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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79275 ***
+
+
+
+
+ MEXICO
+
+ A HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT
+ IN ONE HUNDRED YEARS
+
+ [Illustration: _Copyright 1911 by G. Barrie & Sons_
+
+ _Porfirio Diaz_
+
+ GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ
+
+ PRESIDENT
+
+ OF THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO]
+
+
+
+
+ MEXICO
+
+ A HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT IN
+ ONE HUNDRED YEARS
+
+ BY
+
+ MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT
+
+ MEMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
+ OF BRAZIL, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF LA PAZ, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF
+ MEXICO, HISTORICAL AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTE OF SÃO PAULO
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY
+
+ GEORGE BARRIE & SONS
+
+ LONDON: C. D. CAZENOVE & SON, 26 HENRIETTA STREET,
+ COVENT GARDEN, W. C.
+
+ PARIS: 19 RUE SCRIBE
+
+
+
+
+ COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY GEORGE BARRIE & SONS
+
+
+
+
+ TO HIS EXCELLENCY
+
+ General Porfirio Diaz
+
+ PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO
+
+ A GREAT MAN AMONG THE EMINENT MEN OF THE WORLD, WHO ON HIS
+ EIGHTIETH BIRTHDAY IS STILL ACTIVE IN BODY AND SOUL; A
+ POWERFUL ADMINISTRATOR OF THE SPIRITUAL AND
+ MATERIAL GOOD OF HIS COUNTRY
+
+ Is Dedicated
+
+ THIS STORY OF A HUNDRED YEARS OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+ MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT
+
+
+
+
+ CONTENTS
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ DEDICATION 5
+
+ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9
+
+ INTRODUCTION 13
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ THE CONQUEST 17
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ VICEROYALTY 49
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 65
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 83
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ HISTORICAL EVENTS 105
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 127
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ THE CABINET 147
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 159
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ THE CENTENNIAL 179
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 203
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI
+
+ ART AND LITERATURE 219
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII
+
+ CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 235
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII
+
+ EDUCATION 257
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV
+
+ MEXICO 269
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV
+
+ PUEBLA 287
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI
+
+ TLAXCALA 303
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII
+
+ HIDALGO 315
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ TRANSPORTATION 325
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIX
+
+ OAXACA 339
+
+
+ CHAPTER XX
+
+ VERA CRUZ 353
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXI
+
+ TAMAULIPAS 359
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXII
+
+ COAHUILA 369
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ NUEVA LEÓN, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ, AGUASCALIENTES 373
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ QUERÉTARO 383
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXV
+
+ ZACATECAS 387
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVI
+
+ DURANGO 395
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ CHIHUAHUA 401
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+ JALISCO 411
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIX
+
+ GUANAJUATO 421
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXX
+
+ COLIMA 425
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXI
+
+ THE WEST COAST 433
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXII
+
+ MICHOACÁN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 453
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+ YUCATÁN 467
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+ CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS 479
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXV
+
+ CUSTOMS 487
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+ RESOURCES 493
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+ RUINS 505
+
+
+
+
+ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ _Fronts._
+
+ ARMS OF MEXICO _Title page_
+
+ BAS-RELIEF ON THE STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC 17
+
+ HERNANDO CORTÉS 18
+
+ THE VISIT OF CORTÉS TO MONTEZUMA 20
+
+ CARVING OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYALTY 22
+
+ HOUSE OF CORTÉS AT COYOACAN 25
+
+ THE NOCHE TRISTE TREE 26
+
+ THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY OF MEXICO 28
+
+ THE WOODS OF CHAPULTEPEC 30
+
+ THE AZTEC CALENDAR STONE 32
+
+ XOCHITL PRESENTING PULQUE TO TEPANCALTZIN 35
+
+ AZTEC IDOL 39
+
+ BANNER CARRIED BY CORTÉS 43
+
+ PORT MARQUEZ WHERE CORTÉS BUILT HIS FLEET 46
+
+ CARVINGS: CHURCH OF SANTA ROSA, QUERÉTARO 48
+
+ BURNING OF THE FEET OF CUAUHTEMOC 49
+
+ DOOR OF THE HOUSE OF CONDE DE SANTIAGO 51
+
+ SACRIFICIAL STONE 53
+
+ PALACE OF ITURBIDE, NOW A FAMOUS OLD HOTEL 54
+
+ STATUE OF CHARLES IV. 55
+
+ CARVINGS ON THE CHURCH OF LA SANTISIMA 56
+
+ IDOLS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM 57
+
+ FOUNTAIN IN MEXICO CITY 58
+
+ STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC 60
+
+ OLD CARVING OF THE TIME OF CORTÉS 62
+
+ THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC 64
+
+ GATEWAY: MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC 65
+
+ HIDALGO 67
+
+ JOSÉ MARIA MORELOS 68
+
+ HIDALGO’S PRISON AT CHIHUAHUA 69
+
+ ITURBIDE 71
+
+ THE LIBERTY BELL: NATIONAL PALACE 73
+
+ CYPRESS TREE, CHAPULTEPEC 76
+
+ HIDALGO ON HORSEBACK 77
+
+ RESIDENCE OF HIDALGO, AT DOLORES HIDALGO 80
+
+ THE NATIONAL PALACE 82
+
+ THE TOMB OF JUAREZ 83
+
+ BENITO JUAREZ 85
+
+ SEÑOR GENERAL DON RAMÓN CORONA 88
+
+ SEÑOR GENERAL DON MARIANO ESCOBEDO 89
+
+ RURALES ON THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER 91
+
+ SEÑOR GENERAL DON MANUEL GONZALES 94
+
+ GENERAL CARLOS PACHECO 95
+
+ PICTURESQUE SPOT IN THE ALAMEDA 97
+
+ A COUNTRY ROAD IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO 100
+
+ GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 102
+
+ NATIONAL MUSEUM, SHOWING AZTEC RELICS 104
+
+ NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 105
+
+ GENERAL DIAZ AND PRESIDENT TAFT 107
+
+ STATUE OF COLUMBUS 109
+
+ THE POST OFFICE 111
+
+ POST OFFICE, WEST CORRIDOR 113
+
+ NATIONAL LIBRARY 115
+
+ HISTORICAL CORNER IN MEXICO CITY 118
+
+ A PART OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT OF CHAPULTEPEC 120
+
+ ROAD IN PUEBLA, SHOWING POPOCATEPETL 122
+
+ PRIVATE LIBRARY OF A PROMINENT LAWYER 124
+
+ CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 126
+
+ THE PROCESSION OF THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER 127
+
+ SEÑORA DOÑA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ 130
+
+ ESCORTING THE PRESIDENT ON THE 5TH OF MAY 132
+
+ THE TRIBUNAL, 5TH OF MAY 133
+
+ LIEUTENANT-COLONEL PORFIRIO DIAZ 135
+
+ CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC 137
+
+ STAIRWAY TO THE CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 138
+
+ RECEPTION AT THE PALACE 139
+
+ CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC 141
+
+ PORFIRIO DIAZ, THE THIRD 143
+
+ SOLDIERS IN PARADE, 16TH OF SEPTEMBER 144
+
+ THE CORBIAN PALACE 146
+
+ PATIO OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 147
+
+ SEÑOR DON RAMÓN CORRAL, VICE-PRESIDENT 148
+
+ SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL 149
+
+ SEÑOR LIC. JOSÉ LIMANTOUR 150
+
+ SEÑOR ING. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ 150
+
+ SEÑOR LIC. OLEGARIO MOLINA 151
+
+ GENERAL MANUEL GONZÁLEZ COSÍO 152
+
+ SEÑOR LIC. JUSTO SIERRA 153
+
+ SEÑOR LIC. JUSTINO FERNÁNDEZ 154
+
+ THE LATE IGNACIO MARISCAL 155
+
+ CORRIDOR: SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING 156
+
+ STREET SCENE IN MEXICO CITY 158
+
+ COLONIA JUAREZ 159
+
+ SEÑOR DON GUILLERMO DE LANDA Y ESCANDON 161
+
+ HOME OF GOVERNOR LANDA Y ESCANDON 163
+
+ THE NEW LEGISLATIVE PALACE 165
+
+ HOME OF VICE-PRESIDENT CORRAL 167
+
+ THE PALACE OF MINES 169
+
+ SAN FRANCISCO STREET 171
+
+ POLICE HEADQUARTERS 172
+
+ AMERICAN EMBASSY 173
+
+ POLICEMAN 174
+
+ MEXICAN LETTER CARRIER 175
+
+ FEDERAL PENITENTIARY 176
+
+ GREAT HISTORICAL PARADE, SEPTEMBER 15, 1910 178
+
+ EMPEROR MONTEZUMA IN HIS PALANQUIN 179
+
+ MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE 182
+
+ PRIESTS AND SERVANTS OF CORTÉS 184
+
+ A PART OF THE HISTORICAL PARADE 186
+
+ NOBLEMEN WITH ESCORTS 189
+
+ SITE OF THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT. PRESENTED BY THE AMERICAN
+ COLONY 192
+
+ MONTEZUMA’S ARMY IN MILITARY PARADE 194
+
+ UNVEILING OF THE HUMBOLDT STATUE 196
+
+ THE JUAREZ MONUMENT 198
+
+ THE ARMY OF CORTÉS IN PARADE 200
+
+ RECEPTION HALL OF THE SPANISH CASINO 202
+
+ PATIO OF THE SPANISH CASINO 203
+
+ HISTORICAL STAIRWAY OF JOCKEY CLUB 206
+
+ THE JOCKEY CLUB 208
+
+ SEÑOR DON SEBASTAIN CAMACHO 210
+
+ FOUNTAIN IN THE PATIO OF THE JOCKEY CLUB 212
+
+ SEÑOR JOSÉ SANCHEZ RAMOS 214
+
+ STAIRWAY IN THE SPANISH CASINO 216
+
+ “ANAHUAC.” BY SEÑOR JORGE ENCISO 218
+
+ “THE MENDICANTS.” BY SUAREZ 219
+
+ GALLERY IN THE MODERN SCHOOL OF PAINTING 221
+
+ “AN EPISODE OF A FIRE.” BY G. CARRASCO 222
+
+ “THE FORTUNATES.” BY SATURNINO HERRAN 224
+
+ “THE ETERNAL VICTIM.” BY F. ROMANO 226
+
+ “A PORTRAIT.” BY HERMAN GEDOVIUS 228
+
+ “CHILDREN OF MISERY.” BY SOSTENES ORTEGO 231
+
+ “THE ROUND UP.” BY JUAN URRUCHI 232
+
+ CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO 234
+
+ WALL AROUND THE SHRINE AT CHURUBUSCO 235
+
+ DR. JOSÉ MORA, ARCHBISHOP OF MEXICO 236
+
+ THE CROWN OF THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE 237
+
+ THE SHRINE OF GUADALUPE 239
+
+ SANTA MONICA, GUADALUPE 240
+
+ ORGAN IN THE CATHEDRAL, MEXICO CITY 241
+
+ CHURCH NEAR COYOACAN 243
+
+ FAÇADE OF SAN AGUSTIN 244
+
+ THE SACRED WELL AT GUADALUPE 245
+
+ LUNATIC ASYLUM 247
+
+ THE GENERAL HOSPITAL, CITY OF MEXICO 250
+
+ THE CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL, FEDERAL DISTRICT 252
+
+ PAVILIONS OF THE GENERAL HOSPITAL 254
+
+ STAIRWAY IN THE COLLEGE OF THE MASCARONES 256
+
+ NATIONAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 257
+
+ PATIO OF THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 258
+
+ NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 259
+
+ SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR MEN 260
+
+ SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR WOMEN 261
+
+ ENTRANCE TO SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 262
+
+ SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS 262
+
+ STAIRCASE, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 263
+
+ NATIONAL PREPARATORY SCHOOL 264
+
+ COMMERCIAL SCHOOL 265
+
+ SAN CARLOS ACADEMY 266
+
+ MORELOS PARK, TOLUCA 268
+
+ STREET SCENE, TOLUCA 269
+
+ GENERAL FERNANDO GONZALEZ 271
+
+ GOVERNOR’S PALACE 272
+
+ MONUMENT TO COLUMBUS 273
+
+ MUNICIPAL PALACE 274
+
+ TEMPLE OF VERA CRUZ, TOLUCA 275
+
+ LEGISLATIVE PALACE, TOLUCA 276
+
+ PALACE OF JUSTICE 277
+
+ INDEPENDENCE AVENUE, TOLUCA 278
+
+ SCHOOL OF LAW 279
+
+ NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS 280
+
+ MATERNITY HOSPITAL 281
+
+ TEMPLE OF MERCED 282
+
+ STATE BANK 283
+
+ GENERAL HOSPITAL 284
+
+ MUNICIPAL PALACE 286
+
+ RESIDENCE OF GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ 287
+
+ MONUMENT TO NICOLAS BRAVO 288
+
+ GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ 289
+
+ STATUE OF GENERAL ZARAGOZA 290
+
+ STATE COLLEGE 291
+
+ CATHEDRAL 292
+
+ LA MATERNIDAD, PUEBLA 293
+
+ MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE, PUEBLA 294
+
+ RIM OF THE CRATER OF POPOCATEPETL 295
+
+ AN OLD CHURCH DOOR 296
+
+ THE ARCADE, PUEBLA 298
+
+ THE PENITENTIARY, PUEBLA 300
+
+ PORTALES, FACING THE PARK, TLAXCALA 302
+
+ AVENUE LEADING TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT 303
+
+ OLD CHURCH TOWER, TLAXCALA 305
+
+ SEÑOR CORONEL PROSPERO CAHUANTZI 306
+
+ ARCHWAY ENTRANCE: SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT 307
+
+ SACRED WELL OF OCOTLAN 308
+
+ RUINS OF THE ROYAL CHURCH, TLAXCALA 309
+
+ LA PARROQUIA 311
+
+ OLDEST PULPIT AND ALTAR IN AMERICA 312
+
+ ZOCALO IN REAL DEL MONTE 314
+
+ PANORAMA OF MINERAL DEL CHICO 315
+
+ GOVERNOR SEÑOR DON PEDRO RODRIGUEZ 316
+
+ THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE 317
+
+ SAN JULIO MINE 318
+
+ STATUE OF HIDALGO 319
+
+ HACIENDA LORETO 320
+
+ XATAL MINE 321
+
+ REAL DEL MONTE MINE 321
+
+ SAN RAFAEL MINE 322
+
+ OFFICE OF THE NATIONAL RAILWAY OF MEXICO 324
+
+ DEVIL’S BACKBONE, TOMASOPO CAÑON 325
+
+ OLDEST RAILWAY STATION IN THE WORLD 327
+
+ NOCHISTONGO CUT, BUILT BY THE AZTECS TO DRAIN THE VALLEY
+ OF MEXICO 328
+
+ ROCK BELOW CHONEBRIDGE, NATIONAL RAILWAY 329
+
+ TEQUIXQUIAC TUNNEL 330
+
+ CAÑON WEST SALAZAR, NATIONAL RAILWAY 331
+
+ VIEW ON THE INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY 332
+
+ DRY DOCK, SALINA CRUZ 333
+
+ TELEGRAPH OFFICE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 334
+
+ TOMASOPO CAÑON 336
+
+ THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE 338
+
+ THE CATHEDRAL 339
+
+ STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ 341
+
+ STATUE OF GENERAL ANTONIO DE LEÓN 342
+
+ FAÇADE OF THE CASINO 343
+
+ STAIRWAY: INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE 344
+
+ STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ, ON THE MOUNTAIN OVERLOOKING HIS
+ NATIVE CITY 345
+
+ SEÑOR EMILIO PIMENTEL, GOVERNOR OF OAXACA 346
+
+ NORMAL SCHOOL FOR WOMEN 347
+
+ CORRIDOR: INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE 348
+
+ THE PORFIRIO DIAZ HIGH SCHOOL 350
+
+ THE CITY OF ORIZABA 352
+
+ THE PEAK OF ORIZABA 353
+
+ POST OFFICE, VERA CRUZ 354
+
+ OLD GATEWAY, ORIZABA 355
+
+ INDIAN WOMEN IN THE TROPICS 355
+
+ NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, JALAPA 356
+
+ PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR SALAZAR 357
+
+ THE HARBOR, VERA CRUZ 357
+
+ OLD FORT OF SANTIAGO 358
+
+ TAMESI RIVER FRONT, TAMPICO 359
+
+ SEÑOR DON JUAN B. CASTILLO, GOVERNOR OF TAMAULIPAS 360
+
+ AVENIDA PRIETO, GOVERNOR’S PALACE, VICTORIA 361
+
+ PLAZA JUAREZ, VICTORIA 361
+
+ PLAZA DE ARMAS, TAMPICO 362
+
+ A FIELD OF ZAPUPE 363
+
+ A TARPON 364
+
+ PLAZA, VICTORIA 365
+
+ TAMPICO PLAZA 366
+
+ NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, SALTILLO 368
+
+ JUAREZ MARKET, SALTILLO 369
+
+ SEÑOR DON JESUS DE VALLE, GOVERNOR OF COAHUILA 370
+
+ GOVERNMENT PALACE, SALTILLO 371
+
+ STATE CIVIL COLLEGE, SALTILLO 372
+
+ GOVERNOR’S PALACE, MONTEREY 373
+
+ PLAZA ZARAGOZA 374
+
+ PALACE OF GOVERNOR, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ 375
+
+ CATHEDRAL, AGUASCALIENTES 376
+
+ THE BATHS AT AGUASCALIENTES 377
+
+ STREET SCENE IN AGUASCALIENTES 378
+
+ THE BISHOP’S PALACE, MONTEREY 379
+
+ TEMPLE OF SAN MARCOS, AGUASCALIENTES 380
+
+ THE FEDERAL PALACE, QUERÉTARO 382
+
+ CONVENT OF THE CROSS WHERE MAXIMILIAN WAS IMPRISONED 383
+
+ AQUEDUCT AT QUERÉTARO 385
+
+ MEMORIAL CHAPEL TO MAXIMILIAN, MARKING THE PLACE OF
+ HIS EXECUTION 386
+
+ A GENERAL VIEW OF ZACATECAS 387
+
+ THE CATHEDRAL, ZACATECAS 388
+
+ FAÇADE OF CATHEDRAL 389
+
+ STREET SCENE, ZACATECAS 390
+
+ THE CHURCH OF GUADALUPE, ZACATECAS 392
+
+ THE CATHEDRAL, DURANGO 394
+
+ THEATRE, DURANGO 395
+
+ SEÑOR DON ESTEBAN FERNANDEZ, GOVERNOR OF DURANGO 396
+
+ GOVERNOR’S PALACE, DURANGO 397
+
+ SEÑOR DON ALBERTO CINCUNEGUI, SECRETARY OF STATE 398
+
+ CERRO DEL MERCADO 398
+
+ ENTRANCE TO PENITENTIARY, DURANGO 399
+
+ ALAMEDA, DURANGO 400
+
+ THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA 401
+
+ STREET SCENE IN CHIHUAHUA 402
+
+ MONUMENT TO JUAREZ, CHIHUAHUA 403
+
+ STATUE OF HIDALGO, CHIHUAHUA 404
+
+ INTERIOR OF THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA 405
+
+ RESIDENCE OF SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL, CHIHUAHUA 406
+
+ THEATRE OF THE HEROES, CHIHUAHUA 407
+
+ ARCHWAY OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT, CHIHUAHUA 408
+
+ FALLS OF JUANACATLAN, JALISCO 410
+
+ STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA 411
+
+ GOVERNMENT PALACE, GUADALAJARA 413
+
+ STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA 414
+
+ DEGOLLADO THEATRE, GUADALAJARA 415
+
+ THE HOSPICIO, GUADALAJARA 416
+
+ PATIO: AMERICAN CONSULATE, GUADALAJARA 417
+
+ LAKE CHAPALA, JALISCO 418
+
+ THE JUAREZ THEATRE, GUANAJUATO 420
+
+ VIEW OF THE PORFIRIO DIAZ TUNNEL, GUANAJUATO 421
+
+ EL CARMEN CHURCH, CELAYA 422
+
+ STREET SCENE, GUANAJUATO 423
+
+ THE MANUEL GONZALEZ DAM, GUANAJUATO 424
+
+ PLAZA, COLIMA 425
+
+ STREET SCENE, COLIMA 426
+
+ CATHEDRAL, COLIMA 426
+
+ AT THE FOOT OF COLIMA VOLCANO 427
+
+ MAGUAY GROWING AT THE FOOT OF THE COLIMA VOLCANO 427
+
+ RESIDENCE OF COLONEL EDGAR K. SMOOT, MANZANILLO 428
+
+ COLIMA IN ERUPTION 429
+
+ SUMMIT OF COLIMA VOLCANO 429
+
+ PACK TRAIN ON THE ROAD TO COLIMA 430
+
+ IRRIGATING CANAL, CULIACAN 432
+
+ ENTRANCE TO MAZATLAN 433
+
+ GOVERNOR DIEGO REDO, SINALOA 434
+
+ NEW MOUNTAIN ROAD AT MAZATLAN 435
+
+ THE HARBOR, MAZATLAN 436
+
+ PLAZA DE LA REPUBLICA, MAZATLAN 437
+
+ STREET SCENE, CULIACAN 438
+
+ SEÑOR DON JOAQUIN REDO 439
+
+ CUTTING SUGAR CANE, EL DORADO 439
+
+ AQUEDUCT, CULIACAN 440
+
+ PORTALES, CULIACAN 441
+
+ GENERAL LUIS TORRES, GOVERNOR OF SONORA 443
+
+ GOVERNMENT PALACE, HERMOSILLO 444
+
+ CATHEDRAL AT ALAMOS, SONORA 445
+
+ SEÑOR DON ALBERTO CUBILLAS, VICE-GOVERNOR OF SONORA 446
+
+ BAY AT GUAYMAS 447
+
+ BANK OF SONORA, GUAYMAS 448
+
+ RAMÓN CORRAL PARK, HERMOSILLO 448
+
+ YAQUI INDIANS 449
+
+ MUNICIPAL PALACE, GUAYMAS 450
+
+ LAKE PATZCUARO, MICHOACÁN 452
+
+ THE PLAZA, ZAMORA 453
+
+ CHURCHYARD GATE, TZINTZUNTZAN 455
+
+ SEÑOR DON PABLO ESCANDON, GOVERNOR OF MORELOS 456
+
+ PALACE OF CORTÉS, CUERNAVACA 457
+
+ FLYING BUTTRESS, CUERNAVACA 458
+
+ LA BORDA GARDEN, CUERNAVACA 459
+
+ SEÑOR DON DAMIAN FLORES, GOVERNOR OF GUERRERO 461
+
+ THE PALACE, CHILPANCINGO 462
+
+ TAMARINDO TREES, IGUALLA 463
+
+ BALSAS RIVER, GUERRERO 464
+
+ HOME OF SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO PEON, MERIDA 466
+
+ THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE, GRAND PLAZA 467
+
+ SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE M. ARISTEGÚI, GOVERNOR OF YUCATÁN 468
+
+ SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO PEON 469
+
+ VIEW OF MERIDA 470
+
+ HIS GRACE, MONSEIGNOR MARTIN TRISHLER, FIRST ARCHBISHOP
+ OF YUCATÁN 471
+
+ CORRIDOR OF THE CURATE HOUSE, MERIDA 472
+
+ MODEL SCHOOL FOR BOYS, MERIDA 472
+
+ THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE 473
+
+ FAÇADE OF THE MONTEJO HOUSE, MERIDA 474
+
+ INDIAN HEMP CUTTER 474
+
+ JUAREZ PENITENTIARY, MERIDA 475
+
+ STAIRWAY IN THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE 476
+
+ ARCH TO CELEBRATE THE CENTENNIAL, MERIDA 476
+
+ PLAZA DE LA INDEPENDENCIA, CAMPECHE 478
+
+ THE CATHEDRAL, CAMPECHE 479
+
+ PALACE OF JUSTICE, CAMPECHE 480
+
+ STATUE OF HIDALGO, CAMPECHE 481
+
+ GENERAL ABRAHAM BANDALA, GOVERNOR OF TABASCO 482
+
+ STREET SCENE, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 483
+
+ STATUE OF JUAREZ, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 484
+
+ PARK IN SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 485
+
+ PAROCHIAL CHURCH, CHIAPA 486
+
+ YAQUI INDIAN DANCE 487
+
+ INDIAN MAIDEN WATER CARRIER 488
+
+ TYPE OF TEHUANTEPEC WOMAN 489
+
+ IN RIDING COSTUME--CHARRO SUITS 490
+
+ A TYPE OF THE MAYA WOMAN, YUCATÁN 491
+
+ MEXICAN BASKET SELLERS 492
+
+ SAN BARTOLO MINE, ZACATECAS 493
+
+ SUGAR MILL, ATEQUIZA HACIENDA 495
+
+ PULQUE VATS 496
+
+ BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN JALISCO AND TEPIC 497
+
+ AVENUE OF DATE PALMS, SONORA 498
+
+ A COFFEE AND BANANA PLANTATION 499
+
+ COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR CORDOBA 500
+
+ PACK TRAIN WITH SUGAR ON THE ROAD TO MARKET 502
+
+ “GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN 504
+
+ CHAC-MOOL IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, CITY OF MEXICO 505
+
+ RUINS AT MITLA 506
+
+ SEPULCHRE, NEAR MITLA, OAXACA 506
+
+ ARCH OF THE “GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN 507
+
+ CHICHEN-ITZA, YUCATÁN 508
+
+ RUINS AT MITLA, OAXACA 509
+
+ PYRAMID OF THE SUN, SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN 509
+
+ RUINS OF PALENQUE, CHIAPAS 510
+
+ “HOUSE OF THE DOVES,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN 511
+
+
+
+
+ INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In 1896 I travelled throughout Mexico and made a complete study of the
+country, visiting every State and Territory, gathering valuable data
+for my book, _Picturesque Mexico_, which was published in 1897. With
+the exception of the warm welcome extended me on my return in 1910, I
+scarcely knew Mexico of fourteen years ago. Everywhere is progress and
+the social development was a revelation to me. This time I travelled
+over highways and byways in palace cars instead of stage coaches,
+litters, and muleback.
+
+Through intimate knowledge of Mexico and her people gained during these
+extended tours, and through the enjoyment of official courtesies and
+private hospitality of a most gracious nation, I have been able to get
+from the best sources interesting features of the national life and
+history.
+
+I realize more than ever how meagre is the information of the general
+public outside Mexico, of the beauties and resources of this marvellous
+country. She holds her proud place in the world as a demonstration of
+what statesmanship and good government can accomplish.
+
+Mexico has just completed her hundredth anniversary of freedom from
+Spanish rule. The Sociedade de Geographia do Rio de Janeiro, of which I
+am an honorary member, sent me as a delegate to this centennial, and as
+a participant in these festivities gathered much accurate information
+concerning this jubilee, which not only marked a great era in the
+history of Mexico, but celebrated the eightieth birthday of the Grand
+Old Man of the Americas, General Porfirio Diaz, who for nearly half a
+century has been the honored and beloved president.
+
+This present MEXICO tells a story of a hundred years of the republic;
+of a struggle for independence and her freedom. It is historical and
+descriptive, but does not in any way deal with the political affairs of
+the day. I am grateful for all the courtesies which I have received in
+this hospitable land.
+
+To the President of the Republic, to the Governors of the States, and
+to the distinguished officials of the National Railways of Mexico, I
+wish to extend my sincere and kind appreciation. I am indebted to Mr.
+C. B. Waite for permission to use some of his copyrighted views, and to
+Mr. C. F. Clarke, for many photographs.
+
+ M. R. W.
+
+_Chislehurst, New Rochelle, N. Y., December 26, 1910._
+
+
+
+
+ MEXICO
+
+ [Illustration: BAS-RELIEF ON THE STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC.]
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ THE CONQUEST
+
+
+The history of Mexico is an inspiring one, filled with tragic eras.
+The earliest inhabitants known were the Toltecs, who came from Central
+America in the seventh century. They were proficient in many crafts and
+erected gigantic temples, traces of which have been found in all parts
+of the Republic. This race was followed by the Aztecs, or Mexicans,
+in the fourteenth century. These were scattered throughout the Valley
+of Mexico and their warlike deeds of bravery have formed many a theme
+for beautiful stories. After two centuries they became a semi-barbaric
+nation, living in the glory of the natural wealth of their country. A
+great chieftain, Montezuma, was their monarch, and at the head of their
+vast army.
+
+When the resources of this great land became suspected by European
+powers, four hundred years ago, each nation greedily sought to grasp
+her opportunity of adding to her riches this new field. Spain was more
+determined and appointed willing subjects to make voyages of discovery
+to the great unknown country. The first explorer to visit Mexico was
+Hernandez de Cordova, in 1517, but his discoveries lay about the coast
+of Yucatan and his brilliant reports caused a thirst for the conquest
+of the new land.
+
+The siren voices of gold and glory perpetually sounded in the ears of
+Spanish adventurers, stirred their ambitions and nerved them to deeds
+of unforgotten bravery.
+
+Columbus had found gold in the strange lands he had discovered in the
+West Indies, he had tracked it westward in 1498, as he found the Island
+of Trinidad, threaded the waters of the Gulf of Paria, sighted the
+great continent southward and later discovered the Isthmus of Panama,
+then called Veragua. But Mexico, the land of surpassing beauty and
+wealth that was to be the rarest jewel of the Spanish possessions, the
+land that was to give forth inexhaustible riches to fill the dwindling
+treasury of Spain, and to sustain her waning power, was yet unknown.
+Spanish rule had been planted in the Islands of San Domingo, Cuba and
+Porto Rico. The thirst for gold and glory grew with the enjoyment of
+their possession. Settlement established, the representatives of the
+Spanish Crown made seats of government new centres for extension of
+Spanish dominion.
+
+ [Illustration: HERNANDO CORTÉS.]
+
+When the news reached Spain, in 1499, of the discovery of Paria by
+Columbus a year previously, Alonso de Hojeda, who had been one of the
+companions of Columbus, set out with Juan de Cosa, as chief pilot, and
+Americo Vespucci. They followed the route and took a course south of
+his, sighting the coast of Surinam, thence to the Gulf of Paria to the
+Island of Curaçao, and afterward to the Gulf of Venezuela. As a result
+of this marvellous accomplishment vast and undreamed of wealth soon
+poured into Spain.
+
+The governors of the settlements established were men whose
+imaginations were soon fired with the prospect of vast powers and
+unlimited wealth to be seized. Even yet it was not known what continent
+had been found. The barrier, narrow as it was, that stood between
+the Pacific and Columbus had not been penetrated. The mystery of the
+continent was still unsolved, the vast and prolific countries that
+stretched north and south of the Gulf of Mexico were unknown lands.
+
+Among the numerous Spaniards who sought to unveil the mystery of the
+continent and to plant new colonies for Spain was Nuñez de Balboa,
+who undertook to colonize Darien, and in 1513 crossed the Isthmus of
+Panama and in defining the limit of the continent there discovered the
+Pacific, which he named the South Sea, and claimed it and the islands
+lying on it in the name of his sovereign.
+
+The first navigator of the Gulf of Mexico was Hernandez de Cordova,
+who, in 1517, sailed from Cuba, where he was stationed in the service
+of Spain, on a slaving expedition among the Bahamas. Contrary winds
+drew him to an unknown coast, where he landed and found the first
+sign of that advanced culture which distinguished Mexico among
+the discovered countries. This place he called Yucatan. Here the
+natives were found to be dwelling in houses of stone and mortar and
+wore garments of well-woven cloth. They worshipped in magnificently
+carved temples adorned with idols and ornaments of gold. But to gain
+possession of this prize the Spaniards had a long and bitter struggle.
+At Champoton they narrowly escaped destruction by the natives, whose
+military organization proved remarkable. Against such a force the valor
+and arms of the invader had to yield. But Cordova had sailed around the
+peninsula to Campeche, Champoton and the River Estero de los Lagartos;
+thence he returned to Santiago de Cuba, laden with wonderful spoils.
+Amongst his acquisitions were crowns and ducks of gold, fish and idols.
+Much encouragement was found in the declaration of two native captives
+of the expedition that there were gold mines and gold dust in abundance
+in their country, the fame of which soon reached Spain.
+
+ [Illustration: THE VISIT OF CORTÉS TO MONTEZUMA.]
+
+The governor, Velasquez, elated with the reports of Cordova fitted out
+a large expedition the following year, of which his nephew Juan de
+Grijalva was given chief command. Following the course of Cordova, Juan
+de Grijalva found difficulty at first in securing the friendship of the
+natives, but he was able later to obtain much gold in barter. Learning
+that precious metals could be found in a country called Mexico, he
+sailed northward and made many discoveries along the Mexican Coast,
+among others the Island of San Juan de Ulua, in the harbor of Vera
+Cruz, and the Tabasco River. It is recorded by Bernal Diaz, who was a
+contemporary of Cortés, that on one occasion the explorers, believing
+that the highly polished axes, with curiously carved handles, of the
+people of Guascasualco, were made of an inferior gold, were to discover
+when they exchanged trinkets for them, that they were simply finely
+polished copper. Notwithstanding this fact, Velasquez was determined on
+a thorough exploration of Mexico and he appointed Cortés to the command
+of a new expedition, which set out from Cuba on the tenth of February,
+1519, in twelve vessels carrying seven hundred men. It was not without
+jealous misgivings that the governor saw this intrepid leader depart,
+nor, as events proved, was he mistaken in his suspicion regarding
+the great ambition of Cortés. The expedition reached Trinidad, where
+Velasquez having determined to replace Cortés sent vessels to detain
+him, but he had departed on February 18, 1519, and reached the shores
+of the unknown land in March, 1519. His little force was awaiting him
+at the Island of Cozumel, near the extreme point of the Peninsula of
+Yucatan, whence it sailed with two hundred Indian slaves and sixteen
+horses. This was the power with which the great Aztec land was to be
+won and the proud ascendancy of Montezuma to be overthrown. The roll of
+companions of the daring leader included many names that were to become
+imperishably recorded in the history of Spanish America. Among them
+were the brilliant Pedro de Alvarado, Alonso de Avila, Cristobal de
+Olid, Francisco de Montejo, Diego de Ordaz, Velasquez de León, Alonso
+Puertocarrero and Antón Alaminos.
+
+The solemn directions to Cortés were that he should explore the country
+discovered by Cordova; restore to freedom the Spanish held in captivity
+by the Indians; convert the natives to the Christian faith and barter
+with them; and, finally, to use the most scrupulous care to omit
+nothing that might redound to the service of God or his sovereign.
+
+Reaching the Tabasco River, which Grijalva had discovered a year
+before, following the course of that explorer, Cortés landed and gained
+the first glimpse of that civilization of which had been told such
+wonderful stories. The people were of advanced culture, the houses were
+substantially built and the natives wore rich and beautiful garments.
+That first intercourse was also to give a foretaste of the struggle
+before him. The Totonacs were the rulers of the land, they were subject
+to the authority of the Aztecs, but made desperate because of the
+tribute they were compelled to pay and the severe treatment accorded to
+them, they were not unwilling to see in the new comers allies to them
+in their struggles against Montezuma. With their natural instinct of
+self-preservation they resisted the approach of the Spaniards and only
+after a sanguinary battle, on the 25th of March, in which they were
+defeated, would they enter into friendly relations with the invaders.
+In testimony of their goodwill they presented many female slaves to the
+conqueror, among whom was the celebrated Marina, whose affectionate
+loyalty and intelligence later proved a great assistance to the
+Spaniards. This woman, who in Aztec was called Malintzin, was born in
+Coatzacoalcos, she was the daughter of a great cacique, on whose death
+her mother sacrificed her in the interest of a brother and sold her to
+the cacique of Tabasco.
+
+Besides his victory in arms, Cortés won over a large number of converts
+who were received into the bosom of the church with great ceremonial
+pomp. Thus did he lay the foundation of his great work by fulfilling
+the obligations imposed upon him by his sovereign. This auspicious
+beginning elevated the hopes of the Spanish and they sailed northward
+on April 18th and after delays by storms reached San Juan de Ulua. Here
+the natives manifested a friendly spirit and barter was readily entered
+into. Establishing himself in this place, the commander desired that
+messengers should be sent to Montezuma to notify him of the wish of the
+Spaniard to visit him.
+
+ [Illustration: CHURCH CARVING OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYALTY.]
+
+Montezuma sent his ambassador, Teuthile, with wonderful gifts, in pomp
+and glory, and in this representative of the great monarch, Cortés
+found a person of different attainments from those of any native
+he had hitherto met. His dress was costly and he wore ornaments of
+precious metals; his manners were dignified and with diplomatic skill
+he made it known that he desired to learn the wishes of the stranger.
+He was informed that Cortés desired to visit Montezuma to meet him on
+behalf of his own monarch. After an interval the ambassador returned
+accompanied by a distinguished cacique and attended by one hundred
+men bearing beautiful gifts of exquisitely wrought feather work and
+receptacles filled with grains of gold and other artistic articles,
+all demonstrating the possession of rich materials and an advanced
+knowledge of the handicrafts. Such gifts served only to stimulate the
+Spaniard’s purpose to conquer this rich country. To the request that
+Cortés should return to his own land, the reply was only a still more
+earnestly expressed desire to interview the Mexican monarch. Failing
+by diplomacy to gain an audience with the monarch, Cortés now realized
+that force alone could give him possession of this wonderful land that
+he conceived to be his by right of his discoveries.
+
+While awaiting the outcome of negotiations with Montezuma, the
+audacious leader had busily occupied himself in acquiring information
+concerning the country and its wealth and in considering means by
+which he should seize the possessions he coveted. He learned that the
+Totonacs had occupied their territory for seven or eight centuries;
+that they had lost their independence to the Aztecs two or three
+generations before; and had suffered very great indignity and borne
+many heavy burdens. He shrewdly used his opportunities to contract a
+firm friendship with these people.
+
+Cortés observing that some of his companions were mistrustful of him,
+began to chafe under the burden of his obligation to Velasquez. He
+decided now to throw off his duty to the governor, and strengthen
+his own independence and power before his plans could be interfered
+with and his great prospect should become known. Sagaciously, if not
+loyally, therefore, he founded the City of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz
+and created it a Spanish municipality; then resigning his commission
+from Velasquez, he caused his own appointment as commander-in-chief
+of the expedition, and placed himself directly under the authority of
+the Spanish crown. To advance his interests with his sovereign in this
+course, he sent Montejo and Puertocarrero to Spain with instructions
+to explain his situation and plans, and in order to demonstrate the
+wonders of their new territory he dispatched some natives and a large
+treasure with them.
+
+So adroitly had Cortés acted toward the Totonacs whom he had thus far
+met that he received an invitation from the chief of the tribe to
+visit the capital at Cempoalla. He proceeded toward that city, the
+fleet sailing along the coast, while the expedition penetrated the
+strange country. As they progressed the dreary and arid lands changed
+to a scene of luxuriant and verdant vegetation, a flora bewilderingly
+beautiful to their eyes, with evidences everywhere of a civilization
+they had not expected, and also of the barbarism of their native
+religion in the remains of numerous victims who had been immolated to
+propitiate their gods. Giant hills broke the distant view, and the
+snow-covered peak of Orizaba, majestically stood above the valley. The
+people wore rich mantles and robes of finely woven cloth, crudely
+wrought golden chains hung on their necks, and rings adorned their
+nostrils and ears. They welcomed the Spaniards with friendly acclaim
+and bore before them in profusion tropical fruits and flowers.
+
+The city entered was substantially and attractively built, and the
+prospect was gladdening to the heart of Cortés. Their houses were of a
+primitive brick and mortar, were surrounded by gardens of fruit trees
+and shrubbery, while around the city stretched rich fields of grain,
+giving the scene a picturesque appearance.
+
+Cortés was soon convinced that the Totonacs and other tribes who
+were subjects of Montezuma were hostile to their monarch. Ever alert
+to forward his plans, he soon seized on an incident that gave him
+an occasion to make lasting friends of the Totonacs. Some Aztec
+tax-gatherers had arrived to demand a tribute of twenty young men and
+women to be sacrificed to the gods in expiation of the reception the
+tribe had given to the Spaniards. The chief, feeling the assurance of
+Spanish protection, cast the tax-gatherers into prison. Thereupon,
+conceiving an adroit plan to gain the favor of both Aztecs and
+Totonacs, Cortés rescued two of the five captives, whom he caused to be
+safely conducted to Montezuma, and preserved from sacrifice the other
+three. By this diplomatic stroke he was able to establish alliances
+with several chiefs against Montezuma.
+
+At this time, the audacious genius of the commander was manifested
+in a crisis that threatened not only his dominion but all that his
+imagination had conjured up. The friends of Velasquez in his army
+having stirred up a conspiracy against Cortés and intending to seize
+one of the vessels and return to Cuba, the leader made a desperate
+hazard to compel the allegiance of his companions and cut off all
+chance of defection. In August, 1519, he ordered eleven of his ships to
+be sunk in the harbor, alleging as the cause that they were worm-eaten.
+There was now no course open to him but to remain in the country and
+conquer the people, or be destroyed.
+
+Cortés thereupon garrisoned Vera Cruz with a hundred men, and set out
+on his march to the City of Mexico, first destroying the idols in the
+_teocalli_ at Cempoalla. His force now consisted of about four
+hundred and fifty Spaniards, six light guns, fifteen horses, a number
+of Totonacs and a numerous body of Indian carriers.
+
+ [Illustration: HOUSE OF CORTÉS AT COYOACAN.]
+
+Continuing his progress the Spaniard approached the territory of the
+Tlascalans, an independent people, who were said by the Totonac chief
+to hate the Aztecs so bitterly that the Spaniards would be sure of a
+friendly reception. They were doomed to a bitter disappointment. The
+Tlascalan country lay on the east of the Plain of Anáhuac and was
+closely encircled by high ranges and when the Spaniards reached the
+boundary of the territory they found it defended by a strong stone
+wall. Messengers were sent to request a free passage through the
+country, but this was denied. They regarded this as a challenge and
+scaled the enclosing wall, but met a most stubborn foe. Again and again
+did the little Spanish force tremble for their fate as they received
+the attacks of the enemy, who numbered thirty thousand brave warriors,
+but their arms and skill proved too much for the Tlascalans, with their
+primitive weapons, and after a great struggle they were defeated. Not
+all their bravery could avail them against the desperate and determined
+Spaniards. The natives had made a mistake in believing that the
+Spaniards were children of the sun and that they could be defeated in
+a moonlight attack. Acknowledging their defeat, they soon made peace
+and Cortés and his allies entered the city on September 22, 1519. No
+more faithful men could be found than these Tlascalans, whose enmity
+to Montezuma the able Cortés knew well how to turn to account. Binding
+firmly the bonds of friendship and alliance, the conquerors were able
+to move forward, on October 13th, on their way to Cholula, the next
+main city between them and Tenochtitlan.
+
+ [Illustration: THE NOCHE TRISTE TREE.]
+
+The sight of the magnificent temple with its hundred towers, with its
+rich carvings and decorations of gold, dazzled the eyes and exalted
+the hopes of the small Spanish force, with its intrepid leader, and
+its six thousand Totonac and Tlascalan allies, as the Sacred City of
+Cholula was approached. The ruler of the beautiful city was ready to
+welcome Cortés, until he learned that their enemies, the Tlascalans,
+were among his forces, and became suspicious and unfriendly toward the
+Spaniards and refused to permit them to enter unless the Tlascalans
+were left outside of the city. With his usual promptitude of action
+Cortés notified the ruler that he would leave the city the following
+day and requested that the caciques furnish him with two thousand
+guides. Pursuing this plan, apparently, he drew up the greater part of
+his troops within the court of one of the temples, and ranged the rest
+without, with a full command of the avenues; then he issued orders that
+at a given signal the Tlascalans should enter. The caciques arrived
+at the appointed hour with the number of men requested, who not
+realizing the strategy of the Spaniard came unarmed and not prepared
+for any unfriendly attack. Cortés ordered an attack upon this body
+of men, and for several days a horrible slaughter of the unprepared
+Cholulans lasted, until at least six thousand were massacred. Their
+own peril and the right of self-preservation could not justify such an
+act of treachery on the part of a Christian invader. Men who practised
+the sublime teachings of Christ, and were horrified at finding in
+Mexico pagans and idol worshippers, still felt they could by a lawless
+disregard of what was really right, slaughter human beings in their
+greed for conquest. This is one among many blots on the history of
+Spain. On November 1st, the ambitious conqueror resumed his determined
+march to the Aztec capital. The success he had achieved over the
+Cholulans proved to Montezuma that the intrepid Spaniard could not
+be turned from his purpose. In vain did he send his representatives
+bearing royal gifts, with the intention of becoming friendly with
+Cortés, but the richness of the gifts only served to strengthen the
+ambition of the Spaniard to gain all those riches for the crown. With
+unwearying steps, and with still greater determination, the conquering
+force moved on to Tenochtitlan. Neither the frowning barriers of the
+valley, nor the dangers before them, could turn their steps aside. Even
+the huge Popocatapetl was made an instrument of their will, a minister
+to their necessities, for Diego de Ordaz led a party of Spaniards to
+the mouth of its vast crater to test its accessibility and find out if
+sulphur could be obtained for making gunpowder. Everything gave courage
+to the Spaniards.
+
+Nature unfolded vistas of most enchanting beauty; luxuriant vegetation
+clothed the land with a verdure so intense in color and dense in its
+exuberance as to insure an inexhaustible source of wealth; and the
+capital product gold was in evidence everywhere, furnishing a prize to
+be won that was well worth every sacrifice.
