On the second day, <i>hura hakhan</i> (<i>hura</i> in the Rendile +language means sun), no work may be done, except +the slaughtering of food animals. On the fifth day, +<i>ser hakhan</i>, people will not travel, move their grazing +grounds, or make cattle-medicine. The natives are +unable to identify the particular days of their week +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span>with those of the European cycle.⁠<a id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a> Many of the +Galla tribes between Shoa, a kingdom of southern +Abyssinia, and the Tana River of British East Africa, +are said to show great respect for Saturday and Sunday, +and on these days do not work in the fields. Here we +may legitimately assume Jewish and Christian influences +from Abyssinia, especially since the nomadic +Galla of equatorial Africa do not seem to keep any +special rest days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a> Other eastern Hamitic peoples, +the Somali, Afar, and Danakil, use the seven-day week +with Arabic names and observe Friday, the Mohammedan +Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> The seven-day week found among +the natives of Kaffa, a region of eastern Africa on the +borderland between the British and Italian spheres +of influence, appears to have been introduced a few +centuries ago by Christian immigrants from Amhara, +the central province of Abyssinia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a> The spread of +Islam among the Sudanese and Guinea negroes has +resulted in the introduction of the hebdomadal cycle +and of the custom of holding markets on the seventh +day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The seven-day week in India has a long history. +The original division of the Hindu lunar month was, +as we have seen, into two equal parts, determined by +the waxing and the waning moon. This arrangement, +which still prevails in India, appears to have been the +only one in calendrical use until long after the beginning +of the Christian era. It is true that even in Vedic +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>times the eighth day after the full moon was regarded +as one of the festival days of the month, and that, at +least as early as the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in +the sixth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the eighth day after new moon +was added to the list of holy days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> The celebration +of four lunar festivals does not, however, imply the use +of a civil week by the Hindus, any more than in the +case of the Persian festivals, which likewise were adjusted +to the phases of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> The hebdomadal +cycle in India was entirely a borrowed institution, +derived from the planetary or astrological week, the +days of which are named after five planets and the sun +and moon. By the middle of the third century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, +the planetary week was well known in the Roman +world, and somewhat later it was introduced as an +astrological device into India. Who the intermediaries +were—whether Hindus who visited Mediterranean +lands or learned Greeks who made the voyage to +India—it is impossible to say. The earliest-known +genuine instance of a planetary name of a day in India +occurs in an inscription belonging to the year 484 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> +By the end of the eighth century there are perhaps ten +other inscriptional records, coming from various parts +of India and from Indian settlements in Java, Cochin-China, +and Cambodia, of the assignment of the weekdays +to the planets. After 900 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, instances of this +practice are more numerous, indicating that the seven-day +week had now become something more than an +astrological device and was generally recognized for +civil purposes as a part of the Hindu calendar.⁠<a id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a> In +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>modern India every day of the week has its sacred +character for the devotees of various gods, Sunday +being especially consecrated to the sun, Monday, to +Siva, and Saturday, to the monkey-god Hanuman.⁠<a id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a> +For Hindus, generally, Sunday, Tuesday, and Saturday +are unlucky days, and at such times no important +business will be undertaken or any long journey begun.⁠<a id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>India was the center from which the planetary week +of seven days was first introduced into southeastern +Asia—into Ceylon, the Maldive Islands, Nepal, +Tibet, Burma, Cambodia, and Siam.⁠<a id="FNanchor_629" href="#Footnote_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> The Brahmanist +Chams in Cambodia and Anam use the planetary +weekdays borrowed from Hinduism, but the +Mohammedan Chams sometimes employ the days of +the Arabic week and observe Friday as a Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_630" href="#Footnote_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a> +The Laotians, who have taken over the planetary +week from the Siamese, are careful, as pious Buddhists, +so to adjust their calendar that Sunday (<i>van athit</i>) +always falls on the eighth and fifteenth days of the +lunar fortnight.⁠<a id="FNanchor_631" href="#Footnote_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span></p> + +<p>The Chinese possess no regular division of the month +into weeks, though a popular cycle, ten days in length, +has long been found among them. The week of seven +days is coming into use in commercial centres frequented +by Europeans, where, for Monday, Tuesday, +etc., native names meaning “first day,” “second day,” +etc., have been coined. The assertion that the Chinese +from of old have been familiar with the seven-day +week appears to be based on their custom, which is +not of extreme antiquity, of applying the names of the +twenty-eight lunar mansions to each day of the year +in rotation, from which circumstance the same four +out of the twenty-eight always fall on Sunday and +constitute what has been well described as a perpetual +“Sunday letter.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_632" href="#Footnote_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> On the other hand there is definite +evidence that the planetary week was introduced from +India to China, where, however, it seems never to +have been employed except for astrological purposes. +A Chinese translation, made in the eighth century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> +of an Indian treatise on astrology, apportions the days +of the week among the planets, according to the astrological +order. Sunday in some Chinese almanacs +is still called the “day of Mit,” that is, the day of +Mithra, the Persian deity associated with the sun. +This “Sunday” seems formerly to have had a place +in the state calendars issued under imperial auspices at +Peking.⁠<a id="FNanchor_633" href="#Footnote_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a> In this connection it is interesting to note +that the famous Nestorian Monument bears witness +to the introduction of the Christian Sunday into China +by Nestorian missionaries from Persia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_634" href="#Footnote_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a> But the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span>week of seven days as a calendrical entity never took +root among the Chinese, nor have they ever observed +a weekly day of rest.⁠<a id="FNanchor_635" href="#Footnote_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In old Japan, as in China, the week of seven days +was unknown. Shortly after the restoration of the +Mikado’s power in 1867-1868 there was introduced +what were called the <i>ichi-roku</i>, or holidays on the +“ones” and “sixes” of each month, <i>i.e.</i>, on the first, +sixth, eleventh, sixteenth, twenty-first, twenty-sixth, +and thirty-first days. But this arrangement, borrowed +from the Christian Sunday, did not last long, and the +copy soon gave way to the original. The Japanese +now have the seven-day week with names derived +from the Occidental names. Sunday, in vulgar parlance +is called <i>dontaku</i> (a corruption of the Dutch Zontag) +and Saturday, in equally vulgar parlance, is called +<i>han-don</i>, that is, “half-Sunday” (because the modern +English Saturday half-holiday has made its way into +Japan).⁠<a id="FNanchor_636" href="#Footnote_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a> On Sunday government offices and schools +are closed. In the cities some of the larger banks and +mercantile houses also suspend their business on Sunday, +but as a rule country people, artisans, and labourers +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>observe no weekly day of rest. By people of the +middle and highest classes Sunday is preëminently a +day devoted to social intercourse, and even Japanese +Christians, after attending an early morning church +service, feel themselves free to devote the afternoon +and evening to any form of legitimate recreation or +amusement.⁠<a id="FNanchor_637" href="#Footnote_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The planetary cycle is not unknown in the Malay +Peninsula, though here employed, as it seems, solely +for astrological purposes. For civil purposes weeks of +seven days, marked by the return of Friday, the Mohammedan +Sabbath, are in general use.⁠<a id="FNanchor_638" href="#Footnote_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a> Curious +animistic superstitions sometimes attach themselves +to this day. Thus, the Malays of the Patani States +believe that the spirits have extra power over mankind +on Friday, hence many people will not take shelter +under a tree at any time on this day, lest the spirits +sitting in the tree dive down into them. This precaution +especially applies to travellers, whose bodies are +weary and whose souls are therefore weak. Some +Malays who have wooden chests in which they store +their finery and treasures dare not, on Friday, lift +the lid of one of these receptacles, because then the +chest’s soul (<i>semangat</i>) might escape. Henceforth the +chest would become a dead thing and all luck would +desert its owner. Patani fishermen on Friday always +make offerings to the <i>semangat</i> of their boats.⁠<a id="FNanchor_639" href="#Footnote_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The seven-day week in the Malay Archipelago +exists both as a Hindu institution of remote origin +and also as an outcome of the expansion of Islam over +this region. The Achehnese in northern Sumatra +have not only borrowed the hebdomad from the Mohammedans, +but go so far as to make Friday a day +<i>pantang</i> for all agricultural work, <i>pantang</i> being the +native term for taboo.⁠<a id="FNanchor_640" href="#Footnote_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a> Among the natives of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>Kuantan District the seven weekdays bear names +derived from the Arabic.⁠<a id="FNanchor_641" href="#Footnote_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a> On the other hand the +Batta of Lake Toba possess a calendar derived from +Hindu sources and also a week of seven days, with +planetary names clearly taken from the Sanskrit. +But the Batta magicians, who use this cycle for astrological +purposes, do not now recognize its planetary +origin; they know only the sun, the moon, and, possibly, +Venus. To the Batta <i>ari na pitu</i>, the seventh +day, is an evil day, and he who ventures to begin any +work upon it will surely be visited by some grave misfortune.⁠<a id="FNanchor_642" href="#Footnote_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> +In districts of Sumatra where neither Hindu +nor Arabic influence has penetrated, a division into +weeks is unknown, the natives counting, instead, by +the days of the moon’s age.⁠<a id="FNanchor_643" href="#Footnote_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a> In Java the Hindu +planetary week was combined with the still earlier +market week of five days in the eighth and ninth +centuries, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and since that time the Arabic designations +of the seven weekdays have also been introduced.⁠<a id="FNanchor_644" href="#Footnote_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a> +A similar combination of the two cycles, +yielding a period of thirty-five days, occurs in Bali.⁠<a id="FNanchor_645" href="#Footnote_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> +In Macassar, a former native kingdom of Celebes, the +Mohammedan Sabbath is observed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_646" href="#Footnote_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The foregoing pages make it clear that the spread +of Mohammedan rule both in Asia and Africa has +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>introduced the week of seven days into regions where +it had not previously found entrance. The Arabs +themselves adopted the week from the Jews and Christians, +presumably at the time of their conversion to +Islam.⁠<a id="FNanchor_647" href="#Footnote_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a> In the Arabic week the days from Sunday +to Thursday are numbered in their order, Friday is +called <i>al jum‘a</i> “the meeting” (for worship), and Saturday, +<i>as sabt</i>, “the Sabbath.” On Friday, according +to the rule laid down by Mohammed, the faithful are +to take part in the midday prayer at the mosque and +to listen to the sermon which follows the prayer. +Labour is suspended during the service, but at its +close secular vocations, including marketing, are resumed. +The Mohammedean <i>jum‘a</i>, unlike the Jewish +Sabbath, but like the early Christian Sunday, is not a +day of rest.⁠<a id="FNanchor_648" href="#Footnote_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The seven-day week has now been traced over a +large part of the globe. It sometimes exists as a +planetary-astrological cycle of pagan derivation; in +other cases its presence is obviously due to Jewish, +Christian, or Mohammedan influence. In no region +does the hebdomadal cycle appear as an independent +product of the native culture. The inquiry into its +remote origin and connection with the cult of the number +seven takes us back to the ancient Oriental world.</p> + +<p>It is a familiar fact that many people attach to certain +numbers a sacred or symbolic meaning.⁠<a id="FNanchor_649" href="#Footnote_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> Such +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>mystic numbers, unlike those of ordinary arithmetic, +are real categories in which thought naturally rests; +they are not fortuitous counts of objects but are +rather subjective syntheses—<i>cadres donnés d’avance</i>—according +to which the mind divides up and parcels +out all things visible and invisible. Like names they +may become virtual entities endowed with their own +functional power. The symbolism and superstitions +attaching to certain numbers, which we discover in +the records of all archaic civilizations, must be based +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>on very primitive modes of thinking, since a similar +tendency toward mysticism in the use of numbers +appears among half-civilized peoples. It is a tendency +to whose development no bounds can be set, once the +refining ingenuity of the priestly class has begun to +elaborate the concept of the “sacred” as opposed to +that of the “profane.” It seems obvious, therefore, +that the systems of sacred numbers, found in ancient +India, Babylonia, Greece, and other cultural areas, +incorporate many items of folk superstition together +with the results of much speculative activity on the +part of early organizers of religion.</p> + +<p>It would be hard to find any number in the first +decade which has not been invested, by this or that +society, with a mystical significance. Seven, in particular, +has enjoyed a marked importance among many +peoples widely separated in space and time.⁠<a id="FNanchor_650" href="#Footnote_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a> As a +symbolic number it occurs among the Babylonians, +Greeks, and Hindus at the very dawn of their history; +and it still figures prominently in the popular lore of +India, China, and southeastern Asia. Cultural influences +emanating from the Asiatic mainland appear +to have introduced the symbolism of seven into certain +parts of Oceania and, notably, into Borneo. Of +the Sea Dyak of Sarawak it is said that, after three, +their favourite number is seven; while among the +Malanau, another Sarawak tribe, seven is very prominent +in rites of exorcism.⁠<a id="FNanchor_651" href="#Footnote_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> The same number occurs +repeatedly in the legends of the Dusun of British North +Borneo, and its mystic significance may account in +part for the curious system of unlucky days observed +by them. The Dusun consider twelve days of the +month, beginning with the seventh and including also +the fourteenth and twenty-first, as distinctly bad for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>agricultural labour. At such times they refrain from +going to their rice-fields, under penalty of failure of +the crop, but other work than that on the farms may +sometimes be performed. The natives cannot furnish +any explanation of the evil quality of these days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_652" href="#Footnote_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a> +A peculiar observance of the seventh day is found in +some parts of Melanesia. When the first missionaries +visited the New Hebrides and introduced the European +week with Sunday as a day of rest, the natives were +much astonished to learn that the whites were also +familiar with their <i>bugi kai bituki</i>, or evil day. These +Melanesians had never recognized any time-divisions +shorter than the lunar month, but it had long been a custom +among them to mark the seventh day by certain +taboos. The natives would not engage in warfare on the +seventh day after the declaration of hostilities; nor would +they attempt to execute vengeance on the seventh day +after the receipt of an insult.⁠<a id="FNanchor_653" href="#Footnote_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a> The two prohibitions +perhaps represent the broken-down form of a system of +taboos at one time much more extensive. Elsewhere in +the Pacific area (New Guinea, Australia, and Polynesia) +seven does not seem to possess any special significance.</p> + +<p>The mystic qualities of seven are recognized in +Africa, but only where foreign influences have penetrated. +Among the Wachaga of German East Africa +the seventh month of the year is most unlucky: houses +are not built, or marriages celebrated, or fields planted, +or wars begun, during this fateful time.⁠<a id="FNanchor_654" href="#Footnote_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a> The Wagiriama +and Wasania, Bantu tribes living in the southeastern +corner of British East Africa, observe the +symbolism of seven in birth, circumcision, and mourning +ceremonies.⁠<a id="FNanchor_655" href="#Footnote_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a> The Akikuyu attach a very special +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>ill-luck to the seventh day. A herdsman will not herd +his flocks for more than six days, and on the seventh +he must be relieved by another man. One who has +been away on a journey for six days will not return to +his village on the seventh; sooner than do so he will +go and sleep at the house of a neighbour a short distance +away. Were this rule broken, he would certainly +be struck down by some serious illness, and a +medicine-man would have to be called in to remove +the curse. “This belief,” we are told, “makes it easy +for the missionaries to explain to the Akikuyu the force +of the Christian observance of the Sabbath.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_656" href="#Footnote_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a> Seven +is also one of the unlucky numbers of the Nandi.⁠<a id="FNanchor_657" href="#Footnote_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a> +The seven-day periods kept as Sabbaths by some of +the Baganda and the seven-day week with three days +marked by taboos, found among the Rendile and +Burkeneji, have been previously noticed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_658" href="#Footnote_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a> In some +parts of Abyssinia and Somaliland we find not only a +week of seven days but also cycles of seven months and +seven years, with seven as a distinctively holy number.⁠<a id="FNanchor_659" href="#Footnote_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a> +In west Africa, besides the adoption of a seven-day +week as the result of Mohammedan influence, +there is also a symbolic use of seven in native folktales,⁠<a id="FNanchor_660" href="#Footnote_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a> +thus providing an instructive parallel to the same +feature in European stories. The frequent occurrence +of the symbolic seven in the magic and astrology of +north African peoples must also be attributed to the +spread of Islam from the Mediterranean to the Sudan.⁠<a id="FNanchor_661" href="#Footnote_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>If the cult of seven in the Pacific area and Africa +appears clearly as a borrowed institution, no other +explanation than that of independent origination can +account for the fact that some American Indian tribes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span>also ascribe a peculiar sanctity to this number. In +the opinion of most Americanists the symbolism of +seven is here an outgrowth of cosmical conceptions of +the four cardinal points, reinforced by conceptions of a +central, an upper, and a lower world. Seven is thus +the most sacred number because it represents all the +regions of the cosmos.⁠<a id="FNanchor_662" href="#Footnote_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a> This explanation cannot be +safely applied outside the American area.</p> + +<p>The antiquity of the symbolism of seven in the Old +World is attested by its appearance as a sacred number +in the earliest literary records of India, Greece, +and Babylonia. Numerous references to seven occur +in the <i>Rig-Veda</i>, where, however, it enjoys less importance +than three.⁠<a id="FNanchor_663" href="#Footnote_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a> Periods of seven days and seven +years are frequently mentioned in the <i>Odyssey</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_664" href="#Footnote_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a> Hesiod +includes the seventh day of the month in his list of +holy days (έβδόμη ἱερὸν ἦμαρ), “for on the seventh +day Leto bare Apollo of the golden sword”; and this +particular connection with the seventh day was maintained +by the god in the later age of Greek history. +Most of his great festivals began on the seventh day, +at which time all public business appears to have +ceased.⁠<a id="FNanchor_665" href="#Footnote_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a> Many other illustrations exist of the large +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>symbolic rôle played by the number seven in Greece +at a remote period.⁠<a id="FNanchor_666" href="#Footnote_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> Among the Babylonians, as +early as the third millenium <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, seven appears as a +symbolic number in magico-religious rituals, incantations, +exorcisms, and mythological narratives.⁠<a id="FNanchor_667" href="#Footnote_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a> Thus, +in the Babylonian version of the Deluge myth, periods +of seven days’ duration assume a marked importance: +the rain continues for six days and ceases on the seventh, +when the waters begin to subside; and seven days again +intervene before the Babylonian Noah is able to abandon +the Ark and offer sacrifice to the gods for his +preservation. The exceptional importance which this +number enjoyed in Babylonia lends credibility to the +theory that here was the centre from which the lore of +seven passed to adjoining regions of western Asia and +thence to more distant parts of the ancient world.⁠<a id="FNanchor_668" href="#Footnote_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></p> + +<p>Some Assyriologists have connected the symbolism +of seven with the seven stars visible to the naked eye +which traverse the celestial zodiac. For the Babylonian +astrologers and astronomers these were the sun, +the moon, and the five larger planets, Mercury, Venus, +Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. There can be no question +that the separation of the planets from the fixed stars, +one of the enduring contributions which Babylonia +has made to civilization, was the outcome of superstitious +notions concerning the influence of the heavenly +bodies on the life of man. The Babylonian astrologers +who watched night by night the stately procession of +the stars across the cloudless skies were animated by +no high zeal for scientific knowledge, but rather by +the necessity of drawing from the celestial phenomena +omens of good or ill for king and country. Jupiter +and Venus were probably the first planets to be differentiated, +the one because of his brilliant light, the +other because of her two appearances when she precedes +the rising, and follows the setting, sun. Saturn, +Mercury, and Mars seem originally to have been combined +under the one designation Lu-Bat, a term which +came to bear the general meaning of “planet”—doubtless +on account of the difficulty involved in observing +their separate courses.⁠<a id="FNanchor_669" href="#Footnote_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a> We do not know when all +five planets were set off from the fixed stars, or when +they were first connected with the sun and moon to +form a group of seven planetary luminaries. As an +eminent Italian astronomer has remarked, both achievements +must have required centuries of close and accurate +observations; they do not belong to a primitive +astronomy.⁠<a id="FNanchor_670" href="#Footnote_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a> Hence we may safely conclude that the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>symbolism of seven, reaching into remote Babylonian +antiquity, long preceded the recognition of the seven +planets; nay, more, that the symbolic significance of +this number imposed itself on Babylonian astronomers +and astrologers and compelled them to include in it +all the principal stars.</p> + +<p>The differentiation of the planets led naturally to +their identification with the greater deities of the +Babylonian pantheon, whose several names—Nabu, +Ishtar, Nergal, Marduk, and Ninib—have come down +to us through the Greeks and Romans in their classical +equivalents, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. +It is by no means certain, however, that at +all periods of Babylonian history these were the only +deities which enjoyed planetary affiliations, or that +the same gods were invariably connected with the +same planets. The association of planet and god seems +to have been quite artificial and arbitrary; at any +rate, the omen texts do not show any close correspondence +between the character of the deity and the prognostications +drawn from the behaviour of his planet. +Furthermore, the cuneiform records contain no indication +that the Babylonians were familiar with what is +known as the astrological order of the planets, the order, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span>that is, in which they appear as regents of the weekdays +in the so-called planetary week of seven days. +The oldest known list of the Babylonian planets dates +from about 700 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and presents the following arrangement: +Moon, Sun, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mercury, +Mars. The same order is found one hundred and +fifty years later, in astronomical texts belonging to +the time of the New Babylonian Empire.⁠<a id="FNanchor_671" href="#Footnote_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a> This +seems to be nothing more than the sequence according +to which the planets were severally differentiated from +the fixed stars. At all events it is not the astrological +sequence, which lies at the basis of the planetary week. +Nor can the origin of the names of the weekdays be +sought in Babylonia. It is true that the Babylonians, +like the Egyptians,⁠<a id="FNanchor_672" href="#Footnote_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a> ascribed to every day in the month +its appropriate divinity, but absolutely no evidence exists +that they ever applied the names of the seven planetary +deities to the days of a septenary cycle. That step was +taken at another time and by another people.</p> + +<p>The planetary week,⁠<a id="FNanchor_673" href="#Footnote_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a> an institution which has spread +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>eastward over the Oriental world and westward into +Europe, is a product of the speculations of astrologers +and philosophers during the Hellenistic, or Græco-Oriental, +era. The sequence of its days depends ultimately +upon the order of the seven planetary spheres, +adopted by Ptolemy in antiquity and after him by +astronomers until the discoveries of Copernicus. If +the planets are grouped according to their distance +from the earth, beginning with the highest and descending +to the lowest, we obtain the following order: Saturn, +Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon. +No certain evidence exists that this arrangement was +known at an earlier date than the second century +before our era.⁠<a id="FNanchor_674" href="#Footnote_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a> The astrological order, which also +begins with Saturn, proceeds next to the fourth planet, +or Sun, from which again the fourth planet (by inclusive +reckoning) is the Moon. By continuing to select +every fourth planet thereafter we obtain at length the +regents of the seven weekdays: Saturn, Sun, Moon, +Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus.</p> + +<p>How, it may be asked, did such an arrangement +arise? This question has been answered for us by the +Roman historian, Dio Cassius, who interrupts his +narrative of the victorious campaign of Pompey the +Great in Palestine to furnish a brief account of the +planetary week.⁠<a id="FNanchor_675" href="#Footnote_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a> The institution, says Dio Cassius, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>can be explained in two ways. According to the first +explanation the gods are supposed to preside over +separate days of the week, following the “‘principle of +the tetrachord’ (which is believed to constitute the +basis of music).”⁠<a id="FNanchor_676" href="#Footnote_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a> The planetary week would thus +be one expression of the occult relations supposed to +exist between harmonic intervals of music and the +seven planetary spheres. Though the idea that the +motions of the planets were regulated by the laws of +musical harmony had great popularity among some of +the Greek schools of philosophy, neo-Pythagorean +and neo-Platonist, it is not, however, to this comparatively +refined doctrine of the “music of the spheres” +that we must look for the origin of the planetary sequence.⁠<a id="FNanchor_677" href="#Footnote_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> +The second explanation given by Dio Cassius, +and also by Vettius Valens, is connected with the +astrological theory of “chronocratories,” which assigned +to the several planets dominion over hours and +days as periods of time. If the day is divided into +twenty-four hours and each hour is ascribed in turn +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>to the several planets—Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, +Venus, Mercury, Moon—then Saturn will preside +over the first, eighth, fifteenth, and twenty-second hours +of the first day, the twenty-third hour will fall to +Jupiter, and the twenty-fourth to Mars. The twenty-fifth +hour, or the first hour of the second day, will +belong to the Sun, the first hour of the third day to the +Moon, and so on for the remaining weekdays. The +planetary deity found to preside over the first hour of +a day is then supposed to give his name to the entire +day. This scheme, as far as it depends on the recognition +of twenty-four hours, is evidently not of Greek +origin, for the mathematical division of the day into +fixed parts did not arise in the Occident, but was due +to Oriental influences.⁠<a id="FNanchor_678" href="#Footnote_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The planetary week thus presents itself as a curious +amalgam of ideas derived from different sources. +Babylonia, the motherland of divination, provided +the doctrine of the influence of the stars on human +destinies; Greece furnished the mathematical astronomy +which grouped the planets according to their +distance from the earth; and upon these foundations +astrologers of the Hellenistic era, familiar with the +cult of seven and with a division of the day into twenty-four +hours, built up what was, at the outset, an entirely +pagan institution.</p> + +<p>The seven-day week (ἑβδομάς, <i>septimana</i>), in its +astrological form, has had a varied history. It probably +first appeared in the star cults of Mesopotamia +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>and Syria, certainly not before the second century +<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, passed thence to the cosmopolitan city of Alexandria, +the meeting-ground of East and West, and +about the age of Augustus gained an entrance into +Occidental lands. The first reasonably certain evidence +of its existence in Italy is found in the so-called +<i>fasti Sabini</i>, the fragments of a calendar drawn up +between the years 19 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>-4 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Here the days of +the seven-day week (indicated by the letters <i>A</i> to <i>F</i>) +and those of the old Roman nundinal cycle (indicated +by the letters <i>A</i> to <i>G</i>) are set forth in parallel columns +for the months of September and October. All similar +calendars of the same period employ only the lettering +of the eight-day Roman week.⁠<a id="FNanchor_679" href="#Footnote_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a> The earliest evidence +for the planetary naming of the weekdays is found +in two inscriptions from Pompeii. Of these, the first +gives all the names of the planetary deities in their +Greek form; the second, the names in their more +familiar Latin form, except for the accidental omission +of Wednesday: Saturni, Solis, Lunæ, Martis, Jovis, +Veneris.⁠<a id="FNanchor_680" href="#Footnote_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a> Indications that the planetary week was +known and used during the second century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> occur +in both classical literature and the inscriptions. Dio +Cassius,⁠<a id="FNanchor_681" href="#Footnote_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a> writing early in the third century (about +210-220 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), declares that the custom of referring +the days to the stars, called planets, had then become +quite familiar to the Romans as well as to the rest of +mankind. The accuracy of this statement is confirmed +by his Christian contemporaries, Tertullian and Clement +of Alexandria, who in their writings addressed to +the pagans employ the planetary names of the weekdays.⁠<a id="FNanchor_682" href="#Footnote_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span></p> + +<p>The early Christians had at first adopted the Jewish +seven-day week with its numbered weekdays,⁠<a id="FNanchor_683" href="#Footnote_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a> but by +the close of the third century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> this began to give +way to the planetary week; and in the fourth and fifth +centuries the pagan designations became generally +accepted in the western half of Christendom.⁠<a id="FNanchor_684" href="#Footnote_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a> The +use of the planetary names by Christians attests the +growing influence of astrological speculations introduced +by converts from paganism. The old beliefs +in the power of the stars over human destinies lived +on in Christian communities; the heavenly bodies, +though no longer deities, were still demons capable of +affecting the fate of man. During these same centuries +the spread of Oriental solar worships, especially that +of Mithra,⁠<a id="FNanchor_685" href="#Footnote_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a> in the Roman world, had already led to the +substitution by pagans of <i>dies Solis</i> for <i>dies Saturni</i>, +as the first day of the planetary week; and Constantine’s +famous edict, as we have seen, definitely enrolled +Sunday among the holidays of the Roman state religion.⁠<a id="FNanchor_686" href="#Footnote_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> +The change from Saturn’s Day to Sunday +must have further commended the planetary week +in Christian circles, where the Lord’s Day (<i>dies dominica</i>), +beginning the week, had long been observed as +that on which Christ, the “Sun of Righteousness,” +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>rose from the dead.⁠<a id="FNanchor_687" href="#Footnote_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> Thus gradually a pagan institution +was engrafted on Christianity.</p> + +<p>The planetary week became familiar to the barbarians +of the West before its adoption by Christianity. +Much monumental evidence exists to show that in Gaul +and Roman Germany the planetary order, beginning +with Saturn, was known from the first half of the third +century. The same cycle appears to have been introduced +into Roman Britain. In nearly all Romance +countries the planetary names are applied to the weekdays +except the first and seventh, for which the ecclesiastical +designations, <i>dies dominica</i> and <i>sabbatum</i>, are +retained.⁠<a id="FNanchor_688" href="#Footnote_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> In most Germanic languages Sunday and +Monday appear as translations of the Latin forms; +Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday represent +equations of classical and Germanic deities, based +on the most obvious points of resemblance between +them;⁠<a id="FNanchor_689" href="#Footnote_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a> while Saturday, for which no corresponding +Germanic god suggested itself, is a corrupt form of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>Saturnus.⁠<a id="FNanchor_690" href="#Footnote_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a> Among the Slavic peoples, whose week +begins with Monday, as the first day after rest, the +planetary names are unknown, the days being numbered +in conformity with the usage of the Greek +Church.⁠<a id="FNanchor_691" href="#Footnote_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> A similar custom prevails among the Lithuanians +and Esthonians, who appear to have borrowed +their week from the Slavs. Modern Greeks employ +the ecclesiastical designations of the weekdays,⁠<a id="FNanchor_692" href="#Footnote_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a> but +the Finns and Lapps, at the other extremity of Europe, +in adopting the week from the Scandinavians, took over +also the planetary names of the days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_693" href="#Footnote_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a>⁠</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br> +<span class="smaller">THE BABYLONIAN “EVIL DAYS” AND THE SHABATTUM</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>It is time to return to Babylonia. We have seen +that here the cult of seven as a symbolic number +was long anterior to the recognition of the seven planets; +and, furthermore, that the planetary week, +instead of being an early creation of Babylonian astrology, +arose during the Hellenistic Age from the union +of Greek and Oriental speculations. But for many +centuries previously a seven-day week, in which the +days were numbered, not named, had existed as a +Jewish institution in western Asia; and we have still +to determine whether this Jewish form of the week was +derived remotely from Babylonia, and according to +what conceptions the assumed Babylonian original +was itself developed.</p> + +<p>In the year 1869 the late George Smith, well known +as a pioneer student of Assyriology, discovered among +the cuneiform tablets in the British Museum “a curious +religious calendar of the Assyrians, in which every +month is divided into four weeks, and the seventh +days, or ‘Sabbaths,’ are marked out as days on which +no work should be undertaken.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_694" href="#Footnote_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> Six years afterward +Sir Henry Rawlinson published this calendar in +the fourth volume of his standard collection of cuneiform +inscriptions. It appears to be a transcript of a +much more ancient Babylonian original, possibly +belonging to the age of Hammurabi, which had been +made by order of Asshurbanipal and placed in his +royal library at Nineveh. The calendar, which is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>complete for the thirteenth or intercalary month, +called Elul II, and for Markheshwan, the eighth month +of the Babylonian year, takes up the thirty days in +succession and indicates the deity to which each day +is sacred and what sacrifices or precautionary measures +are necessary for each day. All the days are styled +“favourable,” an expression which must indicate a +pious hope, not a fact, since the words <i>ud-khul-gal</i> or +<i>ûmu limnu</i> (“the evil day”) are particularly applied +to the seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, twenty-first, +and twenty-eighth days. The second Elul, being an +intercalated month, might be thought to have enjoyed +a special significance, as intercalary months have +had elsewhere;⁠<a id="FNanchor_695" href="#Footnote_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a> but such a hypothesis will not explain +the inclusion of the month of Markheshwan in +the calendar.⁠<a id="FNanchor_696" href="#Footnote_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a> Hence it is highly probable that at one +time the other months were similarly marked, though +as yet there is no inscriptional evidence for the observance +of the five “evil days” in all the months of the +Babylonian year.⁠<a id="FNanchor_697" href="#Footnote_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>With regard to the reasons which dictated the choice +of the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth +days, two views have been entertained. It has +been held, in the first place, that the “evil days” were +selected as corresponding to the moon’s successive +changes; hence that the seventh day marks the close +of the earliest form of the seven-day week, a week +bound up with the lunar phases. According to another +opinion the setting apart of every seventh day +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>was due to the importance ascribed to seven; hence +that the seven-day cycles were not regarded as quarters +of the lunation but rather as periods containing the +symbolic number of seven days, which happened to +coincide, roughly, with a fourth part of the lunar +month. The second view would be merely an amplification +of the first, if we assume, with perhaps the +majority of Assyriologists, that the rôle of seven as a +symbolic number is ultimately connected with the +moon changing her phases at intervals of approximately +seven days.</p> + +<p>It must be admitted, however, that in the present +state of our knowledge we cannot obtain any satisfactory +explanation of the origin of a symbolic number. +As far as seven is concerned, the American evidence, +previously referred to,⁠<a id="FNanchor_698" href="#Footnote_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a> indicates that cosmical speculations +may sometimes account for its significance; while +in the Semitic area, again, one root of the cult of seven +may lie in the observation of the Pleiades and the early +use of Pleiades calendars by the agriculturist.⁠<a id="FNanchor_699" href="#Footnote_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> That +the Pleiades number seven stars has been noted even +by savage peoples, who have also observed that each +one of three other prominent constellations, Ursa +Major, Ursa Minor, and Orion, contains seven principal +stars. Such unexplained coincidences may have +served to confirm the impression of the significance of +seven in the minds of Babylonian astrologers, even +though the mystic quality of that number was based +originally on a different set of ideas. But it is unnecessary +to discuss further what popular superstitions and +priestly speculations gave rise to the symbolism of +seven in ancient Babylonia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span></p> + +<p>The month in Babylonia was a lunar month, and the +year was a lunisolar year. Unlike the Egyptians, who +passed from moon- to sun-reckonings before the dawn +of history, the Babylonians always retained the primitive +lunar calendar, harmonized with the solar year by +the crude method of intercalating an extra month at +the necessary intervals. As in all lunar calendars +the month began with the visible new moon. So important +was this for the determination of the month +that <i>arxu</i>, the Babylonian expression for “month,” +meant, properly, the beginning of the month; while +Nannar (<i>nannaru</i>), one of the names of the moon-god, +was originally applied to the new moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_700" href="#Footnote_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a> The length +of the month was reckoned at thirty days as an approximate +average of the duration of the moon’s course, a +calculation familiar enough to many half-civilized +peoples.⁠<a id="FNanchor_701" href="#Footnote_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> The ideogram for <i>arxu</i> is the number +“thirty” enclosed in the ideogram for “day”; and the +ideogram for Sin, the moon-deity, is made up of that +for “god” and of that for “thirty,” which number was +sacred to him. When in late mythological syncretism +the goddess Ishtar was represented as the daughter of +Sin, her sacred number became fifteen, and this, with +the determinative of goddess prefixed to it, was often +used to express her name.⁠<a id="FNanchor_702" href="#Footnote_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Though the calendar assigned to each month thirty +full days, the actual month must have often included +only twenty-nine days, since the reckoning employed +was purely lunar. We may assume, in the absence of +definite statements as to the way of fixing the length +of the month, that the Babylonians at first followed the +rough-and-ready method of modern Arabs: on the +twenty-ninth of the month, after the sun has gone +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>down, they look in the western sky for the faint sickle +of the moon; if this is seen, the new month begins +forthwith; if it cannot be seen, the following day is +also included in the old month, which then contains +thirty days. By the middle of the seventh century +<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and perhaps at an even earlier date, a more exact +means of calculating the length of the month had come +into use. The royal astrologers, who sent regular +reports to the king as to the appearance or non-appearance +of the moon at the expected time, appear to have +carefully observed the day of the opposition of the sun +and moon in the middle of the month; when the full-moon +day was known, it became an easy matter to +determine how many more days should be counted to +the end of the month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_703" href="#Footnote_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> It was not until the third or +second century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, when exact astronomical methods +had supplanted purely empirical study of the heavens, +that the Babylonians were able to calculate the +appearance of the true new moon. By this time, +too, the progress of astronomical knowledge allowed +them to adopt the more accurate calendarizing of +the lunation into months of twenty-nine and thirty +days, five of the former, and seven of the latter, +length.⁠<a id="FNanchor_704" href="#Footnote_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>These details concerning the Babylonian calendar, +in all but its latest form, are enough to indicate that it +presents no striking divergence from the general type +of lunar reckonings. The Babylonians, like all other +peoples of the ancient East, based their calculations +of time on the moon. It follows, therefore, that the +seven-day periods described in the Rawlinson calendar +were also reckoned from the visible new moon; indeed, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>this fact is clearly indicated by the description applied +in that calendar to the first day of the month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_705" href="#Footnote_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a> We +may reasonably assume that the last day of the month +(when the latter actually included only twenty-nine +days) or the last two days of a thirty-day month were +regarded as forming an epagomenal period, interrupting +the regular succession of seven-day cycles. Possibly +the Babylonians may have employed some such device +as that found among the negroes of west Africa, in +order that four of their lunar periods should correspond +exactly to the length of the lunation.⁠<a id="FNanchor_706" href="#Footnote_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>We may next inquire whether additional evidence +exists to indicate that the seven-day periods of the +Rawlinson calendar were definitely associated with +successive phases of the moon. It has already been +noticed that very early in the Assyro-Babylonian cultural +area there was in at least occasional use a five-day +cycle, called <i>khamushtu</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_707" href="#Footnote_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a> Whether it preceded +the hebdomadal cycle or afterwards supplanted it +(perhaps as forming a closer divisor of the lunation), +or whether the two periods may not have existed +more or less contemporaneously, are matters concerning +which the cuneiform records tell us nothing. They +do tell us, however, that a five-day period, possibly +to be identified with the <i>khamushtu</i>, was closely associated +with the successive appearances of the moon, +as in a text where the first five days of the month +are spoken of as those of the crescent moon, the next +five, as those of the half-moon (“kidney”), and the +five following days as those of the full or nearly full +moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_708" href="#Footnote_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a> A similar association with the moon’s course +is set forth in the case of a seven-day period in a text +which specifically indicates the seventh, fourteenth, +twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days as those of Sin, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span>the moon-god.⁠<a id="FNanchor_709" href="#Footnote_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a> Another text connects several days +of the month with the moon’s course in the following +order: first day, new moon; seventh day, moon as +“kidney” (half-moon); fifteenth day, full moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_710" href="#Footnote_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a> +Finally, in the fifth tablet of the Babylonian <i>Epic of +Creation</i>, a work which in its original form is traced +to the close of the third millennium <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, it is told how +the god Marduk, having created and set in order the +heavenly bodies, then placed the moon in the sky to +make known the days and divide the month with her +phases. Although this interesting production, in its +present mutilated state, mentions only the seventh +and fourteenth days, we are entitled to believe that the +original text also referred to the twenty-first and +twenty-eighth days of the month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_711" href="#Footnote_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The cuneiform evidence thus makes it reasonably +certain that the cycles of seven days’ duration found +in the Rawlinson calendar were regarded as divisions +of the lunar month. This conclusion does not require +us to hold that these cycles originated in the quartering +of the lunation. Their choice may conceivably +have been dictated in the first instance by the desire +to apply the prevailing symbolism of seven to periods +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>of time; while only later, and as a secondary development, +were they brought into connection with the phases +of the moon. In either case the seven-day periods can +be only loosely and inaccurately described as “weeks.” +Nothing in the cuneiform records indicates that the +Babylonians ever employed them for civil purposes. +These periods seem to have had solely a religious significance, +as was true also of the four divisions of the +month, similarly connected with the lunar phases, +in the sacred calendars of both Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.⁠<a id="FNanchor_712" href="#Footnote_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a> +What we have disclosed in Babylonia is, +not the week itself, but the material out of which such +an institution might be formed.</p> + +<p>Each septenary period in the calendar for Elul II +and Markheshwan closed with an unnamed “evil +day.” The symbolism of seven cannot in itself account +for the unlucky quality attaching to this seventh +day. Seven to the Babylonians bore no unlucky +character. It stood, rather, for the notion of completeness +or totality, appearing in prayers, incantations, +and exorcisms to indicate the sum total of the gods or +spirits recognized by the worshipper; sometimes marking +the length of the period during which such important +actions as the dedication of a temple or the mourning +for a death must be performed; and often, again, +assuming a mythological rôle, as in the seven gates of +the underworld, the seven names of the goddess Ishtar, +and the periods of seven days’ duration found in the +Babylonian Deluge narrative.⁠<a id="FNanchor_713" href="#Footnote_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> In these and many +other instances seven appears as a symbolic, but not +as a portentous, number. Assuming, however, that +the seven-day periods of the Rawlinson calendar were +associated with successive phases of the moon—whether +originally or secondarily does not matter—it +is clear that the seventh day, marking the critical +or transition point in each phase, would possess a +special importance. In fact, the negative or prohibitive +regulations enforced among the Babylonians on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span>the “evil days” bear a close resemblance to the taboos +which many other peoples have observed at the changes +of the moon.</p> + +<p>Recent students of Semitic magic have shown that +the Sumerians and their successors, the Babylonians +and Assyrians, were familiar with the idea of taboo; +the term <i>mamit</i>, which appears frequently in magical +texts, is exactly equivalent to <i>tabu</i>, since it refers to +that state of ritual impurity or ceremonial uncleanness +attending certain circumstances or actions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_714" href="#Footnote_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a> A great +part of the so-called <i>Shurpu</i> series⁠<a id="FNanchor_715" href="#Footnote_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a> deals with the +methods of removing the condition of <i>mamit</i> into which +a man may have wittingly or unwittingly fallen. The +murderer, the adulterer, or the thief became <i>mamit</i> +in consequence of his breach of ordinary social morality, +but equally cursed was the unlucky person who ran +up against another who was under a taboo, slept on his +bed, ate out of his plate, or drank from his cup. A +man might be contaminated by putting his foot in +some unclean water, by treading in some libation that +had been poured forth, by touching a bewitched +woman, and even by seeing one of unwashed hands. +The third tablet of the <i>Shurpu</i> series enumerates no +less than one hundred and sixty-three taboos, including +“those which come from the family, old or young, +friend or neighbour, rich or poor; oven, bellows, pots +and cups, bed or couch, chariot or weapons. To +drink out of an unclean vessel, to sit in the sun, to root +up plants in the desert, to cut reeds in a thicket, to +slay the young of beasts, to pray with unclean hands, +and a host of other common actions, might under +certain conditions bring a <i>tapu</i> on the man.” Such +tabooed acts placed the man under an interdiction; +if he fell sick, he knew that his sufferings were due to +the hostility of some supernatural power; and a professional +exorcist would be called in to drive away by +magical words, prayers, and rites the divine curse +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span>clinging to his person.⁠<a id="FNanchor_716" href="#Footnote_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a> It seems to be clear, then, +that the taboos observed on the “evil days” represented +to the Babylonians only a particular application +of an ancient and generally accepted superstition.</p> + +<p>The calendar for Elul II contains specific directions +for the observance of the five “evil days,” in each case +the same except for differences in the names of the deities.⁠<a id="FNanchor_717" href="#Footnote_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a> +The regulations for the seventh day read as +follows:</p> + +<p>“An evil day. The shepherd of great peoples shall +not eat flesh cooked upon the coals, or bread of the +oven.⁠<a id="FNanchor_718" href="#Footnote_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a> The garment of his body he shall not change, +he shall not put on clean [garments]. He shall not +bring an offering. The king shall not ride in his chariot. +He shall not speak as a ruler (?). The priest shall +not give a decision in the secret place. The physician +shall not lay his hand on a patient. To issue a malediction +it [the day] is not suitable.⁠<a id="FNanchor_719" href="#Footnote_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a> At night the king +shall bring his gift before Marduk and Ishtar, he shall +offer a sacrifice. The lifting up of his hands will then +be pleasing to god.”</p> + +<p>It is clear that the rules for the seventh day prescribe +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>a season of abstinence affecting many royal activities. +The “shepherd of great peoples” must not +eat any food which has been cooked with fire; he +must not change his clothes; and he must not offer +a sacrifice until the end of the day. The king is not +to speak in public; and he is even forbidden to travel. +The Babylonian monarch who observed all these +taboos five times a month would have been as strictly +secluded as was the Hawaiian ruler, who, likewise, +during the four monthly <i>tabu</i> periods retired to the +inner precincts of his temple.⁠<a id="FNanchor_720" href="#Footnote_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Babylonian regulations have been interpreted +as survivals from ancient times, when priest-kings +were accredited with a divine or supernatural nature, +and hence were subjected to numberless restrictions +designed to prevent any impairment of their sanctity +and magical power.⁠<a id="FNanchor_721" href="#Footnote_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> A consideration of the evidence +yielded by primitive societies suggests, however, that +the Babylonian regulations may have been connected +originally with taboos imposed on the entire community. +In Hawaii, where the lunar phases were observed as +<i>tabu</i> periods, the prohibitions affecting the king represented +only an intensification of the communal taboos, +to be explained by the extreme sanctity attached to +the Hawaiian ruler. In Assam, where the <i>genna</i> +institution enjoys a vigorous life, we find that, besides +the prohibitions communally observed at critical times, +the <i>khullakpa</i>, or priest-chief, is surrounded by many +elaborate taboos. Their purpose is “to protect the +man who acts on behalf of the whole subdivision or +village on the occasions of general <i>genna</i>, from any +accident which might impair his power.” He is subject +to various food restrictions, must content himself +with only one wife, and must even separate himself +from her on the eve of a general <i>genna</i>. In one group +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span>the headman may not eat in a strange village, nor, +whatever the provocation, may he utter a word of +abuse. The violation of any one of these taboos is +thought to bring misfortune on the entire village.⁠<a id="FNanchor_722" href="#Footnote_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> +It is not wholly speculative to suggest that, were the +natives of Assam to discard their communal taboos as +burdensome, the special regulations affecting the <i>khullakpa</i> +might survive, in deference to old tradition, and +might even be increased in severity, if that individual +should grow in authority and holiness. The situation +would then furnish a very close analogy to what +existed in ancient Babylonia. The regulations concerning +the “evil days,” it may be noted, did not pertain +to the king alone. We may reasonably assume that +“the shepherd of great peoples” and the king mentioned +further on in the calendar are one and the same; but +the record also describes certain rules imposed on the +priest and on the physician, both important functionaries +among the Babylonians. It seems also evident +that the day was regarded as unsuitable for any one to +lay a curse or ban; according to another, and possibly +more accurate, rendering, unsuitable for all business. +These considerations increase the probability that at +one time some taboos on the seventh day were observed +by the entire community.⁠<a id="FNanchor_723" href="#Footnote_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>It is questionable, however, whether in late historic +times there was any general abstention from work and +other activities on the “evil days.” The Babylonians +were a highly organized commercial and manufacturing +people who would have found such regulations burdensome +to the highest degree. Taboos once generally +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span>observed may have been gradually relaxed and at last +abandoned, just as modern Jews are now neglecting the +observance of the Sabbath. The practice might have +been kept up, however, by the king and the priests as +the special guardians of conservative institutions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_724" href="#Footnote_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The cuneiform records contain a term <i>shabattum</i>, +which has been generally accepted as the phonetic +equivalent of the Hebrew <i>shabbāthôn</i>, perhaps an intensive +form of <i>shabbāth</i> or Sabbath, referring to a +Sabbath of particular solemnity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_725" href="#Footnote_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a> <i>Shabattum</i>, a word +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span>which has been found as yet only five or six times in +Assyro-Babylonian documents, occurs in a lexicographical +tablet containing the equation <i>shabbattu(m) = +ûm nûkh libbi</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_726" href="#Footnote_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a> The accepted translation of the latter +expression is “day of rest of (or for) the heart” (<i>s.c.</i>, +“of the angered gods”). Various scholars in England +and Germany, intent on discovering Babylonian +parallels for all Hebrew institutions, have therefore +explained <i>shabattum</i> and its equivalent phrase by the +five “evil days” found in the calendar already +noticed. This identification was based on the observation +that these seemed also to be penitential days, +when by special observances the gods must be appeased +and their anger averted. The Hebrew Sabbath +would therefore represent an institution directly +derived from the Babylonian regulations for the “evil +days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_727" href="#Footnote_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Until recently, however, Assyriology has sounded +no certain note concerning the etymology and significance +of the term <i>shabattum</i>. Thus, Delitzsch holds +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span>that “the only meaning that may be justifiably assumed +is ‘ending (of work), cessation, keeping holiday from +work.’”⁠<a id="FNanchor_728" href="#Footnote_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a> As the result of linguistic analysis +Hirschfeld concludes, on the contrary, that “the idea +of resting for religious reasons after a certain spell of +working days is far too complicated to be the original +meaning of a primitive root.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_729" href="#Footnote_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a> Jastrow, again, points +out that <i>ûm nûkh libbi</i>, with which <i>shabattum</i> has been +equated, was a standing expression for the pacification +of a deity’s anger. It occurs frequently in Babylonian +religious literature, where it is more particularly used +in hymns addressed by penitentials to some god who +has shown his ill-will toward them. <i>Shabattum</i> implies, +therefore, a day of propitiation, and the idea of rest +involved refers to gods and not to men—a refraining +from or cessation of divine anger.⁠<a id="FNanchor_730" href="#Footnote_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a> Zimmern suggests +that <i>shabattum</i> may be derived from the verb +<i>shabâtu</i>, with the sense of “discontinue” or “desist,” +applied to the anger of the gods.⁠<a id="FNanchor_731" href="#Footnote_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a> Pinches, on the +contrary, believes that the word comes from the Sumerian +<i>shabat</i>, which probably had no connection with +the Semitic verb <i>shabâtu</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_732" href="#Footnote_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a> Nielsen goes still further +afield for a satisfactory explanation, and considers +<i>shabat</i> a term taken over from the Arabic <i>thabat</i>, +from a root meaning “rest,” applied to the lunar +phases.⁠<a id="FNanchor_733" href="#Footnote_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> As the outcome of extensive philological +study Hehn argues that <i>shabattum</i> meant originally +“fulness,” “completeness,” the notion of rest being +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span>later and entirely secondary.⁠<a id="FNanchor_734" href="#Footnote_734" class="fnanchor">[734]</a> Still another interpretation +makes <i>shabattum</i> equivalent to “day of lament.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_735" href="#Footnote_735" class="fnanchor">[735]</a> +Finally, in a brief, though highly suggestive study, +Professor Toy holds that the root idea in the Babylonian +expression was that of abstinence, though +<i>shabattum</i> might also have been regarded as a day of +propitiation because of the restrictions attached to it.⁠<a id="FNanchor_736" href="#Footnote_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>These conflicting interpretations scarcely made for +confidence in the results of a purely philological analysis. +Recent discoveries, however, have thrown new +light on the problem. A lexicographical tablet from +the library of the Assyrian king Asshurbanipal gives +the names attached to several days of the Babylonian +month; and among these is the designation <i>shabattum</i>, +applied to the fifteenth day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_737" href="#Footnote_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a> Still more recently a +similar use of <i>shabattum</i> has been found in a text which +contains an account of the moon’s course during the +month. Reference is here made to the first appearance +of the new moon, its ash-grey light until about +the seventh day thereafter, its opposition with the sun +on the fourteenth day, its aspects on the twenty-first, +twenty-eighth, and twenty-ninth days, and finally its +disappearance on the thirtieth day, being the time of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span>conjunction with the sun. In this description, which +for minuteness recalls the Polynesian naming of the +nights from successive aspects of the moon,⁠<a id="FNanchor_738" href="#Footnote_738" class="fnanchor">[738]</a> the fifteenth +day again appears as <i>shabattum</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_739" href="#Footnote_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>It is clear that the Babylonians recognized, with +many other peoples, the two most prominent stages +of the lunation, new moon and full moon, and described +them by particular names, <i>nannaru</i> and <i>shabattum</i>. +Evidence exists, moreover, showing that these +two days from very early times were observed as festivals, +particularly in the cities of Ur and Harran. Here +were the chief seats of the cult of Sin, the moon-god, +always one of the most important members of the +Babylonian pantheon and anciently enjoying precedence +over Shamash, the sun-god.⁠<a id="FNanchor_740" href="#Footnote_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a> Certain cuneiform +tablets, all written down during the time of the Fourth +Dynasty of Ur and dating, therefore, from the third +millennium <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, distinctly refer to sacrifices which were +made to the divine kings of Ur on the new-moon day +and on the fifteenth of the month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_741" href="#Footnote_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a> At Harran, where +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>the cult of Sin continued to flourish under the Roman +Empire and into the early Middle Ages, four sacrificial +days were observed every month, and of these +at least two were determined by the conjunction and +opposition of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_742" href="#Footnote_742" class="fnanchor">[742]</a> Outside the Babylonian +cultural area, but within the general field of Semitic +religion, there is also the interesting evidence yielded +by the inscription of Narnaka, which indicates that as +late as the time of the Ptolemies new moon and full +moon were the chief periods of sacrifice observed by +the Phœnicians.⁠<a id="FNanchor_743" href="#Footnote_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The choice of the fifteenth day as the <i>shabbatum</i> was +obviously determined by the length of the Babylonian +month, which in the earlier period was regularly taken +at thirty days’ duration. We have seen, however, +that, where lunar reckonings are employed and the +month begins at sunset with the visible new moon, +the fourteenth day more commonly coincides with +the full of the moon.⁠<a id="FNanchor_744" href="#Footnote_744" class="fnanchor">[744]</a> <i>Shabattum</i> being the technical +expression for the fifteenth day as the time of full +moon, it is only reasonable to conclude that, if not the +name, at any rate the observances belonging to this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span>day would be often transferred to the fourteenth of +the month, or to any other day on which the moon +became full. No other hypothesis will explain the +outstanding fact that <i>shabattum</i> was equated with +<i>ûm nûkh libbi</i> as a day for appeasing the anger of the +deity. And if for practical purposes the fourteenth +day might be a <i>shabattum</i>, it is not difficult to assume +that this was also the case with the days (seventh, +twenty-first, and twenty-eighth, perhaps, also, the +nineteenth), which marked other characteristic stages +of the lunation. In the developed Babylonian cult +all these were “evil days,” when the gods must be +propitiated and conciliated. In the primitive faith +of Semitic peoples they were occasions observed with +superstitious concern as times of fasting, cessation of +activity, and other forms of abstinence.⁠<a id="FNanchor_745" href="#Footnote_745" class="fnanchor">[745]</a>⁠</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br> +<span class="smaller">THE HEBREW SABBATH</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>The earliest Biblical references to the Sabbath all +indicate that the institution had long been found +among the Hebrews. It appears in the most ancient +documents of the Law, such as the two Decalogues,⁠<a id="FNanchor_746" href="#Footnote_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> +the old “Ritual Code,” and the nearly related “Book +of the Covenant.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_747" href="#Footnote_747" class="fnanchor">[747]</a> It is mentioned in the “Books +of Kings” during the time of the prophet Elisha.⁠<a id="FNanchor_748" href="#Footnote_748" class="fnanchor">[748]</a> +It is noticed in the prophecies of Amos and Hosea.⁠<a id="FNanchor_749" href="#Footnote_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a> +The antiquity of the Sabbath is further indicated +by the fact that Hebrew tradition preserved no certain +information of its origin. From the Old Testament +we cannot tell whether the Sabbath was hallowed in +remembrance of Jehovah’s rest after the Creation,⁠<a id="FNanchor_750" href="#Footnote_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a> +or whether it was instituted as a memorial of the escape +of the Hebrews from Egypt.⁠<a id="FNanchor_751" href="#Footnote_751" class="fnanchor">[751]</a> Assuming, with most +reputable critics, that the narrative in the first chapter +of Genesis, which divides the work of creation into six +days, is comparatively late, it follows that the Sabbath +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span>could not have been founded as a reminiscence of the +completion of the Creation. The author must have +been familiar with the institution of a seven-day week +ending in a Sabbath. Its chief characteristic was then +that of a day of rest, as appears from the fact that, +without mentioning the Sabbath by name, he seeks +to glorify it by placing the hallowed character of the +seventh day at the beginning of the world. The sanctity +of the seventh day is in reality antedated, and the +priestly writer wished to adjust artificially the work of +creation to it.⁠<a id="FNanchor_752" href="#Footnote_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>An old and still common theory derives the Sabbath +institution from the worship of Saturn, after +which planet the first day of the astrological week +received its designation.⁠<a id="FNanchor_753" href="#Footnote_753" class="fnanchor">[753]</a> The theory is untenable +for more than one reason. In the first place the Hebrews +did not name their weekdays after the planets, +but indicated them by ordinal numbers. In the second +place Saturn’s Day began the planetary week, while +the Jewish Sabbath was regarded as the last day of +the seven, a suitable position for a rest day. And in +the third place neither the Hebrews nor any other +Oriental people ever worshipped the planet Saturn as +god and observed his day as a festival. It is true that, +besides Venus, another planet familiar to the Hebrews +may be recognized in the Old Testament under the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span>name Kewan, the Assyrian designation of Saturn.⁠<a id="FNanchor_754" href="#Footnote_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a> +This name appears in a passage of Amos, where the +prophet has been supposed to be referring to an early +worship of Saturn by the Israelites during the period +of their sojourn in the Wilderness.⁠<a id="FNanchor_755" href="#Footnote_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> But a single Old +Testament text, both corrupt and obscure, can scarcely +be cited as proving that Saturn was ever recognized +by the Israelites as a distinct god. If it be held +that Amos had in mind the Hebrews of his own time, +the passage in question can only refer to the adoption +by them of astrological notions derived from Babylonia. +These imported superstitions eventually led +Jewish rabbis to call Saturn <i>Shabbti</i>, “the star of the +Sabbath,” which, however, is not a naming of the day +after the planet, but a naming of the planet after the +day. It was not until the first century of our era, when +the planetary week had become an established institution, +that the Jewish Sabbath seems always to have +corresponded to Saturn’s Day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_756" href="#Footnote_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The association of the Sabbath Day with Saturday +was probably one reason why Saturn, a planet in Babylonian +astrological schemes regarded as beneficent +rather than malefic, should have come to assume in +late classical times the rôle of an unlucky star (<i>sidus +tristissimum</i>, <i>stella iniquissima</i>). The oldest reference +to Saturday is found in a verse by the poet Tibullus +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>(d. 19 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), who apparently identifies Saturn’s +Day with the supposed inauspicious Jewish Sabbath, +when he gives as one of his excuses for not quitting +Rome the bad omens which detained him “on the +sacred day of Saturn.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_757" href="#Footnote_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a> Ovid mentions “foreign +Sabbaths” along with the anniversary of the day of +the battle of the Allia—<i>dies Alliensis</i>—as unlucky +occasions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_758" href="#Footnote_758" class="fnanchor">[758]</a> Frontinus, a Roman military officer and +tactician (d. about 103 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), says that Vespasian defeated +the Jews by attacking them on Saturn’s Day, +when it was unlawful for them to do anything. Dio +Cassius also speaks of the Jews having dedicated to +their god the day called the day of Saturn, “on which, +among many other most peculiar actions, they undertake +no serious occupation.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_759" href="#Footnote_759" class="fnanchor">[759]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Hebrews manifested so little originality in cultural +matters and borrowed so heavily from their +neighbours that it becomes a natural inquiry whether +the Sabbath, with the seven-day week, may not have +arisen outside of Israel. Writing in the seventeenth +century the learned John Spencer argued that Egypt +was the original home of the institution, since in various +Old Testament passages the Sabbath is declared to +have been established to commemorate the exodus from +Egypt.⁠<a id="FNanchor_760" href="#Footnote_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a> But the Egyptians, as we have seen, divided +their months into decades, and no evidence exists +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>that they ever employed for civil purposes any shorter +division of the month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_761" href="#Footnote_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a> A second hypothesis, which +makes the week and the Sabbath a direct importation +from Babylonia, is likewise without warrant in the +light of existing information.⁠<a id="FNanchor_762" href="#Footnote_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> The same may be said +of the theory that the Sabbath was first taken over +from Babylonia by the agricultural inhabitants of Canaan, +from whom, in turn, the Israelites borrowed an +institution which would have no meaning to a nomadic +people.⁠<a id="FNanchor_763" href="#Footnote_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a> But the opinion, so frequently expressed, +that the Sabbath cannot be very primitive, since it +“presupposes agriculture and a tolerably hard-pressed +working-day life,”⁠<a id="FNanchor_764" href="#Footnote_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a> betrays an imperfect acquaintance +with popular superstition. The brief prohibitions +of work found in the Pentateuch cannot be separated, +by any subtleties of exegesis, from the numerous other +taboos with which the institution was invested. The +rest on the Sabbath is only one of the forms of abstinence +in connection with lunar changes; and, if the +Sabbath began as a festival at new moon and full moon, +it may well have been observed by the Israelites before +their contact with Canaanitish culture. The ancient +dwellers in the Arabian wilderness, who celebrated new +moon and full moon as seasons of abstinence and rest, +little dreamed that in their senseless custom lay the +roots of a social institution, which, on the whole, has +contributed to human welfare in past ages and promises +an even greater measure of benefit to humanity in +all future times.</p> + +<p>To a shepherd people in tropical or semi-tropical +lands the moon appears as a gentle guardian, bringing +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span>restful coolness after the day with its withering heat, +and dispelling with her kindly beams the thick darkness +which may cloak a lurking foe. “This,” writes +an intrepid traveller, “is the planet of way for the way-faring +Semitic race. The moon is indeed a watch-light +of the night in the nomad wilderness; they are +glad in her shining upon the great upland, they may +sleep then in some assurance from their enemies.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_765" href="#Footnote_765" class="fnanchor">[765]</a> +To the Israelites, as to the ancient Egyptians, the +moon was preëminently the “wanderer,” by whose +movements the earliest calendars were framed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_766" href="#Footnote_766" class="fnanchor">[766]</a> One +of the Hebrew names for “month” is <i>yérah</i>, from +<i>yārēaḥ</i>, “moon”; it is called, also <i>ḥodesh</i>, which means +new moon. One of the most magnificent of the +<i>Psalms</i> declares that Jehovah “appointed the moon +for the seasons”;⁠<a id="FNanchor_767" href="#Footnote_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> all the Jewish festivals were determined +by the moon. At the same time there is no +Biblical testimony to indicate that the Israelites ever +conceived of the moon as a divinity and addressed to +that luminary specific acts of worship. It was only +toward the end of the Hebrew monarchy, when the +Chosen People were giving themselves over to astrology, +divination, and the worship of the heavenly bodies, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span>that clear evidence of a moon-cult appears in the Old +Testament, where it encounters the denunciation of the +prophets, the prohibitions of the Law, and the repressive +measures of a reforming king.⁠<a id="FNanchor_768" href="#Footnote_768" class="fnanchor">[768]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The evidence is quite conclusive that of the lunar +phases it was especially the new moon and the full +moon which first aroused the attention of the Semitic +nomads and evoked feelings of delight and veneration. +Even to-day “the first appearing of the virgin moon is +always greeted with a religious emotion in the deserts +of Arabia.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_769" href="#Footnote_769" class="fnanchor">[769]</a> When the Bedouin and Fellahin of +modern Palestine first see the lunar crescent they +exclaim, “God’s new moon has appeared in his exaltedness. +May it be for us a blessed new moon.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_770" href="#Footnote_770" class="fnanchor">[770]</a> Modern +Jewish ritual prescribes a special service for the +new-moon day, including the recital of psalms of joy. +So familiar an expression as Hallelujah, “praise Jehovah” +(Jahweh), is a verbal form of the onomatopoetic +stem <i>hilâl</i>, meaning “new moon,” “crescent,” with the +addition of the divine name.⁠<a id="FNanchor_771" href="#Footnote_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a> The Hebrew month, +as among other peoples who count by lunations, began +when the silvery crescent was first discerned in the +evening twilight. In later Judaism, as soon as the +moon’s appearance was proved by credible witnesses +before the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem, the feast of the new +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span>moon was held, and messengers were sent abroad to +announce the opening of the new month. The celebration +of the festival would seem, at least occasionally, +to have lasted two days, an arrangement obviously +dictated by the inability to determine beforehand on +which of two successive days the moon might be expected +to appear.⁠<a id="FNanchor_772" href="#Footnote_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The new-moon festival was considered an exceptional +solemnity as early as the time of Saul. The twentieth +chapter of the <i>First Book of Samuel</i> records a conversation +between David and Jonathan in which the former +says, “Behold, to-morrow is the new moon, and I +should not fail to sit at meat with the king.” It +appears from this chapter that the first two days of +the month were marked by feasts at which all members +of the household were expected to be present, unless +prevented by some ceremonial uncleanness.⁠<a id="FNanchor_773" href="#Footnote_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a> The +occasion was also observed by compulsory abstinence +from all servile work.⁠<a id="FNanchor_774" href="#Footnote_774" class="fnanchor">[774]</a> In the time of Elisha the new +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>moon seems to have been one of the favourite occasions +for consulting the prophets, a circumstance which +could be explained if the day were marked by a cessation +of the usual occupations.⁠<a id="FNanchor_775" href="#Footnote_775" class="fnanchor">[775]</a> There are other reasons, +presently to be given, for believing that until the +Exile, or later, the new moon was a general rest day; +and such it still remains for Jewish women, whose conservative +instincts have thus preserved a memorial +of its ancient observance.⁠<a id="FNanchor_776" href="#Footnote_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Full moon, as well as new moon, enjoyed a religious +significance to the early Hebrews. Two great agricultural +festivals, one marking the commencement of +the barley harvest, the other, the close of the fruit +harvest, must have been celebrated at about the +time of full moon, for, when the sacred calendar was +framed in post-Exilic times, they were definitely fixed +at the middle of the month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_777" href="#Footnote_777" class="fnanchor">[777]</a> The Passover, observed +on the fourteenth day of the first month (Nisan), +was followed on the fifteenth day by the Feast of Unleavened +Bread, occupying seven days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_778" href="#Footnote_778" class="fnanchor">[778]</a> The Feast +of Tabernacles began on the fifteenth of the seventh +month (Tishri) and likewise continued for seven days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_779" href="#Footnote_779" class="fnanchor">[779]</a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span>The religious importance of these two festivals is +indicated by the injunction to keep the first and last +days of the Feast of Unleavened Bread as times of +“holy convocation,” when no “servile work” might be +done,⁠<a id="FNanchor_780" href="#Footnote_780" class="fnanchor">[780]</a> and by the significant expression <i>shabbāthôn</i> +(“solemn rest”), which is used in reference to the beginning +and end of the Feast of Tabernacles, that is, to +the fifteenth and twenty-second of the month Tishri.⁠<a id="FNanchor_781" href="#Footnote_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a> +Furthermore, the Pentateuchal codes contain a passage, +the meaning of which was in dispute several +centuries before the Christian era, where the word +“Sabbath” appears to be used in a sense precisely +the same as that of the Babylonian <i>shabattum</i>, referring +to the fifteenth day of the month. In the twenty-third +chapter of <i>Leviticus</i> it is prescribed that on “the +morrow after the Sabbath” the sheaf of the first-fruits +of the harvest is to be brought to the priest, who shall +wave it before Jehovah, and that, counting from “the +morrow after the Sabbath,” fifty days are to elapse +before the commencement of the Feast of Weeks.⁠<a id="FNanchor_782" href="#Footnote_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a> +As Professor Jastrow has clearly shown, the word +“Sabbath” is here used, not in its later sense of a +seventh day of rest, but as a survival of the old designation +of the Sabbath as the full-moon day. “The +two references in <i>Leviticus</i> stand out as solitary sign-posts +of an abandoned road.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_783" href="#Footnote_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In some of the older parts of the Bible, and especially +in the earlier prophetical compositions, the new +moon and the Sabbath are repeatedly mentioned together. +In the pathetic narrative which describes +how the Shunammite woman went to seek Elisha that +the prophet might restore her son to life, her husband +asks, “‘Wherefore wilt thou go to him to-day? It is +neither new moon nor Sabbath.’”⁠<a id="FNanchor_784" href="#Footnote_784" class="fnanchor">[784]</a> The prophet +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>Hosea, promising that the people’s unfaithfulness +shall be punished, cries out wrathfully, “I will also +cause all her mirth to cease, her feasts, her new moons, +and her Sabbaths, and all her solemn assemblies.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_785" href="#Footnote_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a> +Amos rebukes the oppressors of his people “that +would swallow up the needy, and cause the poor of +the land to fail, saying ‘When will the new moon be +gone, that we may sell grain? and the Sabbath, that +we may set forth wheat, making the ephah small and +the shekel great?’”⁠<a id="FNanchor_786" href="#Footnote_786" class="fnanchor">[786]</a> Isaiah condemns the formalism +of the ancient faith in striking words: “Bring no more +vain oblations; incense is an abomination unto me; +new moon and Sabbath, the calling of assemblies—I +cannot bear iniquity with the solemn meeting.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_787" href="#Footnote_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> +Elsewhere, in the same work appears the prophecy: +“And it shall come to pass, that from one new moon to +another, and from one Sabbath to another, shall all +flesh come to worship before me, saith Jehovah.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_788" href="#Footnote_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>This remarkable association of the Sabbath with the +day of new moon had been previously noticed by such +acute critics as Wellhausen and Robertson Smith, who +were unable to offer a satisfactory solution of the problem +thus presented.⁠<a id="FNanchor_789" href="#Footnote_789" class="fnanchor">[789]</a> When, however, the cuneiform +records disclosed the fact that the Babylonian <i>shabattum</i> +fell on the fifteenth (or fourteenth) day of the month +and referred to the day of the full moon, it became +clear that in these Biblical passages we have another +survival of what must have been the primary meaning of +the Hebrew term <i>shabbāth</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_790" href="#Footnote_790" class="fnanchor">[790]</a> As late, then, as the eighth +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span>century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, popular phraseology retained a lingering +trace of the original collocation of the new-moon and +full-moon days as festival occasions characterized +by abstinence from secular activities. How long-lived +were the old ideas is further illustrated by the +provision in Ezekiel’s reforming legislation that the +inner eastern gate of the new Temple at Jerusalem +should be shut during the six working days, but should +be opened on the Sabbath and on the new-moon day +for the religious assemblage of the people.⁠<a id="FNanchor_791" href="#Footnote_791" class="fnanchor">[791]</a> That the +term <i>shabbāth</i>, the designation of the full-moon day, +should have come to be applied to every seventh day +of the month seems to be quite in accord with both +Babylonian and Hebrew usage, which, as we have +seen, led the month itself to be called after the new-moon +day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_792" href="#Footnote_792" class="fnanchor">[792]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Hebrew seven-day week, ending with the Sabbath, +presented so obvious a resemblance to the Babylonian +septenary period, which closed with an “evil +day,” that scholars have felt themselves compelled +to seek its origin in Babylonia. The two institutions, +nevertheless, show important differences. The Babylonian +cycle, as far as we know, was never employed +as a chronological unit; the Hebrew week was a true +civil week, a definite and well-understood period of +time. The Babylonian cycle seems not to have been +dissociated from the lunation;⁠<a id="FNanchor_793" href="#Footnote_793" class="fnanchor">[793]</a> the Hebrew week was +a periodic week, running unfettered from month to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span>month and from year to year. The Babylonian “evil +day” was an unnamed unlucky day, observed by the +king, by priests, and by physicians, but not certainly +by the people at large; the Hebrew Sabbath was a +named holy day, dedicated to the worship of the national +god and kept by the entire community as a +festival. These real divergencies make it certain that +the Hebrew week and Sabbath, in the form in which +we know them, could not have been taken over without +change from Babylonia. The celebration of new-moon +and full-moon festivals, which both Babylonians +and Hebrews appear to have derived from a common +Semitic antiquity, underwent, in fact, a radically unlike +evolution among the two kindred peoples. To +dissever the week from the lunar month, to employ +it as a recognized calendrical unit, and to fix upon one +day of that week for the exercises of religion were +momentous innovations, which, until evidence to the +contrary is found, must be attributed to the Hebrew +people alone.</p> + +<p>In his able treatise Meinhold has argued that until +the age of Ezekiel the Hebrews employed no weeks at +all. He then supposes that continuous seven-day +weeks were introduced, largely through Ezekiel’s +reforming influence, and hence that the Sabbath as the +last day of the periodic week was a post-Exilic institution.⁠<a id="FNanchor_794" href="#Footnote_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a> +Critics have pointed out that it is highly +improbable that so far-reaching a change should have +occurred without being recorded; moreover, that the +acceptance of such a hypothesis makes it necessary +to assume that all places in the Old Testament where +the Sabbath is mentioned as the seventh day are either +of Ezekiel’s time or later. But the problem is simplified +if we hold that the Hebrews employed lunar +seven-day weeks, perhaps for several centuries preceding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span>the Exile; weeks, that is, which ended with special +observances on the seventh day but none the less were +tied to the moon’s course. The change from such +cycles to those unconnected with the lunation would +not have involved so abrupt and sudden a departure +from the previous system of time reckoning as that +from a bipartite division of the lunar month to a week +which ran continuously through the months and the +years.⁠<a id="FNanchor_795" href="#Footnote_795" class="fnanchor">[795]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The establishment of a periodic week ending in a +Sabbath observed every seventh day was doubtless +responsible for the gradual obsolescence of the new-moon +festival as a period of general abstinence, since +with continuous weeks the new-moon day and the Sabbath +Day would from time to time coincide. This +seems to be a more natural explanation than that which +regards the complete ignoring of the new-moon festival +in the “Book of the Covenant” and in the Deuteronomic +legislation as a deliberate act, designed to wean +the people away from an observance to which heathenish +superstitions were attached. The day of new +moon never lost, indeed, its significance in Jewish +ritual, for, when all the great festivals were definitely +fixed to certain days, the new moon, as marking the +beginning of the month, continued to hold a leading +place in the sacred calendar. The Priestly Code prescribed +special offerings for the new-moon day, and in +Ezekiel’s legislation the sacrifices marking it exceeded +in importance those for the Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_796" href="#Footnote_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a> The ancient +character of this festival as a season of compulsory +abstinence from labour survived in its observance as a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span>rest day by Jewish women, perhaps also in the provision +of the law of <i>Leviticus</i> that the first day of the seventh +month, beginning the new year, should be a “solemn +rest,” “a memorial of blowing of trumpets, a holy +convocation.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_797" href="#Footnote_797" class="fnanchor">[797]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Sabbath is described in the Pentateuchal codes +as an agricultural institution. It appears there as +a day of rest from farm labour, to be observed not +only by the householder and his family, but also by the +slaves, the cattle, and the stranger within the gates. +In what is generally considered the earlier form of the +Decalogue the keeping of the Sabbath is prescribed, +“that thy man-servant and thy maid-servant may rest +as well as thou”; or, as expressed in another passage, +“that thine ox and thine ass may have rest, and the son +of thine handmaid, and the sojourner may be refreshed.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_798" href="#Footnote_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a> +From this commandment one might draw +the conclusion that in pre-Exilic times the Sabbath +enjoyed a purely humanitarian character as a season +of repose for man and beast. The omission of any +similar statement in the later form of the Decalogue, +where the prohibition of Sabbath labour is based +solely upon Jehovah’s rest on the seventh day,⁠<a id="FNanchor_799" href="#Footnote_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> would +then be explained as the outcome of the priestly desire +to exalt the Sabbath as a religious festival at the expense +of its more humane and social aspects. The +further requirement that even in the busiest seasons +of the year no plea of necessity might be accepted in +mitigation of the strict rule of Sabbath observance—“in +ploughing time and in harvest thou shalt rest”⁠<a id="FNanchor_800" href="#Footnote_800" class="fnanchor">[800]</a>⁠—also +would be taken as evidence of the growing rigour +of ecclesiastical ordinances.</p> + +<p>Properly considered, however, this priestly attitude +toward the Sabbath was not a radical departure but +rather an intensification of the austere significance +attached from the earliest times to the new-moon and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>full-moon days. The Pentateuchal codes contain, in +fact, a number of Sabbatarian regulations which are +meaningless, except when elucidated from the comparative +standpoint as taboos. The rule requiring +every one to remain indoors on the Sabbath: “Abide +ye every man in his place, let no man go out of his +place on the seventh day,”⁠<a id="FNanchor_801" href="#Footnote_801" class="fnanchor">[801]</a> is identical with the numerous +rules which impose seclusion on tabooed or unlucky +occasions, as a means of avoiding physical contact +with supernatural and invisible powers of evil.</p> + +<p>The prohibition: “Ye shall kindle no fire throughout +your habitations upon the Sabbath Day,”⁠<a id="FNanchor_802" href="#Footnote_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a> which in +another passage⁠<a id="FNanchor_803" href="#Footnote_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a> is amplified into the rule requiring +all cooking to be done on the preceding day, may be +first compared with the taboos observed by “the shepherd +of great peoples” in Babylonia. On four “evil +days” he was not to eat roasted meat or baked bread, +and on the nineteenth day he might eat nothing which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span>had been touched by fire.⁠<a id="FNanchor_804" href="#Footnote_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a> In a remarkable calendar +of the unlucky days observed by the Egyptians we +find an extensive series of regulations regarding the +use of fire. On the fifth of the month of Athyr, fire +might not be looked at and, if it went out, it might not +be rekindled. On the eleventh of Tybi no one might +approach a fire-place, for, said the scribe, on that day +the god Ra had once burst into flame to devour his +enemies, and the effects of his metamorphosis were +felt on every anniversary of the day. These taboos, +which reach back into a remote period of Egyptian +history, are still found among the peasants of Thebes +and the Saîd, who, on certain days of the year, refuse +to kindle a fire, and on others avoid approaching the +flame, even of a candle or a lamp, and the most timid +do not smoke.⁠<a id="FNanchor_805" href="#Footnote_805" class="fnanchor">[805]</a> In Hawaii, as we have seen, during +the four <i>tabu</i> seasons in each lunar month, “every fire +and light was extinguished.” The same regulation is +attached to periods of abstinence elsewhere in the +aboriginal world.⁠<a id="FNanchor_806" href="#Footnote_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Some of these taboos relating to fire may reflect +primitive man’s fear of a mysterious element which +had not yet been completely tamed and harnessed to +human use; but the fact that among various peoples +all fires are put out after a death indicates a more probable +origin of the prohibition in the fear of attracting +evil spirits or influences. In Morocco, when a person +has died in the morning, “no fire is made in the whole +village until he is buried, and in some parts of the +country the inmates of a house or tent where a death +has occurred, abstain from making fire for two or three +days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_807" href="#Footnote_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a> Similar customs are found in Polynesia, +Borneo, the East Indies, Burma, and various parts of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span>Africa; they were practised by Persians and Greeks +in antiquity; and they still survive among the peasants +of Calabria and the Scottish Highlanders.⁠<a id="FNanchor_808" href="#Footnote_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> It is hardly +possible to urge that the putting-out of fires on such +occasions is always a necessary result of the widespread +custom of fasting after a death and until the corpse is +buried; as a matter of fact we find that fires may be +extinguished when there is no fasting, and also that the +fast is often restricted to the daytime, when evil spirits, +and in particular the ghost of the dead man, are presumed +to be unable to see.</p> + +<p>But, as Professor Westermarck has so ably shown, +the widespread custom of fasting is itself often to be +explained as due to the desire to prevent pollution.⁠<a id="FNanchor_809" href="#Footnote_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> +Under certain circumstances to partake of food may +cause defilement; hence fasting is only one of the numerous +precautions necessary to avoid contamination. +These ideas find expression in the rules which, like +those prescribing the cessation of labour after a death, +require mourners to abstain from eating food infected +with the death pollution. Fasting may also be enjoined +on other critical occasions, such as an eclipse +of the sun or the moon, or during a thunderstorm; and +we have seen that it characterizes some of the tabooed +days previously considered.⁠<a id="FNanchor_810" href="#Footnote_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a> Such well-established +facts suggest that in the earliest period fasting may have +also marked the Hebrew Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_811" href="#Footnote_811" class="fnanchor">[811]</a> This hypothesis +seems first to have been advanced by the “judicious” +Hooker, who observes that “it may be a question, +whether in some sort they [the Jews] did not always +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span>fast on the Sabbath.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_812" href="#Footnote_812" class="fnanchor">[812]</a> He instances a statement +of Josephus that the sixth hour or noon was the time +when “our laws require us to go to dinner on Sabbath-days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_813" href="#Footnote_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a> +Various pagan writers also refer to the Sabbath +as a day of fasting.⁠<a id="FNanchor_814" href="#Footnote_814" class="fnanchor">[814]</a> Such a notion may have +arisen from a misunderstanding of the Biblical rule +forbidding cooking on the Sabbath, or, perhaps, from +a confusion of this festival with the great fast on the +Day of Atonement, which was a <i>shabbāth shabbāthôn</i>, +a “Sabbath of solemn rest.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_815" href="#Footnote_815" class="fnanchor">[815]</a> Yet it seems difficult +to understand the rule forbidding fasting at new moon +and on the seventh day,⁠<a id="FNanchor_816" href="#Footnote_816" class="fnanchor">[816]</a> except as a reference to a +custom formerly observed but in later times regarded +as an illegitimate rite. Since the Sabbath fell, originally, +at the middle of the month, it may be that the +new-moon and full-moon days were once marked by +both cessation of labour and abstinence from food. +The foregoing pages have supplied too many instances +of the transformation of fasts into feasts for such an +explanation to be dismissed as an idle conjecture.⁠<a id="FNanchor_817" href="#Footnote_817" class="fnanchor">[817]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>When the notion of a weekly Sabbath was extended, +after the Captivity, to the Sabbatical Year, the seventh +year was to be a “Sabbath of solemn rest” (<i>shabbāth +shabbāthôn</i>) for the land, not because of the advantage +of allowing soil to lie fallow at regular intervals, +but because the land itself was consecrated as “a +Sabbath unto Jehovah.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_818" href="#Footnote_818" class="fnanchor">[818]</a> The regulation does not +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span>imply that, as a consequence of a fallow year, the +land will produce better harvests on the succeeding +year. It is expressly said that the year before the +Sabbatical Year is the one to be conspicuous for its fruitfulness: +“Then I will command my blessing upon +you in the sixth year, and it shall bring forth fruit for +the three years.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_819" href="#Footnote_819" class="fnanchor">[819]</a> The rule requiring that the produce +of the soil should be devoted to the poor and to the +cattle⁠<a id="FNanchor_820" href="#Footnote_820" class="fnanchor">[820]</a> perhaps indicates a partial triumph of the utilitarian +spirit. During the Jubilee, at the end of seven +times seven years, “Ye shall not sow, neither reap that +which groweth of itself in it, nor gather the grapes in it +of the undressed vines,”⁠<a id="FNanchor_821" href="#Footnote_821" class="fnanchor">[821]</a> a regulation which can be explained +only as the outcome of the sabbatarian observances +attached to the seventh day and the seventh year.</p> + +<p>In the Hawaiian Islands and west Africa any one +who broke a sabbatarian taboo suffered death. Among +the early Israelites the Sabbath-breaker was threatened +with a similar penalty: “Every one that profaneth it +shall surely be put to death; for whosoever doeth any +work therein, that soul shall be cut off from among his +people.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_822" href="#Footnote_822" class="fnanchor">[822]</a> We are not informed how frequently this +stern ordinance was enforced; the case of the wood-gatherer +on the Sabbath, who, by direction of Moses, +acting on a direct revelation from Jehovah, was stoned +to death outside the camp, is the only instance of capital +punishment for Sabbath desecration which has found +its way into the Scriptures as we now have them.⁠<a id="FNanchor_823" href="#Footnote_823" class="fnanchor">[823]</a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>The instance is an instructive one, as revealing the +strong sense of group-welfare and hatred of the non-conformist, +characteristic of a religion which had +not yet outrun clan and tribal limitations.</p> + +<p>The Old Testament affords evidence that the Hebrews +kept the Sabbath with varying degrees of rigour +in different places and at different times. Under the +later prophets a movement appears to have begun +toward a stricter observance of the day, as is seen in +the effort of Jeremiah to prevent burden-bearing on +the Sabbath, and in Ezekiel’s constant insistence on +the profanation of the Sabbath in his catalogue of the +sins of the Israelites.⁠<a id="FNanchor_824" href="#Footnote_824" class="fnanchor">[824]</a> But more than a century after +these prophets, in the age of Nehemiah, the people of +Judea made wine and gathered the harvest on the +Sabbath. All manner of burdens were brought into +Jerusalem on that day, and the inhabitants bought +and sold with the men of Tyre.⁠<a id="FNanchor_825" href="#Footnote_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a> These practices +indicate that the Sabbath bade fair to become a social +institution, divorced from supernatural sanctions.</p> + +<p>It is doubtless true that the Exile tended to augment +the religious importance of the Sabbath, since +even in heathen lands it could be observed by a people +who now had neither state nor temple. In the Exilic +literature great significance is ascribed to the Sabbath,⁠<a id="FNanchor_826" href="#Footnote_826" class="fnanchor">[826]</a> +and in post-Exilic law it is regarded as a sign between +Jehovah and the children of Israel that Jehovah is +their God. It is impossible, however, to follow those +critics who assume that the rigour of the sabbatarian observances +after the Exile forms an entirely new development, +and that the priestly Sabbath represents something +very different from the Sabbath of the “Book of +the Covenant” or of <i>Deuteronomy</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_827" href="#Footnote_827" class="fnanchor">[827]</a> The increased +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span>significance of the institution led naturally to a revival +of the old taboos with which the day had been always +invested, taboos which otherwise might have been +expected to disappear with advancing culture and the +decay of supernaturalism. Closer contact with Assyria +and Babylonia, from the eighth to the sixth century +<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, also may have helped to revitalize the older superstitions +and to give to the Sabbath once more an austere +character.⁠<a id="FNanchor_828" href="#Footnote_828" class="fnanchor">[828]</a> The day, in fact, seems never wholly +to have lost all traces of its severe and sombre origin +in a period of taboo; it is significant in this connection +that, while the Hebrews had their favourable +and unfavourable days, as the expression <i>yôm tôb</i> +(“good day”) for holy days shows, the Sabbath is +never so described.⁠<a id="FNanchor_829" href="#Footnote_829" class="fnanchor">[829]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The later history of the Sabbath as a <i>tabu</i> day +culminates in the exaggerations of pharisaic Judaism +and the extraordinary micrology of the rabbinical +enactments.⁠<a id="FNanchor_830" href="#Footnote_830" class="fnanchor">[830]</a> The <i>Mishna</i> enumerates no less than +thirty-nine principal classes of prohibited actions. +Some of these are regarded as belonging to as ancient +a period as any of the taboos found in the Old Testament; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span>the majority, however, represent only an elaboration +of the scriptural precepts. Two entire works +are devoted to the provisions for Sabbath observance. +The first treatise, called <i>Shabbāth</i>, is chiefly remarkable +as an illustration of the subtle refinements and +distinctions of which the rabbis were capable. Thus, +the prohibitions to tie or untie a knot being regarded +as too general, it was necessary to define the species +of knot referred to. A camel-driver’s knot and a boat-man’s +knot rendered the man who tied or untied them +a Sabbath-breaker; but Rabbi Meir said, “A knot +which a man can untie with one hand only, he does +not become guilty by untying.” Rabbi Jehudah, +still more liberal of mind, laid down the rule that any +knot which was not intended to be permanent might +be lawfully tied. The second treatise, <i>Ērūbim</i>, was +intended to alleviate the extreme rigour of some of the +enactments in the former work. Thus, the limits of +a “Sabbath Day’s journey” having been fixed at two +thousand cubits, the rabbis conceded that one who +before the Sabbath had deposited food for two meals +at the boundary thereby removed his habitation from +the town and made that place his new domicile. When +the Sabbath came, he was at liberty to proceed two +thousand cubits beyond it, though he lost the right +to walk the same distance in the opposite direction. +As is well known, literal obedience of the Sabbath +regulations was sometimes carried to such an extreme +as to prove a source of great hardship, danger, and +even death to its devotees.⁠<a id="FNanchor_831" href="#Footnote_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>These legal fictions, these casuistical elaborations +of the simple ordinances of the Pentateuch concerning +the Sabbath, may be paralleled by the growth of pontifical +regulations at Rome relating to what might and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span>what might not be done on public ferial days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_832" href="#Footnote_832" class="fnanchor">[832]</a> Like +the Roman <i>feriæ</i>, also, the Hebrew Sabbath affords +an instance of what seems to be a very general, perhaps +universal, tendency of the human mind to dwell with +special emphasis on the festive aspects of a holy season, +and by some subtle alchemy of the spirit to convert +what was once a day of gloom and anxiety into +a day of gladness and good cheer. The post-Exilic +prophet, the so-called second Isaiah, when he urges +his people to “call the Sabbath a delight”⁠<a id="FNanchor_833" href="#Footnote_833" class="fnanchor">[833]</a> presents +it, indeed, as a festival “holy to Jehovah,” but capable, +nevertheless, of contributing to man’s physical and +mental refreshment. And in later Judaism the strict +observance of the Sabbath rest did not by any means +preclude abstinence from bodily pleasures. Fasting, +as we have seen, was forbidden on that day; three +substantial meals were to be “enjoyed,” so Jewish +theologians declared; and the New Testament itself +contains evidence that Pharisees of the strictest type +gave sumptuous entertainments on the Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_834" href="#Footnote_834" class="fnanchor">[834]</a> +In fact, various Christian Fathers were persuaded that +the Jews observed the Sabbath as a day of violent +excess, and converts to Christianity were cautioned +against applying to the Lord’s Day the <i>luxus sabbatarius</i>. +“The Jews in our time,” says St. Augustine, +“observe their Sabbath by a kind of bodily rest, +languid and luxurious. They abstain from labour +and give themselves up to trifles, and, though God +ordained the Sabbath, they spend it in actions which +God forbids. Our rest is from evil works, their rest +is from good works; for it is better to plough than +to dance.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_835" href="#Footnote_835" class="fnanchor">[835]</a> We may believe that such criticisms +had slight justification in the real nature of the Jewish +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span>observance, little more, perhaps, than Plutarch’s quaint +notion that the Sabbath must bear some relation to +Dionysus, for, said Plutarch, when the Jews keep the +Sabbath, they invite one another to potations till all +are drunk.⁠<a id="FNanchor_836" href="#Footnote_836" class="fnanchor">[836]</a> It is more satisfying to turn to hundreds +of Jewish hymns where the Sabbath is hailed “as a +day of rest and joy, of pleasure and delight, a day in +which man enjoys some presentiment of the pure bliss +and happiness which are stored up for the righteous +in the world to come, and to which such tender names +were applied as the ‘Queen Sabbath,’ the ‘Bride Sabbath,’ +and the ‘Holy, dear, beloved Sabbath.’”⁠<a id="FNanchor_837" href="#Footnote_837" class="fnanchor">[837]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Jewish Sabbath appears to have been first +brought to the attention of the Romans as early as +the last century of the republic, when Pompey’s sweeping +campaigns in the East led to the establishment of +Roman dominion over Syria and Judea. References +to the institution in Tibullus, Horace, and Ovid indicate +that its peculiar character as a day of rest was then +generally understood.⁠<a id="FNanchor_838" href="#Footnote_838" class="fnanchor">[838]</a> Their contemporary, Philo, +the Hellenistic Jew of Alexandria, declared that the +seventh day was the festival, not of one city or one +country, but of all the earth, “the birthday of the +world,”⁠<a id="FNanchor_839" href="#Footnote_839" class="fnanchor">[839]</a> and Josephus could write that there was no +city among the Greeks or the barbarians where the +festival of the Sabbath was not celebrated.⁠<a id="FNanchor_840" href="#Footnote_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> These +statements, though exaggerated, bear witness to the +success of that Jewish propaganda which, at the very +time when the preaching of Christianity began, carried +this other Oriental faith throughout the ancient world. +The great commercial cities of the Mediterranean +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>became seats of thriving Jewish communities where +pagan proselytes adopted Jewish customs, including +the observance of the Sabbath.⁠<a id="FNanchor_841" href="#Footnote_841" class="fnanchor">[841]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Jewish seven-day week with its numerical indications +of the days was adopted by the early Christians, +to whom the planetary week, bearing the names +of pagan deities, could scarcely prove attractive.⁠<a id="FNanchor_842" href="#Footnote_842" class="fnanchor">[842]</a> +Friday and Saturday continued to have the designations +παρασκευή and σάββατον, respectively, but Sunday, +which by Jewish custom was called “the first +day” after the Sabbath, eventually received the designation +ἡ κυριακὴ ἡμέρα (<i>dies dominica</i>), the Lord’s +Day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_843" href="#Footnote_843" class="fnanchor">[843]</a> The New Testament contains unambiguous +evidence that from a very early period “the first day +of the week” was observed by Christians as a day of +assembly for the “breaking of bread” and perhaps for +the collection of free-will offerings.⁠<a id="FNanchor_844" href="#Footnote_844" class="fnanchor">[844]</a> The author of +the <i>Epistle of Barnabas</i>, toward the end of the first +century, speaks of keeping the “eighth day” for rejoicing, +and justifies its observance as a celebration of the +resurrection of Christ.⁠<a id="FNanchor_845" href="#Footnote_845" class="fnanchor">[845]</a> The <i>Didache</i>, or <i>Teaching of +the Twelve Apostles</i>, a work which belongs to the early +part of the second century, enjoins meetings “on the +Lord’s own day” (κατὰ κυριακὴν δὲ Κυρίου), for the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>breaking of bread and giving thanks.⁠<a id="FNanchor_846" href="#Footnote_846" class="fnanchor">[846]</a> Eusebius of Cæsarea, +in his <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, preserves a fragment +of a letter of Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth (175 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), +to Soter, Bishop of Rome, in which the former says, +“To-day we passed the Lord’s holy day, when we read +your epistle”; and the same historian also mentions +the fact that Melito, Bishop of Sardis (170 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), had +written among other works a treatise on the Lord’s +Day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_847" href="#Footnote_847" class="fnanchor">[847]</a> Justin Martyr, writing about the middle of +the second century, describes how, “on the day called +Sunday” (τῇ τοῦ Ἡλίου λεγομένη ἡμέρα), all town +and country Christians were wont to assemble for +instruction in the holy writings, and for prayer, the +distribution of bread and wine, and the collection of +alms. The name Sunday commemorates, according +to Justin, the first day of creation and the resurrection +of Christ from the darkness of the grave.⁠<a id="FNanchor_848" href="#Footnote_848" class="fnanchor">[848]</a> Justin’s +use of this nomenclature, in a work addressed to the +pagans, witnesses to the spread of Oriental solar worship +throughout the Roman Empire, leading to the +substitution of the day of Sun for Saturn’s Day, as +the beginning of the planetary week. As we have +learned, the Christians themselves adopted eventually +the pagan designation of the first day of the week.⁠<a id="FNanchor_849" href="#Footnote_849" class="fnanchor">[849]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span></p> + +<p>Though Jesus regarded the Sabbath as still binding +on his followers, his teaching that it was a social institution +designed for practical benefit to mankind, and +not as a fetish, brought him repeatedly into conflict +with the Pharisees, and called forth those utterances +which have been so strangely neglected by sabbatarians +in after ages: “For the Son of man is lord of +the Sabbath”; “The Sabbath was made for man, and +not man for the Sabbath”; “My Father worketh +[on it] even until now, and I work.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_850" href="#Footnote_850" class="fnanchor">[850]</a> Jewish Christians +appear at first to have continued the observance +of the Sabbath, but this practice met the unqualified +condemnation of St. Paul;⁠<a id="FNanchor_851" href="#Footnote_851" class="fnanchor">[851]</a> and one of the <i>Epistles</i> +of St. Ignatius, who suffered martyrdom about 107 +<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, refers to Christians as “no longer observing the +Sabbath, but living in the observance of the Lord’s +Day (μηκέτι σαββατίζοντες, ἀλλὰ κατὰ κυριακὴν ζῶντες), +on which also our life has sprung up again by +Him and by His death.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_852" href="#Footnote_852" class="fnanchor">[852]</a> However, the Jewish element +in the churches of the East was strong enough +to secure the ecclesiastical recognition of Saturday as +a holy day. It long continued to be observed like +Sunday, by religious assemblies and feasting, though +not by any compulsory cessation of the ordinary occupations.⁠<a id="FNanchor_853" href="#Footnote_853" class="fnanchor">[853]</a> +Tertullian was the first Church Father to +declare that Christians ought to abstain on Sunday +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span>from secular duties and occupations, lest they should +“give place to the Devil.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_854" href="#Footnote_854" class="fnanchor">[854]</a> Tertullian’s statement +has sometimes been understood to indicate a Sabbatarian +spirit on the part of its author; properly considered, +however, it means only that Christians should +so carefully observe the duties peculiar to the Lord’s +Day as to neglect, if necessary, their worldly business +on that day. Other Church Fathers of the third +century, including Origen and Cyprian, made no reference +to Sunday as a day of abstinence from labour. +The earliest Sunday law, the edict issued by Constantine +in 321 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, bore no relation to Christianity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_855" href="#Footnote_855" class="fnanchor">[855]</a> +What began, however, as a pagan ordinance, ended +as a Christian regulation; and a long series of imperial +decrees, during the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, +enjoined with increasing stringency abstinence from +labour on Sunday. The view that the Christian Lord’s +Day is but the Jewish Sabbath transferred from the +seventh to the first day of the week found occasional +expression in both the law and the theology of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>Middle Ages, and culminated in the sabbatarian excesses +of English and Scottish Puritanism.⁠<a id="FNanchor_856" href="#Footnote_856" class="fnanchor">[856]</a>⁠</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br> +<span class="smaller">UNLUCKY DAYS</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>The observance of lucky and unlucky days is a +familiar phenomenon in primitive society and among +peoples of archaic civilization. Under the attenuated +form of a survival, the superstition still lingers in civilized +and Christian lands. The reasons for the assignment +of a good or an evil character to certain days are +usually quite obscure; and even where explanations +are provided, these are, as a rule, explanations after +the event. The attempt to provide a satisfactory +origin for them insensibly widens out into an effort +to account for the genesis of the great body of popular +and anonymous superstitions.</p> + +<p>Probably the commonest source of the belief in unlucky +days is to be sought in that erroneous association +of ideas which underlies so much of savage magic +and savage religion. If an event, fortunate or unfortunate, +has taken place on a certain day, the notion easily +arises that all actions performed on the recurrence of +the day will have a similarly favourable or unfavourable +issue. Among the Tshi of west Africa, the most +unlucky day is the anniversary of the Saturday on +which Osai Tutu was slain in an ambush near Acromanti +in 1731.⁠<a id="FNanchor_857" href="#Footnote_857" class="fnanchor">[857]</a> In modern Macedonia the superlative +ill-luck attending Tuesday is explained by some as +due to the fact—historically true—that Constantinople +was taken by the Turks on this day of the week.⁠<a id="FNanchor_858" href="#Footnote_858" class="fnanchor">[858]</a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span>The <i>dies religiosi</i>, or unlucky days, of the Roman calendar +included the anniversary of the battle of the Allia, +<i>dies Alliensis</i> (July 18), when the republic had suffered +grave misfortune. The same date was also observed +as the anniversary of the destruction of the Fabii at +the Cremera, 477 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>⁠<a id="FNanchor_859" href="#Footnote_859" class="fnanchor">[859]</a> After the assassination of +Julius Cæsar a decree was made that the Ides of March +(March 15) should be called <i>parricidium</i>, and henceforth +should be observed as an unlucky day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_860" href="#Footnote_860" class="fnanchor">[860]</a> The +superstitions which in Christian times have gathered +about Friday—at once a holy and an unlucky day—are +connected with it as the anniversary of Christ’s +Passion. In the Middle Ages people were accustomed +to date on Friday all the unfortunate events of religious +tradition and history. On that day Adam sinned +and was driven from Paradise, Cain killed his brother +Abel, John the Baptist was beheaded, and Herod slew +the Holy Innocents. It was also the day of the Deluge, +the Confusion of Tongues, and the infliction of the +Plagues upon Egypt. Synchronisms of this sort had +a great attraction to the mediæval mind, and numerous +lists of them are preserved in old manuscripts.⁠<a id="FNanchor_861" href="#Footnote_861" class="fnanchor">[861]</a> +There is a Jewish superstition, reaching back to the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span>Talmud, that it is lucky to begin an undertaking on +Tuesday, because, in describing the third day of creation, +it is said, “God saw that it was good.” Contrariwise, +it is unlucky to commence anything of importance +on Monday, as to which day nothing at all +is said.⁠<a id="FNanchor_862" href="#Footnote_862" class="fnanchor">[862]</a> Where such conceptions are rife, they readily +lend themselves to divination and astrology, and under +the fostering care of practitioners of magical arts may +develop into elaborate augural codes.</p> + +<p>The observation of natural phenomena sometimes +accounts for the unlucky character ascribed to particular +occasions. We have already noted many superstitious +observances connected with the phases of the +moon, her monthly disappearance from the heavens, and +her occasional eclipse by the earth. A further illustration +of the same subject is found in the astrological +doctrine of the moon stations. The old Babylonian +astronomers, one of whose duties it was to make very +careful observations of the moon, noticed that at +each lunation she appears to pass by the same star-groups. +It was natural, therefore, to associate the +moon with the conspicuous stars and constellations +in the vicinity of the moon’s path. The names which +they received were in time extended to the lunar +days themselves; and this apparent connection between +the two became the principal basis of astrological +forecasts for each day of the sidereal month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_863" href="#Footnote_863" class="fnanchor">[863]</a> The +fact is well known that Babylonian astrology and +astronomy—for the two were scarcely distinguishable +in the earlier period—exerted great influence +on the neighbouring peoples of Asia; and hence it has +been generally assumed that the lunar mansions, +reckoned at twenty-seven or twenty-eight in number, +which we find among the Hindus and Chinese, and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>augural calendars connected therewith, were derived +ultimately from Babylonia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_864" href="#Footnote_864" class="fnanchor">[864]</a> In modern India the +<i>nakshatra</i>, as they are called, “are consulted at births, +marriages, and on all occasions of family rejoicing, +distress, or calamity. No one undertakes a journey or +any important matter except on days which the aspect +of the <i>nakshatra</i> renders lucky and auspicious.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_865" href="#Footnote_865" class="fnanchor">[865]</a> +Among the Persians and Arabs the lunar stations have +long been employed for astrological purposes.⁠<a id="FNanchor_866" href="#Footnote_866" class="fnanchor">[866]</a> The +Arabs carried them to Madagascar, where they gave +rise to an elaborate distinction of days lucky and unlucky. +Some days were considered absolutely bad; +others were absolutely good; others were indifferent. +Again, some days were not regarded as good in general, +though still good enough for special purposes; +one being excellent for a house-warming, another +for marking out the ground for a new town, and +still another was lucky to be born on, but bad for +business. Some days had a special peculiarity of +their own, for instance, children born on a certain +day usually became dumb. The character of a day, +according to the Malagasy astrologers, depended, in +short, on what one of the twenty-eight lunar stations +it represented.⁠<a id="FNanchor_867" href="#Footnote_867" class="fnanchor">[867]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span></p> + +<p>The conception of unluckiness may be deduced <i>a +priori</i> from the assumed critical nature of certain periods, +such as epagomenal months and days. The +thirteenth month, which many peoples employing +lunar calculations find it necessary to intercalate at +more or less regular intervals, is sometimes regarded +as unlucky.⁠<a id="FNanchor_868" href="#Footnote_868" class="fnanchor">[868]</a> Again, the eleven or twelve days by +which the solar year exceeds the lunar year assumed +among various Indo-European peoples a portentous and +often unfavourable significance.⁠<a id="FNanchor_869" href="#Footnote_869" class="fnanchor">[869]</a> The celebration of +the Twelve Nights, in the sense of the Twelve Nights +and Days, as a festival before or after the winter solstice, +has been assigned to the Aryans of the Vedic +age in India on the strength of certain passages in the +<i>Rig-Veda</i>, where the three Ribhus, generally regarded +as the personified seasonal deities who divided up the +year, are described as sleeping during these days “in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span>the house of the sun.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_870" href="#Footnote_870" class="fnanchor">[870]</a> The prophetic character of +the Twelve Days appears to be indicated by their +characterization in various Brahmanical writings as +an “image of the coming year.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_871" href="#Footnote_871" class="fnanchor">[871]</a> Some eminent +scholars have thought that the Twelve Days represent +an ancient method of adjusting the lunar year to the +solar year, as practised by the early Aryans before the +custom arose of inserting a thirteenth month, to which +reference is also made in the <i>Rig-Veda</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_872" href="#Footnote_872" class="fnanchor">[872]</a> This opinion, +though not free from difficulties, is strongly supported +by numerous parallels to the Indian evidence found in +European folklore of the Twelve Days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_873" href="#Footnote_873" class="fnanchor">[873]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Throughout Europe from east to west the Twelve +Days, usually reckoned from Christmas to Epiphany, +are prolific in popular superstitions and customs. +At this time the souls of the dead, sometimes under +animal form, return to the earth and revisit the living; +witches and demons swarm in the mischief-laden air; +werewolves roam about, and the Wild Huntsman rides +in the heavens. Most of the ceremonies performed +during the Twelve Days have a distinctly pagan cast, +such as the constant fire on the domestic hearth, the +village bonfires, and the lighted candles; while others, +such as the sprinkling of the houses with holy water +and the marking of the cross on the doors, have only +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span>a thin veneer of Christianity. To a certain extent +the Twelve Days thus form the modern European +representative of those seasons devoted to the expulsion +of ghosts and evil spirits which are observed by +peoples of the lower culture.⁠<a id="FNanchor_874" href="#Footnote_874" class="fnanchor">[874]</a> A further resemblance +exists in the distinctly unlucky character often assigned +to the Twelve Days. In Macedonia no marriages are +solemnized during their continuance.⁠<a id="FNanchor_875" href="#Footnote_875" class="fnanchor">[875]</a> In various parts +of Germany they are kept as rest days, when the most +important household occupations and even those on +the farm are omitted. The housewife must not spin, +weave lace, or engage in her usual tasks of washing +and baking; and the farmer must not thresh grain. +Certain foods, especially peas and other legumes, are +carefully avoided; and no meat is eaten. It is not +wise to lend anything out of the house or to remove +refuse and sweepings. One ought not to be short of +anything at this time, else one will be short of everything +during the ensuing year. Certain animals, +particularly associated with witches, should not be +called by their right names; hence, you must refer to +the fox as “Mr. Long-tail,” and to the mouse as “Floor-runner.” +During these fateful days perfect quiet is +essential: no table must be pushed about and no doors +slammed, otherwise the house will be struck by lightning. +In this period dreams and other prognostics +are most to be relied on and are most carefully investigated. +Everywhere in Germany it is believed that +the weather of the Twelve Days determines what +will be experienced during the following twelve months, +so that they form, in effect, a meteorological calendar +for the new year.⁠<a id="FNanchor_876" href="#Footnote_876" class="fnanchor">[876]</a> This last superstition, however, is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span>not confined to Germany, being met, for instance, in +modern Brittany. In most parts of that country the +Twelve Days, here reckoned from the first of January, +are popularly termed <i>gour-deziou</i>, “male days,” an +expression which must be understood as meaning supplementary +or additional days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_877" href="#Footnote_877" class="fnanchor">[877]</a> A superstitious avoidance +of certain kinds of work during the Twelve Days +may still be found in remote districts of the British +Isles. In Shropshire horses are not set to the plough +at this time and no spinning is done.⁠<a id="FNanchor_878" href="#Footnote_878" class="fnanchor">[878]</a> In Aberdeenshire +people believe that all work ought, if possible, to +be finished before Christmas Day. Between this time +and New Year’s Eve no bread is baked and no clothes +are washed, and the spinning-wheel must be carried +from one side of the house to the other.⁠<a id="FNanchor_879" href="#Footnote_879" class="fnanchor">[879]</a> The Twelve +Days over and above the year were called in Wales +“days of days” (<i>dyddian dyddon</i>). “They are free +days, and let any one come from any place he may, +he will be free, and exposed to no weapon or stroke, +since there can be no court and law of country on those +days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_880" href="#Footnote_880" class="fnanchor">[880]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The solar year, superseding the lunar year of three +hundred and fifty-four days, seems to have been +generally assumed in the first instance at the round +number of three hundred and sixty days, the earth’s +periodical course around the sun being taken as a multiple +of the moon’s course around the earth. In ancient +Mexico, where a solar calendar came into use, the three +hundred and sixty days were divided into eighteen +periods, each of twenty days. As their total did not +round out the solar year it became necessary to add +five days at the end of the year; and these possessed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span>an unfavourable character. They were called <i>nemontemi</i>, +“the superfluous, supplementary days,” with +the secondary significance of “the useless days,” as +being consecrated to no deity and employed for no +civic business. That they were considered sinister +and unlucky is evident from the abstinence that characterized +them. Nothing of any importance was +done on the <i>nemontemi</i>. The house was not swept, +no legal case was tried, and any person so unfortunate +as to be born on one of these days was destined to a +poor and miserable life. At the same time, the <i>nemontemi</i> +possessed a prophetic power for the whole year. +“They were careful,” says Father Sahagun, “during +these fatal days not to fall asleep during the day, not +to quarrel together, not to trip or to fall, because they +said that if any of these things befell them, they would +continue to befall them thence forevermore.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_881" href="#Footnote_881" class="fnanchor">[881]</a> Among +the Mayas of Yucatan the same abstinence prevailed +on the five <i>xma kaba kin</i>, the “days without names.” +On these days “men left the house as seldom as possible, +did not wash or comb themselves, and took special +care not to undertake any menial or difficult task, +doubtless because they lived in the conviction that +they would be forced to keep on doing it through +the whole ensuing year. The Mexicans were more +passive in regard to these days, inasmuch as they merely +took care to avoid conjuring up mischief for the coming +year, while the Mayas did things more thoroughly. +During these days, so portentous for the entire year, +they banished the evil which might threaten them. +They prepared a clay image of the demon of evil, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span>Uuayayab, that is, <i>u-uayab-haab</i> (‘by whom the year +is poisoned’), confronted it with the deity who had +supreme power during the year in question, and then +carried it out of the village in the direction of that +cardinal point to which the new year belonged.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_882" href="#Footnote_882" class="fnanchor">[882]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>It is an impressive testimony to the essential unity +of primitive culture that in a far distant quarter of the +globe an almost identical superstition existed. The +Egyptian solar calendar, like the Mexican, was based +on a year of three hundred and sixty days, but in Egypt +these were grouped into twelve equal months of thirty +days each, leaving five supplementary days to be added +at the end of the twelfth month—“the five days over +and above the year” (<i>haru duaït hiru ronpit</i>), as they +were styled.⁠<a id="FNanchor_883" href="#Footnote_883" class="fnanchor">[883]</a> Their great antiquity is indicated by +another designation, “little month,” applied to them; +and, in fact, a notice of the epagomenal days occurs +in the <i>Pyramid Texts</i> belonging to the Sixth Dynasty, +where they are referred to as the “five additional days” +on which the gods were born.⁠<a id="FNanchor_884" href="#Footnote_884" class="fnanchor">[884]</a> Later monumental +records show that the deities associated respectively +with these days were the five members of the Osirian +cycle, Osiris, Horus, Set, Isis, and Nephthys.⁠<a id="FNanchor_885" href="#Footnote_885" class="fnanchor">[885]</a> The +evidence of the <i>Leiden Papyrus</i>, setting forth the ceremonies +requisite for epagomenal days, indicates that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>they enjoyed exceptional importance because of their +position at the end of the year. As religious festivals +they were consecrated to the dead. Furthermore, +they bore a distinctly ominous or unlucky character, +and many were the prayers and magical formulas to +be recited by the pious worshipper in order to secure +divine protection against the malefic influences supposed +to characterize them. To positive rites of prayer +and sacrifice the worshipper must add cessation of +all activity: “during the five days at the end of the +year do no work; abstain from everything”—so +runs the priestly text.⁠<a id="FNanchor_886" href="#Footnote_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a> These precautions taken, he +might look forward to a happy New Year.</p> + +<p>The conquest of Egypt in the sixth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> +by the Achæmenian kings seems to have introduced a +knowledge of the excellencies of the Egyptian solar +reckoning to the Persians. Their five epagomenal +days were called the Gāthā-days, each being sacred +to one of the five great divisions of the <i>Gāthās</i>, or +Zoroastrian hymns. A Persian calendar of late date +(1687 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) gives the first day as lucky, and the third +as unlucky.⁠<a id="FNanchor_887" href="#Footnote_887" class="fnanchor">[887]</a> It is significant that among the Persians, +as in ancient Egypt, the epagomenal days particularly +belonged to the dead, to whom sacrifices were regularly +offered at this time, as well as during the first +five days of the new year.⁠<a id="FNanchor_888" href="#Footnote_888" class="fnanchor">[888]</a> The Armenians also had +their five supplementary days—<i>aweleach</i>—intercalated +after the twelfth month, an arrangement doubtless +borrowed from the Persians, but these days do +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span>not appear to have been marked by any special observances.⁠<a id="FNanchor_889" href="#Footnote_889" class="fnanchor">[889]</a> +The latest attempt to introduce the use of +epagomenal days dates from the time of the French +Revolution. In their desire to abolish a chronological +system bound up with the Christian religion the bold +innovators of the National Convention set aside in +1793 the Gregorian calendar, establishing a Republican +calendar in which the seven-day week was replaced +by the decade and the year was divided into twelve +months of thirty days each, according to the old +Egyptian arrangement. Five intercalary days, popularly +called <i>sansculottides</i>, came at the end of the year +(six days at the end of every fourth year); they were +dedicated to Virtue, Genius, Labour, Opinion, and +Reward; and were observed as holidays. But this +calendar, which John Quincy Adams described as an +“incongruous composition of profound learning and +superficial frivolity, of irreligion and morality, of delicate +imagination and coarse vulgarity,” had a short +life. In 1802 the week of seven days returned into +general use, and three years later an edict of Napoleon +ordered the restoration of the Gregorian calendar.⁠<a id="FNanchor_890" href="#Footnote_890" class="fnanchor">[890]</a> +In our own time, however, serious proposals have been +made looking toward the reformation of the present +awkward calendar, and among them is the suggestion +that we adopt the ancient Egyptian system of months +and epagomenal days.</p> + +<p>It has been repeatedly noticed in the preceding pages +that oftentimes no clear line of demarcation can be +drawn between days <i>tabu</i> and days considered “unlucky.” +Both may involve ideas of contagion, the +sanctity or pollution attaching to the one being conceived +as scarcely less transmissible than the vaguer +“unluckiness” which belongs to certain periods and +affects everything done during their continuance. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span>How some of the so-called unlucky days, still lingering +in contemporary civilization, have descended from +the holy days of antiquity is aptly illustrated by the +superstitions relating to the certain days of March and +of August, as observed at the present time in southeastern +Europe. In Macedonia the peasants during +the first three days and the last three days of these +two months do not plant; they cut no tree or vine, +for fear lest it should wither; they do not bathe in the +sea, or their bodies would swell; and they even refrain +from washing clothes.⁠<a id="FNanchor_891" href="#Footnote_891" class="fnanchor">[891]</a> In various parts of +Greece and the Ægean it is considered necessary to +abstain from particular kinds of work on certain days +of August, and occasionally of March. During the +first five days of August the people of Epirus do not +wash clothes or go into the fields to work. In Crete +the period is longer, for here on the first six and last +six days of August clothes are not washed and grapes +are not gathered.⁠<a id="FNanchor_892" href="#Footnote_892" class="fnanchor">[892]</a> In Cos on the first three days of +August the women do no work (for it would not prosper) +and wash no clothes (for these would soon wear +out). The eleven days which follow are supposed +to foreshadow the weather during the succeeding eleven +months: as the fourth day is, so will September be; +the fifth day prognosticates the weather for October, +and so on. The fifteenth of August is celebrated as +the Feast of the Assumption, closing a fortnight’s +strict fast.⁠<a id="FNanchor_893" href="#Footnote_893" class="fnanchor">[893]</a> The Cypriotes observe the first three or +six days of August as times when no trees are cut or +peeled to obtain resin, when the use of water for washing +clothes or the body is forbidden, and when no one +travels by water. The severity of the regulations has +led to the days being called the “evil days of August.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_894" href="#Footnote_894" class="fnanchor">[894]</a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>All these taboos thus show much similarity, relating in +particular to abstention from work which has to do with +water or with vines and trees. From this fact it becomes +a plausible inference that the unlucky days were originally +sacred to the tree-nymphs and water-nymphs, +whose festivals were celebrated in pagan antiquity. +At the present time the days are associated with the +<i>drymais</i>, mysterious spirits supposed to be abroad on +them, and probably to be identified with the dryads +(δρύαδες) of classic mythology.</p> + +<p>The likeness between tabooed days as periods of +abstinence and some unlucky days may be further +illustrated by much ethnographic evidence drawn +from different cultural areas. The Maori, we are +told, endeavour to determine by divination whether +the day set for a journey is favourable or unfavourable. +The fisherman is hopeless of making a catch +on an unfavourable day. At such a time “no dress +will be commenced, no seine cast, no fish-hook baited, +no ground turned up, seed sown, distant visit made, +flax cut or dressed, timber cut, canoe formed, or even +food partaken of.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_895" href="#Footnote_895" class="fnanchor">[895]</a> The Batta of Sumatra possess +elaborate calendars of days favourable, unfavourable, +and of a doubtful character; and these are regularly +consulted by the Batta magician in order that his +clients may know when to commence any important +undertaking, such as sowing and harvesting, house-building, +erection of a new village, removal to another +village, preparation of sacrifices at birth, name-giving, +burial, betrothal, and marriage, and all other great +occasions. A day may be wholly unlucky for one +thing, but not for another; for instance, a day which +could not safely be used for the celebration of a sacrifice +might still be used for the inauguration of agricultural +labour. On the other hand, there are certain +days, indicated in the calendars, when all activity +ceases, except the entertainment of relatives and indispensable +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span>harvest work. If a man should meet with +misfortune on one of these fatal days, a sacrifice must +be offered to the supernatural power supposed to be +responsible for the visitation. The Batta calendar +in its existing form is derived from India, but the people +seem formerly to have possessed their own rude calendar, +which was used to determine the lucky and unlucky +days in a lunar month. Even at the present +time the calendar is not employed for the fixation of +dates in the European sense, but only in the service of +popular superstition.⁠<a id="FNanchor_896" href="#Footnote_896" class="fnanchor">[896]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Mohammedan Malays of the Malay Peninsula +possess a number of divinatory calendars, one specifying +seven unlucky days in every month, a second, +twelve other most inauspicious days in every year, +while a third gives all the days of the year classified +under the heads lucky, somewhat unlucky, most unlucky, +and neutral.⁠<a id="FNanchor_897" href="#Footnote_897" class="fnanchor">[897]</a> Chinese popular calendars set +forth a similar classification of the days of the month +as very lucky, neither lucky nor unlucky, unlucky, and +very unlucky.⁠<a id="FNanchor_898" href="#Footnote_898" class="fnanchor">[898]</a> Furthermore, the first, fifth, and +ninth months are considered unfavourable by the +Chinese, who will not marry or change houses during +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span>these months.⁠<a id="FNanchor_899" href="#Footnote_899" class="fnanchor">[899]</a> In Korea the fifth, fifteenth, and +twenty-fifth days of each month are called “broken +days.” At such times the people avoid any new +undertakings.⁠<a id="FNanchor_900" href="#Footnote_900" class="fnanchor">[900]</a> The old Japanese are said to have +held five yearly festivals or holidays, “purposely laid +on those days, which, by reason of their imparity, +are judged to be the most unfortunate.” These were +New Year’s Day, the third day of the third month, +the fifth of the fifth month, the seventh of the seventh +month, and the ninth of the ninth month.⁠<a id="FNanchor_901" href="#Footnote_901" class="fnanchor">[901]</a> In modern +Japan the cheap popular calendars, circulating among +the lower classes, contain indications for every day of +a cycle of six days. Of these, the first is described +as good during the forenoon for urgent business, such +as lawsuits and petitions, but not good after midday. +The second is good in the forenoon and in the evening, +but not in the afternoon. The first half of the third +day is bad, and no urgent business should be undertaken +at such a time; the afternoon, however, is +lucky. Nothing done on the fourth day will prosper. +The fifth day is very lucky for anything, especially +removals or journeys. With the exception of the noon-tide +hour the whole of the sixth day is unlucky. This +cycle used in divination flourishes side by side with +the week of seven days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_902" href="#Footnote_902" class="fnanchor">[902]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Tibetans are great astrologers. In every monastery +there is at least one divining lama whose business +it is to determine propitious and unpropitious times. +Calendars exist for all the days of the month, some being +described as “good,” others as “middling,” others as +“bad,” while one is referred to as “not very good,” +and still another as “the worst.” Among the causes +of the luck or unluck attaching to certain days the +Tibetans are inclined to lay stress on the periodical +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span>migrations of the spirits inhabiting the regions above +the earth. It seems that the two kinds of spirits, good +and evil, shift their abodes, to some extent every day +and also contemporaneously with the phases of the +moon, the commencement of a new season, and so on. +Their migrations are performed with unequal velocity; +hence, the combination of spirits varies for every +day. If the good spirits are more numerous than the +evil spirits on a particular day, the time will be favourable +for any undertaking; and <i>vice versa</i>. This belief, +we are told, offers a wide field of intrigue to the lamas, +who alone are able to decide what have been the actual +movements of the spirits.⁠<a id="FNanchor_903" href="#Footnote_903" class="fnanchor">[903]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Toda, who dwell in permanent villages on the +plateaus of the Nilgiri Hills in southeastern India, +have a remarkable system of rest days deserving to be +described at some length. The social organization +of this interesting people consists of two endogamous +divisions, called Teivaliol and Tartharol. Each of +these primary sections is composed of intermarrying +clans, and each clan possesses a group of villages in +common. At the present time Toda interests, both +economic and religious, centre about their buffaloes. +The daily life of the Toda men is largely devoted to the +care of these animals and to labour in the dairies. +The buffalo is a sacred animal; the dairy itself is +almost a temple; and the dairyman is only one remove +from a priest. Toda religious rites seem to be, in fact, +little more than the arrangements which a pastoral +and communistic people have made for the provision +and care of an article of food. According to Dr. +Rivers, whose careful studies are a model of anthropological +investigation, nearly every Toda ceremony has +its appointed day or days. The choice of these “is +often dependent on another Toda institution, the sacred +day, either of the village or of the dairy. Every clan +has certain days of the week on which people are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span>restricted from following many of their ordinary occupations, +although they are not the occasions of any +special ceremonies. These sacred days are the <i>madnol</i>, +or village day, and the <i>palinol</i>, or dairy day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_904" href="#Footnote_904" class="fnanchor">[904]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Each Toda village has its <i>madnol</i>, but, in general, +where there are several villages of the same clan, the +<i>madnol</i> is the same for the whole clan. There are at +least eight prohibitions characterizing the observance +of this sacred day. Feasts may not be given at such +a time, funeral ceremonies may not be performed, +people may not bathe or cut their nails, and men may +not shave. Clothes are not to be washed, the house +is not to be cleansed, and, though the ordinary meals +may be prepared, rice and milk must not be cooked +together. Other regulations forbid the dairyman to +leave the village, the buffaloes to be taken from one +place to another, or the people to migrate from one +village to another.⁠<a id="FNanchor_905" href="#Footnote_905" class="fnanchor">[905]</a> Though not all work is prohibited, +the regulations are extensive enough to affect most +of the customary occupations. Among the Teivaliol, +one of the two endogamous divisions of the Toda +people, the <i>madnol</i> is the only sacred day of the week. +With the other division, called Tartharol, there is +also a dairy day, or <i>palinol</i>, the regulations for which +have much the same character as for the <i>madnol</i>.