+
+As Cortés approached, the Aztec ruler’s perplexity knew no bounds. He
+appealed to his council, they were divided in opinion as to the course
+he should pursue. His brother, Cuitlahua, or Cuitlahuatzin, counselled
+an immediate attack, while Cacamatzin, the ruler of Texcoco, urged that
+the Spaniards be received with all the courtesy due to the ambassadors
+of a foreign ruler. Already had Ixtlilxochtil, Cacamatzin’s brother,
+entered into friendly alliance with the Spanish leader. Distracted,
+Montezuma, inspired by his religious superstitions, believed that the
+gods had decreed against him. He dispatched Cacamatzin, accompanied by
+many of the principal caciques and an imposing retinue of attendants,
+to greet Cortés at Amaquemacan and bid him welcome to the capital. Thus
+invited and well attended, the invaders passed through Iztapalapan
+amid great throngs of astonished natives eager to get a look at the
+wonderful beings and their strange dress and accoutrements. At last the
+proud, magnificent city was before them, the goal of their enterprise.
+Over the causeways on the lakes, foot and horse marched, an unwonted
+spectacle. What hopes and fears tormented them as, step by step, they
+moved toward the entrance to Tenochtitlan and beheld the city in all
+its splendor stretched along the shores of Lake Texcoco! A handful of
+Spaniards, less than five hundred, supported only by native allies
+who might at any time turn against them, marching to a city whose
+inhabitants they had been repeatedly told were treacherous. But the die
+was cast.
+
+ [Illustration: THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. FROM A
+ PAINTING BY JOSÉ JARA.]
+
+On November 8th, Montezuma proceeded to the outskirts of his capital
+and personally invited Cortés and his companions into the Aztec
+capital. It was no barbarian, in outward guise at least, that greeted
+the Spaniard. Instead, a proud and dignified ruler attired in
+sumptuous princely robes, and surrounded by a pomp and ceremony as
+exacting as that of any of the Old World courts, received with marked
+politeness and courtesy the unwelcome guest. All pointed to the extreme
+exclusiveness and dignity of Montezuma, and when Cortés, following
+the Castilian custom, sought to embrace the Aztec, he was forcefully
+prevented by the attendant chiefs, who deemed the act disrespectful to
+so great a personage as their ruler. The reception completed, Montezuma
+appointed an escort, consisting of his brother and his nephew, to
+conduct Cortés within the city and to the quarters assigned to them as
+a residence.
+
+The original Aztec capital was built on an island in one of the cluster
+of lakes occupying the Valley of Anáhuac. Here on the western side grew
+the settlement about the temple of rushes, till the capital spread over
+the islands, the dwellings being raised on piles and filled ground as
+it was required. Ruler after ruler added to its extent and endeavored
+to beautify it, till at the time of the Conquest, its structures
+resembled fairy castles. The great avenues constructed of hard
+cement crossed the city running from north to south and east to west
+crossing at the centre. That running north and south extended in both
+directions, by means of causeways, to the mainland, and the other to
+the mainland on the west. The causeways were carried on piles and were
+broad enough to allow of ten horsemen riding abreast, and at intervals
+were bridged to permit of the passage of boats. The aqueduct conveying
+the water to the capital was supported on a similar causeway. The
+dwellings of the people were one story high and were frequently built
+on terraces. Each stood by itself and was separated from the others by
+narrow lanes or little gardens and enclosing an open court. High above
+these rose the many temples, on mounds, and above all, soared the great
+temple of the god of war.
+
+Cortés entered the capital with all the honors of a victor, to
+the strains of music and with colors flying, and was conducted to
+the palace of Axayacatl, the father of Montezuma, as his place of
+residence. No resistance was offered, the ruler yielded to the gloomy
+predictions of the priests, he who had always been so proud and valiant
+in war, that, but a few years before, he had been elected chief in
+preference to his elder brother. Yet almost abjectly, at the approach
+of the Spaniards, he humbled himself and his people in awe, influenced
+by the superstitions of his religion.
+
+It is possible to form a correct idea of the person and character of
+Montezuma from a description given by one of Cortés’s party. He was
+about forty years old, tall, slender and thin, but well-proportioned.
+His complexion, like that of the other inhabitants, was not very brown.
+His hair was long only over his ears, which it covered; his beard was
+black and handsome. His face was somewhat long and its expression
+cheerful, and his fine eyes were full of expression. He had many
+concubines, all of whom were of note and rank, besides two lawful wives
+of lineage equal to his.
+
+ [Illustration: THE WOODS OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+The palace occupied by the Spaniards was situated near the temples,
+a locality selected in conformity with the belief that they were of
+divine character and should, therefore, be domiciled near the gods.
+The apartments were very large and those appropriated to Cortés were
+furnished with carpets. Each of his companions was provided with a
+separate bed, and given all the comforts and luxuries suitable to his
+rank.
+
+On the day after their arrival in the city, Montezuma visited Cortés
+and invited him to his palace where he made acknowledgment of Spanish
+supremacy. It is impossible to suppose that Montezuma could have
+regarded the presence of the Spaniards as other than inimical to his
+country’s interest, especially in view of the fact that their native
+allies and companions were his bitter enemies. The evidences that each
+succeeding day furnished of the great strength of the Aztec nation and
+of the powerful organization by which the country was governed brought
+clearly to the mind of Cortés the magnitude of the undertaking to which
+he was committed and the stupendous difficulty that must attend his
+work of conquest. Everything he saw of the riches of the Aztecs, of the
+resources of the country both pricked him on and gave him pause. Wealth
+and magnificence, order and discipline were apparent on all hands.
+From the top of the great temple, Cortés had viewed the surrounding
+country. The great causeways; the system of defensive drawbridges;
+the busy canoes laden with the produce brought regularly to the great
+markets, thronged with active traders; the vision of temples towering
+one above the other glistening white in the clear atmosphere; all spoke
+of strength and organization; of a political system that was directed
+with care and ability. Cortés had succeeded thus far through audacity
+and a bravery even to madness. The conditions were such that the same
+qualities must be largely relied on for further gains.
+
+The Totonacs had by the terms of their contract with Cortés cast off
+their allegiance to Montezuma and refused to continue the payment
+of tribute, so when an Aztec chief sought to compel the people of
+Cempoalla to do so, they refused and took up arms and Escalante, the
+Spanish commander at Vera Cruz, came to their support. Though the Aztec
+Cuauhpopoca was defeated in the encounter, Escalante was killed. There
+had also been a real or imaginary plot against the life of Cortés. Here
+was his occasion. He saw in it a means of promoting his purpose, no
+matter what the rights involved might be. Promptly deciding, he called
+five of his most trusted and audacious companions, Pedro de Alvarado,
+Gonzalo de Sandoval, Francisco de Lujo, Velasquez de Leon and Alonso de
+Avila and to them imparted his plan to seize and hold Montezuma, and
+with them called on the ruler, at the same time ordering a small body
+of soldiers to assemble in Montezuma’s palace while the major part was
+stationed in the courtyard and the avenues leading thereto.
+
+ [Illustration: THE AZTEC CALENDAR STONE.]
+
+Montezuma, unsuspicious of the plot, received Cortés with accustomed
+courtesy, and offered him one of his daughters in marriage; but as
+such an alliance was not likely to further the conqueror’s designs it
+was declined. Throwing off the mask, Cortés charged Montezuma with
+treachery, as being the instigator of Cuauhpopoca’s demand on the
+people of Cempoalla and of the subsequent conflict, and called upon him
+to summon the chief. To this Montezuma assented, but it availed him
+naught, for Cortés further required that he should reside in the palace
+of the Spaniards in order to establish his innocence in the matter. He
+was finally seized and held to prevent any treachery on the part of his
+subjects. Captivity was not to be Montezuma’s only fate; his relentless
+foe humiliated him for awhile by riveting fetters on his ankles. To
+strike terror into the hearts of the Mexicans, Cortés ordered the
+chief, Cuauhpopoca, his son and fifteen men of rank to be burned at
+the stake in view of a great multitude of Aztecs, as a punishment for
+having fought against Escalante.
+
+If Montezuma was broken, other members of his court were not.
+Cacamatzin, the nephew of Montezuma, realized that the Spaniards had
+come to dispossess his nation and had striven to arouse his people to
+an effort to drive out the Spaniards. He, too, had been made prisoner.
+But besides the military supremacy that Cortés was fastening upon the
+Aztecs, there was on his part a constant activity in other directions.
+Montezuma was still a captive, but Cortés used his victim to legalize
+his actions. Five vessels were built, to be used on the lakes. The
+coast was surveyed for about one hundred and eighty miles south of
+Vera Cruz and the site chosen for a fortified post at the mouth of
+the Coatzacoalco River. He obtained land in Oaxaca and established a
+plantation for the crown. He brought his puppet ruler to take the oath
+of allegiance to the Spanish crown and to become a feudatory prince,
+his oath and those of his principal chiefs being duly attested and a
+record made by the royal notary. In pursuance of this scheme, tribute
+was ordered to be paid to the Spaniards and the vast treasure of
+Axayacatl was bestowed upon them by Montezuma.
+
+All the indignities heaped upon their ruler and all the spoliation
+suffered by the people were unavailing to rouse them to open revolt
+against their despoilers. The yoke of the Spaniards seemed to be
+riveted upon them and Cortés may have been satisfied that the prize of
+Mexico was safely in his grasp. His thoughts now turned to the task of
+overthrowing the superstitious idolatry of the Mexicans and erecting in
+its stead the worship of Christ. With this purpose in view, he entered
+the temples and threw out the idols, and converted one of the buildings
+into a Christian church. This act infuriated the Aztecs and Montezuma
+urged Cortés to seize the opportunity to leave the country, while it
+was possible to get safely away. Such advice fell on unappreciative
+ears, but unwilling to disclose his real intention and desiring to keep
+his captive tractable, Cortés pointed out that he lacked ships, but
+would endeavor to build some.
+
+After a brief interval, news arrived of the coming of some Spanish
+ships to Vera Cruz, of which Montezuma learned and he again urged
+Cortés to take his departure. On his part, the conqueror supposed
+that reinforcements had arrived for him as the result of the reports
+of Puertocarrero and Montejo to their sovereign. The fleet, however,
+was not so friendly to Cortés; it had been dispatched from Cuba, by
+Velasquez, in order to wrest from him the fruits of his enterprise.
+The reports of the great progress and treasure that Cortés had made
+and gained aroused anew the cupidity and ill-will of the governor
+and he had determined to overthrow his former commander. The new
+expedition was under the command of Pedro de Narvaez and comprised
+eighteen ships with a force of nine hundred men. Arrived at Vera Cruz,
+Narvaez demanded the submission of Sandoval, the commander, to himself
+as the representative of Velasquez. The fearless Sandoval answered
+the insolently-addressed demand by seizing Narvaez’s emissaries, and
+sending them to Cortés lashed to the backs of Indian carriers, but
+on their approach to the capital they were released and mounted on
+horses and courteously treated, by order of Cortés. The new situation
+thus presented was most grave and called for extraordinary measures.
+Leaving Alvarado in command at Mexico, Cortés marched against Narvaez
+with about three hundred Spanish troops and a large force of Indians
+and joined by Sandoval and de Leon he surprised and overcame Narvaez at
+night, capturing him and his force. The result increased the troops of
+Cortés, for most of Narvaez’s men joined the conqueror and the ships
+were dismantled. This fortuitous event was overshadowed, however, by
+the news from the interior.
+
+In the absence of Cortés, Alvarado, whom the Mexicans called Tonatiuh,
+because of his fair complexion, had cruelly massacred hundreds of
+Mexicans of the highest rank in their temple during a war festival,
+on May 20th. The pretext urged by Alvarado for his cruel act was
+that an attack on the Spaniards was planned to follow the feast and
+that he had merely outwitted them in anticipation, as his leader had
+done at Cholula. As Cortés returned to the capital from his campaign
+against Narvaez, signs multiplied of the growing unpopularity of his
+occupation. Among the tribes, few were friendly, except the loyal
+Tlascalans. His ships on the lake had been destroyed and thus a great
+difficulty, if not an insurmountable one, was opposed to his escape, in
+case of the need of leaving the capital. The people of that place were
+in full revolt and constantly attacking the Spaniards.
+
+In this crisis, Cortés endeavored to pacify the natives; he released
+Cuitlahuatzin, the brother of Montezuma, whom he had captured earlier
+with Cacamatzin. But for once his course was faulty. Cuitlahuatzin
+was welcomed by the people as the representative of Montezuma. His
+character was unlike that of Montezuma, and instead of giving aid to
+the Spaniards, he applied all his activity and zeal in attempting to
+overthrow them. Shut within their stone palace, the great commander and
+his companions were attacked by an immense host of Aztec warriors who,
+scorning the destruction of thousands of their number by the artillery
+of the Spaniards, pressed their siege unceasingly until night. The next
+day Cortés sallied out against his assailants, driving them back with
+great slaughter, but in no way breaking their force or weakening the
+courage of the foe. In his extremity, he made use of his captive and,
+decking him with his robes of state, he caused him to mount the central
+turret of the palace and order the people to lay down their arms in
+accordance with his will. His authority evoked no sympathy; his plea
+that the Spaniards should be allowed to depart and his promise of a
+restoration of the old state of affairs were disregarded. The people,
+for an instant manifesting reverence for their ruler, soon became
+enraged and insulted him. The day, June 27, 1520, was a fateful one. An
+arrow pointed by his nephew, Cuauhtemoc, was the signal for a general
+attack with stones and Montezuma was severely wounded. He died three
+days later, it is claimed, at the hands of the Spaniards, who are also
+said to have murdered his nephew, Cacamatzin, and other rulers, besides
+priests and men of rank whom they took prisoners.
+
+ [Illustration: XOCHITL PRESENTING THE FIRST PULQUE TO
+ TEPANCALTZIN.]
+
+Meantime, the position of the Spaniards was nearly hopeless. The enemy
+had taken a stand on the pyramid of their great temple, whence they
+could rain a tempest of missiles on the quarters of the Spaniards,
+which must become untenable unless the pyramid was cleared. Inch by
+inch, Cortés and his men fought the Mexicans up the lofty steps to the
+topmost platform of the pyramid, where the most desperate struggle was
+continued for three hours till all the natives, except two priests,
+were either killed or had been hurled to the pavement below. Then,
+casting the great idol of Huitzilopochtli to the square below, the
+Spaniards set fire to the temple. The victory was vain, however, for
+the fate of Cortés’s enterprise was sealed. Two courses only he saw,
+escape from the city as best he could; or death for himself and his
+companions. He had failed to beat off his assailants by his sorties;
+they were but more infuriated.
+
+In the palace of his father, the corpse of Montezuma lay, at midnight,
+while the Spanish priest, Olmeda said the mass for the dead. All
+preparations for flight had been made and hardly had the solemn service
+been ended before the Spaniards filed out of their quarters to take up
+their march out of the city which they had dreamed was their own, and
+which with most of its treasures and the great empire they had hoped
+to establish they were now relinquishing as terrified fugitives; not
+however, entirely oblivious of gain, for by permission the men were to
+take all the gold they could carry.
+
+The night march was favored because the Aztecs rarely fought at night,
+and because darkness would serve, in part, to cover the retreat. The
+once proud and victorious soldiers moved forward, still orderly and
+with discipline. Sandoval, Ordaz, and Lujo led with a part of the
+infantry; Cortés, with the artillery, the treasure, the women and the
+prisoners formed the centre; and with him were Olid, Morla and Avila;
+in the rear were Alvarado and Leon, with the main body of the infantry
+and the heavier guns. Scattered throughout the three divisions marched
+the loyal Tlascalans, who in the darkest hour had never failed in
+loyalty and valor.
+
+The organization and discipline of the Aztecs find no better
+illustration than in the measures they had taken and in their action
+on this memorable _noche triste_. The bridges on the canals had been
+destroyed, and sentinels had been carefully posted to give immediate
+alarm, and the great drum of _huehuetl_ was served so as to bring the
+native soldiers in arms instantly on its being sounded.
+
+The night was very dark, a drizzling rain was falling as the heartsick
+Spaniards cautiously proceeded through the silent streets of the city
+and neared the causeway of Tlacopan. No foe had opposed them thus
+far, but, as they were about to retreat along the causeway, sentinels
+gave the alarm, the dreaded sound of the great drum was heard and
+innumerable warriors attacked the Spaniards; they assailed them
+from canoes, in the streets, from the flat house-roofs,--from every
+direction came the assailants. Plan, purpose and bravery combined to
+make the task of the retreating force almost impossible of execution.
+With the foresight characteristic of Cortés his equipment included a
+portable bridge, but its sufficiency fell short of the present urgency.
+Fighting with the stubbornness of valor and desperation, the first
+canal was crossed, but its capacity gave passage so slowly that before
+it could be moved forward to the second canal the vanguard was attacked
+savagely. Meantime, the weight of the artillery and the troops had
+forced the bridge into the earth so that it could not be removed. The
+situation was indescribable. Thronging the narrow causeway, surrounded
+by a daring and capable enemy bent on exterminating the Spaniards,
+trapped in fact, escape seemed impossible.
+
+Desperate men dashed on horseback across the openings in the causeway,
+swam, or passed across on a sinister bridge formed of corpses; but
+far the greater number perished in that fateful hour. No one could
+tell of the horrors of that passage, nor of the heroic bravery of the
+Spaniards. The great leader, in defeat, was the equal of himself in
+victory. He led the way and had crossed the last canal by a ford, but
+wounded as he was, he returned with a few of his horsemen to aid those
+in the rear. Alvarado, also, was severely wounded, and the story of
+his escape is a favorite one. History has enshrined the legend: he
+fixed his long lance in the bottom of the lake and then vaulted across
+the breach in the causeway. The rear guard of the army returned to
+their quarters in the city, where after a siege of three days they
+surrendered and were sacrificed on the altars of the Aztec gods. The
+motto that had inspired the conqueror when he added it to his standard,
+bravely adorned with the arms of Charles V. and signed with the crimson
+cross: _Amice sequam crucem et nos fidem habemus vere in hoc signa
+vincemus_ (Friends, let us follow the cross and if we have faith,
+we shall conquer), must have seemed a reproach or a mockery to the
+Spaniards as they fled from the city over the Tlacopan causeway only to
+meet, most of them, a horrible death.
+
+On legend also must we rely for the statement that on bringing his
+thinned ranks, depleted by five hundred of his brave compatriots and
+four thousand equally brave and loyal Indians, to a native temple on
+the mainland, Cortés rested under a large tree, since called the Tree
+of La Noche Triste, and shed tears as he contemplated the forlorn
+and desperate state of his soldiers. His was not a nature to succumb
+to defeat. Bereft though he was of some of his bravest comrades, of
+troops, of most of his horses, of all his artillery, almost without
+firearms, and his treasure lost, his plan was ready; he would seek a
+place of safety in Tlascala and there define his plans for recovery of
+his position.
+
+The retreat continued and Otompan, or Otumba, was reached on July 7th.
+The way was there barred by an immense army led by Cihuacoatl. The
+main reliance of the Spaniards was now on the pike and the sabre, with
+which they defended themselves, but so valiant was the defense, and
+often the attack, that after seventy-five days of consecutive fighting,
+during which terrible carnage took place, against inconceivable odds,
+the Aztecs were put to rout. It is believed that final success was due
+to the bravery and strategy of Cortés, who had learned that with the
+lowering of the banner of their chief, the Mexican soldiers would flee.
+He therefore, supported by Sandoval, Alvarado, Olid, and Dominguez,
+attacked the chief and hurled him to the ground and killed him.
+Thereupon, the army fled, having lost one hundred thousand men, while
+of the Spaniards one hundred and of the allies twenty thousand fell.
+
+Taking up the march again toward Tlascala, not without grave misgiving
+as to the possibility of a reversal of the friendly spirit and fidelity
+of his allies, they reached the capital and were greeted with most
+friendly welcome. Here, Cortés fell a prey to a fever that resulted
+from the wound he had received on the Dismal Night; here, too, he was
+to learn that the treasure of gold he had left behind him when he
+went on to conquer Tenochtitlan had been taken by the Mexicans, who
+destroyed the messengers bearing it to him. He had also to put down
+the opposition of some of his soldiers who desired to go back to Cuba,
+but having received reinforcements and made gunpowder from the sulphur
+taken from the crater of the great Popocatepetl, he determined to
+reopen his campaign by operations against Tepeaca and took and sacked
+the capital and established the settlement of Segura de la Frontera.
+
+It was evident to Cortés that his military task was more difficult than
+at first. The new Aztec ruler, Cuitlahuatzin, was of different mould
+from Montezuma. The leaders were very able and extremely courageous.
+Every effort had been made by them to displace the loyalty of the
+native allies, but in this they had failed, for their number was
+increased. Cortés determined that every place that lay on the road to
+Tenochtitlan must be friendly or conquered. Betrayed by their cacique,
+Cuauhquechollan was subdued; Iztocan was taken and sacked and a hundred
+temples given to the flames. Adding further to his native forces, and
+releasing some of the companions of Narvaez, the conqueror completed
+his plans for the recapture of the Aztec capital, including the
+building of thirteen flat-bottomed boats to be used on Lake Tezcoco.
+
+Before siege was laid to the capital, the successor of Montezuma
+died, on November 26th, of smallpox, to which thousands of Aztecs had
+succumbed. This scourge was of great service to the Spaniards. The new
+ruler was Cuauhtemoctzin, or Guatemotzin, the nephew and son-in-law
+of Montezuma. Preparatory to his final march on Tenochtitlan,
+Cortés formulated a drastic code for the regulation of his army and
+significantly declared that the pending war and its acquisitions would
+be robbery unless its principal aim was the conversion of the heathens.
+Thus, with an apparently more serious purpose than before, the army,
+with its eight thousand carriers, bearing the thirteen brigantines,
+moved on Tezcoco, on December 28th, and following the most difficult
+route, took it without contest. Establishing a friendly ruler here,
+Cortés then took Tlacopan and entered the southern border of the
+Valley of Mexico. At this time he was captured in the course of a
+reconnaissance, but was liberated by his soldiers before the time of
+his sacrifice had arrived. He was also obliged to quell an insurrection
+in Tezcoco, which aimed at his assassination.
+
+ [Illustration: AZTEC IDOL.]
+
+Cortés was now ready for his attempt on Tenochtitlan. His brigantines
+were launched on the lake on April 28th and with his army divided into
+three bodies under Alvarado, Olid, and Sandoval, consisting of nine
+hundred Spaniards, one hundred and twenty-five thousand native allies,
+eighty-seven horses, and with three large and fifteen small guns,
+chiefly disposed throughout the fleet, the march on the capital began
+on May 20th. Cortés took command of the fleet of thirteen brigantines
+and a great number of native canoes. The three commanders occupied,
+respectively, Tlacopan, Coyoacan, and Iztapalapan, which they made
+their bases of operations. In a few days, Cortés had taken several
+lake positions; the capital was completely blockaded; the water supply
+was also cut off and the way was opened for an attack on the city
+itself. This he succeeded in entering and reached the principal square
+and seized the great temple of the war god, withdrawing, however, at
+nightfall.
+
+Three days later, being largely reinforced from Tezcoco, he again
+attacked the capital and entered it, setting fire to the palace in
+which he had formerly resided and to Montezuma’s aviary. The resistance
+of the Aztecs was so formidable and their bravery and steadfastness so
+terrible that the retreat at night to camp could be accomplished by
+Cortés only with great difficulty. But little real progress was being
+made by this method as the enemy destroyed the military works of the
+invaders as soon as the latter had retired. Such operations promised
+little and yielding to the counsel of his lieutenants, Cortés decided
+on making a general attack.
+
+On June 28th, all plans being communicated to his leaders, an advance
+on the market place of Tlatelolco was ordered. Through a misadventure,
+the forces were separated. Alderete, who had already almost reached the
+objective point, was greeted with the din of the great sacred drum and
+he was immediately attacked by the Aztec hosts. He had omitted to close
+the breaches in the causeway, and the other divisions could not follow.
+The advance body was routed and fled back on the causeway. There with
+Cortés on the other side of the opening, a terrible battle raged.
+Cortés was wounded and narrowly escaped capture, but he rallied the
+soldiers and led a retreat. Pedro de Alvarado and Sandoval, having also
+nearly reached the market-place, retreated. The exultant Aztecs taunted
+their enemies on their defeat and flung among them three dripping heads
+of Spaniards, shouting as they did so “Malinche” (the name they applied
+to Cortés), “Tonatiuh” (Alvarado), and “Sandoval.” To this they added
+the abominable torture attending their barbarous sacrifices as they
+offered the bodies of their captives on the altars of their demon-gods
+and feasted at a banquet on their corpses at evening.
+
+This defeat seemed to threaten the destruction of the Spaniards. It is
+to the eternal credit of the native allies that not all the efforts
+of Guatemotzin and his emissaries the priests, nor his threats could
+undermine their loyalty to Cortés.
+
+Realizing the disadvantages under which he labored by reason of
+the difficulty of keeping open the approaches by the causeways, of
+operating his forces and of defending them under these conditions,
+Cortés developed a new plan of attack; he would fill the canals.
+Accordingly, he led his fighting men and utilized the Indian
+auxiliaries to destroy with hoes every building they reached. The great
+_teocalli_ had been put to the torch; the objective point was at
+hand. Slowly, but steadily, the invaders advanced and the enemy crowded
+closer and closer within narrowing limits, pressed by a determined and
+relentless foe, and ever falling under the combined blows of growing
+famine, want of water, and pestilence. Guatemotzin at first scorned to
+surrender when called upon to do so; then, as the sufferings of the
+Aztecs grew past endurance, he promised to arrange terms, but failed
+to appear, preferring death. The last shortening of the living chain
+about them had been made; the eager soldiers leaped at the command
+for a general attack, and pouring into the city after his fighting
+men, the Indians fell upon the Aztecs sparing none on that day of
+fearful revenge and continuing the carnage on August 13, 1521. The
+Aztec chief was captured as he sought to escape on a _piragua_,
+and was led before the conqueror, from whom he begged the boon of
+death by his dagger, now that he was a prisoner after having done
+all that he could in defence of his country and people. Their leader
+captive, the surviving Aztec warriors submitted and were permitted to
+leave the capital. Tenochtitlan and the Aztec dominion were destroyed.
+The conqueror left a garrison in the city and his victorious forces
+withdrew to their respective bases of operation. The cost of life to
+the invaders during the almost three months’ siege was about one-tenth
+of their strength.
+
+The victors’ joy was tempered with disappointment. The treasure they
+had hoped to find was not forthcoming. Guatemotzin was believed by the
+Spaniards to possess a knowledge of its whereabouts and Cortés ordered
+him to be tortured to extort a revelation which he had declared he
+could not make. He averred that some treasure had been cast into the
+lake, but like many another reputed vast hoard, it was not discovered,
+in spite of a careful search of the waters of Lake Tezcoco.
+
+Master of the prize that had been won at the cost of many thousands
+of lives, vast treasure and heroic deeds, Cortés decided to reclothe
+the fallen city with the dignity of chief place in the conquered
+dominions. The aqueduct he soon restored and canals were filled and
+additional causeways built. He was as able an administrator as he was
+a commander. The Indians he had dispossessed were allowed to settle
+in prescribed districts in the new city. With an immense number of
+Mexicans whose labor he could utilize, the City of Mexico soon became a
+solid and imposing place.
+
+Not long after the conquest was completed, new troubles arose that
+threatened the power that Cortés had acquired. Velasquez, the governor
+of Cuba had so contrived that the royal government authorized both an
+investigation of the conqueror’s conduct and the taking over of the
+government of New Spain, but the official sent proved no match for
+the conqueror and he returned to Cuba. Soon thereafter, Charles V.
+conferred on Cortés the titles and powers of governor, captain-general,
+and chief justice of New Spain. His acts confirmed, his companions
+rewarded, and his dignities established, Cortés began to explore and
+settle the new dominion. On the Pacific he threw out the settlement
+of Zacatula, on the Atlantic, San Estevan, Medellin, and Antigua,
+which latter he projected as the principal port. Regulations were made
+to encourage the settling of the country and great inducements were
+offered to those who married. In the appropriation of lands, Spaniards
+only were recognized, the natives being held in a condition of slavery,
+save only the Tlascalans, whose loyalty was rewarded by immunity from
+tribute and the entire control of their lands, besides the enjoyment
+of other privileges and the bestowal of titles of distinction on their
+leaders. Later, their capital became the seat of the first bishopric,
+they elected their alcalde and he became their governor. But no honors
+bestowed on them could repay their services, for without their aid, no
+Spaniard would have survived, no nation would have been possible.
+
+One of the consequences of the capture of the City of Mexico was the
+effort on the part of the southern provinces of Mexico bordering on
+Guatemala to conciliate the great conqueror and secure his goodwill.
+These sent ambassadors laden with gifts of such value that Cortés was
+fired with the ambition to acquire lands on the southern sea, for
+which purpose he fitted out an expedition that soon accomplished its
+object. This was supplemented by an expedition sent in aid of the
+people of Tehuantepec against the adjoining province of Tututepec.
+This resulted in the invasion of the latter province by Alvarado, its
+defeat and the settlement of Spaniards in the territory; while he
+proceeded to Guatemala and discovering its wealth determined on its
+conquest when the opportunity occurred. Fitting out a strong force,
+chiefly of natives, Alvarado marched south and was loyally treated by
+the people of Tehuantepec but resisted by those of Soconusco, whom he
+defeated and thus conquered their provinces. He continued his march
+through Guatemala, with which we need not here deal, except to say that
+Alvarado remained loyal to Cortés, by whom he was recommended for the
+governorship of Guatemala.
+
+ [Illustration: BANNER CARRIED BY CORTÉS.]
+
+During one of his expeditions, Cortés disposed of his faithful friend
+Marina, by gift to a Spanish knight, whom she married. Though she was
+endowed with large grants of land from the government of Spain, her
+abandonment was but a mean requital of her affection and inestimable
+services to Cortés and the Spanish cause, and the romantic interest
+associated with “Malinche,” and the popularity accorded to her, better
+measure the appreciation of her services.
+
+On his return from Honduras, Cortés was received in Mexico with
+great rejoicing by the people, his enemies had been active in Spain
+and he had been accused of aiming at an independent sovereignty. An
+investigation was committed to Juan Ponce de Leon, with the power
+of governor meantime. His death in a few weeks and also that of the
+successor he named brought the duty to the task of Alonso de Estrada,
+a bitter enemy of Cortés, who was still captain general. Under these
+circumstances, Cortés determined to appeal in person to his sovereign
+and accordingly sailed from Villa Rica with rich presents and specimens
+characteristic of the flora and fauna of the country. With him were
+Sandoval and Tapia, and two sons of the late Montezuma and Maxixca, and
+several native chiefs.
+
+Arrived in Spain, he went to the convent of La Rabida, where Sandoval,
+one of his ablest companions, died. The arrival of Cortés created
+intense interest and he was accorded the greatest distinction by the
+sovereign, who conferred on him the title of Marquis of the Valley of
+Oaxaca and bestowed on him large estates in Oaxaca, in Mexico City, and
+elsewhere. His governorship of New Spain was not restored, however,
+but he was appointed captain general of that dominion and empowered to
+make discoveries and settlements in the southern ocean. The conqueror
+now married a lady of royal blood, Doña Juana de Zuñiga and in 1530
+embarked for Mexico.
+
+In the closing days of 1527, Charles V. had appointed an _audiencia_ to
+govern New Spain, at the head of which was Nuñez de Guzman, governor of
+the Province of Panuco, aided by four _oidores_. This administration
+was vicious in the extreme; barbaric cruelty was exercised toward the
+natives, who were capriciously murdered and enslaved; charges against
+Cortés were encouraged and considered with foregone determination;
+the clergy was tyrannized over and abused for their efforts to obtain
+justice and humane treatment of the natives; till in 1529, Zumarraga,
+the first bishop of Mexico, related in a letter to Spain the tale of
+the misdoings of the _audiencia_. Guzman, dreading the exposure of
+his evil deeds and hoping to avert disaster to himself, set out on
+December 20, 1529, on an expedition to conquer the province of Jalisco,
+or Amazonas, which had been discovered by Cortés. Guzman, during his
+rule of Panuco, harassed and plundered the native inhabitants with
+utter disregard of even the semblance of justice and descended to acts
+of the most petty despotism. He even caused the Indians to be put to
+death because they had omitted to clean the streets in his path. At the
+least manifestation of discontent on the part of the Huastecas, during
+his absence from his province as governor of Mexico, he caused whole
+towns to be subdued by force of arms as rebels, and the inhabitants to
+be sold as slaves, so that this monster’s cruelty resulted in almost
+the depopulation of entire districts. Now that he was entering on the
+conquest of Jalisco he raised funds by seizing and exporting as slaves
+the natives of his own province, those who fled in terror to the deep
+forests and mountain fastnesses being pursued by slave-hunting parties
+to take them.
+
+This inhuman conqueror left a trail of desolation behind him as he
+marched through Michoacan and Nueva Galicia. He tortured and burnt
+those chiefs who could or would not furnish him with gold, or even
+a token of his displeasure; the chief of the Tarascans of Michoacan,
+who had manifested the extreme of friendliness toward him, stripping
+himself and his people of all their gold and possessions, giving him
+free passage through his country and furnishing him with hosts of
+burden bearers, was in spite of all, put to daily torture and, when
+this ceased to afford diversion, was then burned. The tyrant was
+fiercely fought in the territory he invaded, but the natives were
+defeated and he founded the cities of Guadalajara and Compostella.
+During this campaign, Chirinos, one of Guzman’s officers, invaded the
+Zacatecas, a so-called Chichimec tribe.
+
+The depredations and maladministration of the _audiencia_ did not cease
+even during the absence of Guzman, so that the Crown, forced by the
+representations of the ecclesiastical authorities, resolved to govern
+Mexico by a viceroy and appointed Antonio de Mendoza, but displaced the
+old _audiencia_ and appointed another to govern until the arrival of
+Mendoza in Mexico.
+
+The royal commission to Cortés to make discoveries was henceforth
+the sole motive of the conqueror’s activity in Mexico. He landed at
+Villa Rica in July, 1530, and, being forbidden to come within ten
+miles of the capital until the new _audiencia_ was installed, he
+took up his abode at Tezcoco. He was never again, however, to reside
+permanently in the capital, for he found himself in conflict with the
+new _audiencia_ and withdrew to Cuernavaca, there to manage and
+cultivate his estates.
+
+In 1532, he dispatched an expedition to explore the Pacific coast
+northward, but the fleet was lost. The next year he sent two vessels in
+the same direction one of which in 1534 touched the Peninsula of Lower
+California, which was supposed to be an island. Even such a succession
+of disasters could not crush the spirit of Cortés, who, in 1535, led
+an expedition which established a colony on the eastern shore near the
+southern extremity of the Peninsula of California, but owing to the
+barrenness of the land it was a failure, the few survivors making their
+way back to Mexico in 1536. In 1539, he sent out another expedition
+under Francisco de Ulloa who, with three ships explored the western
+coast of the same peninsula to about the twentieth parallel of north
+latitude, or certainly as far as Cedros Island. But his adventures were
+interrupted by the viceroy, Mendoza, who had arrived in October, 1535,
+and who claimed that the right of discoveries in the southern ocean was
+vested in him.
+
+Again Cortés left Mexico, in January, 1540, to seek redress at the
+Court of Spain, but his efforts were without success. He enlisted to
+fight against the Moors at Algiers; then returned to Spain, where,
+after much discouragement and even, it is said, contempt, he finally
+obtained permission from Charles V. to return to Mexico. He died,
+however, near Seville, on December 2, 1547, on his return journey to
+the magnificent land that he had conquered and added to the dominions
+of Spain, with all its limitless resources, rich in all that country
+needed to support its tottering power and for a time to restore and
+even to increase its former greatness.
+
+ [Illustration: PORT MARQUEZ WHERE CORTÉS BUILT HIS FLEET FOR
+ A VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY ON THE PACIFIC.]
+
+ [Illustration: CARVINGS OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYS. THE
+ CHURCH OF SANTA ROSA, QUERÉTARO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: BURNING OF THE FEET OF CUAUHTEMOC AND HIS
+ GENERAL TO FIND THEIR HIDDEN TREASURE.]
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ VICEROYALTY
+
+
+The old order had passed. On the ruins of the Aztec dominion was
+established a military government, a sort of proprietary dominion; to
+this succeeded a short-lived civil government by commissioners; then
+came the final stage of Mexico’s dependency and provincial government
+under a viceroy. These successive governments saw in the great dominion
+only a field for the exploitation of riches for their sovereign’s use
+and their own. The natives of the country had been ruthlessly despoiled
+of their possessions and to a large degree enslaved by the Spaniards;
+they had no rights save such as their masters might arbitrarily grant.
+Except for the noble protection and kindness of Las Casas and the
+missionaries, their lot had been hopeless indeed. The first viceroy,
+Don Antonio de Mendoza, Conde de Tendilla, arrived in Mexico on October
+15, 1535. As before said, his authority soon clashed with that of
+Cortés. He was a man of superior parts and great probity and earnestly
+strove to direct the province of New Spain in the path of progress and
+stability. Among the enlightened measures of his administration was
+the introduction of the printing press, and in 1537 appeared _La
+Escala de San Juan Climaco_, a Latin work translated by Fra Juan de
+Madalena. The establishment of a mint for the coinage of silver money
+was another important work, inasmuch as the natives had become opposed
+to the copper coin, of which they had cast some two hundred thousand
+pesos in value into the lake. The viceroy also founded a college for
+Indian nobles at Tlatelolco and with a spirit of consideration for the
+natives he caused the hated Nuñez de Guzman, who as president of the
+first _audiencia_ had been guilty of great cruelty and greed,
+to be cast into the common jail. Under his direction, Coronado led
+the expedition to the fabled Quivira in the northeast, the Eldorado
+of the north, the “Seven Cities of Cibola,” so wonderfully described
+to De Vaca by the Indians. The town of Guadalajara was founded in
+New Galicia; and Valladolid in 1541; this latter, in 1828, was named
+Morelia in honor of the patriot Morelos. During his rule, the famous
+Mixton War occurred in the new province of New Galicia and was finally
+suppressed by Oñate aided by the viceroy.
+
+The period was marked by the introduction of the benign measures known
+as the “New Laws,” promulgated by Charles V. in 1542, chiefly at the
+instance and through the exertion of the Indian-loving Bartolomé
+de las Casas. The intent of these laws was to prohibit absolutely
+further enslavement of the natives and, as far as practicable, to give
+freedom to those already slaves, but their enforcement was found to be
+impracticable.
+
+In 1545, an appalling epidemic spread among the natives, of whom
+eight hundred thousand were said to have perished. During this period
+the viceroy Mendoza unremittingly cared for the sick and earned the
+proud and affectionate title of “Father of the poor.” The justice
+of his rule won the loyalty of the natives to the crown, and during
+the insurrection of Pizarro the emperor conferred on the former
+Tenochtitlan the title of _muy noble insigne y leal_. In 1551,
+Mendoza was rewarded for his excellent administration by transfer to
+the government of turbulent Peru.
+
+Don Luis de Velasco succeeded in November, 1551, as the second viceroy
+of New Spain. He directed assiduously the enforcement of the “New Laws”
+and in this succeeded measurably, earning for himself the title of “the
+Emancipator,” as he liberated from the mines one hundred and sixty
+thousand Mexicans, whose freedom he said, “was more important than all
+the mines in the world, and that the revenues derived therefrom by the
+crown were not of such a nature as to defy the laws of God and man.” In
+1551, the University of Mexico was created and in 1553, was founded.
+Velasco died in Mexico in 1564, and was interred there with great pomp
+and honor in appreciation of his able administration.
+
+Martin Cortés, the second Marqués del Valle, who had left New Spain
+with his father when eight years old, now returned to Mexico, enriched
+by profit in the service of the king, and sought to enjoy his
+hereditary possessions and honors. His arrival, in 1563, was attended
+with great splendor, and his state and pretensions gave offence to the
+viceroy, although no serious trouble had occurred during his lifetime.
+
+ [Illustration: DOOR OF THE HOUSE OF CONDE DE SANTIAGO.]
+
+The third viceroy, Gaston de Peralta, Marqués de Falces, arrived
+during the investigation of the charges against Martin Cortés and his
+friends. He found no proof of conspiracy, stopped the proceedings and
+released most of the prisoners and commuted the death sentence passed
+on Luis Cortés to ten years’ service in Africa and loss of property;
+he sent the Marqués to Spain. This procedure enraged the members of
+the _audiencia_ and they accused the viceroy of favoring the
+conspiracy and sought his recall. A commission sent by the king to
+investigate determined on the prosecution of all traitors and four
+were executed, while Martin Cortés, son of Marina, was tortured and
+then exiled. The ordinary jails were insufficient to hold the victims
+of the persecution; the viceroy was deposed. But so exceedingly cruel
+and arbitrary was the action of the persecutor that he was himself
+deposed in 1568, and the viceroy was exonerated of all blame. This
+extraordinary and romantic affair ended, after a protracted trial, in
+the restoration to the Marqués of his confiscated property in 1574.
+
+During the term of the fourth viceroy, Martin Enriquez de Almanza, the
+scourge of the Spanish Inquisition was established in Mexico under the
+direction of Pedro Moya de Contreras, later Archbishop of Mexico and
+viceroy of New Spain. Nominally, this institution was introduced in
+1529, by a council consisting of the _audiencia_ and the heads of the
+Franciscan and Dominican orders, but its official establishment was
+not made until later. In 1572, the Jesuits settled in the province and
+founded their first college in the City of Mexico, which was devoted
+to the education of the Spanish Americans and to the conversion of the
+natives. _La Caridad de San Hipolito_ was another institution founded
+under this administration; its purposes were wholly charitable.
+
+Little worthy of note occurred, for strife between the _audiencia_
+and the viceroys had become chronic, and government was paralyzed,
+until the administration of the eighth viceroy, Luis de Velasco, son
+of the second viceroy, in 1590. Having resided for some time in New
+Spain he was familiar with conditions and as he was very popular the
+progress of the province was marked, particularly in the direction
+of manufactures and the embellishment of the capital. His successor,
+Gaspar de Zuñiga y Acevedo, Conde de Monterey, appointed in 1595,
+continued the territorial extension in New Mexico and accomplished
+the conquest of that territory by the expedition under Oñate in 1599.
+The domain was further extended into California as the result of
+explorations of Sebastian Vizcaino, who discovered the Bay of Monterey
+and founded the town of that name. A town of the same name was also
+founded in Nuevo León. The old city of Vera Cruz was removed to its
+present site, that first chosen by Cortés for Villa Rica. This viceroy
+did much to allay the discontent of the natives owing to their having
+been gathered in the towns, the better to secure the exaction of
+tribute from them.
+
+Already, ere the close of the century of conquest, had been sown the
+seeds of discord between the Creoles and the Spaniards. The latter
+enjoyed the chief profits and honors of public office and life. The
+result of this policy was a growing antagonism which, in a little more
+than two centuries was to wrest the country from the foreigner and give
+its benefits to the native born.
+
+In 1604, during the rule of Juan Manuel Hurtado de Mendoza y Luna,
+Marqués de Montesclaros, the capital suffered from a terrible
+inundation.
+
+The second term of Luis de Velasco the eleventh viceroy is noteworthy
+for the construction of the great Huehuetoca Tunnel to protect the
+capital from inundation by drawing the water from Lake Zumpango. This
+formidable engineering work was planned by Enrico Martinez, an engineer
+of Dutch birth but educated in Spain, with the coöperation of Juan
+Sanchez, a Jesuit mathematician. The work, however, was soon superseded
+in favor of the ancient dike system, on the advice of Adrian Boot,
+the famous Dutch engineer. During this administration the Alameda was
+established, so called because first planted with _álamos_. A revolt
+of the negroes in the district of Vera Cruz occurred in 1609, and only
+after severe fighting in the mountains was it overcome. The defeated
+blacks then formed a settlement in San Lorenzo.
+
+ [Illustration: SACRIFICIAL STONE.]
+
+The twelfth viceroy was Fray Garcia Guerra, Archbishop of Mexico. His
+administration was cut short by his death through a fall from his
+carriage. Noteworthy is a mission to Japan undertaken by Sebastian
+Vizcaino, accompanied by Fray Pedro Bautista, but the ambassadors
+received scant courtesy, in spite of the many perils they suffered.
+
+The founding of the important towns of Lerma and Cordova in 1613
+and 1618 and the extension of the aqueduct to Santa Isabella were
+accomplished during the term of Diego Fernandez de Cordova, Marqués de
+Guadalcazar. He was succeeded by Diego Carrillo de Mendoza y Pimental,
+Marqués de Galves and Conde de Priego, as fourteenth viceroy. His
+administration was marked by sincere effort to prevent and correct
+abuses and dishonesty among public officials. A struggle began between
+church and state. He was soon at odds with Archbishop Juan Perez de la
+Serna, who excommunicated the viceroy. The papal delegate, however,
+ordered this ban removed, but the Archbishop refused; in consequence a
+decree of fine and banishment was issued against him. Still resisting,
+the Archbishop was forcibly taken to the coast for banishment, but
+on his way having learned that the _audiencia_ had repented and
+ordered his return to the capital on the ground of irregularity in
+the proceedings, he took refuge in a church and defied his guards
+to lay hands on him. Finally, the people of San Juan Teotihuacan
+liberated him. A riot of perilous portent broke out in the capital
+and notwithstanding that the viceroy consented to recall Serna, the
+viceregal palace was besieged and set on fire, the viceroy escaping to
+a convent. The triumph of this headstrong churchman was complete. On
+the arrival of the fifteenth viceroy, Rodrigo Pacheco y Osorio, Marqués
+de Cerralvo, the inquisitor formally reinstated Galves and removed his
+name from the excommunication tablet and he entered Mexico in triumph.
+His enemy the Archbishop went to Spain whither, after the investigation
+of his government had resulted in honorable credit to him, Galves
+followed. In 1628, the Dutch admiral, Pieter Heyne captured a treasure
+fleet bearing bullion and other valuables from New Spain to the mother
+country, of a value of twelve million pesos. As a result of this, a
+squadron called the _Barlovento_ (Windward) was formed to protect
+the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies.
+
+ [Illustration: PALACE OF ITURBIDE, NOW A FAMOUS OLD HOTEL.]
+
+A noteworthy feature of the administration of the seventeenth viceroy,
+the Marqués de Villena and Duque de Escalona, who was of an illustrious
+Portuguese family, was his removal from office on a charge of plotting
+against his king in favor of the Portuguese, who had revolted against
+Spain. The viceroy was later exonerated from this charge. Escalona was
+succeeded as eighteenth viceroy, by Palafox, Bishop of Puebla. Though
+an able administrator, his zeal in the conversion of the Indians to
+Christianity led him to destroy many priceless statues and idols of
+the Aztec period, the loss of which has proved of serious consequence
+to succeeding generations. During the administration of the Bishop of
+Yucatán, Marcos de Torres y Rueda, the twentieth viceroy, a dreadful
+_auto de fé_ was ordered, of which there were one hundred and
+seven victims.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF CHARLES IV.]
+
+New Mexico was colonized and the town of Albuquerque founded during the
+term of the twenty-second viceroy, Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva,
+Duque de Albuquerque. In 1665, during the rule of Antonio Sebastian
+de Toledo, Marqués de Mancera, the great Popocatepetl erupted during
+four days, and two years later a severe earthquake occurred. In 1668,
+the cathedral of the City of Mexico was dedicated the second time in
+celebration of the completion of the interior; its earlier dedication
+having taken place in 1657. Under the wise and beneficent progressive
+rule of Fray Payo Enriquez de Rivera, Archbishop of Mexico, the
+twenty-seventh viceroy, the causeway and aqueduct of Guadalupe were
+constructed and the coinage of gold was first undertaken in New Spain.
+
+ [Illustration: CARVINGS ON THE CHURCH OF LA SANTISIMA.]
+
+During the administration of the Marqués de la Laguna, the
+twenty-eighth viceroy, from 1680 to 1686, Vera Cruz was taken by
+surprise by a band of six hundred pirates under Nicolás Agramonte
+who committed great ravages, over three hundred persons losing their
+lives and six thousand being imprisoned in the church for five days
+without food. The twenty-ninth viceroy, Melchor Portocarrero Lazo de
+la Vega, Conde de Monclova made his administration memorable by the
+construction, at his own cost, of the aqueduct of Chapultepec. He also
+colonized Coahuila and founded the town of Monclova. He is called “the
+man with the silver arm,” because of a silver substitute for an arm he
+lost in battle.
+
+The chief event during the reign of the next viceroy, Gaspar de la
+Cerda Sandoval Silva y Mendoza, Conde de Galve, the thirtieth viceroy,
+who ruled from 1688 to 1696, was the extension of the domain of New
+Spain to the east, including Texas. He sent an expedition in 1689,
+under Alonso de León, governor of Coahuila to dislodge the French, who
+were supposed to have founded a settlement under La Salle, and in 1690
+a mission was established near the Neches River, in Texas. In addition,
+in 1691, explorations in the interior and on the coast were made and in
+1693, a town and fort were established at Pensacola, the former being
+called Santa Maria and the bay was named Santa Maria de Galves, after
+Bernardo de Galves.
+
+In 1696, the thirty-second viceroy, José Sarmiento Valladares, Conde de
+Montezuma y Tula, whose wife, Geronima Maria, was a lineal descendant
+of the last Aztec ruler, succeeded to the government of New Spain.
+Toward the close of his rule the conflict over the Spanish succession
+arising out of the death of Charles II., in 1700, seriously involved
+the affairs of Mexico. The treasure ships from New Spain were prizes
+eagerly sought by the league of powers seeking the overthrow of the
+Bourbons, and in 1702, the fleet of such ships that had sailed from
+Vera Cruz with treasure valued at fifty million pesos was attacked and
+destroyed in the Port of Vigo, in Spain, and to avoid the capture of
+the treasure it was cast into the sea. This viceroy was removed because
+of his suspected disloyalty to the Bourbons. During the administration
+of the thirty-fourth viceroy, Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva, Duque de
+Albuquerque and Marqués de Cuellar, who assumed a magnificence of pomp
+and ceremony that even surpassed the custom of kings and emperors, a
+special tribunal was created, the _acordada_, for the punishment
+of robbers and brigands and its severe decrees accomplished much good.
+
+ [Illustration: IDOLS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.]
+
+During the rule of the Marqués de Valero, Duque de Arion, viceroy from
+1716 to 1722, an aqueduct was constructed to supply Querétaro with
+water. His successor, Juan de Acuña, Marqués de Casafuerte, effected
+important reforms and works of great public utility. Such was the
+esteem in which he was held that he is called the “great governor.”
+During his rule the _Gaceta de Mexico_ was published. Under Pedro
+Cebrian y Augustin, Conde de Fuenclara, 1742 to 1746, the colonization
+of the State of Tamaulipas was effected. A noteworthy incident was the
+arrest of the Italian, Lorenzo Boturini, who had contributed valuable
+data to the history of Mexico, for not obtaining the sanction of the
+Council of the Indies preparatory to making a collection for providing
+a costly crown for the Lady of Guadalupe. His manuscript was taken from
+him and he was sent to Spain. In 1743, the British fleet, under Admiral
+Anson, captured a Spanish galleon bound from the Philippines.
+
+ [Illustration: FOUNTAIN IN MEXICO CITY.]
+
+During the rule of Joaquin de Montserrat, Marqués de Cruillas, the
+first regular army in Mexico was established. He also instituted the
+numbering of all the houses in the capital. During the term of this
+viceroy, Spain acquired (1762) from France, by the secret treaty
+of Fontainebleau, the Province of Louisiana on the right bank of
+the Mississippi and the City of New Orleans on the left bank. The
+possession of this province was regarded as of great importance to
+Mexico as a barrier between her and the British possessions. In 1763,
+Spain ceded to Great Britain the territory known as West Florida.
+
+The noteworthy events of the government of Carlos Francisco de Croix,
+Marqués de Croix, whose rule extended from 1766 to 1771, were the
+expulsion of the Jesuits, among whom was the historian Clavigero, and
+the confiscation of their property, and the extension of the Alameda to
+its present area.
+
+In 1771, Antonio Bucareli y Urzua succeeded as the forty-sixth
+viceroy and ruled till 1779. Under his able care the industry and
+commerce of New Spain greatly developed, and new and important works
+were established. At his personal cost, he completed the aqueduct of
+Chapultepec which had been commenced by the Conde de Monclova; the
+Monte Pio was founded, under the charge of Romero Terreros, Conde de
+Regla, who endowed it with three hundred thousand pesos and stipulated
+that loans to the poor should bear no interest. Many hospitals and
+asylums for the poor were also established and a foundling asylum at
+La Cuna through the benevolence of Archbishop Lorenzana. No wise work
+for the good of Mexico was ignored by him. He edited the letters of
+Hernán Cortés. He encouraged mining and extended the operations of the
+mint. In the great church at Guadalupe a bronze tablet in the floor
+marks the resting place of the good viceroy Bucareli. So highly was he
+esteemed also by the king that his salary was largely increased and,
+still more noteworthy, no _residencia_, or investigation, of his
+administration was held at his death.
+
+Martin de Mayorga, the forty-seventh viceroy, entered on office in
+1779. Of his civil services it is to be noted that he founded the San
+Carlos Academy of Fine Arts.
+
+The aspirations of Matias de Galvez were realized in 1783, when he
+succeeded as the forty-eighth viceroy; but he lived only a few months.
+His son Bernardo was next appointed; his popularity in Louisiana was
+fully equaled in Mexico. Amongst his popular measures was the building
+of the palace of Chapultepec at a cost of three hundred thousand pesos;
+and his aid during a famine, when he labored personally to ascertain
+the actual wants of the sufferers and supplied them largely out of
+his private means. So great was his popularity that some suspected
+him of aiming at an independent sovereignty, but this suspicion was
+not entertained by his king or the _audiencia_. His death in 1786,
+at thirty-eight, called forth general manifestation of the affection
+in which he was held and great honors were paid to his memory, his
+posthumous daughter being christened with great pomp and having as
+sponsors the “most noble” City of Mexico.
+
+In 1789, Juan Vicente de Güemes Pacheco de Padilla, Conde de
+Revillagigedo, succeeded as fifty-second viceroy; he was the second
+Conde de Revillagigedo and the son of the forty-first viceroy. His
+rule was one of active reforms in administration. The City of Mexico
+was paved and lighted, a sewerage system and fire brigades and a
+police force were established. Free public schools were provided for
+children of both sexes and the famous College of Mining was opened.
+He relentlessly pursued and executed bandits; cleansed the city
+thoroughly; and caused a census to be taken of the _intendencia_
+of Mexico in 1790, when the population was shown to be over one
+million five hundred thousand, and of the capital nearly one hundred
+and thirteen thousand. He sent out several exploring expeditions,
+one of which reached within the confines of Alaska. So thorough was
+his government that he sought to inform himself of every detail and
+in order to learn of any abuses, he provided a letter box in one of
+the halls of the palace, in which the public might deposit written
+statements of complaint or suggestion. So active had been this
+viceroy’s administration that the ancient city of the Aztecs had become
+by the close of the eighteenth century a beautiful modern city. Yet in
+spite of all his labors, he was removed from office in 1794 and died
+under the cloud of royal displeasure. Only after his death was his true
+merit recognized and honors were showered on his descendants.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC.]
+
+Miguel de la Grua Talamanca, Marqués de Branciforte, succeeded in 1794
+as the fifty-third viceroy. He was a brother-in-law of Manuel Godoy,
+Prince of Peace, the favorite of Charles IV., and was, consequently, in
+much favor with the king, who heaped honors upon him. He reciprocated
+the royal favor to the utmost of his power. He caused to be erected the
+splendid bronze equestrian statue of Charles IV. in the Paseo, the work
+of the celebrated Mexican sculptor, Manuel Tolsa, of which Humboldt
+said that, “except the statue of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, there was
+nothing of the kind in Europe to equal it in beauty and purity of
+design.” Viceroy Branciforte was too much of a courtier to administer
+his government in the interest of the people of Mexico, but he actively
+sought to aggrandize his own possessions. He confiscated the property
+of Frenchmen residing in Mexico and in Louisiana, and when he left his
+government in 1798 he took with him an immense treasure. During his
+administration that part of Florida west of the Perdido River was ceded
+to France.
+
+The fifty-fourth viceroy, Miguel José de Azanza, ruled New Spain from
+1798 to 1800 with ability and justice, but the spirit of the revolution
+was hovering over Mexico and he had to put down a conspiracy to expel
+the Spaniards or _gachupines_ from the province, which broke out in
+1799. This conspiracy is known as the “_machete_,” from the name given
+to the sabres used by the conspirators, who, though insignificant in
+number, represented a rapidly extending antagonism of long standing,
+between the Creoles and the Spaniards, which was soon to burst forth
+in an inconquerable flame. The noteworthy act of Felix Berenguer de
+Marquina the fifty-fifth viceroy, from 1800 to 1803, was his effort to
+put an end to the bull-fight. On his forbidding this pastime, and being
+informed that the municipal government could not meet the deficiency
+caused by the cost of the viceroy’s reception unless the profits of
+a bull-fight were forthcoming, the viceroy covered the amount, seven
+thousand pesos, out of his private purse.
+
+José de Iturrigaray succeeded in 1803. In 1802, Spain and France
+signed the definitive treaty by which the former ceded Louisiana to
+France, and in 1803, Napoleon sold the Province to the United States,
+notwithstanding the stipulations of the treaty with Spain. Spain
+allied with France against England and at the battle of Trafalgar
+her fleet and that of her ally were almost totally destroyed and
+fears were entertained that an attack on Vera Cruz by the English
+would follow. In 1808, owing to the weak conduct of Charles IV. in
+respect of the designs of Napoleon he was compelled to abdicate in
+favor of his son Ferdinand. Quarrels and misunderstandings finally
+resulted in Napoleon’s putting his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the
+Spanish throne, but not without intense and heroic resistance from the
+Spaniards, and only to be expelled in 1814. The news of the surrender
+of the Spanish crown to Napoleon bitterly incensed the people of New
+Spain, and on July 19, 1808, the municipal authorities of Mexico City
+petitioned Viceroy Iturrigaray not to recognize any foreign authority
+or Spanish authorities if controlled by foreigners, and asserted that,
+in the absence of a legitimate sovereign, the power resided in the
+people. This latter claim was espoused by the Creoles and the viceroy,
+but was as strongly opposed by the official Spanish party and the heads
+of the Church and the Inquisition as seditious and heretical. For this
+leaning toward the native claim, the viceroy became suspected by the
+Spanish party and on September 15, 1808, he was clandestinely seized,
+sent a prisoner to the Island of San Juan de Ulua and thence to Cadiz.
+
+Pedro de Garibay was the next viceroy. He was elected mainly by the
+_Chaquetas_, who were the volunteers of Fernando Séptimo, and who had
+captured Iturrigaray at the viceregal palace. The viceroy was merely
+the tool of the Spanish party in ordering the secret execution of the
+Licenciado Verdad, who, as head of the municipality of Mexico City
+had proposed a provisional government for New Spain at a _junta_ held
+on August 9th. Verdad is regarded as the first martyr for Mexican
+independence.
+
+The Spanish _junta_ at Aranjuez, which was then recognized in Mexico,
+appointed the Archbishop of Mexico, Francisco Xavier Lizana y Beaumont
+viceroy. He was succeeded by Francisco Xavier Venégas, the fifty-ninth
+viceroy, who was appointed by the Spanish regency. His rule was not
+effective; the spirit of independence was strengthening; nor did the
+decree issued in Spain in 1809, recognizing the West Indian possessions
+as an integral part of the monarchy, avail to check the nascent
+national movement, particularly as the Creoles were discriminated
+against in the matter of representation in the _cortes_.
+
+ [Illustration: OLD CARVING OF THE TIME OF CORTÉS.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: GATEWAY AT THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+It was not until the various colonies to the north of them had achieved
+their independence, and had come to be known as a new nation, the
+United States of America, that the Mexicans began to indulge the spirit
+of patriotism and the desire for independence which are implanted
+by nature in every human breast. Other patriots had succeeded in
+establishing their rights to freedom and its privileges, why not they?
+
+As the years went on, this restless desire for liberty grew among the
+patriots of Mexico. The fruits, the wealth, the prodigal bounty of the
+country were theirs, they felt, by inheritance; why should they go to
+enrich the coffers of a foreign country while they were kept here in
+poverty and oppression? In 1798, the Spanish viceroy began to discover
+signs of the uprising that broke out with such force a few years later,
+under the noble Hidalgo. Even then the Mexicans had decided in their
+secret hearts that Mexico should no longer be New Spain either in name
+or in fact. She should be free. She should govern her own country and
+worship in her own church. She should come into her own Kingdom of
+Liberty.
+
+It was a bloody struggle and one that was several times repeated ere
+the victory was gained and Mexico became firmly established as one of
+the republics of the world.
+
+Hidalgo and his patriots made a noble fight, but internal dissensions
+and foreign invasions followed; the valuable mines, sacked for
+centuries by other rulers, had to be abandoned, and the tillable lands
+were left untouched. The patriots were fighting in the cause of honor
+and trying to wrest the crown of liberty from their oppressors, while
+starvation stared them in the face. It is always so in a desperate
+revolution. Liberty is to be won only by the sacrifice of many human
+lives.
+
+And so the older patriots fought, bled, and died for their country,
+while their places were taken by younger men who continued the battle
+for progress and freedom, and only the Indians of the mountain
+fastnesses were left free from care or ambitions.
+
+Mexico’s history has been singularly cursed by the greed of gold and
+lust of power on the part of foreign potentates. Her inexhaustible
+treasures have, in past ages, been to her, in a sense, a curse rather
+than a blessing; since it was only the greed of gold which brought
+the cruel, grinding oppressor, who for centuries kept her under the
+iron heel of the conquerors. While Mexico waited, many a less favored
+settlement rose to the distinction of a nation, and smaller colonies
+rose to proud prominence.
+
+But Mexico was oppressed and despoiled in vain. Slowly, perhaps, her
+courage rose to the point of resistance, but when the day of struggle
+came her spirit was indomitable. Beaten repeatedly, thrust down from
+temporary acquisitions more than once, she knew not the meaning of the
+word defeat. Again and again she rose fresh from discouragement; and
+with a persistence that was almost divine, and a courage that comes
+only from the God of Liberty, cried, undismayed, “Mexico shall be free!
+Mexico shall take her place among the independent nations of the
+earth!”
+
+In 1809, an independent plot had been born in Valladolid, in Michoacán,
+and in the next year the revolutionists directed their plans from the
+town of Querétaro. The chief guide in the incipient movement was
+Ignacio Allende, who, in coöperation with the licenciados Parra, Laso
+and Altamirano, and the captains Aldama and Arías, the lieutenants
+Lanzagorta, Epigmenio and Emeterio Gonzalez, officers in the Queen’s
+dragoons, established a _junta_ in Querétaro. The plan was to
+seize the leading Spaniards in the chief towns and thereupon to
+proclaim the independence of Mexico, with a government ruling in the
+name of Ferdinand VII., independent of Spanish authorities. In 1810,
+the leader of the revolutionists was the noble patriot _cura_
+Hidalgo, who was in charge of the parish of Dolores, in Guanajúato. The
+plan was for a general uprising on December 8, 1810, when the great
+fair of San Juan de los Lagos would begin, but through the treachery
+of some of their comrades at Guanajúato, and by Captain Arías at
+Querétaro, their plan was untimely precipitated, and several arrests
+were made at Querétaro on September 13th, including the brothers
+Gonzalez. Warning of this was conveyed to the friends at San Miguel,
+and the news of the arrests at Querétaro was brought to Hidalgo at
+Dolores, who realizing the extremity of the situation exclaimed:
+“Gentlemen, we are lost; there is no other recourse but to seize the
+_gachupines_.” The people of Dolores were aroused; at early mass
+on that Sunday morning, Hidalgo urged them to defend their rights
+against the usurped dominion of the French. They seized the principal
+Spaniards in the town; the priest was acclaimed their leader and by
+noon of the same day a small patriot army, badly equipped, but very
+enthusiastic, marched on San Miguel under the lead of Hidalgo and
+Allende. On the march, they stopped at the sanctuary of Atotonilco,
+where taking from the altar the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe,
+Hidalgo raised it as the patriot standard and uttered the _grito
+de Dolores_: “_Viva nuestra Senora de Guadalupe; mueran los
+gachupines!_”
+
+ [Illustration: HIDALGO.]
+
+Arriving at San Miguel, Allende’s regiment joined Hidalgo’s force and
+the combined army marched on Guanajúato, gathering strength as it
+proceeded. At Celaya, the troops guarding the town abandoned it and
+Hidalgo entered on September 21st, after threatening with death the
+Spanish prisoners if the place was not surrendered. The patriot army
+now numbered fifty thousand, and it proclaimed Hidalgo captain-general
+of America, and Allende lieutenant-general. On to Guanajúato, with
+momentarily increasing force, the patriots moved. This important city
+contained considerable treasure, but through fear of the people the
+_intendente_ hesitated to defend it and retired to the Alhondiga
+de Granaditas, or granary, with his soldiers, where he was attacked by
+the patriots on September 28th and killed. The treasure seized amounted
+in value to three million pesos, and the city, as was the case at
+Celaya, was pillaged, though Hidalgo exerted himself to the utmost to
+prevent such excess.
+
+ [Illustration: JOSÉ MARIA MORELOS.]
+
+Viceroy Venegas now recognized the formidable character of the
+revolution and took energetic steps to quell it. Volunteer troops
+were enlisted. A price of ten thousand pesos was put on the head of
+each of the leaders of the revolution; Hidalgo and his followers were
+excommunicated, and the Inquisition cited the patriot priest to answer
+charges of heresy and apostasy. Valladolid (Morelia) was occupied,
+without resistance, by the patriots, who emancipated slaves and
+abolished tribute payment. With his funds greatly increased in this
+town, Hidalgo prepared to march on the capital with an army, or perhaps
+more truly a rabble, of eighty thousand men. At this time he was
+proclaimed generalissimo with Allende as captain-general and Aldama,
+Ballerza, Jimenez and Joaquin Arías, lieutenant-generals.
+
+General Torcuato Trujillo was sent with three thousand men to oppose
+Hidalgo’s way to the capital and the armies met at Las Cruces, about
+twenty miles from the capital, on October 30, 1810. The conflict was
+bitter, the greater number of the patriots being more than offset
+by the superior equipment and discipline of the royalists, who were
+equipped with artillery. In the capital, the viceroy, alarmed at
+the strength of the revolutionists, contemplated the removal of the
+government to Vera Cruz, but finally decided to remain and defend it.
+He secured the image of the Virgin de los Remedios from Totoltepec and
+enshrined it in the cathedral of the capital and with much ceremony
+hailed it as “lady captain-general of the army.” As a counteraction
+to that of Hidalgo, he adopted a sacred banner bearing the image of
+_Nuestra Senora de los Remedios_. Vigorous steps were taken by the
+viceroy to meet the perilous situation and defend the capital.
+
+ [Illustration: THE PRISON IN WHICH HIDALGO WAS CONFINED AT
+ CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+Meantime, Hidalgo on his retreat to Querétaro encountered Calleja
+at Aculco, where he was put to rout on November 7th, and fell back
+to Valladolid. On November 26th, he entered Guadalajara to join the
+revolutionary force under Torres, who had defeated the royalists at
+Zacoalco. In Guadalajara a government was established with Ignacio
+López Rayón and José Maria Chico as chief ministers. Here, as in the
+Province of Guanajúato, Hidalgo decreed the emancipation of slaves
+and abolished the tribute. At Guanajúato, whither Allende had retired
+after the battle of Las Cruces, the royalist army, under Calleja
+and Flon, attacked the patriots on November 25th and forced them to
+retreat. Before the royalist generals entered the town the people
+forced an entrance into the _Alhondiga_ and massacred one hundred
+and thirty-eight Spanish prisoners confined there, an act that Calleja
+terribly avenged soon by the promiscuous slaughter of inhabitants
+followed by the execution of forty-one prominent residents.
+
+The viceroy now put General José de la Cruz, who had just arrived from
+Spain, at the head of the royal forces. After capturing Valladolid, de
+la Cruz marched against Hidalgo at Guadalajara, but was intercepted by
+Colonel Ruperto Mier about twelve miles from Zamora and defeated him,
+but the delay prevented him from joining Calleja in time to participate
+against Hidalgo at the Bridge of Calderon, on January 17, 1811, where
+the patriot forces, under Allende, who had made his way to Zacatécas
+and thence to Guadalajara after his defeat at Guanajúato, joined
+Hidalgo’s half-clad, ill-disciplined force of eighty thousand men. The
+infantry were armed with the sling and the bow and there were less than
+a hundred cannon, many of which were of wood bound with hoops of iron,
+while only a few of the cavalry had sabres. This poor army, rich only
+in faith and patriotism, took up a strong position at the Bridge of
+Calderon and awaited the attack of the royalist forces under Calleja
+and Flon, numbering six thousand well-disciplined infantry and cavalry,
+with ten pieces of artillery. The battle ended in the utter defeat of
+the patriots with immense loss.
+
+The patriot force dispersed, the Province of New Galicia must be
+pacified. Hidalgo was now forced to resign his office of generalissimo
+in favor of Allende whose military qualities were regarded by the
+leaders as superior to those of Hidalgo. Allende went to the aid of
+Jimenez at Saltillo, who had secured some slight victories over the
+royalists, but flight seemed the best course for the leaders and
+their cause and they went north in the hope of reaching the United
+States both for safety and aid. After many dramatic victories and
+some disappointments, the strength of the Mexicans seemed to grow,
+when the Father of his Country’s Independence, Hidalgo, was betrayed
+to the enemy by a Spaniard, Mariano Galvan, and the four patriots,
+Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez were captured and executed as
+an example and warning to all who chose to revolt against the Crown
+of Spain. Hidalgo was killed July 21st. Thirty other leaders were
+executed shortly after, including Mariano Hidalgo, the cura’s brother,
+and Chico, the minister of justice of the revolutionary government.
+The greatest indignity was added to the execution in the case of
+Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, whose heads were cut off and
+sent to Guanajúato where they were placed in iron cages within the
+_alhondiga_, where they remained until 1821, when they were
+removed and with great pomp and honor buried with the bodies of the
+patriots in the chapel of Los Reyes beneath the altar of the kings
+in the cathedral of Mexico. The brutal act may have justified itself
+to the advisers of “divine right” majesty, as a warning against the
+assumption by the people that they possessed any rights; but humanity
+abhors the deed.
+
+ [Illustration: ITURBIDE.]
+
+If with the destruction of the great leaders and the scattering of
+the armies they had led to final disaster, the royalists believed
+the independence of Mexico had been made impossible, the striking
+events that followed during the next year must have been painfully
+disheartening. Ignacio López Rayón, who had been a member of the
+revolutionary government and was later named captain-general of
+the revolutionary forces was not to be subdued by the fate of his
+colleagues. Neither was the spirit of the people crushed; the flame
+of revolution could not be quenched; desultory war continued. Rayón,
+after defeating the royalists, Ochoa and Zambrano, and meeting defeat
+and success in turn, unsuccessfully attacked Valladolid on August 19,
+1811, and set up a national _junta_ at Zitácuaro in Michoacán,
+the members of which, besides himself, were Liceaga and the priest
+Verduzco. Another leader arose who also was to sacrifice his life
+for the cause of independence, after striking terror in the hearts
+of the _gachupines_ and carrying the national cause to the very
+threshold of success. José Maria Morelos was born on the last day
+of September, 1765, on a ranch near Apatzingan, in Michoacán. His
+father, Manuel Morelos, was a carpenter and his mother, Juana Pavón,
+was the daughter of a schoolmaster at Valladolid. His early life was
+a struggle, but at twenty-five he entered the college of San Nicolás
+as a sizar and studied philosophy under Hidalgo. His course completed
+he was consecrated a priest, thus realizing a long cherished ambition.
+He served as _cura_ for many years and was in office at Caracuaro
+when the revolution began in Dolores. The following month he offered
+his services to Hidalgo which, being accepted, he was commissioned to
+attempt to take the Port of Acapulco.
+
+This great leader commenced his march from the scene of his parochial
+labors with just twenty-five followers. Prevented by sickness from
+active operations for some time, the Galeanas successfully held back
+the royalist army. Upon his recovery, Morelos resumed his leadership
+and took possession of Chilpancingo. Here he was joined by the three
+brothers Bravo and the son of one of these, Nicolás, whose names are
+famous in the winning of independence. After active campaigning,
+Morelos routed Fuentes the royalist commander at Tixtla and took
+possession of the city on August 17, 1811, following this by the
+occupation of Chilapa, where he executed the officer Gago, who had
+deceived him as to the surrender of the fort at Acapulco.
+
+In order to destroy the ancient revolutionary government at Zitácuaro,
+Viceroy Venegas sent General Calleja to seize the town, which was held
+by Rayón. This he accomplished on January 2, 1812, and gave the place
+to pillage and destruction and all the buildings save the churches and
+convents were razed. While Rayón thus suffered defeat, Morelos had
+triumphed over the royalists and by the close of January, had strongly
+fortified himself at Cuautla de Amilpas, where he was attacked on
+February 15th, by the allied forces of Calleja, Llano, and Porlier
+and after a heroically defended siege was compelled to abandon the
+place on May 2d; not, however, till he was absolutely starved out;
+so completely had the place been invested that neither entrance nor
+exit was possible. In honor of this defence the city later received
+the added name of Morelos. No less heroic was the service rendered by
+the Galeanas, the Bravos and Matamoros. A striking instance of the
+patriotism of the revolutionists is furnished in connection with the
+defence of Cuautla. Leonardo Bravo having been taken prisoner, the
+viceroy offered to spare his life on condition that his son Nicolás
+should abjure the cause of the revolution. Both father and son rejected
+the offer as an infamy and Leonardo was executed. The conduct of
+the patriotic son further furnishes a noble example of high-minded
+generosity. Though Morelos authorized Nicolás to put to death three
+hundred Spanish prisoners whom he had taken, he refused to follow the
+base example of the viceroy, but instead set his prisoners free. This
+act of chivalry has been embalmed in the pages of Mexican history and
+is called a _venganza insurgente_.
+
+Recovering from his defeat at Cuautla, Morelos worsted the royalists
+at Orizaba in October of the same year and on the 24th of November he
+defeated General Saravia at Oaxaca and took possession of the city
+after a brilliant engagement of two hours. As Morelos advanced upon the
+city, the bishop preached a Holy War against him and raised a force of
+two thousand men to oppose him, but the resistance was quite feeble.
+Morelos paroled the royalist officers taken in the city, except General
+Regules and one or two others, who were executed on the spot where
+two years earlier two spies sent by Hidalgo had been put to death.
+The bodies of these men, as well as those of two deacons who had been
+beheaded as patriots in 1811, were now exhumed and buried with military
+honors.
+
+ [Illustration: THE LIBERTY BELL, OVER THE MAIN ENTRANCE OF
+ THE NATIONAL PALACE.]
+
+The capture of Oaxaca was a serious blow to the prestige of the
+royalists. This great victory was soon followed by the supersession of
+Viceroy Venegas, who was succeeded by General Félix Maria Calleja del
+Rey, the sixtieth viceroy in succession. A municipal government was
+established in the city, with Manuel Nicolás Bustamante as president,
+and a garrison was established. After securing Oaxaca, Morelos moved
+toward Acapulco, which he captured on August 19th.
+
+Morelos realized the necessity of establishing union and coöperative
+effort between the revolutionists, and with this in view he caused
+a congress of elected delegates to meet. The congress assembled at
+Chilpancingo on September 14, 1813, the members being elected in
+the case of the provinces in which the patriots were in power and
+appointed by Morelos for those held by the royalists. Eight members
+were present representing New Galicia, Michoacán, Guanajúato, Oaxaca,
+Tecpán, Mexico, Puebla and Vera Cruz. This congress, styled the
+congress of Anáhuac, issued a declaration of independence, the terms
+of which asserted the absolute sovereignty of the people of Mexico and
+unrestricted independence of Spain. It read as follows: “The congress
+of Anáhuac, installed legitimately in the City of Chilpancingo in
+North America by its provinces, declares solemnly in the presence of
+the Lord God, arbiter of powers and author of society, who gives and
+takes away according to the inscrutable designs of his Providence,
+that, owing to the present conditions in Europe, it has recovered the
+exercise of its usurped sovereignty; that accordingly its dependence
+upon the Spanish throne remains forever broken and dissolved; that
+it is competent to establish the laws which please it, for the best
+government and interior felicity; to make war and peace and establish
+alliance with the monarchs and republics of the old continent, no
+less than to make concordats with the Supreme Roman Pontiff for the
+direction of the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church, and send
+ambassadors and consuls; that it professes and recognizes no other
+religion than the Catholic and will neither permit nor tolerate the
+public or secret practice of any other; that it will protect it with
+all its power, and will watch over the purity of the faith and its
+dogmas and the preservation of the regular bodies. It declares as
+guilty of high treason any one who will oppose directly or indirectly
+its independence, or protecting the European oppressors by work, word
+or writing, neglecting to contribute to the expenses, subsidies and
+pensions to continue the war, until its independence be recognized by
+the foreign nations; the congress reserving for itself the right to
+present to them, by means of a ministerial note, which will circulate
+in all the cabinets, the manifesto of its complaints and the justice of
+this revolution, recognized already by Europe itself.”
+
+Following the declaration of independence, Morelos planned the capture
+of Valladolid and appeared before the city on December 22, 1813,
+supported by a large army led by his brave lieutenants Matamoros,
+Nicolás Bravo and Galeana. The capture was frustrated, Viceroy Calleja
+had promptly sent the army of the north under Llano and Iturbide with
+a body of nearly four hundred horsemen. This was followed on January
+5th, by a complete rout and the brave Matamoros being captured, he was
+shot at Valladolid on February 3d. Such was the fate of the bravest
+of Mexicans fighting for national liberty against a government whose
+only claim was that of an official legality decreed by an alien
+power, established by a military superiority and maintained by force
+and fraud. But time has avenged their memory, and their patriotism and
+valor shed lustre and glory on their names and rank them among the
+world’s heroes as exemplars for the human race.
+
+A new political phase, however, gave fresh incentive to the cause of
+Mexico. In 1812, smarting under French domination, Spain had granted
+representation in the _cortes_ to the West Indian possessions,
+which were made an integral part of the kingdom. Ferdinand, on his
+restoration, in March, 1814, repudiated the constitution and this
+reactionary and despotic course aroused widespread discontent among the
+royalists in Mexico, and furnished a new motive for independence. It
+may be said, without any disparagement of the brave patriots who first
+realized the need of revolution and embarked in its work, that except
+for the miserable and contemptible conduct of Ferdinand, independence
+would probably not have been achieved till a much later period than it
+was. But the act of the king was a blow at Mexican pride and interest
+at the same time and its effect upon the Creole royalists was immediate.
+
+The independence congress met at Apatzingan on October 22d and
+proclaimed a constitution, under which Mexico was divided into
+seventeen independent provinces, namely: Mexico, Puebla, Tlascala,
+Vera Cruz, Yucatán, Oaxaca, Tecpán, Michoacán, Querétaro, Guadalajara,
+Guanajúato, Potosí, Zacatécas, Durango, Sonora, Coahuila, and Nuevo
+Reyno de Léon. Full powers of government were provided provisionally
+until peace could be established, when the sovereignty should reside
+in an elected congress. The executive branch of the government was
+entrusted to Liceaga, Morelos and Cos, the first named being president.
+
+The revolutionary movement continued to meet with reverses and the
+congress was constantly menaced, so for hoped-for greater security,
+it was proposed to meet at Tehuacán beyond the mountains. On the way
+thither from Uruapán, under the lead of Morelos, the royalist forces
+of Colonel Concha encountered the patriots at Tesmalaca on November
+5, 1815, and the latter were disastrously routed, the brave Morelos
+being captured. He asked no consideration as he had shown little. The
+royalists were foes of his people and their cause and he had acted with
+severity against them when it seemed that the conditions demanded it.
+His trial and condemnation took place in Mexico, amid the exultation
+of the royalists, and he was shot at San Cristobal Ecatepec, near
+the capital, on the judgment of both the military tribunal and the
+Inquisition. He had been a no less able than brave leader. During
+the most difficult period of the revolution he had maintained his
+forces in face of great difficulties; he had crystallized the movement
+for independence into a sort of representative government, however
+localized in its powers; and had secured the issue of a formal
+declaration of independence; above all he had kept alive and given
+consistency to the struggle. Time has but strengthened the claim of
+Morelos to the affection of the Mexican people.
+
+A momentary discord among the revolutionary leaders manifested
+itself on the death of Morelos and some defections to the royalist
+cause occurred. Through the influence of Manuel de Mier y Terán a
+provisional executive committee was substituted for the congress whose
+protection on its migration to Tehuacán had cost the life of Morelos.
+At the moment when the royalist arms were so nearly triumphant over
+the opposing forces, Viceroy Calleja was recalled to Spain, where he
+received marked honor and was created Conde de Calderón. In contrast to
+these honors in Spain, he was dubbed by the Mexicans “the wild beast,”
+as a fitting recognition of his ruthless severity.
+
+ [Illustration: ONE OF THE LARGE CYPRESS TREES IN THE GROVE OF
+ CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+On September 19, 1816, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca succeeded to the
+vice-royalty, the sixty-first in succession. He was an able
+administrator and had been captain-general of Cuba. In the same year
+the Jesuits returned to Mexico, a general desire being manifested
+therefor, in view of their influence as teachers and missionaries.
+
+On April 15, 1817, Francisco Javier Mina, a native of Navarre, reached
+Mexico. He had abandoned his studies at the University of Saragossa to
+participate in the resistance of his countrymen against the invasion
+of Napoleon in 1808, and became famous for the guerrilla warfare he
+maintained against the foreigners. He joined the liberals in resistance
+to the measures of Ferdinand in 1814, on his restoration. Being
+forced to flee from Spain he resolved to go to the aid of the Mexican
+patriots and sailed from Liverpool in May, 1816, on a ship provided
+by the contributions of a few Englishmen, to the United States where
+he enlisted volunteers at Baltimore and Galveston and receiving at
+the latter place reinforcements he reached with seven vessels the
+River Santander on April 15th, and a few days later arrived at Soto
+la Marina, where he erected and garrisoned a fort, which he left in
+command of Major Sarda, while he advanced into the interior.
+
+ [Illustration: HIDALGO ON HORSEBACK.]
+
+Mina soon found himself engaged with the royalist forces and, after
+defeating them in minor engagements, he captured and sacked Pinos
+and joined the patriot forces at Fort Sombrero in Guanajúato under
+Moreno. Moreno was killed as he tried to escape, and Mina was shot by
+Liñan’s order on November 11, 1817, on a hill in front of the fort he
+had vainly tried to relieve, which stronghold, held by Father Torres,
+quickly fell into the hands of the royalists and its defender was shot
+soon after. The fort at Soto la Marina established by Mina had already
+been taken. Again had a great leader paid with his life for the cause
+of liberty.
+
+The brave Nicolás Bravo suffered defeat on December 1st, at Cóporo and
+on the 22d he was captured, with Ignacio Rayón and Verduzco, members
+of the first _junta_ established at Zitácuaro. The viceroy spared
+their lives and they were released in 1820.
+
+The gap caused by Nicolás Bravo’s capture was filled by Vicente
+Guerrero, who had safely conducted the congress to Tehuacán on November
+16, 1816, after the capture of Morelos at Tesmalaca. But the tide of
+defeat could not be turned. The _junta_ at Jaujilla was broken
+up and its members taken prisoners or shot. Many of the leading
+revolutionists, deeming the struggle futile, submitted to the viceroy
+and were pardoned. The less severe policy he adopted seemed of more
+service to his king than was the severity of his predecessor. Manuel
+Félix Fernández, self-named Guadalupe Victoria, refused, however, to
+forego the terrors of a patriot, at the price of submission.
+
+The fruit of Mexican disaffection which had set at the time of
+Ferdinand’s repudiation, in 1814, of the constitution of 1812, was
+ripened by a revolution in Spain, resulting from his despotic rule.
+The _cortes_ enacted the closing of the convents, the abolition
+of the Inquisition, the freedom of the press, and the right of popular
+meetings and of forming political organizations. The constitution of
+1812 was restored. It was favorably regarded in Mexico by the Creoles;
+but the times had changed and the official Spanish party realized
+that they could not retain their influence in the province under the
+new conditions; hence they chose to favor independence as offering a
+better means of retaining the control of public affairs. Such at least,
+would seem to be the motive of the _volte face_; at any rate a
+conspiracy was formed, the pretext being put forward, in some quarters,
+that as Ferdinand had accepted the new constitution under compulsion,
+he should be tendered a refuge in the New World.
+
+The man of the hour was Augustin de Iturbide. He was one of the most
+formidable of the royalist leaders and had punished the patriots
+without show of mercy. He, whose sword had been so active in destroying
+the independence army, was the hero selected by the conspirators
+to effect the independence of Mexico. He was born at Valladolid on
+September 27, 1783. His father was a Spaniard and his mother a Mexican;
+hence, though called a Creole, he was in truth a _Mestizo_. His
+personality was remarkably prepossessing and his bravery unlimited.
+His first step in the new movement for Mexican independence was to
+obtain command of the royalist army of the south, in order to conquer
+Vicente Guerrero and “pacify the whole kingdom,” as he himself said.
+Not succeeding against this doughty patriot he made known his plan
+to him, and received Guerrero’s promise of support. Accordingly, he
+announced the famous “Plan de Iguala,” or the plan of “The Three
+Guarantees,” on February 24, 1821. The basis of this claim was the
+exclusive establishment of the Roman Catholic religion; the absolute
+independence of Mexico, with a constitutional monarchy under the
+rule of Ferdinand; the union and equality of Mexicans and Spaniards.
+These three guarantees are emblemized in the national colors of
+Mexico--_green_ representing the union of Mexicans and Spaniards;
+_white_, religious purity; _red_, independence. Provision was made for
+the government by a _junta_, pending the meeting of the _cortes_, and
+also in case the emperor did not come to Mexico. No disqualification
+for public office was permitted by reason of race or color. An army
+was to be created, to be called the Army of the Three Guarantees. The
+army at Iguala was sworn to support Iturbide’s plan, and the viceroy
+was informed of its details and of the proposed membership of the
+_junta_, at the same time he was offered its presidency. Apodaca not
+only refused to entertain the plan but took measures to oppose its
+execution; in consequence he was removed from office on July 5th, and
+in his stead General Pedro Novella was provisionally appointed and
+ruled till July 30, 1821, when General Juan O’Donojú arrived at Vera
+Cruz as the regular successor--the last of the viceroys.
+
+Iturbide’s plan made many friends for the cause of independence and
+among its supporters were Anastasio Bustamante, Santa Anna and Pedro
+Celestino Negrete. Iturbide held Guanajúato, Valladolid, Querétaro,
+and other places. The new viceroy finding that he could not reach the
+capital arranged a conference with Iturbide at Córdoba, which took
+place on August 24th, and the viceroy agreed to the Plan de Iguala,
+subject to his being appointed one of the provisional rulers of Mexico
+until the monarch could be selected. The agreement embodied in this
+plan is known as the “Treaty of Córdoba.”
+
+The way to independence was now clear. Iturbide, after rejoining his
+army, marched on the capital, which was evacuated by the royalist
+forces on the order of Viceroy O’Donojú and the army of independence
+entered the city in triumph, September 27, 1821. Mexico’s freedom from
+Spain was accomplished for there was slight probability of a Bourbon
+occupying the throne, as in default of Ferdinand himself becoming
+monarch, it was provided that the _cortes_ should select the
+sovereign.
+
+To the fact that the plan of the first revolutionists was not fulfilled
+is doubtless due the years of discord that followed until a republican
+and popular form of government became the guerdon of the long struggle
+for political freedom. Nevertheless, a national empire was an advance
+upon a provincial dependency, although a further struggle must
+intervene before the true aspirations of the people could be realized.
+
+The new era opening on the birth of the nation presents the immediate
+consummation of the Plan de Iguala in a provisional government, or
+regency composed of Iturbide, O’Donojú, Manuel de la Barcena, José
+Isidro Yañez and Manuel Velasquez de León, the first named being
+president of the governing body. It is significant that the patriots
+who had fought and bled and suffered for independence, the real
+successors of Hidalgo, were not recognized in the new situation. The
+territorial limits of Mexico included, besides all the area of the
+republic of to-day, that part of the United States from the Red and
+Arkansas Rivers to the Pacific Coast, extending north to the limits of
+the British dominion of Canada. A few days after the establishment of
+the new government O’Donojú died, October 8th, and the vacancy thus
+caused was filled by the appointment of Bishop Joaquin Oton Perez, of
+the See of Puebla.
+
+ [Illustration: RESIDENCE OF MIGUEL HIDALGO, AT DOLORES
+ HIDALGO.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE NATIONAL PALACE.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE TOMB OF JUAREZ.]
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC
+
+
+The Spanish _cortes_ on the 16th of February, 1822, annulled the
+Plan de Iguala as modified by the Treaty of Córdoba. On the assembling
+of the first congress of Mexico, February 22d, at the capital, elected
+according to the provisions made by a committee of the regency, in
+accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Córdoba, it was seen that
+the members were aligned in two factions, the “Bourbonistas” and the
+“Republicans.” Perez, Barcena and De Leon were displaced and Nicolás
+Bravo, the Conde de Heras Soto and Miguel Valentin were substituted.
+But the purpose of Iturbide to secure the crown as emperor was soon
+manifest. On May 18th, Pio Marcha, a non-commissioned infantry officer
+launched a movement in favor of Iturbide, and a public demonstration
+resulted in his election next day by the congress by a vote of
+seventy-seven to fifteen and on July 21st, he was crowned in the
+cathedral with his wife as Emperor and Empress of Mexico. The Emperor
+took the title of Augustin I. Energetic as he was, he was nevertheless
+a weak ruler and abandoned himself to the display of royal pomp and
+power rather than to the initiation of measures for the welfare of the
+people and the establishment of the nation, and he soon found himself
+at odds with the Congress, which he dissolved on October 31st and
+established a _junta_. A revolutionary movement was set on foot by
+Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria. The old revolutionists
+joined Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and on February 1, 1823, the “Plan
+de Casa Mata” was promulgated, according to which a new Congress was to
+be elected and a republican form of government guaranteed. Meantime,
+in December, a republic had been proclaimed at Vera Cruz and only
+the capital remained as the empire. In vain did Iturbide recall the
+Congress he had dissolved. The opposition was determined; he shrank
+from retaining power through a civil war and accordingly tendered his
+abdication March 19th, but the Congress refused to accept it, declaring
+instead that Iturbide’s crown had been obtained by force and therefore
+his acts as Emperor were illegal. He was banished from Mexico and set
+sail on April 11th, from La Antigua. Congress however voted him an
+annual pension of 25,000 pesos as a reward for his great services to
+his country.