</p> + +<p>Toda ingenuity has devised recognized methods of +evading the rules for the holy days, and so of avoiding +the inconvenience which might otherwise be entailed +on the people. The rule that nothing may be taken +from the village on the <i>madnol</i> would prevent any purchases +from outsiders being made on the holy day, +since money would have to pass out of the village in +payment. The Toda avoid this awkward consequence +by the simple device of taking money beyond the village +limits on the day before the <i>madnol</i> and burying +it in some spot where it can be found when wanted. +The rule forbidding Toda women to leave the village +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span>on the <i>madnol</i> is evaded in a curious fashion. A woman +will depart from the settlement before daybreak, will +remain outside till the sun is up, and will then return +to her home, for breakfast and the performance of +any necessary work. During this time she is regarded +as ceremonially absent from the village, hence her +actual departure later in the day for another village +is not considered to be a desecration of the <i>madnol</i>. +With these possibilities of evasion open to the pious +Toda, it follows that the regulations are seldom broken, +in the letter if not in the spirit. When a breach of +them does occur, the culprit may be obliged to perform +a propitiatory sacrifice similar to that which follows +the commission of various other ceremonial sins. +“It seemed quite clear, however, that this only happened +if some misfortune should befall the offender, +his family, or his buffaloes. It would seem that a +man might habitually and notoriously desecrate the +<i>madnol</i>, but no steps would be taken by himself or the +community so long as things went well with the man. +If he should become ill or if his buffaloes should suffer +in any way, he would consult the diviners and they +would then certainly find that his misfortunes were +due to his infringement of the laws connected with the +sacred days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_906" href="#Footnote_906" class="fnanchor">[906]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>There is much variety in the days observed as the +<i>madnol</i> or the <i>palinol</i> of the different villages and clans. +The most frequent days appear to be Wednesday and +Friday, which are sacred in six clans. Sunday is +sacred in five clans, Monday and Tuesday in three, +Thursday in two. In no clan does Saturday appear +to be kept as a holy day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_907" href="#Footnote_907" class="fnanchor">[907]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The origin of these sacred days among the Toda is +very obscure. Dr. Rivers first suggests the possibility +of the institution of <i>madnol</i> and <i>palinol</i> having grown out +of the belief in unlucky days. The code of rules prescribing +what might and what might not be done would +then be only an elaboration of the common superstition +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span>which restricts activity at such unlucky periods. +But there are several difficulties in the way of this +view. It is extremely doubtful whether the Toda +has any such belief in days lucky and unlucky,⁠<a id="FNanchor_908" href="#Footnote_908" class="fnanchor">[908]</a> and if +he has, the idea is probably a recent importation from +the Hindus, among whom the superstition is very +prevalent. Again, the distinction between <i>madnol</i> +and <i>palinol</i> is one which cannot be satisfactorily explained +by such a hypothesis. Finally, the different +clans of the Toda have different sacred days, whereas +one would expect lucky and unlucky days to be the +same for the entire community. This seems especially +reasonable when it is considered that the sacred +days, by restricting intercourse between the different +clans, produce much inconvenience, which, of course, +is increased by the fact that the different clans have +different <i>madnol</i>. Whatever be the origin of these +Toda rules, there is, writes Dr. Rivers, “little doubt +that when at the present time a given act is done or +not done on a given day, the action is not based on a +belief in lucky or unlucky days, but, as nearly always +among the Toda, on custom prescribing that the act +shall or shall not be done on that day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_909" href="#Footnote_909" class="fnanchor">[909]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The question may be raised whether the resemblance +of the Toda <i>madnol</i> to the Hebrew Sabbath is not +accounted for by supposing the former institution to +have been founded on ideas borrowed from Christians +or Jews. If this has been the case, it is certain that +the borrowing took place very long ago. In studying +the origin and history of the Toda we have no record +that reaches back more than three centuries. From +various close resemblances between the Toda customs +and those of the people of Malabar, Dr. Rivers thinks +it probable that the Toda at one time lived in Malabar, +migrating thence to the Nilgiri Hills. Both Christians +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span>and Jews were well established in Malabar more +than a thousand years ago. If the Toda left Malabar +before these settlements of foreigners were made, +then Jewish or Christian influences can be excluded; +if the migration took place subsequently, then they +may have contributed to the development of the Toda +institution.⁠<a id="FNanchor_910" href="#Footnote_910" class="fnanchor">[910]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In spite of these considerations, Dr. Rivers is inclined +to consider the Toda <i>madnol</i> as substantially a native +institution, which may help to explain the origin of +the Hebrew Sabbath. “In a busier community than +that of the Toda, the existence of different <i>madnol</i> for +different clans of the community would soon become +a serious obstacle to carrying on the business of life, +and such a community would probably agree that all +clans should have the same holy day. At present the +<i>madnol</i> is undoubtedly more sacred than the other +sacred days, and if the latter were then to be neglected, +we should have a community in which various activities +were prohibited on one day of the week, and the +institution so arising would differ very little from the +Hebrew Sabbath. It is possible that the Toda show +in an early stage the institution of a Sabbath in which +the whole community has not yet settled on a single +and joint holy day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_911" href="#Footnote_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a> The fact that the Toda employ +the seven-day week, which must be entirely a borrowed +institution with them, suggests, however, that the prohibitions +attaching to certain days of that week were +ultimately derived from foreign sources.⁠<a id="FNanchor_912" href="#Footnote_912" class="fnanchor">[912]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span></p> + +<p>Another curious instance of communal rest days +is found among the Siah Posh Kafirs, a primitive +Aryan people dwelling in the northeastern part of +Afghanistan, between Chitral and the Hindu-Kush. +They seem formerly to have occupied a more extended +area about the headwaters of the Indus. The conversion +of the surrounding tribes, first to Buddhism +and later to Mohammedanism, has further served +to isolate them. With the Afghans on the west their +enmity is deadly and unceasing, but their relations +with their eastern neighbours admit of friendly intercourse. +It is on this side, therefore, that we must +look for the introduction into Kafiristan of Indian +cultural elements, among which is the seven-day week.⁠<a id="FNanchor_913" href="#Footnote_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a> +On certain weekdays the Siah Posh Kafirs rest from +work. Young and old gather in large buildings erected +in the centre of the villages and here they dance all night, +to the music of flutes and trumpets, and sing songs in +honour of the gods.⁠<a id="FNanchor_914" href="#Footnote_914" class="fnanchor">[914]</a> According to a later and fuller +account, the Kafir rest days are called <i>agar</i>; in some +districts they occur every Thursday, in other districts, +every Saturday, but only during the months from +April to September, when field work is in progress. +The <i>agar</i> appear to be rigorously observed by the male +inhabitants of a village, but the women, who stop their +field-work on these days, do not scruple to engage in +other coolie labour during their continuance. “I failed,” +writes our authority, “to discover anything concerning +the origin of these <i>agar</i>. Their observance may have +become a national custom, the origin of which is as +difficult to determine as the Sabbaths of other ancient +peoples. As the Kám people were averse to starting +on a journey on the <i>agar</i> days, and as all the women +left their field-work altogether on those occasions, it +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span>is possible that the <i>agar</i> was originally considered an +unlucky day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_915" href="#Footnote_915" class="fnanchor">[915]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Perhaps no people have subjected themselves to +more irksome restrictions on unlucky days than the +natives of Madagascar. In this island systems of +taboo are widespread and elaborate, even at the present +time. The term <i>fady</i> (or <i>tabu</i>), used for all objects and +persons tabooed, is likewise applied by the Malagasy +to unfavourable days and months, the quality of such +periods as dangerous or unlucky being considered transmissible +to beings and actions.⁠<a id="FNanchor_916" href="#Footnote_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a> By the Hova, a people +of remote, perhaps prehistoric, Malay origin, now occupying +the central tableland of Madagascar, only twelve +days in the month were regarded as lucky. The first +days of some months possessed a most disastrous character, +and children born on them were usually put to +death. The same cruel practice was found among other +tribes, such as the Bara and Tanala, leading, in the +latter case, to the destruction of at least one-fourth of +all the infants born.⁠<a id="FNanchor_917" href="#Footnote_917" class="fnanchor">[917]</a> The Tanala consider one of the +months, called <i>faosa</i>, extremely unlucky. “No one +works in that month, no one changes his place of abode +or goes about. If any one happens to be in the fields +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span>when the month comes in, there he remains.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_918" href="#Footnote_918" class="fnanchor">[918]</a> The +Sihanaka keep Tuesday as an unlucky day on which +no work is allowed in the fields. Each Sihanaka family, +in addition, inherits a special unlucky day in each +week, when it is not permissible to go outside the house.⁠<a id="FNanchor_919" href="#Footnote_919" class="fnanchor">[919]</a> +The Sakalava likewise abstain from all business and +remain strictly in seclusion on their unlucky days, +which belong both to families and to individuals.⁠<a id="FNanchor_920" href="#Footnote_920" class="fnanchor">[920]</a> +Among the Betsimisaraka each person has his unlucky +day when he does not work; in fact, he can do nothing +at this time except eat, drink, sleep, and dress his hair. +Since the introduction of Christianity the day kept +in this strict fashion is Sunday.⁠<a id="FNanchor_921" href="#Footnote_921" class="fnanchor">[921]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>These accounts of lucky and unlucky days observed +by half-civilized peoples at the present time throw +light on the references to the same superstition found +in the records of archaic civilizations. For Egypt +we have the evidence of several ancient calendars +preserved in papyrus manuscripts. The first of these +dates from the Twelfth Dynasty (about 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) +and includes all the days of the month, eighteen being +defined as “good,” nine as “bad,” and three (the +sixteenth, twenty-second, and twenty-third), as “half-good” +and “half-bad.” The primitive character of +this calendar is indicated by the fact that the same +prognostics are attached to the same days of the month +throughout the year. The second calendar, dating +from about 1000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, is more complicated, since the +prognostics of the several days are unlike in the different +months, while each day is itself divided into +three parts, lucky, unlucky, and neutral. Neither +calendar contains mention of the five epagomenal +days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_922" href="#Footnote_922" class="fnanchor">[922]</a>⁠</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span></p> + +<p>The third and best-known of these Egyptian calendars +is the <i>Papyrus Sallier IV</i>, which in its present +form belongs to about 1200 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> but is based on much +earlier documents.⁠<a id="FNanchor_923" href="#Footnote_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a> Parts of the manuscript at the +beginning and end have been lost, so that it now contains +prognostics for only two hundred and thirty-five +days of the year. This interesting production +of ancient though misdirected learning divides the hours +between the rising and the setting of the sun into three +periods, each of which is ruled by its particular influence. +Some days were good throughout the three +periods, some were wholly bad, others were critical—<i>dubium +sed in malum vergens</i>—while others again +presented combinations of these three characteristics. +The following are typical regulations, arranged according +to the order of the Egyptian months.⁠<a id="FNanchor_924" href="#Footnote_924" class="fnanchor">[924]</a> 22 +Thoth: eat no fish and light no oil lamp. 23 Thoth: +put no incense on the fire; kill no animals, domestic +or wild; eat neither a goose nor a goat. A child born +on this day will amount to nothing. 26 Thoth: do +nothing on this day. 4 Paophi: do not go out of the +house. 5 Paophi: do not go out of the house; do +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span>not have intercourse with a woman. 22 Paophi: do +not wash and do not approach a stream. 19 Athyr: +light no fire. 6 Mechir: do no work. 13 Pharmuthi: +do not go anywhere. In the calendar as a whole the +most frequent injunctions relate to quitting the house, +travelling, sailing, and undertaking any kind of work. +Next in number are the prohibitions of loud talking, +singing, and sexual intercourse. There are also prohibitions +of drinking, bathing, and killing or eating +certain animals, besides others directed against the +use of fire and lights. It is clear that in this curious +treatise we have a systematization of popular taboos relating +to the lucky or unlucky character of certain days. +The fact that it was used as a boy’s schoolbook indicates +how priestly influence had erected into a pseudo-science +the uncouth and childish superstitions of the multitude. +The calendar itself presents evidence that the priests had +begun to rationalize the taboos, for the prohibitions are +often accompanied by a summary of the motives which +justified them, usually legendary episodes of the gods. +For instance, the regulation for the twenty-sixth of +Thoth—“do absolutely nothing”—is explained by a +reference to the terrific combat between Horus and his +uncle Set, which occurred on this ill-omened day.⁠<a id="FNanchor_925" href="#Footnote_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Babylonian augural calendar for the intercalated +month of Elul and for Markheshwan is not the +only example of omen literature to be found in the +cuneiform records. We possess a document, preserved +in great part, which includes every day in the year, +either specifying its nature as favourable or unfavourable +or adding other indications with regard to its +character. A note like “hostility,” appended to the +twenty-first day of the second month, is a warning +that the gods are out of humour on that day; the +twenty-third day, described as “heart not good,” is +explained by the contrast “heart glad” on the following +day. Not content with a simple distinction of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span>favourableness and unfavourableness, the calendar +also deals with days “wholly favourable” and “half +favourable.” Still other days are noted as those portending +“distress,” “trouble,” “tears,” “injury,” +“darkness,” “moon obscured,” and the like. The precautions +and prohibitions set forth for unlucky days +include, among many others, the familiar taboos of +eating specified foods, such as swine’s flesh, beef, dates, +and fish, sexual intercourse, buying and selling, wearing +bright garments, travelling, holding law courts, and +so on. The calendar contains a number of references +to the king and may, very probably, have served the +priests in their instructions to the monarch. As +Professor Jastrow remarks, the belief in lucky and +unlucky days has a distinctly popular flavour, making +it probable that the priests embodied in their lists +many of the notions that arose among the people, and +gave to these an official sanction.⁠<a id="FNanchor_926" href="#Footnote_926" class="fnanchor">[926]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>The Greeks of Hesiod’s time possessed an elaborate +calendar of lucky and unlucky days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_927" href="#Footnote_927" class="fnanchor">[927]</a> “Sometimes +a day is a stepmother, sometimes a mother,” Hesiod +remarks pithily. What ancient regulations for the +observance of tabooed periods are embodied in the +calendar is problematical. Many of the prohibitions +with which the first part of the poem concludes are, +however, thoroughly primitive taboos.⁠<a id="FNanchor_928" href="#Footnote_928" class="fnanchor">[928]</a> Hesiod does +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span>not mention any days when labour is to be entirely +abandoned. We may assume, perhaps, that at the +period when the Hesiodic poems were composed the +rationalizing temper of the Greeks had gotten somewhat +the better of their superstitious fears. In the +Hesiodic list, as in the Egyptian and Babylonian +calendars, the notion appears that not only whole +days but even parts of days have an individual character, +working for good or evil. The middle ninth (the +nineteenth) is said to be “a better day toward afternoon.” +The “fourth which followeth the twentieth +of the month is the best at dawn, but it is worse toward +afternoon.” Hesiod does not distinguish the months +as lucky or unlucky, and the days which possess either +of these attributes are the same for every month. He +gives no explanation for their luckiness or unluckiness, +though traces of a rationalizing process are perhaps +observable in the directions regarding the “fifths” +(presumably the fifth, fifteenth, and twenty-fifth +days), which are specially unlucky “because on the +fifth men say the Erinyes attended the birth of Oath +(Horkos), whom Strife bare to punish perjurers.” +The seventh again is lucky, “for on that day Leto bare +Apollo of the Golden Sword.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_929" href="#Footnote_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a> The Hesiodic injunctions +did not cease to be observed in the later classical +epoch and exercised great influence on civil and political +life. The superstitions relating to unlucky days +only gained a firmer foothold, under the influence of +Babylonian and Egyptian doctrines, in passing from +Greece to Rome and from Rome to western Europe.⁠<a id="FNanchor_930" href="#Footnote_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>During the Middle Ages perhaps the most widespread +observance of unlucky days had to do with those which +went under the significant name of <i>dies Ægyptiaci</i>. +The prohibitions marking them—not to build a house, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span>not to buy or sell, not to cut hair, beard, and nails, +and so on—possessed, however, no character specifically +Egyptian. The mediæval belief was that these +days received their designation because on one of them +the plagues had been sent to devastate the land +of Egypt, and on another Pharaoh and his host had +been swallowed up in the Red Sea. As early as the +fourth century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Christian writers refer to “Egyptian +days” as times feared and avoided by both pagans +and converts to Christianity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_931" href="#Footnote_931" class="fnanchor">[931]</a> About this period the +superstition gained admittance to the state calendars. +In the <i>fasti Philocali</i> (354 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), twenty-five <i>dies Ægyptiaci</i> +are reckoned, two in each month except January, +which contains three.⁠<a id="FNanchor_932" href="#Footnote_932" class="fnanchor">[932]</a> A mediæval French manuscript, +dating from the reign of St. Louis, includes twenty-four +such days, but another manuscript, of the fourteenth +century, enumerates thirty days of the year +as very dangerous, when it is necessary to abstain +from buying and selling, building, and planting. Still +another manuscript, of the fifteenth century, reckons +thirty-one wholly evil days, while certain hours of +other days also possess dangerous qualities.⁠<a id="FNanchor_933" href="#Footnote_933" class="fnanchor">[933]</a> In the +seventeenth century J. B. Thiers, the learned curé of +Vibraie, notices the “Egyptian days” in his extensive +list of the superstitious beliefs regarding certain times +and seasons, prevalent in his age but condemned by +theologians (St. Thomas Aquinas), popes (Nicholas I), +and Church synods and councils.⁠<a id="FNanchor_934" href="#Footnote_934" class="fnanchor">[934]</a> Anglo-Saxon calendars +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>mention about twenty-four “Egyptian days” in +the year, when it is dangerous, if not fatal, to begin an +enterprise or to travel. A manuscript calendar, dating +from the reign of Henry VI, gives a list of thirty-two +such days. After the Reformation the old unlucky +days appear to have abated much of their malevolence, +and to have left behind them only a general +superstition against fishermen starting out to fish, or +seamen to take a voyage, or landsmen a journey, or +domestic servants to enter a new place—on a Friday.⁠<a id="FNanchor_935" href="#Footnote_935" class="fnanchor">[935]</a>⁠</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONCLUSION">CONCLUSION</h2> + +</div> + +<p>It is fairly obvious that the observance of tabooed +and unlucky days must be included among the many +superstitions which have retarded the progress of mankind. +They hinder individual initiative and tend to +prevent the undertaking of lengthy enterprises which +may be interrupted by the recurrence of an unfavourable +period. Their extensive development compels +fitful, intermittent labour, rather than a steady and +continuous occupation. The Burman, for example, +“is so fettered by his horoscope and the lucky and +unlucky days for him recorded therein, which are +taught him in rhymes from childhood, that the character +has been given him by strangers of alternate +idleness and energy. But both are enforced by the +numerous days and seasons when he may not work +without disaster to himself. Unlucky days cause him +so much fear that he will resort to all sorts of excuses +to avoid business on them. Similarly, on lucky days +he will work beyond his strength, because he is assured +of success.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_936" href="#Footnote_936" class="fnanchor">[936]</a> Again, it is said that Europeans in +India usually fail to realize the great influence which +ideas of lucky and unlucky days exert on the conduct +of the people. Superstitious avoidance of unpropitious +occasions will often explain the failure of the natives +to obey a court summons or to keep their appointments +with government officers.⁠<a id="FNanchor_937" href="#Footnote_937" class="fnanchor">[937]</a> These remarks, by keen +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span>observers, are capable of a wide application to various +primitive races. The belief in unfavourable seasons +may even directly affect political and social progress, +where, as in modern Ashanti and in ancient Rome, +assemblies could not be held, or courts of justice stand +open, or armies engage the enemy, when the unlucky +day came round. It is equally obvious that all such +beliefs play into the hands of the astrologer and magician, +tending further to strengthen the bonds with +which superstition enchains its votaries.</p> + +<p>From the economic point of view it deserves to be +pointed out how the extensive development of tabooed +and unlucky days seriously limits production and thus +lowers the efficiency of labour. In Hawaii the seasons +of strict abstinence regularly observed during eight +months of the year reached a total of seventy-two days, +while from time to time still other <i>tabu</i> days were appointed +by the priests.⁠<a id="FNanchor_938" href="#Footnote_938" class="fnanchor">[938]</a> In Ashanti an old writer +calculated that there were only from one hundred and +fifty to one hundred and sixty days in the year during +which business of any importance could be safely +undertaken.⁠<a id="FNanchor_939" href="#Footnote_939" class="fnanchor">[939]</a> Few peoples have more holidays than +the Hopi Indians of Arizona. Their religious festivals +occupy more than half the year. It is a noteworthy +fact, however, that the Hopi celebrate their longest +and most important ceremonies during the months +from harvest time to planting, when there is little +work to be done. “Although the Pueblo farmer +may thoroughly believe in his ceremonial system as +efficacious, his human nature is too practical to consume +the precious planting time with elaborate ceremonials.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_940" href="#Footnote_940" class="fnanchor">[940]</a> +In modern China and Korea so many +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span>festivals in honour of deities are observed as holidays +that they take the place, to a certain extent, of the +Sabbath institution.⁠<a id="FNanchor_941" href="#Footnote_941" class="fnanchor">[941]</a> Among the ancient Egyptians +the unlucky days varied in number according to the +different months, six, for instance, occurring in Paophi, +seven each in Choiak and Phamenoth, and five in +Pharmuthi. It may be reckoned that “popular superstition +rendered useless about one-fifth of the year.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_942" href="#Footnote_942" class="fnanchor">[942]</a> +The Athenian festivals are estimated to have occupied +from fifty to sixty days of the year. The irregular +distribution of these holidays throughout the months, +and especially their congestion in spring and autumn, +must have caused much interference with the routine +of daily life.⁠<a id="FNanchor_943" href="#Footnote_943" class="fnanchor">[943]</a> In some city-states the festivals were +more numerous: at Tarentum, in the days of its prosperity, +the people are said to have had more holidays +than working days.⁠<a id="FNanchor_944" href="#Footnote_944" class="fnanchor">[944]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>In the old Roman calendar, out of three hundred +and fifty-five days, nearly one-third (one hundred and +nine) were marked as <i>nefasti</i>, that is, as unlawful for +judicial and political business. These days belonged +wholly to the gods, while eleven more days of the year +were shared by the divine and the human inhabitants +of the city.⁠<a id="FNanchor_945" href="#Footnote_945" class="fnanchor">[945]</a> We know on the evidence of Cicero that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span>in the last century of the republic the numerous days +when courts could not sit had become a resource on +which a wealthy criminal could speculate as a means +of delaying and evading justice; while Suetonius +enumerates among the praiseworthy reforms of Augustus +the cutting-down of non-judicial days by thirty, +“in order that crimes might not escape punishment +or business be impeded by delay.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_946" href="#Footnote_946" class="fnanchor">[946]</a> Of the <i>dies +nefasti</i> sixty-one, including the Ides of every month, +the Kalends of three months, and the Nones of July, +were numbered in the republican calendar among the +public festivals—<i>feriæ publicæ</i>—on which the state +expected the citizens to abstain, as far as possible, +from their private business and labour.⁠<a id="FNanchor_947" href="#Footnote_947" class="fnanchor">[947]</a> But the +number of rest days observed really reached a larger +total, when we remember that, besides the extraordinary +<i>feriæ</i>, proclaimed from time to time, there was a +marked tendency during the last two centuries of the +republic to extend over several days festivals to which +originally only one day had been allotted. This was for +the purpose of giving time for an elaborate programme +of public games (<i>ludi</i>), consisting of chariot-races, +stage plays, and other forms of popular amusement. +As the Roman passion for holidays and their attendant +spectacles increased, we find the number of +days devoted to them rising from sixty-six in the reign +of Augustus to eighty-seven in that of Tiberius, and, +under Marcus Aurelius, to a hundred and thirty-five. +By the middle of the fourth century their number +had reached one hundred and seventy-five.⁠<a id="FNanchor_948" href="#Footnote_948" class="fnanchor">[948]</a> For the +lower classes at Rome the gladiatorial combats, chariot-races, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span>and dramatic shows formed the chief pleasure +of life. The once-sovereign people of Rome became a +lazy, worthless rabble, fed by the state and amused +with the games. Of them it was well said by an +ancient satirist that they wanted only two things to +make them happy—“bread and the games of the +circus.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_949" href="#Footnote_949" class="fnanchor">[949]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Many of the holy days in the religious calendar of +Christendom were borrowed, as is well known, from +the public festivals of ancient paganism. This must +be the chief reason for the observance of so many non-working +days during the Middle Ages. Their number +was largely reduced in Protestant Europe as the result +of the Reformation, which did away with the majority +of saints’ days. In Catholic countries, however, there +is still an excessive amount of time devoted to religious +celebrations. Mexico, for instance, is described as “a +land of holidays. Counting Sundays, there are one +hundred and thirty-one in the Mexican calendar, and +it is asserted that more than half of the people observe +them all.... On certain of these days all Mexico +takes to the festival, and it usually requires from one +to three days for the <i>peons</i> to sober up and get back to +regular work again.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_950" href="#Footnote_950" class="fnanchor">[950]</a> The Greek Church, as a celebrated +traveller and historian once pointed out, requires +her followers to observe so many holy days “as practically +to shorten the lives of the people very materially. +I believe that one-third of the number of days in the +year are ‘kept holy,’ or rather, <i>kept stupid</i>, in honour +of the saints: no great portion of the time thus set +apart is spent in religious exercises and the people don’t +betake themselves to any animating pastimes, which +might serve to strengthen the frame, or invigorate the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span>mind, or exalt the taste.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_951" href="#Footnote_951" class="fnanchor">[951]</a> In Russia commercial +and educational progress is hindered by the multitude +of saints’ days. “The <i>dies nefas</i>, when work is tabooed, +becomes a serious handicap in the race of modern life. +These saints’ days, together with the Sundays, rob +the Russian of nearly one-third of his time, for they +leave him only about two hundred and fifty days for +work. He would sooner work on a Sunday than on a +saint’s day.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_952" href="#Footnote_952" class="fnanchor">[952]</a> In eastern Galicia, where a calendar +is in use which permits the observance of the religious +festivals of both the Roman and the Greek churches, +the number of holidays or non-working days is considerably +in excess of one hundred, rising in some +districts to one hundred and fifty, and in others reaching +the amazing total of two hundred.⁠<a id="FNanchor_953" href="#Footnote_953" class="fnanchor">[953]</a> To what +extremes the practice of abstaining from labour on +holy days may extend is further illustrated in Abyssinia, +where the numerous fasts and feasts are so +strictly kept as to render about six months of the year +prohibited for any secular employments.⁠<a id="FNanchor_954" href="#Footnote_954" class="fnanchor">[954]</a>⁠</p> + +<p>Human nature, it has been said, is always ready for +the shift from fast to feast, from Sabbath to Saturnalia. +To the student of primitive religion and sociology nothing +is more interesting than the contemplation of that +unconscious though beneficent process which has converted +institutions, based partly or wholly on a belief in +the imaginary and the supernatural, into institutions +resting on the rock of reason and promoting human +welfare. Though the origin of tabooed and unlucky +days must be sought in gross superstition, sooner or +later they acquire a secular character and may then +be perpetuated as holidays, long after their earlier +significance has disappeared. The transition, with +all its subtle and manifold results on the organization +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span>of society, may be followed under our own eyes. The +passage of the holy day into the holiday, beginning in +the lower culture, promises to reach its culmination in +the secularizing of all the great festivals of the Christian +year. This evolutionary movement, whether for +weal or woe, at least provides a singularly instructive +illustration of the close relations between religion +and social progress, which must ever impress the inquirer +into the early history of mankind.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> <i>Leviathan</i>, chap. xi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> For the leading facts relating to the institution of taboo +see Sir J. G. Frazer, “Taboo,” <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>,⁹ xxiii, +15-18; <i>idem</i>, <i>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</i>, London, +1911; N. W. Thomas, “Taboo,” <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>,¹¹ xxvi, +337-341; L. Marillier, “Tabou,” <i>La grande encyclopédie</i>, xxx, +848 <i>sq.</i>; A. Bros, <i>La religion des peuples non-civilisés</i>, +Paris, 1907, pp. 185-213; C. H. Toy, <i>Introduction to the History of +Religions</i>, Boston, 1913, pp. 239-264.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> A list of the equivalents of tabu in the languages of +Polynesia and Melanesia will be found in William Churchill, <i>The +Polynesian Wanderings</i>, Washington, 1911, pp. 263 sq.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> E. Shortland, <i>Traditions and Superstitions of the New +Zealanders</i>,² London, 1856, p. 101.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> E. Tregear, <i>The Maori-Polynesian Comparative +Dictionary</i>, Wellington (N.Z.), 1891, p. 472.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> William Ellis, <i>Polynesian Researches</i>, London, 1859, +iv, 385.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> The proper term for “prohibit” was <i>rahui</i> +(<i>ibid.</i>, iv, 386).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> R. H. Codrington, <i>The Melanesians</i>, Oxford, 1891, p. +215. In the Banks Islands and in the New Hebrides the word <i>rongo</i> +is employed to indicate the naturally holy character which certain +objects may possess, quite independently of any human sanction or +prohibition (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 181).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> R. H. Nassau, <i>Fetichism in West Africa</i>, London, 1904, +p. 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> A. van Gennep, <i>Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar</i>, +Paris, 1904, pp. 12 <i>sqq.</i>, 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> As Sir James Frazer has pointed out (<i>Encyclopædia +Britannica</i>,⁹ xxiii, 18), the Greeks usually discriminated the two +ideas, ἁγνός being devoted to the sense of “sacred” and ἐναγής to that of +“unclean” or “accursed.” The two words, of course, have no connection, +ἁγνός being related to Skt. <i>yaj-</i>, “sacrifice” and ἐναγής to +Skt. <i>āgas-</i>, “sin” (E. Boisacq, <i>Dictionnaire étymologique de +la langue grecque</i>, Heidelberg and Paris, 1907, pt. i, 7, 9). Among +the Romans <i>sacer</i> always continued to retain the double meaning; +it may be closely rendered by <i>tabu</i>. Compare Servius on Vergil, +<i>Æneis</i>, iii, 75. The late W. Robertson Smith referred to the +fact that the Hebrew <i>ṭāmē</i> “is not the ordinary word for things +physically foul; it is a ritual term and corresponds exactly to the idea +of taboo” (<i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i>,² London, 1903, +p. 309). For a list of Biblical passages containing <i>ṭāmē</i> see +Brown, Driver, and Briggs, <i>A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old +Testament</i>, Boston, 1906, p. 379.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> The notion of transmissibility has been especially +developed by such writers as A. E. Crawley, <i>The Mystic Rose</i>, +London, 1902, <i>passim</i>, Hubert and Mauss, “Esquisse d’une théorie +générale de la magie,” <i>L’année sociologique</i>, 1904, vii, 108 sqq.; +F. B. Jevons, <i>An Introduction to the History of Religion</i>,⁴ London, +1908, pp. 59-68, and R. R. Marett, <i>The Threshold of Religion</i>,² +London, 1914, pp. 99-121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> On the general belief in the omnipresence of demons +and their action in causing human ills see Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>The +Scapegoat</i>, London, 1913, pp. 72-108.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> J. S. Polack, <i>Manners and Customs of the New +Zealanders</i>, London, 1840, i, 234.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Hose and McDougall, <i>The Pagan Tribes of Borneo</i>, +London, 1912, i, 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> C. W. Hobley, “Kikuyu Customs and Beliefs. <i>Thahu</i> +and its Connection with Circumcision Rites,” <i>Journal of the Royal +Anthropological Institute</i>, 1910, xl, 428.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> R. C. Thompson, <i>The Devils and Evil Spirits of +Babylonia</i>, London, 1904, ii, pp. xxxix <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> For an extensive presentation of the ethnographic evidence +see Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</i>, London, +1911, pp. 131-223; <i>idem</i>, <i>Balder the Beautiful</i>, London, +1913, i, 22-100, ii, 225-278. The whole subject is most suggestively +treated by Professor A. van Gennep, <i>Les rites de passage</i>, Paris, +1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Ellis, <i>Polynesian Researches</i>, iv, 387 sqq.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> <i>Idem</i>, <i>Narrative of a Tour through Hawaii +or Owhyhee</i>, London, 1826, p. 366; <i>idem</i>, <i>Polynesian +Researches</i>, iv, 387 <i>sq.</i>; J. J. Jarves, <i>History of the +Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands</i>,² Boston, 1843, p. 57.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Ellis, <i>Narrative</i>, pp. 366 <i>sq.</i>; compare +<i>idem</i>, <i>Polynesian Researches</i>, iv, 388.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> H. T. Cheever, <i>The Island World of the Pacific</i>, +Glasgow [1851], p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Ellis, <i>Narrative</i>, p. 368; Hiram Bingham, <i>A +Residence of Twenty-one Years in the Sandwich Islands</i>, Hartford, +1849, pp. 177 <i>sq.</i> Describing his experiences at Kihoro, the +missionary Ellis could not restrain his admiration of the conduct of the +native converts on Sunday: “No athletic sports were seen on the beach; +no noise of playful children shouting as they gambolled in the surf, nor +distant sound of the cloth-beating mallet was heard through the day; no +persons were seen carrying burdens in or out of the village, nor any +canoes passing across the bay. It could not but be viewed as the dawn +of a bright sabbatic day for the dark shores of Hawaii” (<i>Polynesian +Researches</i>, iv, 408). For similar statements see C. S. Stewart, <i>A +Visit to the South Seas</i>, London, 1832, pp. 277 <i>sqq.</i>, 302 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Charles Wilkes, <i>Narrative of the U.S. Exploring +Expedition</i>, Philadelphia, 1845, ii, 13. “The <i>tabu</i> system,” +wrote an early missionary, “making sacred certain times, persons, and +places, and containing many restrictions and prohibitions, may easily +be interpreted as a relic, much changed and corrupted, from the ancient +ceremonial observances of the Jews” (Sheldon Dibble, <i>History of +the Sandwich Islands</i>, Lahainaluna, 1843, p. 27). The resemblances +between the Polynesian institution and certain customs recorded in the +Old Testament impressed another early writer, who refers to taboo as +“ce singulier usage, en partie politique, au moins dans quelques-uns +de ses effets, mais éminemment religieux dans son origine, non moins +que l’interdit des Hébreux, avec lequel il avait des rapports frappans, +qui n’ont point encore été signalés, quoique méritant assurément toute +l’attention du philosophe et du moraliste” (J. A. Moerenhout, <i>Voyages +aux îles du grand océan</i>, Paris, 1837, ii, 6).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> W. D. Alexander, <i>A Brief History of the Hawaiian +People</i>, New York, 1899, p. 55. The author’s work is based largely +on unpublished Hawaiian manuscripts and the early archives of the +government.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Alexander, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 56 <i>sq.</i> Elsewhere +this excellent authority describes the Hawaiian prayers as in some +measure magical incantations, which, to secure the desired effect, +required to be repeated without the slightest mistake. “During the most +important class of prayers, called <i>aha</i>, it was necessary that +absolute silence should be preserved, as the least noise would break the +spell and destroy the whole effect of the charm” (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 50). A +similar precaution, as is well known, characterized the ritual of a Roman +sacrifice.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> For additional data on this subject see Jarves, <i>op. +cit.</i>, pp. 51 <i>sq.</i>, and David Malo, <i>Hawaiian Antiquities</i>, +Honolulu, 1903, pp. 210-248. The latter work, translated from the +Hawaiian by N. B. Emerson, is an exceptionally valuable repository of +native lore.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Alexander, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 59 <i>sqq.</i>; Malo, +<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 186-210. This New Year’s festival with its +accompanying taboo is also referred to in an early work entitled +<i>Voyage of H.M.S. Blonde to the Sandwich Islands in the Years +1824-1825</i>, London, 1826, pp. 11 <i>sq.</i> According to A. Fornander +(<i>An Account of the Polynesian Race</i>, London, 1878, i, 119 +<i>sq.</i>) the Hawaiian year consisted of twelve 30-day months with +five additional <i>tabu</i> days intercalated at the end of Welehu. If +this statement be correct, the Hawaiian epagomenal days would furnish +a remarkable parallel to those of the ancient Mexicans and Egyptians +(below, pp. <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>sqq.</i>). But the best authorities agree that the +Hawaiian year was strictly lunar, with months of 29 and 30 days in +alternation and an occasional intercalary month.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Alexander, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 52 <i>sq.</i>, 62 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 50 <i>sqq.</i>; Dibble, <i>op. cit.</i>, +25 <i>sq.</i>; Malo, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 56. The latter authority, a +native writer intimately versed in Hawaiian antiquities, declares that +the seasons of taboo were not observed during the four <i>makahiki</i> +months of the year, when the regular religious services were suspended +for games and ceremonies in honour of the god Lono. The same point is +made by Judge Fornander (<i>op. cit.</i>, i, 123 <i>n.</i>²), whose +information was derived from the Hon. S. M. Kamakau, an intelligent +Hawaiian, born and brought up under the heathen <i>régime</i>. On these +Hawaiian Sabbaths see below, pp. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, +<a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, +<a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> J. A. Moerenhout, <i>Voyages aux îles du grand océan</i>, +Paris, 1837, i, 516 <i>sq.</i> See further Mathias G— [Garcia] +(<i>Lettres sur les îles Marquises</i>, Paris, 1843, p. 210), who +refers to the first day of fishing as “un jour de silence et de repos, +<i>tapu</i> pour ceux qui restent à la maison.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> William Yate, <i>An Account of New Zealand</i>, London, +1835, p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> James Cowan, <i>The Maoris of New Zealand</i>, Melbourne +and London, 1910, pp. 116 <i>sq.</i> The <i>kumara</i> crop was sacred, +all persons engaged in its cultivation were temporarily tabooed, and the +offering of the first-fruits of the <i>kumara</i> formed a very solemn +religious ceremony (E. Tregear, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1890, xix, 110). Compare Richard Taylor, <i>Te Ika A +Maui</i>, London, 1855, p. 57.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> E. Tregear, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1890, xix, 110. No food might be cooked on the day before +a war-party set out (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 108). Mr. Tregear, an excellent +authority, declares that in New Zealand “there were no long periods of +silence such as the kings of Hawaii laid on their people by proclaiming +<i>tapu</i>” (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 122). Another writer assures us that the +Maori “had no days more sacred than others” (Taylor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. +92). Yet in one part of New Zealand it was customary to celebrate the new +year with a <i>karakia</i>, or magical incantation and prayer; in another +place there was a <i>karakia</i> when the new moon appeared; and in +still another place “the most sacred day of the year was that appointed +for hair-cutting; the people assembled from all the neighbouring parts, +often more than a thousand in number; the operation being commenced with +<i>karakia</i>, the operator and his obsidian (substitute for scissors) +being thus rendered peculiarly sacred” (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 93).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> John Martin, <i>An Account of the Natives of the Tonga +Islands ... from the Extensive Communications of Mr. William Mariner</i>, +Boston, 1820, pp. 381-385. Mariner passed four years among the Tonga +Islanders as the adopted son of the king Finow. His picturesque, but +apparently reliable, narrative describes the natives in their aboriginal +state before the arrival of Christian missionaries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Not only was all work prohibited at the time of the +<i>inachi</i>, but even any one’s appearance abroad, unless for the +purposes of the ceremony, was interdicted (Martin-Mariner, <i>op. +cit.</i>, p. 383 <i>n.</i>²). The Tongans observed a like restriction +after a death. When a corpse was being taken to the burying-ground, all +persons in the roadway or the adjacent fields were obliged to keep out +of sight, under pain of becoming tabooed. Those who showed themselves +at such a time were generally killed on the spot (<i>ibid.</i>, pp. 243 +<i>sq.</i>, 394).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> This Samoan religious system has been fully described by +Sir J. G. Frazer, who believes that it exhibits “what seems to be the +passage of pure totemism into a religion of anthropomorphic gods with +animal and vegetable attributes, like the deities of ancient Greece” +(<i>Totemism and Exogamy</i>, London, 1910, ii, 152).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> George Turner, <i>Samoa</i>, London, 1884, pp. 29 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 26 <i>sq.</i>, 41, 44, 47, 49, 53, 57.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Turner, <i>Samoa</i>, p. 269.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 279.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> J. E. Erskine, <i>Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of +the Western Pacific</i>, London, 1853, pp. 245 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Basil Thomson, <i>The Fijians</i>, London, 1908, p. 114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> <i>U.S. Exploring Expedition</i>, Philadelphia, 1846, vi, +67 <i>sq.</i> (<i>Ethnography and Philology</i>, by H. Hale).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Charles Wilkes, <i>Narrative of the U.S. Exploring +Expedition</i>, Philadelphia, 1845, iii, 90 <i>sq.</i> This festival bore +the name of <i>tambo nalanga</i> (<i>ibid.</i>, iii, 342).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> In Samoa the second half of the year was called the +<i>palolo</i> season, from the appearance of this singular worm for +three days in the course of a year. If the last quarter of the moon is +late in October, the <i>palolo</i> is found the day before, the day of, +and the day after that quarter. Should the last quarter of the moon be +early in October, the worm does not come till the last quarter of the +November moon (Turner, <i>Samoa</i>, p. 207). The <i>palolo</i>, it may +be noted, is not an entire animal, but only the “propagation-body” of a +sea-annelid (apparently <i>Eunice Viridis</i> Gray), which lives in holes +in the coral stone and comes to the surface for the act of fertilization. +It is found in various parts of Polynesia, including Samoa, Fiji, and +Tonga, and also in Melanesia (New Hebrides and Banks Islands). See A. +Krämer, <i>Die Samoa-Inseln</i>, Stuttgart, 1903, ii, 399-406, and B. +Friedländer, “Notes on the <i>palōlo</i>,” <i>Journal of the Polynesian +Society</i>, 1898, vii, 44-46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> L. Fison, “The <i>nanga</i>, or Sacred Stone Enclosure, +of Wainimala, Fiji,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, +1885, xiv, 18. The solemn rite of initiation into the <i>nanga</i> +was always celebrated at the time of the New Year’s festival, late in +October or early in November. This Fijian festival, called <i>solevu ni +vilavou</i>, corresponded to the Tahitian and Hawaiian <i>makahiki</i> +(A. B. Joske, “The <i>nanga</i> of Viti Levu,” <i>Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie</i>, 1889, ii, 259). On the <i>nanga</i> see further +H. Webster, “Totem Clans and Secret Associations in Australia and +Melanesia,” <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i>, 1911, +xli, 506 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> S. P. Smith, in <i>Journal of the Polynesian Society</i>, +1892, i, 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Ellis, <i>Polynesian Researches</i>, iv, 387.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> W. T. Pritchard, <i>Polynesian Reminiscences</i>, +London, 1866, pp. 149 <i>sq.</i>; George Turner, <i>Nineteen Years in +Polynesia</i>, London, 1861, p. 229; <i>idem</i>, <i>Samoa</i>, p. 146. +See also A. Bastian, <i>Inselgruppen in Oceanien</i>, Berlin, 1883, p. +55.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> For an interesting description of the regulations imposed +on the fishermen themselves see W. H. Furness, 3d., <i>The Island of +Stone Money</i>, Philadelphia, 1910, pp. 38 <i>sq.</i> On taboos observed +by hunters and fishers, generally, see Frazer, <i>Taboo and the Perils of +the Soul</i>, pp. 190-223.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> F. W. Christian, <i>The Caroline Islands</i>, London, 1899, +p. 290.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> A close observer, G. A. J. van der Sande, did not notice +any special rest days among the natives with whom he came in contact, +and whose customs he has so fully described (<i>Nova Guinea</i>, Leiden, +1907, iii, 270).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> C. G. Seligmann, <i>The Melanesians of British New +Guinea</i>, Cambridge, 1910, p. 275.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Quoted in Turner, <i>Samoa</i>, p. 349. The custom +mentioned in the text must now be obsolete. It is not referred to in Dr. +Seligmann’s exhaustive account of the Koita and Motu tribes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> It would seem that among the Bornean tribes, generally, +the chief is responsible for the proper observation of the omens and for +the regulation of taboos affecting an entire community. Compare Hose and +McDougall, <i>The Pagan Tribes of Borneo</i>, London, 1912, i, 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> W. H. Furness, 3d., <i>The Home-life of Borneo +Head-hunters</i>, Philadelphia, 1902, pp. 160-169.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> <i>Permantong</i> is the term used by the Kayan of the +Baram District; among the Kayan in the valley of the Kapuas River, +Dutch Borneo, the word is <i>pantang</i>, the regular Malay equivalent +of <i>tabu</i>. Both these forms are possibly derived from the Malay +<i>hantu</i>, a word meaning demon or evil spirit, with the prefix +<i>per</i> and the affix <i>an</i>. The Malay word in full would thus +be <i>per-hantu-an</i>, meaning “possessed by spirits” or “bewitched.” +<i>Lali</i> is probably a pure Kayan word and means both “prohibited” +and “sacred” (Furness, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 160; A. W. Nieuwenhuis, +<i>Quer durch Borneo</i>, Leiden, 1904-1907, i, 109). According to +Messrs. Hose and McDougall <i>malan</i> and <i>parit</i> are the proper +Kayan words for taboo, though <i>lali</i> and <i>tulah</i> are used as +their <i>lingua franca</i> equivalents. <i>Malan</i> applies to acts +involving risks to the entire community, <i>parit</i> to those involving +risk to the individual committing the forbidden act (<i>Pagan Tribes of +Borneo</i>, i, 14 <i>n.</i>¹).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> On these omen animals see further Sir Spenser St. John, +<i>Life in the Forests of the Far East</i>, London, 1862, i, 191 +<i>sqq.</i>; J. Perham, in H. L. Roth, <i>The Natives of Sarawak and +British North Borneo</i>, London, 1896, i, 191-201; A. C. Haddon, +<i>Head-hunters</i>, London, 1901, pp. 384 <i>sqq.</i>; E. H. Gomes, +<i>Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo</i>, London, 1911, pp. +47 <i>sq.</i>, 152 <i>sqq.</i>, 298; Hose and McDougall, <i>op. cit.</i>, +ii, 51-114 (with some interesting parallels between the modern Kayan +and the Roman auspices). Compare W. D. Wallis, “Divination and Omens in +Borneo and in Ancient Rome,” <i>Classical Journal</i>, 1914, ix, 272-274.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Furness, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 161.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Furness, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 162 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Furness, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 164 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> This period of seclusion is employed by the Kayan in +various games and masquerades, which, if they have a recreative value, +possess as well a religious or magical meaning in the minds of the +people. During the sowing festival the men play at spinning tops, the +youths engage in athletic sports, and maskers, disguised by wooden +helmets and bandages of banana leaves, simulate the actions of evil +spirits. On the magical significance of games in primitive agriculture, +see Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild</i>, London, +1912, i, 92-112.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <i>Quer durch Borneo</i>, Leiden, +1904-1907, i, 166 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> Nieuwenhuis, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> The Kayan call the full moon the “evil moon” and at this +time build neither houses nor boats, and do not go forth on the search +for omens (<i>ibid.</i>, i, 415).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Translated by Dr. Nieuwenhuis as “sitzen, nicht arbeiten.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> A. W. Nieuwenhuis, “Religiöse Zeremonien beim Häuserbau +der Bahau-Dajak am obern Mahakam in Borneo,” <i>Verhandlungen des II +internationalen Kongresses für allgemeine Religionsgeschichte</i>, Basel, +1905, pp. 107-119; compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Quer durch Borneo</i>, ii, +174.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> “At certain seasons of the moon, just before and just +after the full, the [Sea] Dyaks do not work at their farms; and what +with bad omens, sounds, signs, adverse dreams, and deaths, two-thirds of +their time is not spent in farm labour” (Charles Brooke, <i>Ten Years in +Sarawak</i>, London, 1866, i, 149).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Leo Nyuak, “Religious Rites and Customs of the Iban or +Dyaks of Sarawak,” translated from the Dyak by the Very Rev. Edm. Dunn, +<i>Anthropos</i>, 1906, i, 410 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, 176.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, 181.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, 416 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Betara, otherwise <i>petara</i>, is the ordinary Sea Dyak +name for deity. The word is incorrectly translated as “Great Spirit”; in +general belief there are many <i>petara</i>. These gods, it may be noted, +are separated by no distinct line of demarcation from the thousands of +<i>antu</i>, or spirits, with which the Dyak has peopled his universe. +See J. Perham, “<i>Petara</i>, or Sea Dyak Gods,” <i>Journal of the +Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1881, no. 8; H. L. Roth, +<i>The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo</i>, London, 1896, i, +168-182.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> Brooke Low, in Roth, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 401. See also +<i>idem</i>, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1893, +xxii, 24. Many primitive peoples are accustomed to trace a direct +connection between sexual sins and the welfare of the crops. As Sir +James Frazer has shown, this superstition has undoubtedly contributed to +a stricter observance of the rules of sexual morality, both among the +married and the unmarried. See <i>The Magic Art and the Evolution of +Kings</i>, London, 1911, ii, 104-119.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Sir Hugh Low, <i>Sarawak</i>, London, 1848, pp. 260-262. +See also Sir Spenser St. John, <i>Life in the Forests of the Far +East</i>, London, 1862, i, 175 <i>sqq.</i> According to this writer +<i>porikh</i> is the Land Dyak expression equivalent to <i>pamali</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> William Chalmers, in Roth, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 401.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Mrs. S. B. Scott, “Harvest Festivals of the Land Dyaks,” +<i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, 1908, xxix, 236-280.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Mrs. S. B. Scott, “Harvest Festivals of the Land Dyaks,” +<i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, 1908, xxix, 244 +<i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> St. John, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 163.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, 160. The Sea Dyak make an interesting +distinction between <i>mali</i> and <i>penti</i>, the former absolutely +forbidding certain kinds of work to a person under the ban, the latter +allowing it to be undertaken, if started by some one not subject to the +taboo. For instance, though both parents are <i>penti</i> during the +wife’s pregnancy, the expectant mother may engage in basket-making and +mat-weaving, provided some other woman begins the work for her; and the +husband may dig a trench or erect a post, if the hands of others are +first set to the task. Taboos of this sort prevail until the child cuts +its first teeth (F. W. Leggatt, in Roth, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 98).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> Sir Hugh Low observes that among the Land Dyak the +favourite remedies for the cure of internal diseases are turmeric and +spices, taken in huge quantities; “but for anything at all serious, +recourse is had to the <i>pamali</i>, both in medical and surgical cases” +(<i>Sarawak</i>, p. 308).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> St. John, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 175 <i>sq.</i> (Land Dyak). +Mr. Charles Hose declares that at such times the inhabitants of a Kayan +communal house may taboo their private rooms to the other inmates. Small +fines are imposed for infringing the rule, if the act is unintentional, +but when a man forces his way into a tabooed house, a serious quarrel, +ending in bloodshed, may result (<i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1894, xxiii, 170). “It is an old custom among the Iban for +a stranger, before climbing the ladder of a house, to ask in a loud voice +whether there is no taboo” (L. Nyuak, in <i>Anthropos</i>, 1906, i, 175).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> The Murik on the Baram River, a community of hardworking +farmers, in addition to the communal taboos observed by them at sowing, +also keep a <i>lemalli</i> of seven days, when the paddy crop is about +to be harvested. “For the first three days of this no one stirs out of +the house, no work is done, and no sexual intercourse is allowed” (R. S. +Douglas, in <i>Sarawak Museum Journal</i>, 1911, i, 146 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> See below, p. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> The <i>elpanam</i> consists of several large structures, +which serve as a guest-house for strangers and as a town-hall for feasts +and public gatherings. The institution is found under different names in +many of the East Indian islands, and even more widely. See H. Webster, +<i>Primitive Secret Societies</i>, New York, 1908, pp. 8 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> V. Solomon, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1902, xxxii, 215 <i>sq.</i> See also C. B. Kloss, <i>In +the Andamans and Nicobars</i>, London, 1903, pp. 293 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> V. Solomon, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1902, xxxii, 210; Kloss, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 297 +<i>sq.</i> Another kiala festival, also followed by alternate periods of +rest and work, appears to be observed in connection with fishing (Kloss, +<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 295).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> R. van Eck, in <i>Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, +1879, n.s., viii, 58 <i>sqq.</i> Van Eck’s account is reproduced by J. +Jacobs, <i>Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs</i>, Batavia, 1883, pp. 190 +<i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> R. Friederich, in <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Society</i>, 1877, n.s., ix, 77. On the <i>petara</i> see above, p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a> +<i>n.</i>²</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> F. Krämer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” <i>Tijdschrift +voor indische taal- land- en volkenkunde</i>, 1890, xxxiii, 486 +<i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Hinlopen and Severin, <i>ibid.</i>, 1855, iii, 329 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> A. Maass, “<i>Ta-kä-käi-käi tabu</i>,” <i>Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</i>, 1905, xxxvii, 155 <i>sq.</i> The greater part of this +valuable article is concerned with the analogies between the taboo system +in the Mentawi Islands and related systems in Indonesia and Polynesia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> W. A. Pickering, <i>Pioneering in Formosa</i>, London, +1898, p. 71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> W. Joest, in <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</i>, 1882, p. (62) (bound +with <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, vol. xiv).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> G. Taylor, in <i>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical +Society</i>, 1889, n.s., xi, 233; <i>idem</i>, “Folklore of Aboriginal +Formosa,” <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, 1887, v, 150.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> J. P. Finley and William Churchill, <i>The Subanu</i>, +Washington, 1913, pp. 31 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> The word is also spelled <i>tengau</i> and translated +“holiday.” See W. C. Clapp, “A Vocabulary of the Igorot Language,” +<i>Bureau of Science, Division of Ethnology, Publications</i>, Manila, +1908, v, 198.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> A. E. Jenks, “The Bontoc Igorot,” <i>Ethnological Survey +Publications</i>, Manila, 1905, i, 205 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> From a letter to the author, dated December 10, 1910. +In a second letter, under date March 8, 1911, Professor Jenks writes, +“I believe the rest days are first for the purpose of having time for +religious observances—this fact necessitated the rest. I never proved +this point, however.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Jenks, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 213.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> “It is safe to say that one feast is held daily in Bontoc +by some family to appease or win the good will of some <i>anito</i> +[ancestral spirit]” (Jenks, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 198).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Some, if not all, of the Igorot peoples of northern +Luzon are familiar with the idea of taboo as applied to individuals or +to families at certain critical times. The Ibaloi Igorot equivalent of +taboo is <i>pidiu</i>. A man, while in the peculiarly solemn condition +of <i>pidiu</i>, “must not bathe, must not admit visitors into his +house, and must not work, travel, etc.,” under penalty of punishment +by the <i>making</i>, or departed souls, for transgression of the +regulations (O. Scheerer, “The Nabaloi Dialect,” <i>Ethnological Survey +Publications</i>, Manila, 1905, ii, 167). But these prohibitions do not +seem to be socialized.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> T. C. Hodson, “The <i>genna</i> amongst the Tribes +of Assam,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1906, +xxxvi, 92-103; <i>idem</i>, “Some Nāga Customs and Superstitions,” +<i>Folklore</i>, 1910, xxi, 296-312; <i>idem</i>, “Genna,” +<i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>,¹¹ xi, 596; <i>idem</i>, <i>The Nāga +Tribes of Manipur</i>, London, 1911, pp. 164-186.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> “The word <i>genna</i> is used in two ways: (1) it may +mean practically a holiday—<i>i.e.</i>, a man will say, ‘My village +is doing <i>genna</i> to-day,’ by which he means that, owing either to +the occurrence of a village festival or some such unusual occurrence +... his people are observing a holiday; (2) <i>genna</i> means anything +forbidden” (A. W. Davis, in <i>Census of India, 1891, Assam</i>, i, 249).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, pp. 167 <i>sq.</i> Among some +of the Manipuri Naga the various <i>genna</i> are marked by rope-pulling +contests, when the women and girls have a tug-of-war with the men. This +is described as a means of taking omens for the future of the crops +(<i>ibid.</i>, p. 168). The Naga ceremonial is a serious business, but +among the Meithei, the Hinduised neighbours of the Naga, the tug-of-war +has dwindled into a mere pastime (Hodson, in <i>Folklore</i>, 1910, xxi, +300). On the magical significance of the games played by the Kayan of +Borneo during their periods of seclusion, see above, p. <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, pp. 166 <i>sq.</i>, 175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 109, 167, 175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 166 <i>sq.</i>, 173.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 151 <i>sq.</i>, 174. According to +another account the festival occurs on the night of the December new +moon. The shades of the dead are supposed to visit the living at this +time (S. E. Peal, in <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, 1898, xxx, 355).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> Hodson, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 109, 144, 173, 175 <i>sq.</i> +The Naga west of the Doyang River are said to have a <i>genna</i> also +at the annual ceremony of making new fire for the village. The fire, +produced by friction, is first used in burning down the jungle before +the sowing of the crops (W. Crooke, <i>Natives of Northern India</i>, +London, 1907, p. 45; E. T. Dalton, <i>Descriptive Ethnology of +Bengal</i>, Calcutta, 1872, p. 43). The Angami Naga mark by a three days’ +<i>genna</i> the first full moon of the lunar year (D. Prain, in <i>Revue +coloniale internationale</i>, 1887, v, 489).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> John Butler, in <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of +Bengal</i>, 1875, n.s., xlv, i, 316. This observer describes the +<i>kennie</i> as a system of taboo, “singularly similar to that in vogue +among the savages inhabiting the Pacific islands.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, p. 167, citing C. A. Soppitt, +<i>Account of the Kachcha Nāgas</i>, p. 10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> Hodson, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 141. The <i>khullakpa</i>, +also called <i>gennabura</i>, or “authorizer of <i>genna</i>,” is himself +subject to a number of vexatious restrictions designed to prevent any +impairment of the efficiency of his sacred office. On these taboos see +below, pp. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> <i>sq.</i> It is worthy of note that the <i>khullakpa</i> +enjoys a good deal of indirect authority because of his power to close a +village and declare a <i>genna</i>. An individual who violated any of the +taboos imposed by him would be obliged to pay a fine, the proceeds being +used to provide a substantial repast for the village elders (Hodson, in +<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1901, xxxi, 307).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, pp. 177, 180. The Naga of +eastern Assam strictly taboo a house where tattooing is being done (W. H. +Furness, 3d., in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1902, +xxxii, 466).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> T. C. Hodson, <i>The Meitheis</i>, London, 1908, p. +118. It is significant that the Moirang, a more or less backward and +isolated Meithei tribe, still keep up something like a system of communal +<i>genna</i> connected with agricultural operations (<i>ibid.</i>, p. +119).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> P. R. T. Gurdon, <i>The Khasis</i>, London, 1907, p. 158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> A. Playfair, <i>The Garos</i>, London, 1909, p. 114; see +below, p. <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Edward Stack, <i>The Mikirs</i>, edited by Sir Charles +Lyall, London, 1908, p. 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, p. 20. The Mishmi have +household <i>genna</i> whenever the members of a family are visited by +illness or misfortune of any kind. Possibly there are also village rites +of the same nature. See R. Wilcox, in <i>Selections from the Records of +the Bengal Government</i>, Calcutta, 1855, no. 23, p. 64.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> J. Shakespear, <i>The Lushei Kuki Clans</i>, London, 1912, +p. 69.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 72 <i>sq.</i>, 75, 78, 80, 87; C. A. +Soppitt, <i>A Short Account of the Kuki-Lushai Tribes</i>, Shillong, +1887, p. 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> T. H. Lewin, <i>The Hill Tracts of Chittagong</i>, +Calcutta, 1869, p. 78. Captain Lewin’s interesting work was republished +under the title <i>Wild Races of South-eastern India</i> (London, +1870), where the reference to the <i>khang</i> will be found on pp. 196 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> Lewin, <i>Hill Tracts</i>, p. 94; <i>idem</i>, <i>Wild +Races</i>, p. 236 (Mro).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> R. F. St. Andrew St. John, in <i>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</i>, 1873, ii, 240.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> B. S. Carey and H. N. Tuck, <i>The Chin Hills</i>, +Rangoon, 1896, i, 198.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> <i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States</i>, +edited by Scott and Hardiman, Rangoon, 1900, pt. i, vol. i, pp. 425 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> A. R. McMahon, <i>The Karens of the Golden Chersonese</i>, +London, 1876, p. 292.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> Sir R. C. Temple, “Burma,” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 37. Similarly, the Yabim of German +New Guinea require all the inhabitants of a village to remain at +home on the morning after the birth of a child. This is regarded as +a necessary precaution, if the fruits of the fields and gardens are +not to be spoiled by the noxious influences emanating from a woman in +childbed (K. Vetter, in <i>Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den +Bismarck-Archipel</i>, 1897, xiii, 87).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> R. G. Woodthorpe, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1897, xxvi, 27 <i>sqq.</i>; Sir J. G. Scott, “Buddhism +in the Shan States,” <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1911, +n.s., xliii, 931. On taboos affecting intercourse with strangers see, in +general, Frazer, <i>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</i>, pp. 101-116.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> <i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States</i>, pt. +i, vol. i, p. 515.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> S. R. Clarke, <i>Among the Tribes in South-west China</i>, +London, 1911, p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> For instances of “magical telepathy” in hunting, fishing, +and warfare see Frazer, <i>The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings</i>, +i, 119-134.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> As Messrs. Hose and McDougall judiciously observe, the +cult of omen-birds found among the Kayan of Borneo, though it hampers +their undertakings at almost every turn and might seem to be wholly +foolish and detrimental, has really “two great practical advantages: +namely, it inspires confidence, and it promotes discipline and a strong +sense of collective unity and responsibility. It is not improbable, +then, that the advantages of this seemingly senseless cult outweigh +its drawbacks, which, in the shape of endless delays and changes of +plans, are by no means small” (<i>Pagan Tribes of Borneo</i>, i, 170 +<i>n.</i>¹).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> On the sociological conception of crisis see W. I. Thomas, +<i>Source Book for Social Origins</i>, Chicago, 1909, pp. 16 <i>sqq.</i>; +R. R. Marett, <i>The Threshold of Religion</i>,² London, 1914, pp. 198 +<i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> On the primitive ideas of death see particularly R. Hertz, +“Contribution à une étude sur la représentation collective de la morte,” +<i>L’année sociologique</i>, 1905-1906, x, 48-137; E. S. Hartland, “Death +and Disposal of the Dead (Introductory),” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of +Religion and Ethics</i>, iv, 411-444; W. H. R. Rivers, “The Primitive +Conception of Death,” <i>Hibbert Journal</i>, 1912, x, 393-407; Sir J. +G. Frazer, <i>The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead</i>, +London, 1913, i, 31-58; A. van Gennep, <i>Les rites de passage</i>, +Paris, 1909, pp. 209-236; L. Lévy-Bruhl, <i>Les fonctions mentales dans +les sociétés inférieures</i>, Paris, 1910, pp. 321-330, 352-396. For a +useful collection of ethnographic evidence see E. Samter, <i>Geburt, +Hochzeit, und Tod</i>, Leipzig, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> A. E. Crawley, <i>The Mystic Rose</i>, London, 1902, pp. +95 <i>sqq.</i>; L. R. Farnell, <i>The Evolution of Religion</i>, London, +1905, pp. 96 <i>sqq.</i>; E. Westermarck, <i>The Origin and Development +of the Moral Ideas</i>, London, 1906-1908, ii, 535 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> On the sociological aspects of these and other +superstitions see H. Webster, “Influence of Superstition on the Evolution +of Property Rights,” <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, 1910, xv, +794-805; H. Berkusky, “Der Einfluss abergläubischer Vorstellungen auf das +wirtschaftliche und soziale Leben der Naturvölker,” <i>Zeitschrift für +Socialwissenschaft</i>, 1913, n.s., iv, 489-498, 567-584.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, +<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> H. O. Forbes, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1884, xiii, 420.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> A. Maass, “<i>Ta-kä-käi-käi tabu</i>,” <i>Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</i>, 1905, xxxvii, 155; J. G. F. Riedel, <i>ibid.</i>, 1885, +xvii, 69.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> J. G. F. Riedel, <i>De sluik- en kroesharige rassen +tusschen Selebes en Papua</i>, The Hague, 1886, pp. 168 (Seranglao and +Gorong archipelagoes), 197 (Watubela Islands), 223 (Kei Islands), 341 +(Babar Archipelago), 414 (Keisar Island).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> D. C. Worcester, in <i>Philippine Journal of Science</i>, +1906, i, 844. Compare F. C. Cole, in <i>American Anthropologist</i>, +1909, n.s., xi, 337 (Tenguian).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> C. B. Kloss, <i>In the Andamans and Nicobars</i>, London, +1903, pp. 303 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Annandale and Robinson, <i>Fasciculi Malayensis</i>, +London, 1903-1904, i, 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Brooke Low, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1892, xxi, 122; <i>idem</i>, in Roth, <i>Natives of +Sarawak and British North Borneo</i>, i, 155.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> L. Nyuak, in <i>Anthropos</i>, 1906, i, 413.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> E. H. Gomes, <i>Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of +Borneo</i>, London, 1911, p. 139.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> De Crespigny, in <i>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical +Society</i>, 1858, ii, 348.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> Hose and McDougall, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 37 <i>sq.</i> The +Kayan on the Mahakam River require all those who have been polluted by +taking part in burial ceremonies to undergo a two days’ <i>melo</i>, or +ceremonial abstention from work (Nieuwenhuis, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 119).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, pp. 99, 174, 177.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Hodson, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 100, 152, 166, 174. Compare +<i>idem</i>, “Mortuary Ritual and Eschatological Beliefs among the Hill +Tribes of Assam,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1909, xii, +449.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, p. 88. “We find among the Naga +tribes that, if a woman died in childbirth (an event of rare occurrence), +the child was never allowed to live, because they believed it to be an +evil spirit, a disembodied ghost, incarnated in the mother whose death +it had caused” (<i>idem</i>, “Some Nāga Customs and Superstitions,” +<i>Folklore</i>, 1910, xxi, 301). Among the Kabui Naga not only does +the death of a woman in childbirth necessitate a five days’ village +<i>genna</i>, but the same period of restriction is also imposed after +the death of a child dying in infancy (J. Shakespear, “Customs at Death +among the Manipuris and Cognate Clans,” <i>Folklore</i>, 1912, xxiii, +466 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> P. R. T. Gurdon, <i>The Khasis</i>, London, 1907, p. 143.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> R. F. St. Andrew St. John, in <i>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</i>, 1873, ii, 240.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> A. Coussot and H. Ruel, <i>Douze mois chez les sauvages du +Laos</i>, Paris, 1898, p. 205; A. Cabaton, “Indo-China (Savage Races),” +Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, vii, 232.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> F. Fawcett, in <i>Folklore</i>, 1912, xxiii, 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> A. K. Iyer, <i>The Cochin Tribes and Castes</i>, Madras, +1909, i, 265.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> C. H. Rao, in <i>Anthropos</i>, 1909, iv, 181.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> H. Hosten, “Pahāria Burial Customs (British Sikkim),” +<i>Anthropos</i>, 1909, iv, 673, 675.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> S. C. Das, <i>Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet</i>, +London, 1902, p. 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Dudley Kidd, <i>The Essential Kafir</i>, London, 1904, p. +253; Farewell, in W. F. W. Owen, <i>Narrative of Voyages to explore the +Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar</i>, London, 1833, ii, 397. A +Kafir chief, on succeeding to power, is said to have declared a taboo of +all field work for an entire year and to have put to death every woman +who became pregnant during this period (<i>Globus</i>, 1889, lvi, 62).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> Joseph Shooter, <i>The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu +Country</i>, London, 1857, p. 216.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> E. Casalis, <i>Les Bassoutos</i>, Paris, 1859, p. 275.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> P. Kollmann, <i>Der Nordwesten unserer ostafrikanischen +Kolonie</i>, Berlin, 1898, p. 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> W. S. Routledge and Katherine Routledge, <i>With a +Prehistoric People</i>, London, 1910, p. 172.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> R. Lasch, “Die Ursache und Bedeutung der Erdbeben im +Volksglauben und Volksbrauch,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, +1902, v, 236-257, 369-383; B. Struck, “African Ideas on the Subject of +Earthquakes,” <i>Journal of the African Society</i>, 1909, viii, 398-411.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> A. C. Hollis, <i>The Nandi</i>, Oxford, 1908, pp. 17, +20, 100. The rules imposed by Nandi custom on persons ceremonially +unclean include abstinence from work. For instance, after Nandi girls +have been operated upon at puberty, they must stay in their mothers’ +huts in complete seclusion for a month or more. After recovering from +the effects of the operation, they may be married. But if no husbands +appear, the girls continue to live in a secluded state for several weeks +longer. If they go abroad, they must always wear long masks and veils; +they must not stand near anybody or call a person by name; they may not +enter a cornfield or a cattle-kraal; and they may do no work. Again, a +Nandi bride, for an entire month after her marriage, is waited on by the +bridegroom’s mother, since it is unlawful for a bride during this period +to perform labour. Similarly, a Nandi mother, after the birth of a child, +is unclean and may not do any housework for a month (<i>ibid.</i>, pp. 59 +<i>sq.</i>, 63 <i>sqq.</i>). Among the Habbe of the western Sudan a man, +whose wife is menstruating, dares not undertake any journey, hunt, or sow +(L. Desplagnes, <i>Le plateau central nigérien</i>, Paris, 1904, p. 227).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> C. W. Hobley, <i>Eastern Uganda</i>, London, 1902, p. 28 +(<i>Occasional Papers of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i>, no. 1).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Sir H. H. Johnston, <i>The Uganda Protectorate</i>, +London, 1902, ii, 176 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> W. Munzinger, <i>Ostafrikanische Studien</i>, +Schaffhausen, 1864, p. 528 (Barea and Kunama).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Westermarck, <i>Origin and Development of the Moral +Ideas</i>, ii, 283.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> H. E. Standing, “Malagasy <i>fady</i>,” <i>Antananarivo +Annual</i>, 1883, no. 7, p. 74. Compare A. Grandidier, <i>ibid.</i>, +1891, no. 15, p. 316; A. van Gennep, <i>Tabou et totémisme à +Madagascar</i>, Paris, 1904, pp. 100 <i>sqq.</i>, 203.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> Thomas Gage, <i>A New Survey of the West-Indies</i>,⁴ +London, 1699, p. 160.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> C. MacCauley, in <i>Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</i>, p. 521.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Hans Egede, <i>A Description of Greenland</i>, London, +1745, pp. 149 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> F. Boas, in <i>Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural +History</i>, 1901, xv, 121 <i>sq.</i> With these regulations may be +compared the restrictions which, among the Kwakiutl of British Columbia, +are imposed on a man who has eaten human flesh as a ceremonial rite and +who, therefore, is considered unclean. He must not approach his wife for +an entire year, nor is he allowed either to gamble or to work during this +time (Boas, “The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the +Kwakiutl Indians,” <i>Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895</i>, +pp. 537 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> F. Boas, in <i>Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</i>, pp. 427, 613 <i>sq.</i>; compare <i>idem</i>, “Die Sagen +der Baffin-Land Eskimos,” <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</i>, 1885, p. (164) (bound +with <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, vol. xvii). These Eskimo observe +like restrictions after the capture of whales, seals, and walruses, which +form their principal food supply.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> H. W. Elliott, <i>Our Arctic Province</i>, New York, 1887, +p. 389.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> E. W. Nelson, in <i>Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau +of American Ethnology</i>, p. 319.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 312. Similarly, a hunter who has +participated in the capture of a whale is not allowed to do any work for +the next four days, that being the time during which the ghost of the +whale is supposed to stay with its body (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 438).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> J. Murdock, in <i>Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</i>, p. 424. The Alaskan Eskimo are now being rapidly converted +to Christianity or, rather, are accepting as many of the Christian +teachings as can be assimilated by them to their old pagan observances. +The missionary they regard as a shaman and his prohibitions, especially +those relating to Sunday observance, they treat as so many new taboos +to be added to their long catalogue of restrictions. “An Eskimo who is +a great admirer of the white people (and some Eskimo are not) said to +me once that some Eskimo foolishly maintained that white men were less +intelligent than Eskimo are. But he said that he had a crushing reply +to those who made this statement. He would say to them: ‘Our wise men +have taboos on food and drink, they have taboos on clothing and methods +of travel, on words and thoughts; but until the white man came did we +ever hear of Sunday? Did the wisest of us ever think of the fact that +a <i>day</i> might be taboo?’” (V. Stefánsson, “On Christianizing the +Eskimo,” <i>Harper’s Magazine</i>, 1913, cxxvii, 674; <i>idem</i>, +<i>My Life with the Eskimo</i>, New York, 1913, p. 412; compare pp. 36 +<i>sq.</i>, 89 <i>sqq.</i>, 374 <i>sq.</i>, 416 <i>sqq.</i>)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> W. Bogoras, in <i>Memoirs of the American Museum of +Natural History</i>, xi, 521.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> W. Jochelson, <i>ibid.</i>, x, 104 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> W. G. Sumner, “The Yakuts,” abridged from the Russian of +Sieroshevski, <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1901, +xxxi, 107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> W. H. Bennett, in Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion +and Ethics</i>, iv, 499.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> A. Wuttke, <i>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der +Gegenwart</i>,³ edited by E. H. Meyer, Berlin, 1900, p. 461.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> George Henderson, <i>Survivals in Belief among the +Celts</i>, Glasgow, 1911, p. 296 (Isle of Iriskay).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> On feasts of All Souls, in general, see Sir J. G. Frazer, +<i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>,³ London, 1914, ii, 51-83; on the public +expulsion of evils see <i>idem</i>, <i>The Scapegoat</i>, London, 1913, +pp. 109-169. Compare also P. Sartori, <i>Die Speisung der Toten</i>, +Dortmund, 1903, pp. 48-55.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, +<a href="#Page_21">21</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, +<a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, +<a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> E. Casalis, <i>Les Bassoutos</i>, Paris, 1859, p. 275. +The king of the Matabele was obliged to abstain from food and drink on +the new moon following the beginning of the Matabele year. The late +ruler, Lobengula, compromised this self-denying ordinance by drinking +beer only out of a bottle. During the new-moon day “he was supposed to +have communication with the spirits of his ancestors, and he abstained +altogether from business” (L. Decle, <i>Three Years in Savage Africa</i>, +London, 1900, p. 156).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> J. F. Cunningham, <i>Uganda and its Peoples</i>, London, +1905, pp. 12 <i>sq.</i> The Bahima demons, a numerous company, are mostly +identified with the various maladies from which the natives suffer. See +Sir H. H. Johnston, <i>The Uganda Protectorate</i>, London, 1902, ii, 631 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> C. Velten, <i>Sitten und Gebräuche der Suaheli</i>, +Göttingen, 1903, p. 342.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> Soury-Lavergne and de la Devèze, “La fête nationale du +<i>fandroana</i> en Imerina, Madagascar,” <i>Anthropos</i>, 1913, viii, +308.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> A. B. Ellis, <i>The Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, London, +1887, pp. 227 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> “Extracts from Diary of the late Rev. John Martin, +Wesleyan Missionary in West Africa, 1843-1848,” <i>Man</i>, 1912, xii, +138 <i>sq.</i> Compare A. J. N. Tremearne, <i>The Tailed Head-hunters of +Nigeria</i>, London, 1912, pp. 202 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> A. B. Ellis, <i>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, London, +1894, pp. 107 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> See H. Webster, <i>Primitive Secret Societies</i>, New +York, 1908, pp. 104 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> Mrs. R. B. Batty, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1889, xix, 160.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> Ellis, <i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 110 <i>sq.</i> +The Oro rites are attributed by Ellis to the <i>ogboni</i> society, +but it is probable that the term “Oro” is also applied to other secret +associations of Yorubaland.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> R. E. Dennett, <i>Nigerian Studies</i>, London, 1910, pp. +41 <i>sq.</i>, quoting Adesola in the <i>Nigerian Chronicle</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> J. B. Walker, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1877, vi, 121 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> T. J. Hutchinson, <i>Impressions of Western Africa</i>, +London, 1858, pp. 141 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Scholium on Lucian, <i>Timon</i>, 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Plato, <i>Leges</i>, vii, 800; Lucian, +<i>Pseudologistes</i>, 12; Plutarch, <i>De EI apud Delphos</i>, 20; +<i>idem</i>, <i>De defectu oraculorum</i>, 14; <i>idem</i>, <i>Vita +Alexandri</i>, 14; Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι (ed. M. +Schmidt, Jena, 1867, col. 211).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> E. Rhode, <i>Psyche</i>,⁶ Tübingen, 1910, p. 235; P. +Stengel, <i>Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer</i>, Munich, 1890, p. 156 +(with references to the classical authorities). The fifth day of every +Athenian month was regarded as unpropitious, and hence was not dedicated +to any divinity. A superstitious avoidance of the “fifths” of the month +can be traced back to Hesiod (<i>Opera et dies</i>, 802 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> Compare Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> μιαροὶ ἡμέραι (ed. Schmidt, +col. 1045): “the polluted days of the month of Anthesterion, on which +days they think that the souls of the departed are sent up from the +nether world.” Photius, <i>s.v.</i> μιαρὰ ἡμέρα (ed. S. A. Naber, Leiden, +1864-1865, i, 423), says that on the second day the people used to chew +buckthorn and anoint their doors with pitch. See Frazer’s note (<i>The +Scapegoat</i>, p. 153 <i>n.</i>¹) on the widespread use of buckthorn and +pitch as prophylactics against ghosts and evil influences.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> On the Anthesteria, from an anthropological standpoint, +see particularly Miss Jane E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of +Greek Religion</i>, Cambridge, 1903, pp. 32 <i>sqq.</i>, 49 <i>sqq.</i> +Dr. L. R. Farnell thinks that only in the ritual for the third and final +day of the Anthesteria have we a genuine ceremony of ghost-riddance, +this day falling so near the Dionysiac celebration as to become +attached to the latter as a mournful finale (<i>The Cults of the Greek +States</i>, Oxford, 1906-1910, v, 215 <i>sqq.</i>). But, on this view, +it is difficult to see why the second day, the Choes, should have been +expressly mentioned as “polluted” (μιαρά), and why the first day, the +Pithoigia, should have been described as “totally unlucky” (ἐς τὸ πᾶν +άποφράς).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> Festus, <i>De verborum significatione</i>, ed. C. O. +Müller, Leipzig, 1839, p. 156; Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>, i, 16, 24. +The <i>dies religiosi</i> were sometimes confused, even by the ancients, +with the <i>dies nefasti</i> (compare Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, +iv, 9, 5), which were days marked in the calendar as occasions when +the prætor’s court was not open and assemblies (<i>comitia</i>) could +not lawfully meet. But not all <i>dies religiosi</i> were observed as +non-comitial and non-judicial days. It seems, indeed, that the priestly +authorities who drew up the calendar did not wish to recognize these +products of popular superstition by incorporating all of them, under the +guise of <i>dies nefasti</i>, in the Roman state religion. On the <i>dies +religiosi</i>, also described as <i>dies atri</i> or <i>dies vitiosi</i>, +see G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i>, Munich, 1902, pp. +376 <i>sq.</i>; W. W. Fowler, <i>The Religious Experience of the Roman +People</i>, London, 1911, pp. 38 <i>sqq.</i>; T. Mommsen, in <i>Corpus +inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, i, pt. i,² 296.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> Gellius, <i>op. cit.</i>, iv, 9, 5; Varro, <i>De lingua +Latina</i>, vi, 29 <i>sq.</i>; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, v, 419-486; W. W. +Fowler, <i>The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic</i>, London, +1899, pp. 106 <i>sqq.</i>, 306 <i>sqq.</i> The first eight days of the +Parentalia belonged only to the sphere of family worship, but the ninth +day (Feb. 21) was also a public celebration, known as the Feralia. The +Lemuria, at least in historic times, was not a state festival, but a +purely domestic affair.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> Varro, <i>ap.</i> Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 16, +18; Festus, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 156. Compare Fowler, “Mundus Patet,” +<i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>, 1912, ii, 25-33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> Both expressions are commonly derived from the Babylonian +<i>shabattum</i>; see below, p. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xvi, 31, xxiii, 26-32; compare +<i>Numbers</i>, xxix, 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxv, 9; <i>Ezekiel</i>, xl, 1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 23-25; <i>Numbers</i>, xxix, +1-7. It has been suggested that the first ten days of the seventh month +were epagomenal, bridging the gap, as it were, between the old lunar +year of 355 days and the solar year (J. Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena zur +Geschichte Israels</i>,³ Berlin, 1905, p. 105 <i>n.</i>²; see below, p. +<a href="#Page_247">247</a> <i>n.</i>²). In the ritual of the Jewish +church they are described as days of “penitence.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> See Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>The Scapegoat</i>, London, 1913, +pp. 170 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> On the relation of the Hebrew <i>kipper</i>, or +atonement, to the Assyrian <i>kuppuru</i> and the connection of both +with ideas of taboo, see R. C. Thompson, <i>The Devils and Evil +Spirits of Babylonia</i>, London, 1904, ii, pp. 1 <i>sqq.</i> It is +unnecessary to accept his conclusion that the Hebrew ceremony was +directly borrowed from Babylonia. The view advanced in the text as +to the antiquity of the Atonement rite may now claim the support of +Professor Grimme, who sees in this ceremony one of the oldest elements +of the Law and finds the prototype of Azazel in the hairy demons which +were believed to haunt the wilderness of northern Arabia. See H. +Grimme, “Das Alter des israelitischen Versöhnungstages,” <i>Archiv für +Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1911, xiv, 130-142.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in +Morocco,” <i>Folklore</i>, 1911, xxii, 157 <i>sq.</i>, 180 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> Strabo, <i>Geographica</i>, x, 3, 9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> The best study of holiness in its relation to the concept +of taboo is still that of W. Robertson Smith (<i>The Religion of the +Semites</i>,² London, 1894, chaps. iv-v). See further N. Söderblom, +“Holiness (General and Primitive),” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of +Religion and Ethics</i>, vi, 731-741.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> “In economic theory,” writes Dr. Thorstein Veblen, +“sacred holidays are obviously to be construed as a season of vicarious +leisure performed for the divinity or saint in whose name the <i>tabu</i> +is imposed and to whose good repute the abstention from useful effort on +those days is conceived to inure. The characteristic feature of all such +seasons of devout vicarious leisure is a more or less rigid <i>tabu</i> +on all activity that is of human use.... Sacred holidays, and holidays +generally, are of the nature of a tribute levied on the body of the +people. The tribute is paid in vicarious leisure, and the honourific +effect which emerges is imputed to the person or the fact for whose good +repute the holiday has been instituted. Such a tithe of vicarious leisure +is a perquisite of all members of the preternatural leisure class and +is indispensable to their good fame. <i>Un saint qu’on ne chôme pas</i> +is indeed a saint fallen on evil days” (<i>The Theory of the Leisure +Class</i>, New York, 1899, pp. 309 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, +<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> J. W. Breeks, <i>An Account of the Primitive Tribes and +Monuments of the Nīlagiris</i>, London, 1873, p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> P. Dehon, in <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of +Bengal</i>, 1906, i, no. 1, p. 144.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> W. Crooke, <i>Natives of Northern India</i>, London, 1907, +p. 232.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> C. K. Menon, “Some Agricultural Ceremonies in Malabar,” +Madras Government Museum, <i>Bulletin</i>, 1906, v, 104 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> Henry Whitehead, “The Village Deities of Southern India,” +Madras Government Museum, <i>Bulletin</i>, 1907, v, 128 <i>sq.</i> +The whole subject of these Dravidian festivals has now been carefully +investigated by my former pupil Mr. W. T. Elmore. See his monograph +“Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism,” <i>University Studies</i>, Lincoln, +Nebraska, 1915, xv, 1-152.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Several of the Hindu festivals are accompanied by prayer, +fasting, bathing, and oblation. One of the minor ceremonies during the +month of February is intended to “avert smallpox.” See E. W. Hopkins, +<i>The Religions of India</i>, Boston, 1895, p. 452 <i>n.</i>²; H. +H. Wilson, <i>Essays and Lectures chiefly on the Religions of the +Hindus</i>, London, 1862, ii, 209 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 21; <i>Numbers</i>, xxviii, 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> The ethnographic evidence relating to first-fruits has +been very fully collected by Sir J. G. Frazer (<i>Spirits of the Corn and +of the Wild</i>, London, 1912, ii, 48-137). See also J. A. MacCulloch, +“First-fruits (Introductory and Primitive),” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, vi, 41-45; E. N. Fallaize, “Harvest,” +<i>ibid.</i>, vi, 520-525.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> On the Tongan <i>inachi</i> see above, pp. <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Below, pp. <a href="#Page_250">250</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> Plato, <i>Leges</i>, ii, 653.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> E. E. Sikes, “Folk-lore in the ‘Works and Days’ of +Hesiod,” <i>Classical Review</i>, 1893, vii, 390. The Hesiodic injunction +(<i>Opera et dies</i>, 742-743):</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">μηδ’ ἀπὸ πεντόζοιο θεῶν ἐν δαιτὶ θαλείῃ</div> + <div class="verse indent0">αὖον ἀπὸ χλωροῦ τάμνειν αἴθωνι σιδήρῳ</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">stripped of its metaphorical setting, means simply, “Do not cut your +nails with iron on a joyous festival of the gods.” This taboo may be +compared with the rule observed by the Flaminica Dialis at Rome, who, +during the celebration of the festival called the Vestalia, might not +cut her hair or nails (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi, 225-226). The Roman +antiquarian, Pliny the Elder, refers to the belief that it is ominous +to pare the nails on market days (<i>nundinæ</i>), but to cut the hair +on the 17th and 29th days of the month is a preventive of baldness +and headache (<i>Historia naturalis</i>, xxviii, 5). These pagan +superstitions have passed into modern European folklore, being widely +current, for example, in England (W. Henderson, <i>Notes on the Folk-lore +of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders</i>, London, 1879, +pp. 17 <i>sq.</i>), as in the familiar lines:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Better a child had ne’er been born</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Then cut his nails on a Sunday morn!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Or, as another old English rhyme runs:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Sunday shaven, Sunday shorn,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Better hadst thou ne’er been born!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">In certain parts of Ireland people will not shave on Sunday (G. H. +Kinahan, in <i>Folk-lore Record</i>, 1881, iv, 105). Besides Sunday, +Friday is often considered an unlucky day for cutting hair or nails, +and sometimes a distinction is made between the two days, as in +Northumberland, where it is unlucky to cut hair on a Friday or to pare +nails on a Sunday (<i>Denham Tracts</i>, ed. J. Hardy, ii, 343). In +Macedonia Wednesday and Friday are the two days when the nails should +not be cut, while Sunday is unpropitious for bathing (G. F. Abbott, +<i>Macedonian Folk-lore</i>, Cambridge, 1903, p. 190). Similar taboos are +found outside of Europe. The Egyptians hold Saturday to be particularly +unfavourable for shaving and cutting the nails (E. W. Lane, <i>Manners +and Customs of the Modern Egyptians</i>,⁵ London, 1871, i, 331), while +the Jews in Jerusalem think that the nails should be cut early in +the week, so that they may not start growing on the Sabbath (Miss A. +Goodrich-Freer, in <i>Folklore</i>, 1904, xv, 187). These superstitions +may rest ultimately on the notion that such acts as hair-cutting, +shaving, and nail-paring are ritually unclean, and hence that their +performance on a sacred day would defile the festival. See in general on +this subject, E. E. Sikes, “Hair and Nails,” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, vi, 474-476.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Plutarch, <i>Alcibiades</i>, 34; Xenophon, +<i>Hellenica</i>, i, 4, 12; Pollux, <i>Onomasticon</i>, viii, 141.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Compare Miss Jane E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study +of Greek Religion</i>, Cambridge, 1903, pp. 114 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, vi, 32; Ovid, +<i>Fasti</i>, vi, 219 <i>sqq.</i>, 707 <i>sqq.</i>; Festus, <i>De +verborum significatione</i>, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 250; Fowler, <i>Roman +Festivals</i>, pp. 145 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> In addition to the Parentalia, Lemuria, and Vestalia, the +occasions on which the Salii performed their dances in March and October +(Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iii, 393 <i>sqq.</i>; Livy, xxxvii, 33; Suetonius, +<i>Otho</i>, 8) and the two days succeeding the <i>feriæ Latinæ</i> +(Cicero, <i>Ad Qu. frat.</i>, ii, 4, 2) were included among the <i>dies +religiosi</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> See G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i>, +Munich, 1902, pp. 365-381; <i>idem</i>, in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, vi, coll. +2211-2213; A. S. Wilkins, in Smith, Wayte, and Marindin’s <i>Dictionary +of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>,³ ii, 836-838; and especially C. +Jullian, in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités +grecques et romaines</i>, iv, 1042-1066. The plural form <i>feriæ</i> +indicates that the festival day recurs periodically; compare the similar +usage as respects <i>nundinæ</i> (below, p. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>). <i>Feriæ</i> seems to +have been first written <i>fesiæ</i>, whence the word <i>festus</i>. +On the derivation of <i>feriæ</i> see A. Walde, <i>Lateinisches +etymologisches Wörterbuch</i>,² Heidelberg, 1910, pp. 270 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>sq.</i>, +<a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Festus, <i>De verborum significatione: denicales feriæ +colebantur, cum hominis mortui causa familia purgabatur</i> (ed. Müller, +p. 70); compare Cicero, <i>De legibus</i>, ii, 22, 55. It was not lawful +to bury a corpse on a public holiday, doubtless through fear of polluting +the sacredness of the occasion. See Columella, <i>De re rustica</i>, ii, +22, 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> Cato, <i>De agri cultura</i>, 138. Compare the Mosaic +injunction relating to the Sabbath (<i>Deuteronomy</i>, v, 14).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i, 664 <i>sq.</i>:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Pagus agat festum: pagum lustrate, coloni;</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Et date paganis ennua liba focis.</i></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Some ancient authorities (Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, vi, 26; +Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>, i, 16, 6) appear to distinguish the +Paganalia from the <i>feriæ sementivæ</i>. On this festival see Fowler, +<i>Roman Festivals</i>, pp. 294 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>idem</i>, <i>The +Religious Experience of the Roman People</i>, London, 1911, pp. 61 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 16, 8. On the taboos +affecting the Flamen and Flaminica see F. B. Jevons, <i>Plutarch’s Romane +Questions</i>, London, 1892, pp. lxxiii <i>sqq.</i>; Sir J. G. Frazer, +<i>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</i>, pp. 13 <i>sq.</i> The Flamen was +in a condition of permanent taboo—<i>Dialis cotidie feriatus est</i> +(Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, x, 15, 16).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> Appian, <i>Bellum civile</i>, i, 55; Plutarch, +<i>Sulla</i>, 8; Dio Cassius, xxxviii, 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Cicero, <i>De legibus</i>, ii, 8, 19; compare ii, 12, 29; +<i>idem</i>, <i>De divinatione</i>, i, 45, 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 16, 9: <i>Pollux ferias, +si ... opus aliquod fieret</i>; Festus, <i>s.v.</i> <i>præciamitatores: +ut homines se ab opere abstinerent, quia his opus facientem videre +irreligiosum erat</i> (ed. Müller, p. 248).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 16, 10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, 16, 11; compare <i>Matthew</i>, xii, 11; +<i>Luke</i>, xiv, 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> Cato, <i>De agri cultura</i>, ii, 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> Vergil, <i>Georgica</i>, i, 268-272, with the commentary +of Servius. An entire chapter of Columella’s treatise on husbandry +(<i>De re rustica</i>, ii, 22) is devoted to a discussion of what may +and what may not be done by a farmer on ferial days. The pontifical law +in such matters was as minute, tyrannical, and absurd as the rabbinical +ordinances relating to the proper observance of the Sabbath. See below, +p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> Livy, i, 31, iii, 5, vii, 28, xxi, 62, xxv, 7, xxxiv, 55, +xxxv, 40, xli, 21, xlii, 2; Suetonius, <i>Divus Claudius</i>, 22. Many +more instances are given by Julius Obsequens in his curious work, <i>De +prodigiis</i>, 22, 33, 54, 58, 68, 104, 111.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, ii, 24, 11; compare Horace, +<i>Carmina</i>, ii, 3, 6-9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> The Indians of Cape Flattery, state of Washington, are +said to keep the month of August as a period of repose when no berries +are picked and no fish are taken from the sea, except occasionally by +children (J. G. Swan, in <i>Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge</i>, +xvi, no. 220, p. 91). Perhaps the practice was consciously designed to +establish a “close season,” though this is probably attributing too much +foresight to the Indian. The fish or berries may have been considered +unfit for eating in August. After gathering the yam harvest the Bini of +Benin keep the first month of the dry season as a time of idleness (R. +E. Dennett, <i>At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind</i>, London, 1906, p. +216). Here a period of rest is observed by an agricultural people because +they have no special labour to perform. Among the Akikuyu of British East +Africa there are three months in the year when little or no work is done, +since the crops are then ripening (K. R. Dundas, in <i>Man</i>, 1909, +ix, 38). The Yuchi Indians, now in the state of Oklahoma, keep autumn +as “a period of combined rest, hunting, and enjoyment.” The winter, +also, is passed in idleness and recreation (F. G. Speck, <i>Ethnology of +the Yuchi Indians</i>, Philadelphia, 1909, p. 67). Dr. C. G. Seligmann +has sent to me, in manuscript, some curious information regarding a +division of time observed by the Sinaugolo, a hill-tribe to the east of +Port Moresby, British New Guinea. It seems that long ago, according to +Sinaugolo tradition, the people had to labour incessantly and enjoyed no +opportunity to celebrate their dances and other festive ceremonies. So +they instituted what was called the <i>kaba</i> period as a relaxation +from the hard work of ordinary life. During this period, which recurred +every other year or oftener, the Sinaugolo danced and held their most +important feasts. The division of time into <i>kaba</i> and <i>dauka</i> +(specially devoted to labour) has now lapsed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> <i>The Evolution of the Aryan</i>, translated by A. +Drucker, London, 1897, p. 117.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> On primitive markets see Karl Andree, <i>Geographie des +Welthandels</i>, Stuttgart, 1867, i, 40-81; C. Köhne, “Markt-, Kaufmanns- +und Handelsrecht in primitiven Kulturverhältnissen,” <i>Zeitschrift +für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i>, 1895, xi, 196-220; R. Lasch, +“Das Marktwesen auf den primitiven Kulturstufen,” <i>Zeitschrift +für Socialwissenschaft</i>, 1906, ix, 619-627, 700-715, 764-782; H. +Schurtz, <i>Das afrikanische Gewerbe</i>, Leipzig, 1900, pp. 115-122; +P. J. Hamilton Grierson, <i>The Silent Trade</i>, Edinburgh, 1903, +pp. 54-62; H. L. Roth, “Trading in Early Days,” <i>Bankfield Museum +Notes</i>, Halifax (Eng.), 1908, no. 5, pp. 23 <i>sqq.</i>; N. W. Thomas, +“The Market in African Law and Custom,” <i>Journal of the Society of +Comparative Legislation</i>, 1908, n.s., no. 19, pp. 90-106.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> Some observers use ambiguous language, when referring to +the length—four, five, six days, etc.—of market weeks. Throughout this +chapter I have regularly translated by “every fifth day” such expressions +as “tous les cinq jours,” “de cinq en cinq jours,” “alle fünf Tage,” +“einmal in fünf Tagen,” and “einmaal in de vijf dagen.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> A. W. Howitt, <i>The Native Tribes of South-east +Australia</i>, London, 1904, pp. 714 <i>sqq.</i> On Australian barter see +G. C. Wheeler, <i>The Tribe and Intertribal Relations in Australia</i>, +London, 1910, pp. 93-97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> A. C. Haddon, <i>Head-hunters, Black, White, and +Brown</i>, London, 1901, pp. 265, 269.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> James Chalmers, in Chalmers and Gill, <i>Work and +Adventure in New Guinea</i>, London, 1885, pp. 40 sq. Compare M. Krieger, +<i>Neu-Guinea</i>, Berlin, 1899, p. 335. Sir William MacGregor observes +that the institution of the Sabbath, as a day of rest, “is not quite new +to the Papuan, but ... the Papuan Sabbath of Keapara [Kerepunu] exceeds +the Hebrew in dividing time into weeks of three days. The great majority +of the tribes, however, do not seem to have a regular week, and work +or rest capriciously” (<i>British New Guinea</i>, London, 1897, pp. 44 +<i>sq.</i>). See above, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> C. G. Seligmann, <i>The Melanesians of British New +Guinea</i>, Cambridge, 1910, pp. 48, 94 (Koita).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> J. S. A. van Dissel, in <i>Tijdschrift van het koninklijk +nederlandsch aardrijkskundig genootschap</i>, 1904, second series, xxi, +644.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> J. Graf Pfeil, <i>Studien und Beobachtungen aus der +Südsee</i>, Brunswick, 1899, p. 116.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> J. J. Atkinson, in <i>Folklore</i>, 1903, xiv, 245. +Mr. Atkinson in this passage probably has in mind the European week +introduced into New Caledonia by the French.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> Basil Thomson, <i>The Fijians</i>, London, 1908, p. 288; +Wilkes, <i>Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition</i>, iii, 300 +<i>sq.</i> (Somu-Somu, in the Fiji group); J. J. Jarves, <i>History of +the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands</i>,² Boston, 1843, p. 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> P. Sarasin and F. Sarasin, <i>Reisen in Celebes</i>, +Wiesbaden, 1905, ii, 324.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> W. Marsden, <i>The History of Sumatra</i>,³ London, 1811, +pp. 379 <i>sq.</i>; F. Junghuhn, <i>Die Battaländer auf Sumatra</i>, +Berlin, 1847, pp. 227 <i>sq.</i>; J. v. Brenner, <i>Besuch bei +den Kannibalen Sumatras</i>, Würzburg, 1894, p. 291; B. Hagen, in +<i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i>, 1883, xxix, 173 (Batta of Lake Toba); W. +Volz, <i>Nord-Sumatra</i>, Berlin, 1909, i, 267.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> Sir T. S. Raffles, <i>History of Java</i>,² London, 1830, +i, 531; P. J. Veth, <i>Java</i>,² Haarlem, 1907, iv, 296 <i>sqq.</i> +The names of the days in the <i>pasar</i> were considered to bear a +mystical relation to colours and the divisions of the horizon, the +first day (white, east), the second (red, south), the third (yellow, +west), the fourth (black, north), and the fifth day a mixed colour, and +<i>focus</i>, or centre. See John Crawfurd, <i>History of the Indian +Archipelago</i>, Edinburgh, 1820, i, 289 <i>sq.</i> These fancies must +be explained by the colour symbolism which so frequently attaches to the +cardinal points.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> R. Friederich, in <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Society</i>, 1878, n.s., x, 88 <i>sqq.</i>; compare <i>ibid.</i>, 1876, +n.s., viii, 198.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> W. W. Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>, London, 1900, pp. 545 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> J. Richard, <i>Histoire naturelle, civile, et politique du +Tonquin</i>, Paris, 1778, i, 151.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Lillian J. Curtis, <i>The Laos of North Siam</i>, +Philadelphia, 1903, p. 132.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Mrs. Leslie Milne, <i>The Shans at Home</i>, London, 1910, +p. 132.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> C. E. D. Black, in <i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1895, vi, +30 (Shan of Upper Burma). Compare also <i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and +the Shan States</i>, edited by Scott and Hardiman, Rangoon, 1900, pt. i, +vol. i, p. 536 (Shan of Lower Burma).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> R. G. Woodthorpe, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1897, xxvi, 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> P. R. T. Gurdon, <i>The Khasis</i>, London, 1907, p. 189. +According to C. Becker (<i>Anthropos</i>, 1909, iv, 894) the market is +called <i>jeu duh</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> Gurdon, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 190. Compare Sir J. D. Hooker +(<i>Himalayan Journals</i>, London, 1891, p. 487), who attributes the +fourth-day markets to the Khasi generally.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> J. L. Krapf, <i>Travels, Researches, and Missionary +Labours</i>, London, 1867, pp. 82, 365.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> W. W. A. Fitzgerald, <i>Travels in the Coastlands of +British East Africa</i>, London, 1898, p. 111, quoting W. E. Taylor, +<i>Vocabulary of the Giryama Language</i>, London, 1897. The name +applied to the first day of the week—<i>jumwa</i>—is directly taken +from the Arabic <i>al jum‘a</i> (Friday, the Mohammedan day of worship), +from which circumstance it may be concluded that the Wagiriama observe +<i>jumwa</i> both as a market day and a rest day. Similarly, the name of +the weekly market held at Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar, is +<i>zoma</i>, or Friday (<i>Antananarivo Annual</i>, 1889-1892, iv, 372).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> K. R. Dundas, in <i>Man</i>, 1909, ix, 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> W. S. Routledge and Katherine Routledge, <i>With a +Prehistoric People</i>, London, 1910, pp. 105 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> A. Widenmann, in <i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i>, 1899, +Ergänzungsheft, no. 129, p. 69; M. Merker, <i>ibid.</i>, 1902, no. +138, p. 25; G. Volkens, <i>Der Kilimandscharo</i>, Berlin, 1897, p. +239; B. Gutmann, “Feldbausitten und Wachstumsbräuche der Wadschagga,” +<i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, 1913, xlv, 502.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> Horace Waller, editor, <i>The Last Journals of David +Livingstone in Central Africa</i>, New York, 1875, p. 367. See also V. L. +Cameron, <i>Across Africa</i>, London, 1877, ii, 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> E. Torday, in <i>Mitteilungen der anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, 1911, xli, 192.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> H. v. Wissmann <i>et al.</i>, <i>Im Innern Afrikas</i>,³ +Leipzig, 1891, p. 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> H. v. Wissmann, <i>My Second Journey through Equatorial +Africa</i>, London, 1891, p. 125.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> Torday and Joyce, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1906, xxxvi, 44. Each day of the Bayaka week bears a name, +the last being <i>pungu</i>, or market day (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 47).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> Torday and Joyce, <i>ibid.</i>, 1905, xxxv, 413. The +Bambala year consists of thirteen lunar months, each divided into seven +weeks of four days, the last day of each week being <i>pika</i>, or +market day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> Torday and Joyce, <i>ibid.</i>, 1906, xxxvi, 291.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> Sir H. H. Johnston, <i>The River Congo</i>, London, 1884, +p. 455.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> H. H. Bentley, <i>Pioneering on the Congo</i>, London, +1900, i, 399 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> J. K. Tuckey, <i>Narrative of an Expedition to explore the +River Zaire</i>, New York, 1818, p. 238.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> E. Pechuël-Loesche, in <i>Die Loango-Expedition</i>, +dritte Abteilung, erste Hälfte, Stuttgart, 1907, p. 139. See also A. +Bastian, <i>Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste</i>, Jena, 1874, +i, 209.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> R. E. Dennett, <i>At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind</i>, +London, 1906, pp. 64, 140; <i>idem</i>, <i>Notes on the Folklore of +the Fjort</i>, London, 1898, pp. 8, 137. Among the lower Congo tribes, +generally, the dead are buried only on two of the four weekdays (J. H. +Weeks, in <i>Folklore</i>, 1909, xx, 61; compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Among +the Primitive Bakongo</i>, Philadelphia, 1914, p. 249).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> L. B. Proyart, <i>Histoire de Loango, Kakongo, et autres +royaumes d’Afrique</i>, Paris, 1776, p. 116. A still earlier reference +to this African Sabbath will be found in G. A. Cavazzi da Montecuccoli, +<i>Istorica descrizione de’ tre regni Congo, Matamba, et Angola</i>, +Bologna, 1687, p. 24. For further details relating to markets and +market weeks among the lower Congo peoples see Herbert Ward, <i>Five +Years with the Congo Cannibals</i>, London, 1890, p. 59; J. H. Weeks, +<i>Congo Life and Folklore</i>, London, 1911, pp. 227 <i>sq.</i>; H. +Nipperdey, “Zur Bedeutung der Wochen-Märkte am Congo,” <i>Revue coloniale +internationale</i>, 1887, v, 205-214; A. Thonnar, <i>Essai sur le système +économique des primitifs d’après les populations de l’état indépendant +du Congo</i>, Brussels, 1901, pp. 82-114; A. Cureau, <i>Les sociétés +primitives de l’Afrique équatoriale</i>, Paris, 1912, pp. 295 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> F. Hutter, <i>Wanderungen und Forschungen im +Nord-Hinterland von Kamerun</i>, Brunswick, 1902, pp. 266, 360; compare +Preuss, in <i>Deutsches Kolonialblatt</i>, 1898, ix, 456.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> W. F. Daniell, in <i>Journal of the Ethnological +Society</i>, 1848, i, 222 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> A. G. Leonard, <i>The Lower Niger and its Tribes</i>, +London, 1906, pp. 305, 375; William Allen, <i>Narrative of the Expedition +sent by Her Majesty’s Government to the River Niger in 1841</i>, London, +1848, i, 398; N. W. Thomas, <i>Anthropological Report on the Ibo-speaking +Peoples of Nigeria</i>, London, 1913, i, 127. Seven weeks are here +counted to the month of twenty-eight days (W. F. Baikie, <i>Narrative +of an Exploring Voyage</i>, London, 1856, p. 316). An early missionary +to west Africa observes that among the Ibo, Igara, and other Nigerian +tribes the week consists of four days, viz. <i>eke</i>, a market day and +unlucky for the <i>ata</i>, or chief, to see strangers, <i>ede</i>, a +lucky or good day, <i>afo</i>, an unlucky day, and <i>uko</i>, a lucky +day. Besides these days of good and evil omen the Mohammedans have +made the natives believe that Friday is an unlucky day to undertake +any work of importance (S. A. Crowther, in <i>The Church Missionary +Intelligencer</i>, 1865, n.s., i, 55).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> J. Parkinson, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1906, xxxvi, 317.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> N. W. Thomas, <i>Anthropological Report on the +Edo-speaking Peoples of Nigeria</i>, London, 1910, i, 18 <i>sq.</i> +That the eight-day week of the Bini has developed from a more ancient +four-day week is also the opinion of R. E. Dennett (<i>At the Back of +the Black Man’s Mind</i>, pp. 214, 364). The Bini week has been stated +to consist of five days (Cyril Punch, quoted in H. L. Roth, <i>Great +Benin</i>, Halifax [Eng.], 1903, p. 52 <i>n.</i>¹), but this is certainly +an error. An early traveller among the Bini declares that their Sabbath +“happens every fifth day, which is very solemnly observed by the great +with the slaughter of cows, sheep, and goats, whilst the commonalty kill +dogs, cats, and chickens, or whatever their money will reach to. And of +whatever is killed, large portions are distributed to the necessitous, +in order to enable them, as every person is obliged to celebrate this +festival” (David van Nyendael, “A Description of Rio Formosa, or the +River of Benin,” in W. Bosman, <i>A New and Accurate Description of the +Coast of Guinea</i>, London, 1705, p. 456).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> A. B. Ellis, <i>The Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, London, +1887, pp. 89, 93. On the Gold Coast white seems to be the special colour +appropriate for holy or festive days. On a man’s birthday, which is +sacred to his <i>kra</i>, or tenanting spirit, he abstains from work, +puts white clay on his face, and dons a white cloth (<i>ibid.</i>, p. +156). On the Tshi holy days, observed by families or private persons +only, see further Bosman, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 153; W. Hutton, <i>A Voyage +to Africa</i>, London, 1821, p. 166 <i>n.</i>* (Ashanti); E. Perregaux, +<i>Chez les Achanti</i>, Neuchâtel, 1906, p. 272; J. Parkinson, in +<i>Man</i>, 1911, xi, 2 (Appolonians).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> Ellis, <i>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, London, 1894, +p. 145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 149.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 220 <i>sq.</i> +Beecham declares that were the fishermen to go out to sea on this day, +“the fetish would be angry and spoil their fishing” (<i>Ashantee and +the Gold Coast</i>, London, 1841, p. 186). Compare also Bosman, <i>op. +cit.</i>, p. 160; Miss Mary H. Kingsley, <i>West African Studies</i>,² +London, 1901, p. 145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 220, 304.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> <i>Idem</i>, <i>The Ewe-speaking Peoples</i>, London, +1890, pp. 41, 79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> <i>Ako-ojo</i>, “First Day”; <i>ojo-awo</i>, “Day of +the Secret,” sacred to Ifa; <i>ojo-ogun</i>, “Day of Ogun,” the god +of iron; <i>ojo-shango</i>, “Day of Shango,” the god of thunder; +<i>ojo-obatala</i>, “Obatala’s Day.” A holy day is called <i>ose</i> +(<i>se</i>, to disallow), and because each holy day recurs weekly, +<i>ose</i> has also come to mean the week of five days (Ellis, +<i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 145 <i>sq.</i>). According to an +earlier writer <i>osse</i> (<i>ose</i>), or holy day, comes from a word +signifying silence. This expression was transferred to the Christian +Sunday, with which the Yoruba became familiar after the year 1822, when +many of them emigrated to Sierra Leone (Miss Sarah Tucker, <i>Abbeokuta; +or Sunrise within the Tropics</i>,² London, 1853, p. 37 <i>n.</i>*). +Whether the Yoruba week really consists of five days seems open to grave +doubt. Bishop James Johnson, a native African, substantiates Ellis +by giving the names of the five days (quoted in Dennett, <i>At the +Back of the Black Man’s Mind</i>, p. 245), and also speaks of “every +fifth day, which is the close of a week of <i>oses</i>, or worshipping +days” (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 251). But Mr. Dennett himself, in his latest +work, cites three native informants in favour of a week of four days. +Moreover, Shango’s (Jakuta’s) Day is described by Mr. Dennett as the +Yoruba “Sunday.” The first day of the week is Ogun’s Day, the other +weekdays following in the order given by Ellis. It is to be noted that +Ogun’s Day, the first, fifth, ninth, and so on, is the regular market +day. The god Ogun in some parts of Yorubaland has taken the place of +another deity, Odudua, whom Mr. Dennett found to be universally regarded +as the originator of the system of weekdays (<i>Nigerian Studies</i>, +London, 1910, pp. 72-80). A five-day week has been noted among the Jebu +of southeastern Yorubaland (D’Avezac, in <i>Mémoires de la société +ethnologique</i>, 1845, ii, pt. ii, 81), and Burton refers to the same +institution among the Egba, by whom the terminal day is called <i>ose</i> +(R. F. Burton, <i>Abeokuta and the Camaroons Mountains</i>, London, 1863, +i, 205).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> Ellis, <i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> F. E. Forbes, <i>Dahomey and the Dahomans</i>, London, +1851, p. 181. For every fourth day as the market day at Whydah see P. +E. Isert, <i>Neue Reise nach Guinea und den Caribäischen Inseln in +Amerika</i>, Berlin, 1790, p. 132. Bosman (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 352) makes +the Fida (Whyda) market recur every third day. A great market every sixth +day is said to be held in the district about the town of Ardrah (Allada), +Dahomey (John Adams, <i>Remarks on the Country extending from Cape Palmas +to the River Congo</i>, London, 1823, p. 88).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> Four-day weeks: R. Plehn, <i>Beiträge zur Völkerkunde +des Togo-Gebietes</i>, Halle, 1898, p. 9; J. Spieth, <i>Die +Ewe-Stämme</i>, Berlin, 1906, p. 311 (Ho); five-day weeks: R. Plehn, in +<i>Mitteilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den deutschen +Schutzgebieten</i>, 1896, ix, 123; six-day weeks: von Zech, <i>ibid.</i>, +1898, xi, 128; Christaller, in <i>Mitteilungen der geographischen +Gesellschaft für Thüringen</i>, 1890, viii, 121; L. Conradt, in +<i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i>, 1896, xlii, 15 (Adele). The Akposo, who +have a week of five days, keep the fifth day sacred to their creator-god, +Uwolowo, whose name it bears. The other gods are worshipped on the +second day of the week, a time when no work may be done (F. Müller, in +<i>Anthropos</i>, 1907, ii, 201).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> A. Mischlich, in <i>Mitteilungen von Forschungsreisenden +und Gelehrten aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten</i>, 1896, ix, 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> E. Henrici, <i>Lehrbuch der Ephe-Sprache</i>, Stuttgart, +1891, pp. 59 <i>sq.</i> The names of the seven weekdays in the Ewe and +Tshi languages are almost identical. See the lists in Henrici, <i>op. +cit.</i>, pp. 59 <i>sq.</i>, and Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, +p. 218. The Ewe have borrowed from the Tshi not only the names of the +weekdays but also the custom of giving to private persons names derived +from those of the weekdays (Henrici, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 60).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> Ellis, <i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 146 <i>sq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 218.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> Ellis, <i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 147. For the +names of the Ga weekdays, see <i>ibid.</i>, p. 143. An early writer, +whose observations were confined to Akkra on the Gold Coast, speaks +of <i>haughbah</i> (<i>ho-gba</i>) as one of the two sacred days of +the seven-day week. It is compulsory for all ranks and sexes, but is +especially observed by the women. “Under the supposition that some malign +potency pervades the surrounding country on this day, more particularly +directed against the pregnant women, their daily avocations are +restricted within the walls of their domiciles, no egress being tolerated +either for the purposes of travelling or other exterior occupations. Not +many people, therefore, presume to violate these injunctions by issuing +forth early in the forenoon, and none resort to their familiar haunts +in the markets or public thoroughfares, until the prohibition has been +withdrawn, by the well-known sign of a declining sun” (W. F. Daniell, in +<i>Journal of the Ethnological Society</i>, 1856, iv, 23).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> R. A. Freeman, <i>Travels and Life in Ashanti and +Jáman</i>, Westminster, 1898, p. 176 (market every fourth day among the +Gaman, a Tshi-speaking people); M. Monnier, <i>France noire</i>, Paris, +1894, p. 209 (market every fifth day in Kong); L. G. Binger, <i>Du Niger +au golfe de Guinée</i>, Paris, 1892, i, 370 (market every fifth day among +the Diulasu); L. Desplagnes, <i>Le plateau central nigérien</i>, Paris, +1907, p. 377 (market every sixth day among the Habbe). A market every +ninth day is described as being held at Bocqua in Northern Nigeria (R. +Lander and J. Lander, <i>Journal of an Expedition to explore the Course +and Termination of the Niger</i>, London, 1832, iii, 73, 82). For a +general account of markets among the Nigerian peoples see A. Hovelacque, +<i>Les nègres de l’Afrique sus-équatoriale</i>, Paris, 1889, pp. 355 +<i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> A. Mischlich, <i>Lehrbuch der hausanischen Sprache</i>, +Berlin, 1902, p. 127 (Hausa); J. S. Gallieni, <i>Voyage au Soudan +français, Haut-Niger, et pays de Segou</i>, Paris, 1885, p. 436 +(Segu); R. Callié, <i>Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo</i>, +London, 1830, i, 323, 346 (Mandingo); A. Hacquard, <i>Monographie de +Tombouctou</i>, Paris, 1900, p. 55; O. Lenz, <i>Timbuktu</i>, Leipzig, +1884, i, 154. The Bali market is said to be held every seventh day, +<i>i.e.</i>, on Friday. Here, again, Mohammedan influence is to be +suspected (F. Hutter, <i>Wanderungen und Forschungen im Nord-Hinterland +von Kamerun</i>, Brunswick, 1902, p. 361).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> C. van Overbergh, <i>Les Mayombe</i>, Brussels, 1907, p. +353; A. de Calonne Beaufaict, <i>Études Bakango</i>, Liége, 1912, p. 79; +J. H. Weeks, <i>Among the Primitive Bakongo</i>, Philadelphia, 1914, +pp. 248 <i>sq.</i> Some of the Galla tribes have been so far affected +by Arabic influences as to hold their markets every seventh day (P. +Paulitschke, <i>Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas. Die materielle Kultur der +Danâkil, Galla, und Somâl</i>, Berlin, 1893, p. 313).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 217. So also B. +Cruickshank (<i>Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast of Africa</i>, London, +1853, ii, 189 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> No evidence for markets has been discovered among the +Bantu tribes south of the Zambesi. The absence of markets elsewhere is +sometimes specifically noted by our authorities; see F. Thonner, <i>Im +afrikanischen Urwald</i>, Berlin, 1898, p. 33 (Mondunga, on the Dua +River, Belgian Congo); J. Maes, in <i>Anthropos</i>, 1913, viii, 357 +(Mongelima, on the Aruwimi River, Belgian Congo); A. J. N. Tremearne, +<i>The Tailed Head-hunters of Nigeria</i>, London, 1912, p. 245 (Kagoro +and other pagan tribes of Northern Nigeria).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, +<a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> D. F. S. Clavigero, <i>Storia antica del Messico</i>, +Cesena, 1780, ii, 62, 163; B. de Sahagun, <i>Historia general de las +cosas de Nueva España</i>, transl. Jourdanet and Siméon, Paris, 1880, pp. +lxxiii, 290 <i>sq.</i>; A. von Humboldt, <i>Vues des Cordillères</i>, +Paris, 1816, ii, 340; G. Brühl, <i>Die Culturvölker Alt-Amerikas</i>, New +York, 1887, p. 234; J. Kohler, “Das Recht der Azteken,” <i>Zeitschrift +für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i>, 1895, xi, 75, 87; E. J. Payne, +<i>History of the New World called America</i>, Oxford, 1892-1899, ii, +359. A greater market or fair was sometimes held once in every cycle +of twenty days, that is, on every fourth ordinary market day. Eighteen +market months were included in the solar year. How such “months” may +arise is illustrated by a Yoruba mode of computing time by periods of +seventeen days, that being the number of days in four market weeks, +when the first and fifth days of each cycle are counted in (Ellis, +<i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 149 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Histoire des nations civilisées +du Mexique et de l’Amérique-Centrale</i>, Paris, 1858, iii, 464.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> A. von Humboldt, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 340, ii, 227; Brühl, +<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 239; compare p. 326, where a market every fourth day +is stated to have been held in Turmequé. In Sorotoca the market took +place every eighth day (<i>ibid.</i>). But authentic details concerning +the Chibcha calendar are not to be had. According to von Humboldt (<i>op. +cit.</i>, ii, 244) ten of the Muysca “weeks” formed a lunation called +<i>suna</i>. The <i>suna</i> began, not at new moon, but at full moon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> Garcilasso de la Vega, <i>Comentarios reales de los +Incas</i>, pt. i, bk. vi, ch. 35; C. R. Markham, <i>First Part of the +Royal Commentaries of the Yncas</i>, London, 1871, ii, 206. It is an +old error, for which Garcilasso de la Vega (<i>op. cit.</i>, pt. i, bk. +ii, ch. 23) appears to be responsible, that the Peruvians had a week of +seven days, following the successive phases of the moon. But Acosta, who +visited Peru soon after the Spanish conquest of that country, is better +informed and says clearly that neither Peruvians nor Mexicans had a +seven-day week (J. de Acosta, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, bk. vi, ch. +3; <i>The Natural and Moral History of the Indies</i>, edited by C. R. +Markham, London, 1880, ii, 396).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> See G. E. Marindin, in Smith, Wayte, and Marindin’s +<i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>,³ ii, 251 <i>sq.</i>; +M. Besnier, in Daremberg, Saglio, and Pottier’s <i>Dictionnaire des +antiquités grecques et romaines</i>, vii, 120-122; E. Huschke, <i>Das +alte römische Jahr und seine Tage</i>, Breslau, 1869, pp. 288-312; R. +Flex, <i>Die älteste Monatseinteilung der Römer</i>, Jena, 1880, pp. +16 <i>sqq.</i>; and especially P. Huvelin, <i>Essai historique sur le +droit des marchés et des foires</i>, Paris, 1897, pp. 84-99. According +to the Roman system of inclusive reckoning—which may be compared with +that sometimes employed in Yorubaland (p. <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>¹)—the market +fell on the ninth day, as the derivation of the word <i>nundinæ</i> +(from <i>novem</i>) indicates. It has been suggested by H. Diels +(<i>Sibyllinische Blätter</i>, Berlin, 1890, p. 41 <i>n.</i>¹) that the +choice of the ninth day was influenced by the symbolism attaching to +the number nine among the Romans, as among other Indo-European peoples; +compare the Nones, or the ninth day before the Ides, and the nine days’ +festivals (<i>novemdiales feriæ</i>). Probably, however, the Roman market +week consisted originally of four days only, and later was doubled to +form the cycle employed in historic times. The nundinal days were not +named, but were indicated in the calendars by letters of the alphabet +from A to H.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>, i, 16, 32 <i>sq.</i>; +Dionysius Halicarnassensis, <i>Antiquitates Romanæ</i>, ii, 28, vii, 58; +compare Varro, <i>De re rustica</i>, ii, præf. Cicero attributes the +institution of markets to Numa (<i>De republica</i>, ii, 14, 27).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> <i>Tertiis nundinis partis secanto (Tabula</i> iii, 6, in +Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, xx, i, 49).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 16, 30; Pliny, <i>Historia +naturalis</i>, xviii, 3. I accept the view that the <i>lex Hortensia</i> +converted the <i>nundinæ</i> into <i>dies fasti non comitiales</i>, +that is, forbade comitial meetings on these dates, though allowing +judicial business to be done thereon. For this explanation see G. W. +Botsford, <i>The Roman Assemblies</i>, New York, 1909, pp. 139, 315, +471; Marquardt-Wissowa, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, Leipzig, 1885, +iii,² 290. It has been maintained that toward the end of the republican +period the prohibition referred to was no longer observed (P. Groebe, in +Drumann-Groebe, <i>Geschichte Roms</i>,² Berlin, 1899-1906, iii, 779).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 16, 30. According to +Plutarch (<i>Quæstiones Romanæ</i>, 42), the <i>nundinæ</i> were +consecrated to Saturn.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> <i>Omnes judices urbanæque plebes et cunctarum artium +officia venerabili die Solis quiescant</i> (<i>Codex Justinianus</i>, +iii, 12, 3). The prohibition of holding court on Sunday was relaxed by +Constantine in the same year so far as to permit such legal proceedings +as the emancipation and manumission of slaves to take place at this time +(<i>Codex Theodosianus</i>, ii, 8, 1). Eusebius (<i>Vita Constantini</i>, +iv, 18-20) tells us that the emperor forbade all military exercises on +Sunday.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> <i>Provisione etiam pietatis su[a]e nundinas die Solis +perpeti anno constituit</i> (<i>Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, +iii, no. 4121, p. 523). Markets were held on Sunday in many parts of +Europe until late in the Middle Ages, in spite of numerous edicts, +ecclesiastical and civil, forbidding the practice (Huvelin, <i>op. +cit.</i>, pp. 46, 156 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> The date of the obsolescence of the <i>nundinæ</i> is not +definitely known. The <i>fasti Philocali</i> (354 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) marks +the days of the seven-day week by the letters A-G, and gives side by side +the old nundinal letters A-H (<i>Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, i, +pt. i,² 256 <i>sqq.</i>). This arrangement had probably become a feature +of the state calendar since the Sunday legislation of Constantine.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> P. Ehrenreich, <i>Die allgemeine Mythologie und ihre +ethnologischen Grundlagen</i>, Leipzig, 1910, pp. 114-127; S. Arrhenius, +“Über den Ursprung des Gestirnkultus,” <i>Scientia</i>, 1911, ix, pp. +424 <i>sqq.</i>, Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>,³ +London, 1914, ii, 140-150; E. J. Payne, <i>History of the New World +called America</i>, Oxford, 1892-1899, i, 547 <i>sqq.</i>; W. H. +Roscher, <i>Über Selene und Verwandtes</i>, Leipzig, 1890, pp. 1-16, and +<i>Nachträge</i>, Leipzig, 1895, pp. 1-19. For the ideas of civilized +children relating to the moon see J. W. Slaughter, “The Moon in Childhood +and Folklore,” <i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, 1902, xiii, +294-318; G. S. Hall, “Note on Moon Fancies,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1903, xiv, +88-91.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Albîrûnî, <i>India</i>, translated by C. E. Sachau, +London, 1888, i, 346 <i>sq.</i> Compare the fine passage in Apuleius +(<i>Metamorphoses</i>, xi, 1).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> Spix and Martius, <i>Reise in Brasilien</i>, Munich, +1823-1831, i, 381, iii, 1186.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> K. Weule, <i>Native Life in East Africa</i>, London, +1909, p. 188. On the other hand, children of the Bageshu, a Bantu people +of British East Africa, are expected to take part in new-moon dances, +since it is thought that they derive benefit from the moon (J. Roscoe, +in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1909, xxxix, 193). +A Baganda mother believes that her child will grow strong and healthy, +if it is shown the first new moon after its birth (<i>idem</i>, <i>The +Baganda</i>, London, 1911, p. 58). Similarly, it is said that in the +island of Kiriwina, the largest of the Trobriand group to the east of New +Guinea, a mother always presents her child to the first new moon after +its birth, in order that it may grow fast and talk soon (George Brown, +<i>Melanesians and Polynesians</i>, London, 1910, p. 37).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones conviviales</i>, iii, 10, 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> A. Wuttke, <i>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der +Gegenwart</i>,³ edited by E. H. Meyer, Berlin, 1900, p. 391 (Oldenburg).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> W. E. Roth, <i>North Queensland Ethnography</i>, +<i>Bulletin</i>, 1903, no. 5, p. 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> W. H. I. Bleek and Lucy C. Lloyd, <i>Specimens of Bushman +Folk-lore</i>, London, 1911, pp. 67 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> W. Bogoras, in <i>Memoirs of the American Museum of +Natural History</i>, xi, 306.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> C. M. Doughty, <i>Travels in Arabia Deserta</i>, +Cambridge, 1888, i, 444.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> <i>Psalms</i>, cxxi, 6. Another Biblical passage +(<i>Hosea</i>, v, 7), possibly referring to the moon, is most obscure.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> <i>Matthew</i>, iv, 24, xvii, 15. The Greek verb used here +is σεληνιάζομαι.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> E. Combe, <i>Histoire du culte de Sin en Babylonie et en +Assyrie</i>, Paris, 1908, pp. 36 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> <i>Quæstiones conviviales</i>, iii, 10, 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> P. Sébillot, <i>Le folk-lore de France</i>, Paris, +1904-1907, i, 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> Wuttke-Meyer, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 301.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 59. In Voigtland, central Germany, the +assaults of witches are especially looked for and dreaded on Mondays (R. +Eisel, <i>Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes</i>, Gera, 1871, p. 210).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> Fanny D. Bergen, <i>Current Superstitions</i>, Boston, +1896, p. 120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> For the belief that impregnation can be accomplished by +the sun, see Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>Balder the Beautiful</i>, London, 1913, +i, 74 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> Mrs. K. L. Parker, <i>The Euahlayi Tribe</i>, London, +1905, pp. 50, 64, 98.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> C. G. Seligmann, in <i>Reports of the Cambridge +Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, v, 206 <i>sq.</i> +The word for moon, <i>ganumi</i>, is sometimes used as a synonym of +<i>nanamud</i>, the proper expression for menstrual blood (<i>ibid.</i>). +Compare A. Hunt, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, +1899, xxviii, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> C. G. Seligmann, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1902, xxxii, 303 <i>sq.</i> (Sinaugolo of the Rigo +District); E. Beardmore, <i>ibid.</i>, 1890, xix, 460 (Mawatta of the +Daudai District); A. Baessler, <i>Neue Südsee Bilder</i>, Berlin, 1900, +p. 383 (Santa Cruz Islands).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> E. Best, “Notes on Procreation among the Maori People of +New Zealand,” <i>Journal of the Polynesian Society</i>, 1905, xiv, 210 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> C. W. Hobley, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1903, xxxiii, 358.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> J. Roscoe, <i>ibid.</i>, 1901, xxxi, 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> Thomas Winterbottom, <i>An Account of the Native Africans +in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone</i>, London, 1803, ii, 206 +(Mandingo, Susu, etc.).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> Hans Egede, <i>A Description of Greenland</i>, London, +1745, p. 205.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> W. B. Grubb, <i>An Unknown People in an Unknown Land</i>, +London, 1911, p. 139.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> P. J. de Arriaga, <i>Extirpación de la idolatria del +Piru</i>, Lima, 1621, p. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> H. Brugsch, <i>Religion und Mythologie der alten +Ägypter</i>, Leipzig, 1885, p. 335. The sacred bull Apis, which the +Egyptians regarded as an image of the soul of Osiris, a god often +identified with the moon, was supposed to be born of a virgin cow +impregnated by a divine influence emanating from the moon (Plutarch, +<i>Quæstiones conviviales</i>, viii, 1, 3; <i>idem</i>, <i>De Iside +et Osiride</i>, 43). On the discovery of an Apis the Egyptians kept a +holiday (Herodotus, iii, 28).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> W. H. Roscher, “Aphrodite,” in Roscher’s <i>Ausführliches +Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie</i>, i, coll. 390 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> L. H. Gray, in <i>Spiegel Memorial Volume</i>, Bombay, +1908, pp. 160-168. Râkâ and Sînîvalî, two of the Vedic goddesses +identified with the lunar phases, seem to have been associated with +childbirth (<i>Rig-Veda</i>, ii, 32; transl. H. Grassmann, i, 41).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones conviviales</i>, iii, 10, 3; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Quæstiones Romanæ</i>, 77. See further, W. H. Roscher, +<i>Juno und Hera</i>, Leipzig, 1875, pp. 40-59; <i>idem</i>, <i>Über +Selene und Verwandtes</i>, pp. 55-61; <i>idem</i>, “Mondgöttin,” +<i>Ausführliches Lexicon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie</i>, +ii, coll. 3150 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Sébillot, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 41.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> E. H. Man, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1883, xii, 337; Sheldon Dibble, <i>History of the Sandwich +Islands</i>, Lahainaluna, 1843, p. 109; N. B. Dennys, <i>The Folk-lore of +China</i>, London, 1876, p. 118; M. Jastrow, <i>The Religion of Babylonia +and Assyria</i>, Boston, 1898, p. 358.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> H. A. Hazen, “The Origin and Value of Weather Lore,” +<i>Journal of American Folk-lore</i>, 1900, xiii, 191-198; E. G. Dexter, +<i>Weather Influences</i>, New York, 1904, pp. 10-26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> Payne, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 547 <i>sq.</i>; Sir E. B. +Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>,⁴ London, 1903, i, 130; W. G. Black, +<i>Folk-medicine</i>, London, 1883, pp. 124 <i>sqq.</i>; A. E. Crawley, +“Dew,” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iv, +698-701.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> Roscher, <i>Über Selene und Verwandtes</i>, pp. 49 +<i>sqq.</i>, 61-67. The New Zealanders believed that it was in the night +that everything grew (R. Taylor, <i>Te Ika A Maui</i>, London, 1855, +p. 175). The single Old Testament passage which may possibly embody a +like conception is <i>Deuteronomy</i>, xxxiii, 14: “and for the precious +things put forth by the moon.” See W. von Baudissin, <i>Jahve et +Moloch</i>, Leipzig, 1874, p. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> For many illustrations see Frazer, <i>Adonis, Attis, +Osiris</i>,³ ii, 131 <i>sqq.</i>; J. Grimm, <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, +London, 1883, ii, 708-716.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, xx, 8: <i>Eadem autem ipsa, +quæ crescente luna gliscunt, deficiente contra defiunt</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> <i>The Todas</i>, London, 1906, p. 411.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> E. H. Man, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1883, xii, 152 <i>sq.</i> It is also said of the +Andamanese that they do no work, except what is noiseless, between dawn +and sunrise (<i>ibid.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> Peter Dobell, <i>Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia</i>, +London, 1830, ii, 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> Joannes de Plano Carpini, in R. Hakluyt, <i>The Principal +Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation</i>, i, +141 <i>sq.</i> (Glasgow reprint, 1903-1905).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> Mungo Park, <i>Travels in the Interior Districts of +Africa</i>, London, 1816, i, 266.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> L. G. Binger, <i>Du Niger au golfe de Guinée</i>, Paris, +1892, ii, 116.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> A. C. Hollis, <i>The Nandi</i>, Oxford, 1908, pp. 52, 60, +71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> J. Sibree, “Malagasy Folk-lore and Popular Superstitions,” +<i>Folk-lore Record</i>, 1879, ii, 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> <i>De bello Gallico</i>, i, 50.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> <i>Germania</i>, 11. The rule of the Spartans never to +march out to war before the full moon (Herodotus, vi, 106; Pausanias, +i, 28, 4) prevented them from sending aid to the Athenians at the time +of the battle of Marathon. Though the Spartans always knew how to make +use of their religious scruples, during their festivals they really did +ostentatiously abstain from expeditions which might have been profitable +to them. See A. Holm, <i>History of Greece</i>, London, 1895, ii, 26, +referring to Thucydides, iv, 5, v, 75.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> Kuhn and Schwartz, <i>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen, und +Gebräuche</i>, Leipzig, 1848, p. 457.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> The Rev. John Grant, in Sir John Sinclair’s <i>The +Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, Edinburgh, 1794, xii, 457. See also +Charles Rogers, <i>Familiar Illustrations of Scottish Character</i>,² +London, 1865, p. 172 (as to Orkney). In the Calendar of Coligny, +the most important of the Celtic inscriptions of ancient Gaul, the +lunation is divided into two parts by the full moon, and nearly all the +important activities of the month are crowded into the first fortnight, +apparently because of the ill luck associated with a waning moon. See +Sir John Rhŷs, “The Coligny Calendar,” <i>Proceedings of the British +Academy</i>, 1909-1910, pp. 221, 265. It has been pointed out that most +of the Greek festivals known to us fell in the first half of the month, +and especially on the twelfth day. “Zugrunde liegt die weit verbreitete +Vorstellung, dass alles, was gedeihen und zunehmen soll, während des +zunehmenden Mondes vorgenommen werden soll” (M. P. Nilsson in <i>Archiv +für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1911, xiv, 441 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> J. T. Bent, <i>The Cyclades</i>, London, 1885, p. 438.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> John Aubrey, <i>Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme</i>, +edited by J. Britten, London, 1881, p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> On the superstitions attaching to eclipses, generally, see +R. Lasch, “Die Finsternisse in der Mythologie und im religiösen Brauch +der Völker,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1900, iii, 97-152.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> W. E. H. Barrett, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1911, xli, 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> Hodson, <i>Nāga Tribes</i>, pp. 166 <i>sq.</i> See above, +pp. <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> Rivers, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 580, 592.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> <i>Madras Weekly Mail</i>, 15th October, 1908, quoted by +Edgar Thurston, <i>Omens and Superstitions of Southern India</i>, London +and Leipzig, 1912, p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> R. G. Chaube, “Some of the Most Popular Beliefs and +Superstitions of the Hindus of Northern India,” <i>Journal of the +Anthropological Society of Bombay</i>, v, 326.