+
+The government was now vested in a _Poder Ejecutivo_, composed
+of Pedro Celestino Negrete, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria, all
+of whom were absent from the capital at the time of their nomination.
+The second Congress, it may be called the first of the republic, met
+on November 7, 1823. Nevertheless the independence of Mexico was
+largely assured by the United States, whose Congress received the
+message of President Monroe on December 2, 1823, in which he formulated
+the doctrine known by his name which secured the governments of the
+Continent of America from interference by any European power. The
+course pursued by the government was little calculated to inspire
+confidence in its wisdom, financially or politically. In the early
+part of 1824, Iturbide addressed the Congress from London intimating
+that the clergy was plotting the restoration of Spanish rule in Mexico
+and offering his services in defense of the republic, but instead it
+was believed that an insurrection in favor of the banished emperor
+himself was on foot and a decree was issued declaring him a traitor
+and condemning him to death should he return to Mexico. Not knowing
+of this decree, Iturbide started from Southampton on May 11th, and on
+landing at the little port of Soto la Marina, north of Tampico, he was
+arrested, taken before the legislature of Tamaulipas, which was in
+session, and condemned and shot at Padilla on July 19, 1824. His dying
+advice was intensely patriotic and he manifested remarkable courage.
+But his execution was a vengeful act, unwise, nay ungrateful, and a
+blot on the page of Mexican history which the honors paid later to his
+family and to his own remains, when on August 6, 1838, they were buried
+with great ceremony in the Cathedral of Mexico, can never erase; while
+the title of the “Liberator” which was graved on his sarcophagus but
+emphasizes the self-reproach of his countrymen.
+
+ [Illustration: BENITO JUAREZ.]
+
+Two parties, or factions, emerged in the Congress, the Bourbonistas,
+or Centralists, and the Federalists. The leaders of the former were
+Negrete, Bravo, Bustamante and Mier y Teran; of the latter, Victoria
+and Guerrero, whose adherents were more numerous, and they were
+successful in framing the Republican Constitution that was proclaimed
+on October 4, 1824. It declared the Roman Catholic religion to be
+perpetually the religion of the Mexican people. The Republic thus
+established consisted of the States of Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila
+and Texas, Durango, Guanajúato, Mexico, Michoacán, Nuevo León,
+Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Sonora and Sinaloa,
+Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Jalisco, Yucatán and Zacatécas and
+the territories of Upper and Lower California, Colima, Santa Fé and
+Tlascala--nineteen states and five territories. On the 10th of October
+the first president, Nicolás Bravo, took the oath of office. Congress
+was dissolved on December 24th and the first Constitutional Congress
+convened on January 1, 1825. In the same year, the last position held
+by the Spaniards, Fort San Juan de Ulua, was evacuated and the republic
+was recognized by the United States and Great Britain.
+
+During this administration the question of secret societies became
+urgent in consequence of the influence of the freemasons in political
+matters. The insurgent force was led by Vice-president Bravo who was
+of the Scottish lodge faction, but Guerrero defeated him and took him
+prisoner.
+
+The election in 1828 resulted in favor of General Manuel Gomez Pedraza,
+who was supported by the Scottish (Escoseses) masons, who defeated
+Vicente Guerrero, whose candidacy was espoused by the Yorkinos; but a
+_pronunciamiento_ was made by the liberals in favor of Guerrero, who
+resorted to arms under the leadership of Santa Anna. The government
+forces defeated him, when he was given command of the army at whose
+hands he had suffered defeat. Pedraza, in view of the extreme
+excitement, resigned and Congress declared his election null and void
+and elected Guerrero president and Anastasio Bustamante vice-president
+on January 12, 1829. Among the measures of Guerrero’s administration
+is to be noted the abolition of slavery. Bustamante was then elected
+president and Congress declared Guerrero “morally incapacitated to
+govern the nation.”
+
+The government of Bustamante began on January 1, 1830. His principal
+adviser was the former historian, Lucas Alamán, who was minister of
+foreign and domestic relations and who had filled the same office under
+the _Poder ejecutivo_ in 1823. The country was, however, agitated
+by dissensions and revolts instigated by Guerrero and his partisans and
+he was driven to Acapulco where he was trapped on the _Colombo_, a
+Sardinian ship whose captain had been bribed to invite Guerrero aboard
+and who delivered him to his enemies, by whom he was courtmartialed and
+shot on February 14, 1831.
+
+Bustamante’s power did not last long, for in 1832 he was overthrown
+by the turbulent Santa Anna, who secured the elevation of Pedraza as
+the legitimate president by virtue of his election in 1828, although
+he had opposed him then in favor of Guerrero. In the election that
+followed, Bravo was chosen president, but Congress declared his
+election void and the way to the supreme magistracy was then open
+to Santa Anna who succeeded on April 1, 1833, Valentin Gomez Farias
+becoming vice-president. In 1836 the complete overthrow of the federal
+system was effected and centralized government established under a new
+constitution, the effect of which set at a greater distance the freedom
+of democratic government and the blessings of peace, thereby retarding
+the real development of the nation.
+
+One of the fruits of the rule of Santa Anna was the loss of Texas to
+Mexico. On November 27, 1838, war was declared against France. Santa
+Anna, who had come forth from his retirement at Manga de Clavo was
+given command at Vera Cruz. The French captured the forts Santiago and
+Concepcion, but failed in their attempt to capture Santa Anna in Vera
+Cruz and retreat to the ships was ordered by the French admiral. In
+following up the French to the shore Santa Anna acquired the laurels of
+a popular hero at the cost of his left leg, which was so badly wounded
+that amputation was necessary. Vera Cruz was then shelled by the French
+and evacuated, but this trivial war ended by a treaty in which Mexico
+agreed to pay the French demand of six hundred thousand dollars within
+six months.
+
+A revolt broke out in Tampico during the troubles with France and
+President Bustamante took the field, leaving the again popular Santa
+Anna provisional president, on March 9, 1839. The movement spread and
+soon became a federalist revolution, involving the capital itself,
+in 1840. General Urrea and Gomez Farias were its successful leaders
+and Bustamante was taken prisoner. Once more the retirement at Manga
+de Clavo was abandoned and Santa Anna emerged to overthrow the
+federalists, to whom Bustamante, however, granted favorable conditions
+and the revolution ended. So unsettled were affairs that Gutierrez
+de Estrada, a former minister, publicly advocated a monarchy under a
+foreign prince. His plan however, merely resulted in his fleeing the
+country. Whatever the troubles of the people, they were not ready to
+seek relief in a monarchy.
+
+In 1841, General Paredes made a _pronunciamiento_ against
+Bustamante’s government. On this occasion General Valencia and Santa
+Anna, who had been successful in 1840, against the federalists, now
+joined the new insurrection, and the government troops having abandoned
+the president in favor of the insurgents, Bustamante was forced to
+retire from the presidency in 1842, notwithstanding his efforts at
+conciliation by the proclamation of federation. The proposals of Santa
+Anna had won; he offered his “Bases of Tacubaya” proposing that the
+legislative and executive functions of the government should cease
+and that pending a congress, within eight months, to frame a new
+constitution, a _junta_ should name a provisional president.
+As a result, Santa Anna became such provisional president, but the
+Congress elected showing a federalist majority a _pronunciamiento_
+of the army was issued naming a council of notables and opposing the
+Congress, which was dissolved by the executive, as a matter of course,
+and the proposed council installed in January, 1843. In June, _Las
+Basas Organicas_, the new constitution, was adopted and its terms
+were less liberal than the _Leyes_ of 1836, instigated by Santa
+Anna. The dictator under this new constitution did not assume direction
+at the capital till June 3d, Bravo and Canalizo governing as acting
+presidents. Shortly after, Santa Anna’s wife died and he was married by
+proxy to a girl of fifteen. His government was truly despotic and he
+affected the pomp of a monarch. In fact, the general sentiment was well
+expressed when, on one of his many retirements to his estate, it was
+said: “The president is going in order to return crowned.”
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR GENERAL DON RAMÓN CORONA, ONE OF
+ MEXICO’S FAMOUS GENERALS.]
+
+The autocratic, costly, and inefficient rule of Santa Anna was at
+length challenged by a combination of opponents. In October 1844, the
+Guadalajara assembly declared against him and this was followed by a
+_pronunciamiento_ made by General Paredes, who had previously
+supported Santa Anna, on November 2d, at that place, which declared for
+the suspension of the president pending investigation of his conduct.
+Puebla shortly joined Guadalajara, and then immediately followed the
+capital, where José Joaquin de Herrera was installed president of the
+council. Santa Anna met this condition by emerging from retirement
+and led an army to Querétaro. So great was the indignation at the
+capital that the precious leg lost by the dictator in his attack on the
+French was taken from the tomb and dragged in the streets, while the
+destruction of his statue was averted only by its removal to a hiding
+place. This outbreak in the capital changed Santa Anna’s plans and he
+turned his army of fourteen thousand to the revolutionaries there. His
+deposition had been secured and his arrest ordered by the Congress
+and finding the resistance to him to be so formidable he marched to
+Puebla, which he attacked on January 2, 1845. A few days later the
+troops under Paredes and Bravo arrived on the scene and Santa Anna was
+compelled to withdraw on January 12th. After vain proposals to make
+terms with Herrera, he took flight but was captured and taken prisoner
+to Perote. His impeachment followed and he was banished perpetually,
+while Canalizo and four of his ministers were banished for ten years.
+A general amnesty was proclaimed otherwise. Santa Anna took ship to
+Havana on June 3, 1845.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR GENERAL DON MARIANO ESCOBEDO, WHO TOOK
+ EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN PRISONER.]
+
+Herrera now became constitutional president, September 16, 1845. His
+first serious trouble was the Texan; he endeavored to compromise the
+situation; but, because of opposition, he resorted to warlike measures
+and sent six thousand men under Paredes to the frontier. Paredes,
+however, issued a _pronunciamiento_ against the president on
+December 14th, at San Luis Potosí, and on January 2, 1846, turned to
+the capital and overthrew Herrera.
+
+Reverting to Texan affairs, as being so largely the basis of the next
+great event to be described in Mexican history, it will be sufficient
+to notice that on several occasions since the independent government
+was established, a number of conflicts had occurred in which Mexican
+officers were employed. In 1839, a movement of federalists in Mexico
+was effected having as its object the establishment of the Rio Grande
+Republic, of which Texas was to be a member.
+
+In 1844, an armistice was accepted between Mexico and Texas, proposed
+by Great Britain, but Texas refused to ratify it in consequence of its
+conditions declaring that the independent republic still constituted
+a part of the republic of Mexico. Hence, Santa Anna declared that a
+state of war existed. After this act by Great Britain, suspicion became
+widespread in the United States that the purpose of the British was
+to suppress slavery in Texas. Great Britain’s course arose out of a
+request made by Texas in 1842, to Great Britain, France and the United
+States to intervene and put an end to Mexico’s hostilities, but this
+appeal was not fruitful. The situation was further complicated in 1843,
+when the Congress of Mexico declared that if the Congress of the United
+States should pass an act to incorporate Texas with the United States
+such legislation would be deemed equivalent to a declaration of war.
+
+On April 12, 1844, a secret annexation treaty was signed by the United
+States and Texas, but the United States Senate failed to ratify it.
+The popular sentiment in America had, however, appeared to demand
+incorporation and accordingly on March 1, 1845, a resolution was passed
+by Congress enabling Texas to frame a constitution, preparatory to
+admission into the Union. Neither the purpose of the measure nor its
+form could be acceptable to Mexico; nevertheless, on December 29th,
+after Texas had adopted an ordinance of annexation to the United States
+and the State constitution, Congress enacted its admission as a State
+into the Union. The resultant conflict, however inevitably the logic
+of events pointed to this absorption of the independent republic, was
+almost a foregone conclusion.
+
+There was ground of dispute enough to afford pretext for war. The
+claims of American citizens due since 1839, were still in large part
+unpaid. The boundary question, based on the claim of Texas of all
+territory between the United States and the Rio Grande from source to
+mouth was another. Trouble had occurred as to Upper California, when
+Commodore Jones had temporarily seized Monterey. The United States had
+sent a force under General Taylor to Fort Jesup with instructions to
+proceed to the Sabine in case of Texas being endangered, and a naval
+force was sent to the Gulf of Mexico. Such was the situation when
+Congress adopted the annexation resolution.
+
+ [Illustration: RURALES ON THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER.]
+
+It was inevitable that the Mexican minister to Washington should demand
+his passports; that the United States Envoy should be graciously
+dismissed from Mexico, and that preparations for war should be actively
+pressed. Before the storm broke, futile efforts were made to avert it,
+the United States sending Slidell as commissioner, but the essential
+condition of Mexico that the United States fleet off Vera Cruz should
+be withdrawn not having been complied with on his arrival in Vera Cruz
+on December 3, 1845, he was not recognized and his mission completely
+failed, and he withdrew from Mexico on March 21, 1846. This closed the
+diplomatic procedure.
+
+Meanwhile, General Taylor had taken Point Isabel and erected a fort
+opposite Matamoros. Here he was attacked by General Arista, who
+superseded Ampudia on April 24, 1846, and a formal declaration of
+war by the United States followed on May 13th, on the ground that
+“Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded
+our territory, and shed American blood upon the American soil,” as
+President Polk stated.
+
+The second event was the attack on May 8th, at Palo Alto, which
+resulted in Arista’s falling back next day to a position at Resaca de
+la Palma, from which he was driven with considerable loss, the same
+day, his artillery and supplies being captured. As a consequence of
+this defeat, Arista, whose forces greatly outnumbered the Americans,
+was deprived of command, being replaced by Ampudia. On May 18th,
+General Taylor occupied Matamoros. The turn of affairs in Mexico
+now brought the ubiquitous Santa Anna to the head, he following
+the now familiar course of a congress, called in pursuance of a
+_pronunciamiento_ issued by General Mariano Salas, and the election of
+Santa Anna took place in December. He had returned to Mexico in August,
+and was passed through the American fleet off Vera Cruz in the hope
+that he would be a source of weakness at home rather than of strength.
+In addition to the _pronunciamiento_, General José Maria Gomez declared
+against President Paredes at Guadalajara and he was sent into exile.
+
+The new president took command of the army, leaving the government in
+the hands of vice-president Fariás. On the 5th of that month he began
+his march against Monterey with a force of regulars and volunteers
+numbering in all about six thousand men. On the 19th, he was before
+Monterey, which was held by Ampudia, who had put this city in a good
+defensive state. The assault was made on the 21st, the defenders
+exhibiting the utmost bravery as they defended street by street.
+Three days passed when Ampudia capitulated with honors, after which
+an armistice of two months was agreed upon. During this time, General
+Patterson was sent to Tampico with a strong force and General Winfield
+Scott led a third force against Vera Cruz, previous to a march on the
+capital. To effect these movements, General Taylor’s force was largely
+drawn upon and Santa Anna having learned of the proposed attack on Vera
+Cruz left San Luis Potosí on January 28, 1847, with twenty thousand
+troops to encounter Taylor at La Angostura (Buena Vista) where he hoped
+to surprise the Americans. On the 22d of February, Santa Anna demanded
+the surrender in terms that indicated his certainty of success. The
+following day he was repulsed, suffering great loss and retreating to
+San Luis Potosí. This victory was almost decisive, the defeated Santa
+Anna reaching his destination with his force reduced by one-half.
+The engagement was a terrible blow to the prestige of the man who had
+seemed “to hold Mexico in his despot grasp, strange as it may seem.”
+Taylor’s great success gained him only the task of defending the
+territory acquired and the Rio Grande frontier.
+
+The further operations in Mexico were concluded by the American
+commander-in-chief, General Scott. He landed his force of twelve
+thousand men near Vera Cruz on February 15th, and invested the
+city, the port being blockaded by Commodore Perry’s squadron. Siege
+operations were prepared and on March 22d, the artillery and guns of
+the ships opened fire. The defence, under General Morales was worthy
+of a less bitter experience than that of the surrender, even with the
+honors of war, which was forced on the 26th. On April 12th, in view of
+the season, the American general withdrew his troops from Vera Cruz.
+
+Santa Anna, defeated by Taylor, had resumed his duties as President
+but his spirit was aroused on hearing of the defeat of Morales and
+the surrender of Vera Cruz. He hurried from the capital “to wash out
+that disaster.” With ten thousand men he fortified himself stoutly at
+Cerro Gordo, about eighteen miles from Jalapa. Here he was attacked
+by General Scott on April 18th, and utterly defeated. Then fell,
+successively, Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla, and at the last named city
+Scott received instructions from the State Department to arrange a
+peace treaty, if the occasion served. Secret emissaries of the Mexican
+president visited the American commander as to this matter and Santa
+Anna has been charged with treason on account of it.
+
+On August 9th, General Scott entered the Valley of Mexico, tracing the
+route followed by the Spanish _Conquistadores_ nearly three and
+a half centuries earlier, and arrived before the capital on the 20th,
+defeated Santa Anna at Padierna and Churubusco where a most gallant
+stand was made by General Anaya. In these last efforts, all credit is
+due to Santa Anna; his operations were marked with ability, courage and
+resourcefulness.
+
+Negotiations now followed for peace. On the 22d, hostilities were
+suspended and Nicholas P. Trist, chief clerk of the State Department
+of the United States, who had arrived at Puebla as peace commissioner,
+now proposed terms of peace on the basis of the cession of Texas,
+New Mexico and Upper California, and the right of free transit
+across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the payment to Mexico of a
+money consideration. These terms were rejected by Mexico and active
+hostilities were resumed on the night of September 7th, by an attack
+on Molino de Rey, which after stubborn fighting was taken the next
+day, but so strong was the position of the Mexican army that General
+Scott abandoned the field. Though success was not theirs, if valor and
+conspicuous ability merited it, General Antonio León and his brave
+aides deserved it, as well as the splendid rank and file. Not until the
+12th, did General Scott move against the Castle of Chapultepec which
+was magnificently defended by General Bravo and the military cadets
+of the Academy, to their imperishable honor and glory. The capture
+of the stronghold was effected on the 13th. The death roll of the
+Mexicans bears the names of many noble sons, among whom conspicuous
+merit signalizes Colonel Felipe Xicotencatl, the descendant of a famous
+Tlascaltec chief. The way to the city was now assured, and after
+securing causeways and the fortified gates of Belem and San Cosme,
+General Scott entered the city fighting his way step by step, valiantly
+opposed by soldiers and citizens. Santa Anna did not await the final
+issue but deserted both the government and the city on the successful
+forcing of the gates of Belem and San Cosme and turned the residue of
+his brave army over to General Reyes, having been deposed and summoned
+to appear before a council of war, but he left Mexico and fled to
+New Granada. In his place, Manuel Peña y Peña was elected temporary
+president and he made Querétaro the seat of government.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR GENERAL DON MANUEL GONZALES,
+ EX-PRESIDENT OF MEXICO.]
+
+Such was the condition of affairs when the Mexican capital fell to
+the Americans. New Mexico and California were conquered. Texas was
+irrevocably severed. To the task of restoring peace in the face of
+such disaster the new president resolutely directed his efforts.
+Commissioner Trist, though no longer officially authorized, succeeded
+in arranging a treaty, known as the Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which was signed
+on February 2, 1848, by the terms of which Texas, the territory
+between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, New Mexico and Upper California
+were to pass to the United States, the latter country agreeing to pay
+Mexico fifteen million dollars and to assume and discharge all claims
+of American citizens against Mexico. Thus was Mexico stripped, as a
+consequence of a war which President Lincoln severely criticized and
+which General Grant characterized as “the most unholy and unjust ever
+waged by a stronger nation against a weaker one;” nor do the vast
+material advantages that have followed to the territories reach back to
+palliate this view of the quarrel or justify the bitter suffering that
+it brought.
+
+The American army was soon withdrawn and on June 12th, José Joaquín de
+Herrera was elected constitutional president and the government was
+re-established at the capital. Its chief labor was to heal the wounds
+caused by the war, to ameliorate the general condition. The spirit of
+insurrection was not subdued, however, for General Paredes effected a
+temporary revolt which was soon subdued, and Herrera was successful in
+the difficult task of reducing the army establishment and encouraging
+the building of railroads and telegraphs, the first of such latter
+undertakings being that of making communication between the capital
+and Puebla. With troubles also in Yucatán owing to the serious Indian
+uprisings in August, 1848, the president found his entire energies
+occupied, but he succeeded in establishing a union of the Province with
+Mexico, and relinquished the government to his successor with a record
+of great improvement accomplished.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL CARLOS PACHECO, FORMERLY MINISTER OF
+ FOMENTO.]
+
+General Mariano Arista, who had commanded the Mexican Army at Palo
+Alto was elected to succeed Herrera and he assumed the presidency in
+January, 1851. But neither his high sense of honor nor his patriotic
+purposes could stay the revolutionary spirit which broke out at
+Guadalajara in July, 1852, and, in consequence of the “Plan of
+Jalisco,” intended to overthrow him, and of the _pronunciamientos_
+in its favor, Arista resigned on January 3, 1853. The true purpose of
+the revolution was the installation of Santa Anna as dictator, and
+after a brief direction of the government by Ceballos and Lombardini,
+he was elected and assumed office on April 20th, after Ceballos had
+failed in an effort to call a national convention. The government
+during the next two years was one of persecution and arbitrary use
+of power. The dictator relied on the army to support his despotism
+and increase the military strength. He was, however, re-elected in
+December, 1853, and his power was greatly augmented. He was empowered
+to appoint his successor in office and virtually became dictator for
+life. Pomp and ceremonial befitting his supreme power was assumed
+and he obtained the title of “serene highness.” In the same month he
+effected the sale to the United States of the territory known as “La
+Mesilla,” in Southern Arizona, for ten million dollars.
+
+Such rule as that of Santa Anna could not be endured and the fabric
+of perpetual power which the dictator had assiduously striven to
+weave was rudely shattered in 1854, by the “Plan de Ayutla,” which
+was proclaimed by Colonel Villareal on March 1st. A _junta_ of
+notables was to appoint a provisional president and call a constituent
+Congress. This plan gained powerful support, among others who acceded
+to it being Colonel Ignacio Comonfort. The president marched against
+the insurgents, but failing to subdue the movement, he returned to
+the capital. Simultaneously, a force under Count de Boulbon entered
+Sonora from Upper California with the object of establishing there an
+independent dominion.
+
+Comonfort having equipped a powerful army, Santa Anna abandoned his
+government and went to Vera Cruz, giving the executive power into the
+hands of a triumvirate. Then he left Mexico, fleeing to Havana. The
+provisional president, appointed in pursuance of the revolutionary
+“plan,” was Carrera but his nomination was not agreeable to Comonfort
+and General Juan Alvarez received the office at the hands of the
+_junta_. Among the ministers he selected were Benito Juarez and
+Comonfort, the latter of whom was elected as president on December 11,
+1855.
+
+Early in 1856, Comonfort faced fresh insurrections that seemed to
+spring from their like as it were so many hydra-headed evils. He
+adopted drastic measures against the church and the clergy, enforced
+the Lerdo law, abolishing civil and ecclesiastical mortmain and
+establishing individual ownership of lands. On June 5th, he suppressed
+the Jesuits and on September 17th, the Franciscans, in consequence of a
+conspiracy which was hatched in the convent of the latter to overthrow
+the government on Independence Day, the 15th, and secure the supremacy
+of the church in the nation. Comonfort took possession of the church of
+San Francisco and all its appurtenances early in the morning and the
+next day decreed the opening of a street, to be called Independencia,
+east and west through the grounds. The following day came the
+suppression of the monastic order.
+
+ [Illustration: PICTURESQUE SPOT IN THE ALAMEDA.]
+
+Again Puebla revolted, and for the second time in nine months it was
+retaken by the government troops on December 3d. This was followed by
+a _pronunciamiento_ at San Luis Potosí, which was quickly put
+down. The bird of peace now hovered over stricken Mexico for a short
+time under the vigorous and enlightened rule of Comonfort. On February
+5, 1857, a new constitution was adopted, liberal in character and
+establishing a republican federal form of government. The executive
+power was vested in a president elected for four years; a single house
+was to constitute the legislature, the members of which were to be
+elected for three years; a judicial branch was to comprise a supreme
+and inferior courts. The important question of presidential succession
+was regulated, so that in case of vacancy the president of the Supreme
+Court was to succeed temporarily pending a regular election.
+
+This constitution furnished safeguards against the abuses of power
+which had been possible under the Ayutla plan. The election of
+Comonfort to succeed himself followed, yet, inconsistently, a few days
+after entering office on December 1st, he overthrew the constitution
+he had sworn to maintain and adopted the “Plan de Tacubaya,” announced
+by General Felix Zuloaga on December 17th, on the pretext that the
+constitution was not adapted to the usages of the people. Under
+Zuloaga’s “plan,” Comonfort was to remain in power and convoke a
+congress to frame a more suitable constitution, to be submitted to the
+electorate. Benito Juarez had been chosen president of the supreme
+court and it seemed necessary to the success of the new plan that
+he should be imprisoned and Congress dissolved, which was done in
+December. But Comonfort’s plans failed, for on January 11, 1858, a
+_pronunciamiento_ issued by the conservatives substituted General
+Zuloaga as president. The opposition was too strong and Comonfort,
+unable to defend the capital, abandoned it on the 21st of January and
+proceeded to Vera Cruz, whence he went into exile. The reactionaries
+now annulled the reform measures of the constitutionalists, who had
+organized a government at Guanajuato under Juárez, who had been obliged
+to abandon the capital, and began war on their opponents, but suffered
+defeat at Salamanca. Later, the president was seized at Guadalajara
+by the garrison there, who had mutinied, but escaping he made his
+way to Panama and thence to New Orleans, and returning to Vera Cruz
+administered the government from there.
+
+Benito Juarez was born in Oaxaca, on March 21, 1806. He was imbued
+with the loftiest sentiments for the public weal and his counsel and
+direction had proved the greatest strength of the liberal party. He
+had been one of the professors at the Institute of Science and Art at
+Oaxaca, and one of his students was Porfirio Diaz, who doubtless owed
+much of his political bent to the training of Juarez, the full-blooded
+Indian, to whose patriotic labors Mexico owes her successful entry on
+a path of liberal policies which have led to so wonderful a development
+of national progress and prosperity. The keynote of his life was
+devotion to the public welfare and the highest ideals of manhood. But
+the time was not yet ripe for the possible accomplishment of his great
+purposes. The people had yet to learn, through long years of suffering
+and struggles, the true principles of republican government and the
+rights of men.
+
+During this period of legitimate or constitutional government, under
+Juarez, the reactionaries maintained a government at the City of
+Mexico, under Zuloaga, and hostilities were bitterly waged against the
+reform party throughout the republic. Important successes were won by
+them, notably in the capture of Guanajúato, in July, by General Miguel
+Miramon and in Ahualulco in September, and as a result Miramon was
+named his substitute by Zuloaga after _pronunciamientos_ in his
+favor by Generals Echeagaray, at Ayutla, and Robles Pezuela, at the
+capital. A _junta_ having elected him president, he took office on
+February 2, 1859. The chief object he sought was to overthrow Juarez at
+Vera Cruz, but after a vigorous siege he abandoned the vain effort.
+
+On July 12, 1859, Juárez proclaimed the Laws of Reform, by which the
+issues of the conflict were clearly manifested. The United States
+recognized the legitimacy of the Juarez government and ministers were
+respectively appointed in Washington and Mexico. As a sequence of this
+constitutional proclamation, the Juarez government greatly abridged the
+influence of the clergy; severance of church and state was aimed at;
+civil marriages and civil rights were defined.
+
+The two governments were in conflict in foreign relations as well as
+domestic and their acts were on one side or the other protested against
+and repudiated. Juarez made a treaty with the United States giving the
+latter the right to protect its citizens in Mexico by force of arms.
+Miramon, on the other hand, gave treaty rights to Spain in regard to
+indemnity to Spanish subjects in Mexico.
+
+Miramon abandoned the field after his defeat on August 10, 1860, at
+the Silao Hills and repaired to the capital. Zuloaga having withdrawn
+the power conferred on Miramon as his substitute, the latter procured
+his own election as president by a _junta_. The resistance of the
+reactionaries was fast weakening, and their party rapidly diminishing;
+nevertheless, on December 20th, Miramon left the capital to meet the
+liberal forces and at Calpulalpam encountered General Gonzalez Ortega,
+by whom he was defeated. The capitulation of the capital followed on
+January 11, 1861. Juarez entered it in triumph with the liberal army
+of twenty-five thousand. Miramon escaped to Jalapa and finally reached
+France on a French war vessel.
+
+ [Illustration: A COUNTRY ROAD IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO.]
+
+With the return of Juarez to the capital he began the active
+administration of the Reform Laws. One of his earliest acts was
+the dismissal of the Spanish minister and the papal legate. The
+half-century strife between Federalists and Centralists had triumphed
+finally in the success of the Liberals, though a guerrilla warfare
+was continued for some little time. Zuloaga joined the reactionaries,
+declaring himself to be president in virtue of his “Plan de Tacubaya.”
+Melchor Ocampo, one of the great leaders of the Reform, was seized
+at his hacienda and shot by order of General Marquez; Degollado who
+pursued the executioners was caught by bandits and was shot. These
+outrages aroused extreme indignation and a price was put on the heads
+of Marquez, Mejia and other rebel leaders. Marquez attacked the capital
+in June, 1861, and was repulsed only after heavy fighting. It was
+in this defence that Porfirio Diaz, who had returned to his native
+state and later was elected to Congress to represent Iztlan district,
+leaving his seat in the legislative chamber took a distinguished part.
+A little later, in August, Marquez was totally defeated by Diaz at
+Jalatlaco which brilliant event earned for the victor the rank of
+brigadier-general; a month later he was again disastrously defeated
+at Pachuca. The three years of war was over, and the way to domestic
+peace, progress and prosperity might seem clear.
+
+Juarez was elected constitutional president and assumed office in
+June. On July 17th, the Congress, in view of the severe drain on
+the resources of the people caused by the protracted war, found it
+necessary to enact suspension of the sinking fund provision and the
+payment of interest on the foreign-held debt, for two years. Thereupon,
+France and England closed diplomatic relations and these nations
+together with Spain made a treaty on October 31st, under the terms of
+which they were to seize the principal ports and collect and distribute
+the customs receipts among the several foreign creditors of Mexico. The
+condition was also agreed that no Mexican territory should be acquired
+or any interference be assumed as to the form of the Mexican government
+by either of the powers. The United States refused to join in this
+intervention. The French claim against Mexico was for six hundred
+thousand dollars, which had been collected by Juarez and seized by
+Miramon from the British legation where it was deposited for British
+bondholders. There was, besides, an old debt of about eighty million
+dollars contracted in the early days of the Republic. The claims of
+Spain and France were together about eighteen millions, all Mexican
+money.
+
+It was soon evident that political motives were involved in the
+intervention, at least on the part of France. When the allied fleet
+arrived at Vera Cruz in December, 1861, bearing the commissioners
+of the European powers, General Prim for Spain, Monsieur Dubois de
+Saligny for France, and Admiral Wyke for Great Britain, they issued
+a proclamation according to which their purpose was merely to secure
+settlement of the financial questions. On December 14, 1861, the
+Spaniards, whose fleet reached there earlier than its allies, occupied
+Vera Cruz, which aroused the energetic resistance of the Mexicans,
+especially on the arrival of the French and British fleets on January
+8, 1862. The united forces numbered nearly ten thousand men.
+
+Juarez issued a decree on January 25th calling on Mexicans to resist
+the invaders and imposing the penalty of death on all who should fail
+in this or who should aid or abet the invaders. This course seemed
+inevitable, inasmuch as the partisans of Almonte, Miramon and Gutierrez
+de Estrada, who in their exile had actively plotted in favor of a
+monarchy for Mexico, were prepared to give aid to the invaders.
+
+Juarez was anxious to avoid serious complications, if this could be
+honorably done, and he invited the commissioners to a conference at
+La Soledad, which resulted in a treaty on February 19th, by the
+terms of which the Spanish troops were to advance as far as Orizaba
+and the French to Tehuacán, and were to occupy those places until the
+treaty was confirmed. The Mexican government was to be recognized
+as constitutional. The ulterior aim of France was so insistent that
+the British and Spanish support was soon withdrawn. Meantime, large
+reinforcements had arrived from France and with them came Almonte,
+Miranda, Haro y Tamaris and Miramon; the latter, however, to avoid
+arrest by the British, went to Havana.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL PORFIRO DIAZ.]
+
+ [Illustration: NATIONAL MUSEUM, SHOWING AZTEC RELICS.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE.]
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ HISTORICAL EVENTS
+
+
+Napoleon III. had determined to create a throne in Mexico for
+Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. An excuse was soon formed for actual
+hostilities. Orizaba was reoccupied in spite of the agreement that if
+the terms of the treaty of La Soledad were not confirmed, the troops
+of the allies should retire to the positions held by them previous
+to that treaty. The British and Spanish commissioners had refused to
+confirm the treaty. The French, under General de Lorencez, aided by
+Mexican conservatives, resolved to attack Puebla. General Ignacio
+Zaragoza strongly fortified the hills of Guadalupe and Loretta and
+received battle on May 5th, completely defeating the enemy, whose
+troops numbered six thousand. This great victory over the French and
+their Mexican allies is celebrated as one of the national feasts, _El
+Cinco de Mayo_, and the gallant Zaragoza received the appointment of
+military governor of Vera Cruz and the distinction of having his name
+inscribed on the walls of Congress in letters of gold, and Puebla took
+the name thenceforward of Puebla de Zaragoza. Diaz won fresh laurels
+for the valiant fight he led with his brigade and for his pursuit of
+the vanquished enemy.
+
+The conservatives had proclaimed Almonte president, under the “Plan de
+Córdoba,” on April 19th.
+
+General Forey arrived in Mexico during September with heavy
+reinforcements and superseded Lorencez. Acting without recognizing
+Almonte’s government he instituted an active campaign. He laid siege
+to Puebla on March 16, 1863, with over twenty-five thousand men, but
+was repulsed repeatedly till the 29th by the brave Ortega who defended
+the city with twenty-two thousand troops. On that day, Fort Iturbide
+was taken, but in hope of expected relief the gallant defender resisted
+every forward step within the city until forced by lack of food and
+ammunition, he was compelled to surrender on May 17th. Marching with
+a train to the relief was Comonfort, who had returned from exile to
+defend the integrity of the republic, and who on May 8th encountered
+Bazaine and Marquez at San Lorenzo and was defeated. This double
+disaster was only redeemed in part by the magnificent defence made by
+Ortega, which placed the achievement high on the roll of fame. Twelve
+thousand prisoners were taken at Puebla, including twenty-six generals.
+Of the latter some of them escaped later, among them being Ortega and
+Porfirio Diaz. The French under Bazaine entered on June 7th, Forey
+completing the occupation on June 10th.
+
+Forey by decree of June 16th, authorized the French minister Saligny to
+name a _junta_ of thirty-five Mexican citizens who should elect
+three Mexicans to constitute the executive authority. This resulted
+in the choice of Almonte, Mariano Salas and Labastida, Archbishop of
+Mexico. The _junta_ also chose an “assembly of notables” which
+met on July 10th, and declared the adoption of a moderate hereditary
+monarchy with a Roman Catholic prince as ruler, under the title of
+“Emperor of Mexico;” that the crown should be tendered to Maximilian,
+Archduke of Austria, for himself and his descendants; and that if
+Maximilian did not accept, then the benevolence of Napoleon III. was to
+be appealed to to nominate another Catholic prince.
+
+Maximilian accepted the tendered crown conditionally on a plébiscite
+in his favor, and the military aid of France so long as that might be
+necessary. On April 9, 1864, he renounced all rights to the throne of
+Austria and on the following day accepted the crown of Mexico.
+
+On May 28, 1864, the new emperor arrived at Vera Cruz accompanied by
+the empress, Carlota. Thence they proceeded to Puebla and thence to the
+capitál, where they were enthusiastically received on June 12, 1864.
+The Regency which had reigned in the name of the emperor was forthwith
+dissolved and Maximilian assumed personal rule. He was too liberal for
+the church authorities and soon found himself at odds with them. He
+was forced to issue a decree condemning to death (October 3, 1865) all
+persons carrying arms against the empire and all persons aiding them.
+This fateful decree which condemned patriots to the ignoble death of
+“bandits and criminals” was issued on the presumption that Juarez had
+abandoned Mexico and that an official government of the republic no
+longer existed, but its promulgation and the infamous execution by
+Mendez served but to strengthen the patriot cause.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL DIAZ AND PRESIDENT TAFT.]
+
+History has a tempered rebuke for Maximilian and a sympathetic record
+for his sorrowful empress. As a man, the emperor had many excellent
+qualities; as an emperor, he might of his own volition have sought the
+goodwill and the weal of the people of Mexico. Mexico spurned him and
+his advisers. A belief that with his accession a stable government
+might ensue may have induced a large number to acquiesce in the
+establishment of an empire. But the movement was conceived in treason;
+it practically gave back power to tyrants from whom it had been wrested
+at the price of peace, blood and life. The empire could not stand
+except by the mercy and favor of France and at the cost of Mexican
+blood and progress.
+
+Following upon the French occupation of the capital on June 7, 1863,
+despite frequent defeats and with lessening resources, fighting
+continued. Diaz bravely and splendidly defended Guerrero, Oaxaca, and
+Puebla, notably in the taking of Taxco, a brilliant operation for
+which he was rewarded with the rank of major-general. Bazaine, who had
+defeated Comonfort at San Lorenzo, replaced Forey, whose success had
+been rewarded by recall to enjoy a marshal’s appointment, on October
+1, 1863, and was to assume also the diplomatic office of Saligny.
+Besides the French army, he had a Mexican division of twelve thousand
+under Marquez. With such forces the constitutional army must grapple
+to preserve the republic. The republican army was commanded in chief
+by Comonfort, but in spite of most heroic defence, it was defeated in
+nearly all its battles of 1863. The valiant Comonfort was killed on
+November 14th. Querétaro, Guanajúato, Guadalajara, Oaxaca, Chihuahua
+and other important places fell into the hands of the imperialists. The
+defence of the city of Oaxaca, from January 8th, to February 9, 1865,
+is one of the notable events in Mexican history. A siege of several
+weeks could not break the defenders, but lack of ammunition forced a
+surrender. The hero, Diaz, fell into the hands of the imperialists,
+but escaped their toils after several months’ captivity, on September
+20th. The seat of the government was continually being changed, till at
+length it was forced to the frontier at Paso del Norte. Dark, indeed,
+seemed the hope of the republic, but its interests were in the charge
+of men who were inured to battle and defeat; who knew the spirit of the
+Mexican people; whose courage and patriotism could not be quenched.
+On December 1, 1864, expired the term of office of President Juarez,
+but in view of the danger to which the republic would be exposed by a
+change of president at that time, the president declared in November,
+that his power would continue until a constitutional successor should
+be regularly elected.
+
+In the crisis that faced the government, the United States had not
+been a silent onlooker. The principles of the Monroe doctrine had
+provoked Secretary Seward to intimate to France that the establishment
+of a European monarchy in Mexico was not approved by his government
+and that, as soon as the pressure of domestic affairs relaxed, the
+United States government would mark its disapproval of the occupation
+of Mexican territory by the army of a European power, and that it
+would not tolerate the establishment of an empire in that territory
+maintained by foreign military force. With the close of the Civil War,
+therefore, the United States government demanded the withdrawal of
+French troops and the cessation of colonization in the country. This
+ultimatum, for such it really was, resulted in Napoleon’s abandonment
+of the unfortunate Maximilian.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF COLUMBUS.]
+
+Maximilian desired to abdicate and leave Mexico with the French troops
+but while postponing this course, the brave and devoted Carlota
+went to France and pleaded with Napoleon to maintain his troops in
+Mexico. In vain did she thus appeal, in August, 1866; she next went
+to Rome to secure the aid of the Pope, but there, weakened by her
+trials and crushed with her misfortune, her mind gave way and she
+was placed in retreat at Tervueren, near Brussels, where she still
+lives, long deprived of reason. In the south, Diaz, who since his
+escape from Puebla had gathered a noteworthy force was organizing a
+third campaign against the invaders, whom he signally defeated in
+brilliant engagements in Oaxaca, at Nochixtlan on September 23d, at
+Miahuatlan on October 3d, and at La Carbonera on October 18th, the
+latter victory being especially significant. The Mexicans were now
+filled with enthusiasm and unwavering courage led them to make light of
+the discrepancies between their military resources and those of their
+opponents. Diaz then laid siege to the City of Oaxaca which surrendered
+on October 31st. This victory furnished the liberal army with much
+needed ammunition and artillery. Moving southward toward Tehuantepec,
+Diaz won the battles of La Chitova and Tequisistlan on December
+19th and 26th. In January, 1867, the government was transferred to
+Zacatécas, but it was again driven forth a few days later by Miramon,
+who had returned to Mexico, and the president and his ministers barely
+escaped capture. Before the date for the final withdrawal of French
+troops arrived, Bazaine left Mexico with the last contingent, in
+February, 1867.
+
+But not all the desperate devotion of soldiers or skill of generals
+could prevent the republican armies of the North and West from uniting
+and on March 10th completing the investment of Querétaro. On March 22d,
+Marquez successfully got past the invading lines with a cavalry force
+of twelve hundred to make his way to the capital and bring thence the
+garrison to make a real attack on the invaders and allow the besieged
+to escape. Proceeding to the capital, Marquez secured the garrison, but
+instead of returning to Querétaro, he took his force of five thousand
+men to relieve Puebla, which General Porfirio Diaz was besieging after
+having driven the enemy from the south. The latter, however, captured
+the city on April 2d, after a masterly and brilliant twenty-five days’
+siege. On this occasion the victory was doubly remarkable as a military
+operation and as an example of the magnanimity of the victor, who
+spared the lives of those who surrendered, in spite of the provocation
+of the enemy through the cruel and wanton shooting of many of their
+prisoners. Diaz, joining forces with Guadarrama, completely routed
+Marquez at San Lorenzo on April 10th, and then marched to the capital,
+to which he laid siege on April 12th.
+
+At Querétaro, the Imperialists bravely sustained the unrelaxed siege,
+which was marked by many brilliant sorties against the republican
+troops; but without avail. The defeat of Marquez had destroyed all
+hope of relief to the besieged, and after a siege by General Escobedo
+of over nine weeks the imperialists resolved on its abandonment.
+Before this plan could be effected, Maximilian was seized through the
+treachery, it is said, of Colonel Miguel Lopez, who betrayed him.
+Maximilian spurned the opportunity to save himself, although warned of
+his danger. He took his last stand at the Cerro de Las Campanas, but
+finding it impossible to hold this position, the emperor surrendered
+his sword to Escobedo, on the 15th of May.
+
+Maximilian was imprisoned in the convent of the Capuchins with Miramon
+and Mejia, to await trial by court martial, in pursuance of the decree
+against traitors and invaders promulgated by Juarez on January 25,
+1862. On June 13th, he was arraigned and condemned to death on the
+15th. The sentence was approved by General Escobedo who fixed the
+following day for the execution; but it was postponed until the 19th,
+on the order of President Juarez, when at seven in the morning the
+unfortunate Maximilian, with Miramon and Mejia, was shot on the spot
+on the Cerro de las Campanas where he was captured. The appeal of the
+United States to spare the life of Maximilian had been refused, but
+President Juarez pardoned nineteen generals of the Imperial army who
+had been condemned to be shot. The president stood firm in his belief
+that his duty required that Maximilian should suffer the extreme
+penalty as a warning to usurpers and foreigners who might attempt to
+destroy the nation. The ex-emperor faced death as a hero, effacing
+his rank in the line of the doomed by giving Miramon the centre and
+his patriotic address, short and sympathetic, aroused admiration and
+crowned his tragic death with honor. Time has dealt mercifully with
+the memory of Maximilian and the voice of posterity has regretted the
+extreme penalty he suffered.
+
+ [Illustration: THE POST OFFICE.]
+
+At the capital, General Diaz was storming; Marquez defended the city
+bravely and well. Its fate was certain in any case, but its surrender
+became immediately inevitable on the arrival of reinforcements from the
+republican army at Querétaro. On the night of June 17th, a determined
+sortie was repulsed with considerable loss and on the 19th the
+Austrian auxiliaries capitulated. On the 21st, the city surrendered,
+Marquez having gone into hiding, with his family, after resigning his
+position. Diaz occupied the capital and disposed of his large number of
+prisoners in three prisons and carefully safeguarded the rights of the
+inhabitants and administered orderly the affairs of the city so that he
+was able to hand over the large sum of three hundred thousand dollars
+on restoring the government to the president.
+
+Again, Juarez entered the capital in triumph, the people manifesting
+intense delight and enthusiasm on the occasion, the 15th of July. The
+disposal of the sentences against Imperialists was early concluded,
+great leniency being extended toward them. Marquez and some other
+leaders escaped, and finally a general amnesty was proclaimed on
+October 13th, 1870, excepting only Archbishop Labastida and Generals
+Uraga and Marquez. Of the other disturbers, mention need be made only
+of Santa Anna, who had returned to Mexico and been condemned to eight
+years’ banishment. He died at the capital on June 4, 1876.
+
+The work of rehabilitation of the political and business condition
+of the nation was a task that called for great wisdom and energy
+on the part of the executive. Juarez was re-elected president and
+endeavored to effect some changes in the constitution, but in view of
+the opposition of some of his supporters, the 1857 constitution was
+re-established. The president of the supreme court was Sebastian Lerdo
+de Tejada. Juarez succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with
+the European powers which had recognized the Imperial government.
+He instituted a change in the administrative divisions by erecting
+the States of Morelos and Hidalgo, in 1868 and 1869, respectively,
+in honor of the independence patriot martyrs. His first term was
+disturbed by insurrections and the familiar _pronunciamientos_,
+but the government promptly and firmly repressed them, so that he was
+re-elected and entered again on a four years’ term on December 1, 1871.
+
+On July 18, 1872, Juarez died suddenly. In the regeneration of his
+country during a period of exhaustion that resulted from the war
+against the Imperialists and from the previous insurrectionary
+movements of the centralists, the labors of Juarez were directed with
+patriotic sincerity and great ability, and the march toward national
+consolidation was well advanced. Important railroads and telegraph
+lines were projected and established and the prosperity of the republic
+enlarged.
+
+Lerdo de Tejada succeeded Juarez by virtue of the constitution, and
+with the acquiescence of the followers of Diaz. He retained the
+cabinet of his predecessor and quietly directed the public affairs. To
+quench disaffection, he proclaimed amnesty for those who had taken up
+arms against Juarez, of which, however, Diaz refused to accept. The
+constitutional election placed Lerdo de Tejada in office on December 1,
+1872, and he again recognized the Juaristas in making up his cabinet.
+
+ [Illustration: POST OFFICE, WEST CORRIDOR.]
+
+A very serious insurrection broke out in 1873 in Tepic, under the
+leadership of Manuel Lozada, cacique of Alica, who marched with eight
+thousand men against Guadalajara, but was completely routed by General
+Ramón Corona, and the district of Tepic subdued and occupied by the
+government and Lozada was shot.
+
+On May 29, 1873, Congress approved the reform of the laws as to
+church and state and on September 25th, the constitution established
+separation of the two; freedom of religion; civic marriage; the right
+of affirmation by witnesses; free labor; the inviolable liberty of
+Mexicans as to labor, education and religion. The disputes with the
+clericals had become bitter, foreign Jesuit priests had been expelled
+from the country, even the nuns had been driven from their convents and
+the Sisters of Charity were banished in 1874. In December of this year,
+Diaz was elected to the Federal Congress and his friends insisted on
+his candidacy for the Presidency at the next election.
+
+Lerdo’s popularity and his hold became weakened early in 1875, and in
+May he secured from congress personal power and authority in respect
+to war and finances. The Juaristas were no longer ready to support him
+solidly. The conflict aroused by President Lerdo’s aspirations and the
+consequent opposition of the followers of Diaz had meantime plunged
+the country into warfare. Diaz especially had been indefatigable and
+successful in the field. After Matamoros came Icamole and these were
+followed by his culminating contest at Tecoac. He had reached Oaxaca
+with great difficulty, being obliged to travel from North Mexico to New
+Orleans, and thence to Vera Cruz in disguise.
+
+He gave battle to General Ignacio Alatorre on November 16, 1876, and
+completely defeated him at Tecoac. President Lerdo abandoned the
+capital and went to New York. On the 24th, Diaz entered the capital and
+organized a government.
+
+Iglesias maintained that the proceedings were not constitutional and
+refused to acquiesce on the conditions proposed. Diaz entrusted the
+government to General Juan N. Mendez and took the field with General
+Manuel Gonzalez against Iglesias with an army of twelve thousand. Diaz
+returned to the capital on February 11, 1877, and resumed the executive
+power provisionally. On May 5th, the people elected him constitutional
+president for the term ending November 30, 1880.
+
+Though gaining the highest office by revolutionary means, Diaz avoided
+all approach to subversion of popular rights or dictatorial rule. His
+life was quite unostentatious; he declined the state residence and
+occupied his own modest home.
+
+One of the president’s first tasks was the re-establishment of
+friendly foreign relations; he affected an amicable arrangement
+of border troubles. The task of encouraging foreign capital to
+promote great enterprises, particularly railroads, was also early
+taken up. The increase of the public revenue and the economic and
+honest administration of public offices was zealously promoted by
+the president whose labors resulted in marked advance in prosperity
+and enlargement of commerce and industry and a regular businesslike
+discharge of the public service with due regard to constitutional
+requirements.
+
+In 1878, an important amendment of the constitution was effected
+providing that the president and the State governors should be
+ineligible to re-election until an interval of four years had elapsed
+from the termination of their offices. This change was absolutely
+endorsed by President Diaz, who would not consent to become a candidate
+for re-election in 1880. On September 25th, General Manuel Gonzalez
+was duly elected and he assumed office on December 1st, without
+any violence being manifested. Indeed, the new era had come; the
+transmission of executive power being accomplished peacefully, for the
+first time since the republic had been established. The new president
+secured the co-operation of his predecessor as the minister of public
+promotion, but in a few months, General Diaz resigned after initiating
+several important public works.
+
+ [Illustration: NATIONAL LIBRARY.]
+
+The new birth of the nation manifested itself in growing demands for
+public improvements and a regular administration of the public service
+that outran the resources, which had not acquired the stability and
+elasticity sufficient to respond to the situation. Besides extension
+of public works, the government successfully established diplomatic
+relations with Great Britain.
+
+At the election in 1884, Diaz was again elected to the presidency and
+assumed office on December 1st. Successful as a leader in the field;
+familiar with all the political and industrial conditions and needs
+of the country, the popular choice of the people, he was now free to
+concentrate his wonderful energy and unusual ability on the task of
+making the nation. Financial chaos was the groundwork on which his
+government stood. The national treasury was penniless; the credit
+of the country destroyed. Only the glimmering of real progress and
+financial and industrial advance and stability had so far been seen.
+Plans had been proposed of great merit. Railroads, telegraphs and
+other public utilities had been advocated and projected, but the
+time of action had not arrived. With the clear and decisive judgment
+characteristic of the man, with the firm will and wonderful capacity
+with which he was gifted, Diaz imparted to his people the confidence
+he entertained and his administration was so successful that before
+its close, in 1888, Mexico had entered on the open path of political
+solidity and financial and commercial stability. The crushing burden of
+foreign debt was reduced; the means of transportation and communication
+were improved and extended; mining enterprises were actively fostered.
+
+One of the problems of serious import that early confronted the
+president was the relations with Guatemala arising out of the arbitrary
+decree of President Barrios of Guatemala that the control of the five
+Central American republics should be in his hands. President Diaz
+promptly protested against so despotic a claim and energetically
+prepared to support the protest by armed force, that “the old right of
+conquest should not prevail among the free peoples of America.” The
+great drainage canal, one of the notable modern engineering works, was
+begun at this time. Peace with the outside world, and but minor Indian
+uprisings, which were quickly suppressed, gave the opportunity for
+works of real advancement, which were unintermittently followed.
+
+So imperative was the need of continuing the direction of the country
+in the same hands, that an amendment was made to the constitution
+providing that the president should be eligible to succeed himself
+for one term. Accordingly Diaz was again inaugurated on December 1,
+1888, amid popular enthusiasm. The satisfactory domestic conditions
+permitted of fuller entry into international comity and of placing
+Mexico into closer and better defined relations with foreign countries,
+a policy that was prudently and successfully carried to the conclusion
+of an extradition treaty with the United States and the creation of an
+International Boundary Commission, treaties of amity and commerce with
+Great Britain, Japan and Brazil, Russia and the Argentine Republic.
+Mexico participated in the Pan-American Conference at Washington in
+December, 1889, being ably represented by her minister of that day,
+Señor Mathias Romero, and General Enrique A. Mexia.
+
+Public improvement did not halt and a survey of public lands was
+provided for. An event that marked the wide interval of domestic strife
+that a few short years had bridged occurred in the funeral honors shown
+to ex-President Lerdo de Tejada, who had died in exile in New York, his
+obsequies in the National capital being attended by President Diaz and
+all his ministers as well as the leading statesmen of the country.
+
+In 1892, so remarkable had been the advance made, so completely had
+the activities of the nation been weaned from fratricidal struggles
+and directed into channels that were building a magnificent heritage,
+that further constitutional provisions were adopted abolishing all
+restrictions upon the eligibility of the president to succeed himself,
+in order that the direction of affairs might not be jeopardized by a
+change in the policy of the government.
+
+The public enterprises under way, the extension of public instruction
+throughout the country, the development of mining and agriculture and
+the growing transportation and communication systems were matters
+of vital importance to the welfare of the nation and could bear no
+postponement except at the cost of the present and the future.
+
+The keynote of President Diaz’s aspiration and self-imposed obligation,
+is found in his message to Congress on September 16, 1892: “The potent
+influence of peace, which is now fortunately consolidated, will
+undoubtedly be of great service to the republic in its progressive
+development.
+
+“Even if during the presidential term that is about to terminate no
+other advantage than this inestimable benefit should have been secured,
+my aspirations would have been satisfied, because the obtaining of
+greater happiness for the Mexican people is principally due to the
+virtues that have preserved men in the critical period of their history
+and to their love of order, economy and labor, which will place them
+some day among the nations most apt to gather the fruits of our modern
+civilization.”
+
+During the next term, for which Diaz was practically unanimously
+elected, studious care in the cultivation and extension of friendly
+foreign intercourse was the dominant policy. Internal affairs were
+responsive to the improved financial measures; and every opportunity
+was sought in encouragement of foreign capital to sustain and extend
+the industrial and commercial development.
+
+In 1894, Mexico effected a satisfactory adjustment of boundaries with
+Great Britain in respect of the Yucatán-Belize delimitations, which had
+aroused perplexing controversy. The administration was called upon to
+exercise prudence and jealousy in dealing with Guatemala in the same
+year, when a general sentiment favored war in consequence of illegal
+acts charged against Guatemalan officials within Mexican territory.
+
+The financial affairs of the republic had steadily improved and during
+this administration satisfactory terms were arranged for the service
+of the foreign debt. The diplomatic relations were maintained on the
+basis of the strictest and justest recognition of international right
+and Mexico enjoyed the respect and confidence of the world. A memorable
+incident of this period was the opinion expressed by President Diaz
+on the quality and application of the Monroe Doctrine. This opinion
+was both able and judicious to a high degree. It carried the principle
+of maintaining the integrity of the republics beyond the limitations
+of a single American republic and claimed as a right and duty the
+co-operation of all American republics to secure the integrity of
+either. At the same time it indicated that such co-operation should be
+sought by the aggrieved nation and, moreover, that the occasion should
+be such as should clearly involve the integrity of the nation and be,
+moreover, reserved from outside influence questions that might affect
+national honor.
+
+ [Illustration: HISTORICAL CORNER IN MEXICO CITY.]
+
+Before the close of this term more than equilibrium had been
+established between revenues and expenses, for a considerable surplus
+remained in the treasury, while concurrently all branches of the public
+service had been judiciously provided for and great strides taken in
+public works.
+
+On December 1, 1896, began the new term of President Diaz under the
+most auspicious promise. Particular attention was early directed
+to financial and commercial affairs, as required by the constantly
+expanding foreign and domestic trade. A law relating to institutions
+of credit was passed so as to extend commercial affairs with greater
+facility and protection; under the operation of which banking
+conveniences were greatly increased throughout the States.
+
+One of the measures of Congress to which the government gave successful
+effect was cause for national pride and at the same time greatly helped
+its financial policy. This was the conversion of the national debt on
+a gold basis, with which was coupled the reduction of the interest by
+one per cent.; the release to the treasury of certain funds which had
+been hypothecated to the service of the foreign debt; the unification
+of such debt; and the cancellation of the mortgage of the Tehuantepec
+Railway.
+
+The year 1898, was a period when the diplomacy and influence of the
+government was put to the test. Spain was at war with the United
+States. Intercourse with both combatants demanded a scrupulous
+neutrality between them, but the government of Mexico was skilfully
+conducted without giving rise to controversy with either belligerent.
+In 1899, the diplomatic rank of Mexico’s minister to the United States
+was raised to that of an ambassador, a like courtesy being extended
+by the United States. The same year Mexico participated in the Peace
+Congress at the Hague, at the invitation of the Emperor of Russia; the
+United States and Mexico being the only American republics so invited.
+At this conference, the influence of Mexico was thrown in the direction
+of the enlightened principles in furtherance of international peace and
+amelioration of the ravages of war that were embodied in the convention
+of the Congress.
+
+The year 1900 is remarkable for the great improvements inaugurated in
+the capital. Tramways and the electric lighting service were extended
+and improved; private and public buildings of a splendid character were
+erected, among them the Post Office, the National Geological Institute,
+the Children’s Asylum and others; all of which contributed in an
+important degree to render the capital more attractive and befitting
+the modern standing of the city and the nation.
+
+The last diplomatic gap was filled during the year 1901, when official
+relations were re-established between Mexico and Austria Hungary, which
+had been closed since the war of the French Intervention.
+
+The delegates to the second Pan-American Conference assembled in
+the City of Mexico, in 1901. The occasion was critical owing to the
+strained relations then existing among some of the southern republics,
+and it is a tribute to the eminent position recognized as belonging to
+Mexico that the labor of the conference resulted in the conclusion of a
+series of important treaties and agreements tending to the welfare of
+the nations of the American continent.
+
+For some time a controversy had continued with the United States in
+regard to claims of the Catholic church in California and the case
+was presented to the International Arbitration Court at The Hague,
+in 1902. The decision was adverse to Mexico but it was accepted and
+acted upon loyally by that country. This was the first case before the
+International court to which Mexico was a party.
+
+ [Illustration: A PART OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+Diplomatic relations were officially established with Cuba, in 1902,
+and with Persia, in 1903, and legations were established in the
+southern republics. Arrangements for peaceful adjustment of disputes by
+arbitration were made with Venezuela and further evidence is thus given
+of the cordial sympathy of the Mexican people and its government with
+all courts to promote international amity.
+
+The City of Mexico, in 1903, was finally in the enjoyment of a
+completed drainage system which made the condition of the capital
+enviable. The same year marks the elimination of yellow fever as an
+epidemic. In other directions, also, progress continued to be the
+constant incentive of the government.
+
+An important change in the constitution was made respecting the
+presidential term and the election of the vice-president. The former
+was extended to six years, that of the latter to be concurrent, and his
+election made similar to that of the president. Following this change
+came the almost unanimous re-election of Diaz and the election of Ramon
+Corral to the vice-presidency.
+
+One of the most interesting and useful incidents of late happening
+in Mexico was furnished by the visit, in 1907, of Mr. Elihu Root,
+Secretary of State. His reception and entertainment, splendid and
+magnificent, afforded the most complete evidence of the honor in which
+the government of which he was so eminent a member was held and of the
+high esteem and regard entertained for the American nation by Mexico.
+The contrast drawn by Mr. Root between the Mexico of 1869, as seen by
+Secretary Seward and that viewed by Mr. Root so sharply points the
+progress made that it may well be recorded in the speaker’s words:
+
+“Then was a country torn by civil war sunk in poverty, in distress, in
+almost helplessness. Now I find the country great in its prosperity,
+in its wealth, in its activity and enterprise, in the moral strength
+of its just and equal laws, and unalterable purpose to advance its
+people steadily along the path of progress. Mr. President, the people
+of the United States feel that the world owes this great change chiefly
+to you. They are grateful to you for it, for they rejoice in the
+prosperity and happiness of Mexico.”
+
+Such was the glowing tribute to the lofty aims and the great
+achievements of Mexico. So strong a sympathy officially between the
+great governments of the northern continent may well inspire confidence
+in the future of Mexico. Other instances of the mutual friendship of
+the two republics are seen in the enthusiasm shown on the occasion
+of the celebration of Mexico’s Independence Day at the Jamestown
+Exposition in 1907, at which the republic displayed a noteworthy
+exhibit. The great banquet of the Chamber of Commerce of New York
+in November, 1908, afforded an opportunity to Americans to testify
+their regard for the president and people of Mexico, which they did
+enthusiastically. Finally, the meeting of the two Presidents of North
+America’s republics on the frontier on October 6, 1909, was as friendly
+as it was ceremonious.
+
+The historical meeting of President Taft of the United States and
+President Diaz of Mexico occurred at the frontier of the two countries
+on October 6, 1909. The exchange of courtesies was initiated by the
+Mexican Executive in terms eulogistic of President Taft, who in turn
+paid honor and tribute to President Diaz and Mexico. President Diaz,
+in full dress uniform, made brilliant with gold lace, and wearing
+many decorations, driven in a carriage richly gold-mounted and drawn
+by black horses, crossed the international bridge with an escort of
+troops and was received with cordial greeting on behalf of the United
+States by Secretary of War Dickinson, attended by a body of American
+troops, on reaching the boundary of the United States. Here as a guest
+of the sister republic he left his own carriage and entered into one
+provided by the American authorities while a salute of twenty-one guns
+was fired. Escorted by a large body of artillery he was driven through
+the streets of El Paso to the Chamber of Commerce Building, where he
+was awaited by the American President attended by his state and federal
+officials. Along the route loud and continuous cheers greeted Diaz, who
+was accompanied by General Cosio, minister of war; Olegario Molino,
+minister of commerce and industry; Señor Creel, of Chihuahua, former
+ambassador to the United States; now secretary of state; Colonel Pablo
+Escandon, chief of the military staff; and Señor de la Barra of the
+Mexican Committee of Arrangements. Formal greetings having been made
+and presentation of officials, the two presidents retired for a private
+interview, attended only by Governor Creel.
+
+ [Illustration: A COUNTRY ROAD IN PUEBLA, SHOWING
+ POPOCATEPETL.]
+
+The conference in the chamber of commerce over, and the Mexican
+president having returned within his own territory, President Taft
+was soon on his way across the international bridge to Juarez. He was
+received by the escort of President Diaz with all the distinction that
+had been accorded to the Mexican executive. Quaint little Juarez had
+put on her holiday dress and everywhere fluttered brilliant banners and
+bunting; the way of the visitor was along a brilliant avenue of flower
+garlands and multi-colored streamers. The greetings exchanged at the
+custom house were as follows:
+
+President Diaz: “Your Excellency, the Mexican people and I feel very
+proud indeed to have you on Mexican soil. I believe that the personal
+acquaintance which I have made with you and the friendly feelings
+which already exist between the United States and Mexico will be
+a guaranty of the continuance of the friendly, cordial and strong
+relations between the peoples of the two countries, and that success
+and prosperity will follow.”
+
+President Taft: “This is the first time, so far as I know, that a
+president of the United States has stepped beyond the border of the
+United States, either on the north or on the south, and I esteem it a
+great privilege to be the president at the time when that event has
+happened. I hope it is significant of the tightening of the bonds
+between the two countries. Railroads and other means of communication
+like the telegraph have brought us closer to each other, so that the
+City of Mexico and the City of Washington are far nearer to-day than
+they ever were before.
+
+“And that means a closer union of feeling between the two peoples, a
+closer feeling between those responsible for the government of each
+country; and I esteem it the greatest honor of my life to have the
+privilege of representing the United States in such a significant
+ceremony.”
+
+The festivities really began with a magnificent banquet given by
+President Diaz to President Taft. The scene in the patio of the custom
+house was one never to be forgotten. The display of decorations was
+magnificent. The flowers used, three trainloads, came from all parts
+of the republic; the gold and silver plate was the service handed
+down from the time of Maximilian. The courtyard was converted into
+a banqueting room by means of a temporary roof and banks of flowers
+exhaled an enchanting fragrance. Prominent among the decorations were
+large portraits in oil of George Washington and the Cura Hidalgo,
+above which, expressive of the occasion and suggestive of the similar
+services of the two patriots stretched the stars and stripes of the
+United States and the red, white and green of the sister republic. The
+toast of President Diaz was profoundly cordial and appreciative of the
+greatness of the United States and the American people and of President
+Taft, and concluded with the words: “An occasion which will serve to
+strengthen the bonds existing between the two neighboring nations,
+whose respective elements of life and interest find in themselves
+reciprocal complement and enhancement.”
+
+Toasting the President of Mexico, President Taft said:
+
+“The aim and ideals of our two nations are identical, their sympathy
+mutual and lasting and the world has become sure of a vast neutral zone
+of peace in which the controlling aspiration of either nation is the
+individual’s human happiness. I drink to my friend, the president of
+this great republic, to his continued long life and happiness, and to
+the never-ending bond of mutual sympathy between Mexico and the United
+States.”
+
+The guests on this significant occasion numbered one hundred and fifty,
+the City of El Paso presented commemorative loving cups of gold to the
+two presidents. Soon after each president was on his way back to his
+seat of government. The American president was escorted to his own
+territory amid a bewildering blaze of light and attended by the shouts
+of happy welcome of the people of the picturesque Mexican town.
+
+This unique event, of happy promise for the mutual welfare and progress
+of the sister republics inaugurated a phase of relations that should
+make simpler the work of coöperation between the governments of the
+United States and Mexico.
+
+ [Illustration: PRIVATE LIBRARY OF ONE OF MEXICO’S PROMINENT
+ LAWYERS]
+
+ [Illustration: CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: SCENE FROM THE PROCESSION OF THE 16TH OF
+ SEPTEMBER.]
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ
+
+
+Of all the great men of the Mexico of to-day none has done more than
+her present Chief Magistrate, perhaps none have done so much, to
+advance her with giant strides but true in the paths of prosperity and
+peace.
+
+Porfirio Diaz was born September 15, 1830, in the City of Oaxaca, in
+the state of the same name--the _vispera_ or evening before the
+glorious anniversary of the national independence. His parents were
+Don José Faustino Diaz and Doña Petrona Mory. Oaxaca has been styled
+“the dwelling place of heroes in the garden of the gods,” “the Eden
+of America,” “tomb of the conquerors and the cradle of patriots.”
+The state, although mountainous, is rich in agricultural and mineral
+productions.
+
+Its scenery is grand, both temperate and tropical climates are found
+there, and it is well adapted to be the cradle of sons who should be
+the hope of the nation and who should raise aloft the standard of
+liberty.
+
+The ancestors of Porfirio Diaz were Spaniards who left their mother
+country in the first years of the conquest. His father possessed in a
+high degree all the natural qualities necessary to make him a patriot,
+a soldier or statesman. He was tall, symmetrical, muscular and active
+and carried himself in a manner indicating him to be a man of great
+resolution. The son resembled his father and is most affable in his
+manners, of a good heart and extremely generous, yet if an injury or
+injustice is done him he resents it with the greatest determination and
+energy. This quality exists in all great men who, while ever ready to
+have justice done, are also prompt to punish evil. One who enters into
+combat, whether physical or moral, will never come off conqueror unless
+possessed of force and perseverance.
+
+President Diaz’s mother, of the family of Morys, came from Asturias,
+whose strong and valiant sons were noted for their independent spirit
+and their ancient lineage, possessing the impetuosity of the Celts and
+the frankness and integrity of the Goths. Her grandfather, a Spaniard,
+married an Indian woman, who was General Diaz’s great-grandmother,
+so that in the veins of Porfirio is mixed the blood of the proudest
+provinces of Spain with that of the highest nations of America, as the
+Miztecas were fully as advanced in civilization as were the Aztecas.
+
+His father rented in Oaxaca the property known as the Meson de la
+Soledad, where Porfirio was born. There were six other children, two
+of whom died in infancy. In 1833, the Asiatic cholera invaded Mexico
+and among its victims was Captain Diaz. This was a great blow to the
+family, as the mother’s health was delicate and her children young,
+but she had all the energy of her race, and at her husband’s death
+she continued with the inn (_meson_) and showed in every way
+great firmness and intelligence, maintaining with vigor in all her
+acts her integrity as wife and mother. She possessed fine feelings,
+was industrious and hospitable, courteous and dignified. With all her
+modesty and delicate instincts she was brave, and in those tumultuous
+times, if necessary, could use arms in defence of herself and children.
+Her great desire was that her children should receive such intellectual
+development as should fit them for any place which they should be
+called to occupy.
+
+Porfirio was in a primary school until he was seven years old.
+At fourteen he entered the seminary directed by Roman Catholic
+ecclesiastics. There were several reasons for his entering this
+seminary rather than the Government institution of arts and sciences.
+Business matters had not been prosperous with his mother, and little by
+little, she was obliged to sell her belongings to maintain and educate
+her family. In the seminary aid was rendered bright students. The
+father had desired that his sons be educated for the church.
+
+After studying for a time to prepare himself, he felt that he should
+do something to aid his mother, whose means had become exhausted, and
+he commenced to give lessons in his leisure hours. While doing this
+he came in contact with Don Marcos Pérez, Judge of the Supreme Court
+of the State and Professor in the Government Institute of Arts and
+Sciences. He became very fond of Porfirio, whom he often took to the
+institute, discussing with him the tendency of extending civil and
+religious liberty.
+
+One day Pérez invited him to be present at the distribution of prizes
+in the Civil College of the State. The Governor, Benito Juarez, was
+present and Porfirio was presented to him. Juarez had known Porfirio’s
+father slightly, and had heard of the many efforts which the son
+was making to get an education so as to be his mother’s staff and
+comfort. The Governor spoke encouragingly and young Diaz found therein
+the fountain of ambition and a source of desires, hopes and noble
+aspirations.
+
+As he realized the condition of his country he saw nothing but
+perdition, the curse of Spain and the pernicious results of ill
+directed efforts to force upon the Mexican people religion and European
+civilization, and he resolved to consecrate his life to his country.
+As a little boy in his play he had ever been a soldier, and had
+always been made the leader or general by the other boys, so that his
+inclinations to and capacity for a military life were early seen by his
+friends.
+
+When the war with the United States commenced in 1847, Porfirio’s heart
+was filled with enthusiasm to fight for his country, and, with several
+of his college mates, he petitioned the Governor to send them to the
+front that they might help fight the enemy. Governor Guerque placed
+their names on his list, and the youths were inscribed upon the roll
+of the national guard, which consisted of one battalion, and which, by
+reason of the extreme youth of those composing it, received the epithet
+“Better than nothing.”
+
+When Porfirio was nineteen and had finished his preparatory studies,
+the Bishop offered to confer on him in the following year the lesser
+orders, and to give him a scholarship. Diaz then declared his intention
+of studying jurisprudence in the institute. The prelate was surprised
+at a young man in needy circumstances disregarding such valuable aid.
+It was considered a mad decision. His uncle, the Bishop, withdrew his
+help and forbade him his house.
+
+Maternal tears affected the heart of the affectionate son, and although
+insensible to the counsels of the Bishop as also to his threats, he
+promised to do as his mother desired. Although a pious and devoted
+churchwoman, with great desires for his spiritual and temporal
+prosperity, she did not wish to go contrary to his will and to oblige
+or persuade him to follow a calling that would be disagreeable to him.
+She left him free to follow his inclinations.
+
+She lived long enough to see the practical wisdom of her son’s
+determination, as after a few years came that blow which destroyed the
+power of the Church and placed a limit upon its influence, while men of
+intelligence and position found free scope in the profession of the law.
+
+Porfirio Diaz entered the institute and commenced in a systematic
+manner the study of jurisprudence, helping himself by teaching. Juarez,
+who had not forgotten him, gave him the position of librarian. After
+four years of study, having been elected assistant professor of Roman
+law even before graduating, he had, in compliance with the law, to
+enter a law office and practise two years, as the course of study
+required.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑORA DOÑA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ.]
+
+During this time--1853--Santa Anna, who was made Dictator, improved
+every opportunity to destroy his opponents, and Juarez was arrested
+and taken to Vera Cruz, whence after receiving most cruel treatment
+in prison, he embarked for Havana, going eventually to New Orleans to
+live. His business affairs were passed over to his associate, Señor
+Pérez, but the latter having been imprisoned shortly after for holding
+correspondence with some of the opponents of Santa Anna, Porfirio Diaz
+took sole charge. He gave proof of his honesty and activity and showed
+great skill in the exercise of his profession.
+
+Seeing the injustice exercised in voting for the Dictator, he and other
+students were indignant at the unjustifiable display of power. However,
+when he saw the frauds committed, the young patriot could support it no
+longer, and he and one other went to the table where the negative list
+was to be voted. An order was soon out for their arrest and they were
+obliged to flee.
+
+Shortly after Diaz was called to put into practice what he had learned
+in his military drill, and, although only twenty-five, he was found
+fully competent to direct soldiers, and in the mountains of the Mizteca
+joined a small company of patriots, two or three hundred in number,
+commanded by Captain Herrera, who opposed the Dictator. Herrera,
+recognized his competency and took his advice. Soon after, though but
+few in number and having but few arms and being but poorly disciplined,
+they gained a victory at Scotongo over the large and well-disciplined
+forces of Santa Anna.
+
+When Santa Anna was overthrown and the Liberal Government was
+established, Porfirio returned and was rewarded by being made Chief of
+Police in the District of Ixtlan.
+
+In 1857, he went out under Lieutenant-Colonel Velasco to put down an
+uprising in Jamiltepec. In Ixcapax he was badly wounded, but seeing
+that one of the lines was in great danger, with blood streaming from
+his wounds, without heeding them, he went forward and with rare
+military courage so diverted the enemy as to defeat them.
+
+His mother died about the end of 1858, while he was in Tehuantepec.
+Through all his vicissitudes he had ever been an affectionate and
+obedient son, and her death caused him great sorrow.
+
+It was in that year he went to Tehuantepec under General Ignacio Mexia
+to fight Cobos, who was defeated at Jalapa, and while there he was left
+as military commander of that district. He maintained the Government
+in that region, contending against an enemy superior in strength,
+without receiving aid from the General Government, and counting only
+upon the resources that he himself knew how to obtain. He remained in
+Tehuantepec two years, fighting almost every day against large odds.
+Again he was wounded, but the victory was complete.
+
+Discretion and prudence united to patriotism and noble aspirations have
+ever been the base of his military character.
+
+The extraction by a surgeon from the United States of a ball that he
+had carried in his body for years, relieved him from the acute physical
+suffering that he had so long endured. Soon after he received his
+commission as lieutenant-colonel for a victory obtained in June, 1859,
+in Mixtequilla. For another one gained in Tehuantepec in November,
+1859, the Government rewarded him with the rank of colonel. On the 5th
+of August, 1860, Diaz won another victory over Cobos in Oaxaca.
+
+ [Illustration: ESCORTING THE PRESIDENT TO THE NATIONAL
+ PALACE, 5TH OF MAY.]
+
+Diaz loved above all things a military life, and could not bear the
+thought of separating himself from the army. On the battlefield,
+surrounded by his faithful companions, he experienced more than
+anywhere else the pleasure of satisfied ambition. There he could
+open up for himself a way without so greatly contending against the
+jealousies and envy which might be encountered in legislative halls.
+The hardships of war had been until now his sweets of life, and the
+noise of battle still resounded in his ears like harmonious music. But
+he had to submit to his lot and repair to the Capital of the Republic,
+there to work as a legislator, having gained another step in the ladder
+of fame.
+
+Although virtually the Conservative forces were destroyed, some chiefs,
+who could find no better occupation than to live by war, were aided
+by the church and the prospects of booty. Leonardo Márquez, one of
+the most prominent of these revolutionary chiefs, on June 24, 1861,
+attempted an attack on the Capital. Congress was in session when the
+unexpected news reached them of his arrival. Diaz, “a soldier first of
+all,” asked permission to retire and hastened to the scene of danger.
+The forces from Oaxaca, which were quartered in the convent of San
+Fernando under General Mejia, resisted Márquez’s attack, and Colonel
+Diaz’s arrival was celebrated with cheers from his old companions in
+arms, whose enthusiasm he served to revive. Mejia gladly accepted his
+aid, and the victory was theirs.
+
+The importance of the support that Diaz here gave can be better
+understood by the reward that the Government conferred on him by
+giving the command of the brigade of Oaxaca to him with the order to
+join Ortega’s division, and to march on and destroy the rest of the
+Conservative forces.
+
+ [Illustration: THE TRIBUNAL, 5TH OF MAY.]
+
+On the 13th of August, 1861, the fourth anniversary of one of his
+first triumphs, Diaz, with his few soldiers, gained another victory
+over Márquez and his four thousand men. In his attack upon Márquez
+he had disobeyed General Ortega. It was not pleasant to this brave
+soldier to feel that all the glory of that campaign belonged to a
+subordinate. The victory was remarkable, Diaz had less than three
+hundred men and Márquez four thousand. In this encounter Diaz’s life
+was in peril. He had entered the ranks of the enemy unattended, as he
+led the attack, but the instinct of his charger seemed to realize the
+danger and he carried him back safely to his own troops. The command
+on this occasion had been given to Diaz, Mejia being ill and gladly
+accepting his aid. For his great service Diaz was promoted to the rank
+of brigadier-general.
+
+Marquez, with the remnant of his broken army fled in haste but made a
+stand at Pachuca and Real del Monte, but suffered signal defeat on the
+20th of October. With these events, the Conservative force was broken
+and the War of Reform practically closed.
+
+A new stage in the career of Diaz was about to open. The French
+intervention was aimed against the true nationalization of Mexico.
+Here the Mexicans were traitorously engaged with the foreign invader
+in an effort to overthrow the republic. Juarez, who had been elected
+constitutional president, sent the army against the enemy, who had
+broken the convention of La Soledad. Diaz was ordered to lead his
+brigade to the Pass of Acultzingo to aid in its defense. He first
+engaged the enemy at Escamela between Orizaba and Cordova and reaching
+Puente Colorado he strongly established his force and then did valorous
+and effective work in holding back the vanguard of the enemy, affording
+saving help to the vanquished and by his marked skill and bravery
+giving much-needed confidence to the national troops, whose lack of
+organization and means of defense were the crucial tests that proved
+the quality of generalship. The great victory of Acultzingo on April
+28th, proved that Diaz was a master of strategy and alertness coupled
+with the most remarkable measure of audacity and bravery.
+
+The Mexicans retired to Puebla and reached there May 3d. On the next
+day, General Zaragoza addressed his officers urging his army “to
+fight to the last, so that even though it were not possible to be
+victorious.” The battle on the 5th proved a victory for the patriots,
+the record of which is enshrined in the hearts of the people and serves
+to thrill them and their children with patriotic fervor. The part that
+Diaz took in this memorable victory was a most decisive one and none
+knew the service he rendered in that “forlorn hope” better than the
+great general who was in chief command. Diaz again met the French at
+Orizaba on June 14th.
+
+Civil and military duties now devolved on Diaz, to whom was confided
+the administration of the State of Vera Cruz. The French had been
+reinforced and again Puebla was invested. The Mexican army was now
+under the chief command of General Ortega, the gallant Zaragoza having
+died. Puebla had been besieged for two months since the 6th of March
+1863. Its defense evoked most thrilling deeds of heroism which mark the
+siege as among the memorable events in history. General Diaz earned
+proud laurels for his personal bravery and wonderful resources. His
+defense of the Mesón de San Marcos was a brilliant deed and the general
+and the man demonstrated the highest qualities. But the vain struggle
+ended by surrender on May 16th. Diaz, with a noble inspiration, refused
+to burn his flags; instead, he buried them, assured that he would some
+day return and recover them to float in advance of a victorious army.
+
+ [Illustration: LIEUTENANT-COLONEL PORFIRIO DIAZ.]
+
+A prisoner to the foreign invader, Diaz with other Mexican officers
+refused to sign an agreement not to take up arms for his country, or
+endeavor to escape. The large number of prisoners, eleven thousand
+soldiers and fifteen hundred civil officials, proved too many for
+complete vigilance, so adopting a bold ruse, Diaz soon escaped as did
+Berriozábal and, later, many others. He made his way at once to Mexico
+City and placed himself at the disposal of President Juarez who desired
+him to become Secretary of War. This Diaz refused believing that such
+an office should be conferred on a senior or ranking officer. He
+assented to the alternative proposal of taking command of a division.
+
+When Juarez determined to abandon the City of Mexico, Diaz went to
+Oaxaca to organize the army of the East and for some time maintained
+a desperate fight in that State and in Guerrero and Puebla, relieved
+by the assault and capture of Taxco on October 28, 1863, a feat
+accomplished against great odds and due only to the tactics and valor
+of Diaz. Discouragement and defeat seemed to be no force against him,
+and treachery seemed but to feed his valor and love of independence.
+The promise of honor and emolument at the hand of his country’s foe,
+as the price of abandoning the struggle for independence only aroused
+his scorn. Not long after the victory of Taxco he was promoted to the
+rank of major-general.
+
+Slowly and with difficulty had Diaz created an army when Marshal
+Bazaine took command of the Imperial army, a force of eighteen thousand
+men with forty-eight guns, and laid siege to Oaxaca. Diaz, governor as
+well as commander, maintained a most stubborn defence during several
+weeks, but he could not, in spite of his brilliant efforts, fight
+starvation and, lacking ammunition, surrender was inevitable. Without
+a flag of truce or other safeguard, and under the fire of the enemy,
+this intrepid general sought the headquarters of the French commander,
+accompanied only by Colonels Angulo and Echegaray, and surrendered on
+February 9, 1865. To the greeting of Bazaine “that he had returned to
+his promise and would not again take up arms against his sovereign,”
+Diaz replied unhesitatingly that he owed allegiance only to the
+Mexican nation and no other would he serve or recognize. Bazaine
+believing that Diaz had been liberated earlier on _parole_, severely
+reproached him for his breach of faith, but finding on reference to
+the register that Diaz had not signed any document, he gave orders for
+his imprisonment. First, he was confined in San Loreto, then in Santa
+Clara, and finally in the convent of La Compania. While in the first
+named prison strong efforts were made to induce the prisoners to take
+the oath of allegiance to Maximilian, many officers succumbed to the
+temptation, and to intimidate the others, several officers were led
+forth and shot at midnight. Four at least, including Diaz, could not
+be shaken in their allegiance. In the convent of Santa Catarina, Diaz
+worked for nearly five months digging a tunnel to lead to the street.
+Before it was completed, he was removed to the convent of La Compania.
+The story of his escape from this convent so strikingly illustrates the
+determination and resourceful character of the hero, that in spite of
+frequent telling, it should be repeated here.
+
+Diaz had secured ropes, which were smuggled into the bath room under
+his clean clothes. He wound these around his body under his clothes,
+to avoid their being discovered. He had a well-sharpened dagger. In
+preparation for his attempt, he rolled three of the ropes, which, with
+a third in reserve, and his dagger he hid under the bed clothes on
+the afternoon of September 20th. When the signal sounded at night for
+retirement of the prisoners, he stepped out on an open balcony close
+to the roofs which overlooked an inner courtyard. The three ropes
+he carried concealed in a cloth and not being observed cast them on
+a neighboring roof. The remaining rope was then tied to a projecting
+stone gutter that promised sufficient strength. This was not easily
+or very quickly accomplished as it was very dark, but it was done and
+after testing its strength carefully, by this Diaz climbed to the roof.
+He then tied his four ropes together.
+
+ [Illustration: CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+To reach the point from which the captive would descend was very
+hazardous, the convent being overlooked by a neighboring church,
+where a sentinel was always on guard. Cautiously crossing the roof,
+frequently on hands and knees, the general passed along two sides of
+the courtyard, exposed to the danger of discovery by the flashes of
+lightning that frequently lighted up the sky and also by the danger
+of betraying himself through the noise he might cause by treading on
+fragments of broken tile and glass scattered over the roof. He then
+proceeded erect and seeking to ascertain if an alarm had been given,
+his foot slipped on the wet masonry and he was almost precipitated
+through a window. A very hazardous part of the roof had yet to be
+crossed before the point of descent could be reached, namely the side
+where the chaplain dwelt. This chaplain had denounced some time before
+several political prisoners who had cut their way through his rooms
+and on his evidence they were shot. Almost breathless, Diaz let himself
+down to the chaplain’s roof at a point opposite the place where he had
+ascended and finally reached the San Roque corner where he had planned
+to descend. At this corner was a statue of San Vincent Ferrer about
+which he intended to fasten his rope, but on touching it, it appeared
+ready to fall and although he supposed it might have an iron support,
+he deemed it safer to tie the rope around the base of its pedestal,
+which seemed strong enough to bear his weight.
+
+ [Illustration: STAIRWAY TO THE CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+It occurred to Diaz that he might be seen if he descended at the corner
+of the street, so he decided to lower himself by the side of the
+building away from the corner and in the shadow. On reaching the second
+story his foot slipped and he fell quite a distance into a pigsty. At
+the same time his dagger slipped from its sheath and falling on one
+of the pigs probably wounded it, and when he stumbled among them they
+squealed loudly. Fortunately, no one was passing at the moment and his
+discovery was avoided. He waited till the animals quieted down and then
+leaped over a low garden fence into the street, only to beat a quick
+retreat on seeing a policeman making his round. The man soon passed and
+Diaz, much relieved, but almost exhausted from fatigue, hastened to
+a house where he knew a horse, a servant and a guide would be found.
+Arrived there, the three, with loaded pistols, leaped into the saddle
+and after evading a mounted patrol reached the outskirts of Puebla.
+Contrary to his expectation he was not stopped at the city gates by the
+sentinels, on the contrary, the gate was open and unguarded and at full
+trot the party passed through and then galloped off along the road.
+
+He gathered together a small force, and here and there would have
+engagements, with varying success. But the brilliant triumphs of
+Miahuatlán and La Carbonera over the Austrians brought back to General
+Diaz all the lustre and fame that he had gained as the most prominent
+General of the country. While the battles in themselves were eclipsed
+by many of his previous victories, they were most notable for the
+indisputable establishment of republican supremacy in all the vast
+region of the South--the result of more than a year of untold and
+persevering efforts.
+
+He again organized new troops and defeated Visoza in Tulcingo, State of
+Puebla, on the 1st of October, 1865. He then went to La Providencia,
+and General Juan Alvarez gave him some two hundred arms, and he
+again defeated Visoza at Comitlipa, State of Guerrero, on the 4th of
+December, 1865.
+
+ [Illustration: RECEPTION AT THE PALACE ON THE EIGHTIETH
+ BIRTHDAY OF GENERAL DIAZ.]
+
+From Miahautlan, he marched to the City of Oaxaca, and while besieging
+the capital learned that the Imperial government had sent a column
+under command of Baron Luker, an Austrian officer, to relieve the
+besieged garrison of Oaxaca. General Diaz decided at once to march on
+the approaching relief column, which he met at La Carbonera on the
+18th of October, 1866, and after routing it completely he returned to
+Oaxaca, when the garrison surrendered on the 31st of the same month. He
+thus obtained forty-two pieces of artillery, two thousand five hundred
+muskets and all the garrison provisions and stores.
+
+The 1st of November, 1866, General Diaz entered his natal city to
+be crowned with laurel as its liberator. On April 2d, 1867, he won
+in Puebla another most glorious victory which made the walls of the
+empire totter, as this was one of the invader’s three strongholds.
+Among the prisoners were eleven generals and three bishops. By law
+all the officers taken prisoners were to be shot as traitors, and
+even foreigners were to receive the same fate after the French armies
+had been withdrawn. Presenting himself before the eleven generals,
+Diaz politely invited them to follow him, without being guarded, to
+the episcopal palace, where were six hundred officials, many of them
+occupied with confession and making their final arrangements, as they
+knew the fate that had befallen other prisoners. “Gentlemen,” said
+Diaz, “it is impossible for me to execute the punishment which the
+law imposes, and there is no other alternative for me but to make you
+prisoners; but I remember well my own sufferings while a prisoner in
+this same place, and I wish to avoid your being put to such straits.
+Go, then, you are free. All that I ask of you is that you promise me
+to put yourselves at the disposition of the Supreme Government if you
+are so ordered. The nation will pronounce its sentence upon the empire,
+but it will be indulgent to its misguided sons.” This general amnesty,
+which later found its parallel at Appomattox, caused on all sides a
+great tumult of satisfaction. Men who had before been enemies pledged
+themselves hereafter to be friends. Many turned away to hide their
+tears. General Diaz himself was profoundly moved. Among the prisoners
+was a colonel who was ashamed and fearful at the same time, and could
+not believe that he was free; as when the Count Von Thun had fixed
+the price of ten thousand dollars for the head of General Diaz when
+he escaped from Puebla this Colonel Escamilla (then Chief of Police
+of Izucar) offered another thousand from his own pocket. The General
+understood well his captive’s fear and shame, and said: “Colonel, that
+imprudent action was suggested by blind duty; let us forget it.” From
+that time Escamilla was one of his most loyal partisans.
+
+The tempering with magnanimity the rigor of the law, avoiding the
+baptism of blood, had its influence in the fall of the City of Mexico,
+procuring for Diaz great praise among friends and enemies. General
+Tamariz, who died shortly afterward, said with emotion: “Twice Diaz
+has conquered me by his military talent and once by his generosity;
+with pleasure I would serve such a man, although it were as a common
+soldier.”
+
+After the capture of Puebla, General Diaz went to meet the Imperial
+General Márquez, who had left Querétaro to relieve Mexico, and who was
+marching against Puebla. On the 5th of April, General Diaz overtook
+Márquez at San Diego Notario, where a battle was fought, ending in the
+defeat of Márquez. General Diaz followed up his victory and met Márquez
+again at San Lorenzo on the 10th of April, defeating him completely.
+
+ [Illustration: CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC, OVERLOOKING THE
+ VALLEY OF MEXICO.]