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> W. Crooke, <i>The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of +Northern India</i>,² Westminster, 1896, i, 21 <i>sqq.</i>; compare +<i>idem</i>, <i>Natives of Northern India</i>, London, 1907, p. 203. See +also H. G. Rose, “Hindu Pregnancy Observances in the Punjab,” <i>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1905, xxxv, 277 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> John Barrow, <i>Travels in China</i>, London, 1804, p. +287.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> Thucydides, vii, 50; Plutarch, <i>Nicias</i>, 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> J. Buxtorf, <i>Synagoga Judaica</i>,³ Basel, 1680, p. +477: <i>Defectum lunæ pro pessimo habent signo, quod aliquid mali et +inauspicati ab hostibus et inimicis suis portendat. Ideo ejusmodi +die animas vulgo jejunio affligunt et ab hostibus suis a Deo defendi +postulant.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. During a solar eclipse Swabian peasants +totally abandon their usual occupations and shut up their cattle +in the stalls (A. Birlinger, <i>Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</i>, +Freiburg-i.-B., 1861-1862, i, 189). In Ober-Pfalz and Bohemia at such +a time it is believed to be dangerous to eat anything or even to go +outside the house, unless one’s mouth is securely covered with a cloth +(Wuttke-Meyer, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 302).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> C. W. Hobley, <i>Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East +African Tribes</i>, Cambridge, 1910, p. 53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> W. S. Routledge and Katherine Routledge, <i>With a +Prehistoric People</i>, London, 1910, p. 284.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> W. W. A. Fitzgerald, <i>Travels in the Coastlands of +British East Africa</i>, London, 1898, p. 111, quoting W. E. Taylor, +<i>Vocabulary of the Giryama Language</i>, London, 1897. The name of +these rest days—<i>jumwa</i>—is Arabic; see above, p. <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>²</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> P. B. Du Chaillu, <i>In African Forest and Jungle</i>, New +York, 1903, pp. 96 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> Horace Waller, editor, <i>The Last Journals of David +Livingstone in Central Africa</i>, New York, 1875, p. 273.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> J. Y. Gibson, <i>The Story of the Zulus</i>, London, 1911, +p. 175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> Gengnagel, “Volksglaube und Wahrsagerei an der Westküste +Indiens,” <i>Ausland</i>, 1891, lxiv, 871 <i>sq.</i> Another observer +declares that if a cow calves on the new-moon day, her milk, it is +believed, will kill the owner (P. Kershasp, “Some Superstitions +prevailing among the Canarese-speaking People of Southern India,” +<i>Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay</i>, vii, 84).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> R. B. Bainbridge, in <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of +Bengal</i>, 1907, ii, 50.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> J. Wilson, in <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, 1897, xxvi, 308 +(from <i>Punjab Notes and Queries</i>, 1883).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> M. Jastrow, <i>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice +in Babylonia and Assyria</i>, New York, 1911, pp. 214, 333 <i>sqq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens</i>, Giessen, +1905-1912, i, 440, ii, 510 <i>sqq.</i> Compare L. W. King, <i>Babylonian +Magic and Sorcery</i>, London, 1896, pp. 5 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> I. Goldziher, in <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, +1910, xiii, 44 <i>n.</i>⁴ For the Abyssinian beliefs see E. Littmann, +<i>ibid.</i>, 1908, xi, 314 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> E. Rhode, <i>Psyche</i>,⁶ Tübingen, 1910, i, 234 +<i>n.</i>¹, 269 <i>n.</i>²; E. Caillemer, in Daremberg and Saglio’s +<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines</i>, i, 332. G. +F. Schoemann denies that the ἀσέλινοι were truly ill-omened, since +there are instances of popular assemblies being fixed for these days +(<i>Griechische Alterthümer</i>,⁴ edited by J. H. Lipsius, Berlin, +1897-1902, ii, 457 <i>n.</i>⁴). It would seem, however, that the +Athenians, like the Romans, sometimes distinguished between days +popularly considered unlucky and those officially recognized as such in +the state calendars. Friday is for us a most unlucky day, but, excepting +Good Friday, it is not a <i>dies non</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> Roscher, <i>Über Selene und Verwandtes</i>, pp. 46 +<i>sqq.</i> The interlunar days were selected by the ancients for the +celebration of the sacred marriages of the gods and goddesses and, +particularly, of the sun and moon. At least from the time of Thales +the conjunction of the two luminaries was indicated by the same term +σύνοδος (<i>coitus</i>) which was applied to the act of procreation +(<i>ibid.</i>, pp. 76 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> T. F. T. Dyer, <i>English Folklore</i>, London, 1878, p. +41; Thomas Hardy, <i>The Return of the Native</i>, London, 1895, p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> H. A. Hazen, in <i>Journal of American Folk-lore</i>, +1900, xiii, 192. American folklore contains the injunction never to +kill cattle or pigs, or even wild game, by the “dark of the moon”; it +is most unlucky, and the meat will come to no good (Bergen, <i>Current +Superstitions</i>, p. 121).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> W. Smythe and F. Lowe, <i>Narrative of a Journey from Lima +to Para</i>, London, 1836, p. 230.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> Father G. Boscana, “Chinigchinich,” in <i>Life in +California by an American</i>, New York, 1846, pp. 298 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> Jonathan Carver, <i>Travels through the Interior Parts of +North America</i>,³ London, 1781, pp. 250, 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> W. Bartram, in <i>Transactions of the American +Ethnological Society</i>, 1853, iii, pt. i, 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages and +Travels</i>, xvi, 273.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> Mungo Park, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 265.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> G. W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i>, +London, 1905, p. 112. For further examples of new-moon and full-moon +celebrations see P. Kolben, <i>The Present State of the Cape of Good +Hope</i>, London, 1731, i, 96 (Hottentots); J. Bonwick, <i>Daily Life +and Origin of the Tasmanians</i>, London, 1870, pp. 186 <i>sqq.</i>; +Seligmann, <i>Melanesians of British New Guinea</i>, p. 193 (Koita); Carl +Ribbe, <i>Zwei Jahre unter den Kannibalen der Salomo-Inseln</i>, Dresden, +1903, p. 163 (Shortland Island); Taylor, <i>Te Ika A Maui</i>, p. 93 +(Maori); Turner, <i>Samoa</i>, p. 67; A. E. Jenks, in <i>Ethnological +Survey Publications</i>, i, 206 (Bontoc Igorot of Luzon); V. Solomon, +in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1902, xxxii, 213 +(Nicobarese); W. Bogoras, in <i>Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural +History</i>, xi, 378 (Chukchi); J. v. Klaproth, <i>Reise in den Kaukasus +und nach Georgien</i>, Halle, 1814, ii, 602 (Osetes); A. von Humboldt, +<i>Vues des Cordillères</i>, Paris, 1816, ii, 244 (Muysca of Colombia).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> Frazer, <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>,³ ii, 140.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> The vice of seeking particularistic explanations of +widespread social phenomena is illustrated by Nielsen, who, with +misdirected ingenuity, has argued that the early Semites founded their +Sabbaths on the observation that the moon (conceived as a divinity) +rests four times in a lunation. Days on which the deity rested were to +be likewise observed by his worshippers as days of rest (D. Nielsen, +<i>Die altarabische Mondreligion und die mosaische Überlieferung</i>, +Strassburg, 1904, pp. 63 <i>sqq.</i>). It is true that the moon looks +full for a day or two before and for a day or two after she is full; +similarly, the changes in her form at the beginning of a lunation are +scarcely perceptible. The moon, therefore, might be said to “rest” +at these two periods. But neither astronomical science nor untutored +observation lends any support to the idea that the moon “rests” at the +close of each and every phase. Such a hypothesis, were it true, would not +account for the other forms of abstinence, in addition to the cessation +of labour, which occur in connection with the moon’s changes. And, as we +shall see, the observance of lunar taboos may be quite dissociated from +true moon-worship and probably long antedates the latter cult.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_14">14</a> <i>sq.</i>, +<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>and</i> <i>n.</i>², +<a href="#Page_34">34</a> and <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, +<a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> Lieutenant Farewell, in W. F. W. Owen, <i>Narrative of +Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar</i>, +London, 1833, ii, 397; compare Dudley Kidd, <i>The Essential Kafir</i>, +London, 1904, p. 110.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> G. W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i>, +London, 1905, p. 414.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> <i>Missionary Travels and Researches in South +Africa</i>,²⁵ New York, 1870, p. 255.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> John Campbell, <i>Travels in South Africa</i>, London, +1822, ii, 205.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> L. Decle, <i>Three Years in Savage Africa</i>, London, +1900, pp. 85 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 295.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> J. F. Cunningham, <i>Uganda and its Peoples</i>, London, +1905, p. 294.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> Hobley, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 104.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> John Roscoe, <i>The Baganda</i>, London, 1911, pp. +297, 299, 428; <i>idem</i>, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1902, xxxii, 76.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> Roscoe, <i>Baganda</i>, pp. 320 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>idem</i>, +“Python Worship in Uganda,” <i>Man</i>, 1909, ix, 88 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> <i>Idem</i>, <i>Baganda</i>, pp. 249 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> Mrs. A. B. Fisher, <i>Twilight Tales of the Black +Baganda</i>, London [1912], pp. 37 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> J. H. Speke, <i>Journal of the Discovery of the Source of +the Nile</i>, Edinburgh, 1863, p. 523.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 259. According to Speke this custom is +also observed by the king of Uganda, who, on the first day after the +appearance of the new moon, examines and arranges his <i>mapembe</i>, or +fetishes (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 372).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> The Mendi of the hinterland of Sierra Leone are said to +hold a new-moon festival and at it to abstain from all work, “alleging +that if they infringed this rule corn and rice would grow red, the new +moon being a ‘day of blood.’” Ellis, who cites this instance without +giving his authority, adds the further fact that the Mendi recognize no +weeks (<i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 146).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> Ellis presented his arguments more fully in +an article “On the Origin of Weeks and Sabbaths,” <i>Popular Science +Monthly</i>, 1895, xlvi, 329-343.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> W. Crooke, <i>The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of +Northern India</i>,² Westminster, 1896, i, 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> Gengnagel, “Volksglaube und Wahrsagerei an der Westküste +Indiens,” <i>Ausland</i>, 1891, lxiv, 871 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> F. Jagor, in <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft +für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</i>, 1876, p. (201) +(bound with <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, vol. viii).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> Thurston, <i>Omens and Superstitions of Southern +India</i>, p. 22.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> <i>Rig-Veda</i>, i, 9, 1, i, 94, 4 (transl. H. Grassmann, +ii, 8, 95); <i>Atharva-Veda</i>, vii, 79, 3, vii, 80, 1-4 (transl. W. +D. Whitney, pp. 444-446); Martin Haug, <i>The Aitareya Brahmanam of the +Rig-Veda</i>, Bombay, 1863, ii, 5; A. Weber, “Zur Kenntnis des vedische +Opferrituals,” <i>Indische Studien</i>, 1868, x, 329 <i>sqq.</i>; H. +Zimmer, <i>Altindisches Leben</i>, Berlin, 1879, pp. 364 <i>sq.</i>; +A. Hillebrandt, <i>Das altindische Neu- und Vollmondsopfer</i>, Jena, +1879; <i>idem</i>, in Bühler’s <i>Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie +und Altertumskunde</i>, Strassburg, 1901, ii, pt. ii, pp. 75 <i>sq.</i> +The new-moon day was called <i>darśa</i>, the day of the full moon, +<i>pūrṇamāsa</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> The first day was called <i>upavasatha</i>, a fasting or +fast day (compare Sanskrit <i>upa</i>, an adverbial adjunct, signifying +to refrain from, abstain, hence, to fast). The second day’s ceremony was +known as the <i>darśapūrṇamāsa</i> sacrifice.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> <i>Satapatha-Brâhmana</i>, i, 1, 1, 1 <i>sqq.</i> +(<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, xii, 1 <i>sq.</i>; compare also 374 +<i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> A. Hillebrandt, <i>Vedische Mythologie</i>, Breslau, +1891-1899, i, 267 <i>sqq.</i>, 313, 366 <i>sqq.</i>; ii, 209-240.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> A. Bergaigne, <i>La religion védique</i>, Paris, +1878, i, 157 <i>sqq.</i>; A. A. Macdonell, <i>Vedic Mythology</i>, +Strassburg, 1897, pp. 112 <i>sqq.</i>; E. W. Hopkins, <i>The Religions +of India</i>, Boston, 1895, pp. 112 <i>sqq.</i>; J. Muir, <i>Original +Sanskrit Texts</i>,³ London, 1884, v, 270 <i>sq.</i> Compare +<i>Satapatha-Brâhmana</i>, i, 6, 4, 5 <i>sqq.</i> (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xii, +176 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> <i>Grihya-sûtra of Gobhila</i>, i, 5, 1-26 (<i>S. B. +E.</i>, xxx, 25-28).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> <i>Institutes of Vishnu</i>, xlvii, 3 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, +vii, 152).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> <i>Laws of Manu</i>, xi, 217 <i>sqq.</i> (<i>S. B. E.</i>, +xxv, 474 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, iv, 128 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xxv, 149).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> <i>Vishńu Puráńa</i>, iii, 11 (the translation by H. H. +Wilson, edited by F. Hall, London, 1865, iii, 132 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ii, 6 (Wilson-Hall, ii, 219).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> J. A. Dubois, <i>Hindu Manners, Customs, and +Ceremonies</i>,³ Oxford, 1906, p. 270.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> <i>Laws of Manu</i>, iv, 113 <i>sq.</i> (<i>S. B. E.</i>, +xxv, 147).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, iv, 101 <i>sqq.</i> (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xxv, +144 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> Gautama, xvi, 22, 35-37 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, ii, 258 +<i>sqq.</i>). Compare Âpastamba, i, 3, 9, 28: “at the new moon (he shall +not study) for two days and nights” (<i>S. B. E.</i>, ii, 36).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> <i>Vishńu Puráńa</i>, iii, 12 (Wilson-Hall, iii, 143).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> Sir M. Monier-Williams, <i>Brāhmanism and Hindūism</i>,⁴ +New York, 1891, p. 433.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> H. H. Wilson, “The Religious Festivals of the Hindus,” in +<i>Essays and Lectures chiefly on the Religion of the Hindus</i>, edited +by R. Rost, London, 1862, ii, 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> H. H. Wilson, “The Religious Festivals of the Hindus,” in +<i>Essays and Lectures chiefly on the Religion of the Hindus</i>, edited +by R. Rost, London, 1862, ii, 197.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 199.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> <i>Sûtrakṛtâṅga</i>, ii, 7, 17; compare, ii, 2, 76 (<i>S. +B. E.</i>, xlv, 428 <i>sq.</i>, 383).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> <i>Uttarâdhyayana</i>, v, 23; compare ix, 42 (<i>S. B. +E.</i>, xlv, 23, 39).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> H. Jacobi, <i>Gaina Sûtras</i>, Oxford, 1895, pp. xix, 23 +<i>n.</i>² (<i>S. B. E.</i>, vol. xlv).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Margaret Stevenson, “Festivals and Fasts (Jain),” +Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, v, 875 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472" class="label">[472]</a> H. Kern, <i>Der Buddhismus und seine Geschichte in +Indien</i>, Leipzig, 1884, ii, 256 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>idem</i>, <i>Manual of +Indian Buddhism</i>, Strassburg, 1896, pp. 99 <i>sq.</i>; R. C. Childers, +<i>A Dictionary of the Pali Language</i>, London, 1875, <i>s.v.</i> +<i>uposatha</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473" class="label">[473]</a> <i>Mahâvagga</i>, ii, 1, 1-4 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xiii, 239 +<i>sq.</i>; compare p. x).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474" class="label">[474]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ii, 1, 4 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xiii, 240). +This rule is to be understood as requiring an assembly to be held on +the fourteenth <i>or</i> the fifteenth of each half-month, according +as the month had twenty-nine or thirty days. In other words an +<i>uposatha</i> service on the fourteenth day of a short month was to +be followed by a celebration on the fifteenth of the following long +month. Compare <i>ibid.</i>, ii, 34, 1. The important word “half,” which +has been inserted above, was omitted by an unfortunate oversight in +the translation of this passage from the <i>Mahâvagga</i>, as given in +the <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>. It appears, however, in Mr. H. C. +Warren’s rendering of the same passage (<i>Buddhism in Translations</i>, +Cambridge [Mass.], 1909, p. 404).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475" class="label">[475]</a> <i>Sutta Nipâta</i>, ii, 14, 26 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, x, pt. +ii, 66).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476" class="label">[476]</a> The eighth day of the waning moon (<i>áṣṭakā</i>) is +distinctly mentioned in the Vedas, as forming with new moon and full +moon the regular festival periods. Compare <i>Atharva-Veda</i>, xv, 16, +2 (transl. W. D. Whitney, p. 790); Zimmer, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 365; H. +Oldenberg, <i>Die Religion des Veda</i>, Berlin, 1894, p. 439. Of these, +the full-moon day seems to have enjoyed most importance (Oldenberg, +<i>loc. cit.</i>), and similarly in Buddhism. Compare <i>Mahâ-Sudassana +Sutta</i>, i, 11: “On the Sabbath day, on the day of full moon” (<i>S. +B. E.</i>, xi, 251 <i>sq.</i>). Elsewhere the <i>uposatha</i> service +is referred particularly to the fifteenth day of the month, “it being +full moon” (<i>Sutta Nipâta</i>, iii, 12), prœm. (<i>S. B. E.</i>, x, +pt. ii, 131 <i>sq.</i>). In very early times the Hindus had named and +deified as goddesses the four phases of the moon. See <i>Rig-Veda</i>, +ii, 32 (transl. H. Grassmann, i, 41); <i>Satapatha-Brâhmana</i>, +ix, 5, 1, 38 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xliii, 264); C. Lassen, <i>Indische +Alterthumskunde</i>,² Leipzig and London, 1867-1874, i, 986.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477" class="label">[477]</a> <i>Mahâvagga</i>, ii, 4, 1-2 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xiii, 246 +<i>sq.</i>). The <i>patimokkha</i> is one of the oldest parts of the +Buddhist canonical compositions. The Pali version has been translated +in full by Professors Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg (<i>S. B. +E.</i>, vol. xiii) and the part for monks, by J. F. Dickson (<i>Journal +of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1876, n.s., viii, 62-130). For a +description of these ceremonies as witnessed March 27, 1893, at the +Malwatta monastery in Kandy see E. M. Bowden, “The <i>uposatha</i> and +<i>upasampadâ</i> Ceremonies,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1893, n.s., xxv, 159-161. +Mr. Bowden notes that at the Malwatta monastery the <i>uposatha</i> +service is held more frequently on the day which precedes the new and the +full moon than on the new and full-moon days.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478" class="label">[478]</a> <i>Sutta Nipâta</i>, ii, 14, 19-26 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, x, +pt. ii, 65 <i>sqq.</i>). See also T. W. Rhys Davids, <i>Buddhism</i>, +London, 1890, pp. 137 <i>sqq.</i>; Childers, <i>op. cit.</i>, <i>s.v.</i> +<i>sīlaṁ</i>. The prohibition of drinking intoxicating liquors was +directed against the ancient <i>soma</i> sacrifice on the second day +of the <i>upavasatha</i> ceremony. See <i>Satapatha-Brâhmana</i>, 1, +6, 4, 5 <i>sqq.</i> (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xii, 176 <i>sqq.</i>). On the +other hand the last precept is identical with one of the regulations +for the <i>upavasatha</i>, where the celebrant is distinctly enjoined +to sleep on the ground (or a shake-down of grass, a blanket). See +<i>Satapatha-Brâhmana</i>, i, 1, 1, 11 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xii, 6).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479" class="label">[479]</a> Mahony, in <i>Asiatic Researches</i>, 1803, vii, +40 <i>sq.</i>; Edward Upham, <i>Sacred and Historical Books of +Ceylon</i>, London, 1833, iii, 161 <i>sqq.</i>; R. S. Hardy, <i>Eastern +Monachism</i>, London, 1850, pp. 236 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>idem</i>, <i>Manual +of Buddhism</i>,² London, 1880, pp. 22, 50, 52; C. F. Köppen, <i>Die +Religion des Buddha und ihre Entstehung</i>, Berlin, 1857-1859, i, +563 <i>sq.</i>; D. J. Gogerly, “The Laws of the Buddhist Priesthood,” +<i>Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, +1858-1859, iii, 253-261. By the Kandian, who occupy the interior +of Ceylon, not only the <i>poya</i> days, but all unlucky days +(<i>vitti</i>) as well, are observed with abstinence from agricultural +labour (P. Kehelpannala, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1896, xxv, 108).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480" class="label">[480]</a> Michael Symes, <i>An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom +of Ava</i>, London, 1800, p. 335. See further Hiram Cox, <i>Journal of +a Residence in the Burman Empire</i>, London, 1821, p. 241; Sangermano, +<i>A Description of the Burmese Empire</i>, translated by W. Tandy, Rome, +1833, p. 92; C. J. F. S. Forbes, <i>British Burma</i>, London, 1878, pp. +169 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481" class="label">[481]</a> Shway Yoe [Sir J. G. Scott], <i>The Burman: his Life and +Notions</i>,³ London, 1910, pp. 217-220. The Tungthu of Tenasserim have +borrowed these “duty days” from the Burmese (<i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma +and the Shan States</i>, edited by Scott and Hardiman, Rangoon, 1900, pt. +i, vol. i, p. 558).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482" class="label">[482]</a> F. H. Turpin, <i>Histoire civile et naturelle du royaume +de Siam</i>, Paris, 1771, i, 45 <i>sq.</i> The “fourth day” of the moon +must here be counted from the astronomical new moon. The <i>uposatha</i> +in Siam, as in Ceylon and Burma, falls regularly on the eighth and +fifteenth days of the waxing moon and on the eighth and fourteenth or +fifteenth days of the waning moon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483" class="label">[483]</a> J. B. Pallegoix, <i>Description du royaume Thai ou +Siam</i>, Paris, 1854, i, 249.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484" class="label">[484]</a> John Crawfurd, <i>Journal of an Embassy</i>, London, 1830, +ii, 75; Sir John Bowring, <i>The Kingdom and People of Siam</i>, London, +1857, i, 158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485" class="label">[485]</a> J. G. D. Campbell, <i>Siam in the Twentieth Century</i>, +London, 1904, p. 224 <i>n.</i>¹; G. E. Gerini, “Festivals and Fasts +(Siamese),” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, v, +885.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486" class="label">[486]</a> J. Moura, <i>Le royaume de Cambodge</i>, Paris, 1883, +i, 321. The Malays of the Malacca Peninsula regard the fourteenth and +fifteenth days of each lunar month as unlucky. On these two days no work +in the rice fields is allowed, a prohibition which only increases the +native tendency to laziness (C. O. Blagden, “Notes on the Folk-lore and +Popular Religion of the Malays,” <i>Journal of the Straits Branch of the +Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1896, no. 29, p. 6).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487" class="label">[487]</a> E. Schlaginweit, <i>Buddhism in Tibet</i>, Leipzig and +London, 1863, p. 237.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488" class="label">[488]</a> L. A. Waddell, <i>The Buddhism of Tibet, or Lamaism</i>, +London, 1895, p. 501; W. W. Rockhill, in <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Society</i>, 1891, n.s., xxiii, 207 <i>n.</i>³</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489" class="label">[489]</a> Marco Polo refers to five days or four days or three +days in each month when the lamas or clergy of Tibetan Buddhism shed no +blood and abstain from animal food (Sir Henry Yule, <i>The Book of Ser +Marco Polo</i>,³ London, 1903, i, 220, 223). Compare N. Prejevalsky, +<i>Mongolia</i>, London, 1876, i, 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490" class="label">[490]</a> Köppen, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 564.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491" class="label">[491]</a> P. S. Pallas, <i>Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des +russischen Reichs</i>, Frankfort, 1776, i, 295.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492" class="label">[492]</a> Joseph Edkins, <i>Chinese Buddhism</i>,² London, 1893, p. +206. In Buddhist monasteries the <i>patimokkha</i> is regularly recited +at new moon and full moon. The ceremony is known as <i>posadha</i> (J. J. +M. de Groot, “Buddhism in China,” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion +and Ethics</i>, iii, 554).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493" class="label">[493]</a> J. H. Gray, <i>China</i>, London, 1878, i, 263 <i>n.</i>¹; +C. Pitou, <i>La Chine</i>, Lausanne and Paris [1902], pp. 27 +<i>sqq.</i> See also W. Grube, <i>Religion und Kultus der Chinesen</i>, +Leipzig, 1910, p. 66; J. D. Ball, <i>The Celestial and his Religions</i>, +Hongkong, 1906, p. 25; J. Edkins, <i>Religion in China</i>,² London, +1878, pp. 48 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494" class="label">[494]</a> E. Kaempfer, <i>History of Japan</i>, ii, 21 <i>sq.</i> +(Glasgow reprint, 1906).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495" class="label">[495]</a> R. Friederich, in <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Society</i>, 1876, n.s., viii, 197 <i>sq.</i> Most priests also observe +with prayer and fasting every fifth day (<i>kaliwon</i>) of the Javanese +five-day market week, which has been introduced into Bali (Friederich, +<i>loc. cit.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496" class="label">[496]</a> E. H. Man, in <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, 1897, xxvi, 269 +<i>n.</i>³⁰ According to this account the Nicobarese do not observe +new-moon ceremonies. Other authorities, however, refer to sacrifices +and celebrations at this time. See V. Solomon, in <i>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</i>, 1902, xxxii, 204, 213; W. Svoboda, in +<i>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, 1893, vi, 22.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497" class="label">[497]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498" class="label">[498]</a> <i>Yasna</i>, i, 8 (so also <i>ibid.</i>, ii, 8; compare +<i>Yast</i> vii, 4). See L. H. Gray, “Festivals and Feasts (Iranian),” +Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, v, 872; L. H. +Mills, in <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, xxxi, 198, 205; W. Geiger, +<i>Civilization of the Eastern Irānians</i>, London, 1885, i, 146 +<i>n.</i>¹ The term <i>vishaptatha</i>, here translated “the intervening +seventh” refers to the seventh day between the new moon (on the 1st) and +the full moon (on the 15th), that is, to the 8th day of the month (E. +Bartholomae, <i>Altiranisches Wörterbuch</i>, Strassburg, 1904, col. +1472). The theories as to the meaning of <i>vishaptatha</i>, advanced by +J. Darmesteter, have not won the acceptance of scholars (<i>Sacred Books +of the East</i>, xxiii, 90 <i>n.</i>⁵; <i>Le Zend-Avesta</i>, Paris, +1892-1893, i, 12 <i>n.</i>³⁴).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499" class="label">[499]</a> R. Roth, “Der Kalender des Avesta und die sogenannten +<i>gahanbâr</i>,” <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen +Gesellschaft</i>, 1880, xxxiv, 710; L. H. Gray, “Der iranische Kalender,” +Geiger and Kuhn’s <i>Grundriss der iranischen Philologie</i>, ii, 675 +<i>sq.</i> There is extant a Pehlevi tract, said to have been composed +in Persia during the fourth century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, which mentions among +other matters five days in every month, namely, the 1st, 7th, 14th, +22d, and 30th, as times to be observed by abstinence from all worldly +business. The manuscript sets forth in detail the peculiar virtues of all +the days of one of the Zoroastrian months. “Some are best for beginning +a journey or voyage, others for the regulation of matters of domestic +economy, some again for social gatherings and festivities, and others +again for the pursuit of learning, while not a few are reserved for rest +and pious contemplation.” These precepts are no longer observed; in fact, +their very existence is unknown to most Parsis at the present day. See D. +F. Karaka, <i>History of the Parsis</i>, London, 1884, i, 132 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500" class="label">[500]</a> <i>Pyramid Texts</i>, § 521 (= Teti, l. 12); compare +<i>ibid.</i>, § 1453 (= Pepi, l. 657 = Mernere, ll. 763-764). Professor +J. H. Breasted of the University of Chicago has very kindly furnished me +with a translation of these passages, based on the monumental edition of +the texts prepared by K. Sethe (<i>Die altägyptischen Pyramidentexte</i>, +Leipzig, 1908-1910).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501" class="label">[501]</a> <i>The Book of the Dead</i> (Theban Recension), chs. +cxxxv, cxl (<i>The Chapters of Coming Forth by Day</i>, translated by +E. A. W. Budge, London, 1898, pp. 218, 230). See also H. Brugsch, “Über +die Hieroglyphe des Neumondes und ihre verschiedenen Bedeutungen,” +<i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, 1856, x, +676.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502" class="label">[502]</a> J. H. Breasted, <i>Ancient Records of Egypt</i>, Chicago, +1906, i, 285. See further E. Mahler, <i>Études sur le calendrier +égyptien</i>, Paris, 1907, p. 128; <i>idem</i>, in <i>Zeitschrift der +deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, 1908, lxii, 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503" class="label">[503]</a> Breasted, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 184; for an earlier +translation see S. Birch, in <i>Records of the Past</i>, ii, 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504" class="label">[504]</a> H. Brugsch, <i>Thesaurus inscriptionum Ægyptiacarum</i>, +Leipzig, 1883-1891, pt. i, 30 <i>sqq.</i>, 49 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>idem</i>, +<i>Die Ägyptologie</i>, Leipzig, 1891, pp. 332 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505" class="label">[505]</a> Brugsch, <i>Thesaurus</i>, pt. i, 52; <i>idem</i>, +<i>Ägyptologie</i>, p. 332.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506" class="label">[506]</a> Compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Ägyptologie</i>, p. 334; E. Meyer, +“Ägyptische Chronologie,” <i>Abhandlungen der königlich-preussischen +Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>, 1904, p. 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507" class="label">[507]</a> Herodotus, ii, 47; Plutarch, <i>De Iside et Osiride</i>, +8, 43, 52; Frazer, <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>,³ ii, 129-131; Budge, +<i>Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection</i>, i, 384-396.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508" class="label">[508]</a> J. Meursius, <i>Græcia feriata, sive de festis +Græcorum</i>, Lugduni Batavorum, 1619, pp. 210-214; F. G. Welcker, +<i>Griechische Götterlehre</i>, Göttingen, 1857, i, 554 <i>sq.</i>; +W. H. Roscher, <i>Über Selene und Verwandtes</i>, pp. 110 <i>sq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, in <i>Philologus</i>, 1898, lvii, 216, 218; E. Saglio, +“Noumenia,” Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités +grecques et romaines</i>, iv, 108. The word νουμηνία occasionally was +used in the sense of the true or astronomical new moon (Thucydides, ii, +28).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509" class="label">[509]</a> <i>Odyssey</i>, xxi, 258 <i>sq.</i>: νῦν μὲν γὰρ κατὰ +δῆμον ἑορτὴ τοῖο θεοῖο ἁγνή· τίς δέ κε τόξα τιταίνοιτ’; Compare +<i>ibid.</i>, xiv, 158-162, xx, 156, 276-278.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510" class="label">[510]</a> <i>Opera et dies</i>, 770.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511" class="label">[511]</a> Aristophanes, <i>Nubes</i>, 615-619; <i>idem</i>, +<i>Acharnenses</i>, 999; <i>idem</i>, <i>Vespæ</i>, 96; Demosthenes, +<i>Adv. Aristogiton</i>, i, 99; Athenæus, <i>Deipnosophistæ</i>, xii, 76; +Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones Romanæ</i>, 25; <i>idem</i>, <i>De vitando ære +alieno</i>, 2; Porphyry, <i>De abstinentia</i>, ii, 16; Theophrastus, +<i>Characteres</i>, 14; Lucian, <i>Icaromenippus</i>, 13; <i>idem</i>, +<i>Lexiphanes</i>, 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512" class="label">[512]</a> Aristophanes, <i>Vespæ</i>, 171; <i>idem</i>, +<i>Equites</i>, 43 <i>sq.</i>; Alciphron, <i>Epistolæ</i>, iii, 38; +Porphyry, <i>De abstinentia</i>, ii, 129; Proclus, on Hesiod, <i>Opera +et dies</i>, 780; Suidas, <i>s.v.</i> νουμηνία (ed. G. Bernhardy, Halle, +1853, ii, 1010).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513" class="label">[513]</a> <i>Hymni Homerici</i>, xxxii, 11; Plutarch, <i>De gloria +Atheniensis</i>, 7; <i>idem</i>, <i>Dion</i>, 23. Hesiod (<i>op. +cit.</i>, 819, compare 794 <i>sqq.</i>) describes the 14th of the month +as “above all a holy day” (περὶ πάντων ἱερὸν ἦμαρ).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514" class="label">[514]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515" class="label">[515]</a> Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>, i, 15, 9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516" class="label">[516]</a> Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i, 47; Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones +Romanæ</i>, 24; Vergil, <i>Bucolica</i>, i, 43 <i>sq.</i>; Horace, +<i>Carmina</i>, iii, 23, 1 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517" class="label">[517]</a> Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 15, 15; Ovid, <i>op. +cit.</i>, i, 48 <i>sq.</i>; Lydus, <i>De mensibus</i>, iii, 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518" class="label">[518]</a> Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i>, p. 369; +compare T. Mommsen, in <i>Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, i, pt. i,² +297.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519" class="label">[519]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520" class="label">[520]</a> Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, 29; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, +i, 59 <i>sq.</i>; Livy, vi, 1; Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones Romanæ</i>, 25; +Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, iv, 9, 5; Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>, +i, 16, 18. These days were also described as <i>atri vel vitiosi</i>. +The greater number of them were available for judicial business, but not +for meetings of the assemblies (<i>dies fasti non comitiales</i>). Many +Romans also regarded as ominous the fourth day before the Kalends, Nones, +and Ides; according to one account because the battle of Cannæ took place +on the fourth day before the Nones of the month Sextilis (Gellius, <i>op. +cit.</i>, v, 17, 3).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521" class="label">[521]</a> Verrius Flaccus, <i>ap.</i> Gellius, <i>op. cit.</i>, v, +17; Macrobius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 16, 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522" class="label">[522]</a> On this point I am happy to find myself in agreement with +Dr. W. Warde Fowler, who also regards the traditional explanation of +the <i>dies postriduani</i> as an ætiological myth. “The fact that the +authorities of the state had made one or two days <i>religiosi</i> as +anniversaries of disasters, supplied a handy explanation for a number +of other <i>dies religiosi</i> of which the true explanation had been +entirely lost; but that there was such a true explanation, resting on +very primitive beliefs, I have very little doubt” (<i>The Religious +Experience of the Roman People</i>, London, 1911, p. 40). Dr. Fowler in +a letter (under date Dec. 9, 1911) tells me that he regards as “quite +probable” the suggestion in the text that these days were originally +tabooed in consequence of lunar superstitions attaching to them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523" class="label">[523]</a> <i>Geographica</i>, iii, 4, 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524" class="label">[524]</a> <i>Germania</i>, 9, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525" class="label">[525]</a> Isidorus Hispalensis, <i>Etymologiæ sive origines</i>, v, +33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526" class="label">[526]</a> J. K. Fotheringham, “Calendar (Introductory),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 61-64; F. K. Ginzel, +<i>Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</i>, Leipzig, +1906-1911, ii, 121-159; E. Meyer, <i>Geschichte des Altertums</i>, +Erster Band, Erste Hälfte, Berlin, 1907, pp. 231-243; R. Schram, +“Jahrform und Zeitrechnung verschiedener Völker,” <i>Mitteilungen der +kaiserlich-königlichen geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, 1884, +xxvii, 481-498; M. Hubert, “Étude sommaire de la représentation du +temps dans la religion et la magie,” in Hubert and Mauss, <i>Mélanges +d’histoire des religions</i>, Paris, 1909, pp. 189-229.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527" class="label">[527]</a> The lunar or synodic month, determined by the synodic +revolution of the moon, is the time between two successive conjunctions +of that luminary with the sun, and may be measured from new moon to new +moon or from full to full. It varies about thirteen hours by reason of +eccentricities of the moon’s orbit and of that of the earth about the +sun, but its mean value is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds. +The length of the “light month,” or period of the moon’s visibility, +though commonly taken at three days, is a variable quantity. It is the +usual practice to assume that the moon becomes visible on the first +evening when she is more than thirty hours old at sunset. Her mean age +when first seen is, therefore, 30 hours + 24/2 hours = 1 day, 18 hours. +See J. K. Fotheringham, “On the Smallest Visible Phase of the Moon,” +<i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>, 1910, lxx, +527-531.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528" class="label">[528]</a> E. J. Payne, <i>History of the New World called +America</i>, Oxford, 1892-1899, ii, 329, 331; E. Förstemann, in +<i>Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, 1904, no. 28, p. 523 +(Maya pre-solar calendar).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529" class="label">[529]</a> Horapollo, <i>Hieroglyphica</i>, i, 4; compare H. Brugsch, +in <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, +1856, x, 676; C. R. Lepsius, <i>Die Chronologie der Ägypter</i>, +Berlin, 1849, i, 156 <i>sq.</i>, 219; E. Meyer, “Ägyptische +Chronologie,” <i>Abhandlungen der königlich-preussischen Akademie der +Wissenschaften</i>, Berlin, 1904, pp. 5 <i>sqq.</i> Papyri discovered +by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie at Kahun, belonging to the age of +Sesostris III, show that a lunar year of three hundred and fifty-five +days was still recognized as late as the Twelfth Dynasty. These papyri +relate to the temple revenues, which the priests, with characteristic +religious conservatism, were accustomed to reckon according to lunar +months (seven of thirty days and five of twenty-nine days). See L. +Borchardt, in <i>Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache</i>, 1899, xxxvii, +92-95.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530" class="label">[530]</a> Below, pp. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531" class="label">[531]</a> O. Schrader, <i>Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan +Peoples</i>, translated by F. B. Jevons, London, 1890, p. 306; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde</i>, +Strassburg, 1901, p. 547.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532" class="label">[532]</a> R. Andree, “Die Plejaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung +zum Jahresbeginn und Landbau,” <i>Globus</i>, 1893, lxiv, 362-366; Sir J. +G. Frazer, <i>Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild</i>, London, 1912, i, +307-319; E. Förstemann, “The Pleiades among the Mayas,” <i>Bulletin of +the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, 1904, no. 28, pp. 523 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533" class="label">[533]</a> The lunar year of twelve synodic months consists, exactly, +of 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and 36 seconds. The Maori have a +legend to the effect that their ancient year contained ten months only, +until a certain teacher, full of divine wisdom, instructed them to +make their year twelve months long (E. Tregear, <i>The Maori Race</i>, +Wanganui [N.Z.], 1904, p. 143). The Chinese have a similar tradition of +a ten-month year (H. A. Giles, <i>A Glossary of References on Subjects +connected with the Far East</i>,³ Shanghai, 1900, p. 183). The Roman +“year of Romulus” consisted of ten months and (commonly) three hundred +and four days (Censorinus, <i>De die natali</i>, xx, 2-3; Lydus, <i>De +mensibus</i>, i, 16). Sceptical modern historians are inclined to dismiss +the Roman tradition as a mere figment of the imagination.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534" class="label">[534]</a> The thirteenth month is referred to in the <i>Rig-Veda</i> +(i, 25, 8; transl. H. Grassmann, ii, 25) as the “later-born month”; +compare <i>Atharva-Veda</i>, v, 6, 4, xiii, 3, 8 (transl. W. D. Whitney, +pp. 230, 729). This intercalary month bears a distinctly unfavourable +character, being regarded as unfit for any religious undertaking (Haug, +<i>Aitareya Brahmanam</i>, ii, 26). Among the Loango negroes the +thirteenth month, inserted every three years, is likewise regarded as an +evil time (E. Pechuël-Loesche, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 138 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535" class="label">[535]</a> The old Roman arrangement of the months, though based +on the lunar year, is <i>sui generis</i>. Four of the twelve months, +viz., March, May, July, and October, had thirty-one days, and the rest +twenty-nine days, except February, which had twenty-eight days. All +the months thus had an odd number of days, save February, which was +specially devoted to purificatory ceremonies and the cult of the dead. +This peculiar arrangement appears to have been based on an old belief +that odd numbers are of good omen, even numbers, of ill omen (T. Mommsen, +<i>Die römische Chronologie bis auf Cæsar</i>, Berlin, 1858, p. 13; +Marquardt-Wissowa, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii,² 284). The +superstition, alluded to by Vergil in a famous line—<i>Numero deus +impare gaudet</i> (<i>Bucolica</i>, viii, 75)—is supposed to have been +derived from Pythagorean speculations regarding the cosmic properties of +numbers. It may better be considered a genuinely Italian notion, since +like beliefs are found in the folklore of other peoples, notably the +old Arabs and the modern Hindus. See I. Goldziher, in <i>Globus</i>, +1901, lxxx, 31; Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern +India</i>,² ii, 51. The choice of 355 days, rather than 354 days, as +the length of the Roman lunar year, was undoubtedly determined by the +prevalence of the same superstition (Censorinus, <i>De die natali</i>, +xx, 4).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536" class="label">[536]</a> This custom explains the widespread practice of beginning +the civil day at sunset or, more accurately, in the interval between +the going-down of the sun and complete darkness. The necessities of a +calendar system requiring that the first day of the month should be +counted from the same moment that the month itself is supposed to begin, +it follows that the other days of the month must also be calculated from +evening to evening. The noctidiurnal cycle is widespread throughout the +lower culture, being found, generally, among the North American Indians, +the Melanesians and Polynesians, and in Africa. The same cycle obtained +among many peoples of archaic civilization. The Babylonian day began with +the evening, and this is still the custom among the Arabs and throughout +the Mohammedan world. Modern Jewish communities, in beginning their +ritual day in the evening, retain a practice illustrated by several Old +Testament passages (<i>Genesis</i>, i, 5; <i>Psalms</i>, lv, 17). Various +festivals and fasts, such as the Sabbath, the Day of Atonement, and the +Feast of Unleavened Bread, were so arranged as to begin and end with +the evening. Among most of the Indo-Germanic peoples the civil day, or +nycthemeron, commenced at sunset; and the practice, which still survives +in Iceland, was not abandoned in Italy and some other parts of Europe +until about a century ago. Our English words “fortnight” and “sennight” +are reminiscent of this ancient custom. See G. A. Wilken, “Het tellen bij +nachten bij de volken van het maleisch-polynesische ras,” <i>Bijdragen +tot de taal- land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, +1886, fifth series, pt. i, 378-392; A. Fischer, “‘Tag und Nacht’ +im arabischen und die semitische Tagesberechnung,” <i>Abhandlungen +der philologisch-historischen Klasse der königlichsächsischen +Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i>, 1909, xxvii, 741-758; O. Schrader, +<i>Reallexikon</i>, p. 845; S. Reinach, “Die,” in Daremberg and Saglio, +<i>op. cit.</i>, iii, 168 <i>sq.</i>, G. Bilfinger, <i>Der bürgerliche +Tag</i>, Stuttgart, 1888.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537" class="label">[537]</a> Rivers, <i>Todas</i>, pp. 590 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538" class="label">[538]</a> J. Sechefo, “The Twelve Lunar Months among the Basuto,” +<i>Anthropos</i>, 1909, iv, 931 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539" class="label">[539]</a> Below, pp. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> +<i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540" class="label">[540]</a> James Dawson, <i>Australian Aborigines</i>, Melbourne, +1881, p. xcix.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541" class="label">[541]</a> S. Gason, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1895, xxiv, 174.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542" class="label">[542]</a> Spencer and Gillen, <i>The Native Tribes of Central +Australia</i>, London, 1897, pp. 25, 564 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543" class="label">[543]</a> B. Hagen, <i>Unter den Papua’s</i>, Wiesbaden, 1899, p. +244.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544" class="label">[544]</a> George Brown, <i>Melanesians and Polynesians</i>, London, +1910, p. 332.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545" class="label">[545]</a> V. de Rochas, <i>La Nouvelle-Calédonie</i>, Paris, 1862, +p. 191.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546" class="label">[546]</a> Nieuwenhuis, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 317.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547" class="label">[547]</a> C. Bock, <i>Head-hunters of Borneo</i>,² London, 1882, p. +212.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548" class="label">[548]</a> William Marsden, <i>The History of Sumatra</i>,³ London, +1811, p. 194; compare B. Hagen, <i>Die Orang Kubu auf Sumatra</i>, +Frankfurt-a.-M., 1908, p. 154.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549" class="label">[549]</a> E. Modigliani, <i>Un viaggio a Nias</i>, Milan, 1890, pp. +4, 484; A. Maass, <i>Bei liebenswürdigen Wilden</i>, Berlin, 1902, p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550" class="label">[550]</a> E. H. Man, in <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, 1897, xxvi, 270 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551" class="label">[551]</a> <i>Idem</i>, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1883, xii, 337.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552" class="label">[552]</a> A. E. Jenks, in <i>Ethnological Survey Publications</i>, +Manila, 1905, i, 219; O. Scheerer, <i>ibid.</i>, ii, 158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553" class="label">[553]</a> F. W. Christian, <i>The Caroline Islands</i>, +London, 1899, pp. 387 <i>sq.</i>, 392 <i>sqq.</i>; M. Girschner, in +<i>Baessler-Archiv</i>, 1911, ii, 175 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554" class="label">[554]</a> The Maori counted twenty-eight “nights” of the moon, +including: 1. <i>noni hope</i>, the moon is in the <i>reinga</i>, or +underworld; 4. <i>he oho ata</i>, the moon is visible; 5. <i>ouenuku</i>, +it begins to rise a little way; 6. <i>maweti</i>, it rises still higher; +14. <i>he atua</i>, full; 19. <i>he ohika</i>, the moon begins to +wane; 24. <i>tanagaroa a roto</i>, it sinks into the sea; 28. <i>he o +mutu</i>, it disappears (Taylor, <i>Te Ika A Maui</i>, p. 177). To the +Society Islanders the fifteenth day was <i>omarae</i>, or the moon with +a round and full face; the thirtieth day, <i>oterieo</i>, was the time +when the moon dies or is changed (Ellis, <i>Polynesian Researches</i>, +i, 87 <i>sq.</i>). In the Hervey group several of the moon nights were +sacred to the gods. The twenty-eighth day was called <i>mauri</i>—ghost; +the twenty-ninth, <i>omutu</i>—ended; the thirtieth, <i>otire o +avaiki</i>—lost in the depths of <i>avaiki</i>, or Hades (W. W. Gill, +<i>Myths and Songs from the South Pacific</i>, London, 1876, p. 318). +For a table of the days of the moon’s age in the Maori, Moriori, +Hawaiian, Tahitian, Marquesan, and Rarotongan languages see Tregear, +<i>Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary</i>, p. 666.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555" class="label">[555]</a> Hollis, <i>Nandi</i>, pp. 95 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556" class="label">[556]</a> Dennett, <i>At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind</i>, p. +186.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557" class="label">[557]</a> J. Spieth, <i>Die Ewe-Stämme</i>, Berlin, 1906, p. 556; +L. Schultze, <i>Aus Namaland und Kalahari</i>, Jena, 1907, p. 370. The +Hottentots now use the European week (Schultze, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 372).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558" class="label">[558]</a> F. Krause, <i>In den Wildnissen Brasiliens</i>, Leipzig, +1911, p. 339.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559" class="label">[559]</a> C. Thomas, “Calendar,” <i>Handbook of American +Indians</i>, pt. i, 189 (<i>Bulletin of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</i>, no. 30).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560" class="label">[560]</a> <i>Koran</i>, ii, 185. Even at the present time the south +Arabians determine the day of the month by observation of the moon’s +phases, the first quarter being called, for example, the seventh day, +and the last quarter, the twenty-first day (Nielsen, <i>Altarabische +Mondreligion</i>, p. 85, referring to Dr. Glaser’s observations).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561" class="label">[561]</a> The mean age of the moon when first seen being 30 hours ++ 24/2 hours = 1 day, 18 hours (above, p. <a href="#Page_174">174</a> <i>n.</i>¹), and the mean +age of the moon when full being (29 days, 12 + hours)/2 = 14 days, 18 +hours, it follows that the mean interval between the first appearance +of the moon and the full of the moon is about 13 days. “In other words +the moon becomes full on an average at the end of the thirteenth day +and the beginning of the fourteenth night. Hence, where the days are +reckoned from sunset, we should expect the fourteenth day of the month +to be regarded as the day of the full moon. And it is in fact one of +the days most commonly so regarded. The fifteenth is a date obtained +more simply. Fifteen is half thirty and, as the middle of the month, +should be the date of full moon. In calendars based on calculations the +month is frequently reckoned from the actual new moon, and in these the +fifteenth is more correct than the fourteenth for the mean date of full +moon.” It should be noted, also, that, as a general rule, the nearer the +autumnal equinox, the later the first appearance of the moon and the +shorter the interval between the visible new moon and full moon. If the +first appearance is late, as it often is in September, the moon might be +full on the night following the eleventh day. See J. K. Fotheringham, in +<i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i>, 1909-1910, pp. 283, 286.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562" class="label">[562]</a> R. Thurnwald, <i>Forschungen auf den Salomo-Inseln und dem +Bismarck Archipel</i>, Berlin, 1912-1913, i, 330 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563" class="label">[563]</a> E. Tregear, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1890, xix, 114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564" class="label">[564]</a> L. H. Gray, “Calendar (Polynesian),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 130; J. v. Brenner, +<i>Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras</i>, Würzburg, 1894, p. 233; R. +Friederich, in <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1878, n.s., +x, 93 <i>sq.</i>; Modigliani, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 464.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565" class="label">[565]</a> A. Weber, in <i>Indische Studien</i>, 1853, ii, 166 +<i>n.</i>*; H. Zimmer, <i>Altindisches Leben</i>, Berlin, 1879, p. +364; G. Thibaut, “Astronomie, Astrologie, und Mathematik,” Bühler’s +<i>Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde</i>, iii, +pt. ix, 12. This lunar fortnight of the Hindus attracted the attention +of the Romans, and Quintus Curtius speaks of it as a noteworthy fact +(<i>Historiæ Alexandri Magni</i>, viii, 9). References to it are also +found in mediæval literature; compare Albîrûnî, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 359.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566" class="label">[566]</a> G. E. Balfour, <i>The Cyclopædia of India</i>,³ ii, 981; +Sewell and Dikshit, <i>The Indian Calendar</i>, London, 1896, p. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567" class="label">[567]</a> Childers, <i>Dictionary of the Pali Language</i>, +<i>s.v.</i> <i>parācadasí</i>; A. Cabaton, in Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 136 (as to the Siamese); Shway Yoe, +<i>The Burman</i>,³ p. 550; A. Cabaton, in Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 113 <i>sq.</i> (as to the Cambodians, +Chams, and Laotians); H. Vámbéry, <i>Die primitive Cultur des +turko-tatarischen Volkes</i>, Leipzig, 1879, p. 160; Carl Hiekisch, +<i>Die Tungusen</i>, St. Petersburg, 1879, p. 94. In Tibet the fifteenth +day of the lunar month receives a special name (A. Csoma de Körös, <i>A +Grammar of the Tibetan Language</i>, Calcutta, 1834, p. 157).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568" class="label">[568]</a> <i>Yašt</i>, vii, 2 (<i>S. B. E.</i>, xxiii, 89).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569" class="label">[569]</a> <i>Odyssey</i>, xiv, 162; xix, 307: τοῦ μὲν φθίνοντος +μηνός, τοῦ δ’ ἱσταμένοιο; Hesiod, <i>Opera et dies</i>, 780: μηνὸς δ’ +ἱσταμένου τριςκαιδεκάτην.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570" class="label">[570]</a> G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” Iwan +von Müller’s <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, +i, 563. However, evidence is not wanting for the observance of the +fourteenth day, and even of the sixteenth day, as that of the full moon. +See A. Mommsen, <i>Chronologie</i>, Leipzig, 1883, pp. 99 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571" class="label">[571]</a> The Greeks never knew the exact mean measurement of a +lunation and, owing to their neglect of the odd minutes and seconds +in the lunar month, they were obliged occasionally to intercalate an +additional day. From a passage in Aristophanes it would appear that +this pious duty to the gods was not always performed (<i>Nubes</i>, 610 +<i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572" class="label">[572]</a> T. Mommsen, <i>Römische Chronologie</i>, pp. +13 <i>sq.</i>, 215 <i>sq.</i>; Marquardt-Wissowa, <i>Römische +Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii,² 282 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573" class="label">[573]</a> Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>, i, 15, 10; Varro, <i>De +lingua Latina</i>, vi, 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574" class="label">[574]</a> The <i>nonæ</i>, or Nones, were so called because, by the +Roman inclusive reckoning, they fell on the ninth day (<i>nonus</i>) +before the Ides (Varro, <i>loc. cit.</i>). Plutarch’s derivation from +<i>novus</i>, new or young, referring to the waxing moon, is without +justification (<i>Quæstiones Romanæ</i>, 24). On the etymology of +<i>idus</i> see Walde, <i>Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</i>,² +p. 375. The Romans had no name, corresponding to <i>nonæ</i>, for the +last quarter of the moon. It has been argued, therefore, that the +Nones never marked the first quarter and that they were introduced, +quite artificially, during the regal period (R. Flex, <i>Die älteste +Monatseinteilung der Römer</i>, Jena, 1880, pp. 5 <i>sq.</i>, 24 +<i>sqq.</i>, 36, 42).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575" class="label">[575]</a> Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>, 11: <i>cum aut inchoatur luna +aut impletur</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576" class="label">[576]</a> J. Loth, “L’année celtique d’après les textes irlandais, +gallois, bretons, et le calendrier de Coligny,” <i>Revue celtique</i>, +1904, xxv, 131; R. Thurneysen, “Die Namen der Wochentage in den +keltischen Dialecten,” <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung</i>, +1901, i, 191.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577" class="label">[577]</a> The long inscription, engraved on a bronze tablet, which +forms the Calendar of Coligny, was discovered in 1897 near the city of +Lyons. See S. de Ricci, “Le calendrier gaulois de Coligny,” <i>Revue +celtique</i>, 1898, xix, 213-223; R. Thurneysen, “Der Kalender von +Coligny,” <i>Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie</i>, 1899, ii, 523-544; +Sir John Rhŷs, “The Coligny Calendar,” <i>Proceedings of the British +Academy</i>, 1909-1910, pp. 207 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578" class="label">[578]</a> Loth, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Rhŷs, <i>Celtic Heathendom</i>,³ +London, 1898, pp. 360 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579" class="label">[579]</a> Horapollo, <i>Hieroglyphica</i>, i, 4; Brugsch, +<i>Ägyptologie</i>, p. 331; E. Mahler, in <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Society</i>, 1901, n.s., xxxiii, 55 <i>sqq.</i> Mahler’s hypothesis that +the Egyptians looked upon the full moon as the completion of the lunation +is not improbable; there are several passages in the Vedas where the +full moon is indicated as the end of the month and at the same time as +the beginning of the next month (Thibaut, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 12). The +evidence yielded by the Calendar of Coligny has been thought to imply +that originally the Sequani of Gaul counted the months from full moon to +full moon (R. Thurneysen, in <i>Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie</i>, +1899, ii, 526). The Melanesians of New Georgia do not seem to calculate +long periods of time at all: “one full moon to another is as far as they +usually go” (B. T. Somerville, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1897, xxvi, 404).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580" class="label">[580]</a> Payne, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 310, 323 <i>sqq.</i>, 355 +<i>sqq.</i>; J. de Acosta, <i>op. cit.</i>, bk. vi, ch. 2 (ed. C. R. +Markham, ii, 393); H. H. Bancroft, <i>The Native Races of the Pacific +States of North America</i>, ii, 515 <i>sq.</i> For other and less +plausible reasons leading to the choice of the number thirteen, see C. P. +Bowditch, <i>The Numeration, Calendar Systems, and Astronomical Knowledge +of the Mayas</i>, Cambridge (Mass.), 1910, pp. 266 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581" class="label">[581]</a> V. Restrepo, <i>Los Chibchas antes de la conquista +española</i>, Bogota, 1895, p. 162; Garcilasso de la Vega, <i>op. +cit.</i>, pt. i, bk. ii, ch. 23 (transl. C. R. Markham, i, 181).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582" class="label">[582]</a> Ellis, <i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 143 <i>sq.</i> +The Benin tribes are said to employ the same method of reckoning.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583" class="label">[583]</a> <i>Idem</i>, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 215 +<i>sq.</i> The Ga tribes have an exactly similar mode of measuring time, +though their names for the days of the week are not the same as those +used by the Tshi. With both the Tshi and Ga the full moon marks the +commencement of the third week of 7⅜ days and, with the Yoruba, the +commencement of the fourth week of 5 days, in each case marking the lapse +of half a month.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584" class="label">[584]</a> R. Taylor, <i>Te Ika A Maui</i>, London, 1855, p. 177. +When the Maori adopted the European week, they gave native names to three +of the weekdays. Sunday they called “the week,” <i>te wiki</i>, because +on that day the week began, Saturday was <i>te ra horoi</i>, or washing +and cleaning-up day, a name derived from their observation of European +customs at that time, and Friday was <i>te ra oka</i>, or bleeding +day, so named because the missionaries killed their pigs on Friday in +order to be able to cut them up on Saturday and dispose of them before +Sunday. The remaining weekdays had naturalized names, viz., <i>manei</i>, +<i>turei</i>, <i>wenerei</i>, and <i>tairei</i> (<i>ibid.</i>, pp. 176 +<i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585" class="label">[585]</a> Malo, <i>Hawaiian Antiquities</i>, p. 54; N. B. Emerson, +in <i>ibid.</i>, p. 200; Fornander, <i>Account of the Polynesian +Race</i>, i, 120 <i>sq.</i> On the Hawaiian Sabbaths see above, pp. <a href="#Page_14">14</a> +<i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586" class="label">[586]</a> Christian, <i>Caroline Islands</i>, p. 394.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587" class="label">[587]</a> <i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States</i>, +edited by Scott and Hardiman, pt. i, vol. i, p. 434; H. J. Wehrli, +<i>Beitrag zur Ethnologie der Chingpaw (Kachin) von Ober-Burma</i>, +Leiden, 1904, p. 68 (<i>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, vol. +xvi, Supplement).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588" class="label">[588]</a> A. Cabaton, “Calendar (Indo-Chinese),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 110.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589" class="label">[589]</a> T. L. Bullock and L. H. Gray, “Calendar (Chinese),” +<i>ibid.</i>, iii, 83. The names of the three decades are said to be +<i>shang</i>, <i>chung</i>, and <i>hea</i> (Robert Morrison, <i>A View of +China for Philological Purposes</i>, Macao, 1817, p. 104).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590" class="label">[590]</a> E. W. Clement, “Calendar (Japanese),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591" class="label">[591]</a> Fitzgerald, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 111.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592" class="label">[592]</a> De Faria, in Astley’s <i>A New General Collection of +Voyages and Travels</i>, London, 1746, iii, 397. The eighth day of the +new moon was considered most unlucky by the Sofalese. No one on that day +was allowed to attend court or even speak to the king (<i>ibid.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593" class="label">[593]</a> E. Torday, in <i>Mitteilungen der anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, 1911, xli, 200.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594" class="label">[594]</a> Ellis, <i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 144. The first +period, called <i>adai</i>, is considered lucky; the second, called +<i>ajamfo</i>, is unlucky; while <i>adim</i>, the third period, has a +neutral character (John Beecham, <i>Ashantee and the Gold Coast</i>, +London, 1841, p. 187). An old writer asserts that the negroes living +inland from the Gold Coast count in every month the “great fortunate +time,” nineteen days in length, and the “lesser fortunate time,” of seven +days’ duration. Between these periods come seven ill or unfortunate +days which serve as “a sort of vacation to them, for then they do not +travel, till their land, or undertake anything of consequence, but remain +altogether idle” (W. Bosman, <i>A New and Accurate Description of the +Coast of Guinea</i>, London, 1705, p. 160).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595" class="label">[595]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596" class="label">[596]</a> Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, in <i>Twenty-third Annual Report +of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, p. 108. It is only right to +add that Dr. J. W. Fewkes, an eminent authority on the Pueblo Indians, +expressed to me in conversation (July, 1912) his doubts as to the +correctness of Mrs. Stevenson’s statement.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597" class="label">[597]</a> Lepsius, <i>Chronologie der Ägypter</i>, i, 131 +<i>sqq.</i>; Brugsch, <i>Thesaurus</i>, pt. i, 488 <i>sqq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Ägyptologie</i>, p. 364. On the astrological connection +between the thirty-six decades of the twelve months and certain +constellations see G. Daressy, “Une ancienne liste des décans égyptiens,” +<i>Annales du service des antiquités de l’Égypte</i>, 1900, i, 79-90. The +old and once popular theory, based upon a misunderstanding of certain +passages in classical writers (Herodotus, ii, 82; Dio Cassius, xxxvii, +19), that the Egyptians originally possessed a week of seven days has now +been entirely abandoned. For some monumental evidence, dating from the +Twenty-second Dynasty, which may possibly refer to an hebdomadal cycle +then used in astronomical speculations, see G. Daressy, “La semaine des +Égyptiens,” <i>Annales du service des antiquités de l’Égypte</i>, 1909, +x, 21-23, 180-182.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598" class="label">[598]</a> Pollux, <i>Onomasticon</i>, i, 63; G. F. Unger, in Iwan +von Müller’s <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, i, +563 <i>sqq.</i>; M. P. Nilsson, “<i>Die älteste griechische Zeitrechnung, +Apollo und der Orient</i>,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, +1911, xiv, 432 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599" class="label">[599]</a> Hesiod, <i>Opera et dies</i>, 765 <i>sqq.</i>; compare A. +W. Mair, <i>Hesiod</i>, Oxford, 1908, pp. 165 <i>sq.</i>; A. Mommsen, +<i>Chronologie</i>, Leipzig, 1883, p. 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600" class="label">[600]</a> E. Curtius, <i>History of Greece</i>, New York, 1871, ii, +58; C. E. Ruelle, “Calendarium,” Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités grecques et romaines</i>, ii, 832.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601" class="label">[601]</a> W. H. Roscher, “Die enneadischen und hebdomadischen +Fristen und Wochen der ältesten Griechen,” <i>Abhandlungen der +philologisch-historischen Klasse der königlichsächsischen Gesellschaft +der Wissenschaften</i>, Leipzig, 1903, xxi, no. 4, pp. 14 <i>sqq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, “Die Sieben- und Neunzahl im Kultus und Mythus der +Griechen,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1904, xxiv, no. 1, pp. 54, 69, 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602" class="label">[602]</a> K. Simrock, <i>Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie</i>,⁹ +Bonn, 1887, p. 156; E. Siecke, <i>Die Liebesgeschichte des Himmels</i>, +Strassburg, 1892, pp. 47 <i>sqq.</i>; K. Weinhold, “Die mystische +Neunzahl bei den Deutschen,” <i>Abhandlungen der königlich-preussischen +Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>, Berlin, 1897, pp. 40 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603" class="label">[603]</a> R. Thurneysen, “Die Namen der Wochentage in den keltischen +Dialecten,” <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 191. +J. Loth, however, regards the Celtic periods as having been employed as +ordinary weeks (“L’année celtique d’après les textes irlandais, gallois, +bretons, et le calendrier de Coligny,” <i>Revue celtique</i>, 1904, xxv, +136). He accepts Roscher’s theory of the sidereal month having furnished +the basis for such nine-day periods as are found among the Celts, and +argues that subsequently, when the sidereal month had been abandoned +for the synodic month, the nine-day periods became artificial units, +independent of any connection with the moon. But so strange a transition +as that from the sidereal to the synodic month cannot be supported by +any Celtic evidence and has no analogy among other peoples. For another +theory see Sir John Rhŷs, <i>Celtic Heathendom</i>,³ London, 1898, pp. +361-366.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604" class="label">[604]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, +<a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> +<i>sq.</i> The theory advanced by Theodor Mommsen that the Roman +<i>nundinum</i> originally represented a quadripartite division of the +lunation (<i>Römische Chronologie</i>, pp. 240 <i>sq.</i>) was afterwards +abandoned by its author (<i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, iii, 373). Compare +also R. Flex, <i>Die älteste Monatseinteilung der Römer</i>, Jena, 1880, +pp. 18 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605" class="label">[605]</a> E. Littmann, “Sternensagen und Astrologisches aus +Nordabessinien,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1908, xi, 302 +<i>sq.</i>, 319. In order to adapt the <i>‘sāmĕn</i> to the imported +hebdomadal cycle, Sunday is counted twice.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606" class="label">[606]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>and</i> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607" class="label">[607]</a> A. Henry, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1903, xxxiii, 105. The Muhso, a Lao hill tribe, “have a +twelfth-day Sabbath or sacred day, not very definitely marked” (Daniel +McGilvary, <i>A Half Century among the Siamese and the Lāo</i>, New York +[1912], p. 323). Did this “Sabbath” originate as a market day, which at +first recurred every sixth day?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608" class="label">[608]</a> E. Gottschling, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1905, xxxv, 382.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609" class="label">[609]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>sqq.</i>, +<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> +<i>and</i> <i>n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>and</i> <i>n.</i>³, +<a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610" class="label">[610]</a> <i>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri</i>, edited by Grenfell and +Hunt, London, 1903, pt. iii, 126-137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611" class="label">[611]</a> The data relating to the <i>khamushtu</i> are found in +some Cappadocian tablets discovered by Golénischeff and others in mounds +not far from Kaisariyeh. This city was a colony of Assyria and the last +outpost of Assyrian power in the northwest. The tablets are in Babylonian +cuneiform script belonging to the age of Hammurabi. Professor A. H. Sayce +in 1897 was the first to show that the term <i>khamushtu</i> in these +documents represented a continuous succession of five-day periods; and +Professor Hugo Winckler later made, independently, the same discovery. +See Sayce, in <i>Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology</i>, +1897, xix, 288; <i>idem</i>, in <i>Babyloniaca</i>, 1907, ii, 1-45; +Winckler, <i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i>, Leipzig, 1898-1900, ii, 91 +<i>sqq.</i>, 354 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612" class="label">[612]</a> For references to the cuneiform evidence see P. Jensen, +“Die siebentägige Woche in Babylon und Nineveh,” <i>Zeitschrift für +deutsche Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 150 <i>sq.</i>; W. Muss-Arnolt, in +<i>Journal of Biblical Literature</i>, xi, 94; A. Jeremias, <i>The Old +Testament in the Light of the Ancient East</i>, London, 1911, i, 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613" class="label">[613]</a> G. Vígfússon, <i>An Icelandic-English Dictionary</i>, +Oxford, 1874, <i>s.v.</i> <i>fimt</i>; Vígfússon and Powell, <i>Corpus +Poeticum Boreale</i>, Oxford, 1883, i, pp. cxx, 428; F. B. Gummere, +<i>Germanic Origins</i>, New York, 1892, p. 418; T. F. Troels-Lund, +<i>Livsbelysning</i>, Copenhagen, 1904, pp. 13, 198. For the translation +of this last reference I am indebted to Mr. N. H. Debel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614" class="label">[614]</a> The Stseelis, an Indian tribe of British Columbia, have a +singular tradition that their ancestors used to observe a kind of Sabbath +ceremony long before the coming of the whites. The people assembled +every seventh day for dancing and praying. It is impossible to explain +this tradition apart from European influence at some remote time (C. +Hill-Tout, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1904, +xxxiv, 329).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615" class="label">[615]</a> L. Dahle, “The Influence of the Arabs on the Malagasy +Language,” <i>Antananarivo Annual</i>, 1875-1878, i, 205. In addition +to the Arabic seven-day week with its numbered weekdays, the Malagasy +also use, for astrological purposes, the planetary designations of the +weekdays. Of these, three are good or lucky days, three are unlucky, +and one has a neutral character. See J. Sibree, “Divination among the +Malagasy,” <i>Folklore</i>, 1892, iii, 220 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616" class="label">[616]</a> Soury-Lavergne and de la Devèze, in <i>Anthropos</i>, +1913, viii, 310 <i>n.</i>⁴; James Sibree, <i>The Great African +Island</i>, London, 1880, p. 281.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617" class="label">[617]</a> O. Kersten, editor, <i>Baron Carl Claus von der Decken’s +Reisen in Ost-Afrika</i>, Leipzig, 1869, i, 101.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618" class="label">[618]</a> M. Merker, <i>Die Masai</i>,² Berlin, 1910, pp. 157 +<i>sq.</i>, 327 <i>sq.</i>; compare Sir Charles Eliot, in A. C. Hollis, +<i>The Masai</i>, Oxford, 1905, p. xiv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619" class="label">[619]</a> C. W. Hobley, <i>Ethnology of the A-Kamba and Other East +African Tribes</i>, Cambridge, 1910, p. 163.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620" class="label">[620]</a> J. L. Krapf, <i>Travels, Researches, and Missionary +Labours</i>, London, 1867, p. 82.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621" class="label">[621]</a> J. W. C. Kirk, <i>A Grammar of the Somali Language</i>, +Cambridge, 1905, p. 134; P. Paulitschke, <i>Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas. +Die geistige Kultur der Danâkil, Galla, und Somâl</i>, Berlin, 1896, p. +224.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622" class="label">[622]</a> F. J. Bieber, in <i>Revue des études ethnographiques et +sociologiques</i>, 1909, ii, 38, 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623" class="label">[623]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>sqq.</i> For further instances see Anne +Raffenel, <i>Nouveau voyage dans le pays des nègres</i>, Paris, 1856, i, +350 (Bambara); H. Gaden, in <i>Revue d’ethnographie et de sociologie</i>, +1912, iii, 52 (Toucouleur and Mohammedan Peul of Senegal). Among the Vey +of Liberia the week of seven days must be due to Christian influence (J. +Büttikofer, <i>Reisebilder aus Liberia</i>, Leiden, 1890, ii, 317).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624" class="label">[624]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_157">157</a> <i>and</i> <i>n.</i>²</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625" class="label">[625]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626" class="label">[626]</a> J. F. Fleet, “The Use of the Planetary Names of the Days +of the Week in India,” <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1912, +n.s., xliv, 1039-1046. For lists of the more common planetary names of +the weekdays, as now found in India, see Sewell and Dikshit, <i>The +Indian Calendar</i>, London, 1896, p. 2. The celebrated astronomical work +in Sanskrit, known as the <i>Sûrya-Siddhânta</i>, contains two references +to the planetary week (i, 51-52, xii, 78-79; transl. Burgess-Whitney, in +<i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, 1860, v, 175-178, 396), +and in the <i>Hitōpadēśa</i> (ed. Johnson, p. 16, l. 411) there is an +interesting passage which, as A. W. von Schlegel was the first to point +out (<i>Indische Bibliothek</i>, 1827, ii, 178), refers to Sunday as a +sacred day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627" class="label">[627]</a> Sir M. Monier-Williams, <i>Brāhmanism and Hindūism</i>,⁴ +New York, 1891, p. 433; W. Crooke, <i>Natives of Northern India</i>, +London, 1907, p. 226; <i>idem</i>, <i>The Tribes and Castes of the +North-western Provinces and Oudh</i>, Calcutta, 1896, iii, 112.