+
+Diaz then marched to Mexico, establishing himself in Tacubaya, and
+commenced operations to put the City in a state of siege. On the 14th
+of May, General Escobedo took Querétaro. Maximilian was tried by
+court-martial and was condemned to death by his own decree of the 3d of
+October, 1865, that all officers taken prisoners should be shot.
+
+Diaz had continued with great vigor the siege of the capital, and on
+the 20th of June the Conservatives yielded and he entered the city
+quietly and took a small house in the suburbs, having his office in the
+School of Mines. No banner of any sort was raised on the palace until
+the 15th of July, when Juarez himself hoisted the flag.
+
+The day following the surrender of Mexico, Diaz presented his
+resignation as commander of the line and Army of the East, and after a
+few months returned to his native city, Oaxaca, which with open arms
+welcomed the hero home again. It was one triumphal march from the
+capital to his home. He was given by the Legislature of Oaxaca the
+Hacienda de la Noria, to which he retired, living there quietly for two
+years, resting from his labors and fatiguing marches.
+
+He had formed, even when quite young, an attachment for Delfina
+Ortega y Reyes and on the day of the surrender of Puebla, the 2d of
+April--that memorable day in which he gave liberty to the captives--he
+was joined in matrimony to the woman of his choice. Señora de Diaz
+possessed great sweetness of character and kindness of heart, and her
+greatest pleasure was in works of charity and in aiding the elevation
+and education of her sex--taking upon herself the care of a college for
+girls which her husband had founded.
+
+Benito Juarez was now president, and Diaz was elected as Deputy to
+Congress for his state. On July 18, 1872, Juarez died and Sebastián
+Lerdo de Tejada succeeded him. Lerdo was afterward elected to the
+presidency, but there being much dissatisfaction by reason of his
+attitude against the church party and of a feeling among the soldiers
+that General Diaz should be the president, the revolutions continued
+throughout the country. He went to the United States, but the siren
+voice of Adventure called him back to his native land. He took passage
+on an American vessel but was recognized by some passengers. Fearing
+arrest at Vera Cruz, he attempted to escape by jumping overboard, but
+was rescued by the sailors. He invoked the aid of the friendly purser,
+who hid him in a locker and smuggled him ashore at Vera Cruz.
+
+Diaz passed through many vicissitudes, and at last, on November 16,
+1876, with an armed force gained a victory over the Lerdistas at Tecoac.
+
+Lerdo, hearing of the loss to his party and of the brilliant victory
+of Diaz, started with some of the faithful members of his Cabinet and
+with what money he could lay his hands on, on November 20, 1876, for
+Acapulco, there taking passage for the United States. General Diaz
+entered Mexico on the 23d of the same month and five days afterward
+assumed the executive power. He formed his Cabinet, raised a loan of
+five hundred thousand dollars to commence the new administration, and,
+leaving General Méndez as president ad interim, went out to finish up
+with the revolutionary element.
+
+There were then really three presidents of Mexico: Lerdo, who had
+abandoned the country; Iglesias, who had been Chief justice, or
+Vice-President under the Lerdo government, and Diaz. Iglesias, seeing
+the desperate condition in which he was placed, followed Lerdo’s
+example, embarking at Manzanillo for San Francisco, Cal., the 17th of
+January, 1877. For two months General Diaz marched from the central
+States toward Guadalajara, capturing all the Lerdist troops without
+firing a single shot. At the end of the two months he relieved General
+Méndez and assumed the actual presidency of the republic.
+
+After having served his term as president, General Manuel González,
+who had distinguished himself as a military man by the side of General
+Diaz, was elected to succeed him.
+
+For a time under González, General Diaz was _Ministro de Fomento_,
+but retired in May, 1881. Soon after he was elected Senator from
+the State of Morelos and Governor of Oaxaca, which position he took
+November 30, 1881. Two years after the death of his wife he married
+Carmen, a notably beautiful brunette, eldest daughter of Señor Don
+Manuel Romero Rubio. They harmonized well--he the personification of
+strength, she of beauty and purity. Simple, without affectation, she
+unites to a kindly heart a most admirable presence of mind and dignity.
+She speaks with facility English and French. Everyone is delighted
+with her affability and the sweetness and melody of her voice. They
+spent part of their honeymoon in the United States, where they were
+everywhere received with ovation, special trains being put at their
+disposal and great courtesy shown them by all.
+
+ [Illustration: PORFIRIO DIAZ, THE THIRD.]
+
+On December 1, 1884, the second presidential period of General Diaz
+was inaugurated. The ceremony took place in Congress Hall, which was
+formerly the Iturbide Theatre. The Diplomatic Corps were in full dress,
+while General Diaz had on a simple black suit. In five minutes after he
+took the chair he had taken the oath of office and retired as quietly
+as he came, to the palace, there to receive welcome and congratulations
+from General González, and to appoint his Cabinet.
+
+Under President Diaz’s administration many reforms in the constitution
+and laws of the country have been made, and the result is that there
+reigns under him a security which was never before known in the
+republic. His liberal ideas, his enthusiasm for the development of the
+country and his previous honest administration enabled him to begin his
+second term under much better conditions than existed during his first;
+and again the confidence of the public was not misplaced, since during
+this second administration Mexico progressed more than ever.
+
+Diaz’s life has been identified with that of the Mexican Republic for
+the last forty years. The life of this really wonderful man presents
+many points and lessons for future generations to study. He is to-day,
+as he has been for many years, the first soldier of the Republic, and
+what is better, its first citizen. From the very bottom of the ladder,
+from a young lieutenant at the age of twenty-three, to the highest
+commission in the army as its General-in-Chief, his career is spotless
+and brilliant.
+
+But it is not most as a soldier that he has won the admiration and
+fame which he enjoys to-day, at home as well as abroad. It is as a
+statesman, in his civil duties, in the many political, financial and
+diplomatic questions which he has so successfully solved, that the
+greatness of Porfirio Diaz must be considered.
+
+He has been the savior of the republic, the creator of the real nation,
+the defender of the people; whose success was possible only because of
+his inflexible integrity and singleness of purpose, his goal was never
+obscured by the shadow of personal advantage and ambition; whose hand
+was never palsied by questionable intrigues. Friend or foe were such to
+him only because for or against the unification of the nation. Among
+the names of the wonder-workers of the world the name of Porfirio Diaz
+will shine and remain imperishable.
+
+ [Illustration: SOLDIERS IN PARADE, 16TH OF SEPTEMBER.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE CORBIAN PALACE.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: PATIO OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.]
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ THE CABINET
+
+
+General Porfirio Diaz has been elected and inaugurated to his eighth
+term of the presidency. This is something unprecedented in the history
+of republics. He has surrounded himself with honorable and judicious
+ministers of his Cabinet, who have devoted their entire lives to the
+interests of their country. At the expiration of their term it is the
+custom for the Cabinet to resign in a body, leaving the selection
+of a new Cabinet to the president. This is a delicate and courteous
+custom that would relieve the head of the nation from an embarrassing
+position, but with the exception of some changes in the Department of
+War and Navy, the same ministers have remained in office unless ill
+health has forced their resignation, or death intervened. The Secretary
+of State sends in his resignation through the sub-Secretary of his
+department, but all the others tender theirs through the Secretary of
+Foreign Affairs. To these letters the president replies that their
+resignations are not accepted, and begs their co-operation in the
+public administration. This is but another proof of his statesmanship,
+as each of his ministers is carefully chosen with a view to his fitness
+for the work entrusted to his judgment and abilities.
+
+The Cabinet consists of eight Secretaries: the Secretary of State
+(Foreign Affairs), the Secretary of Finance, the Secretary of Public
+Works, the Secretary of Industry and Colonization, the Secretary of the
+Interior, the Secretary of Justice, the Secretary of Public Instruction
+and Fine Art, and the Secretary of War and Marine.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON RAMÓN CORRAL, VICE-PRESIDENT.]
+
+These members of the Cabinet must be native born Mexicans, and the
+Minister of War must be a soldier holding distinguished military rank
+and record. The office of Vice-President was created in 1904. Before
+that time the Secretary of Foreign Affairs stood next in rank to the
+President. Señor Don Ramón Corral has the distinction of being Mexico’s
+first Vice-President and is one of the progressive spirits of Mexico.
+For many years he was Governor of the State of Sonora and is regarded
+by the people of that State with great respect and affection. He did
+many things while Governor to merit their kindly regard, and his
+integrity of purpose and wise supervision of the affairs of the State
+of Sonora attracted the attention of Mexico to him, and he now holds
+the distinctive position of being a great factor in the affairs of the
+Republic.
+
+During the Centennial Celebration he was the head of the Commission
+which accomplished so many great things for the entertainment of
+foreign envoys to the capital. He is a quiet but shrewd man and,
+unlike most Vice-Presidents of republics, he has a great power in
+the affairs of the State, and in his high office he brings to bear
+his rigorous and unquestioned talent. He speaks French and English
+perfectly and is a friend to all foreigners who have occasion to invoke
+his aid.
+
+The Ministry of the Interior has charge of general elections, relations
+with the Federal Congress, Citizens’ Rights, Police, Public Health
+and Immigration, Federal District and Territories, the National Guard
+in the Federal District, all hospitals, public buildings, national
+festivities and the Government Printing Office. Señor Corral is the
+Minister of Interior as well as Vice-President and Speaker of the
+Senate.
+
+The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has charge of all relations with
+foreign countries, treaties and diplomatic affairs, boundary questions,
+the naturalization and rights of foreigners, the National Archives,
+the arrangement of ceremonies, and is custodian of the Grand Seal of
+the nation. This seat was held for nearly half a century by Señor
+Licenciado Don Ignacio Mariscal until April 16, 1910, when Mexico
+sustained a great loss in the death of so noble a man. He had served
+his country and his President faithfully, and besides being a diplomat
+of great talent he was a brilliant litterateur and his poems are widely
+read and loved.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL, MINISTER OF
+ FOREIGN AFFAIRS.]
+
+Señor Don Enrique C. Creel, Governor of the State of Chihuahua and
+former ambassador for Mexico to the United States, succeeded him. Señor
+Creel has long been noted as a great statesman. His brilliant mind and
+diplomatic tact have already demonstrated the wisdom of selecting him
+for so important a post.
+
+The Department of Finance, Public Credit and Commerce has charge of
+taxation, customs tariff, commerce, national prosperity, loans and
+public debt, the valuation of lands and the budget.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. JOSÉ LIMANTOUR, MINISTER OF
+ FINANCE.]
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR ING. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, MINISTER OF
+ COMMUNICATIONS AND PUBLIC WORKS.]
+
+Señor José Yves Limantour, the Secretary of Finance, has an
+international reputation as a great financier. He has been in the
+political life of the republic since 1893, and during that time he has
+safely engineered financial feats that have surprised and enlightened
+the world. He is a man of very strong personality. One might call him
+unsympathetic, not knowing that his wonderful reserve is merely a part
+of his education, but a closer acquaintance with him draws out many
+characteristics of his remarkably strong nature. He has been sent to
+Europe on many diplomatic errands, and has always succeeded in showing
+the financial powers abroad his wonderful accomplishments and strength
+as a man of diplomacy and political wisdom. He was born in Mexico of
+French parents in 1853, and his education while a boy was gained in the
+best home schools and in travels abroad. He graduated from the School
+of Jurisprudence and has fulfilled more important missions abroad than
+any official in Mexico.
+
+The Department of Communications and Public Works has charge of the
+interior mail service, telegraph and telephone lines, postal union,
+railways, port-works, all public improvements and the drainage of the
+Valley of Mexico.
+
+Señor Ingeniero Don Leandro Fernández, whose brilliant career as a
+civil engineer won him this important position in the Cabinet, has
+made a life study of all engineering questions and his travels abroad
+in the interest of his work have given him a great experience. He was
+formerly the Governor of Durango and made a great name for himself in
+the important office he held in that State.
+
+The Department of Public Instruction and Fine Art has charge of all
+matters pertaining to education in the Federal District and all
+territories, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Conservatory of Music
+and Elocution, Arts and Crafts, Commercial College and all future
+educational institutions, all normal schools, copyrights, museums and
+libraries, archæological and historical monuments, encouragement of
+culture, art and science, and all conventions of this nature.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. OLEGARIO MOLINA, MINISTER OF
+ FOMENTO.]
+
+Señor Justo Sierra, Minister of Public Instruction, is one of Mexico’s
+literary men. His beautiful poems are widely read. In 1905, Señor
+Sierra took his seat in the Cabinet and has held his position with
+dignity and honor, and all educational interests have in him an able
+administrator. He was the Secretary of Justice before he became the
+Minister of Education. Speaking many languages, his magnificent
+personality and bearing make him a great favorite in Mexico.
+
+The Department of Fomento includes all matters relative to agriculture,
+vacant lands, colonization, agricultural colleges, trade marks,
+patents, weights and measures, observatories, survey, making of maps
+and all industrial, agricultural or mining statistics.
+
+This office is held by Señor Licenciado Olegario Molina, who was
+Governor of Yucatán until he was called to the Cabinet three years ago.
+He has shown himself able and has aided much in the development of
+his country’s welfare since taking his seat. He was born in Campeche
+in 1843, and has been identified with all the commercial progress
+of Yucatán, having been Governor of that State, and under his able
+generalship much was done toward the rapid advancement which has marked
+Yucatán within the past decade. He has borne his great dignity with
+intelligence and discrimination and is regarded as a wise administrator.
+
+Señor Cosío, the Minister of War and Marine, was born in the State of
+Zacatecas, and, besides having occupied the position of governor of
+that State and that of congressman and senator, he displayed great
+ability as mayor of the City of Mexico. He is one of the most popular
+men of the Cabinet.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL MANUEL GONZÁLEZ COSÍO, MINISTER OF WAR
+ AND MARINE.]
+
+There is quite a romantic episode in the life of General Cosío. During
+the Civil War of the United States he was in New York in company with
+two other young officers, destitute, but anxious to return to Mexico to
+fight for his country against the French. None of the three had enough
+money to take him back, so they decided that one of them should be
+selected by lot and enlist in the army of the United States, obtain the
+eight hundred dollars in greenbacks which were given as bounty to each
+enlisting man at that time, and give the money to the other two to go
+back to Mexico and fight for their country.
+
+The lot fell to Cosío, who was on the point of presenting himself at
+headquarters in New York and enlisting in the army so that his two
+companions could go back to Mexico with the money thus obtained, when
+General Mejía arrived in New York. He was visited by the three young
+officers and acquainted with their intention, and he gave them all
+passage-money and sent them back to Mexico as commissioned officers.
+Thus it was that instead of fighting for the American Union, as
+Cosío came very near doing, he battled for his own country until the
+French were banished from Mexico. The popularity of General Cosío
+is unquestioned. He is a man of large intelligence, long experience
+in civil affairs, and proved capacity. A man who has fought in
+revolutions, won distinction for gallantry in the war against the
+empire, suffered imprisonment in France as an incident of that
+conflict, served twice as governor of Zacatecas, been a deputy and
+a senator in the Federal Congress, and for ten years held the most
+conspicuous place in the municipal council of the City of Mexico, is
+surely qualified to hold an important ministry in a great country.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. JUSTO SIERRA, MINISTER OF PUBLIC
+ INSTRUCTION AND FINE ARTS.]
+
+The War and Marine Department controls a standing army, navy and
+merchant marine, the National Guard, Military Legislation, Military
+Justice, Pardons, Naval and Military Schools, Hospitals, Fortresses,
+Warlike Indian Tribes and Military Colonies.
+
+General Manuel González Cosío is a war veteran and has given his
+life to the service of his country. He was Secretary of the Interior
+before his appointment to the War Department. Few men in Mexico have
+the ability and energy that he has developed in the numerous offices
+he has held for his Government. His record as a soldier is brilliant
+with success and his career forms part of the history of Mexico. He
+is called “El Ministro Perpetual.” His family are all scientists and
+around him are always gathered people of brilliancy and talent.
+
+The Department of Justice has charge of all relations with the
+Courts, pardons and commutations of sentences for offenses against
+the Federation and ordinary offenses, relation with the Courts of the
+Federal District, Prosecuting Attorneys and Notaries and all criminal
+statistics.
+
+Señor Justino Fernández, the Secretary of this Department, is one of
+the most intellectual men in the Republic, being very active in war
+politics.
+
+As an opponent of General Santa Anna, he suffered the political fate of
+one who dared to express his opinions, but he rendered his Government
+many good services and for a time retired to the practice of law,
+winning a great name as a man of letters. He was one of the signers of
+the Declaration of Independence. He has filled many important offices,
+Congressman, Governor of one of the States and Director of the National
+School of Jurisprudence. He has devoted his life to his country and has
+met with the appreciation he so justly merits.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. JUSTINO FERNÁNDEZ, MINISTER OF
+ JUSTICE.]
+
+The brotherly love that exists among these splendid administrators and
+the manner in which they co-operate in the government of their country,
+makes Mexico’s Cabinet conspicuous among those of Republics and the
+eyes of the great outer world are centred upon them with wonder and
+admiration.
+
+Congress granted permission for the officials of state to receive
+decorations from the monarchs of different nations. Besides the Grand
+Collar of Charles III., which was conferred upon the President by the
+King of Spain, the Grand Collar of the Red Eagle was the honor sent to
+him by the Emperor of Germany, and the Order of the Imperial Dragon
+granted by the Emperor of China.
+
+Minister Enrique C. Creel was empowered to receive the decoration of
+the Imperial Order of the Double Dragon, first grade, third class
+(grand cross) conferred upon him by the Emperor of China; the Grand
+Cross of Isabella Catolica from the King of Spain; and the Grand Cross
+of the Order of the Crown of Prussia from the Emperor of Germany.
+
+Minister José Yves Limantour, now absent in Europe, received the same
+Chinese decoration of the Double Dragon.
+
+Lic. Francisco León de la Barra, the Mexican ambassador at Washington,
+was decorated with the Double Chinese Dragon, double cordon.
+
+ [Illustration: THE LATE IGNACIO MARISCAL, MINISTER OF FOREIGN
+ AFFAIRS FOR NEARLY FORTY YEARS.]
+
+Señor Francisco Gamboa, who has been for so many years the
+sub-secretary of Foreign Affairs, the Chinese decoration of the Double
+Dragon but of the first grade (grand cordon), also the Order of the
+German Red Eagle, second class with badge.
+
+Lieutenant-Colonel Porfirio Diaz, Jr., received also several
+distinguished decorations.
+
+Among the distinguished men who surround the President and have his
+confidence are Governor Guillermo de Landa y Escandón, Señor Joaquín
+Don Casasus, who was at one time the Mexican Ambassador at Washington;
+Señor Pimentel y Fagoaga, Señor Pablo Macedo, and Señor Rosendo Pineda.
+These gentlemen are all intellectual and progressive, and wield a great
+power in the affairs of the state.
+
+A peculiar custom of the country is the “Bando.” From time immemorial
+it has been the fashion in Mexico to proclaim publicly any changes in
+the government; this was the custom long before the day of newspapers,
+and is still followed, on instructions from the War Department. This is
+done in Mexico City, soon after the election of the President, in the
+following order. A division is organized consisting of two brigades,
+one of infantry and one of cavalry, accompanied by a light battery.
+The chief of staff is attended by an adjutant with two captains and
+three subalterns. The infantry brigade is commanded by its general,
+accompanied by two captains and two subalterns. The cavalry brigade is
+led by its general, a major, two captains, and two subalterns; and a
+platoon of mounted gendarmes accompanies both generals. The “Bando” is
+inaugurated at nine in the morning. The aldermen and the city notary
+accompany the military parade in carriages, affixing the proclamation
+at certain street corners, and otherwise making known the result of
+the presidential election to the inhabitants of the city, with proper
+formalities and the pomp and circumstance of military parade. This is a
+curious and highly interesting custom.
+
+ [Illustration: CORRIDOR OF THE NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING.]
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE IN MEXICO CITY.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: COLONIA JUAREZ.]
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ THE FEDERAL DISTRICT
+
+
+Mexico has reached the pinnacle of her glory as a metropolis, with her
+palatial buildings, her public offices and her illustrious men in whose
+hands rests the administration of a great nation. It is an established
+fact that there are many circumstances which powerfully contribute
+both toward the development of a country’s material resources and its
+advancement on the high road to civilization, but at the same time
+it must not be denied that there are necessary men whose character
+and ability determine a marked progress on a city’s history and whose
+brilliant career and worthy deeds impress their seal on the historical
+period that witnesses their success.
+
+In 1893, the Superior Council of the Government of the Federal District
+was formed. The important offices were appointed by the President and
+are held by three distinguished statesmen to whom the Capital City owes
+much of its progress and advancement: Honorable Guillermo De Landa y
+Escandon, the President of this Council, which gives him the title of
+Governor; Señor Guillermo Beltran y Puga, Director General of Public
+Works; and Señor Doctor Eduardo Liceago, Director General of the Board
+of Health.
+
+This Superior Council is the principal factor in bringing about the
+actual improvement of the city. Public parks and gardens, noble
+buildings, modern lighting equipment, sewerage, streets and avenues,
+and order and discipline have made Mexico the best regulated city in
+the world. It is Paris with its beauty and light, London with its
+busy thoroughfares, Madrid with its color and picturesqueness, and
+Mexico City alone with its unique characteristics that stand out like
+a glowing banner of triumph. The population of this city has greatly
+increased within the past decade. The French, German, Italian, English
+and American colonies are steadily growing. The modern residential
+section is very beautiful, homes being erected in a new and pretty
+style, with gardens of flowers, while the streets are paved and double
+rows of trees make the avenues on which they are built very attractive.
+Little parks intersperse and fountains surrounded by tropical plants
+dot the city, giving it a picturesque appearance.
+
+While Mexico is a modern city, it is not without its charms as a former
+Aztec capital. With all its marked advancement from centuries of
+paganism it still holds some of the marks of those times. The aqueduct
+built in the time of Montezuma, while no longer needed in the vast
+city, is still retained in part as a _recuerdo_ of former days.
+
+There is a romantic side of the nature of all Mexicans, who never
+forget the influences of ancient times, and have kept many relics of
+the oldest civilization of the continent, that enshroud this modern
+city with a poetic drapery of antiquity, giving it a charm that is
+irresistible. It has been said that nowhere in the world can a more
+splendid scene be presented than the first view of Mexico City. Against
+a magnificent sky that defies all attempts of the painter’s art are
+outlined domes and spires. Belfrys and towers mark the numerous
+churches and palaces and the background of tall sierras and lakes all
+make a picture never to be forgotten. Switzerland furnishes no more
+grandeur, England and France show no more beautiful villages, all
+typical of this great wonder-country. The wide, handsome streets are
+clean, electric lights and street cars are in every part of the city,
+the busy thoroughfares are alive to public interests, the fashionable
+districts with their flow of stately carriages, the people in their
+Parisian as well as native dress, the Indian with his pack or his wares
+to sell, the call of the vendor as he passes the doorway--all go toward
+adding interest and charm.
+
+The Castle of Chapultepec, one part of which is a National Military
+Academy, and the other part the summer home of the President, towers
+two hundred feet above a grove of ancient cypress trees. It was built
+in the time of the Viceroy Galvan in the fifteenth century, and stands
+on a mass of rock on which remain signs of Aztec carvings. From this
+point the great valley of Anáhuac unfolds itself to view, the noble,
+snow-capped volcanoes rise majestically above the clouds in the
+distance; lakes, outspreading villages, fields of green and domes of
+multi-colored temples lie beneath the vision. The great cypress trees
+of the Bosque de Chapultepec stand stately and solemn, hoary with the
+flowing moss, and adorn the deep solitude.
+
+It was here that the great Aztec chieftains met, held their councils
+and determined on their plan of defence. Here, beautiful Indian
+princesses kept their tryst with sturdy braves and in the springs
+that bubble in every nook and corner they sported in all their glory,
+unaware of the changes soon to come to their primitive lives.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON GUILLERMO DE LANDA Y ESCANDON,
+ GOVERNOR OF THE FEDERAL DISTRICT.]
+
+Beautiful avenues lead to the Castle, winding around the ascent, and
+from salient walls and parapets the bugle call echoes throughout
+the forest. It is on these avenues that automobiles and magnificent
+liveries are seen in the afternoon social parade.
+
+Tenochtitlan, which was afterward changed to Mexico, after the God of
+War, Mexitla, was described by Cortés as being a very large and well
+populated city. There were imperial palaces, temples of high priests,
+important public buildings, and many handsome dwellings.
+
+From a razed city of the reign of Montezuma, Cortés and the nobles of
+Spain had great ambition to make it a beautiful metropolis and some of
+the buildings now form a most interesting feature of the Capital. On
+the site of the Aztec monarch’s palace, with its hundred rooms, was
+laid the foundation of the Cathedral, which stands to-day a magnificent
+structure of pinkish-gray stone, with marble altars, priceless
+paintings and rich tapestries. It is five hundred and twenty feet long,
+and four hundred and twenty feet wide, and the plan is a Latin cross.
+It was estimated by a Spanish historian that over sixty thousand men
+had perished in human sacrifices upon its site. When these massive
+foundation stones were laid, Elizabeth was Queen of England; Philip II.
+reigned over Spain, Charles IX. in France, Cervantes was writing _Don
+Quixote_, Titian and Paul Veronese were painting their masterpieces;
+the Turks were over-running the Plains of Hungary with the intention of
+wiping Christendom out of existence.
+
+Poland was a mighty empire extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
+Sir Francis Drake was just beginning his career as a navigator. The
+first pipe-full of tobacco had not been smoked in Europe; there were
+no telescopes; Shakespeare and Spenser, Beaumont and Fletcher, Ben
+Johnson and Bacon, were in their prime; and Russia was a savage and
+insignificant power.
+
+Passing through the Cathedral, on either side there are different
+apartments filled from floor to ceiling with paintings, statues, vases,
+huge candle-sticks, waiters and a host of other articles of gold and
+silver. This too, is only the everyday display of articles of least
+value; the more costly ones are stored away in chests and closets.
+
+ [Illustration: HOME OF GOVERNOR LANDA Y ESCANDON.]
+
+The National Palace is a relic of the days of Cortés and was improved
+in the course of time by the Count De Revillagigédo and others who
+reigned after him did much toward beautifying it. It is now the
+official home of the President and other Government Officials; the
+Secretary of Finance, the War Department, Federal Treasury, and
+Public Archives. The Central Meteorological Observatory is on the
+_Azotea_, and the National Museum and Academy of San Carlos form
+another part of this great edifice. In this palace the President of the
+Republic receives his Ministers and the people and on the days of his
+public receptions the poorest persons meet with a courteous and patient
+audience.
+
+The Municipal Palace is a splendid remodeled structure where the
+Governor of the Federal District has his executive office. Its halls
+and salons contain priceless paintings of the viceroys and Mexican
+patriots. It is here that all the affairs pertaining to the City
+Government are conducted, and the Honorable Governor holds his public
+receptions, and where petitions are heard. Governor De Landa has
+proved himself an able governor and conducts the City Government with
+extreme rigor. He has caused many reforms and controls with an iron
+will everything that comes under his régime. He takes the interests of
+the people to heart, he makes his city a noted metropolis, condemns
+and wipes out vices, corrects irregularities. The sanitary conditions
+of the shops and the excellent police force, said to be the best
+regulated in the world, owe their reputation to the indefatigable
+work of Governor De Landa y Escandon. He has a system of controlling
+traffic to such an extent that the busy hour finds the streets clear
+of congestion, an example set by this official in the government of a
+city that could well be imitated by others. In his splendid reception
+hall the Governor receives all classes of people. Here great ladies and
+military men rub elbows with the laborer, and his reception of them
+all is characterized by exceeding good fellowship and courtesy.
+
+He receives the poorer classes who fall at his feet with petitions
+of mercy, perhaps on the imprisonment of a son or father, and he
+reassures and consoles, many times giving aid from his own purse,
+and makes personal investigation of cases brought before him, when
+others of his exalted position might casually pass them by unheeded.
+He has established houses of correction, one for boys at Tlalpam, and
+one for girls at Coyoacan, and the results of this benevolent work
+have been most encouraging to Governor De Landa. In years gone by,
+drunkenness and vice were rampant in the city through the excessive use
+of _pulque_, which was sold extensively, and many crimes resulted
+from this, but since his election as Governor all of this has been
+stamped out, and the drink that stimulates the mind of the laborer
+is now sold in moderation; and the Anti-Gambling Act, passed and put
+into execution in the early days of his administration, has proved
+a great blessing to the middle class. An intimate knowledge of this
+Governor’s character proves that all this interest in the welfare of
+his people and his city is inspired not by love of notoriety, for he is
+very modest in his work of reform. The poor and lowly worship him, the
+mighty respect him, and it is to this man that Mexico owes much of its
+greatness.
+
+The Museo Nacional is in point of antiquarian value the place of chief
+interest in the capital. Here are preserved the principal discovered
+records of prehistoric Mexico; the story of the original inhabitants in
+stone and on paper of the Maguey plant; here too are very many relics
+of the periods of the conquerors and the viceroys.
+
+The museum collection originated in a department of the university,
+which was closed in 1865. The interest taken by the government in the
+archæology of Mexico has led to many important discoveries during the
+last twenty years, and by virtue of the law of national ownership in
+all antiquities found within the republic the museum is gathering all
+discovered records of the ancient people and country.
+
+Among the Aztec relics of chief interest are the sacrificial and
+calendar stones. There are here also many monoliths of large size,
+types of deities worshipped by the ancient Mexican. Of these the
+idol known as the Goddess of Water is colossal being eleven feet
+high and weighing nearly twenty tons. It came from Teotihuacan, near
+the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. Another hideous idol is that
+of Huizilopochtli the War God which is ten feet high and three in
+diameter. The sculptures on these idols are very elaborate. Chacmol,
+the God of Fire, claimed also as the Toltec Deity Tlaloc, is a
+symmetrical figure in stone, recumbent, lying on its back and holding
+in both hands that meet on the stomach a circular disk emblematic
+of the sun. There is a colossal head in serpentine said by some
+authorities to be the Goddess Centeotl, by others to be related to the
+Aztec calendar as evidenced by the shell sculptures, of which there
+are thirteen in front of the cap and twenty at the back respectively
+indicating, perhaps, the thirteen sacred days and the twenty civil days
+of the month.
+
+ [Illustration: THE NEW LEGISLATIVE PALACE.]
+
+The great temple of Tenochtitlan was surrounded by a stone wall in
+which was the wall of serpents, or _cohuatepantli_. Two of the
+heads of these serpents, colossal in size, are among the relics of
+the ancient Aztec; so is the “feathered serpent,” or Quetzalcoatl, a
+sculpture clearly indicating a coiled reptile. Of this latter many
+smaller examples have been found in various parts of Mexico. The
+tradition of Quetzalcoatl, the good teacher, who was fair of complexion
+and wore a long beard, and who prophesied the coming of the white men
+is elsewhere mentioned. Aztec arms, and missiles and armor and domestic
+articles and implements offer object lessons of prehistoric life of
+great service to the student and of fascinating interest to all. Here
+is a shield worn by Montezuma made of carefully quilted cotton; there
+the strange drum _huehuetl_, whose sinister sounds carried fear to
+the Spaniards; here the vicious looking sword with four long blades set
+in the wooden staff on each of its faces, blades of obsidian, so keen
+that as Bernal Diaz wrote, they cut off a horse’s head clean.
+
+Then there are the _pinturas_ or picture writings, of which many
+are preserved. One of the most curious is an ancient Mexican painting
+of the Deluge, and the dove is there with the olive branch; their
+tradition of this event largely agreeing with the Scriptural narration.
+
+Of the Spanish period, there is the armor of Cortés--a very precious
+treasure, priceless indeed, for it was worn by him in all his wonderful
+battles--the banner of the Conquistadores, arms of soldiers, a helmet
+and cuirass of the _Tonatiuh_--Pedro de Alvarado--and portraits of
+viceroys. But the exhibit most venerated among such memorials is the
+Banner of our Lady of Guadalupe, which Hidalgo took from the Santuario
+of Atotonilco on that morning of September 16th, when he started out on
+his war of independence with his ragged patriot army and raised as his
+standard this banner. His musket and some other personal possessions
+are here; also, contrasting with these are the state chariot of the
+Maximilian period and the magnificent and costly dinner service of the
+same period, which latter was permitted to be used at Juarez on the
+occasion of the meeting of President Taft and General Diaz in October,
+1909.
+
+The mystery of the ancient peoples, traces of whose culture invest
+them with uncommon interest; the romance of the conquest of powerful
+and well organized nations by a mere handful of invaders who were
+absolutely cut off from all communications and means of home support,
+yet who overthrew vast armies defending their own territories; the
+wonders of the land opened to the knowledge of the old world; the tale
+of its treasures transcending the exaggeration of fable; and finally,
+perhaps of greater interest than all else, the greatness of the
+republic established by patriot martyrs maintained by the prowess of
+heroes and at length cemented by a patriotism and wisdom that are the
+wonder, admiration and illumination of the world; these are among the
+thoughts aroused in the minds of the musing visitor to this wonderful
+museum.
+
+The calendar stone was originally set in the great temple of
+Tenochtitlan, but on the destruction of the latter it remained buried
+beneath the ruins. On its discovery it was placed in one of the towers
+of the Cathedral and later, in 1860, was removed to the museum. It is
+a circular stone of porphyritic character about ten feet in diameter.
+Tradition asserts that this stone was one of a second pair prepared,
+the first having broken down the bridge of Xoloc and lost in the lake.
+The stone was engraved by order of Axayacatl, and at its dedication
+seven hundred and twenty-eight victims were sacrificed. The hieroglyphs
+that cover its surface are still only a matter of surmise, though the
+numeral system of the earlier races has been determined and great
+steps and considerable advance has been made in determining the order
+in which the glyphs are to be read. The year was divided for civil
+purposes into three hundred and sixty-five days, eighteen months of
+twenty days and a supplemental month of five days after the eighteenth.
+Puzzling as seems the method of enumeration, the Maya priest could
+correctly calculate, as Thomas shows in his _Study of the Manuscript
+Troano_, a period of twelve million three hundred and eighty-one
+thousand seven hundred and twenty-eight days, and determine the exact
+year, month and day that will be reached in such calculation.
+
+ [Illustration: HOME OF VICE-PRESIDENT CORRAL.]
+
+The general plan of this stone is as follows: A relief sculpture of a
+human head with the tongue protruded is in the centre, about this are
+five concentric circles of hieroglyphs, the symbols marking the various
+divisions of time in the ancient Mexican calendar.
+
+The sacrificial stone is not difficult to associate. Its shape and
+sculptures around and upon it indicate its ghastly use. In shape it
+is similar to the calendar stone, circular, eight feet in diameter
+and four in height; but the sinister basin hollowed out in the top
+and the canal leading therefrom to the groove at the edge also lead
+to the conclusion that on this stone the victims of the Aztecs were
+laid and killed by the priests in sacrifice. The sculptured figures
+represent the victims of conquering chiefs being dragged by the hair to
+the place of sacrifice. This monumental stone was found in 1791, near
+the cathedral and was doomed for the pile of paving stones when its
+archæological value was discovered and the vandal’s hand was stayed. It
+is the best sculptured of the antiquities of Mexico.
+
+Among the places of prominent interest is the Monte de Piedad, an
+institution almost singular to Mexico, having regard to its methods
+and the extent of its operations. This great national pawn shop was
+founded in 1774, by the Conde de Regla. He endowed the institution with
+a gift of over three hundred thousand dollars and the crown approving
+the institution, business began in 1776, in the old College San Pedro
+y Pablo. The plan was an eleemosynary one, complementary to the many
+other charities of the Count. No interest was charged on loans; an
+arrangement intended to protect the poor from the exactions of the
+usurers; instead it was expected that the borrower on repaying his loan
+would make some gift in aid of charity.
+
+For three-quarters of a century the profits were appropriated to the
+payment of masses for the repose of the soul of the founder, but for
+the last half a century they have been used in establishing branch
+institutions in leading cities.
+
+It is a fine building and occupies the site of one of Cortés’s palaces.
+The staircases are hewn out of huge blocks of lava from Popocatepetl
+and ornamenting the windows and doors are the hideous heads placed by
+Cortés in his earlier palace edifice.
+
+The Artillery Museum is under the Department of War, and is a
+depository of all historic relics of Mexico’s great events. It was
+founded fifteen years ago and is full of interesting data. The patio is
+roofed with steel and glass and is converted into an exhibition hall.
+The high walls are ornamented with alto-reliefs of the Aztec kings.
+These bronzes are the work of the artist, Jesus F. Contreras, and are
+said to be the finest in Mexico.
+
+There is a large picture of Hidalgo with the flag used in battle, and
+a large faded flag used by Cortés. Here you can see the gold pen with
+which General Escobedo wrote the death sentence of Maximilian, the
+sword of the Emperor and the brilliant uniform of General Escobedo,
+complete with helmet and sword. There is also a splendid library which
+contains many volumes devoted to military science.
+
+The School of Mines, _La Minera_, occupies a palatial structure
+erected at a cost of two hundred thousand dollars in 1813. The school
+was founded in 1777, through the munificence, chiefly, of Señor
+Velasquez de Leon and Lucas de Lasaga. The splendid edifice is the
+work of Manuel Tolsa whose master hand is seen in the great columned
+galleries, the noble pillars, stairways and patios. The chapel is
+an exquisite work, here is a magnificent bronze altar and the lofty
+ceilings are richly ornamented with frescoes by Rafael Jimeno. The
+collection of minerals is very valuable and extensive and varied, and
+forces on the most thoughtless visitor a sense of the immense mineral
+resources of Mexico. An exhibit of much interest is the meteoric
+stones, some of which weigh tons that rest under the front portal.
+These uncanny visitants reached earth in various parts of the republic.
+
+ [Illustration: THE PALACE OF MINES.]
+
+The Plaza de la Constitucion, or Zocalo, as it is called, is the centre
+of the great city. On this spot stood one of the great Aztec temples,
+erected to the deity Huitzilopochtli, where human sacrifices were daily
+offered. One of the fiercest battles ever fought between the forces of
+Cortés and the Aztecs took place on this spot. It is surrounded by most
+pretentious buildings. Fifty years ago this was the social centre of
+the city and a principal place of gathering in the evening for families
+who, as they do now, in the smaller cities, donned their most becoming
+toilettes, promenaded and met their friends, and enjoyed the sweet
+and soulful music for which the Mexicans are so noted. Now the poorer
+class enjoys this privilege with the military band discoursing the same
+beautiful strains as if the gayer and higher world was the audience.
+Starting from this point one can drive straight to the Castle of
+Chapultepec, a distance of three miles, passing through the principal
+thoroughfare of San Francisco, with its array of wonderful old churches
+and time-stained palaces now turned into business houses.
+
+Here stands in its solemn dignity the old Palace of Iturbide, richly
+carved and retaining much of the beauty of the days when it was built
+by the Emperor Augustin I. This is now one of the principal hotels
+of the city, a rendezvous for tourists and students of the country.
+The Alameda, with its grand old trees, its beautiful walks and its
+fountains dancing in the sunlight and shade, was once a fashionable
+park. On Sundays and days of _fiesta_ it was the custom of
+Mexican society to meet there after church, and enjoy music and social
+intercourse. Many a charming love affair has grown out of these
+meetings and Mexico is full of beautiful romances.
+
+Amusement is varied and Mexicans freely embrace the opportunity for
+diversion. The theatres are numerous and of considerable importance,
+as well in the life of the people as architecturally. The chief are
+the Teatro Principal and the Virginia Fabregas; the latter enjoyed the
+distinction of being the most fashionable theatre until the New Opera
+House was constructed. It was the home of Italian and French opera
+and on its stage have been presented the best of Spanish and Mexican
+dramatic productions.
+
+The Folies Bergères is a new theatre lately opened, and is one of the
+best in Mexico.
+
+The Arbeu is one of the popular playhouses. The New National Theatre
+is the work of the noted Italian architect Adamo Boari, and in beauty
+and design will equal any playhouse in the world. It is of a modern
+steel construction and the first national theatre absolutely fireproof.
+The site is one of great historical value as it was on this spot that
+Cortés retreated on the Noche Triste. It covers a square on Avenida
+Juarez and is built next to the Alameda and made to harmonize with it.
+The front is magnificent with statues, flowers and fountains. On each
+side terraces lead up to the entrances. The theatre is surrounded by
+lawns and gardens to be kept always green and beautiful. On each side
+of the theatre is a carriage entrance. The balconies are supported
+by great marble pillars and columns representing the lyric muse. The
+interior decorations are exquisite and harmonious in effect. Italian
+marble and Mexican onyx are seen everywhere.
+
+ [Illustration: SAN FRANCISCO STREET.]
+
+The _Frontons_ located in many parts of the city are devoted to
+the favorite Mexican ball game. This sport is ancient in Mexico, it was
+a favorite pastime of the Aztecs; it was almost a religious custom as
+the places devoted to the games were consecrated by the priests and the
+victors were held in very high regard.
+
+Racing is a favorite diversion in Mexico. There are two fine tracks at
+Indianilla and Penon. Stakes and purses are furnished by the Jockey
+Club and prizes are provided by the _Ayuntamiento_ and the Department
+of Fomento of the federal government.
+
+The characteristic, popular national sport is the bull-fight, which in
+spite of spasmodic efforts to displace it still continues to chain the
+interest and arouse the enthusiasm of the people.
+
+ [Illustration: POLICE HEADQUARTERS.]
+
+The Paseo de la Reforma, once a country road, was improved by the
+Emperor Maximilian. On this avenue a glittering wealth of equipages,
+spirited horses and automobiles, are seen morning and evening. The
+glowing sunshine, the contrasting nature-colors in the parks and along
+the sidewalks add a permanent charm and nothing is more pleasing
+than seeing Mexican society on días de fiesta, passing back and
+forth, vivacious, beautiful and elegant. Leading into this avenue are
+beautiful streets of fashionable homes and in no city of the world
+are seen more beautiful residences than are found here. Elegance
+and simplicity, no gaudy display, the Mexican’s home is his palace,
+and while the exterior is sometimes very simple, the interior, with
+its courtyard of beautiful flowers and palms, its _salas_ with
+magnificent appointments and paintings from great masters is not to
+be excelled anywhere. The exquisite taste of the Mexicans is always
+in evidence. The women are gowned in the latest Parisian toilettes,
+their jewels are as precious as those of crowned heads and their
+entertainments are a glittering and beautiful display of wealth and
+elegance.
+
+The General Lunatic Asylum is situated in La Castaneda, very near
+the little suburb of Mixcoac. It is one of the most picturesque
+spots in the Federal District. Its construction was directed by
+Lieutenant-Colonel Porfirio Diaz, Jr., son of the President. It has
+all the advantages of a luxurious home and has many large pavilions.
+These are modern structures of white stone and cement. The grounds
+are beautifully laid out with parks, making it one of the attractive
+features of the little village.
+
+In Mixcoac the Working Man’s Colony is also a monument to the
+enterprise of Colonel Diaz. He has built modern, sanitary homes at
+nominal rentals, gives each man a certain amount of land to till,
+offers prizes of free occupancy to the most successful and in this way
+the improvident peon is taught a way to earn a living for himself and
+family. These houses are built on a most attractive plan; bathrooms,
+bedrooms, parlors and kitchens, unlike the squalid huts that most of
+the poverty-stricken Indians occupy. It is a plan that has met with
+great success and the products of some of the gardens have demonstrated
+the fact that the Mexican Indian is a farmer by nature, and it is
+thought that this movement will grow and be a valuable aid to that
+class.
+
+San Angel, Coyoacan and San Augustin, are extremely pretty villages in
+the vicinity of the lake.
+
+Coyoacan is almost a continuation of San Angel. Both villages serve as
+a popular summer resort for the rich dwellers in the City of Mexico.
+It was at this place that Cortés took up his residence for several
+months after the total destruction of the ancient Tenochtitlan. Here he
+founded a convent, too; and in his last will and testament he expressed
+a desire to be buried here, in whatever part of the world he should end
+his days. This request was not complied with.
+
+ [Illustration: AMERICAN EMBASSY.]
+
+Coyoacan was always Cortés’s favorite village, and it is even now
+one of the prettiest in Mexico, having one of the handsomest village
+churches in that country.
+
+The Penon baths are one of the great attractions of Mexico.
+
+These boiling springs are said to contain sulphate of lime, carbonic
+acid, and muriate of soda, and the Indians make salt in their
+neighborhood much as they did in the time of Montezuma, with the
+difference, as Humboldt informs us, that they use copper caldrons,
+while their ancestors used vessels of clay. The solitary-looking baths
+are ornamented with odd-looking heads of cats and monkeys, which grin
+upon you with a mixture of the sinister and facetious that is rather
+appalling.
+
+On one of the sites where these mineral springs are to be found still
+stands a little church or chapel which dates back to the beginning of
+the colonial period, and suggests that, like the Pocito de Guadalupe,
+the Penon waters may have been used, with prayer and supplication, for
+effecting miraculous cures.
+
+ [Illustration: POLICEMAN.]
+
+La Viga and the floating gardens or markets form another diverting and
+intensely interesting phase of life in this unique and poetic land.
+The canal makes a circle of over eight miles, and presents a scene
+of unequalled activity and unusual features. One need not look for
+gardens, as the name suggests, but rather for an aquatic market-place.
+The gardens are made up of countless boats in motion, filled with every
+imaginable growth of farm, orchard and vineyard, with garden flowers,
+fruits, chickens, birds, and all other living and growing things that
+can be sold. As soon as one leaves the car the crowd surges around
+imploring the hire of their boats.