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628" class="label">[628]</a> J. A. Dubois, <i>Hindu Manners, Customs, and +Ceremonies</i>,³ Oxford, 1906, p. 382.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_629" href="#FNanchor_629" class="label">[629]</a> R. Percival, <i>An Account of the Island of Ceylon</i>, +London, 1803, p. 187; H. C. P. Bell, <i>The Máldive Islands</i>, Colombo, +1883, p. 119; B. H. Hodgson, <i>Essays on the Languages, Literature, and +Religion of Nepál and Tibet</i>, London, 1874, p. 8; E. Schlaginweit, +<i>Buddhism in Tibet</i>, Leipzig and London, 1863, 289; Shway Yoe, +<i>The Burman</i>,³ London, 1910, pp. 550 <i>sq.</i>; E. Aymonier, <i>Le +Cambodge</i>, Paris, 1900-1904, i, 42, ii, 19; De la Loubère, <i>A New +Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam</i>, London, 1693, ii, 168.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_630" href="#FNanchor_630" class="label">[630]</a> A. Cabaton, in Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion +and Ethics</i>, iii, 113, 345, 450. On the other hand a week of seven +days, found in central Asia, has been borrowed from Persia, as its +name <i>hafta</i> from the Persian <i>heft</i>, “seven,” indicates (H. +Vámbéry, <i>Die primitive Cultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes</i>, +Leipzig, 1879, p. 160). In northern Asia, again, the Russian advance has +begun to lead to the use of the seven-day week by native tribes, such as +the Yukaghir of northeastern Siberia (W. Jochelson, in <i>Memoirs of the +American Museum of Natural History</i>, xiii, 42).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_631" href="#FNanchor_631" class="label">[631]</a> Tournier, <i>Notice sur le Laos français</i>, Hanoi, 1900, +p. 188.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_632" href="#FNanchor_632" class="label">[632]</a> Robert Morrison, <i>A View of China for Philological +Purposes</i>, Macao, 1817, pp. 52, 102; <i>idem</i>, <i>A Grammar of the +Chinese Language</i>, Serampore, 1815, p. 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_633" href="#FNanchor_633" class="label">[633]</a> A. Wylie, “On the Knowledge of the Weekly Sabbath in +China,” <i>Chinese Researches</i>, Shanghai, 1897, pt. ii, 86-101; J. +Edkins, <i>Chinese Buddhism</i>,² London, 1893, p. 211.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_634" href="#FNanchor_634" class="label">[634]</a> The Nestorian Monument was set up in 781 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> +in the department or prefecture of Hsî-an, province of Shen-hsî, +northwestern China. At the end of the inscription on it we read: “Erected +in the second year of the period Chien-chung of the great T’ang dynasty, +the year-star being in Tso-yo, on the seventh day of the first month, +being Sunday.” See James Legge, <i>The Nestorian Monument of Hsî-an Fu +in Shen-hsî, China</i>, London, 1888, p. 29. A replica of this monument, +which is a limestone block ten feet in height and of two tons’ weight, +was taken to the United States in 1908 and now rests in the Metropolitan +Museum of Art, New York City. See F. V. Holm, “The Holm Nestorian +Expedition to Sian, MCMVII,” <i>Open Court</i>, 1909, xxiii, 18-28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_635" href="#FNanchor_635" class="label">[635]</a> “Some persons,” writes an experienced observer of the +Chinese, “have expressed their surprise that the unceasing round of toil +which the Chinese labourer pursues has not rendered him more degraded. +It is usually said that a weekly rest is necessary for the continuance +of the powers of body and mind in man in their full activity, and that +decrepitude and insanity would oftener result were it not for this +relaxation.... Yet, in China, people who apparently tax themselves +uninterruptedly to the utmost stretch of body and mind, live in health to +old age.... Nothing like a seventh day of rest, or religious respect to +that interval of time, is known among the Chinese, but they do not, as a +people, exercise their minds to the intensity, or upon the high subjects, +common among western nations, and this perhaps is one reason why their +yearly toil produces no disastrous effects” (S. W. Williams, <i>The +Middle Kingdom</i>,² New York, 1883, i, 809 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_636" href="#FNanchor_636" class="label">[636]</a> B. H. Chamberlain, <i>Things Japanese</i>,² London, 1891, +pp. 418 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_637" href="#FNanchor_637" class="label">[637]</a> Arthur Lloyd, <i>Every-day Japan</i>, London, 1909, pp. +371 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_638" href="#FNanchor_638" class="label">[638]</a> W. W. Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>, London, 1900, pp. 548 +<i>sq.</i>, 554.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_639" href="#FNanchor_639" class="label">[639]</a> Annandale and Robinson, <i>Fasciculi Malayensis</i>, +London, 1903-1904, i, 80 <i>sq.</i>, 100; ii, 30, 55.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_640" href="#FNanchor_640" class="label">[640]</a> C. S. Hurgronje, <i>The Achehnese</i>, Leiden, 1906, i, +236, 261.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_641" href="#FNanchor_641" class="label">[641]</a> A. Maass, <i>Durch Zentral-Sumatra</i>, Berlin, 1910, p. +513.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_642" href="#FNanchor_642" class="label">[642]</a> J. Winkler, “Der Kalender der Toba-Bataks auf Sumatra,” +<i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, 1913, xlv, 441 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_643" href="#FNanchor_643" class="label">[643]</a> W. Marsden, <i>The History of Sumatra</i>³, London, 1811, +p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_644" href="#FNanchor_644" class="label">[644]</a> E. Metzger, “Über die Zeitrechnung der Javanen”, +<i>Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie und Statistik</i>, 1887, ix, 311; +P. J. Veth, Java,², Haarlem, 1907, iv, 297 <i>sq.</i> A recent observer +points out that, although the life of a Javanese village is never +intensely laborious, it is, in a sense, a life of continuous labour, “for +the Javanese does not feel compelled to abstain from labour entirely +upon any day of the week—not even on a Friday—to satisfy his religious +beliefs. He works as long as he needs to work; but only too often only +just so long. His village holidays are numerous” (A. Cabaton, <i>Java, +Sumatra, and the Other Islands of the Dutch East Indies</i>, London and +Leipzig, 1911, pp. 125 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_645" href="#FNanchor_645" class="label">[645]</a> R. Friederich, in <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Society</i>, 1878, n.s., x, 89, 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_646" href="#FNanchor_646" class="label">[646]</a> <i>An Historical Description of the Kingdom of +Macasar</i>, London, 1701, p. 149.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_647" href="#FNanchor_647" class="label">[647]</a> T. Nöldeke, “Die Namen der Wochentage bei den Semiten,” +<i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 162; J. +Wellhausen, <i>Reste arabischen Heidentums</i>,² Berlin, 1897, p. 142.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_648" href="#FNanchor_648" class="label">[648]</a> <i>Koran</i>, lxii, 9 <i>sq.</i> (<i>S. B. E.</i>, ix, +283); T. P. Hughes, <i>Dictionary of Islam</i>, London, 1885, pp. 131, +666; <i>idem</i>, “The Mosque Life of the Muslim,” <i>Open Court</i>, +1906, xx, 335; T. W. Juynboll, “Djum‘a,” <i>The Encyclopædia of +Islām</i>, i, 1061 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_649" href="#FNanchor_649" class="label">[649]</a> See in general L. Lévy-Bruhl, <i>Les fonctions mentales +dans les sociétés inférieures</i>, Paris, 1910, pp. 235-257; D. G. +Brinton, “The Origin of Sacred Numbers,” <i>American Anthropologist</i>, +1894, vii, 168-173; <i>idem</i>, <i>The Myths of the New World</i>,³ +Philadelphia, 1896, pp. 83-119; W. J. McGee, “Primitive Numbers,” +<i>Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, +pt. ii, 821-852; W. Schultz, “Gesetze der Zahlenverschiebung im +Mythus und in mythenhaltiger Überlieferung,” <i>Mitteilungen der +anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, 1910, xl, 101-150; +R. Hirzel, “Über Rundzahlen,” <i>Berichte über die Verhandlungen +der philologisch-historischen Klasse der königlichsächsischen +Gesellschaft</i>, Leipzig, 1885, xxxvii, 1-74; E. Kautzsch, “Zahlen,” +in Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische +Theologie und Kirche</i>,³ xx, 598-607; A. Bergaigne, <i>La religion +védique</i>, Paris, 1883, ii, 114-156; E. W. Hopkins, “The Holy Numbers +of the <i>Rig-Veda</i>,” in <i>Oriental Studies</i>, Boston, 1894, pp. +141-159; E. Wölfflin, “Zur Zahlensymbolik,” <i>Archiv für lateinische +Lexikographie und Grammatik</i>, 1895, ix, 33-353; I. Goldziher, “Über +Zahlenaberglauben im Islam,” <i>Globus</i>, 1901, lxxx, 31-32. For +collections of the evidence relating to the sacredness of certain numbers +see B. Stade, “Die Dreizahl im Alten Testament,” <i>Zeitschrift für +die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft</i>, 1906, xxvi, 124 <i>sqq.</i>; +H. Usener, “Dreiheit,” <i>Rheinisches Museum für Philologie</i>, +1903, n.s., lviii, 1-47, 161-208, 321-362; Anne W. Buckland, “Four as +a Sacred Number,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, +1896, xxv, 96-102; F. X. Kugler, “Die Symbolik der Neunzahl bei den +Babyloniern,” in <i>Assyriologische und archäologische Studien Hermann +v. Hilprecht gewidmet</i>, Leipzig, 1909, pp. 304-309; A. Kaegi, “Die +Neunzahl bei den Ostariern,” in <i>Philologische Abhandlungen für +Heinrich Schweizer-Sidler</i>, Zürich, 1891, pp. 50-70; K. Weinhold, +“Die mystische Neunzahl bei den Deutschen,” <i>Abhandlungen der +königlich-preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>, Berlin, 1897, +pp. 1-61; Edgar Thurston, “The Number Seven in Southern India,” in +<i>Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway</i>, Cambridge, +1913, pp· 353-364; W. H. Roscher, “Die enneadischen und hebdomadischen +Fristen und Wochen der ältesten Griechen,” <i>Abhandlungen der +philologisch-historischen Klasse der königlichsächsischen Gesellschaft +der Wissenschaften</i>, Leipzig, 1903, xxi, no. 4; <i>idem</i>, “Die +Sieben- und Neunzahl im Kultus und Mythus der Griechen,” <i>ibid.</i>, +1904, xxiv, no. I; <i>idem</i>, “Die Hebdomadenlehren der griechischen +Philosophen und Ärzte,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1904, xxiv, no. 6; <i>idem</i>, +“Enneadische Studien,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1907, xxvi, no. i; <i>idem</i>, “Die +Zahl 40 im Glauben, Brauch, und Schrifttum der Semiten,” <i>ibid.</i>, +1909, xxvii, no. 4; <i>idem</i>, “Über Alter, Ursprung, und Bedeutung der +hippokratischen Schrift von der Siebenzahl,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1911, xxviii, +no. 5; <i>idem</i>, “Die Tessarakontaden und Tessarakontadenlehren der +Griechen und anderer Völker,” <i>Berichte über die Verhandlungen</i>, +etc., Leipzig, 1909, lxi, 17-206.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_650" href="#FNanchor_650" class="label">[650]</a> For a large collection of evidence see F. von Andrian, +“Die Siebenzahl im Geistesleben der Völker,” <i>Mitteilungen der +anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, 1901, xxxi, 225-274.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_651" href="#FNanchor_651" class="label">[651]</a> Brooke Low, in H. L. Roth, <i>The Natives of Sarawak and +British North Borneo</i>, London, 1906, i, 231; Hose and McDougall, +<i>The Pagan Tribes of Borneo</i>, London, 1912, ii, 134 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_652" href="#FNanchor_652" class="label">[652]</a> I. H. N. Evans, “Notes on the Religious Beliefs, +Superstitions, Ceremonies, and Tabus of the Dusuns,” <i>Journal of the +Royal Anthropological Institute</i>, 1912, xlii, 394 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_653" href="#FNanchor_653" class="label">[653]</a> Suas, “Le septième jour aux Nouvelles Hébrides, Océanie,” +<i>Anthropos</i>, 1912, vii, 1057; compare <i>ibid.</i>, 50 <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_654" href="#FNanchor_654" class="label">[654]</a> M. Merker, in <i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i>, 1902, +Ergänzungsheft, no. 138, p. 25.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_655" href="#FNanchor_655" class="label">[655]</a> W. E. H. Barrett, in <i>Journal of the Royal +Anthropological Institute</i>, 1911, xli, 22, 31 <i>sq.</i>, 34.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_656" href="#FNanchor_656" class="label">[656]</a> C. W. Hobley, <i>ibid.</i>, 1910, xl, 439 <i>sq.</i> +Seven among the Akikuyu is of all numbers the most unlucky in divination +(Routledge and Routledge, <i>With a Prehistoric People</i>, pp. 264, +274).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_657" href="#FNanchor_657" class="label">[657]</a> Hollis, <i>Nandi</i>, p. 89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_658" href="#FNanchor_658" class="label">[658]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_659" href="#FNanchor_659" class="label">[659]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_660" href="#FNanchor_660" class="label">[660]</a> E. Dayrell, <i>Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria, West +Africa</i>, London, 1910, nos. xxx-xxxii, xxxiv, xxxviii, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_661" href="#FNanchor_661" class="label">[661]</a> E. Doutté, <i>Magie et religion dans l’Afrique du +nord</i>, Algiers, 1909, pp. 184 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_662" href="#FNanchor_662" class="label">[662]</a> The Zuñi priests preserve a ceremonial diagram of the +seven “Ancient Spaces,” or primeval cosmogonic areas, representing north, +east, south, west, the zenith, the nadir, and the middle. The observer +is always supposed to stand in the central space. For illustrations of +the seven-cult among the American Indians see J. W. Powell, in F. H. +Cushing, <i>Zuñi Folk Tales</i>, New York, 1901, pp. xii <i>sq.</i>; S. +Hagar, “Cherokee Star-lore,” in <i>Boas Anniversary Volume</i>, New York, +1906, p. 361; J. O. Dorsey, in <i>Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</i>, p. 397 (Osage, Kansa, Omaha, Dakota, and Ponka tribes); +Jean L’Heureux, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1886, +xv, 303 (Blackfoot); D. G. Brinton, <i>The Lenâpé and their Legends</i>, +Philadelphia, 1885, pp. 139 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_663" href="#FNanchor_663" class="label">[663]</a> E. W. Hopkins, “The Holy Numbers of the <i>Rig-Veda</i>,” +in <i>Oriental Studies</i>, Boston, 1894, pp. 141, 144 <i>sq.</i>; +compare A. Bergaigne, <i>La religion védique</i>, Paris, 1883, ii, 123, +127.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_664" href="#FNanchor_664" class="label">[664]</a> <i>Odyssey</i>, x, 81, xii, 399, xiv, 252, 288, xv, 477.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_665" href="#FNanchor_665" class="label">[665]</a> <i>Opera et dies</i>, 770 <i>sq.</i>; Herodotus, vi, 57; +Æschylus, <i>Septem contra Thebas</i>, 800; Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones +conviviales</i>, viii, 1, 2; Lydus, <i>De mensibus</i>, ii, 12. +The seventh day of each month was a holiday for Greek children, in +remembrance of Apollo’s birth on the seventh of Thargelion (Lucian, +<i>Pseudologistes</i>, 16). The first and twentieth of the month were +also consecrated to Apollo, who received in consequence the cult titles +Ἑβδομαγέτης, Νεομήνιος and Εἰκάδιος. According to Plutarch (<i>Dion</i>, +23), a festival of Apollo was also celebrated on the fifteenth of the +month. On the seventh day in Greece see, further, L. R. Farnell, <i>The +Cults of the Greek States</i>, Oxford, 1906-1910, iv, 258 <i>sq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Greece and Babylon</i>, London, 1911, p. 295; O. Gruppe, +<i>Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte</i>, Munich, 1906, ii, +939 <i>sqq.</i>; M. P. Nilsson, “Die älteste griechische Zeitrechnung, +Apollo und der Orient,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1911, +xiv, 442 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_666" href="#FNanchor_666" class="label">[666]</a> See the exhaustive collection of the evidence, both +literary and inscriptional, in Roscher, “Fristen und Wochen,” pp. +41-68; <i>idem</i>, “Sieben- und Neunzahl,” pp. 4-53; <i>idem</i>, +“Hebdomadenlehren,” pp. 7-23. Some students have seen in this sanctity of +seven the results of early intercourse with the Orient through Phœnician +channels (V. Bérard, in <i>Revue de l’histoire des religions</i>, 1899, +xxxix, 426 <i>sq.</i>; compare A. Thumb, “Die Namen der Wochentage im +Griechischen,” <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, +163 <i>sq.</i>). The theory of the diffusion of the cult of seven from +the East might now be strengthened by substituting Cretan for Phœnician +intermediaries. Nilsson argues that the seven-cult, together with the +worship of Apollo, reached Greece by way of Asia Minor, “eine Etappe auf +dem Wege nach Babylonien” (<i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1911, +xiv, 447 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_667" href="#FNanchor_667" class="label">[667]</a> J. Hehn, <i>Siebenzahl und Sabbat bei den Babyloniern +und im Alten Testament</i>, Leipzig, 1907, pp. 4-44; P. Jensen, <i>Die +Kosmologie der Babylonier</i>, Strassburg, 1890, pp. 170-184.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_668" href="#FNanchor_668" class="label">[668]</a> The predominance of seven among the Hebrews, if not +wholly explained by borrowing from Babylonia, may reasonably be assumed +to have been much influenced by Babylonian conceptions. On the Hebrew +cult of this number see Hehn, <i>Siebenzahl und Sabbat</i>, pp. 77-90; +O. Zöckler, “Siebenzahl, heilige,” in Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck’s +<i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche</i>,³ xviii, +310-317.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_669" href="#FNanchor_669" class="label">[669]</a> M. Jastrow, <i>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice +in Babylonia and Assyria</i>, New York, 1911, pp. 217 <i>sqq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens</i>, Giessen, +1905-1912, ii, 446 <i>sq.</i>, 663 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_670" href="#FNanchor_670" class="label">[670]</a> G. Schiaparelli, <i>Astronomy in the Old Testament</i>, +Oxford, 1905, pp. 134 <i>sq.</i> The fact that by the Babylonians Venus, +as a morning star, was considered masculine and as an evening star, +feminine (F. X. Kugler, <i>Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel</i>, +Münster-i.-W., 1907-1910, ii, 19 <i>sq.</i>) must point back to a time +when the different appearances of that heavenly body at morning and +evening were regarded as those of different planets. Such was also +the opinion of the early Greeks, who held the morning star, Ἑωσφόρος, +and Ἕσπερος, the evening star, to be different bodies. Their identity +was not recognized until the time of Pythagoras in the sixth century +<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> (W. H. Roscher, “Planeten,” <i>Ausführliches Lexikon +der griechischen und römischen Mythologie</i>, iii, col. 2521). +Similar misconceptions are found among primitive peoples. Of the +Maori it has been said: “Tawera is their Lucifer and Merimeri their +Hesperus, and under these two names the beauty of the planet Venus is +frequently celebrated in their poetry” (E. Shortland, <i>Traditions and +Superstitions of the New Zealanders</i>,² p. 219). Additional evidence is +found among the aborigines of Sumatra (Marsden, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 194), +the Hottentots (Schultze, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 367), and the Cherokee +Indians (Hagar, in <i>Boas Anniversary Volume</i>, p. 357).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_671" href="#FNanchor_671" class="label">[671]</a> Kugler, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 13; compare F. Boll, “Zur +babylonischen Planetenordnung,” <i>Zeitschrift für Assyriologie</i>, +1911, xxv, 373. Between 400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> and the opening of the +Christian era the order is the same, except that Mercury and Saturn +exchange places.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_672" href="#FNanchor_672" class="label">[672]</a> Herodotus, ii, 82.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_673" href="#FNanchor_673" class="label">[673]</a> The history of the planetary week has been treated with +exhaustive learning by E. Schürer, “Die siebentägige Woche im Gebrauche +der christlichen Kirche der ersten Jahrhunderte,” <i>Zeitschrift +für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft</i>, 1905, vi, 1-66. A very +valuable survey is that by F. Boll, “Hebdomas,” in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, vii, +coll. 2547-2578. Among the earlier discussions those by J. C. H(are), +“On the Names of the Days of the Week,” <i>Philological Museum</i>, +1832, i, 1-73, and E. Schrader, “Der babylonische Ursprung der +siebentägigen Woche,” <i>Theologische Studien und Kritiken</i>, 1874, +xlvii, 343-353, hold an honourable place. See further W. H. Roscher, +“Planeten,” <i>Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen +Mythologie</i>, iii, coll. 2518-2539; A. Bouché-Leclercq, <i>L’astrologie +grecque</i>, Paris, 1899, pp. 476-484; Jensen, Nöldeke, <i>et al.</i>, +“Geschichte der Namen der Wochentage,” <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 150-193; O. Schrader, “Woche,” <i>Reallexikon +der indogermanischen Altertumskunde</i>, Strassburg, 1901, pp. 959-965; +W. Lotz, “Woche,” in Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie +für protestantische Theologie und Kirche</i>,³ xxi, 409-414; F. Rühl, +<i>Chronologie des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit</i>, Berlin, 1897, pp. +49-63; F. K. Ginzel, <i>Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen +Chronologie</i>, Leipzig, 1906-1911, index, <i>s.v.</i> “Woche.” The word +“week” in various Germanic languages has the general meaning of “change” +(Anglo-Saxon <i>wice</i>, Old Frisian <i>wike</i>, Old Norse <i>vika</i>, +Danish <i>uge</i>, Old High German <i>wecha</i>, Gothic <i>wiko</i>, +etc.). See F. L. K. Weigand, <i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>,⁵ Giessen, 1910, +ii, 1279. The Latin <i>vicis</i>, “change,” “turn” (a genitive form) is a +related expression. See Walde, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 833.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_674" href="#FNanchor_674" class="label">[674]</a> The reverse order, beginning with the Moon and ending +with Saturn, is attributed to Pythagoras by Pliny the Elder (<i>Historia +naturalis</i>, ii, 22) and by Censorinus (<i>De die natali</i>, xiii, +3); and according to Macrobius it was adopted by Archimedes in the third +century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> (<i>Commentarium in somnium Scipionis</i>, i, 19, +2, ii, 3, 13). But the statements of these late writers on the subject +may be safely disregarded.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_675" href="#FNanchor_675" class="label">[675]</a> <i>Historia Romana</i>, xxxvii, 18 <i>sq.</i> There is +also extant a still earlier explanation of the planetary sequence by +Vettius Valens, an astrologer of the age of the Antonines. The one +provided by Plutarch, in the seventh chapter of the fourth book of his +<i>Symposiacs</i>, has been lost. Dio Cassius attributes the origin of +the planetary week to the Egyptians; Lydus, a Byzantine antiquarian of +the fifth century <span class="allsmcap">A.D</span>., hesitates between the Egyptians and the +Babylonians (<i>De mensibus</i>, ii, 31).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_676" href="#FNanchor_676" class="label">[676]</a> This arrangement—διὰ τεσσάρων—may be illustrated by +means of the heptagram. Let the circumference of a circle be divided into +seven equal arcs and the signs of the planets—Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, +Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon—be placed at the points of division. If these +points are connected by a series of continuous chords, then, beginning +with Saturn, the lines of the chords will lead successively to the signs +of the planets in the astrological order. The figure of a seven-branched +star, inscribed in a circle, is an ancient device; indeed, the heptagram +appears on a clay tablet recently unearthed at Nippur in Babylonia (H. +V. Hilprecht, <i>Explorations in Bible Lands</i>, Philadelphia, 1903, p. +530), but in this case quite without any indication of its use.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_677" href="#FNanchor_677" class="label">[677]</a> As a matter of fact the gamut, or scale of seven notes +comprised within the interval of an octave, rests on no fundamental +laws of acoustic phenomena but is itself a product of the all-pervading +symbolism of seven. This system of musical numeration has spread from +Greece as far east as India and China. See J. Combarieu, <i>La musique et +la magie</i>, Paris, 1909, pp. 176-200.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_678" href="#FNanchor_678" class="label">[678]</a> Herodotus (ii, 109) says explicitly that the Greeks +learned from the Babylonians to divide the day into twelve parts. This +statement agrees with the evidence from the cuneiform records, which show +that it was the Babylonian custom to divide the nycthemeron, or cycle +of night and day, into twelve <i>kaspu</i>, corresponding to two of our +equinoctial hours. On the other hand the Egyptians from very early times +were familiar with a division into twenty-four hours, twelve for the +night and twelve for the natural day. It is not improbable, therefore, +that the astrological use of the twenty-four hours was remotely derived +from Egypt. On the entire subject of hour deities see W. Gundel, +“Stundengötter,” <i>Hessische Blätter für Volkskunde</i>, 1913, xii, +100-131.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_679" href="#FNanchor_679" class="label">[679]</a> <i>Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, i, pt. i,² 220; G. +Gundermann, “Die Namen der Wochentage bei den Römern,” <i>Zeitschrift für +deutsche Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 177.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_680" href="#FNanchor_680" class="label">[680]</a> A. Mau, in <i>Bullettino dell’ instituto di corrispondenza +archeologica</i>, 1881, p. 30; <i>Atti della reale accademia dei lincei, +anno 1901, Serie v, classe di scienze morali</i>, etc., <i>ix, Notizie +degli scavi</i>, p. 330.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_681" href="#FNanchor_681" class="label">[681]</a> <i>Historia Romana</i>, xxxvii, 18.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_682" href="#FNanchor_682" class="label">[682]</a> Tertullian, <i>Apologeticus</i>, 16; <i>idem</i>, <i>Ad +nationes</i>, i, 13; Clement, <i>Stromata</i>, vii, 12, 75; compare +Justin Martyr, <i>Apologia prima</i>, 67.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_683" href="#FNanchor_683" class="label">[683]</a> The Jews indicated each weekday by its numerical name, as +the first day, the second day, and so on; compare <i>Exodus</i>, xvi, 5, +22; <i>Matthew</i>, xxviii, 1; <i>Mark</i>, xvi, 2; <i>Luke</i>, xxiv, +1; <i>John</i>, xx, 1; <i>Acts</i>, xx, 7; 1 <i>Corinthians</i>, xvi, 2. +The sixth day, preceding the Sabbath, came eventually to be called by +Hellenistic Jews ἡ παρασκευή, or “preparation” for the Sabbath; compare +<i>Matthew</i>, xxvii, 62; <i>Mark</i>, xv, 42; <i>Luke</i>, xxiii, 54; +<i>John</i>, xix, 31.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_684" href="#FNanchor_684" class="label">[684]</a> The oldest dated Christian inscription to employ +a planetary designation belongs to the year 269 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> +(<i>Inscriptiones Christianæ urbis Romæ</i>, ed. De Rossi, 1861, i, no. +11).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_685" href="#FNanchor_685" class="label">[685]</a> According to the testimony of Celsus, as quoted by Origen +(<i>Contra Celsum</i>, vi, 21), the seven planets played an important +rôle in the Mithraic mysteries. The chief position was naturally assigned +to the sun, from which circumstance Cumont concludes, not only that +the planetary week was known to Mithraism, but also that the <i>dies +Solis</i> “était évidemment le plus sacré de l’hebdomade pour les +fidèles de Mithra, et, comme les Chrétiens, ils devaient sanctifier le +dimanche et non pas le sabbat.” See F. Cumont, <i>Textes et monuments +figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra</i>, Brussels, 1896-1899, i, 118 +<i>sq.</i>, ii, 31.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_686" href="#FNanchor_686" class="label">[686]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_687" href="#FNanchor_687" class="label">[687]</a> Below, p. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_688" href="#FNanchor_688" class="label">[688]</a> Italian <i>domenica</i>, <i>sabbato</i>; Spanish +<i>domingo</i>, <i>sabado</i>; French <i>dimanche</i>, <i>samedi</i>, +etc. But the heathen names of even these two days continued for a long +time in popular use, as is evident from the words of Gregory of Tours: +<i>Ecce enim dies Solis adest, sic enim barbaries vocitare diem dominicam +consueta est</i> (<i>Historia Francorum</i>, iii, 15). The other weekdays +(Monday to Friday) in the calendar of the Roman Church follow the Jewish +usage in being numbered, not named: <i>feria secunda</i>, <i>feria +tertia</i>, <i>feria quarta</i>, <i>feria quinta</i>, and <i>feria +sexta</i> (Isidore of Seville, <i>Etymologiæ sive origines</i>, v, 30). +In Portugal the influence of the Church was strong enough to secure the +general adoption of this mode of reckoning, instead of the planetary +sequence; and here Monday is still called <i>feira segunda</i>, Tuesday, +<i>feira terça</i>, etc. It is curious to find the old Roman term for a +holy day thus employed to refer to the weekdays that are particularly +devoted to secular occupations. The origin of the practice has not been +satisfactorily explained.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_689" href="#FNanchor_689" class="label">[689]</a> Tiu (Mars), Woden (Mercurius), Thor (Jupiter), Frija +(Venus). The special observance of Thursday as a holy day reflects the +commanding place occupied by Thor in Germanic paganism. His worship +on that day is referred to in documents of the early Middle Ages as a +superstition to be eradicated (<i>nullus diem Jovis in otio observet</i>, +etc.), but the modern Esthonians still consider Thursday as holier than +Sunday and in Sweden, as late as the nineteenth century, the day was +generally considered sacred. See J. Grimm, <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, +London, 1882, i, 191; O. Montelius, “The Sun-god’s Axe and Thor’s +Hammer,” <i>Folklore</i>, 1910, xxi, 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_690" href="#FNanchor_690" class="label">[690]</a> The Scandinavian name for Saturday, “bath-day” or +“wash-day” (Old Norse <i>laugardagr</i>), arose from the custom of taking +a bath at the end of the week (De la Saussaye, <i>The Religion of the +Teutons</i>, Boston, 1902, p. 379; P. B. Du Chaillu, <i>The Land of the +Midnight Sun</i>, New York, 1881, ii, 205 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_691" href="#FNanchor_691" class="label">[691]</a> In Slavic antiquity Friday, or some day corresponding +to it, appears to have been consecrated to a female divinity, whose +personality, after the introduction of Christianity, became merged into +that of St. Prascovia. “As she is supposed to wander about the houses of +the peasants on her holy day, and to be offended if she finds certain +kinds of work going on, they are (or at least they used to be) frequently +suspended on Fridays. It is a sin, says a time-honoured tradition, for a +woman to sew or spin, or weave, or buck linen on a Friday, and similarly +for a man to plait bast shoes, twine cords, and the like. Spinning and +weaving are especially obnoxious to ‘Mother Friday,’ for the dust and +refuse thus produced injure her eyes.” The peasants believe that any +work begun on Friday is sure to go wrong (W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Russian +Folktales</i>, London, 1873, pp. 198 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_692" href="#FNanchor_692" class="label">[692]</a> In Thessaly and Macedonia Saturday (σάββατον) is +considered inauspicious for beginning any undertaking. This taboo on the +day has been considered as perhaps a reminiscence of the Jewish Sabbath +(Sir Rennell Rodd, <i>The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece</i>, London, +1892, p. 159). According to Mr. G. F. Abbott, the Macedonians believe +it unlucky to finish any work on a Saturday; the end of the week being +associated in some way with the end of the owner’s life. “People born +on a Saturday (hence called Σαββατιανοί or Sabbatarians) are believed +to enjoy the doubtful privilege of seeing ghosts and phantasms, and of +possessing great influence over vampires” (<i>Macedonian Folklore</i>, +Cambridge, 1903, pp. 191, 221).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_693" href="#FNanchor_693" class="label">[693]</a> On the week among European peoples see further E. +Maass, <i>Die Tagesgötter im Rom und den Provinzen</i>, Berlin, 1902; +A. Thumb, “Die albanesischen Wochentage,” <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 173-175; R. Thurneysen, “Die Namen der +Wochentagen in den keltischen Dialecten,” <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 186-191; W. +Meyer-Lübke, “Die Namen der Wochentage im Romanischen,” <i>ibid.</i>, +pp. 192 <i>sq.</i>; C. L. Rochholz, <i>Deutscher Glaube und Brauch</i>, +Berlin, 1867, ii, 9-63; K. A. Oberle, <i>Überreste germanischen +Heidentums im Christentum</i>, Baden-Baden, 1883, pp. 13-40; Grimm, +<i>op. cit.</i>, i, 122-130.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_694" href="#FNanchor_694" class="label">[694]</a> G. Smith, <i>Assyrian Discoveries</i>,⁷ London, 1883, p. +12; compare <i>idem</i>, <i>The Assyrian Eponym Canon</i>, London, 1875, +pp. 19 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_695" href="#FNanchor_695" class="label">[695]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>²</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_696" href="#FNanchor_696" class="label">[696]</a> The first edition (1875) of the fourth volume of +Rawlinson’s <i>Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia</i> contained only +a calendar for the month of Elul II, but in the second edition (1891) of +this volume there was added, from a number of fragments, a calendar for +the month of Markheshwan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_697" href="#FNanchor_697" class="label">[697]</a> The difficulty which arises in respect to the nineteenth +day has been solved to the satisfaction of most Assyriologists by the +suggestion that the nineteenth day was regarded as seven times the +seventh day (<i>i.e.</i>, the forty-ninth from the first of the preceding +month). This, of course, would not be strictly true, when the preceding +month had only twenty-nine days, but it seems that the early Babylonian +month was conventionally taken at thirty days’ duration.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_698" href="#FNanchor_698" class="label">[698]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_210">210</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_699" href="#FNanchor_699" class="label">[699]</a> Compare H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader, <i>Die Keilinschriften +und das Alte Testament</i>,³ Berlin, 1903, pp. 620 <i>sq.</i> The +possible influence of Pleiades cults has been worked out with much +ingenuity by H. Grimme (<i>Das israelitische Pfingstfest und der +Plejadenkult</i>, Paderborn, 1907), who discerns in the duration of the +Hebrew Pentecost, or Feast of Weeks, as well as in the rites which marked +that agricultural festival, the predominance of a septenary division +based on the observation of these seven stars.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_700" href="#FNanchor_700" class="label">[700]</a> W. Muss-Arnolt, “The Names of the Assyro-Babylonian Months +and their Regents,” <i>Journal of Biblical Literature</i>, 1892, xi, 73; +E. Combe, <i>Histoire du culte de Sin en Babylonie et en Assyrie</i>, +Paris, 1908, pp. 8, 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_701" href="#FNanchor_701" class="label">[701]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_702" href="#FNanchor_702" class="label">[702]</a> W. Muss-Arnolt, in <i>Journal of Biblical Literature</i>, +1892, xi, 72 <i>sqq.</i>, 82 <i>sqq.</i>, 90; E. Meyer, “Astarte,” +in Roscher’s <i>Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen +Mythologie</i>, i, col. 649.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_703" href="#FNanchor_703" class="label">[703]</a> R. C. Thompson, <i>The Reports of the Magicians and +Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon</i>, London, 1900, ii, pp. xviii +<i>sqq.</i>, xxvi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_704" href="#FNanchor_704" class="label">[704]</a> Epping and Strassmeier, <i>Astronomisches aus Babylon</i>, +Freiburg-i.-B., 1889, p. 179; F. X. Kugler, <i>Die babylonische +Mondrechnung</i>, Freiburg-i.-B., 1900, pp. 49, 201; F. H. Weissbach, +“Zum babylonischen Kalender,” in <i>Assyriologische und archäologische +Studien Hermann v. Hilprecht gewidmet</i>, Leipzig, 1909, p. 281.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_705" href="#FNanchor_705" class="label">[705]</a> Rawlinson, <i>op. cit.</i>, iv,² pl. 32, col. 1, ll. 1-2; +W. Lotz, <i>Quæstiones de historia Sabbati</i>, Leipzig, 1883, p. 39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_706" href="#FNanchor_706" class="label">[706]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_187">187</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_707" href="#FNanchor_707" class="label">[707]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_708" href="#FNanchor_708" class="label">[708]</a> Rawlinson, <i>op. cit.</i>, iii, 55, no. 3, ll. 17-26; P. +Jensen, “Die siebentägige Woche in Babylon und Nineveh,” <i>Zeitschrift +für deutsche Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 150.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_709" href="#FNanchor_709" class="label">[709]</a> Rawlinson, <i>op. cit.</i>, iii, 64, 18 b; Jensen, in +<i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung</i>, 1901, i, 152; Zimmern, in +Schrader, <i>Keilinschriften</i>,³ p. 621 <i>n.</i>⁵</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_710" href="#FNanchor_710" class="label">[710]</a> <i>Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British +Museum</i>, pt. xxv, pl. 50 (K. 170); F. Hommel, “Calendar (Babylonian),” +Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 76.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_711" href="#FNanchor_711" class="label">[711]</a> <i>Enuma elish</i>, v, ll. 12-18 (transl. L. W. King, +<i>The Seven Tablets of Creation</i>, London, 1902, i, 78, 81):</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“The Moon-god he caused to shine forth, the night he entrusted to him.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">He appointed him, a being of the night, to determine the days;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Every month without ceasing with the crown he covered (?) him, (saying):</div> + <div class="verse indent0">‘At the beginning of the month, when thou shinest upon the land,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Thou commandest the horns to determine six days</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And on the seventh day to [divide] the crown</div> + <div class="verse indent0">On the fourteenth day thou shalt stand opposite, the half[...].’”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">For other translations see P. Jensen, <i>Die Kosmologie der +Babylonier</i>, Strassburg, 1890, pp. 288 <i>sqq.</i>; W. Muss-Arnolt, in +R. F. Harper, <i>Assyrian and Babylonian Literature</i>, New York, 1901, +p. 296.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_712" href="#FNanchor_712" class="label">[712]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_713" href="#FNanchor_713" class="label">[713]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_714" href="#FNanchor_714" class="label">[714]</a> C. Fossey, <i>La magie assyrienne</i>, Paris, 1902, pp. +52, 58.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_715" href="#FNanchor_715" class="label">[715]</a> See H. Zimmern, <i>Die Beschwörungstafeln s̆urpu</i>, +Leipzig, 1896.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_716" href="#FNanchor_716" class="label">[716]</a> R. C. Thompson, <i>The Devils and Evil Spirits of +Babylonia</i>, London, 1904, ii, pp. xxxix <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_717" href="#FNanchor_717" class="label">[717]</a> H. C. Rawlinson, <i>The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western +Asia</i>, London, 1891, iv,² pl. 32-33. The complete text was first +translated by A. H. Sayce (“A Babylonian Saints’ Calendar,” <i>Records of +the Past</i>, London, 1876, vii, 157-170) and shortly thereafter by W. +Lotz (<i>Quæstiones de historia Sabbati</i>, Leipzig, 1883, pp. 39-49). +The passage relating to the seventh day has been many times rendered by +Assyriologists, not without variations in the result. I have used the +version in the scholarly work of R. W. Rogers, <i>Cuneiform Parallels to +the Old Testament</i>, New York, 1912, p. 189.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_718" href="#FNanchor_718" class="label">[718]</a> The nineteenth day would seem to be particularly tabooed, +for then the “shepherd of great peoples” is forbidden to eat “anything +which the fire has touched.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_719" href="#FNanchor_719" class="label">[719]</a> Most Assyriologists (Jeremias, Delitzsch, Lagrange, +Pinches, Clay) make this sentence read: “The day is unsuitable for any +business,” a translation which, if correct, converts the seventh day +into a veritable Sabbath. To this translation Professor Morris Jastrow +now adds the great weight of his authority, pointing out that we must +read <i>ana epasch la na-ṭu</i>, “‘für Arbeit (oder Ausführung) nicht +geignet’ ... und nicht, wie man früher annahm, <i>epesch arrati</i>, +‘zum Fluchen,’ was ja ein eigentümliches Verbot wäre” (<i>Die Religion +Babyloniens und Assyriens</i>, Giessen, 1905-1912, ii, 533 <i>n.</i>¹).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_720" href="#FNanchor_720" class="label">[720]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_721" href="#FNanchor_721" class="label">[721]</a> For much evidence as to the sacredness of chiefs and kings +and as to the accompanying taboos, see Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>Taboo and the +Perils of the Soul</i>, London, 1911, pp. 1-17; <i>idem</i>, <i>Psyche’s +Task</i>,² London, 1913, pp. 6-19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_722" href="#FNanchor_722" class="label">[722]</a> T. C. Hodson, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</i>, 1906, xxxvi, 98; <i>idem</i>, in <i>Folklore</i>, 1910, +xxi, 298; <i>idem</i>, <i>Nāga Tribes of Manipur</i>, pp. 102, 141 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_723" href="#FNanchor_723" class="label">[723]</a> For further discussions of the “evil days” see M. J. +Lagrange, <i>Études sur les religions sémitiques</i>,² Paris, 1905, pp. +291 <i>sqq.</i>; J. Hehn, <i>Siebenzahl und Sabbat bei den Babyloniern +und im Alten Testament</i>, Leipzig, 1907, pp. 106-109; J. Meinhold, +<i>Sabbat und Woche im Alten Testament</i>, Göttingen, 1905, pp. 15 +<i>sqq.</i>; F. Bohn, <i>Der Sabbat im Alten Testament</i>, Gütersloh, +1903, pp. 39-43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_724" href="#FNanchor_724" class="label">[724]</a> Some painstaking efforts have been made to discover +whether during historic times there was any general observance in +Babylonia of the “evil days.” W. Lotz (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 66), from an +examination of 540 dated contract tablets belonging to different months, +found that the average of the number of transactions on the 7th, 14th, +21st, and 28th days was 18, which would be also the average for each day +of the month. The 19th day, however, had only one contract to its credit. +Schiaparelli (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 132 <i>n.</i>¹) examined about 400 +dated documents from the archives of the Babylonian business firm, Egibi +and Sons, and showed that there was a real abstention from business only +on the 19th day, when no contracts were concluded. The same investigator +(<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 175 <i>sqq.</i>) also classified according to the +day of the month 2764 dates on contract tablets belonging to the period +604-449 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> and found again that, while the transactions for +the 7th, 14th, and 21st days were considerably above the average (94) and +those for the 28th day only slightly below it, the 19th day registered +but 12 transactions. It is true that these statistics deal with a late +period of Babylonian history and include the reigns of several Persian +kings. By this time the general observance of the custom may have been +in decay. The figures, moreover, do not distinguish the sort of business +done on the “evil days.” Many of the documents are temple records, having +to do with offerings, receipts of salaries by priests, etc., and such +business may not have been regarded as a violation of the prohibitions +in question (C. H. W. Johns, “The Babylonian Sabbath,” <i>Expository +Times</i>, 1906, xvii, 566 <i>sq.</i>). For Assyria, during the period +720-606 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, 365 dated documents indicate no marked cessation +of business on the 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th days. “They were not kept +with puritan respect for the Sabbath, if Sabbaths they really were.” +Only 2 contracts, however, were made on the 19th, and for one of these +the date is doubtful (<i>idem</i>, <i>Assyrian Deeds and Documents</i>, +London, 1901, ii, 40 <i>sq.</i>). Finally, out of 356 dated documents of +the Hammurabi era, only 2 were dated on the 19th and only 26 on the four +other “evil days” (<i>idem</i>, in <i>Expository Times</i>, 1906, xvii, +566 <i>sq.</i>). It would seem, accordingly, that at this earlier period +(about 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) there was a sabbatic observance of all five +days, and especially of the 19th day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_725" href="#FNanchor_725" class="label">[725]</a> <i>Shabbāthôn</i> occurs all together ten times in the Old +Testament, where it is applied to New Year’s Day, the Day of Atonement +(above, pp. <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>sq.</i>), the first and eighth days of the Feast of +Tabernacles, and also to the Sabbatical Year (<i>Leviticus</i>, xxv, 4) +and to the Sabbath Day proper (<i>Exodus</i>, xvi, 23, xxxi, 15, xxxv, +2; <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 3). Professor Morris Jastrow thinks that +<i>shabbāthôn</i> is mistranslated as “solemn rest” and that in fact it +is merely an adjectival formation meaning “sabbatical” or “Sabbath-like.” +The word “belongs to a period prior to the development of a Sabbath +institution, celebrated every seventh day without any reference to +the phases of the moon” (<i>American Journal of Semitic Languages and +Literatures</i>, 1914, xxx, 97 <i>n.</i>⁷).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_726" href="#FNanchor_726" class="label">[726]</a> Rawlinson, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, pl. 32, no. i, 16 a-b +(<i>Cuneiform Texts</i>, pt. xviii, pl. 23, 17 [K. 4397]). The discovery +of this important equation was made by W. H. Boscawen; see A. H. Sayce, +in <i>Academy</i>, 1875, viii, 555. <i>Shabattu(m)</i> here and elsewhere +can be read <i>shapattu(m)</i>, without, however, affecting the sense +(P. Jensen, in <i>Zeitschrift für Assyriologie</i>, 1900, xiv, 182; H. +Zimmern, in Schrader, <i>Keilinschriften</i>,³ p. 592 <i>n.</i>⁵).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_727" href="#FNanchor_727" class="label">[727]</a> A. H. Sayce, <i>The Higher Criticism and the Verdict of +the Monuments</i>, London, 1895, p. 74; <i>idem</i>, <i>The Religions of +Ancient Egypt and Babylonia</i>, Edinburgh, 1902, p. 476; F. Delitzsch, +<i>Babel and Bible</i>, London, 1903, p. 41. The purely conjectural +character of this procedure was long ago pointed out by Francis Brown +in his article, “The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records,” <i>Presbyterian +Review</i>, 1882, iii, 693. Compare also A. T. Clay, <i>Amurru</i>, +Philadelphia, 1909, pp. 55 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_728" href="#FNanchor_728" class="label">[728]</a> <i>Babel and Bible</i>, p. 99.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_729" href="#FNanchor_729" class="label">[729]</a> H. Hirschfeld, “Remarks on the Etymology of Šabbāth,” +<i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1896, n.s., xxviii, 357.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_730" href="#FNanchor_730" class="label">[730]</a> M. Jastrow, “The Original Character of the Hebrew +Sabbath,” <i>American Journal of Theology</i>, 1898, ii, 316 <i>sq.</i>, +351; compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions</i>, New +York, 1914, pp. 134, 149.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_731" href="#FNanchor_731" class="label">[731]</a> H. Zimmern, in Schrader, <i>Keilinschriften</i>,³ p. 593. +In one cuneiform list (Rawlinson, <i>op. cit.</i>, v, pl. 28, l. e-f) the +verb <i>shabâtu</i> is equated with <i>gamâru</i>, which is thought to +mean “be complete,” “be full,” “cease,” though in some other syllabaries +it apparently has the sense of “pacify.” In the light of the meaning now +assigned to <i>shabattum</i> both translations appear to be intelligible +and harmonious.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_732" href="#FNanchor_732" class="label">[732]</a> T. G. Pinches, <i>The Old Testament</i>, London, 1902, p. +327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_733" href="#FNanchor_733" class="label">[733]</a> D. Nielsen, <i>Die altarabische Mondreligion</i>, pp. 87 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_734" href="#FNanchor_734" class="label">[734]</a> J. Hehn, <i>Siebenzahl und Sabbat</i>, p. 98.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_735" href="#FNanchor_735" class="label">[735]</a> S. Langdon, “The Derivation of <i>Šabattu</i> and Other +Notes,” <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, +1908, lxii, 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_736" href="#FNanchor_736" class="label">[736]</a> C. H. Toy, “The Earliest Form of the Hebrew Sabbath,” +<i>Journal of Biblical Literature</i>, 1899, xviii, 190 <i>sqq.</i>; +compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Introduction to the History of Religions</i>, +Boston, 1913, p. 251.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_737" href="#FNanchor_737" class="label">[737]</a> The text (K. 6012 + K. 10,684) forms a part of the +British Museum collection of cuneiform tablets. A portion of the text +was published by Rawlinson (<i>op. cit.</i>, iii, pl. 56, no. 4) and +additions to it, as well as duplicate Babylonian fragments, were +subsequently identified by Dr. Pinches, to whom, accordingly, full credit +for this important discovery should be ascribed. See T. G. Pinches, +“<i>Šapattu</i>, the Babylonian Sabbath,” <i>Proceedings of the Society +of Biblical Archæology</i>, 1904, xxvi, 51-56. H. Zimmern, however, +had previously pointed out that, according to the Rawlinson text, the +fifteenth day of a thirty-day month might have borne the designation +<i>shabattum</i> (Zimmern, in Schrader, <i>Keilinschriften</i>,³ +p. 593 <i>n.</i>³); compare his comments on Pinches’s discoveries +(<i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, 1904, +lviii, 199-202, 458-460).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_738" href="#FNanchor_738" class="label">[738]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>n.</i>⁷</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_739" href="#FNanchor_739" class="label">[739]</a> The text (K. 2164 + 2195 + 3510) has been edited with +a translation and commentary by E. Weidener, “Zur babylonischen +Astronomie,” <i>Babyloniaca</i>, 1911, vi, 8 <i>sqq.</i> It should be +observed that it belongs to the same series as the text (K. 170) in which +the fifteenth day is expressly described as the day of full moon (above, +p. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>). Professor A. H. Sayce has published a table of lunar longitudes +(K. 490) which shows how many degrees the moon advances during the first +fifteen days of the month and how many degrees it retrogrades during the +second half of the month (<i>Zeitschrift für Assyriologie</i>, 1887, ii, +337-340).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_740" href="#FNanchor_740" class="label">[740]</a> Combe, <i>Histoire du culte de Sin</i>, pp. 46 +<i>sqq.</i>, 86 <i>sq.</i>; Jastrow, <i>Religion Babyloniens und +Assyriens</i>, i, 66 <i>sq.</i>, 72 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_741" href="#FNanchor_741" class="label">[741]</a> H. Radau, <i>Early Babylonian History</i>, New York, +1900, pp. 314 <i>sq.</i> The text on the statue of Gudea, a chief, or +<i>patesi</i>, of Lagash (<i>c.</i> 2350 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), bears record +of a rest day which has been interpreted as a full-moon day, therefore +as a <i>shabattum</i>: “No one was struck with the whip, the mother +corrected not her child, the householder, the overseer, the labourer ... +the work of their hands ceased. In the graves of the city ... no corpse +was buried. The Kalû played no psalm, uttered no dirge, the wailing women +let no dirge be heard. In the realm of Lagash no man who had a lawsuit +went to the hall of justice.” See A. Jeremias, <i>The Old Testament in +the Light of the Ancient East</i>, London, 1911, i, 203; compare H. +Winckler, <i>Religionsgeschichtlicher und geschichtlicher Orient</i>, +Leipzig, 1906, p. 61. Professor Morris Jastrow holds, however, that this +passage from the inscription of Gudea has no reference to the full moon +(<i>American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures</i>, 1914, xxx, +98 <i>n.</i>²).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_742" href="#FNanchor_742" class="label">[742]</a> D. Chwolsohn, <i>Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus</i>, St. +Petersburg, 1856, ii, 8, 94 <i>sqq.</i>, translating the <i>Fihrist</i> +(ix, i, 5) of Ibn al-Nadīm. On the Harranians see in general D. S. +Margoliouth, in Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, +vi, 519 <i>sq.</i> It is curious to find a Moslem tradition, current +about 830 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, that “Abraham lived with his people four-score +years and ten in the land of Harran, worshipping none other than Al Ozza, +an idol famous in that land and adored by the men of Harran, under the +name of the Moon, which same custom prevails among them to the present +day” (Sir William Muir, <i>The Apology of Al Kindy</i>,² London, 1887, p. +17).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_743" href="#FNanchor_743" class="label">[743]</a> W. F. von Landau, <i>Beiträge zur Altertumskunde des +Orients</i>, Leipzig, 1899, ii, 46 <i>sq.</i>; compare <i>idem</i>, +<i>Die phönizischen Inschriften</i>, Leipzig, 1907, p. 22 (<i>Der alte +Orient</i>, viii, 3).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_744" href="#FNanchor_744" class="label">[744]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>n.</i>⁷ There are numerous reports by +Babylonian astrologers according to which any one of five days, from the +twelfth to the sixteenth of the month, might be taken as the exact time +when the moon became full, depending, of course, upon how early or how +late was the visible new moon (Kugler, <i>Sternkunde und Sterndienst in +Babel</i>, ii, 14 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_745" href="#FNanchor_745" class="label">[745]</a> The Rev. C. H. C. Johns has pointed out that in Babylonian +calendars many days are indicated as <i>nubattu</i>, a term signifying +rest, pause, and especially a god’s connubial rest with his consort +goddess. “The observance of such days was a bar to attending even +to important diplomatic business or setting out on a journey.... +It is quite possible that <i>shabattum</i> and <i>nubattum</i> are +from the same root and originally denoted much the same thing—a +pause, abstention, from whatever cause or for ceremonial purposes” +(<i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>,¹¹ xxiii, 961 <i>sq.</i>). A calendar +of the intercalary month of Elul cites the 3d, 7th, and 16th days as +the <i>nubattu</i> of Marduk and his consort Sarpanit (Lagrange, <i>op. +cit.</i>, p. 284 <i>n.</i>⁶; Schrader, <i>Keilinschriften</i>,³ p. 371).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_746" href="#FNanchor_746" class="label">[746]</a> The form of the Fourth Commandment in the First Decalogue +(<i>Exodus</i>, xx, 8), “Remember the Sabbath Day, to keep it holy,” +indicates not the institution of a new day but the sanctioning of an old +one. In the Second Decalogue (<i>Deuteronomy</i>, v, 12), the commandment +reads: “Observe the Sabbath Day, to keep it holy.” The word “holy” in +these injunctions has the force of “set apart ritually,” “separated from +common use,” <i>i.e.</i>, taboo.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_747" href="#FNanchor_747" class="label">[747]</a> <i>Exodus</i>, xxxiv, 21, xxiii, 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_748" href="#FNanchor_748" class="label">[748]</a> 2 <i>Kings</i>, iv, 23. This is perhaps the earliest +historical reference to the Sabbath.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_749" href="#FNanchor_749" class="label">[749]</a> <i>Amos</i>, viii, 5; <i>Hosea</i>, ii, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_750" href="#FNanchor_750" class="label">[750]</a> <i>Genesis</i>, ii, 2-3; <i>Exodus</i>, xx, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_751" href="#FNanchor_751" class="label">[751]</a> <i>Deuteronomy</i>, v. 15; compare <i>Nehemiah</i>, ix, +14; <i>Ezekiel</i>, xx, 12. The principal Old Testament references to +the Sabbath have been grouped in their assumed historical order by E. G. +King, “The Sabbath in the Light of the Higher Criticism,” <i>Expository +Times</i>, 1906, xvii, 438-443.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_752" href="#FNanchor_752" class="label">[752]</a> M. Jastrow, “The Original Character of the Hebrew +Sabbath,” <i>American Journal of Theology</i>, 1898, ii, 313 <i>sq.</i>; +S. R. Driver, <i>The Book of Genesis</i>,⁵ London, 1906, p. 35. Canon +Cheyne suggests that the priestly writer in <i>Genesis</i>, ii, 2 +<i>sqq.</i> appears to accept the anthropomorphic view which finds such +frequent expression in Oriental antiquity. Things on earth correspond to +things in heaven; if God “rested” on the seventh day, man ought to do +likewise (<i>Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel</i>, London, 1907, +p. 70). Later Hebrew writers carry this idea of correspondence so far as +to require the angels to observe all the Jewish festivals (H. P. Smith, +<i>The Religion of Israel</i>, New York, 1914, p. 229).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_753" href="#FNanchor_753" class="label">[753]</a> F. Baur, “Der hebräische Sabbat und die Nationalfeste des +mosaischen Cultus,” <i>Tübinger Zeitschrift für Theologie</i>, 1832, iii, +145 <i>sqq.</i>; A. Kuenen, <i>The Religion of Israel</i>, London, 1873, +i, 262 <i>sqq.</i>; Paul de Lagarde, editor, <i>Psalterium iuxta Hebræos +Hieronymi</i>, Leipzig, 1874, 158 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_754" href="#FNanchor_754" class="label">[754]</a> Schiaparelli, <i>Astronomy in the Old Testament</i>, pp. +48 <i>sq.</i>; P. Jensen, “Astronomy,” <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, ii, +246.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_755" href="#FNanchor_755" class="label">[755]</a> <i>Amos</i>, v, 26; W. R. Harper, <i>A Critical and +Exegetical Commentary on Amos and Hosea</i>, New York, 1905, pp. 137 +<i>sqq.</i>; K. Budde, <i>The Religion of Israel to the Exile</i>, New +York, 1899, pp. 67 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_756" href="#FNanchor_756" class="label">[756]</a> J. Fürst, <i>Kultur- und Literaturgeschichte der Juden +in Asien</i>, Leipzig, 1849, pt. i, 40; W. Nowack, <i>Lehrbuch der +hebräischen Archäologie</i>, Strassburg, 1894, ii, 142 <i>sq.</i>; E. +Schürer, in <i>Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft</i>, 1905, +vi, 6 <i>sq.</i>, 19. There is a Talmudic story which tells how Moses, +having arranged with Pharaoh for a day of rest to be observed by the +Hebrews in Egypt, was asked what day he thought most suitable for the +purpose. Moses answered, “The seventh day, sacred to Saturn; work done +upon this day never prospers” (Jeremias, <i>The Old Testament in the +Light of the Ancient East</i>, i, 202; Delitzsch, <i>Babel and Bible</i>, +p. 102).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_757" href="#FNanchor_757" class="label">[757]</a> <i>Saturni aut sacram me tenuisse diem</i> (<i>Elegiæ</i>, +i, 3, 18).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_758" href="#FNanchor_758" class="label">[758]</a> Ovid, <i>Remedium amoris</i>, 220; compare <i>idem</i>, +<i>Ars amatoria</i>, i, 415-416; Horace, <i>Satiræ</i>, i, 9, 69-70; +Persius, <i>Satiræ</i>, v, 184.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_759" href="#FNanchor_759" class="label">[759]</a> Frontinus, <i>Strategematica</i>, ii, 1, 17; Dio Cassius, +<i>Historia Romana</i>, xxxvii, 17. Tacitus (<i>Historiæ</i>, v, 4) +thinks that the Jewish Sabbath may be an observance in honour of Saturn, +though he gives an alternative explanation, connecting the day with +the escape from Egyptian bondage. For other evidence from classical +writers see P. Lejay, “Le sabbat juif et les poètes latins,” <i>Revue +d’histoire et de littérature religieuses</i>, 1903, viii, 305-335; T. +Reinach, <i>Textes d’auteurs grecs et romains relatifs au judaïsme</i>, +Paris, 1895, pp. 104, 243, 266, 287; M. Wolff, “Het oordeel der +hellenensch-romeinsche schrijvers over oorsprong, naam, en viering van +der Sabbat,” <i>Theologisch Tijdschrift</i>, 1910, xliv, 162-172.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_760" href="#FNanchor_760" class="label">[760]</a> J. Spencer, <i>De legibus Hebræorum ritualibus et earum +rationibus</i>, Cambridge, 1727, i, 67 <i>sqq.</i> (bk. i, ch. v, sect. +viii).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_761" href="#FNanchor_761" class="label">[761]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_762" href="#FNanchor_762" class="label">[762]</a> Below, pp. <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_763" href="#FNanchor_763" class="label">[763]</a> Nowack, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 144; R. Smend, <i>Lehrbuch +der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte</i>, Freiburg-i.-B., +1899, pp. 160 <i>sq.</i>; A. F. von Gall, “Die alttestamentliche +Wissenschaft und die keilinschriftliche Forschung,” <i>Archiv für +Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1902, v, 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_764" href="#FNanchor_764" class="label">[764]</a> J. Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels</i>,⁶ +Berlin, 1905, p. 109; W. E. Addis, <i>Documents of the Hexateuch</i>, +London, 1892, i, 139; <i>idem</i>, <i>Hebrew Religion to the +Establishment of Judaism under Ezra</i>, London, 1906, p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_765" href="#FNanchor_765" class="label">[765]</a> C. M. Doughty, <i>Travels in Arabia Deserta</i>, +Cambridge, 1888, i, 366.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_766" href="#FNanchor_766" class="label">[766]</a> The Hebrew lunisolar year consisted of twelve months, +adjusted to the solar year by the intercalation of a thirteenth month. +The name of the latter is first met in the <i>Mishna</i>, where it is +styled the “second Adar.” The months consisted of 29 days (hence called +“defective” months), or of 30 days (“full” months), but there seems to +have been no uniform sequence of long and short months. The regulation +of the month was probably at first in the hands of the priests and later +was committed to the Sanhedrin. A solar year of 364 days, <i>i.e.</i>, 52 +complete weeks, is found in two pseudographia which date probably from +Maccabæan times (<i>Book of Enoch</i> and <i>Book of Jubilees</i>), but +it is hardly likely that solar reckonings were then in general use. On +this subject consult S. Poznanśki, “Calendar (Jewish),” in Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 117 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_767" href="#FNanchor_767" class="label">[767]</a> <i>Psalms</i>, civ, 19. Compare <i>Ecclesiasticus</i>, +xliii, 6-8: “He made the moon also to serve in her season for a +declaration of times, and a sign of the world. From the moon is the sign +of feasts, a light that decreaseth in her perfection. The month is called +after her name, increasing wonderfully in her changing.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_768" href="#FNanchor_768" class="label">[768]</a> <i>Jeremiah</i>, viii, 2; <i>Zephaniah</i>, i, 5; +<i>Deuteronomy</i>, xvii, 3; 2 <i>Kings</i>, xxiii, 5; G. W. Gilmore, +“Moon,” <i>New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge</i>, +vii, 493. That no trace of the cult of Sin, the Babylonian moon-god, is +discoverable in the Old Testament, even in the name Sinai, is the opinion +of the latest investigator of this subject. See E. Combe, <i>Histoire du +culte de Sin</i>, Paris, 1908, pp. 157 <i>sqq.</i> The custom of kissing +the hand to the moon (<i>Job</i>, xxxi, 26 <i>sq.</i>) may have meant to +the Hebrews little more than it does to us. Orthodox Jewish mothers are +said still to teach their sons to take off their caps to the new moon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_769" href="#FNanchor_769" class="label">[769]</a> Doughty, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 305 <i>sq.</i>; compare +D. Nielsen, <i>Die altarabische Mondreligion und die mosaische +Überlieferung</i>, Strassburg, 1904, p. 50. For the Abyssinian customs +see E. Littmann, in <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1908, xi, +313 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_770" href="#FNanchor_770" class="label">[770]</a> Mrs. H. H. Spoer, in <i>Folklore</i>, 1910, xxi, 289.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_771" href="#FNanchor_771" class="label">[771]</a> M. Jastrow, <i>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice +in Babylonia and Assyria</i>, New York, 1911, pp. 214 <i>n.</i>³, 336 +<i>n.</i>²; F. Hommel, <i>Der Gestirndienst der alten Araber und die +altisraelitische Überlieferung</i>, Munich, 1901, p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_772" href="#FNanchor_772" class="label">[772]</a> 1 <i>Samuel</i>, xx, 27-28; compare <i>Judith</i>, +viii, 6. On the new-moon festival see Nowack, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, +138 <i>sqq.</i>; Wellhausen, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 107 <i>sqq.</i>; +I. Benzinger, <i>Hebräische Archäologie</i>,² Tübingen, 1907, pp. +388 <i>sq.</i>; G. Förster, “Die Neumondfeier im Alten Testament,” +<i>Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie</i>, 1906, xlix, 1-17; B. +Stade, <i>Biblische Theologie des Alten Testaments</i>, Tübingen, 1905, +i, 176 <i>sqq.</i>; A. Dillmann, <i>Die Bücher Exodus und Leviticus</i>,³ +edited by V. Ryssel, Leipzig, 1897, pp. 634 <i>sqq.</i> See also +“New Moon” in Hastings’s <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, <i>Jewish +Encyclopedia</i>, and <i>Encyclopædia Biblica</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_773" href="#FNanchor_773" class="label">[773]</a> 1 <i>Samuel</i>, xx, 5-6, 24-29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_774" href="#FNanchor_774" class="label">[774]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xx, 18-19. In verse 19 the Hebrew expression +<i>beyom hama ‘aseh</i>, rendered in the Authorized Version (margin) “in +the day of the business,” appears in the Greek Septuagint, the Latin +Vulgate, and the Jewish Aramaic Targum as the designation of a working +day, in distinction from the festival day of the new moon. The Douai +version of the Scriptures translates accordingly, “in the day when it +is lawful to work.” Professor H. P. Smith holds that, owing to the +corruption of the text, the particular day here intended is no longer +intelligible (<i>A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Books +of Samuel</i>, New York, 1899, pp. 190 <i>sq.</i>). He has, however, +overlooked the fact, that, as my friend and pupil Rabbi Jacob Singer +points out to me, the same expression <i>sheset yeme hama ‘aseh</i> is +found in <i>Ezekiel</i> (xlvi, 1) as the designation of “the six working +days” of the week; see Brown, Driver, and Briggs, <i>A Hebrew and English +Lexicon of the Old Testament</i>, Boston, 1906, p. 795.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_775" href="#FNanchor_775" class="label">[775]</a> 2 <i>Kings</i>, iv, 23. Some Biblical references indicate +that on the first day of the month the prophets were supposed to be most +under the influence of their divine afflatus; compare <i>Ezekiel</i>, +xxvi, 1, xxix, 17, xxxi, 1, xxxii, 1; <i>Haggai</i>, i, 1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_776" href="#FNanchor_776" class="label">[776]</a> John Allen, <i>Modern Judaism</i>,² London, 1830, pp. 390 +<i>sq.</i>; H. G. F. Löwe, <i>Schulchan Aruch, oder die vier jüdischen +Gesetzbücher</i>, Vienna, 1896, i, 91; M. Friedmann, in <i>Jewish +Quarterly Review</i>, 1891, iii, 712; Israel Abrahams, <i>Jewish Life in +the Middle Ages</i>, London, 1896, p. 374.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_777" href="#FNanchor_777" class="label">[777]</a> That the Old Testament thus contains indirect evidence +of the celebration of full-moon day by the early Hebrews was long ago +recognized by the learned commentator, August Dillmann. “Von einer Feier +des Vollmondes zeigt sich bei den Israeliten keine Spur.... Jedoch war +er dadurch bevorzugt, dass an ihm das grosse Frühlings- und Herbstfest +begann” (<i>Die Bücher Exodus und Leviticus</i>,³ p. 635). A passage in +one of the <i>Psalms</i> (lxxxi, 3): “Blow the trumpet at the new moon, +at the full moon, on our feast-day,” probably refers to new moon in the +seventh month, or New Year’s Day (<i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 24), and to +the first day of the Feast of Tabernacles, which began on the fifteenth +of the same month (<i>ibid.</i>, xxiii, 39).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_778" href="#FNanchor_778" class="label">[778]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 5-6; <i>Exodus</i>, xii, 6 +<i>sqq.</i>; <i>Numbers</i>, xxviii, 16-17.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_779" href="#FNanchor_779" class="label">[779]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 33-36, 39; <i>Numbers</i>, xxix, +12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_780" href="#FNanchor_780" class="label">[780]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 6-8; <i>Exodus</i>, xii, 16; +<i>Numbers</i>, xxviii, 18, 25.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_781" href="#FNanchor_781" class="label">[781]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 39; <i>Numbers</i>, xxix, 12, 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_782" href="#FNanchor_782" class="label">[782]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 11, 15.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_783" href="#FNanchor_783" class="label">[783]</a> M. Jastrow, “‘The Day after the Sabbath,’” <i>American +Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures</i>, 1914, xxx, 104.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_784" href="#FNanchor_784" class="label">[784]</a> 2 <i>Kings</i>, iv, 23. This passage, incidentally, +affords proof that at the time it was written the legal length of +a “Sabbath Day’s journey” had not been determined, for from Shunem +to Elisha’s abode on Carmel was a distance of some thirty to forty +kilometres (R. Kittel, <i>Die Bücher der Könige</i>, Göttingen, 1900, p. +200).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_785" href="#FNanchor_785" class="label">[785]</a> <i>Hosea</i>, ii, 13 (A. V. v. 11).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_786" href="#FNanchor_786" class="label">[786]</a> <i>Amos</i>, viii, 4-5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_787" href="#FNanchor_787" class="label">[787]</a> <i>Isaiah</i>, i, 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_788" href="#FNanchor_788" class="label">[788]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, lxvi, 23; compare <i>Colossians</i>, ii, 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_789" href="#FNanchor_789" class="label">[789]</a> Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>,⁶ pp. 108 <i>sq.</i>; +Smith, “Sabbath,” <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>,⁹ xxi, 126.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_790" href="#FNanchor_790" class="label">[790]</a> This pregnant suggestion was first made by H. Zimmern +in his comments on the discovery by T. G. Pinches (<i>Zeitschrift der +deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, 1904, lvii, 202 <i>and</i> +<i>n.</i>¹). The hypothesis of the original identity of Sabbath and +full-moon day was subsequently elaborated by J. Meinhold (<i>Sabbat und +Woche im Alten Testament</i>, Göttingen, 1905), whose main conclusions +have been accepted by K. Marti (<i>Religion of the Old Testament</i>, +London, 1907, pp. 150 <i>sq.</i>) and T. K. Cheyne (<i>Traditions +and Beliefs of Ancient Israel</i>, London, 1907, p. 69). See also E. +Mahler, “Der Sabbat,” <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen +Gesellschaft</i>, 1908, lxii, 40, 46 <i>sq.</i>; M. Jastrow, <i>Hebrew +and Baylonian Traditions</i>, New York, 1914, pp. 154 <i>sqq.</i>, 185.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_791" href="#FNanchor_791" class="label">[791]</a> <i>Ezekiel</i>, xlvi, 1-3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_792" href="#FNanchor_792" class="label">[792]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>. <i>Shabbāth</i> also appears several +times in the Old Testament in the general sense of “week,” the name of +the principal weekday being used as the designation of the entire cycle +of seven days. Compare <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 15, xxv, 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_793" href="#FNanchor_793" class="label">[793]</a> H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader, <i>Keilinschriften</i>,³ p. +594; compare A. H. McNeile, <i>The Book of Exodus</i>, London, 1908, p. +122.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_794" href="#FNanchor_794" class="label">[794]</a> Johannes Meinhold, <i>Sabbat und Woche im Alten +Testament</i>, Göttingen, 1905, pp. 10 <i>sqq.</i>; compare <i>idem</i>, +“Die Entstehung des Sabbats,” <i>Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche +Wissenschaft</i>, 1909, xxix, 81-112.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_795" href="#FNanchor_795" class="label">[795]</a> The march of the Israelitish host around Jericho on +seven successive days, one of which must have been the Sabbath, if that +institution as a weekly rest day was then known to them, would have been +a profanation of the Sabbath according to later ideas. See <i>Joshua</i>, +vi, 4, 14-15; compare Tertullian, <i>Adversus Judæos</i>, 4. But this +account may contain a reminiscence of a period of Hebrew history when the +week, either lunar or periodic, had not become established in Israel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_796" href="#FNanchor_796" class="label">[796]</a> <i>Numbers</i>, xxviii, 11-15; <i>Ezekiel</i>, xlvi, 4-6; +compare 1 <i>Chronicles</i>, xxiii, 31; 2 <i>Chronicles</i>, ii, 4, viii, +13, xxxi, 3; <i>Ezra</i>, iii, 5; <i>Nehemiah</i>, x, 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_797" href="#FNanchor_797" class="label">[797]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxiii, 24; compare <i>Numbers</i>, xxix, +1; <i>Nehemiah</i>, viii, 2, 9-12. But see above, p. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_798" href="#FNanchor_798" class="label">[798]</a> <i>Deuteronomy</i>, v, 14; <i>Exodus</i>, xxiii, 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_799" href="#FNanchor_799" class="label">[799]</a> <i>Exodus</i>, xx, 8-11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_800" href="#FNanchor_800" class="label">[800]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xxxiv, 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_801" href="#FNanchor_801" class="label">[801]</a> <i>Exodus</i>, xvi, 29. On this text Dositheus, the +founder of an ascetic Samaritan sect, is said to have based the +requirement that, in whatever habit, place, or posture the Sabbath found +a man, in this he was to continue till the close of the sacred festival; +if he was found sitting, he must sit still all the day, or, if reclining, +he must lie down all the day (Origen, <i>De principiis</i>, iv, 1, 17). +S. Reinach wittily compares the Dosithean injunction to the practice of +various animals, which, when in danger and unable to flee, <i>fait le +mort</i> (“Le sabbat hébraïque,” <i>Cultes, mythes, et religions</i>, +Paris, 1906-1912, ii, 444). For some mediæval stories illustrating the +rule of absolute repose on the Sabbath, see R. Basset, “L’observation du +sabbat,” <i>Revue des traditions populaires</i>, 1893, viii, 250-254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_802" href="#FNanchor_802" class="label">[802]</a> <i>Exodus</i>, xxxv, 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_803" href="#FNanchor_803" class="label">[803]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xvi, 23. The rules forbidding the lighting +of fires and cooking on the Sabbath were very strictly observed by the +Essenes (Josephus, <i>Bellum Judaicum</i>, ii, 8). In the <i>Mishna</i> +(<i>Shabbāth</i>, iv, 1) the prohibition to bake and boil on the Sabbath +is interpreted to mean that food may be kept hot on the Sabbath, provided +its existing heat is not increased, which would be “boiling.” Hence the +food must be put only into such substances as would maintain but not +increase the heat. The prohibition to kindle a fire on the Sabbath was +naturally extended to one of extinguishing a fire, as well as lights and +lamps (<i>ibid.</i>, xvi, 6). In mediæval times Rabbi Solomon ben Adret +had a lock affixed to his stove, and kept the key over the Sabbath to +prevent his too-considerate housemaid from lighting a fire on Saturdays +(I. Abrahams, <i>Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</i>, London, 1896, p. +83). On the modern Jewish custom of kindling lights at the arrival and +departure of the Sabbath see M. Friedmann, “The Sabbath Light,” <i>Jewish +Quarterly Review</i>, 1891, iii, 707-721.