+
+The boatmen use only one long oar, with which they pole or scull the
+craft along. In no other way can be gained so accurate an idea of the
+varied population of Mexico; in no other way can so many charming
+effects in costume and personal ornamentation be studied; and certainly
+nowhere else can such a marvellous array of products of this most
+marvellous of all countries be seen.
+
+Santa Anita is a peculiar little spot, Mexican in every detail, and a
+favorite pleasure-resort for the people of Mexico City. It is a town
+of reed-thatched houses, and everywhere there is a tempting odor of
+Mexican culinary dainties.
+
+Pulque may be had in various wonderful and insidious styles in which
+the original flavor is merged in something far more agreeable.
+
+At Ixtacalco are chinampas, with less gayety. A fine old stone bridge
+crosses the canal at this point, with the ruins of a chapel at the
+water’s edge, where in the old days the passing boatman muttered an
+_ave_ and deposited an offering to the patron saint, in the hope
+that good luck would follow him on his voyage and that his vegetables
+would sell for a few more _tlacos_ than usual. In front of the
+church, which is dedicated to San Matías and which has a Franciscan
+foundation more than three hundred years old, is the customary little
+plaza with a fountain of running water.
+
+ [Illustration: MEXICAN LETTER CARRIER.]
+
+There is a fascination about the capital of Mexico which is peculiar.
+Western progress in science, art, life, fashions, architecture,
+government, and facilities and attractions are linked with customs
+foreign to the life of Europe and characteristics exclusively Mexican.
+In its splendid avenues and boulevards, magnificent buildings, the
+lighting and transportation, it vies with European and American
+cities. It is most cosmopolitan, yet its own charm hangs over all. The
+churches suggest the Moorish influence. Its floral beauties, in size
+and color matchless, its rich and peculiar foliage, its wonderful sky,
+its great guardian mountains, its lakes, that recall the most romantic
+stories; the historic wonders of the city and its neighborhood; the
+recollection of great struggles that overthrew successively the
+cultures of the several peoples that dwelt in the Valley of Anáhuac
+and whose characteristics are stamped on the people of the present
+city; nowhere can the picture be duplicated. There is an inexpressible
+imprint in nature and art that makes Mexico singular. It is found in
+its buildings, solid, convenient and of even proportions, in styles
+wonderfully varied but generally ornate. It is pointed out in its
+flowers, shrubs and trees--the peculiar growth of the land; it is found
+in the costumes, customs of the people; it is found in the wonderful
+sky, the great mountains--a something unique in each feature and in the
+combination of all.
+
+The towering form of Popocatepetl fills the eastern view, its
+glistening snow covered crest rising above the level of the city ten
+thousand five hundred feet and almost eighteen thousand above the
+waters of the gulf, and the magnificent Iztaccihuatl, sheltering and
+protecting the Valley of San Martin which spreads out in wonderful
+fertility at their base. Sublime grandeur is the most sober term
+descriptive of the magnificent setting of Mexico City.
+
+ [Illustration: FEDERAL PENITENTIARY]
+
+ [Illustration: GREAT HISTORICAL PARADE, SEPTEMBER 15, 1910.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: EMPEROR MONTEZUMA IN HIS PALANQUIN IN THE
+ HISTORICAL PARADE.]
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ THE CENTENNIAL
+
+
+After Mexico had thrown aside her burden of oppression, and had
+risen to the dignity of a well-governed nation, the powers of the
+world regarded her not without astonishment. After a half century of
+hardships came years of reconstruction and pacification. The greater
+difficulty of gaining faith in themselves was surmounted by men who in
+their generalship gave the Mexicans that which they required more--a
+knowledge that they had a place in the world of great republics; and
+events of the past hundred years have demonstrated it.
+
+In the earlier days, after the reign of the viceroys was over,
+the Mexicans had to fight for their rights, which were overrun by
+highwaymen and guerrilla bands, and until a man could be found who
+would have the strength to cope with this situation there was no
+safety for life or property. With the advent of General Diaz all this
+changed. Mexico proudly stands before the world as one of the best
+regulated governments.
+
+The industrial and agricultural development of the country began with
+Juarez. But during the periods of foreign intervention the Mexicans had
+little heart for anything more than protecting their rights, for they
+had to make a noble stand, and the rich mines that had yielded without
+ceasing so many years were left unworked; the broad, sun-kissed acres,
+which for centuries had furnished golden grain were neglected; the
+miner’s pick and the farmer’s plow lay rusting while the sword dripped
+with the blood of battle. This fairest country on the globe, despoiled
+by human greed for gold, has at last risen into proud prominence and
+when General Diaz assumed the Presidency, Mexico began to see the dawn
+of a great light. She needs no poet to sing her praises, she is her own
+colossal and imperishable monument, the base of which is planted on
+centuries gone by and the summit of which will raise its head in the
+enduring future.
+
+Mexico is free--free to enjoy without stint the fruits of the bounty
+she was forced to get through sacrifice, and having shed upon her dear
+soil the red blood that surged in the patriot’s heart, the rulers of
+this great nation have by their sound judgment placed her foremost in
+the ranks of the world. During the reign of the viceroys when Spain was
+disporting herself in the garb of her riches, gained from her golden
+possessions in America, the Mexicans began to show signs of discontent,
+and occasional uprisings gave these petty kings a great deal of
+misgiving and concern. Foreigners were not permitted to enter the
+country, the Church had the monopoly of education, only Spaniards could
+hold lands and influential government offices and those great patriots
+who did all in their power to uplift their country and protect their
+people are revered by the Mexicans with a love that is almost divine.
+
+It was during the reign of Francisco Javier Venegas (1810 to 1816)
+that the revolutionary period began, and from that time the power
+of Spain declined. Before long the country was in the throes of war
+which Spanish troops could not quell. A great man appeared from the
+mountains. He was a lowly priest, living in obscurity ministering
+to the wants of his little band of Indian Christians. His followers
+knew him to represent God and His teachings and his influence among
+them was very great. He implanted in the minds of the simple people
+that Mexico must be free to worship, free to govern. Foreign wars and
+civil dissension followed the first and noble stand of this patriot.
+The Indians were incited by him to open rebellion and in the midst
+of excitement a great bell hanging in one of the church towers was
+rung proclaiming liberty or death. The deep, mellow tones from this
+old cathedral inspired every Mexican with the desire for a liberty
+that meant more than a proclamation, and for many years there was a
+bitter war in which advanced to the front many brave men whose names
+are graven in the history of Mexico’s great deeds--Allende, Aldama,
+Jimenez, Guerrero all seemed alive to the needs of their beloved
+country. They cast their whole souls into the cause for freedom and
+gave their precious lives to Mexico. This war was not without its
+romances as well as its tragedies.
+
+Like the stories of the Roman warriors, like the Judas who betrayed his
+Christ, Hidalgo was given into the hands of the enemy by a friend, a
+Spaniard named Mariano Galvan, on whose head many times had rested the
+hands of the patriot priest in blessing.
+
+José Maria Morelos y Pavon, a Mestizo Indian, also a Catholic priest,
+called a congress in 1813, and in November declared Mexico independent.
+He was a most intrepid fighter and was known as a “Hero of a Hundred
+Battles.”
+
+The centennial festivities were as much in honor of the heroes of the
+wars as of the growth and progress of the country. The year 1910,
+celebrated the first century of Mexico’s political emancipation. She
+followed the natural outburst of her pride in the realization of her
+wonderful growth during the past century. For she knows that no country
+has been beset with more unfortunate events that tended to retard
+rather than promote her advancement, and when she lifted her proud head
+in her own triumphant recognition she invited the world to come and see
+the results of her century of golden harvest.
+
+Invitations were sent by the president to every foreign monarch and
+ruler, who, excepting the King of England, whose mourning for the late
+King, Albert Edward, prevented, sent special ambassadors to be the
+guests of Mexico for the month of September. So magnificent were the
+entertainments given, so great was the display of wealth and refinement
+that those who had scant knowledge of what Mexico really is, returned
+to their homes much enlightened. Mexico has long been looked upon as
+a faraway land of mystery, with nothing to offer beyond relics and
+romances; but here they found science, art, advancement, men and women
+who could hold their own in the world of brilliancy--here they found a
+warm hospitality, and gathered together in this great capital, like a
+big happy family, they grew to know each other like brothers. Thus did
+Mexico, in bringing together so many representatives of foreign lands,
+create good feeling that will spread in many directions.
+
+ [Illustration: MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE.]
+
+A tribute should be paid to Mayor Fernando Pimentel y Fagoago the
+president of the National Commission, Governor de Landa y Escandon,
+and the other members who planned this wonderful entertainment, which
+will go down in history as one of the greatest jubilees that ever took
+place. Thirty days of hospitality to the world! It was an unheard of
+generosity and those foreign envoys who carried back reports of it to
+their monarchs must have been very much impressed with it all. The
+guests of the nation were treated with every consideration and courtesy
+and their wants attended to with remarkable forethought. They were met
+at the borders and ports and escorted with all honor to Mexico by a
+selected body of society’s most brilliant men and the stations along
+the line of travel were festooned with the national colors. Each city
+sent delegates to meet the trains and speed them on their way to the
+capital. It was like a scene of grandeur of the days when kings went
+visiting, and not one representative of his ruler went from Mexico
+without knowing the full measure of the manner of Mexico’s whole-souled
+hospitality. At the capital, a protocol of ladies and gentlemen, met
+the special trains bearing the foreign delegates and conveyed them
+in all honor to their abodes, which were luxuriously furnished, some
+of them being homes of citizens and officials. Fresh flowers were
+sent each day, automobiles, carriages and servants were furnished and
+everything the heart could desire was at the disposal of these visitors
+during the Centennial. President Taft sent a special commission. The
+distinguished gentlemen were selected for their fitness to represent
+the United States. They were Special Ambassador Honorable Curtis Guild;
+Congressman David J. Foster; Senator Overman; Senator Coe I. Crawford;
+Congressman James R. Slayden; Representative George W. Fairchild;
+Justice James E. Girard; General Harrison Gray Otis; and Colonel Rook.
+These gentlemen occupied the Cobian Palace, one of the most magnificent
+mansions in the capital city.
+
+The other Envoys were the Marquis de Polavieja, Special Ambassador of
+Spain; Monsieur Paul Lefaivre and Admiral de la Croix de Castries,
+Special Ambassadors of France; Marquis di Bugano, of Italy; Special
+Envoy Carl Buenz, of Germany; Chinese Ambassador, Chang Yin Tang;
+Japanese Ambassador, Baron Uchida; Special Ambassadors from Chili,
+Honorable Carlos Subercaezeaux and General Juan de Dios Vial Guzman;
+Special Minister from Brazil, Don Antonio do Fontaura Xavier; Special
+Minister from Costa Rica, Honorable Joaquin Calvo; Special Portuguese
+Ambassador, Visconte de Alte; Peruvian Special Ambassador, Señor
+Fedrico Alfonse Pezet; Special Envoy from Holland, Jankherr J. Loudon;
+Colombian Minister, Señor C. de Corrodor Latorre; Cuban Special Envoy,
+Honorable Loinaz del Castillo; Guatemalan Minister, Dr. Juan Ortega;
+Salvadorian Minister, Señor Don José Antonio Rodriguez; Honduran Envoy,
+Señor Don Salvador Cordóva; Bolivian Minister, Señor Don Santiago
+Arguello; Austro-Hungarian Minister, Count Maximilian Hadik; Russian
+Envoy, Honorable Andre Stalewski; Belgian Envoy, Monsieur George
+Allart; Norwegian Envoy, Honorable Michael Lio; Ecuadorian Special
+Envoy, Señor Don Leopoldo Pino; Swiss Envoy, Mr. Enrique Perret;
+Venezuelan Delegate, Señor Don Eduardo Urdaneta; Argentine Special
+Envoys, Señor Don Jacinto Garcia and General Enrique Fleiss, Commander
+of the Warship _Presidente Sarmiento_; the resident Spanish
+Minister, Señor Bernardo J. Cologan y Cologan represented Greece.
+
+One of the first ceremonies was the opening of the lunatic asylum at
+Mixcoac, one of the most splendid modern edifices erected in Mexico.
+The president, bearing his eighty years with all the strength and
+vigor of a man of forty, conducted the formalities with great dignity
+and poise. Surrounded by representative men of all the world, he stood
+out among them a figure never to be forgotten.
+
+ [Illustration: PRIESTS AND SERVANTS OF CORTÉS IN THE
+ HISTORICAL PARADE.]
+
+All public buildings finished or nearing completion were formally
+dedicated during this eventful month, each cabinet minister and
+official taking an important part in the ceremonies. Speeches that
+glided from the lips of orators from every clime seemed to mingle with
+the golden atmosphere, carrying with them a spirit of good feeling.
+The first ten days of the Centennial were devoted to receiving
+the credentials of the foreign delegates, and impressive official
+ceremonies appropriate to the occasion, but from the first day of the
+month the president and his colleagues went through the ceremonies
+of dedication, laying corner stones and opening schools and various
+enterprises. The new Federal Legislative palace, which is one of the
+most magnificent structures in America, was dedicated in the presence
+of many foreign diplomats.
+
+A flag parade of school children dressed in clothes made by the society
+women of Mexico was one of the most interesting processions, because
+of the youth of the participants. Notable among the events of the
+Centennial was the opening of the University of Mexico in the presence
+of General Diaz and other high officials and distinguished foreign
+educators. In an unostentatious way the ceremonies began with strains
+of the national anthem resounding throughout the large amphitheatre
+of the National Preparatory School. Special delegates of foreign
+universities with the caps and gowns of their respective institutions
+of learning were present, among them, Dr. James Baldwin, representative
+of Oxford University; Licenciado Manuel Garcia Alvarez, a delegate
+from the University of Oviedo, Spain; Doctors Lendian and Dehigo y
+Mestre, of the University of Havana; Professor Ernest Martinenche of
+the University of Paris, founded in 1810; Dr. Benjamin Ide Wheeler,
+President of the University of California, one of the best educators of
+the United States; the American Commission and ambassadors from other
+countries.
+
+Before a brilliant assemblage of men and women the Minister of
+Education and Belles Artes, Señor Don Justo Sierra, read a splendid
+paper treating of the subject of education of the youth of Mexico, who
+must be fitted to receive the reins of the government, which sooner or
+later must fall to them. It was a splendid oration, and was followed
+by a response from the President who in a few dignified words of
+encouragement and praise pronounced the University of Mexico a thing of
+reality, to endure forever. Other addresses followed and the dedication
+of the University of Mexico passed into the annals of history.
+
+The National School of Agriculture was opened and was one of the most
+interesting of the ceremonies of the Centennial, being of importance
+for the advancement and development of agricultural resources. An
+exhibition of live stock in connection with this showed fine breeds of
+cattle and horses from all parts of the republic.
+
+A congress of education in the School of Arts and Crafts for men held
+its session with important delegates from all the States of Mexico.
+The new Normal Schools for men and for women, and some high schools
+were opened and the new seismological station was dedicated during
+the earlier days of the celebration. Following the dedication of
+monuments of industry and statues, came fiestas of every kind, in
+which Mexican women in all their splendor of jewels and toilettes did
+their part in showing the world something of the magnificence of their
+entertainments.
+
+One of the beautiful tributes paid to President and Mrs. Diaz during
+the festivities was a musicale given at the Castle of Chapultepec by La
+Estudiantina musical club of young people.
+
+Public and private balls, free theatres and bull-fights for the people,
+fire-works, electrical displays and parades of every kind were the
+order of this month of continued festivity.
+
+ [Illustration: A PART OF THE HISTORICAL PARADE.]
+
+President and Mrs. Diaz extended magnificent hospitality to the
+visiting ambassadors and their families, the diplomatic corps and
+officials, with a banquet at the National Palace. It was a brilliant
+function. The distinguished guests were received in the red hall. This
+is the historical room of the Palace, filled with old paintings of the
+battlefields and portraits of Mexican heroes. After the banquet the
+guests attended a gala opera performance in honor of the President.
+
+The national commission to entertain the visitors to the capital
+left nothing undone to make the people enjoy the great event, from
+the humblest of Indian peons to the representatives of the mightiest
+monarch. Thousands of working men were given employment during the
+preparations for the Centennial, and in addition to the payment given
+them, each man was presented with a fitting suit of clothes for the
+occasion. It would not be unusual, if the poorer classes were neglected
+during festivities of this kind, to have some discord among them. With
+a forethought, born of a natural tact, all this was regulated and the
+poor were furnished with entertainments with such wisdom that there was
+not a ripple of discontent during the great parades.
+
+Mexicans regard the national events of the past with great reverence
+and love and they enter into the spirit of hero worship whole-souled.
+They do not forget the trials and sacrifices of years; they won their
+right to be free and fought for their country, and having conquered
+their enemy, they can afford to be magnanimous. This was demonstrated
+by the kindly reception given the venerable Marquis de Polavieja, the
+special ambassador from the Court of Spain, who was received with great
+honors and given the greatest ovation ever accorded a foreign visitor,
+on his arrival at the port of Vera Cruz, where three hundred years ago,
+the envoys of the Spanish Crown came to wrest from the people their
+possessions and native land. All this has been forgotten and Spain with
+her great respect to the Mexican government sent her most distinguished
+noble to represent her. With him came a suite of royal personages
+bearing costly gifts and messages of goodwill from their sovereign. The
+uniform and portrait of José Maria Morelos, the intrepid hero of one
+hundred years ago, which was taken to Spain after the execution of the
+patriot, was returned to Mexico with all due solemnity and reverence
+and the Mexicans have a kindly appreciation of this delicate tribute.
+
+Drawn through the streets upon a gun-wagon draped with the flag of
+the nation, for which the patriot died, in a glass covered case, so
+arranged that thousands could view it, the faded and blood stained
+uniform was borne amid muffled drums and strains of martial music to
+the National Palace, where the President of Mexico was waiting with
+his Cabinet and a large assemblage of distinguished people to receive
+the precious relic. It was a most impressive sight and brought tears
+to the eyes of the multitude that stood on the streets, with hats in
+hand, to see men of military distinction and high official life walking
+with slow step before the carriage that conveyed the sacred relic. Old
+warriors who had given their youth to the service of their country,
+men in the prime of life who were serving their country to the best of
+their ability, and youths full of the inspiration of patriotism, walked
+side by side with bared heads, while the soldiers and marines kept step
+with the solemn music.
+
+This gift from a friendly country has cemented the cordial relations
+between Mexico and Spain.
+
+In the Hall of Ambassadors, the splendid representative of Spain made
+the presentation in these few well chosen words:
+
+“Mr. President--In the name of my august sovereign I have the high
+honor of delivering into the hands of your Excellency, that it may
+remain on Mexican territory, the portrait, the uniform, and other
+objects which were the property of General José Maria Morelos y Pavon,
+which, as belonging to a great general and citizen, my country kept
+with great care for a long time, guarding them jealously in its museum
+of artillery.
+
+“His Majesty, King Alfonso XIII., wishes that your Excellency may
+see in this act, and with you all the noble Mexican people the most
+complete expression of the sincere satisfaction with which he and the
+Mother Spain associate themselves with your centenary of independence.
+You are to be praised for the greatness of your progress, and the rapid
+strides Mexico has made toward internal and international peace.
+
+“To-day for this reason, the Mexican republic merits and possesses the
+respect, the esteem and the regard of all people. In her there shone,
+in past times, all the glories of the art of war, and now all the arts
+of peace, which have had brilliant development and expansion.
+
+“May God continue to dispense to her his favors.
+
+“These are the wishes of my King and the Mother Spain, proud of her
+daughter, whom she embraces, on this momentous occasion, with all the
+affection of her soul and with all the memories of her great labor as
+the discoverer, explorer and colonizer of the Americas.”
+
+The President with much feeling thanked the monarch of Spain in the
+name of his people and expressed appreciation for the relic so highly
+prized.
+
+At the conclusion of the ceremony the audience of brilliant men and
+women gave many “_vivas_” for the respective rulers and also for
+the venerable Marquis who had the honor of presenting the gift. The
+Grand collar of the Order of Carlos III. was conferred on General Diaz
+at another ceremony and a painting of Alfonso of Spain was unveiled.
+
+A marble tablet erected on the front of the Artillery Arsenal in the
+Cuidadela in memory of the imprisonment of the patriot, José Maria
+Morelos, was unveiled by the Governor of the Federal District, Señor
+Don Guillermo de Landa y Escandon. Little children from the schools,
+dressed in white, assisted the Governor in this ceremony by singing
+the national anthem. The oration of the day was delivered by a noted
+attorney, Licenciado Isidro Fabela.
+
+The unveiling of the Monument of Independence, with orations from many
+distinguished men, was one of the principal events of this month. This
+was built to commemorate the National Independence. It is an impressive
+looking column, some parts made in Mexican marble, surmounted with
+a bronze winged female figure. The plaster casts of the allegorical
+figures were made by native sculptors and sent to Italy, where the
+castings were made. The four figures on the lower pedestal represent
+Law, Progress, Resistance and Force.
+
+ [Illustration: NOBLEMEN WITH ESCORTS IN THE HISTORICAL
+ PARADE.]
+
+From the base rises a column, surrounding which are figures of the
+Heroes of the Independence. The central figure is of Hidalgo, and
+standing on each side are figures of Morelos and Guerrero. From this
+pedestal rises the shaft ten feet in diameter and sixty-seven feet
+high. It is the work of Antonio Rivas Mercado and was completed in 1910.
+
+One of the most significant ceremonies during this month was the
+unveiling of the statue of Benito Juarez, first president of
+the republic after the empire. Before a brilliant concourse of
+distinguished Mexicans and ambassadors, and the surviving members of
+the Juarez family, the president, with tears streaming, drew aside
+the canvas that hid the most fitting monument ever built in Mexico.
+It is of Doric style, constructed from Italian marble, severe and
+magnificent, typical of the character of this great man. It is the work
+of the sculptor Lazaroni, after the design of Heredia, and seems to
+represent the true character of Juarez, whose intense patriotism and
+upright principles immortalized him. The sculpture represents Juarez
+between two allegorical figures of Glory and Mexico--these figures are
+seven metres high and are most imposing. This monument is a recognition
+of the greatness of the reformer who did so much for Mexico in the
+closing years of his life.
+
+Señor Ingeniero Ignacio de la Barre, in a well delivered address
+explained that the massive work of construction was completed in ten
+months, the workmen in a spirit of patriotism working day and night.
+On this occasion the American government presented an immense wreath
+of flowers which was borne to the foot of the statue on the strong
+shoulders of two most distinguished ambassadors, Honorable Curtis Guild
+and Honorable Henry Lane Wilson. This monument is most conspicuously
+placed in the Alameda, on the avenue which bears the name of the great
+patriot.
+
+The site in Plaza Dinamarca upon which will stand the monument to
+Washington presented to Mexico by the resident citizens of the United
+States, was dedicated by General Diaz. The introductory address was
+made by Mr. C. R. Hudson and the oration delivered by Honorable Henry
+Lane Wilson, the resident American ambassador, was concluded in most
+brilliant language. This monument is now in construction, and is one of
+the many contributions in honor of the Centennial.
+
+On September 14th, the statue of Baron Alexander Von Humboldt, the
+magnificent gift from the German Emperor to the republic was unveiled
+in the garden of the National Library. In the midst of glittering
+uniforms and decorations, with the German band discoursing strains of
+Tannhauser, the President and his suite arrived to hear the address
+of presentation by Ambassador Carl Buenz and his diplomatic staff. It
+was the most brilliantly garbed assemblage of people at any dedication
+during the celebration. The chief executive drew the cord which parted
+the curtains that hid the dignified statue of the man whose faith in
+Mexico had inspired his predictions of its great future. The marines
+and sailors of the man of war _Freya_ made a great impression by
+their splendid bearing. A chorus of male voices, hidden in the recesses
+of the building, rendered selections of classical music. The oration of
+the German ambassador was delivered in an eloquent style. He said:
+
+“Mr. President:
+
+“Ladies and Gentlemen:
+
+“This day belongs to the fraternal feeling between Mexicans and
+Germans. We find ourselves to-day under the emblem: ‘The German Emperor
+to the Mexican Nation.’ These are the words written on the base where
+has been raised the monument which we are about to dedicate to the
+Mexican nation, as a permanent symbol of our friendship.
+
+“Marble upon granite symbolizing the purity of our sentiments and the
+firmness of our friendship.
+
+“His majesty, the Emperor, desiring of his own initiative to give to
+Mexico a visible and permanent sign of his sympathy, could find no
+better means to realize his intention effectively than by the erection,
+in the capital of the republic, of the statue of the great explorer of
+this country, Baron Alexander Humboldt.
+
+“Over a century ago, a young German, animated by the enthusiasm of
+youth and the desire for scientific knowledge characteristic of our
+race, was inspired to explore the Latin lands across the seas.
+
+“As a simple traveler, he will soon appear to our page as a hero of
+science penetrating the most recondite mysteries of the New World,
+despite innumerable dangers, cruel fatigues, almost insurmountable
+obstacles.
+
+“The author of ‘Cosmos,’ his immortal work, belongs to the world, the
+illustrious man of science, to our nation, the author of Essay on New
+Spain, to Mexico.
+
+“The European world heard with surprise the revelations of the beauty,
+the wealth, and the possibilities of a country in which he had become
+interested solely for its heroic history, for its past.
+
+“With Alexander Humboldt, modern Mexico celebrated its apparition as an
+actual power, as a valiant member of the family of modern nations.
+
+“The Mexican nation, always chivalrous, was quick to recognize the
+merits of the explorer of its territory and made him an honorary
+citizen. In this manner the son of Germany became the adopted child of
+the Mexican nation and Germany and Mexico became brother countries.
+
+“It is for the fraternity thus effected that the German Emperor offers
+to the Mexican nation the statue of her native son, the adopted son of
+Mexico.
+
+“And Mexico? What a marvel!
+
+“Another Alexander Humboldt, native born of Mexico, came and by his
+intelligence, through his love for his country, the energy of his
+character and the weight of his hand when it became necessary, he
+formed a new Mexico, a state worthy of occupying a distinguished place
+in the community of civilized nations.
+
+“It is for this reason, General, that to-day the representatives
+of civilized foreign nations participate in the celebration of the
+Centennial of the declaration of Mexico’s independence. It is for this
+reason that His August Majesty, the Emperor, has sent me to express to
+Your Excellency, in the presence of the representatives of his army and
+his navy, his sincere sympathy for Your Excellency, his cordial desires
+for your welfare and for the prosperity of the Mexican nation, and it
+is for this reason, as a permanent symbol of this goodwill and love,
+that His Majesty furthered the plan of erecting in this, the capital
+city of the republic, the monument we are about to unveil.
+
+ [Illustration: SITE OF THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT. PRESENTED BY
+ THE AMERICAN COLONY.]
+
+“The erection of the monument in front of the National Library is
+significant of the universality in which all the differences of races,
+all the evolutions are resolved; of the universality of science, of the
+harmony of ultimate ideas, of the chief ends of mankind. It is with
+this idea, Mr. President, that I to-day have the honor of delivering in
+the name of the Emperor, to Your Excellency as the representative of
+the nation, the statue of Alexander Humboldt, sole honorary citizen of
+this republic. That this monument be a ‘monumentum sere perennius’ of
+the friendship which happily binds our nations and our governments, a
+witness, dumb, but eloquent, of the continuous progress of this country
+towards the goal of its destinies.”
+
+After a selection from Mendelssohn, the response for the president was
+delivered by the brilliant governor of the Federal District, Honorable
+Guillermo de Landa y Escandon. It was an entire day of festivity.
+Lunches and dinners were given at the German Club and theatrical
+performances in honor of the Germans in all parts of the city. The
+cadets and officers from the warship were given the freedom of the town.
+
+Many other statues were dedicated and unveiled, among them monuments in
+honor of Garibaldi and Pasteur.
+
+In the Monumental Tribune at Chapultepec the president and his cabinet,
+the foreign ambassadors and ladies and gentlemen of Mexican society
+witnessed the ceremony of the dedication of the ground for the statue
+of Queen Isabel, the Catholic, which was presented by the Spanish
+Colony.
+
+All honor was paid to the cadets who fell in the battle of Molino del
+Rey, on whose monument were placed wreaths of flowers.
+
+Not a day passed during this great Centennial without some wonderful
+form of entertainment. The Civic parade which took place September
+14th, was one in which all classes of society participated. Over ten
+thousand people marched in this procession, amid waving banners. It was
+headed by all the officials of the government, and took in every labor
+organization and employees of the government. The president reviewed it
+from the balcony of the National Palace.
+
+On September 15th, the most unique pageant known in history took
+place. It was the historical parade which comprised every character of
+Mexico’s history. It was a drama enacted before the president with the
+oldest site of Mexico City, the Plaza de la Constitucion, as its stage.
+The actors numbered over twelve thousand and many came from parts of
+the republic in which the event they were to depict was originally
+enacted. All the magnificence of the Emperor Montezuma as he went
+forth to greet Hernán Cortés was faithfully represented in costumes
+of their times and races. The following is a translation from the
+_Mexican Daily Record_, of the programme furnished by the members
+of the National Commission, to whom all honor should be given for this
+stupendous success:
+
+
+ APPROACH OF CORTÉS
+
+The troops of Cortés, composed of four hundred Spaniards and seven
+thousand Indian allies, passed the night in the town of Amecameca, in
+the valley formed by the “Montaña que Numea,” (mountain that smokes),
+on the 5th of November, 1519. The following day they continued their
+journey toward the great Tenochtitlan, the proud Lady of the Lakes;
+passed by Tlalmanalco and held to stop in Aytezinge, a village near
+Chalce. On rising the next day to continue the journey, Cacama, the
+king of Tezcoco called the Spanish conqueror and presented him with
+rich gifts in the name of Montezuma.
+
+The march continued, and on that day, November 6th, they arrived at
+Ixtapalapan where they were received by Cuitlahuac, brother of the
+emperor of Mexico, where they were comfortably lodged.
+
+Very early on the 7th, the journey was resumed; it is said that Cortés
+appeared somewhat distrustful and for that reason he formed his troops
+in line of battle. The flags were unfurled and the drums made a
+tremendous noise to terrorize the Indians.
+
+ [Illustration: MONTEZUMA’S ARMY IN MILITARY PARADE.]
+
+Great was the excitement in the hearts of the Spaniards at the sight
+of the panoramic view of the city, where numberless temples rose to
+view majestically over the crystal lakes. The exuberant vegetation
+and luxuriousness, the gifts or presents consisting of gold, precious
+stones, rich plumage, and so varied vegetable products, all must have
+caused a great impression on the minds of these men of insatiable
+thirst for adventure.
+
+
+ EMPEROR MEETS CORTÉS
+
+Emperor Montezuma prepared himself to meet the conqueror. Two brothers
+accompanied the emperor and also the lords of Tezcoac, Ixtapalapan and
+Coyoacan, the king of Tlacopan, the treasurer of Montezuma, Tlacatecat,
+the captain general and other great personages.
+
+Four of these men conducted the emperor in a luxurious palanquin, with
+shafts of polished gold and showy blankets, under a pallium or canopy
+of woven feathers. Preceding the monarch a group of ministers with gold
+rods in their hands marched heralding the approach of the emperor, and
+the party was completed by the members of the council, the priests, the
+captains in front of their warriors and their servants.
+
+Cortés arrived preceded by a cavalry guard, he mounted his white horse,
+Molinere. The vanguard was composed of drummers and buglers and the
+companies of arcabuceros and ballesteros. At the rear was a platoon of
+Tlaxcalteca warriors, allies of the emperor. Cortés was surrounded by
+his captains, Pedro de Alvarado, Juan Velasquez de Leon, Gonzalo de
+Sandoval, Alonso de Avila, Francisco de Luga, Diego de Ordaz and the
+distinguished soldier, Bernal Diaz de Castillo.
+
+When Montezuma and Cortés finally met, the former alighted from the
+palanquin and advanced to receive the latter upon several rugs which
+the servants placed upon the floor before the emperor so that he need
+not step upon the ground, all the great lords and members of the
+cortége remaining with their heads bowed, so as not to see the face
+of the monarch. Four great lords covered him with the pallium when he
+approached the conqueror.
+
+
+ GIFTS EXCHANGED
+
+Cortés dismounted and advanced to greet Montezuma, making two bows or
+reverences. Montezuma responded by placing his hands near the ground
+and then to his lips. The conqueror intended to embrace the monarch,
+but the great lords advised him that the emperor was a divinity who
+could not be touched. He placed on the neck of Montezuma a collar
+of stones of marcasite glass in gold thread and scented with musk.
+Montezuma surrounded the neck of Cortés with a rich collar set with
+stones and a string of roses. He then ordered his party to offer
+his presents to Cortés and the latter received flowers and birds of
+beautiful plumage.
+
+The priests passed swinging their censors and the procession continued
+in the aforesaid order.
+
+
+ ORGANIZATION OF PARADES
+
+The first group, which consisted of eight hundred and thirty-nine
+persons, commenced its march from the Plaza de la Reforma, following
+up Avenidas Juarez and San Francisco. When they reached the corner of
+Empadredillo, Montezuma and his party passed in front of the portales,
+and Cortés and his party to the front of the Cathedral, in order that
+the meeting of the two would take place under the central balcony of
+the National Palace. The order of the procession was as follows:
+
+ [Illustration: UNVEILING OF THE HUMBOLDT STATUE. PRESENTED TO
+ MEXICO BY EMPEROR WILLIAM.]
+
+
+ MONTEZUMA’S GROUP
+
+1. Nineteen Mexican warriors with banners.
+
+2. Grand captain escorted by eight warriors with badge of noble
+distinction.
+
+3. Fifty Mexican warriors.
+
+4. Thirty-eight priests.
+
+5. Lords of Tezcoco, Ixtapalapan, Coyoacan and Tlacopan accompanied by
+twenty Knights of the Sun.
+
+6. Fifteen noblemen, or great lords.
+
+7. Twenty Indian women escorted by six warriors with fixed banners and
+two Tiger Knights.
+
+8. Servants carrying tapestries and rugs or blankets to place them on
+the ground when the emperor alights from his palanquin.
+
+9. Ten ministers with gold rods in their hands.
+
+10. Emperor Montezuma in his palanquin, conducted by four great lords.
+Another four noblemen carry large fans, fifty more great lords surround
+the emperor.
+
+11. Group of warriors, priests, who escort the emperor.
+
+12. The procession is closed by seventy-two Mexican warriors with their
+respective chiefs.
+
+
+ CORTÉS’S GROUP
+
+1. A guard of six soldiers, carabiniers on horseback and twenty on foot.
+
+2. Drummers and buglers.
+
+3. Ballesteros.
+
+4. Hernán Cortés, accompanied by Doña Marina (Malintzin) and his
+distinguished captains.
+
+5. Priests and servants of Cortés.
+
+6. Archers.
+
+7. Tlaxcalteca warriors allied to Cortés, in the following order:
+
+ Advance guard of ten warriors.
+ Chiefs of the republic of Tlaxcala.
+ Standard bearers.
+ Eighty warriors with their respective commanders, or chiefs.
+
+
+ SECOND GROUP
+
+The second group represents the epoch of Spanish dominion in Mexico, in
+the procession of the banner.
+
+To commemorate the 13th day of August, the anniversary of the conquest,
+the procession used to be organized in the following order:
+
+Preceded by the drummers, buglers and the several foot ushers, the
+cabalgada marched from the church of San Hipolito to the municipal
+palace, the procession being formed by the councilmen, the mayor, the
+first constable, one honorary colonel and lieutenant-colonel of Spanish
+infantry, the members of the council of his majesty, the members of
+the _audiencia_. In a prominent place was the alferez or chief
+ensign of the town. The rear of the group was a military force and the
+principal Indians of Santiago and Tlaltelolco, walking on foot with
+their typical square blankets, wide trousers, a cape and sandals. As a
+rule these Indians were the governor, the mayor, the judge and first
+constables of the aforesaid places. On reaching the municipal palace,
+the alferez real would take the banner which was placed upon a scarlet
+pillow under the main balcony, and before a notary he would pledge
+abject submission and return it to the place whence it came.
+
+ [Illustration: THE JUAREZ MONUMENT.]
+
+The procession again formed, the royal alferez proceeded on the
+march through the streets of Tlapalros, Refugio, Puente del Espiritu
+Santo, San Angel, San Augustin, Portacoeli and Flamences to the main
+entrance of the viceroy’s palace. The viceroy would come down and join
+the procession, surrounded by the high dignitaries of the palace,
+the alferez real to his left and to his right the oldest judge of
+the supreme court. The cavalcade would take the streets of El Reloj,
+Encarnacion, and Santo Domingo, to arrive at the platform erected
+in front of the palace, on which four maidens and four knights were
+waiting. Once on the tribune, the alferez would deliver to the viceroy
+the banner to be raised above his head. This ceremony was patronized by
+the provincials of Santo Domingo and San Francisco. When the ceremony
+ended, the viceroy entered the palace with his party and the alferez,
+with his party, returned to the ayuntamiento to leave there the banner,
+the whole procession then being dispersed.
+
+This group consisted of two hundred and eighty-eight persons and
+marched in the order indicated. At the main balcony of the municipal
+palace the royal ensign was placed, which is of crimson damask with
+the royal emblem embroidered in gold, trimmed with a flounce of gold,
+cords and silk tassels. The royal emblem is surrounded by the following
+inscription:
+
+“Non in multitudine Exercitus Consistit sed in Voluntate Dei.”
+
+When the royal alferez returns to the municipal palace to deposit the
+banner he leaves it in the hall of sessions of the ayuntamiento.
+
+Facing the National Palace, a platform with curtains was erected for
+the ceremony of raising the pennon or royal standard.
+
+
+ MODERN TIMES
+
+The third group represented the era of independence and the present
+time, as follows:
+
+1. Glorification of Generalisimo Miguel Hidalgo. Allegorical float of
+the Independence, offered by the government of the State of Hidalgo.
+
+2. Float in honor of the insurgent Generalisimo José Maria Morelos y
+Pavon, by the government of the State of Michoacan.
+
+3. Representation of the entry of the army of the Three Guarantees
+into the City of Mexico, under the command of Augustin de Iturbide,
+accompanied by Generals Vicente Guerrero, Manuel Mier y Teran,
+Guadalupe Victoria and Anastasio Bustamante, leading some sections
+of the regiments who formed the Trigarante Army, among others the
+following:
+
+Imperial grenadiers. Regiment of the Crown. Regiments of Celaya, Tres
+Villas, Guadalajara, Light of Querétaro, Light of Morelos, Stationary
+of Puebla, Mexico and Valladolid. Regiments of Santo Domingo of
+Ferdinand VII. Dragoons of Mexico. Dragoons of the King. Dragoons of
+Santander. Faithful of the Potosi, Sierra Gorda and San Fernando.
+Regiments from Puebla and Mexico.
+
+This being the eve of the great day of Independence, as well as the
+celebration of the eightieth birthday of General Diaz made it one
+of the most brilliant days of entertainment during the Centennial.
+Congratulations poured from all parts of the world to greet the Chief
+Executive on the occasion of his birthday and a galaxy of men and women
+at the National Palace furnished a scene never to be forgotten. True
+to the yearly custom of the past century, as the hour arrived when
+the ringing of the Bell of Liberty incited outbursts of enthusiasm,
+the masses gathered beneath the balcony of the National Palace, the
+president stepped out into the night and pronounced the Grito de
+Dolores, “Long live our most holy Mother of Guadalupe: Long live
+America, and death to bad government.” The peals of this great relic of
+the past sounded like the silvery voice of Hidalgo embalmed in metal.
+
+On September 16th, the great review of the army of the republic took
+place. On this occasion the foreign delegates had the opportunity of
+viewing the army of Mexico in all its glory.
+
+A splendid official reception given by Governor de Landa y Escandon in
+the new Municipal Palace brought together a concourse of distinguished
+men and women. This was one of the great social events.
+
+One of the most magnificent spectacles that occurred during this gala
+Centennial was the ball given by President Diaz and Madame Carmen
+Romero de Diaz, the Diplomatic Corps and Mexican society. The large
+_patio_ of the National Palace was a fairyland with myriads of
+lights and flowers, and in no part of the world could there be a more
+wonderful display. It was an honor to the nation. Mexico may justly be
+proud of the display at this function, she may well be proud of her
+beautiful women who in their magnificent toilettes and jewels carried
+themselves with such dignity. A special ambassador of one of the Courts
+of Europe remarked that he had never seen among crowned heads a woman
+who bore her dignity with such grace and beauty as Madame Diaz. Over
+ten thousand guests assisted at this beautiful ball.
+
+During the brilliancy of the _fiestas_, the nation’s dead heroes
+were not forgotten. The urns containing the remains and relics of
+Mexico’s patriots were transferred from the Cathedral to the National
+Palace, and a most touching apotheosis was held in their honor.
+
+ [Illustration: THE ARMY OF CORTÉS IN PARADE.]
+
+ [Illustration: RECEPTION HALL OF THE SPANISH CASINO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: PATIO OF THE SPANISH CASINO.]
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE
+
+
+Mexico, with majestic and snow-capped mountains, opens to the view of
+the traveller who has hitherto followed the beaten paths a rich mine of
+unexpected delight. A wonderful country where nature has been so lavish
+that she causes to grow upon its surface a vegetation so varied that it
+includes every plant of tropical lands, together with the sturdy firs
+of the farthest north. Some strange magic seems to hold one within its
+gates: the dreamy poetic strain of old Spain whose traditions still
+tinge the country with the romance of the Cid, Manriques lays and the
+last of the Moors. Echoes of the Alhambra still linger in the graceful
+Moorish arches of the public buildings, while the gardens of King
+Boabdil live again in the beautiful alamedas with their stately trees,
+luxuriant vegetation, gorgeous flowers, graceful monuments and cool
+and shady walks. In every city of any size is the alameda, a meeting
+place for the people. The one in Mexico is especially artistic in
+arrangement by the profusion and beauty of its flowers. Side by side
+with the pushing needs of civilization and progress are to be seen
+evidence of the artist’s instinct, which finds expression in splendid
+forms of architecture, not of the solid unsightly blocks of stone which
+so disfigure our large American cities. The progress of Mexico has been
+wonderful in the last fifteen years.
+
+The social distinction of the city is prominently marked by its
+magnificent clubs. The principal of these is the Jockey Club, whose
+sumptuous home is in “The House of Tiles,” on San Francisco Street.
+The building is one of the finest in the capital; it was built early
+in the eighteenth century and was formerly the palace of the Conde
+del Valle de Orizaba. Its massive form in Moorish style and Venetian
+ornamentation gives it a character wholly individual and irresistibly
+attractive. The façade is entirely finished with white and blue tiles,
+hence the familiar name of the building. The building is entered by a
+richly carved portal of massive proportions; the great doors of cedar
+are ornamented with unique copper ornaments. As the great _patios_
+are reached their ample stretch suggests that one is in the precincts
+of a vast deserted Andalusian palace. In the court-way stands a
+memorial of the days of the founder of the palace, a fountain of
+marvellous beauty, delicately and gracefully chiseled in the best style
+of that day.
+
+The first floor is carried on richly decorated cylindrical columns. At
+the left is the library, an exquisitely adorned apartment with every
+appointment that luxury can suggest for such a room and a special
+literature befitting the establishment, complete in every respect.
+
+As little change as possible has been made in the structural character
+of the old Count’s palace. On the grand stairway, the great lamp with
+its alabaster globes casts its soft light on the old walls, just as it
+did when the assassin struck down the original owner. Splendid Venetian
+mirrors reflect the beauties of decoration and deep set windows of
+octagonal shape with their oddly designed panes of richly stained glass
+serve to add decorative strength and to heighten the effect of the
+curious ceiling tiled with alternate rows of porcelain and cedar.
+
+The corridor on the main floor is also a masterpiece of tile work, like
+the façade, in white and blue. A striking feature of this corridor is
+the railing of _tumbago_, a bronze composite brought by Spain’s
+galleons from China, which is splendidly wrought and is of great value.
+Of the same metal are the club’s balconies facing San Francisco Street
+and Callejon Condesa. In the main floor corridor and on the landing of
+the grand staircase still remain the graved coat-of-arms of Del Valle,
+and everywhere white and blue tiles, costly as silver, and unmarred by
+the touch of centuries; a bit of old time splendor preciously cherished
+both as being old and as reminders of the high proficiency of the art
+of earlier days.
+
+On the main floor is the little-changed chapel of the Conde del Valle
+which was once the depository of the sacred relics and art treasures of
+his family, but is now devoted to games of _tresillo_. Here still
+is the richly carved quaint cedar portal and the fine sculptured arch
+of the former oratory.
+
+The history of the famous club begins with 1881, and its founding is
+due to the late General Pedro Rincon Gallardo and Señor Francisco
+Somera, who obtained the co-operation of the municipal council. On
+June 8, 1881, the first president, Señor Somera, was elected. The
+second was Señor Manuel Romero Rubio. At his death in 1895, General
+Gallardo succeeded. Señor Yves Limantour is now the president and Señor
+Sebastian Camacho, the vice-president.
+
+The club membership is extremely exclusive; there are but a few foreign
+members and introductions are very limited.
+
+The University Club is most comfortably housed in Calle Bucareli.
+Occasional introductions are permitted by members, and entertainment is
+accorded as guests to visiting university men on the request of members.
+
+The Country Club is near Tacubaya, in one of the finest club buildings
+in America, being of Spanish mission style. Its hospitality is
+generously extended to non-residents of the Federal district. Visitors
+may be introduced in person, and two weeks’ privileges are granted on
+request of members. It has a splendid tennis court and a fine golf
+link. The dining room is finished in Old Flemish. This is the favorite
+meeting place of distinguished Americans.