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_804" href="#FNanchor_804" class="label">[804]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>and</i> <i>n.</i>³</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_805" href="#FNanchor_805" class="label">[805]</a> F. J. Chabas, <i>Le calendrier des jours fastes et +néfastes de l’année égyptienne</i>, Chalon-s.-S., 1870, pp. 46, 68; Sir +G. Maspero, <i>New Light on Ancient Egypt</i>,² London, 1909, pp. 130 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_806" href="#FNanchor_806" class="label">[806]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, +<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, +<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_807" href="#FNanchor_807" class="label">[807]</a> E. Westermarck, <i>Origin and Development of the Moral +Ideas</i>, ii, 305.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_808" href="#FNanchor_808" class="label">[808]</a> For a collection of the ethnographic evidence, see Sir J. +G. Frazer, “On Certain Burial Customs as Illustrative of the Primitive +Theory of the Soul,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, +1885, xv, 90; <i>idem</i>, <i>The Magic Art and the Evolution of +Kings</i>, London, 1911, ii, 267 <i>n.</i>⁴; E. S. Hartland, “Death +and Disposal of the Dead (Introductory and Primitive),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iv, 439.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_809" href="#FNanchor_809" class="label">[809]</a> E. Westermarck, “The Principles of Fasting,” +<i>Folklore</i>, 1908, xviii, 397 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>idem</i>, <i>Moral +Ideas</i>, ii, 293 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_810" href="#FNanchor_810" class="label">[810]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, +<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_811" href="#FNanchor_811" class="label">[811]</a> Compare M. Jastrow, in <i>American Journal of +Theology</i>, 1898, ii, 324 <i>sqq.</i>; Westermarck, <i>op. cit.</i>, +ii, 310 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_812" href="#FNanchor_812" class="label">[812]</a> <i>Ecclesiastical Polity</i>, v, 72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_813" href="#FNanchor_813" class="label">[813]</a> <i>De vita sua</i>, 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_814" href="#FNanchor_814" class="label">[814]</a> Suetonius, <i>Divus Augustus</i>, 76; Strabo, +<i>Geographica</i>, xvi, 2, 40; Martial, <i>Epigrammata</i>, iv, 4; +Justin, xxxvi, 2. Justin speaks of the Sabbath as having been consecrated +as a fast day to commemorate a seven days’ fast of the Israelites in the +deserts of Arabia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_815" href="#FNanchor_815" class="label">[815]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_816" href="#FNanchor_816" class="label">[816]</a> <i>Judith</i>, viii, 6; <i>Schulchan Aruch</i>, i, 91 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_817" href="#FNanchor_817" class="label">[817]</a> The Talmud (<i>Tractate Pesachim</i>, 105 a) indicates +that some superstitions attached to the afternoon of the Sabbath as a +dangerous time for the consumption of food. During the early Middle Ages +Jews in northern France, Lorraine, and Germany, but not in Provence, +Narbonne, or Spain, refrained from eating and drinking on Sabbath +afternoons. See D. Kaufmann, “Was the Custom of Fasting on Sabbath +Afternoon Part of the Early Anglo-Jewish Ritual?” <i>Jewish Quarterly +Review</i>, 1894, vi, 754-756.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_818" href="#FNanchor_818" class="label">[818]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxv, 4. This law was occasionally +productive of great distress (1 <i>Maccabees</i>, vi, 48, 53; compare +Josephus, <i>Antiquitates Judaicæ</i>, xiv, 16, 2).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_819" href="#FNanchor_819" class="label">[819]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxv, 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_820" href="#FNanchor_820" class="label">[820]</a> <i>Exodus</i>, xxiii, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_821" href="#FNanchor_821" class="label">[821]</a> <i>Leviticus</i>, xxv, 11. Whether the Jubilee was +celebrated after forty-eight years or after forty-nine years is a problem +incapable of solution from the Old Testament evidence. As Schiaparelli +has well shown (<i>Astronomy in the Old Testament</i>, pp. 146 +<i>sqq.</i>), the twenty-fifth chapter of <i>Leviticus</i> combines two +systems of rules which are not only different but actually irreconcilable +with each other, the septennial system of the Sabbatical Year and the +Jubilee system of fifty years.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_822" href="#FNanchor_822" class="label">[822]</a> <i>Exodus</i>, xxxi, 14; for a similar regulation see +<i>ibid.</i>, xxxv, 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_823" href="#FNanchor_823" class="label">[823]</a> <i>Numbers</i>, xv, 32-36. The comments of Philo Judæus +on this passage are interesting, if not illuminating (<i>Vita Mosis</i>, +iii, 27-28).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_824" href="#FNanchor_824" class="label">[824]</a> <i>Jeremiah</i>, xvii, 19-27; <i>Ezekiel</i>, xx, 13, 16, +21, 24, xxii, 8, 26, xxiii, 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_825" href="#FNanchor_825" class="label">[825]</a> <i>Nehemiah</i>, x, 31, xiii, 15-16. The use of the +Sabbath Day for marketing is paralleled by the Mohammedan observance of +<i>jum‘a</i> (above, p. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_826" href="#FNanchor_826" class="label">[826]</a> <i>Isaiah</i>, lvi, 2 <i>sq.</i>, lviii, 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_827" href="#FNanchor_827" class="label">[827]</a> T. K. Cheyne, <i>Jewish Religious Life after the +Exile</i>, New York, 1898, p. 66; C. G. Montefiore, <i>Lectures on +the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion +of the Ancient Hebrews</i>,² London, 1893, pp. 229 <i>sq.</i>, 338 +<i>sq.</i>; Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>,⁶ p. 110; W. R. Smith, +“Sabbath,” <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>,⁹ xxi, 124; K. Marti, <i>Das +Dodekapropheton</i>, Tübingen, 1904, p. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_828" href="#FNanchor_828" class="label">[828]</a> Compare E. G. Hirsch; “Sabbath,” in <i>Jewish +Encyclopedia</i>, x, 590; Bohn, <i>Der Sabbat im Alten Testament</i>, pp. +8 <i>sqq.</i>, 89 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_829" href="#FNanchor_829" class="label">[829]</a> M. Jastrow, in <i>American Journal of Theology</i>, 1898, +ii, 324 <i>n.</i>⁴⁷ <i>idem</i>, <i>Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions</i>, +p. 162. The Old Testament contains at least one reference to a lucky day +(1 <i>Samuel</i>, xxv, 8). Among modern Jews no marriages are celebrated +during the period between Passover and Pentecost. The origin of the +superstition is unknown, but its antiquity may be judged from the fact +that in the 8th century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> the rabbis themselves were unable +to account for it (Abrahams, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 184). By the Romans +May was considered an unlucky month for marriage, a belief which Ovid +(<i>Fasti</i>, v, 489-490) connects with the celebration of the Lemuria +in May. Compare Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones Romanæ</i>, 86. The superstition, +as is well known, has descended to our own time.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_830" href="#FNanchor_830" class="label">[830]</a> The principal regulations in the <i>Mishna</i> are well +summarized by E. Schürer, <i>History of the Jewish People in the Time of +Christ</i>, div. ii, vol. ii, 96-105. For the rigorous rules observed by +the Covenanters of Damascus, a Jewish sect whose history has been only +lately recovered, see G. F. Moore, in <i>Harvard Theological Review</i>, +1911, iv, 346 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_831" href="#FNanchor_831" class="label">[831]</a> 1 <i>Maccabees</i>, ii, 31 <i>sqq.</i>; 2 +<i>Maccabees</i>, v, 25-26, vi, 11, viii, 26; Josephus, <i>Antiquitates +Judaicæ</i>, xii, 62. Plutarch refers to the Jews who allowed their +enemies to rear scaling ladders and make themselves masters of their +walls, and “so lay still until they were caught like so many trout in the +dragnet of their own superstition” (<i>De superstitione</i>, 8).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_832" href="#FNanchor_832" class="label">[832]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_833" href="#FNanchor_833" class="label">[833]</a> <i>Isaiah</i>, lviii, 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_834" href="#FNanchor_834" class="label">[834]</a> <i>Luke</i>, xiv, 1-24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_835" href="#FNanchor_835" class="label">[835]</a> Augustine, <i>In comm. ad Psalm. xcii</i> (<i>Nicene +and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church</i>, viii, 453). +This passage, with others in a similar strain, from St. Chrysostom, +Prudentius, and Theodoret, is adduced by the learned ecclesiastical +historian Joseph Bingham (<i>Antiquities of the Christian Church</i>, +London, 1838-1840, vii, 32 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_836" href="#FNanchor_836" class="label">[836]</a> Plutarch, <i>Quæstiones conviviales</i>, iv, 6, 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_837" href="#FNanchor_837" class="label">[837]</a> S. Schechter, in <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, 1891, +iii, 763; compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Studies in Judaism</i>, New York, +1896, pp. 244 <i>sqq.</i>, and Israel Abrahams, <i>Jewish Life in the +Middle Ages</i>, London, 1896, p. 12, 24, 373 <i>sq.</i> See further +J. Mann, “The Observance of the Sabbath and the Festivals in the First +Two Centuries of the Current Era, according to Philo, Josephus, the New +Testament, and the Rabbinic Sources,” <i>Jewish Review</i>, 1914, iv, +433-456.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_838" href="#FNanchor_838" class="label">[838]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_839" href="#FNanchor_839" class="label">[839]</a> <i>De opificio mundi</i>, 30; compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Vita +Mosis</i>, ii, 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_840" href="#FNanchor_840" class="label">[840]</a> <i>Contra Apionem</i>, ii, 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_841" href="#FNanchor_841" class="label">[841]</a> Compare Juvenal, <i>Satiræ</i>, xiv, 105-106 (with J. B. +Mayor’s commentary); Tertullian, <i>Apologeticus</i>, 16; <i>idem</i>, +<i>Ad nationes</i>, i, 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_842" href="#FNanchor_842" class="label">[842]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_843" href="#FNanchor_843" class="label">[843]</a> In the New Testament such phrases as ἐν δὲ μιᾷ +τῶν σαββάτων (<i>Acts</i>, xx, 7) and κατὰ μίαν σαββάτου (1 +<i>Corinthians</i>, xvi, 2; compare <i>Matthew</i>, xxviii, 1; +<i>Mark</i>, xvi, 2; <i>Luke</i>, xxiv, 1; <i>John</i>, xx, 1, 19) refer +to Sunday as “the first day of the week.” An equivalent expression, +πρώτῃ σαββάτου, is also found (<i>Mark</i>, xvi, 9). The designation +of Sunday as the Lord’s Day—ἡ κυριακὴ ἡμέρα—occurs in a single New +Testament passage (<i>Revelation</i>, i, 10). Some critics hold that the +author of the <i>Apocalypse</i> was referring here, not to Sunday but to +the day of Judgment, called elsewhere ἡ ἡμέρα ἡ μεγάλη “the great day” +(<i>ibid.</i>, vi, 17, xvi, 14).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_844" href="#FNanchor_844" class="label">[844]</a> <i>Acts</i>, xx, 7; 1 <i>Corinthians</i>, xvi, 2; compare +<i>John</i>, xx, 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_845" href="#FNanchor_845" class="label">[845]</a> <i>Epistola Barnabæ</i>, 15; compare Justin Martyr, +<i>Dialogus cum Tryphone</i>, 138; Tertullian, <i>De idolatria</i>, 14. +The “eighth day” might seem to be a natural designation for the day +following the Sabbath, the seventh day; more probably, however, it is to +be explained by the ancient practice of inclusive reckoning.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_846" href="#FNanchor_846" class="label">[846]</a> <i>Didache</i>, xiv, 1. The testimony of Pliny the Younger +(<i>Epistolæ</i>, x, 98) makes it evident that as early as the year +111 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> the Christians of Asia Minor were accustomed to hold +religious assemblies on a fixed day (<i>stato die</i>), which can hardly +have been other than the first day of the week.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_847" href="#FNanchor_847" class="label">[847]</a> Eusebius, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i>, iv, 23, 11, iv, +26, 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_848" href="#FNanchor_848" class="label">[848]</a> <i>Apologia prima</i>, 67. Tertullian, who found it +necessary to answer the objection that Christians worshipped the +sun, declares, “Indeed, they made Sunday a day of joy, but for other +reasons than to adore the sun, which was no part of their religion” +(<i>Apologeticus</i>, 16; compare <i>Ad nationes</i>, i, 13).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_849" href="#FNanchor_849" class="label">[849]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>sq.</i> On the early history of the +Christian Sunday see A. Barry, “Lord’s Day,” Smith and Cheetham’s +<i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>, ii, 1042-1053; G. A. +Deissmann, “Lord’s Day,” <i>Encyclopædia Biblica</i>, iii, coll. +2813-2816; O. Zöckler, “Sonntagsfeier,” Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck’s +<i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche</i>,³ xviii, +521-529; T. Zahn, “Geschichte des Sonntags vornehmlich in der alten +Kirche,” in <i>Skizzen aus dem Leben der alten Kirche</i>,² Erlangen, +1898, pp. 160-208, 351-376; J. A. Hessey, <i>Sunday</i>,⁵ London, 1889, +pp. 40-49.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_850" href="#FNanchor_850" class="label">[850]</a> <i>Matthew</i>, xii, 8; <i>Mark</i>, ii, 27; <i>John</i>, +v, 17.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_851" href="#FNanchor_851" class="label">[851]</a> <i>Colossians</i>, ii, 16; compare <i>Romans</i>, xiv, 5; +<i>Galatians</i>, iv, 10-11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_852" href="#FNanchor_852" class="label">[852]</a> <i>Epistola ad Magnesios</i>, 9. The longer recension of +this passage, though an interpolation of much later date, expresses the +same antagonism toward sabbatizing: “But let every one of you keep the +Sabbath after a spiritual manner, rejoicing in meditation on the law, +not in relaxation of the body, admiring the workmanship of God, and not +eating things prepared the day before, nor using lukewarm drinks, and +walking within a prescribed space, nor finding delight in dancing, and +plaudits which have no sense in them” (<i>Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>, i, 62 +<i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_853" href="#FNanchor_853" class="label">[853]</a> <i>Constitutiones Apostolicæ</i>, ii, 59, 1, vii, 23, +2, viii, 33, 1; <i>Concilium Laodicenum</i>, can. 16 (Labbe-Mansi, +<i>Sacrorum conciliorum collectio</i>, ii, 567); Socrates, <i>Historia +ecclesiastica</i>, vi, 8. The church council held at Laodicea in 363 +<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> anathematized as Judaizers those who refrained from work +on Saturday (<i>Concilium Laodicenum</i>, can. 29; Labbe-Mansi, <i>op. +cit.</i>, ii, 580). The anathema did not penetrate to the ancient +Christian kingdom of Abyssinia, where Saturday is still strictly +observed. “The ox and the ass are at rest. Agricultural pursuits are +suspended. Household avocations must be laid aside, and the spirit +of idleness reigns throughout the day.... When, a few years ago, one +daring spirit presumed, in advance of the age, to burst the fetters of +superstition, his majesty the king of Shoa, stimulated by the advice of +besotted monks, delegated his wardens throughout the land, and issued a +proclamation, that whoso disturbed the original dreamy stillness of the +Jewish Sabbath should forfeit his property to the royal treasury, and +be consigned to the state dungeon” (W. C. Harris, <i>The Highlands of +Ethiopia</i>, New York [1843], p. 272). The Celts kept Saturday as a +day of rest, with special religious services on Sunday (A. Bellesheim, +<i>History of the Catholic Church in Scotland</i>, Edinburgh, 1887-1890, +i, 86).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_854" href="#FNanchor_854" class="label">[854]</a> <i>De oratione</i>, 23: <i>Omni anxietatis habitu et +officio cavere debemus, differentes etiam negotia, ne quem diabolo +locum demus</i>. Tertullian, however, elsewhere rejects the implication +that Christians should be sabbatizers, “we, to whom these Sabbaths +belong not, nor the new moons, nor the feast days once beloved of God” +(<i>De idolatria</i>, 14); compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Apologeticus</i>, +16; <i>idem</i>, <i>Ad nationes</i>, i, 13; <i>idem</i>, <i>Adversus +Judæos</i>, 4; Augustine, <i>De spiritu et littera</i>, 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_855" href="#FNanchor_855" class="label">[855]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_856" href="#FNanchor_856" class="label">[856]</a> For the history of Sunday legislation see E. V. Neale, +<i>Feasts and Fasts</i>, London, 1845; R. E. Prime, “Sunday Legislation,” +<i>New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</i>, xi, +146-151; J. Gairdiner, “Sundays, Ancient and Modern,” in Gairdiner +and Spedding, <i>Studies in English History</i>, Edinburgh, 1881, pp. +286-315; Hans [Johannes] Meinhold, <i>Sabbat und Sonntag</i>, Leipzig, +1909, pp. 65-103; Alice M. Earle, <i>The Sabbath in Puritan New +England</i>, New York, 1891, pp. 245-258.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_857" href="#FNanchor_857" class="label">[857]</a> Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 219 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_858" href="#FNanchor_858" class="label">[858]</a> G. F. Abbott, <i>Macedonian Folklore</i>, Cambridge, +1903, p. 189. In Greece and Albania, also, Tuesday is an unlucky day for +every sort of enterprise (Miss Mary Hamilton, <i>Greek Saints and their +Festivals</i>, Edinburgh, 1910, p. 190).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_859" href="#FNanchor_859" class="label">[859]</a> Livy, vi, 1; Tacitus, <i>Historiæ</i>, ii, 91; Suetonius, +<i>Vitellius</i>, 11. Compare Ovid (<i>Fasti</i>, i, 49-50):</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Omen ab eventu est; illis nam Roma diebus,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Damna sub adverso Marte tristia tulit.</i></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_860" href="#FNanchor_860" class="label">[860]</a> Suetonius, <i>Divus Julius</i>, 88.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_861" href="#FNanchor_861" class="label">[861]</a> See “La recommandation du vendredi,” <i>Mélusine</i>, +1888-1889, iv, 104, 133 <i>sqq.</i>, 205 <i>sq.</i> However, the Friday +superstition may ante-date Christianity. In Macedonia it is believed +that ablutions on Friday are dangerous, especially for women in childbed +(Abbott, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 190). The Brahmans of India share the +Friday superstition, saying that “on this day no business must be +commenced” (Buchanan, in <i>Asiatick Researches</i>, vi, 172). Among the +Parsis Tuesday and Friday are inauspicious days, generally avoided for +betrothals, marriages, and other happy occasions. Many persons will not +begin an important work or start on a distant journey on these days (J. +J. Modi, “Omens among the Parsees,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological +Society of Bombay</i>, i, 294). All over Burma Friday is unlucky. “Don’t +go on Friday” is a current saying (L. Vossion, “<i>Nat</i>-worship among +the Burmese,” <i>Journal of American Folk-lore</i>, 1892, iv, 112). For +Russian superstitions relating to Friday see above, p. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>²</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_862" href="#FNanchor_862" class="label">[862]</a> J. Jacobs, “Superstition,” <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, xi, +599.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_863" href="#FNanchor_863" class="label">[863]</a> The sidereal month, determined by the moon’s revolution +from any star back to the same star, has a mean length of 27 days, 7 +hours, 43 minutes, and 11 seconds. The least duration is 27 days, 4 +hours, and the greatest, about 7 hours longer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_864" href="#FNanchor_864" class="label">[864]</a> F. K. Ginzel (<i>Handbuch der mathematischen und +technischen Chronologie</i>, Leipzig, 1906-1911, i, 70 <i>sqq.</i>) +provides a useful survey, with bibliographies, of the lengthy discussions +relating to the origin and diffusion of the moon-stations. See also W. +D. Whitney, “On the Lunar Zodiac of India, Arabia, and China,” in his +<i>Oriental and Linguistic Studies</i>, second series, New York, 1874, +pp. 341-421.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_865" href="#FNanchor_865" class="label">[865]</a> Sir M. Monier-Williams, <i>Brāhmanism and Hindūism</i>,⁴ +New York, 1891, pp. 345 <i>sq.</i>; compare J. A. Dubois, <i>Hindu +Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies</i>,³ Oxford, 1906, p. 382.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_866" href="#FNanchor_866" class="label">[866]</a> L. H. Gray, “The Parsī-Persian <i>Burj-Nāmah</i>, or Book +of Omens from the Moon,” <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, +1910, xx, 337 <i>sqq.</i>; A. de C. Motylinski, <i>Les mansions lunaires +des Arabes</i>, Algiers, 1899.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_867" href="#FNanchor_867" class="label">[867]</a> J. Sibree, “Divination among the Malagasy,” +<i>Folklore</i>, 1892, iii, 220 <i>sq.</i> In Madagascar the names of +the separate days in the month have been taken directly from the Arabic +names for the twenty-eight lunar mansions. It thus appears that these +names have both astrological and chronological value (G. Ferrand, “Note +sur le calendrier malgache et le <i>fandruana</i>,” <i>Revue des études +ethnographiques et sociologiques</i>, 1908, i, 95). Among the northern +Abyssinians lucky and unlucky days are likewise determined by the lunar +stations, though only six or seven are reckoned, each containing from +two to seven days (E. Littmann, “Sternensagen und Astrologisches aus +Nordabessinien,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1908, xi, 301 +<i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_868" href="#FNanchor_868" class="label">[868]</a> Above, p. <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>²</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_869" href="#FNanchor_869" class="label">[869]</a> According to A. Jeremias no evidence exists for the +recognition of twelve intercalary days in the ancient Oriental world +(<i>Das Alter der babylonischen Astronomie</i>, Leipzig, 1909, p. 42 +<i>n.</i>¹). However, the Babylonian New Year’s festival of Zagmuk, which +occupied the first eleven days of the spring month of Nisan, has been +compared with the Twelve Days of Indo-European antiquity (H. Winckler, +<i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i>, Leipzig, 1898, ii, i, 182). What +relation, if any, the Babylonian Zagmuk bore to the Babylo-Persian Sacæa +and the Hebrew Purim is still a subject of controversy. See the full +presentation of the evidence in Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>The Scapegoat</i>, +London, 1913, pp. 354-407. The Babylonian <i>Epic of Gilgamesh</i>, +recorded on twelve cuneiform tablets, has been plausibly interpreted as a +solar myth, recounting the sun’s annual course during the twelve months. +Now, a relationship undoubtedly exists between at least three tablets of +the poem and the corresponding months of the year, notably in the case +of the eleventh tablet, in which the story of the Deluge is told, and +the eleventh month, which by the Babylonians was termed the “month of +rain” (M. Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i>, pp. 484, +510). It is curious, therefore, to find that in the Hebrew narrative +of the Flood the waters cover the earth for the period of a year and +eleven days, apparently, here, a lunar year of 354 days plus eleven days +(<i>Genesis</i>, vii, 11, viii, 14).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_870" href="#FNanchor_870" class="label">[870]</a> <i>Rig-Veda</i>, i, 161, 11, 13, iv, 33, 7; compare +<i>Atharva-Veda</i>, iv, 11, 11 (transl. W. D. Whitney, p. 166).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_871" href="#FNanchor_871" class="label">[871]</a> <i>Kāṭhaka</i>, 7, 5; <i>Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa</i>, 1, 1, 9, +10; H. Zimmer, <i>Altindisches Leben</i>, Berlin, 1879, p. 367.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_872" href="#FNanchor_872" class="label">[872]</a> A. Weber, “Zwei vedische Texte über Omina und Portenta,” +<i>Philologische und historische Abhandlungen der königlichen +Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin</i>, 1858, pp. 388 <i>sq.</i>; +<i>idem</i>, <i>Indische Studien</i>, 1868, x, 242 <i>sq.</i>, 1885, +xvii, 223 <i>sqq.</i>, 1898, xviii, 45; <i>idem</i>, “Vedische +Beiträge,” <i>Sitzungsberichte der königlich-preussischen Akademie der +Wissenschaften zu Berlin</i>, 1898, pp. 559 <i>sqq.</i> Compare A. +Ludwig, <i>Der Rigveda</i>, Prague, 1883, vi, 232; A. Kaegi, <i>The +Rigveda</i>, Boston, 1886, p. 37; Zimmer, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 366 +<i>sq.</i> For contrary opinions see O. Schrader, <i>Reallexikon +der indogermanischen Altertumskunde</i>, pp. 391 <i>sq.</i>; G. +Thibaut, in Bühler’s <i>Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und +Altertumskunde</i>, iii, pt. ix, 9 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_873" href="#FNanchor_873" class="label">[873]</a> J. Lippert, <i>Christentum, Volksglaube, und +Volksbrauch</i>, Berlin, 1882, pp. 680-685; C. A. Miles, <i>Christmas in +Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan</i>, London, 1912, pp. 238-246; +Frazer, <i>The Scapegoat</i>, pp. 313-345.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_874" href="#FNanchor_874" class="label">[874]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_875" href="#FNanchor_875" class="label">[875]</a> G. F. Abbott, <i>Macedonian Folklore</i>, Cambridge, 1903, +p. 75.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_876" href="#FNanchor_876" class="label">[876]</a> A. Wuttke, <i>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der +Gegenwart</i>,³ edited by E. H. Meyer, Berlin, 1900, pp. 63 <i>sqq.</i> +See also K. Weinhold, <i>Weihnacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland +und Schlesien</i>, Gräz, 1853, pp. 11 <i>sq.</i>; K. A. Oberle, +<i>Überreste germanischen Heidentums im Christentum</i>, Baden-Baden, +1883, pp. 63 <i>sq.</i>; E. H. Meyer, <i>Indogermanische Mythen</i>, +Berlin, 1887, ii, 526 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_877" href="#FNanchor_877" class="label">[877]</a> J. Loth, “Les douze jours supplémentaires +(<i>gour-deziou</i>) des Bretons, et les douze jours des Germains et des +Indous,” <i>Revue celtique</i>, 1903, xxiv, 310-312.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_878" href="#FNanchor_878" class="label">[878]</a> Miss C. S. Burne, editor, <i>Shropshire Folk-lore</i>, +London, 1883, p. 403.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_879" href="#FNanchor_879" class="label">[879]</a> W. Gregor, <i>Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east +of Scotland</i>, London, 1881, p. 156; <i>idem</i>, in <i>Folk-lore +Record</i>, 1884, ii, 332.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_880" href="#FNanchor_880" class="label">[880]</a> John Williams ab Ithel, <i>Barddas</i>, Llandovery, +1862-1874, i, 424 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_881" href="#FNanchor_881" class="label">[881]</a> E. Seler, “The Mexican Chronology,” <i>Bulletin of the +Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, no. 28, p. 16. The passage quoted +above is from Seler’s translation of the Aztec text of Sahagun, which +is more complete than the latter’s Spanish version (<i>Historia general +de las cosas de Nueva España</i>, ii, 37; transl. Jourdanet and Siméon, +Paris, 1880, pp. 50, 77, 164, 283, 291). Other Spanish authorities refer +to the <i>nemontemi</i> as days when the people did nothing but receive +and return visits (Clavigero, <i>Storia antica del Messico</i>, vi, 24; +Acosta, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, vi, 2).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_882" href="#FNanchor_882" class="label">[882]</a> E. Seler, in <i>Bulletin of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</i>, no. 28, pp. 16 <i>sq.</i>; compare <i>idem</i>, in +Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 308. The +principal authority for the Maya custom is Diego de Landa, <i>Relación de +las cosas de Yucatan</i>, ch. xxxv (transl. Brasseur de Bourbourg, pp. +211 <i>sqq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_883" href="#FNanchor_883" class="label">[883]</a> These five days thus inserted between the “small year” +and the “large year” did not interrupt the regular sequence of the three +decades into which the Egyptian month was divided; see above, p. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_884" href="#FNanchor_884" class="label">[884]</a> Pepi, 2, l. 754. A still earlier reference is found in +an inscription belonging to the time of the Fifth Dynasty (K. Sethe, +<i>Urkunden des alten Reichs</i>, Leipzig, 1903, i, 24).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_885" href="#FNanchor_885" class="label">[885]</a> H. Brugsch, “Die fünf Epagomenen in einem hieratischen +Papyrus zu Leiden,” <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen +Gesellschaft</i>, 1852, v, 254-258; compare <i>idem</i>, <i>Die +Ägyptologie</i>, Leipzig, 1891, p. 362; C. R. Lepsius, <i>Die Chronologie +der Ägypter</i>, Berlin, 1849, i, 145 <i>sqq.</i> The chief classical +references to the epagomenal days are Herodotus, ii, 4; Plutarch, <i>De +Iside et Osiride</i>, 12; and Diodorus Siculus, i, 13, 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_886" href="#FNanchor_886" class="label">[886]</a> F. J. Chabas, <i>Le calendrier des jours fastes et +néfastes de l’année égyptienne</i>, Chalon-s.-S., 1870, pp. 102-107. +In the <i>Leiden Papyrus</i> (i. 346) only the first, third, and fifth +days are marked with the same sign as unlucky, but the observances +prescribed relate to all five days. Plutarch (<i>op. cit.</i>, 12) refers +to the third day, that of Set or Tryphon, as inauspicious for Egyptian +kings, who did no business on it and took no care of their persons till +nightfall. The parallel to the royal observance of the Babylonian “evil +days” is instructive (above, pp. <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_887" href="#FNanchor_887" class="label">[887]</a> L. H. Gray, “Calendar (Persian),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 129; <i>idem</i>, +“Divination (Persian),” <i>ibid.</i>, iv, 819.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_888" href="#FNanchor_888" class="label">[888]</a> F. Justi, <i>Geschichte des alten Persiens</i>, Berlin, +1879, p. 79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_889" href="#FNanchor_889" class="label">[889]</a> F. Macler, “Calendar (Armenian),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_890" href="#FNanchor_890" class="label">[890]</a> J. Levering, in <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of +Arts and Sciences</i>, 1873, viii, 348-364; “Calendrier républicain,” +<i>La grande encyclopédie</i>, viii, 908-910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_891" href="#FNanchor_891" class="label">[891]</a> Abbott, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 21, 63. The Macedonians +observe the same restrictions on the Wednesdays and Fridays of these two +months.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_892" href="#FNanchor_892" class="label">[892]</a> Miss Mary Hamilton, <i>Greek Saints and their +Festivals</i>, Edinburgh, 1910, pp. 187 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_893" href="#FNanchor_893" class="label">[893]</a> W. H. D. Rouse, “Folklore from the Southern Sporades,” +<i>Folklore</i>, 1899, x, 179.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_894" href="#FNanchor_894" class="label">[894]</a> J. C. Lawson, <i>Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek +Religion</i>, Cambridge, 1910, pp. 152 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_895" href="#FNanchor_895" class="label">[895]</a> J. S. Polack, <i>Manners and Customs of the New +Zealanders</i>, London, 1840, i, 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_896" href="#FNanchor_896" class="label">[896]</a> J. Winkler, “Der Kalender der Toba-Bataks auf Sumatra,” +<i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, 1913, xlv, 436-447. Among the Batta +dwelling inland from the Bay of Tapanuli the priest or magician, whose +duty it is to announce propitious days, is a most important functionary +in every village. The people “will not engage in any undertaking, however +trifling, or make the smallest alteration in their domestic economy, +without first consulting him” (Burton and Ward, in <i>Memoirs of the +Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1827, i, 500).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_897" href="#FNanchor_897" class="label">[897]</a> W. W. Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>, London, 1900, p. 549.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_898" href="#FNanchor_898" class="label">[898]</a> N. B. Dennys, <i>The Folk-lore of China</i>, London, 1876, +pp. 30 <i>sq.</i> In China there is also the state almanac, which is +annually prepared at Pekin under the direction of a bureau attached to +the Board of Rites. By making it a penal offence to issue a counterfeit +or pirated edition of this almanac, the government astrologers have +monopolized the management of the superstitions of the people in regard +to the fortunate or unfortunate conjunction of each day and hour. “No +one ventures to be without an almanac, lest he be liable to the greatest +misfortunes, and run the imminent hazard of undertaking important events +on black-balled days” (S. W. Williams, <i>The Middle Kingdom</i>,² New +York, 1883, ii, 79 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_899" href="#FNanchor_899" class="label">[899]</a> H. A. Giles, <i>A Glossary of References on Subjects +connected with the Far East</i>,³ Shanghai, 1900, p. 183.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_900" href="#FNanchor_900" class="label">[900]</a> W. E. Griffis, <i>Corea, the Hermit Nation</i>,³ New York, +1889, p. 298.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_901" href="#FNanchor_901" class="label">[901]</a> E. Kaempfer, <i>History of Japan</i>, ii, 22 (Glasgow +reprint, 1906).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_902" href="#FNanchor_902" class="label">[902]</a> A. Lloyd, “Death and Disposal of the Dead (Japanese),” +Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iv, 486 <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_903" href="#FNanchor_903" class="label">[903]</a> E. Schlaginweit, <i>Buddhism in Tibet</i>, Leipzig and +London, 1863, pp. 293 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_904" href="#FNanchor_904" class="label">[904]</a> W. H. R. Rivers, <i>The Todas</i>, London, 1906, p. 405.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_905" href="#FNanchor_905" class="label">[905]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 405 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_906" href="#FNanchor_906" class="label">[906]</a> Rivers, <i>Todas</i>, p. 407.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_907" href="#FNanchor_907" class="label">[907]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 408.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_908" href="#FNanchor_908" class="label">[908]</a> See <i>ibid.</i>, p. 411, for a reference to certain +restrictions which may have arisen out of a belief in unlucky days. W. R. +King (<i>Journal of Anthropology</i>, 1870, i, 33 <i>sq.</i>) expressly +attributes this superstition to the Toda.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_909" href="#FNanchor_909" class="label">[909]</a> Rivers, <i>Todas</i>, pp. 410 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_910" href="#FNanchor_910" class="label">[910]</a> Rivers, <i>Todas</i>, pp. 459, 695 <i>sqq.</i>, 710 +<i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_911" href="#FNanchor_911" class="label">[911]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 411 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_912" href="#FNanchor_912" class="label">[912]</a> These Toda taboos suggest at once the Jewish sabbatarian +regulations and the methods of evading or mitigating them devised by +the rabbis (above, p. <a href="#Page_264">264</a>). Until the present day the Bene-Israel, a +body of Jews domiciled for many centuries in the Bombay Presidency, have +preserved the old Hebrew fasts and festivals, though under Indian names +and with Indian features superadded. Their habit of observing Saturday +as a Sabbath and of giving their oxen rest from the oil-mills on that +day has gained for them among their Hindu neighbours the name of “the +Saturday oil-men” (J. H. Lord, “Bene-Israel,” Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, ii, 470 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_913" href="#FNanchor_913" class="label">[913]</a> The week of seven days, with names derived from the +Sanskrit, appears to have been introduced by the Shins into Dardistan +and western Kashmir. See J. Biddulf, <i>Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh</i>, +Calcutta, 1880, p. 93; G. W. Leitner, <i>The Hunza and Nagyr +Handbook</i>,² Woking, 1893, p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_914" href="#FNanchor_914" class="label">[914]</a> H. Roskoschny, <i>Afghanistan und seine Nachbarländer</i>, +Leipzig, 1885, i, 174.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_915" href="#FNanchor_915" class="label">[915]</a> Sir G. S. Robertson, <i>The Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush</i>, +London, 1896, pp. 579 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_916" href="#FNanchor_916" class="label">[916]</a> A. van Gennep, <i>Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar</i>, +Paris, 1904, p. 199. The Malagasy belief in lucky and unlucky days, as +determined by the moon stations (above, p. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>), appears to be a direct +importation from the Arabs superimposed on an earlier and thoroughly +native observance of tabooed seasons. The Malagasy have also taken over +from Islam the week of seven days (above, p. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_917" href="#FNanchor_917" class="label">[917]</a> J. Sibree, “Malagasy Folk-lore and Popular Superstitions,” +<i>Folk-lore Record</i>, 1879, ii, 30-33. The custom still exists among +the Masikoro, an inland branch of the Sakalava tribe. Many Vezo (coast +Sakalava) families continue to expose a child born on an unlucky day, but +it is afterwards rescued and brought up by the relatives as their own. +“Such a child is, however, looked upon with some suspicion as to what +will be its character, because of its having been born on an unlucky day. +It is thought that it may bring some calamity upon the family, or may +itself be miserable or unfortunate in one way or another, when grown up. +It is a very common opinion that bad conduct is only the result of being +born on an unlucky day” (A. Walen, in <i>Antananarivo Annual</i>, 1883, +no. 7, pp. 51 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_918" href="#FNanchor_918" class="label">[918]</a> J. Sibree, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_919" href="#FNanchor_919" class="label">[919]</a> A. van Gennep, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 203; <i>Antananarivo +Annual</i>, 1891, no. 15, pp. 302 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_920" href="#FNanchor_920" class="label">[920]</a> V. Noel, in <i>Bulletin de la société de géographie</i>, +1843, second series, xx, 71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_921" href="#FNanchor_921" class="label">[921]</a> A. van Gennep, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 202 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_922" href="#FNanchor_922" class="label">[922]</a> The two manuscripts (both in the British Museum) have been +edited, respectively, by F. L. Griffith (<i>Hieratic Papyri from Kahun +and Gurob</i>, London, 1898, pl. 25 text, p. 62; and E. A. W. Budge, +<i>Facsimiles of Egyptian Hieratic Papyri</i>, London, 1911, pls. 31-32). +See further W. Wreszinski, “Tagewählerei im alten Ägypten,” <i>Archiv für +Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1913, xvi, 86-100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_923" href="#FNanchor_923" class="label">[923]</a> The text was published in <i>Select Papyri in the Hieratic +Character</i>, London, 1844, pt. i, pls. 144-168, and was translated by +F. J. Chabas (<i>Le calendrier des jours fastes et néfastes de l’année +égyptienne</i>, Chalon-s.-S., 1870). The work of Chabas was masterly, +but it has now become antiquated by the progress of Egyptology. F. Bohn +(<i>Der Sabbat im Alten Testament</i>, Gütersloh, 1903, pp. 57-62) gives +a revised and corrected version of numerous passages, based on the +studies of Professor Sethe, and Wreszinski (<i>loc. cit.</i>) translates +directly from the Egyptian text. For discussions of this important +document see Sir G. Maspero, <i>Études égyptiennes</i>, Paris, 1886, +i, 29 <i>sq.</i>; <i>idem</i>, <i>Les contes populaires de l’Égypte +ancienne</i>,³ Paris, 1905, pp. xlix-lii; <i>idem</i>, <i>New Light +on Ancient Egypt</i>,² London, 1909, pp. 128-136; A. Erman, <i>Life +in Ancient Egypt</i>, London, 1894, pp. 351 <i>sq.</i>; A. Wiedemann, +<i>The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</i>, London, 1897, pp. 263 +<i>sqq.</i>; E. A. W. Budge, <i>Egyptian Magic</i>,² London, 1901, +pp. 224 <i>sqq.</i>; G. Foucart, “Calendar (Egyptian),” Hastings’s +<i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 100 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_924" href="#FNanchor_924" class="label">[924]</a> W. Wreszinski, in <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, +1913, xvi, 89 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_925" href="#FNanchor_925" class="label">[925]</a> Chabas, <i>op. cit.</i>, 28; Wreszinski, in <i>Archiv für +Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1913, xvi, 92 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_926" href="#FNanchor_926" class="label">[926]</a> Rawlinson, <i>Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia</i>, +v, pls. 48, 49; Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i>, pp. +379 <i>sqq.</i>, Bohn, <i>Der Sabbat im Alten Testament</i>, pp. 55 +<i>sqq.</i> A Babylonian tablet (K. 98), published by Professor Sayce +(<i>Zeitschrift für Assyriologie</i>, 1887, ii, 333-335), gives a list of +days on which it was fortunate to undertake such operations as “staking +the canal,” “thinning the plantation,” and “sinking the foundations +of a house.” Still another text, published by Dr. Stephen Langdon +(<i>Expositor</i>, 1909, xxii, 156), contains the injunction that on the +fifth day of Nisan “he who fears Marduk or Sarpanit shall not go out to +work.” On the Babylonian <i>nubattu</i> see above, p. <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_927" href="#FNanchor_927" class="label">[927]</a> <i>Opera et dies</i>, 765-828. On the Hesiodic calendar +see E. E. Sikes, “Folk-lore in the Works and Days of Hesiod,” +<i>Classical Review</i>, 1893, vii, 389-394, and the Addenda to Professor +A. W. Mair’s admirable version of Hesiod, Oxford, 1908, pp. 162-166. +For a full analysis of the calendar see A. Mommsen, <i>Chronologie</i>, +Leipzig, 1883, pp. 39-46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_928" href="#FNanchor_928" class="label">[928]</a> <i>Opera et dies</i>, 724-764.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_929" href="#FNanchor_929" class="label">[929]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 810, 820, 802 <i>sqq.</i>, 770.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_930" href="#FNanchor_930" class="label">[930]</a> The Vergilian calendar (<i>Georgica</i>, i, 276 +<i>sqq.</i>) is obviously an imitation of Hesiod’s, but it may be +presumed that Vergil, with his intimate knowledge of the farmer’s life, +incorporated in his catalogue of lucky and unlucky days some of the +peasant lore of ancient Italy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_931" href="#FNanchor_931" class="label">[931]</a> Augustine, <i>In comm. ad Pauli ep. ad Galatas</i>, 4; +Ambrose, <i>Epist.</i> i, 23; compare Marinus, <i>Vita Procli</i>, 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_932" href="#FNanchor_932" class="label">[932]</a> <i>Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, i, pt. i,² 256, +297, with T. Mommsen’s commentary. The anonymous author of the <i>Versus +de diebus Ægyptiacis</i> (<i>Poetæ latini minores</i>, ed. A. Baehrens, +v, 354-356) reduces their number to twenty-four:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Bis deni binique dies scribuntur in anno,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>In quibus una solet mortalibus hora timeri.</i></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_933" href="#FNanchor_933" class="label">[933]</a> L. Moland, “Calendrier français du treizième siècle,” +<i>Revue archéologique</i>, 1862, n.s., v, 103 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_934" href="#FNanchor_934" class="label">[934]</a> J. B. Thiers, <i>Traité des superstitions</i>,⁴ Paris, +1741, i, 291 <i>sq.</i> See further Karl Meyer, <i>Der Aberglaube des +Mittelalters</i>, Basel, 1884, p. 210; Du Cange, <i>Glossarium mediæ et +infimæ latinitatis</i>, ed. Favre, iii, 106 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_935" href="#FNanchor_935" class="label">[935]</a> Chambers’s <i>Book of Days</i>, i, 42. See also +O. Cockayne, <i>Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early +England</i>, London, 1866, iii, 150-197, and John Aubrey’s quaint essay +on “Day-fatality; or, Some Observations of Days Lucky and Unlucky” +(<i>Miscellanies upon Various Subjects</i>, London, 1784, pp. 3-36). Some +rules concerning “perilous days” are reprinted by Sir Lawrence Gomme from +a fifteenth century manuscript (<i>Folklore</i>, 1913, xxiv, 121-123).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_936" href="#FNanchor_936" class="label">[936]</a> Sir R. C. Temple, “Burma,” in Hastings’s <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, iii, 29; compare Shway Yoe [Sir J. G. Scott], +<i>The Burman, his Life and Notions</i>,³ London, 1910, pp. 383-389. On +the unlucky days observed in Upper Burma see <i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma +and the Shan States</i>, edited by Scott and Hardiman, Rangoon, 1900, pt. +i, vol. ii, 48 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_937" href="#FNanchor_937" class="label">[937]</a> W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern +India</i>,² Westminster, 1896, ii, 52 <i>sq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_938" href="#FNanchor_938" class="label">[938]</a> D. Malo, <i>Hawaiian Antiquities</i>, Honolulu, 1903, p. +56.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_939" href="#FNanchor_939" class="label">[939]</a> J. Dupuis, <i>Journal of a Residence in Ashantee</i>, +London, 1824, 213 <i>n.</i>*; compare John Beecham, <i>Ashantee and the +Gold Coast</i>, London, 1841, p. 188.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_940" href="#FNanchor_940" class="label">[940]</a> J. W. Fewkes, “Tusayan <i>Katcinas</i>,” <i>Fifteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, Washington, 1897, +p. 255. The Hopi furnish one of the few instances of compulsory rest days +to be found among the American Indians. They hold a mid-winter festival, +called the <i>soyáluña</i>, at the time of the winter solstice. “December +is regarded as a sacred month; no work is performed in it, and few games +are allowed. It is the month of the return of the sun and the gods, and +bears the same name as July, in which they depart” (J. W. Fewkes, “The +Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi,” <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 1898, +xi, 69).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_941" href="#FNanchor_941" class="label">[941]</a> J. H. Gray, <i>China</i>, London, 1878, i, 249; W. E. +Griffis, <i>Corea, the Hermit Nation</i>,³ New York, 1889, p. 295. +According to one account the shops in China are shut and all business +suspended only on the first three days of the year, though these and +numerous other festivals, both general and local, are common occasions +for relaxation and merry-making (S. W. Williams, <i>The Middle +Kingdom</i>,³ New York, 1883, i, 809).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_942" href="#FNanchor_942" class="label">[942]</a> Maspero, <i>New Light on Ancient Egypt</i>,² p. 135.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_943" href="#FNanchor_943" class="label">[943]</a> G. F. Schoemann, <i>Griechische Alterthümer</i>,⁴ edited +by J. H. Lipsius, Berlin, 1897-1902, ii, 458 <i>sq.</i>; compare Plato, +<i>Leges</i>, ii, 653; Thucydides, ii, 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_944" href="#FNanchor_944" class="label">[944]</a> Strabo, <i>Geographica</i>, vi, 3, 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_945" href="#FNanchor_945" class="label">[945]</a> This calculation assumes 109 <i>dies nefasti</i>, 192 +<i>dies fasti et comitiales</i>, on which assemblies might meet, 43 +<i>dies fasti non comitiales</i>, available for judicial business but not +for meetings of the assemblies, 8 <i>dies intercisi</i>, or days partly +<i>fasti</i> and partly <i>nefasti</i>, and 3 <i>dies fissi</i> (Wissowa, +<i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i>, pp. 368 <i>sq.</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_946" href="#FNanchor_946" class="label">[946]</a> Cicero, <i>In Verrem</i>, i, 10; Suetonius, <i>Divus +Augustus</i>, 32. It has been already noticed (above, p. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>) that Roman +consuls sometimes instituted extraordinary <i>feriæ</i> for the purpose +of blocking legislation by their rivals, ferial days being included in +the <i>dies nefasti</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_947" href="#FNanchor_947" class="label">[947]</a> Above, pp. <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_948" href="#FNanchor_948" class="label">[948]</a> L. Friedländer, <i>Roman Life and Manners under the Early +Empire</i>, London, 1908, ii, 11 <i>sq.</i>; W. W. Fowler, <i>Social Life +at Rome in the Age of Cicero</i>, New York, 1909, pp. 287 <i>sqq.</i> +Though the ancients were careful to distinguish the <i>feriæ</i> from the +<i>ludi</i> (compare Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, ii, 24, 11: <i>Diebus +ludorum et feriis quibusdam</i>), yet in late republican and imperial +times the joyous aspects of the <i>feriæ</i> had become so prominent that +nearly all of them were converted into <i>ludi</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_949" href="#FNanchor_949" class="label">[949]</a> <i>Panem et circenses</i> (Juvenal, x, 81).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_950" href="#FNanchor_950" class="label">[950]</a> W. J. Showalter, in <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, +1914, xxv, 493.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_951" href="#FNanchor_951" class="label">[951]</a> A. W. Kinglake, <i>Eothen</i>, chap. v.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_952" href="#FNanchor_952" class="label">[952]</a> W. F. Adeney, <i>The Greek and Eastern Churches</i>, New +York, 1908, p. 433.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_953" href="#FNanchor_953" class="label">[953]</a> L. Caro, <i>Auswanderung und Auswanderungspolitik in +Osterreich</i>, Leipzig, 1909, p. 56.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_954" href="#FNanchor_954" class="label">[954]</a> W. C. Harris, <i>The Highlands of Ethiopia</i>, New York +[1843], p. 280.</p></div> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> + +</div> + +<nav> +<ul> + +<li class="ifrst">Aberdeenshire, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abonsam, a Gold Coast demon, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abor, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abraham, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Achehnese of Sumatra, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adams, J. Q., on the French Revolutionary calendar, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Afar, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Affirah-bi</i>, a Gold Coast festival of the dead, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Afghanistan, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Agar</i>, the rest days of the Siah Posh Kafirs, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Ἅγιος, Greek term for taboo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> <i>and n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Aha</i>, Hawaiian prayers, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ahanta of the Gold Coast, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">Akamba of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Akikuyu of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Akposo of Togo, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Alaska, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Albania, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alcibiades, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Allia, battle of the, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amau</i>, the Kayan omen animals, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Amos, the prophet, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anahulu</i>, the Hawaiian, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anam, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Andaman Islanders, the, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Animals, used in divination, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">rest days for, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Animistic sanctions of taboos, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anito</i>, ancestral spirits of the Bontoc Igorot, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anoiila</i>, the Nicobarese term for rest day, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anthesteria, Athenian festival of the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Antu</i>, Bornean spirits, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <i>n.</i>⁶</li> + +<li class="indx">Apollo, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι, Greek unlucky days, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> <i>and n.</i>³, + <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arabs, lunar superstitions of the, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">calendar of the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their preference for odd numbers, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">their adoption of the seven-day week, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar mansions of the, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arakan, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arizona, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Armenia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Artemis, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aryans of ancient India, lunar festivals of the, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their epagomenal days, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Ἀσέλινοι, the Athenian, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Ashanti, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Assam, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Asshurbanipal, Assyrian king, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Astrology, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, + <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_287">287</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Atenoux</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Athene, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Athenian festivals, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Atonement, Day of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>², + <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Atua</i>, Polynesian spirits, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">August, unlucky days of, in Greek lands, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Augustus, Roman emperor, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aurelius, Marcus, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span>Auspices, Maori, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Australia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Azazel, a bad angel or demon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Babylonians, the, their conception of taboo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their superstitions relating to the moon, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their five-day period, or <i>khamushtu</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">cult of seven among the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven planets and planetary deities of the, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their division of the nycthemeron into twelve <i>kaspu</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">their “evil days,” <a href="#Page_223">223</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>sqq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">seven-day cycles of the, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar month of the, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the <i>shabattum</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">new-moon and full-moon days observed by the, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their unlucky days, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Hebrew week and Sabbath not directly borrowed from the, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar mansions, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Badaga of the Madras Presidency, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Baffin Land, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Baganda of Uganda, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Bahima">Bahima of Uganda, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bahuana of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Bakuba">Bakuba of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bali, island of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Balubale</i>, Bahima demons, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Bambala of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <i>and n.</i>⁶</li> + +<li class="indx">Banyoro of Uganda, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Bapiri of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Barotse of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Barter, Australian, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Basoga of Uganda, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Basuto of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Bathing">Bathing prohibited during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> + <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, + <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Batta of Sumatra, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Bawenda of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bayaka of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <i>and n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx">Baziba of Uganda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bechuana of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Belgian_Congo">Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bengal, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Benin, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> + <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Bhaskara Saptami, Hindu festival of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Bhutan, the Buddhist Sabbath in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Bini">Bini of Benin, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> + <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Bodily attentions not permitted during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, + <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Bathing">Bathing</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bohemia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <i>n.</i>⁷</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Book of the Dead</i>, the, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Borneo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> + <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Boscawen, W. H., <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Bowditch Island. <i>See</i> <a href="#Fakaofo">Fakaofo</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brazil, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Breasted, J. H., <a href="#Page_167">167</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">British Columbia, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">—— East Africa, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">—— New Guinea, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">—— North Borneo, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">—— South Africa, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Brittany, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bubuk</i>, the Land Dyak name of full moon, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buddha, the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buddhism, observance of the <i>uposatha</i> in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Buriat of Siberia, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Burkeneji of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Burma, tabooed days observed in, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Buddhist Sabbath in, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">divisions of the month employed in, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven-day week in, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bushmen of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bushongo. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bakuba">Bakuba</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Buta</i>, Balinese evil spirits, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Calabar (Old), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Calendar, the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span>Cambodia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, + <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Canaanites, the Sabbath not borrowed from the, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cannæ, battle of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Cardinal points, colour symbolism of the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Caroline Islands, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Cato the Elder, on Roman holidays, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Celebes, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Celtiberians, lunar festivals of the, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Celts, lunar festivals of the, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their calendar, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">nine-day cycles of the, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Central America, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chams, the, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cherokee Indians, the, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Cheyne, T. K., <a href="#Page_243">243</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Chibcha. <i>See</i> <a href="#Muysca">Muysca</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chiefs and kings, death of, necessitates communal abstinence, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, + <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">responsible for the observance of communal taboos, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">subject to various restrictions, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Childbirth, taboos imposed in connection with, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>and n.</i>³, + <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_69">69</a> + <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">the moon associated with, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese, lunar superstitions of the, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar festivals observed by the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their tradition of a ten-month year, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar decades, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴;</li> + <li class="isub1">the planetary week known to the, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar mansions, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observe no rest days, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days of the, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chingpaw. <i>See</i> <a href="#Kachin">Kachin</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chronocratories, astrological theory of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Chukchi of Siberia, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cicero, on Roman holidays, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Claudius, Roman emperor, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cochin-China, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Coligny, Calendar of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Colombia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Comets, taboos imposed in connection with, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Congo Free State. <i>See</i> <a href="#Belgian_Congo">Belgian Congo</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Constantine, edict of, relating to Sunday, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cooking not allowed during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, + <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Copernicus, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cos, island of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Courts and public offices not open during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> + <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, + <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Couvade</i>, custom of the, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Covenanters of Damascus, the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Creation myth, the Babylonian, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Creek Indians, the, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cremera, battle of the, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crete, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crisis, sociological conception of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cumont, Franz, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Cyclades, the, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cyprian, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cyprus, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Dahomey, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Dakota Indians, the, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dalai Lama, tabooed days observed after the death of the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Danakil, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Darmesteter, J., <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">David, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dead, festivals of the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Death, taboos observed after a, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, + <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, + <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_258">258</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">primitive ideas of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Debel, N. H., <a href="#Page_196">196</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Decade, the, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Decalogues, the, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Deluge myth, the Babylonian, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Demons">Demons, punish the violators of taboos, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>sqq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">expulsion of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dendera, temple of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span>Dew, the moon believed to be the source of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Diana, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dichomenia, the Greek full-moon day, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>and n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx">Dieri of South Australia, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Dies_Ægyptiaci"><i>Dies Ægyptiaci</i>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— Alliensis</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— atri.</i> See <a href="#Dies_religiosi"><i>Dies religiosi</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— dominica</i>, the Lord’s Day, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— feriati.</i> See <a href="#Feriæ"><i>Feriæ</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— nefasti</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_304">304</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— postriduani</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Dies_religiosi"><i>—— religiosi</i>, Roman unlucky days, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— Saturni.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Saturday">Saturday</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— Solis.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Sunday">Sunday</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— vitiosi.</i> See <a href="#Dies_religiosi"><i>Dies religiosi</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Diffusion of cultural elements, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dio Cassius, on the origin of the planetary week, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">on the Hebrew Sabbath, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dionysus, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Diulasu, the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Divination, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Dositheus, observance of the Sabbath by, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Dravidians of India, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> + <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Durga, Hindu goddess, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Dusun">Dusun of British North Borneo, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Dutch Borneo, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— New Guinea, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Du-zang</i>, the Tibetan Sabbath, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Earthquakes, taboos imposed in connection with, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, + <a href="#Page_99">99</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eclipses, taboos imposed in connection with, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Edo. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bini">Bini</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Egbo</i>, a secret society of Old Calabar, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Egungun, a Slave Coast deity, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Egyptian days.” See <a href="#Dies_Ægyptiaci"><i>Dies Ægyptiaci</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Egyptians, superstitions of the, relating to the moon, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <i>and n.</i>⁶;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar festivals, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">solar year of the, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their ideas as to the full moon, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>and n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">ten-day week of the, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">astrological cycles of the, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the division of the nycthemeron into twenty-four hours known to the, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">their unlucky days, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">epagomenal days of the, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Elisha, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ellis, A. B., on the origin of weeks and Sabbaths, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> and <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Ellis, William, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Elmore, W. T., <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Elpanam</i>, the men’s house in the Nicobar Islands, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elul II, Babylonian intercalary month, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">England, lunar superstitions in, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Ennead, the, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Epagomenal days, Hawaiian, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hebrew, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">early Aryan, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">European folklore of the Twelve Days, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Mexican and Maya, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Egyptian, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Persian, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Armenian, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the French Revolutionary calendar, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Epic of Creation</i>, the Babylonian, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Epirus, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Erronan. <i>See</i> <a href="#Futuna">Futuna</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eskimo, the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Essenes, the, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Esthonians, the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Euahlayi of New South Wales, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Evil Days,” the Babylonian, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>sqq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, tabooed days observed by the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, + <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ezekiel, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Fady</i>, Malagasy term for taboo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Fakaofo">Fakaofo (Bowditch Island), <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Fakil</i>, a Bontoc Igorot festival, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Fandroana</i>, a Malagasy festival, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span>Farming, restrictions on, during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, + <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, + <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, + <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, + <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Farnell, L. R., <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Fasting">Fasting practised during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, + <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, + <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, + <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Fasti Philocali</i>, the, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— Sabini</i>, the, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Feast of Weeks, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fe’e, Samoan war-god, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Feralia, Roman festival of the, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Feriæ"><i>Feriæ</i>, the Roman, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>n.</i>², + <a href="#Page_264">264</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— denicales</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— imperativæ</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— sementivæ</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Festivals">Festivals, Polynesian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Bornean, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Nicobar Islands, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Bali, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Mentawi Islands, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Philippines, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Manipur, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Assam, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Burma, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Africa, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">ancient Greek, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> <i>sqq</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, + <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">ancient Roman, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, + <a href="#Page_304">304</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Jewish, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">Mohammedan, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">accompanied by the remission of labour, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">consecrated to divinities, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the Dravidian peoples of India, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hebrew, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">ancient Aryan, in India, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">modern Brahmanic, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Jain, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Buddhist, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Iranian, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Egyptian, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Babylonian, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Phœnician, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Christian, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hopi Indian, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fewkes, J. W., on the Zuñi decades, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Fiji Islands, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Fimt</i>, the Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Finns, the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fires and lights extinguished during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_258">258</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">First-fruits, ceremony of, in New Zealand, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Tonga Islands, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Fiji Islands, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Hebrew Day of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Athenian Plynteria, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Roman Vestalia, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Fishermen subject to taboos, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Fishing, restrictions on, during a tabooed period, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> + <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, + <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Flamen Dialis, restrictions imposed on the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Flaminica Dialis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Florida, state of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Food taboos. <i>See</i> <a href="#Fasting">Fasting</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Formosa, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fowler, W. W., on the <i>dies postriduani</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">France, lunar superstitions in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in mediæval, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frazer, J. G., <a href="#Page_2">2</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> + <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>n.</i>⁶, + <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> + <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">French Equatorial Africa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Friday, an unlucky day, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>and n.</i>³, + <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">as the Mohammedan Sabbath, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> + <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Frontinus, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Full_moon">Full moon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <i>sqq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>n.</i>⁷, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>n.</i>⁷, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> + <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, + <a href="#Page_250">250</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Futuna">Futuna (Erronan), island of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Galicia, saints’ days observed in, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Galla, the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gaman, the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Games played during a tabooed period, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span>Gamut, origin and diffusion of the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Garo of Assam, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ga-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, tabooed days observed by the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar weeks, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Gāthā-days, the Persian, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gaul, ancient, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Genesia, Athenian festival of the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Genna"><i>Genna</i> (<i>kennie</i>), the Naga term for rest day, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gennabura.</i> See <a href="#Khullakpa"><i>Khullakpa</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">German East Africa, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— New Guinea, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Germanic languages, names of the week days in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Germans, ancient, observance of new moon and full moon by the, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">cycles of nine days used by the, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Germany, abstinence from work after a death observed in, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar superstitions in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <i>n.</i>⁷;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gilgamesh, Epic of</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Gold Coast of west Africa, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, + <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gour-deziou</i>, the, in Brittany, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Greek Church, saints’ days in the calendar of the, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Greeks, ancient, unlucky days of the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> + <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">festivals of the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, + <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their superstitions relating to the moon, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> + <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar calendar, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar decades of the, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">cycles of nine days and nine years used by the, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">cult of seven among the, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Greenland, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grimme, H., on the Day of Atonement, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">on Pleiades cults among the Hebrews, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Gudea, the inscription of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Habbe of the Sudan, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Hair-cutting, superstitions relating to, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Halmahera, island of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Hammurabi, Babylonian king, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Hannibal, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hanuman, Hindu monkey-god, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Haoma</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Harran, city of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Haughbah</i>, a tabooed day on the Gold Coast, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">Hawaiian Islanders, tabooed days observed by the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their calendar, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hebdomad. <i>See</i> <a href="#Seven-day_week">Seven-day week</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Hebrews">Hebrews, the, their Sabbath, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, + <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>and n.</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Day of Atonement, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>², + <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their agricultural festivals, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">cult of seven among the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">their seven-day week, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">new-moon and full-moon festivals of the, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Jews">Jews</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Heiau</i>, Hawaiian temple, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heptagram, the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Hera, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hervey Islands, the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>n.</i>⁷</li> + +<li class="indx">Hesiod, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hiang</i>, a Formosan term for rest day, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ho of Togo, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hobbes, Thomas, on the origin of religion, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holiness, the conception of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Holy days. <i>See</i> <a href="#Festivals">Festivals</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— water, Hawaiian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hooker, Richard, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Hopi Indians of Arizona, festivals of the, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Horace, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hosea, the prophet, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hottentots of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Hours, division of the nycthemeron into, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">House-building, taboos imposed in connection with, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, + <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, + <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hova of Madagascar, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hrilh</i>, the Lushei term for taboo, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hua, Hawaiian deity, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span>Huahine, island of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Humphrey Island. <i>See</i> <a href="#Manahiki">Manahiki</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hunting, restrictions on, during a tabooed period, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="ifrst" id="Iban">Iban (Sea Dyak) of Borneo, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ibo of Southern Nigeria, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Ides, the, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ignatius, St., <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Igorot of Luzon, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ihering, R. von, on the origin of periodic rest days, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Impregnation believed to be accomplished by the moon, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Inachi</i>, the Tonga ceremony of first-fruits, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Inclusive reckoning, practice of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_267">267</a> <i>n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx">India, tabooed days after a death observed in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Dravidian village festivals, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Dravidian lunar superstitions, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the ancient Aryan <i>upavasatha</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hindu festival of Bhaskara Saptami, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hindu bipartite division of the month, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven-day week in, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">symbolism of seven in, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the lunar mansions in, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Twelve Days in, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Indians, North American, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> + <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Indo-China, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Innuit of Alaska, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Interlunium</i>, the, as a tabooed period, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Iranians">Iranians, lunar superstitions of the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar festivals, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their bipartite division of the month, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Persians">Persians</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Isaiah, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ishtar, Babylonian goddess, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Isidore of Seville, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Italy, introduction of the planetary week into, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Jainism, observance of the <i>posaha</i> in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Jaluo of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Japan, the Buddhist Sabbath in, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the lunar decade in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven-day week in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">rest days observed in, <a href="#Page_203"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jastrow, Morris, on the observance of the seventh day in Babylonia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>n.</i>⁴;</li> + <li class="isub1">on the meaning of <i>shabbāthôn</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">on the meaning of <i>shabattum</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">on the inscription of Gudea, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">on the original significance of the word “Sabbath,” <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">on Babylonian unlucky days, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Java, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> + <i>and n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">Jehovah, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, + <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jenks, A. E., on the rest days observed by the Bontoc Igorot, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Jeremiah, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jericho, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Jesus, words of, relating to the observance of the Sabbath, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Jews">Jews, taboos after a death observed by the, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">celebration of New Year’s Day by the, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their superstitions relating to the moon, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> <i>and n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <i>and n.</i>⁶;</li> + <li class="isub1">neglect of the Sabbath by modern, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days of the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Hebrews">Hebrews</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Johns, C. H. W., on the observance of the Babylonian “evil days,” <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">on the Babylonian <i>nubattu</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Jonathan, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Josephus, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jubilee, the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Jum‘a, al</i>, the Mohammedan Sabbath, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> + <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Juno, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jupiter, the Roman <i>nundinæ</i> consecrated to, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Ides consecrated to, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the planet, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Justin, Roman historian, on the origin of the Sabbath, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Justin Martyr, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst" id="Kachin">Kachin (Chingpaw), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kaffa, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kafiristan, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span>Kagoro of northern Nigeria, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Kalends, the, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kalmucks, the <i>uposatha</i> observance of the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kaloa, Hawaiian deity, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kamata.</i> See <a href="#Kambata"><i>Kambata</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamataraya, a Kota deity, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Kambata"><i>Kambata</i>, a Kota festival, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamehameha II, Hawaiian king, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamerun, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Kanarese-speaking peoples of southern India, their village festivals, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observance of the <i>interlunium</i> by the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>and n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">tabooed days of the, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Kandian of Ceylon, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Kane, Hawaiian deity, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kapu.</i> See <a href="#Tabu"><i>Tabu</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karaja of Brazil, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Karakia</i>, Maori magical incantation and prayer, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Karen of Burma, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Kasuba of the Madras Presidency, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kataharayan of Malabar, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kataphang</i>, a Nicobarese festival, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Kavirondo of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kayan of Borneo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>and n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kennie.</i> See <a href="#Genna"><i>Genna</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kerepunu of British New Guinea, rest day observed by the, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kewan, Assyrian designation of the planet Saturn, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Khamushtu</i>, the Assyro-Babylonian, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Khang</i>, the Mro term for rest day, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khasi of Assam, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khnumhotep II, an Egyptian local ruler, inscription of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Khullakpa"><i>Khullakpa</i> (<i>gennabura</i>), the secular and religious head of a Naga community, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kiala</i>, a Nicobarese festival, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Kiriwina, island of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Koita of British New Guinea, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kopus</i>, a Bontoc Igorot festival, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Koran</i>, the, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Korava of the Madras Presidency, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Korea, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Koryak of Siberia, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Kota of the Madras Presidency, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ku, Hawaiian deity, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kuki. <i>See</i> <a href="#Lushei">Lushei</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kumara</i>, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Kwakiutl of British Columbia, ceremonial cannibalism among the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Labour, remission of, during a tabooed or unlucky period. <i>See</i> <a href="#Rest_days">Rest days</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lali</i>, a Kayan term for taboo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Lalu. <i>See</i> <a href="#Muhso">Muhso</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Land Dyak of Sarawak, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Lao">Lao of Siam, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>n.</i>³, + <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Laodicea, church council of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">Laotians. <i>See</i> <a href="#Lao">Lao</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lapps, the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>La tabu</i>, Hawaiian designation of Sunday, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Laws of Manu</i>, the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lemuria, Roman festival of the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_263">263</a> + <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Lengua Indians of Paraguay, the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lex Hortensia</i>, the, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Liberia, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> <i>n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx">Lithuanians, the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Loango, market days kept in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the thirteenth month considered unlucky in, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Lobengula, a Matabele king, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Lolo, the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lono, Hawaiian deity, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lotz, W., <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Luakini</i>, chief temple in the Hawaiian Islands, consecration of a, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Lu-Bat, the Babylonian term, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ludi</i>, the Roman, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lumawig, supreme god of the Bontoc Igorot, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lumingu</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lunar fortnights, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Lunar_mansions">—— mansions, the, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Lunar_weeks">—— weeks, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Lunation, beginning of the, at full moon, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">length of the, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">division of the, into two fortnights, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Lushei">Lushei (Kuki), the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Luxus sabbatarius</i>, the, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Luzon, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span>Macassar, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Macedonia, unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Madagascar, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Madnol</i>, the Toda, <a href="#Page_289">289</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Madras Presidency, the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, + <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Magicians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_287">287</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Makahiki</i>, the Hawaiian New Year’s festival, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_15">15</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Making</i>, ancestral spirits of the Ibaloi Igorot, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Makololo of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Malabar, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Malagasy, their conception of taboo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">tabooed days observed by the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven-day week of the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar superstitions, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lucky and unlucky days, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Malanau of Sarawak, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Malay Peninsula, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Maldive Islands, the, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mamit</i>, the Babylonian term for taboo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mana</i>, magical power, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Manahiki">Manahiki (Humphrey Island), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mandingo of the Sudan, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Manipur, tabooed days observed in, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Manitou</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Manyema of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Maori of New Zealand, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>n.</i>⁷, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Marang</i>, the Garo term for taboo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">March, unlucky days of, in Greek lands, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marduk, Babylonian god, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Mariner, William, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Markets, rise of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">characteristic features of, among semi-civilized peoples, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Market_days">Market days</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Market_days">Market days, observance of, in New Guinea and Melanesia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Celebes, Sumatra, and Java, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Tonkin, Siam, Burma, and Assam, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Africa, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and Peru, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in ancient Rome, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">restrictions attending, not connected with lunar superstitions, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Market_weeks">—— weeks, length of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Market_days">Market days</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Markheshwan, the eighth month of the Babylonian year, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marquesas Islands, the, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Marriages not celebrated during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, + <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Masai, the seven-day week of the, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Matabele of South Africa, restrictions observed by the king of the, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">May, an unlucky month for marriage, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Mayas of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mbaki.</i> See <a href="#Nanga"><i>Nanga</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mbalolo</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mbure</i>, the men’s house in the Fiji Islands, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mechoacan, tabooed days observed after the death of a ruler of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Medicine, practice of, by the Land Dyak of Borneo, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">Meinhold, J., <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Meithei of Manipur, <a href="#Page_54">54</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Mekeo District of British New Guinea, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Melo</i>, a Kayan term for rest day, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>n.</i>⁶</li> + +<li class="indx">Mendi of Sierra Leone, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Men’s house, the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Menstruation, superstitions relating to, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">supposed connection of the moon with, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Mentawi Islands, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mexicans, market days kept by the, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>and n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">calendar of the, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days of the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">saints’ days observed by the modern, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Miao (Miao-tse), the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Middle Ages, observance of unlucky days during the, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Mikir of Assam, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mindanao, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Mishmi, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a> <i>and n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mishna</i>, the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span>Missionaries, observance of Sunday introduced by, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>n.</i>², + <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mithra, a Persian deity, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Mohammed, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Molucca Islands, the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Mommsen, Theodor, on the Roman <i>nundinum</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Monday, an unlucky day in Germany, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>and n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">in India, consecrated to Siva, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the first day of the week in Slavic countries, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">an unlucky day among the Jews, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mondunga of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Mongelima of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Mongolia, the Buddhist Sabbath in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Month, the lunar, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, + <a href="#Page_173">173</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">intercalation of a thirteenth, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">beginning of the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">division of the, by the waxing and waning moon, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the sidereal, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Moon, tabooed or unlucky periods observed in connection with changes of the, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>and n.</i>², + <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> + <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">eclipses of the, marked by taboos, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">supposed deleterious influence of the, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">associated with impregnation and childbirth, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">influence of, on the tides, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">supposed influence of, on the growth of vegetation, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">doctrine of lunar sympathy, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">superstitions relating to the <i>interlunium</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">as the measure of time, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">day of the new, how calculated, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">phases of the, closely observed by savage and barbarous peoples, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">day of the full, how calculated, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>n.</i>⁷, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">division of the lunation into two periods, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">importance of the, to the early Hebrews, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hebrew cult of the, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Full_moon">Full moon</a>, <a href="#Lunar_mansions">Lunar mansions</a>, <i>and</i> <a href="#New_moon">New moon</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moonshine, supposed noxious influence of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Morocco, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moses, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Motu of British New Guinea, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Mpongwe of French Equatorial Africa, their conception of taboo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mro, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Muhso">Muhso (Lalu), the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mundus patet</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Muppan of Malabar, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Music, astrological notions relating to, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Muysca">Muysca of Colombia, market days kept by the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Naga of Manipur, tabooed days observed by the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nail-paring, superstitions relating to, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nakshatra</i>, the Hindu, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Namungba</i>, the Meithei term for taboo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Na na ai</i>, the Kachin term for rest day, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nandi of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Nanga"><i>Nanga</i>, a secret association in Fiji, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Nannar, a Babylonian moon-god, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nannaru</i>, Babylonian name of new-moon day, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Narnaka, inscription of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nehemiah, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nemontemi</i>, the, Mexican epagomenal days, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Nepal, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nestorian Monument, the, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">New Britain, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— Caledonia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— Georgia, island of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">—— Hebrides, the, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— Mexico, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— South Wales, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— Zealand, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> + <i>n.</i>⁷, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="New_moon">New moon, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, + <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>n.</i>⁷, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> + <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, + <a href="#Page_255">255</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">New Year’s festival, Hawaiian, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>and</i> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span>Maori, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">Fijian, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">Kayan, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Balinese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Muhso, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hebrew, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Babylonian, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ngoma</i>, Akikuyu ancestral spirits, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nias, island of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nicobar Islands, the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nielsen, D., <a href="#Page_143">143</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nigeria (Northern), <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">(Southern), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> + <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Nine as a symbolic number, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Nineteenth day of the month, observance of the, in Babylonia, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Niu</i>, casting the, a Maori method of divination, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Noa</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nones, the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Northern Territory of South Australia, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Noumenia, the Greek new-moon day, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Novemdiales feriæ</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nubattu</i>, the Babylonian, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Numa, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Numbers, prejudice against even, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">symbolism of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_206">206</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nundinæ</i>, Roman market days, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nundinum</i>, Roman market week, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nycthemeron, the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Octad, the, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Odyssey</i>, the, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ogboni</i>, a Yoruba secret society, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Ogun, a Yoruba god, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Omens, Kayan, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Iban, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Bontoc Igorot, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Naga, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Ominous animals, cult of, in Borneo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> + <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orenda</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Origen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ornaments not worn during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oro, a Slave Coast deity, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orunda</i>, the Mpongwe term for taboo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Osiris, identified with the moon, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <i>n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Ovid, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Padi</i>, or rice, taboos affecting the cultivation of, in Borneo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Paganalia, Roman festival of the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Pagi Islands, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Paharia of British Sikkim, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palolo</i> worm, the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Pamali"><i>Pamali</i>, a Land Dyak term for taboo, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pantang</i>, the Malay term for taboo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Papyrus Sallier IV</i>, the, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Parentalia, Roman festival of the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Parsis, lucky and unlucky days of the, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pasar</i>, Javanese market week, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Passover, the, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Patani States of the Malay Peninsula, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Patimokkha</i>, the disciplinary and penal code of Buddhism, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>and n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx">Paul, St., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pentad, the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Perfumes and unguents not used during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Permantong</i>, a Kayan term for taboo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Persians">Persians, the seven-day week of the, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>n.</i>⁴;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar mansions of the, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their epagomenal days, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Iranians">Iranians</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peruvians, market days kept by the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven-day week unknown to the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar superstitions, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">calendar of the, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Petara"><i>Petara</i>, Sea Dyak gods, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Pharisees, the, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Philippine Islands, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Philo Judæus, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Phœnicians, the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span><i>Pidiu</i>, the Ibaloi Igorot term for taboo, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Pinches, T. G., on the meaning of <i>shabattum</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pitara.</i> See <a href="#Petara"><i>Petara</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Planetary_or_astrological_week">Planetary or astrological week, in India, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in southeastern Asia, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in China, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Japan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Malay Peninsula, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Sumatra, Java, and Bali, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">origin of the, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">introduction of the, into the Occident, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">adopted by Christianity, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">its diffusion in Europe, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Afghanistan, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Planets, differentiation of the, from the fixed stars, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">identification of the, with deities of the Babylonian pantheon, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the planetary week, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Mithraism, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Plato, on festival days, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pleiades calendars, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Pliny the Younger, <a href="#Page_268">268</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Plutarch, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Plynteria, Athenian festival of the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pomali</i>, a Malay term for taboo, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pompeii, inscriptions from, relating to the planetary week, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pompey the Great, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Porikh.</i> See <a href="#Pamali"><i>Pamali</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Portugal, names of the weekdays in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Portuguese East Africa, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Posadha</i>, the, in China, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Posaha</i>, the Jain, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Poya</i> days, observed in Ceylon, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Prascovia, St., <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Prayer, nature of Hawaiian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Pre-animistic sanctions of taboos, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ptolemy, Greek astronomer, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Puberty, taboos imposed on the attainment of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">initiation at, among the Fijians, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Yao, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pula, the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Punän</i>, the term for taboo in the Mentawi Islands, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Punjab, the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Purim, Hebrew festival of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pyramid Texts</i>, the, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Python, cult of the, in Uganda, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ra, Egyptian god, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Radama I, Malagasy king, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ratu-mai-Mbulu, a Fijian deity, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reformation, the, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reinach, S., <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Rendile of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Rest_days">Rest days, characteristics of primitive, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">connection of, with the institution of taboo, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Hawaii, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Society Islands and the Marquesas Islands, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Maori, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Tonga Islands, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Samoa, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in New Guinea, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>and n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Kayan of Borneo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Iban or Sea Dyak, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Land Dyak, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Nicobar Islands, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Bali, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Mentawi Islands, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Philippines, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Manipur, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Assam, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Burma, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the aborigines of southwestern China, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">a characteristic feature of Indo-Chinese culture, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">compared with the <i>couvade</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">psychological and sociological aspects of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">mark critical epochs in the communal life, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observed after a death, <a href="#Page_62">62</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observance of, in Africa, during seasons of ghost-riddance and demon-riddance, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observed in connection with the proceedings of west African secret societies, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Greek ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι as, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Roman <i>dies religiosi</i> as, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Hebrew Day of Atonement and Feast of Trumpets as, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Mohammedan Feast of Sacrifices, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">festivals observed as, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Dravidian peoples of India, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Hebrew Day of First-fruits, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Greek festivals as, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Roman festivals as, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span>observed in connection with agricultural operations, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">market days as, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, + <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observed in connection with the waning moon, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observed during lunar eclipses, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observed during the <i>interlunium</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observed at changes of the moon, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar days as, in Africa, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar taboos in modern India, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the ancient Aryan <i>upavasatha</i> as a Sabbath, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">sabbatarian character of lunar days in Brahmanism, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Jain <i>posaha</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Buddhist Sabbath, or <i>uposatha</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">diffusion of the Buddhist Sabbath, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">new moon and full moon as, among the Greeks and Romans, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the <i>dies postriduani</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Madagascar and eastern Africa, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the American Indians, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> <i>n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">not observed by the Chinese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Japan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">not observed by the Javanese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>n.</i>⁴;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Islam, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">seventh days observed as, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Christianity, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Mithraism, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Babylonian “evil days” as, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, + <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Hebrew Sabbath, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Christian Sunday, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed as, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">social and economic significance of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rex sacrorum</i>, the Roman, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rig-Veda</i>, the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rivers, W. H. R., on the lunar superstitions of the Toda, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">on their sacred days, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Roman Church, names of the weekdays in the calendar of the, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Romance countries, names of the weekdays in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Romans, ancient, unlucky days of the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">festivals of the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, + <a href="#Page_304">304</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their market week and market days, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> + <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar calendar, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Romulus, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rongker</i>, the Mikir term for rest day, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Roro-speaking peoples of British New Guinea, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia, Friday an unlucky day in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">saints’ days observed in, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Sabbatarian regulations, penalties for disobedience of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, + <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">how evaded, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Sabbath, the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, + <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>and n.</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">—— Day’s journey, length of a, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sabbatical Year, the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sacer</i>, the Latin term for taboo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> <i>and n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx">Saints’ days, observance of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Samoa, village deities of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">tabooed days observed in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sanhedrin, the, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sansculottides</i>, the, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Saoria of Bengal, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sarawak, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sarhul</i>, a Uraon festival, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sarpanit, Babylonian goddess, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Saturday">Saturday, an unlucky day, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>n.</i>³, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">names applied to, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">change from, to Sunday, as the first day of the planetary week, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Saturn’s Day and, <a href="#Page_243">243</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">ecclesiastical recognition of, as a holy day, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">Saturn, supposed consecration of the <i>nundinæ</i> to, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">the planet, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Saturday">Saturday</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sayce, A. H., on the <i>khamushtu</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Scapegoat, the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Schiaparelli, G., <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Scotland, abstinence from work after a death observed in, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">lunar superstitions in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">observance of Saturday in, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea Dyak. <i>See</i> <a href="#Iban">Iban</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span>Seclusion necessary during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, + <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, + <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, + <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, + <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Strangers">Strangers, exclusion of</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Secret societies, in Fiji, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in west Africa, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Selene, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Seligmann, C. G., <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Seminoles of Florida, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sepi</i>, the Balinese term for rest day, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sequani of Gaul, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Servius Tullius, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seven, as a symbolic number, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_229">229</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Seven-day_week">Seven-day week, the, in New Caledonia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the island of Bali, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Malay Peninsula, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Guinea and Sudanese negroes, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">not known to the Peruvians, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Sumatra, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in New Zealand, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Indo-China, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unknown to the Egyptians, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Abyssinian, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">origin and diffusion of the, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Madagascar and eastern Africa, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in India, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in southeastern Asia, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in central and northern Asia, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>n.</i>⁴;</li> + <li class="isub1">in China, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Japan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Malay Archipelago, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the Arabs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the planetary or astrological, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Babylonia, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the Hebrews, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the early Christians, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the Toda, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Afghanistan, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Planetary_or_astrological_week">Planetary or astrological week</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seventh day, the, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sexual intercourse, prohibited during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> <i>and n.</i>², + <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">effect of illicit, on the crops, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Shabattum</i>, Babylonian name of full-moon day, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Shabbāth</i>, original meaning of the Hebrew term, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">used in the general sense of “week,” <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>—— shabbāthôn</i>, the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Shabbāthôn</i>, the Hebrew, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Shabbti</i>, Jewish designation of the planet Saturn, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shamash, Babylonian sun-god, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shan of Burma, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Shaving, superstitions relating to, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Shib’a</i>, Jewish period of strict mourning after a death, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shropshire, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Siam, tabooed days observed in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">market days kept in, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Buddhist Sabbath in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">bipartite division of the month employed in, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven-day week in, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Siberia, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="indx">Sickness, taboos imposed in connection with, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sierra Leone, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Sikkim, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Silence observed during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a> <i>and n.</i>², + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, + <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sin, a Babylonian moon-god, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Sinaugolo of British New Guinea, a division of time formerly observed by the, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Singer, Jacob, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Slave Coast of west Africa, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Slavic peoples, names of the weekdays among, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Smith, H. P., <a href="#Page_249">249</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Smith, W. R., <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Society Islands, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>n.</i>⁷</li> + +<li class="indx">Sofalese of Portuguese East Africa, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Solevu ni vilavou</i>, a Fijian New Year’s festival, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Soma</i>, the intoxicating juice of the moon-plant, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Somali, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">South Australia, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Soyáluña</i>, a Hopi Indian festival, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Spartans, religious scruples of the, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span>Spencer, John, on the origin of the Sabbath in Egypt, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Spirits. <i>See</i> <a href="#Demons">Demons</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strabo, on festival days, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Strangers">Strangers, exclusion of, during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, + <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stseelis of British Columbia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Subanu of Mindanao, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Sudan, the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sulla, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Sun, worship of the, in modern India, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Sunday">Sunday, observance of, by native converts to Christianity, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, + <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">an unlucky day, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">legislation of Constantine relating to, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">markets held on, during the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Siam, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in India, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the Lao, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in China, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> <i>and n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Japan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">becomes the first day of the planetary week, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">how named by the early Christians, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> <i>and n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">how observed by the early Christians, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">comes to be regarded as a rest day, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">—— legislation, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Sundyak. <i>See</i> <a href="#Dusun">Dusun</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Superstition, sociological aspects of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sutta Nipâta</i>, the, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Swaheli of German East Africa, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Tabernacles, Hebrew Feast of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Taboo, derivation of the word, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">ideas involved in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">definition of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">conception of, widely diffused, <a href="#Page_3"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">how classified, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">pre-animistic character of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">supported by animistic sanctions, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">conceptions of abstinence and propitiation involved in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">social aspects of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">holiness and, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Tabu"><i>Tabu</i>, the Polynesian conception of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">compared with the Hebrew conception, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>n.</i>⁴;</li> + <li class="isub1">compared with the Babylonian <i>mamit</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tacitus, on the origin of the Sabbath, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Tahiti, observance of Sunday in, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tambo nalanga</i>, a Fijian New Year’s festival, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tambu</i>, the Melanesian term for taboo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ṭāmē</i>, the Hebrew term for taboo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Tamil-speaking peoples of southern India, village festivals of the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tapu.</i> See <a href="#Tabu"><i>Tabu</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tarentum, festivals of ancient, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tashi Lama, tabooed days observed after the death of the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tatars, the, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tattooing, superstitions relating to, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Telugu-speaking peoples of southern India, village festivals of the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Tenasserim, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx" id="Tengao"><i>Tengao</i> (<i>tengau</i>), the Bontoc Igorot term for rest day, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tengau.</i> See <a href="#Tengao"><i>Tengao</i></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tertullian, on the proper observance of Sunday, <a href="#Page_268">268</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> <i>and n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Thahu</i>, the Akikuyu term for taboo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thessaly, unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Thor, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Thothmes III, inscription of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Thursday, observance of, as a holy day, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Tiberius, Roman emperor, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tibet, tabooed days observed in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the Buddhist Sabbath in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the seven-day week in, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_287">287</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Tibullus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tides, influence of the moon on the, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Timor, island of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tippera, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Titi Usi, Samoan village deity, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Toda of the Madras Presidency, beliefs of, relating to the moon, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their reckoning of the lunation, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their sacred days, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Tofoke of Belgian Congo, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Togo, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span><i>Toh</i>, the Kayan spirits, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tonga Islands, the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tonkin, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tooitonga, Tonga divine chief, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torres Straits, islands of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Toy, C. H., on the meaning of <i>shabattum</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trading not allowed during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Travel prohibited during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, + <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, + <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trumpets, Hebrew Feast of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, tabooed days observed by the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar weeks, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">unlucky days of the, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tuesday, an unlucky day, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">a lucky day, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Tuhoe of New Zealand, beliefs of the, relating to the moon, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tui Tokelau, Polynesian divinity, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Tullus Hostilius, Roman king, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tungthu of Tenasserim, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Twelve Days, the, of the early Aryans, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in European folklore, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Ubone</i>, or duty days, observed in Burma, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ucharal</i>, a festival celebrated in Malabar, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Uganda, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> + <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ûm nûkh libbi</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Union Islands, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">United States, the, lunar superstitions in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Unleavened Bread, Hebrew Feast of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Unlucky days, of the ancient Greeks, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the ancient Romans, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">African, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">German, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Ceylon, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Malay Peninsula, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Persian, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Malagasy, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hindu, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Russian, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">modern Greek, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_284">284</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Babylonian, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Egyptian, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Hebrew, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">origin of beliefs in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Macedonian, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> <i>and n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">mediæval superstitions concerning, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Burmese, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Abyssinian, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the British Isles, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Mexican, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Maya, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Maori, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Sumatra, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Korean, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Japanese, <a href="#Page_287"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Tibetan, <a href="#Page_287">287</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">Toda, <a href="#Page_290">290</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the Siah Posh Kafirs, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in the Hesiodic calendar, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">social and economic aspects of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Upavasatha</i>, observance of the, in ancient India, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Uposatha</i>, the Buddhist Sabbath, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">diffusion of the, in southeastern Asia, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Ur, city of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Uraon of Bengal, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Veblen, Thorstein, on sacred holidays, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Vedas, the, not to be read on certain occasions, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Venus, the planet, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vergil, on Roman holy days, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">his calendar of lucky and unlucky days, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Vespasian, Roman emperor, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vestalia, Roman festival of the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Vey of Liberia, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> <i>n.</i>⁵</li> + +<li class="indx">Victoria, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Village gods, Samoan, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>and n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vishaptatha</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vishnu Purana</i>, the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Wa, the Wild, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wachaga of German East Africa, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wagiriama of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_136">136</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wahuma. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bahima">Bahima</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span><i>Wakanda</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wales, unlucky days observed in, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wanika of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Wan phra</i>, the Siamese Sabbath, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Warfare not engaged in during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wasania of British East Africa, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wednesday, an unlucky day, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Weekdays, names of the, in Java, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in Africa, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> <i>n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> + <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">in New Zealand, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>n.</i>¹;</li> + <li class="isub1">of the planetary sequence, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">in European languages, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">among the early Christians, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> <i>and n.</i>³</li> + +<li class="indx">Weeks, three-day, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, + <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>and n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">four-day, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> + <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>³;</li> + <li class="isub1">five-day, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, + <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> <i>and n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>and n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> + <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">six-day, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">seven-day, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>and n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> <i>and n.</i>², <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> + <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> <i>n.</i>⁵, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_227">227</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">eight-day, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>n.</i>¹, + <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>³, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">nine-day, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>¹, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>and n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">ten-day, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + <li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Lunar_weeks">Lunar weeks</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#Market_weeks">Market weeks</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wellhausen, Julius, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Westermarck, Edward, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">White, the colour appropriate for sacred days observed on the Gold Coast, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Winckler, Hugo, on the <i>khamushtu</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Women, restrictions on, during a tabooed or unlucky period, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, + <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Ya</i>, the Arakanese term for rest day, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yabim of German New Guinea, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Yakut of Siberia, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yap, island of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Year, the lunar, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> + <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> <i>n.</i>²;</li> + <li class="isub1">beginning of the new, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> + <li class="isub1">the solar, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> + <i>n.</i>², <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Yoruba-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, tabooed days observed by the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> + <i>sq.</i>;</li> + <li class="isub1">their lunar weeks, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> <i>and n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Yucatan, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> <i>sq.</i></li> + +<li class="indx">Yuchi Indians, the, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> + +<li class="indx">Yukaghir of Siberia, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>n.</i>⁴</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Zagmuk, Babylonian festival of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>n.</i>²</li> + +<li class="indx">Zimmern, H., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> <i>n.</i>⁴, <a href="#Page_252">252</a> <i>n.</i>⁶</li> + +<li class="indx">Zulu of British South Africa, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Zuñi Indians of New Mexico, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>and n.</i>⁶, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>n.</i>¹</li> +</ul> +</nav> + +<p class="titlepage">Printed in the United States of America.</p> + +</main> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79292 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/79292-h/images/cover.jpg b/79292-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe272c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/79292-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/79292-h/images/macmillan.jpg 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