+
+The home of the British Club in San Francisco Street is handsomely
+appointed, and in great favor. The membership is, of course, chiefly
+British, with a few colonists from other places and a sprinkling of
+Mexicans. Visitors are entertained for two weeks on request of members.
+
+The French Clubs, the Cercle François and the University Club, are both
+noted for their attractions.
+
+The American Club on Calle Independencia is the chief social foyer of
+the leading American residents in the capital. The provision made for
+accommodation of members and guests, though extensive, is often taxed
+to its capacity. The privilege of guests of the Club is accorded on
+request to members for the accommodation of their visiting friends.
+
+The German Club has a fine new building and a splendid gymnasium.
+
+The Casino Espanol Club is domiciled in a mansion, and has a membership
+of eight hundred. This Club is famous for its magnificent balls. During
+the Centennial it gave many _fiestas_ of note. Señor Sanchez y
+Ramos, a son-in-law of Benito Juarez, is the distinguished president.
+
+The Diplomatic Corps, which is quite large, is an important element in
+the social life of the Capital, and is composed of many distinguished
+representatives. The Spanish, the French and the Japanese are among
+the best entertainers. The British government is represented by His
+Excellency, the Honorable Reginald T. Tower. Soon after his arrival in
+Mexico, he presented General Diaz with the Grand Cross of the Bath,
+which was conferred on the President by His Majesty, King Edward.
+
+ [Illustration: HISTORICAL STAIRWAY OF JOCKEY CLUB.]
+
+The American Colony in the City of Mexico is composed of many
+distinguished representatives. Their social life, while in a measure
+confined to themselves, is delightful. The American Ambassador,
+Honorable Henry Lane Wilson, and his charming wife have endeared
+themselves to everyone. Honorable Arnold Shanklin is the United States
+Consul General. He is a popular favorite and has won many friends and
+admirers in Mexico.
+
+The Christmas customs of Mexico are uncommonly pretty and touching. The
+Christmas-tree is not a native institution, though it gives indications
+of becoming naturalized. In its stead the Mexican children have what
+they call a pinata, which affords them just as much fun. The pinata is
+a large earthenware jar, which is covered with colored tissue-paper.
+This jar is filled with all sorts of dainties dear to children and
+is hung up in the corridor or courtyard of the house. Each of the
+children is blind-folded in turn, and, after being turned around once
+or twice, has a stick placed in his or her hand and is invited to break
+the pinata. The wielder of the stick is generally, after being turned
+around, quite out of his bearings, and often brings down it within an
+inch of the head of one of the party. He is allowed three trials, and
+if not successful the handkerchief is removed and another takes his
+turn. At length a crash is heard--some one has made a true hit--the
+pinata is broken and the good things fall in a shower to the ground.
+
+The posadas are a characteristically Mexican celebration. They
+commemorate the journey of Mary and Joseph from Nazareth to Bethlehem.
+This journey, performed by Mary mounted on an ass, which Joseph guided,
+is supposed to have occupied nine days. Each evening they naturally
+approached some dwelling to beg a night’s shelter. It is this nightly
+episode that is commemorated in Mexican houses by the posadas, or the
+begging of the posada (_pedir posada_), meaning shelter, lodging,
+or entertainment. In the patriarchal days of the viceroys the posada
+was a strictly religious custom, and in a few old-fashioned families
+it is so still. The ninth night of the posadas--that is, Christmas
+Eve--is celebrated on the most extensive and luxurious scale of all,
+and generally the wealthiest of the families that have clubbed together
+gives the entertainment. In memory of the night when the Saviour was
+born, the figure of an infant is carried in procession, and is placed
+in a manger between the ox and the ass in a prettily adorned cave,
+which is intended to represent the stable where Mary and Joseph took
+refuge when they found that there was no room for them in the inns.
+
+The feast day celebrated by the Catholic Church on November 1st, is
+called All Saints’, and ranks as one of the most solemn of the year.
+It was instituted at an early period in the history of the Church as a
+means of doing honor to the many saints to whom it was impossible to
+assign a separate feast. The feast which follows on November 2d, is
+popularly known as All Souls’, and is the day for the commemoration
+of the faithful departed. On this day masses are said and special
+prayers offered by Catholics for the release of souls from purgatory.
+The priests wear black vestments, and in some of the churches a huge
+catafalque is erected in the centre of the nave.
+
+The origin of the feast of All Souls’ dates back to the year 827
+A.D., when Amalario, the Deacon of Metz, published the office
+for the dead, but it was not until 998 A.D., that St. Odillon,
+abbot of Cluny, instituted in his churches this feast in commemoration
+of the faithful deceased. This feast soon prevailed in the Catholic
+Church. It took a rather wider range in France in the eighteenth
+century, when the laborers began to dedicate gratuitous work, for
+the benefit of the poor of All Souls’ day, and offered to the Church
+wheat, which, according to the Pauline designation, is the symbol of
+resurrection.
+
+The idea of these November feasts is not original with Mexico; it has
+found root in nearly every religion.
+
+ [Illustration: THE JOCKEY CLUB.]
+
+The feasts of All Saints’ and All Souls’ although not celebrated with
+the _éclat_ of former years, are still very interesting in certain
+portions of the republic, especially along the Gulf coast. There
+the Indians are in the habit of placing upon the graves dulces, or
+sweetmeats, prepared with _chilacayote_ and _calabazas_. The Indians
+place these dulces with large jars of water upon the tombs of their
+deceased relatives and friends during the afternoon of November 1st,
+so that the dead--that night at least--can have something to eat and
+drink. This latter arrangement is similar to some of the customs of
+Germany and Central Europe.
+
+The “ofrenda,” or offering, is, singular to say, of Aztec origin.
+The Aztecs were in the habit of cremating their dead; and they kept
+the ashes in an urn with fragments of precious metals, emeralds,
+etc., also putting in food and catlis, together with bows and
+arrows and a quantity of a great golden-hearted flower called the
+_zempoalzoichitl_, which can be found growing in Mexico profusely
+at this day. This flower is used to decorate the sepulchres in company
+with white roses, the ruby “_flor de noche buena_,” and velvety
+forget-me-nots, as well as violets, geraniums, and marguerites. In
+the country districts the ofrenda is much more elaborate than in the
+city. Candles are also used by thousands in the little _panteons_
+or cemeteries of the country. Among the simple folk in these Indian
+villages the local poets write up more or less readable “poetry,” which
+is also included in the offering to the dead. In some isolated portions
+of Mexico this custom prevails to such an extent that the children beg
+money from their parents to buy fruit for that purpose, or else, they
+say, the departed will come on Halloween and pull their little feet. It
+is impossible to give an idea of all the curious customs and incidents
+that prevail in the rural districts of Mexico with respect to the
+observance of these holidays. Halloween in Mexico does not partake of
+the mischievous and jocose character of the day in the United States
+and England.
+
+Among the characteristic sights of these days peculiar to Mexico are
+the strange toys sold on the streets and in stalls. They consist of
+skull and crossbones of sugar adorned with gold leaf, lath coffins
+surrounded with priests and acolytes and containing a skeleton,
+miniature catafalques, altars, etc. Many of the coffins are so arranged
+that by pulling a string the lid opens and the dead man sits up. No
+Mexican child is content without one of these toys. The mozos and
+domestic servants also look at this time for their festival, to which
+they give the name of _calavera_ (skull). It is a carnival of
+death; a mingling of levity with sadness.
+
+It is the custom to visit on All Souls’ day the graves of relatives
+and friends, to place wreaths and candles round about, and to offer
+prayers. Any one of Mexico’s cemeteries offers an interesting scene
+on that day. The French cemetery, where many of Mexico’s wealthiest
+families have their vaults, is one mass of beautiful wreaths. The tomb
+of Juarez, in the San Fernando cemetery, receives many mementoes from
+admirers of the great Liberal statesman. The cemetery of Tepeyac, near
+Guadalupe, where lie the remains of Santa Anna and members of many of
+Mexico’s first families, is visited by a throng of devout mourners
+bearing costly wreaths. The abundance of trees which darkens the
+English cemetery even at mid-day makes it eminently harmonious with
+the tendency to sober meditation. This cemetery contains the tombs of
+the first Englishmen, almost the first foreigners, that ever came to
+this country, away back in the twenties. The American cemetery is near
+the English. There is a monument to the American soldiers who perished
+in the Valley of Mexico in 1847. This receives its floral offerings
+on Decoration Day. But if the tourist or resident wishes to see a
+characteristically Mexican celebration of All Souls’, he should go to
+the great Dolores cemetery. Except on very few tombs, he will find no
+French creations in the way of wreaths, but an abundance of flowers.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON SEBASTAIN CAMACHO, VICE-PRESIDENT OF
+ THE JOCKEY CLUB.]
+
+Out beyond the southwestern limits of the city, on the boundary line
+formed by what is known as the Calzada de la Verónica, is the little
+patch of ground which possesses such peculiar interest for Americans,
+and especially for those who reside in Mexico. Though on Mexican
+soil, it is American in the fullest sense of the word, for the full
+and perfect title therein is vested in the United States, and its
+management and control are in the hands of the War Department at
+Washington. Mexico is the only country on earth where the United States
+possesses a title to land for such purposes, and exercises authority
+over foreign soil. It was in 1873 that the cemetery was subjected to
+the rules and regulations affecting United States national cemeteries.
+It was established in 1851, under an act of Congress approved September
+28, 1850.
+
+The seven hundred and fifty soldiers who were killed on the plains of
+Mexico are buried together in a single grave. In memory of these, a
+simple granite shaft about six feet high has been raised.
+
+To obtain the right to bury there it is necessary to secure a permit
+from the United States consul-general, the permit being a voucher
+for the citizenship of the deceased. In addition to this, another
+permit has to be obtained from the civil authorities, which is a
+mere formality, as Americans, living or dead, have always received
+magnanimous treatment and the kindest consideration from district
+authorities as well as from those of the general government. No graves
+are sold, and the selection of the last resting place lies with the
+superintendent. No charge is made and no expense incurred. The United
+States government pays the employees and superintendent out of the
+annual appropriation and the friends of the deceased are at liberty to
+express affection by the adornment of the graves with monuments and
+flowers.
+
+The funeral customs of Mexico are a source of constant interest to
+strangers in that land, as the burial of the dead is a ceremony of
+great display. The poor rent handsome coffins, which they have not
+the means to buy, and transfer the body from its temporary casket to
+a cheap box before it is laid in the grave. Invitations are issued
+by messenger, and advertisements of funerals are published in the
+newspapers or posted at the street corners, like those of a bull-fight
+or a play. Announcements in faultless Spanish are sent to friends in
+big black-bordered envelopes, and are usually decorated with a picture
+of a tomb.
+
+There is a very pretty custom in Mexico by which all people who call
+upon a mourning family must dress in deep black. This is but one of the
+many pleasant ways the Mexicans have of paying honor to the memory of
+their beloved dead.
+
+During the month of November, in every village of Spain and her former
+colonies, the traditional legend of Don Juan Tenorio, dramatized by Don
+José Zorrilla, is put on the stage. The sentimentality of this piece
+seems to have an irresistible fascination for Spanish taste. It is
+impossible to understand the Spanish character without having read or
+heard of this extraordinary play. It has been said that every youth of
+Spanish descent would be a Don Juan, and every Spanish maiden a Doña
+Ines. The exploits of Juan in a more prosaic age and country would
+inevitably have qualified him for the gallows. The drama of Don Juan
+is now, however, _color azul_ and is not attended by the _beau
+monde_.
+
+The Indians observe a _fiesta_ on the 21st of August in memory
+of the tortures to which Cuauhtemoc and his cousin Tlacopan, Prince
+of Tezcoco, were subjected by Cortés, who endeavored to force from
+Cuauhtemoc the secret of the hidden treasure. The monument dedicated
+to Cuauhtemoc on the Paseo has a relief representing Cuauhtemoc and
+Tlacopan standing upon stone slabs, with their feet hanging over flames
+of fire. Around the tortured warriors are clustered the Spaniards,
+anxiously awaiting the secret which Cuauhtemoc never disclosed. “Do
+not be weary,” he said to his tormentors; “he who has resisted famine,
+death, and the wrath of the gods is not capable of humiliating himself
+now like a weak woman; the treasury of the kings of Mexico I submerged
+in the lake four days before the siege of the city, and you will never
+find it.”
+
+One of the Easter customs is the hanging in effigy of Judas Iscariot,
+which is done everywhere in the country, from the plazas of the large
+cities down to the smallest hamlet. The Catholic citizens attire
+themselves in deep mourning throughout all of Holy Week, and on
+Saturday grotesque figures of him who betrayed his Lord are brought out
+everywhere and hanged. After this they are burned with all the contempt
+due to the betrayer of his Master.
+
+ [Illustration: FOUNTAIN IN THE PATIO OF THE JOCKEY CLUB.]
+
+Mexican women of the better class are noted for their beauty; and
+everywhere the young girls are exquisitely pretty. The slender oval of
+the face, the rich olive of the cheek, the long, sweeping, dark lashes
+over superb eyes, glowing at once with passion and tenderness, the low
+forehead with its rippling mass of dusky hair, the slender neck, the
+lithe form, the springing step, and the dainty foot make them like a
+poet’s dream of darkly brilliant loveliness, and not to be measured by
+any other type in the world.
+
+Among the upper classes of Mexico will be found as high a degree of
+social and intellectual refinement as exists in Paris; as quick a
+reception and as cordial a knowledge of the arts and literature as
+people of the busy cities of the United States have acquired. Their
+wealth is lavishly displayed; their taste is exercised to a degree
+equal to that of any other people in the world; and the interior of
+many of their dwellings furnishes a glimpse of happiness and cultured
+elegance that, with their less active temperament, they enjoy more than
+do their northern neighbors. Yet these people, who receive the latest
+Paris fashions and literature by every steamer, still cling to some
+ancient customs. Social law restricts intercourse between the sexes,
+as in the Latin nations of Europe. The people are noted for their good
+manners, their politeness, and their courtesy to strangers. They make
+excellent hosts, and they throw their houses open to their guests with
+the most hearty generosity.
+
+Such are some of the aspects of life in Mexico. Wander forth in the
+morning almost any day in the year and you will find the blue sky
+a free expanse above, with the foliage lazily swaying against it;
+birds--yellow, or black with orange and crimson spots--singing or
+chattering in wild freedom. There is a glimpse of water, into which
+the sun drops beams through the foliage. Plants and trees of all sorts
+break the scene into fascinating patterns. Flowers in bloom beautify
+and scent the dream.
+
+Or it is evening, and electric lights cast a half shadow silent as a
+tomb: the trees and flowers and birds sleep, a mysterious quiet and
+suggestion of luxuriant foliage that appeals to one in a certain mood;
+but all is gay about. Then the old moon swings up from behind the
+ragged wall, between the heavy arches of trees, and the scene that
+you thought perfect is enhanced. The moon grows bigger and the scene
+lighter, and this, you remember, is but one day in beautiful Mexico.
+
+Everywhere the people are cheerful and simple in their ways of living.
+They all attend church, and are devotional in habit. Doubtless more
+prayers are said in Mexico in a single day than in all the United
+States together; and yet some people in the latter country want to send
+missionaries to Mexico!
+
+In several different places including Guanajuato, Mexico has a display
+of comparatively modern mummies and catacombs. The practice prevails,
+as in some European cities, of renting tomb space for the use of a
+corpse. In Mexico, if at the expiration of the original term there
+is no renewal of the lease, the corpse is dumped into an extensive
+underground chamber. If in the dry air the evicted mummifies, he
+stands against the wall; if he tumbles to pieces, his bones join the
+vast miscellaneous heap. The Guanajuato catacomb is ghastly enough to
+satisfy the most exacting connoisseur of the gruesome and bloodthirsty.
+In some of the mummies which have recently been examined jade teeth
+have been found, which is thought to be a proof that the Aztec princes
+used to be supplied by their dentists with handsome jade teeth whenever
+their own pearly ones failed.
+
+Then there are street scenes of a strange and foreign aspect, such as
+black street car hearses. There are also curious street signs, rude
+but vigorous and highly colored pictures depicting scenes suggestive
+of the business conducted within, and in appropriate names in staring
+letters as trade-marks, so to speak, of the different stores. Imagine,
+for instance, “The Last Days of Pompeii” as a business sign, of “The
+Sacred Heart of Jesus,” which is the name of a score of establishments,
+and names of streets--“Crown of Thorns Street,” “Fifth of May Street,”
+“Holy Ghost Street,” “Blood of Christ Street,” “Body of Christ Street,”
+“Mother of Sorrows Street,” “Street of the Sacred Heart,” “The Heart of
+Jesus Street,” “Street of the Love of God,” “Jesus Street,” and “John
+the Baptist Street.”
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR JOSÉ SANCHEZ RAMOS, PRESIDENT OF THE
+ SPANISH CASINO.]
+
+Other governments might well take pattern from the Mexican parliament.
+No other government in the world has one like it in point of courtesy
+and dignity. The Mexican legislature holds its sessions in the
+evenings. The seats of the members are arranged in semicircular
+rows, and the presiding officer and officials of the house sit upon
+a large dais, or platform. At each side of the platform is a sort
+of pulpit, from which very formal addresses are delivered; but
+unpretentious discussions taking a conversational and unimpassioned
+form are conducted on the floor of the chamber. The orchestra and the
+galleries are divided into boxes, which are reserved for spectators;
+but it is only a rare occasion that brings outsiders to listen to
+the deliberations of their lawmakers. There is much etiquette in the
+parliament: members appear in evening dress; there is no confusion;
+there is seldom any rude or improper language like that which so often
+disgraces other deliberative assemblies. Speakers are courteous,
+even-tempered, and apparently conscious of the dignity of their
+position. Extreme dignity and decorum mark the proceedings, which are
+always short and practical. The legislature meets twice in each year,
+in the spring and in the fall. The House of Representatives has one
+member for every forty thousand inhabitants, and the Senate has one
+Senator for each state in the republic.
+
+Mexico was christened by the conquerors “New Spain,” and to this
+day it has many Spanish characteristics. The City of Mexico is as
+large as Madrid or Barcelona, and far surpasses both in novelty and
+interest. Outside of its wonderful picture gallery, the finest in the
+world, Madrid is only an imitation Paris, while Barcelona is a bright,
+attractive modern business city. Mexico is all these, and in addition,
+interests with Oriental scenes and suggestions. It has many of the
+sight-seeing attractions of Madrid, Barcelona, and gay Seville, with
+touches of scenes from the streets of Cairo. Guadalajara and Puebla
+are nearer the size of Seville, and each has manifold attractions.
+Guanajuato is the Mexican reminder of Toledo and Granada, perched on
+the rocky hillsides, terraced, quaint and picturesque. You hear the
+same language spoken as in Spain; in both countries you pay separately
+for each act at a theatrical performance; while in no other country
+except old Spain is the bull-fight so popular an institution.
+
+And, after all, bull-fighting seems more or less appropriate to the
+peculiar civilization of Mexico. The picturesque setting that is given
+there calls up vaguely the bouts in the amphitheatre in the days of
+Roman glory.
+
+The new bull ring in Calle Oaxaca, with a seating capacity of twenty
+thousand was during the Centennial a scene of wonderful animation
+when a corrida de luxo was offered by the government to the visiting
+ambassadors.
+
+Among the higher classes, social life in the republic is most charming.
+While there is great ceremony and conventionality, refinement, culture,
+unfailing courtesy, and delicate gallantry prevail. The scholar, the
+artist, and the _litterateur_ may all find congenial society.
+Hospitality is as generous as it is proverbial. One has only to be
+properly introduced to be the recipient of lavish attentions. Often
+gifts of flowers, birds, curios, and even valuable relics are offered
+with princely generosity.
+
+ [Illustration: STAIRWAY LEADING TO LOUNGING-ROOM IN SPANISH
+ CASINO.]
+
+ [Illustration: BY SEÑOR JORGE ENCISO]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: “THE MENDICANTS.” BY SUAREZ.]
+
+ CHAPTER XI
+
+ ART AND LITERATURE
+
+
+The genius of the Mexican people has ever inclined to the artistic.
+When one form of imaginative expression has been denied others have
+been resorted to with greater force.
+
+The preferred outlet for the native imagination has been architecture,
+upon which but seldom has any ban been placed either by secular or
+ecclesiastical authority. In the Spanish days there were occasions
+when representatives of the crown refused permission to erect palaces
+considered too sumptuous or colossal for private occupancy, but no
+limit was ever placed upon the worthier ambition to erect great
+churches as monuments of their gratitude to God for prosperity
+conferred. So, to-day, Mexico inherits a very large number of wonderful
+monuments. Many of these are decorated in beautiful detail with
+both chisel and brush. Everywhere they present evidence that though
+the general scheme of one may have been borrowed from or suggested
+by architectural works of Spaniard or Moor, of Italian or Fleming,
+of Roman or Greek, the native genius insisted upon its own mark.
+There, is in fact, a Mexican style of architecture almost as truly
+intrinsic as that of any original type. It is unfortunate that while
+the names of European architects employed in the designing of some of
+the most celebrated buildings are recorded there is usually no way of
+identifying the native designers, builders, master masons, sculptors
+and painters who left behind them this great wealth of embodied
+imagination.
+
+All the conditions favored the structural art. On one hand was the
+great wealth of the crown, the church and the mine-owner, on the other
+an abundance of material and of skilled labor. Even to-day there are
+no more cunning stone workers in the world than are found among the
+Mexican craftsmen.
+
+The economic prostration following the wars for independence put a
+stop to architectural progress, but the prosperity restored to the
+country by the administration of General Diaz has led to a renewal of
+construction and many notable buildings have been added while others
+have been restored.
+
+Next to architecture, the native art of which most evidences exist
+is that of painting. Every condition stimulates this. Nature herself
+has been lavish with scenic endowment--grand and gorgeous, tender
+and delicate. All call for pictorial presentment. And the skies are
+brilliantly wonderful and varied. So Mexico has naturally produced a
+host of great landscape painters.
+
+Others of romantic inclination have been stimulated by the great
+military and religious pageantry of their country’s history and
+episodes of this have been depicted with luxurious freedom. Nor has
+portraiture been neglected. At the present time many painters of both
+achievement and promise are flourishing. One of them, Gerardo Murillo,
+is living in a cave on Popocatepetl, working to perpetuate the aspects
+of this dying volcano.
+
+Two of his pictures have been described by a local critic as follows:
+“One large canvas, eight by six feet shows a splendid view of a bold
+crag near the summit of the volcano, where the wind is blowing and
+where the deep blue heavens give a tone to the snow, which is piled
+smooth and deep in its unbroken mass fresh from the last storm.
+
+“A picture somewhat smaller hangs in the studio of Mr. Murillo, in the
+San Carlos Academy, which does not fail to attract the attention of all
+who see it. It is the picture of a rugged precipitous scene over which
+the snow of centuries is piled. The hour is twilight and the whole
+scene is bathed in a deep blue light which is so realistic to any one
+who has grown accustomed to the mountains.”
+
+Francisco de P. Mendoza has turned to history for his inspiration
+and has painted several pictures of notable battle scenes from the
+campaigns of General Diaz. Thus he seeks to foster in those who see his
+work that spirit of patriotism which is the spring of his own effort.
+His chief canvases depict the battles of “The Second of April,” “The
+Carbonera,” and “Miahuatlan.”
+
+ [Illustration: GALLERY IN THE MODERN SCHOOL OF PAINTING.]
+
+Andres Rios has done some notable landscapes, but has received most
+praise for his single figures and groups. “The Curate of San Angel” is
+particularly noteworthy for skill in handling the light effects.
+
+“Going to the Hospital” shows a suffering woman leaving her home with
+the assistance of her mother and daughter while the husband and an
+older daughter remain on the doorstep, he crouched, and she standing
+and both showing the misery of their sorrow.
+
+Daniel del Valle is another contemporary who is acquiring fame by
+figure work, though not long graduated from the academy. He has entered
+the field of ancient endeavor and devotes his work to the decorating
+of churches and palaces. Visitors will find some of his best efforts in
+the churches of Santa Maria la Redonda and Jesus Maria.
+
+Leandro Isaguirre is one of the best fruits of the government system
+of sending graduates of the national schools abroad for post-graduate
+instruction.
+
+ [Illustration: “AN EPISODE OF A FIRE.” BY G. CARRASCO.]
+
+Having learned what he could at the San Carlos Academy, this promising
+young painter was sent at public expense to Europe for five years.
+There he studied in the studios of the most noted instructors in
+Spain, Italy, France, Holland and England. He made many copies of the
+masterpieces in the principal galleries of the Old World. Since his
+return he has settled down to work on native subjects, selected for
+the most part from among the laboring classes. He has also depicted
+many of the landscapes of high altitude where the effect of the lights
+has usually baffled the visiting artist. Like some of the men who have
+mastered this problem in the United States, after years of labor,
+Isaguirre has had success even though he has remained faithful to oils,
+while the Americans have been driven to water colors and pastelle to
+get the clear effects that prevail a mile or more above the sea.
+
+Herman Gedovius, though of German descent and name, is really a Mexican
+and so entitled to mention among the modern painters of the country. He
+was born in San Luis Potosi but received his art education in the Royal
+Bavarian Academy at Munich. He devotes himself almost exclusively to
+portraiture, though he has painted some ideal heads. Like most of the
+others mentioned he gives up part of his time to teaching in the San
+Carlos Academy.
+
+The Dean of the present school of painters is Felix Parra, whose work
+is much in the style of the modern French school. His subjects are
+scenes from contemporary life which he presents with great vivacity and
+some humor. His works are very popular among the wealthy and broadly
+scattered in their homes.
+
+Another artist who shows strongly the influence of the same school is
+Alfredo Ramos Martinez, who received his art training partly at the
+expense of interested art lovers and partly at that of the Mexican
+government. All his subjects are of some manifestation of happiness
+outdoors and his canvases are very popular. Several of them have been
+hung in the Paris Salon.
+
+Many of the pictorial treasures of Mexico were looted by the French
+during their invasion of the country, but about two thousand have been
+collected for the gallery of the National School of Fine Arts in the
+City of Mexico. Many others are still preserved in churches and public
+buildings throughout the various states and in private collections.
+
+In the case of mural decoration, of which a great wealth was produced
+during the Spanish domination, many of the best examples have been
+destroyed by climatic influences but enough great frescoes have been
+preserved to show that there were many masters in the earlier days.
+
+Painting was first taught by Spaniards, but the teachers themselves
+were of no narrow school. Spain, it must be remembered, dominated
+in those days not only the Iberian peninsula but also Austria, much
+of Germany, the Low Countries and great colonies in North and South
+America and the East Indies. Her soldiers, priests, fortune seekers,
+and government officials were the great travelers of the age. They
+knew every school of art and all the materials then employed. The
+teachers imparted to their pupils all there was of technique and the
+pupils had the genius. To enlarge the native taste came later; many
+Italian painters were attracted by the generous rewards which the rich
+government and church gave for works of beauty which could be used for
+the adornment of church and palace interiors.
+
+At first copyists, the native artists soon became creators. The first
+school studio in Mexico was opened about 1523, by Rodrigo de Cifuentes,
+a Cordovan. His work was along the line of historic portraiture and
+examples of it are still extant. His assistant was a Flemish monk,
+Pedro de Gante. Another contemporary was Andres de Concha whose work
+may still be seen in the church of Santo Domingo at Yauhuitlan, Oaxaca.
+
+ [Illustration: “THE FORTUNATES.” BY SATURNINO HERRAN.]
+
+Next came the great school founded by the elder Echave. Among his
+pupils were his wife (La Sumaya), his son, the two brothers Juarez, a
+third Juarez and Arteaga. These filled in much of the early half of the
+seventeenth century. Numerous works of theirs are still to be seen in
+the National Academy and in various churches. For the most part their
+subjects were devotional.
+
+Of those who worked in the latter half of the century but two are
+remembered, de Borgraf and Villalpando. There is a legend that the
+wonderful Sister de la Cruz also painted, but the evidence is not
+conclusive. A portrait of herself by herself (so it is claimed) was
+brought to the United States and now hangs in the gallery of the
+Pennsylvania Museum at Philadelphia.
+
+Several notable painters distinguished the eighteenth century. Again
+there were two brothers of the Juarez family. A Zapotec Indian, Michael
+Cabrera, is by some considered the greatest painter of his time. He
+first added to the colors introduced from Europe those more brilliant
+pigments, knowledge of which descended from the Aztecs. He lived to be
+old, was of great energy, and was a most prolific producer. His efforts
+are broad and attained with startling success.
+
+Flourishing at the same time was Ibarra, whose admirers are almost
+as numerous as those of Cabrera. He was more hampered by convention,
+however, and his appeal is not so forcible. Softness of coloring
+distinguishes his work where that of his rival demands admiration
+by harsher brilliancy. His style of work was continued by his pupil
+Alzibar.
+
+At the end of the century and through the first third of the nineteenth
+the dominant figure in art was Tresguerras who was not only architect
+and sculptor but painter and poet also. How one pair of hands could
+have produced all that is attributed to him it is impossible to
+conceive.
+
+At the present time the government does everything possible to develop
+art production. Tuition is free in the National Academy and many prizes
+and scholarships are offered.
+
+The Academy of Fine Arts (San Carlos) takes its origin from a decree of
+Charles III., in 1778, when a school of engraving was authorized, which
+was opened in the following year under the direction of Don Geronimo
+Gil, the chief engraver of the mint. Three years later, classes in
+painting, sculpture, and architecture were established with the consent
+of the viceroy, followed the next year by a royal license establishing
+La Academia de las Nobles Artes de San Carlos de la Nueva España, which
+was opened on April 4, 1785. In 1791 the institution was removed to its
+present home in the building formerly occupied by the hospital de Amor
+de Dios.
+
+Spain sent celebrated artists to Mexico to direct the affairs of
+the academy; the first were the painter Aguirre and the painter and
+architect Velasquez.
+
+Before the Conquest there were no painters in oils but there were
+wonderfully skilful and artistic use of the natural dyes and assembling
+into artistic designs of the gaudy plumage of tropical birds and
+weaving of fabrics. Also there was a knowledge of the making of glazed
+pottery in rich hues. These arts survive among the people and are being
+fostered by government influence.
+
+ [Illustration: “THE ETERNAL VICTIM.” BY F. ROMANO.]
+
+In sculpture, after the Spanish invasion, there was much beautiful
+work in the adornment of the churches, both by the carving of images
+of saints and angels, and of architectural detail in the churches.
+Afterward came an era of historic monument making leading to the
+enrichment of the many public squares and government buildings. This
+work of embellishment has been renewed with earnestness under the
+present administration. Few names of the great sculptors have been
+preserved. The three best remembered are those of Cora and Patino
+Instolinque and Francisco Tresguerras.
+
+Akin to the sculptor’s art is that of the worker in metals. Wonderfully
+clever have the Mexicans ever been at the smithcraft and many of their
+masterpieces rank with the best Italian work.
+
+Of literary accomplishment the nation has not so much to show as in the
+other arts, a condition due partly to the prohibition of authority and
+partly to actual destruction. There was a body of native literature
+before the Spaniards came, but this was almost entirely destroyed by
+command of the priests who accompanied the invaders. Printing presses
+were not welcome when Mexico was a colony of Castile and both religious
+and secular authorities discouraged almost every form of letters. One
+can hardly ascribe to Mexico the body of Spanish writers who chronicled
+the Conquest. But there was an Aztec prince, Ixtlilxochitl, who did his
+best to preserve some of the works of his ancestors by translating them
+into Castilian.
+
+After him were few writers of power until to-day. In the latter half
+of the seventeenth century there flourished a prodigy best described
+perhaps as a female Keats, who has left a number of beautiful poems.
+She was Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz who forsook the viceregal court
+for a convent in order that she might have more time for writing, but
+who was soon silenced by the church authorities.
+
+Almost a century later came Lizardi, a satirist, who had to send his
+books to Havana to be published and who was bitterly persecuted by the
+government and excommunicated by the church. Nevertheless, his work did
+much to incite the struggle for independence and to-day still enjoys
+a great vogue. Contemporary with him was a woman writer of patriotic
+poems, Josepha Mendoza, who also did much to inspire the insurgent
+cause.
+
+In the early days of the republic two historical writers obtained fame
+by careful work. These were Bustamante and Alaman. Their books are
+still accepted as authoritative.
+
+There was no actual renaissance, however, till about forty years ago,
+when many of the cultured began earnest study of the public archives
+and to make revelation in prose and poetry of the ancient lore, romance
+and legend of the country. Ignacio Manuel Altamirano produced his
+“Rimas,” “El Movimiento Literario en Mexico,” “Dramaturgia Mexicana,”
+“Clemencia,” “Antonio y Beatrix,” “Luisa,” “La Navidad en las Montanes.”
+
+The Paisajes of Leyendes deals with the customs and traditions. The
+style of his work is temperate and confined to the religious feasts of
+the country. His works contain pictures of primitive races, with their
+Christian rites intermingled with old forms of worship. His books are
+widely read.
+
+Juan Mateos is famed abroad. He is quoted everywhere and is much
+appreciated in his own land. His novels are historical, and his dramas
+have received great recognition.
+
+ [Illustration: “A PORTRAIT.” BY HERMAN GEDOVIUS.]
+
+Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta took his countrymen to original documents
+of history for their information. His example was followed by José
+Barcena, Dr. E. Gonzalez, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Lic. Luis Gutierrez
+and Otero. Other writers in serious vein about their country have been
+Matias Romero, so long minister to Washington, Antonio Garcia Cubas,
+and Ignacio Mariscal, the late distinguished Secretary of Foreign
+Affairs, a writer of great ability. He was a linguist, speaking
+perfectly several languages. He has written important works on the
+occult and was a graceful translator of some of the choicest poems in
+English literature, among them Poe’s _Raven_ and William Cullen
+Bryant’s _Thanatopsis_, whose noble lines expressed much of his
+own aspirations.
+
+Francisco de la Barra, the Mexican Ambassador at Washington is a writer
+of note. Fredrico Gamboa is among the best writers of fiction.
+
+Señor Justo Sierra, one of the most virile and forceful of poets, has
+taken great rank in Spain as well as in his own country. He is one of
+the Ministers of the Cabinet, but his literary work continues even
+with his dignity of position and arduous duty attending it.
+
+The historical works by Carlos Pereyra, author of “Lecturas Historicas
+Mejicanas, Historia del Pueblo Mejicano,” which comprise a full story
+of the Mexicans from the early period before the Conquest to the
+present day, are very interesting and show a great knowledge of the
+important events of the Mexican nation as well as the characteristics
+of the people. His style is easy and graceful, avoiding the dryness of
+most works of this kind, and full of romance from the beginning to the
+end.
+
+Among the Mexican novelists one finds remarkably good descriptive
+power; just as the country glows with intense life and color, so do
+their fiction and poetry express fervid passion and feeling. There is
+a tendency to epigrammatic terseness in sentence and paragraph. There
+is invariably a deep love of nature, expressed in most beautiful word
+painting and always there is intense patriotism with luminous force in
+the expression of it. The richness of the language and their love of
+home life give the Mexican writers on this subject great opportunities.
+The name of Irenio Paz, an editor as well as a novelist, is well
+known, as his simple direct style appeals to the readers. Vicente
+Riva Palacio, for his purity of language and elegance stands foremost
+among the writers of melodramatic intensity. His “Calvario y Tabor” is
+a historical novel covering the period of struggle which terminated
+in the overthrow of foreign power and the downfall of Maximilian,
+and treats of almost every possible range of emotion. It is a tale
+of the death agony of the Old Empire and the transfiguration of the
+New Republic, intermingled with loves and romances of the people,
+their habits, their hospitalities and extreme charity. The historical
+portions of the novel are superb and there are remarkable thoughts
+forcibly expressed.
+
+Of original poets the last few decades have produced a great number and
+several indubitably had the divine fire. Manuel Acunha wrote several
+fervid poems of passion which have been and still are most popular.
+A master of lyrics is Guillermo Prieto, who has been acclaimed the
+laureate of Mexico. His work is the best expression of the national
+spirit of the people, whose patriotism grows steadily in fervor.
+
+Singers only less great than these, are Davalos, Granados, Nervo,
+Tiron, Pazaza, Othon and Urbina. Showing promise of strong work in
+their maturity are many young men who are now producing plays, novels,
+and poems of worth. Juan de Dios Peza, whose death a few years since
+deprived Mexico of one of her best poets, wrote exquisitely “El Arpa
+del Amor” and “Recuerdos de mi vida.”
+
+Among other writers are Rebolledo, Lopez, Campos, Urneta, Delgado, and
+Rivera. One of the most evident tendencies of these latter day authors
+is to break away from the influence of Spanish literature. Translations
+from the works of perhaps all the great writers of Europe are freely
+made and the American masters especially have been treated in this way.
+There is a better knowledge of American literature in Mexico than in
+any other foreign country, Great Britain not excepted. Naturally this
+study finds reflection in the Mexican literature, but underneath all is
+the growing nationalism which eventually must find full expression. The
+Golden Age of Mexican letters is not yet but there is promise of speedy
+entrance thereon.
+
+Meantime the government is patronizing efforts to collect the folklore,
+ballads and songs of the nation. These are being carefully compiled
+and edited and when published will afford a revelation of thought and
+sentiment to the world. Persecution and warfare have always produced
+the most vibrant songs and Mexico has had her share of both.
+
+Mexico is a land of book lovers. The genuine love of literature is
+universal, even the poorer classes are fond of reading love stories,
+and those having the simplest knowledge of reading find pleasure in
+books. There is a good market for books of the modern literature of
+France and Spain, and even English literature is gaining a foothold.
+Most wonderful libraries of costly editions are found in every home,
+especially in the homes of professional men.
+
+Senator Licenciado don Francisco Alfara, the great criminal lawyer of
+Mexico, has the most remarkable collection of paintings of the old
+masters, books long out of date, and curios from every country of the
+world. His collection of original manuscript of old and famous writers
+is one of his valued possessions. Not only is the literature of Spain
+and France popular, the Mexicans have a literature of their own. As
+far back as 1680, King Netzahualcoyotl of Tezcoco wrote a poem on the
+“Mutability of Life.”
+
+There are hundreds of cultivated men of Mexico who live in the
+enchanted ground of literature, contented in retirement from political
+discussions and business, devoting themselves to reading; besides
+this, Mexico has so many students, so many professors graduated from
+the Normal Schools, and so many Societies of different cults that it is
+a University centre.
+
+ [Illustration: “CHILDREN OF MISERY.” BY SOSTENES ORTEGA.]
+
+There are many daily papers thriving in Mexico City. The
+_Imparcial_ is a very important paper, with an afternoon edition
+called _El Mundo_; both of these periodicals have a large
+circulation. Others are _El Tiempo_, _El Diario_, which is on
+the advanced order of our popular dailies, and _Correo Espanol_, a
+Spanish paper with a splendid editorial staff of young newspaper men.
+The _Mexican Daily Record_, an afternoon paper printed in English,
+has a very brilliant editorial staff, and the _Mexican Herald_,
+another English newspaper, is edited by an American.
+
+There are weekly papers which are very ably edited, _Artes y
+Lettras_ is the most popular. _El Mundo Ilustrado_ is well
+illustrated, and deals lightly with important events of the week. _La
+Revista Literaria_, is edited by Señor Barron who is a popular local
+poet. The first book printed in Mexico was _La Escala Espiritual_
+para _Llegar al Cielo_ (The Stairway to Heaven), printed in 1537.
+
+In music, Mexico records no great composers of old, those of her
+folk songs being unknown, but music is a passion with the people and
+musical education one of the chief cares of the government. Public
+concerts are generally given throughout the cities and the nation
+maintains a conservatory in the capital city wherein is one of the
+best libraries of music extant. All the great European soloists and
+directors look to at least one season in Mexico as part of their
+natural experience and nowhere do they find more appreciative and
+critical audiences. Two, at least, of the Mexican moderns have achieved
+international fame, Antonio Zuniga, of Guanajúato, and Chang-Cilli, of
+Yucatán, whose orchestrations are familiar to and frequently used by
+European leaders.
+
+Just now very intelligent efforts are being made to educate the
+artistic side of the Mexican people and although many of these take the
+direction of improving the arts and crafts for commercial advantage,
+the result is bound to be the development of individual talent. Great
+artists and great works of art are to be expected of Mexico.
+
+ [Illustration: “THE ROUND UP.” BY JUAN URRUCHI.]
+
+ [Illustration: CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: WALL AROUND THE SHRINE AT CHURUBUSCO.]
+
+ CHAPTER XII
+
+ CHURCHES AND CHARITIES
+
+
+The churches of Mexico are remarkable for their beauty and solidity.
+There is no prevailing style except originality, nor is purity of
+style a characteristic of the great buildings. The Gothic, the Moorish
+and the Italian are often combined, but the harmony of design is
+masterfully secured and a distinctive attraction thereby obtained.
+There is a sort of abandon of genius in the designs and decorations of
+façades, towers and domes that make the work beautiful and uncommon,
+each is a unique picture, each bears the impress of individual artistic
+conception.
+
+Of the great church structures of the capital the most notable is
+the cathedral, of vast proportions and magnificent details. When
+Cortés had Tenochtitlan finally in possession he determined on the
+complete destruction of the Aztec city. On the spot where the great
+_Teocalli_ had stood, a temple hideous in sight and memory of the
+Spaniard, the Christian cathedral should be erected. This with the aid
+of unlimited slave labor was quickly accomplished. In 1527, Clement
+VII. established the See of Mexico and Fray Juan de Zumarraga was
+instituted as the first bishop. In 1545, the bishopric was constituted
+an archbishopric and Bishop Zumarraga was elevated to the dignity of
+archbishop.
+
+In 1593, the corner stone of the present cathedral was laid, forty-two
+years later the foundations were completed; in 1623, the roof above
+the sacristy was finished and three years later the first service was
+held, but so great a delay had been caused by the great inundation in
+1629–1635, that not till 1656 was the formal dedication solemnized;
+even then the building was unfinished and its final dedication was not
+solemnized until February 2, 1667. In 1791, the magnificent towers
+were completed and the bells were hung a year later. The cost of the
+completed edifice with its decorations is many millions. Its length is
+over four hundred feet, its width one hundred and seventy-seven feet
+and the height from roof to floor one hundred and seventy-nine feet.
+The towers are two hundred and three feet high. Crowning the edifice is
+a splendid and graceful dome and lantern, the work of Manuel Tolsa. The
+cathedral was designed by Alonzo Perez Castaneda on the plan of a Latin
+cross.
+
+ [Illustration: DR. JOSÉ MORA, ARCHBISHOP OF MEXICO.]
+
+The principal façade faces the south. It is broken by three portals
+composed of the Doric and Ionic orders, which with the exquisitely
+wrought carvings, the friezes and the statuary make a most imposing
+and captivating front. The towers are likewise of the two orders in
+succession, the Doric and the Ionic, and many cornices carry fine
+balustrades with pilasters surmounted by splendid urns and fine statues.
+
+Within, the impression is one of severe grandeur ennobled by vastness
+of space. The style is Gothic and Doric. The lofty vaulted arches are
+borne on massive fluted columns of stone. The dome is illuminated with
+paintings of sacred subjects, among them an Assumption of the Virgin.
+In the aisles are fourteen chapels dedicated to various saints. In that
+of San Felipe de Jesus are some relics of this saint, and here lie
+the remains of Iturbide, the unfortunate emperor, beneath a monument
+erected to “The Liberator.” In the chapel of San Pedro lie the bodies
+of Archbishop Zumarraga, the first prelate of Mexico, and Gregorio
+Lopez, the Mexican Man with the Iron Mask, who is said to have been
+the son of Philip II. of Spain. There are some very fine altars; the
+chief of which, the altar de los Reyes, is very imposing and rises to
+the arches of the roof. It is most sumptuously ornamented with carving,
+gilding and other decorations, and is the delight and admiration of
+the Indians especially. Beneath this altar lie the remains of the
+Independence martyrs, Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, which were
+transported thither from Guanajuato after their dishonor in that city
+and buried in the cathedral on the independence being secured. There
+are many fine pictures in this great cathedral; a _San Sebastian_
+by La Sumaya, the wife of Baltazar Echave, a _Candelaria_ by
+Echave, the _Assumption_ and the _Epiphany_ by the Mexican
+painter Juan Rodriguez Juarez; the _Entry into Jerusalem_ and the
+_Catholic Church_ and the _Assumption_ by Juan Correa, the
+_Triumph of the Sacrament_, the _Immaculate Conception_,
+and the _Glory of St. Michael_, by Villalpando, the _Last
+Supper_ and the _Triumph of Faith_, by Alcibar, the _Virgin
+of Bethlehem_ by Murillo, the _Virgin_ by Cortona, and _John
+of Austria imploring the Virgin at the Battle of Lepanto_.
+
+ [Illustration: THE CROWN OF THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE.]
+
+There are many historical churches in the capital, some of which
+date from the sixteenth century. Many were founded as convents and
+monasteries through the munificence of private donors or through the
+efforts of religious orders, and the history of Mexico is closely
+interwoven with not a few of these establishments.
+
+Santa Brigida is the fashionable church of the capital. It was built
+in connection with the Order of Saint Bridget which was established in
+Mexico by José de Aguirre and his wife, Doña Gertrudiz Roldan.
+
+The Church of the Colegio de las Ninas is an ancient establishment
+founded by Fray Pedro de Gante. The college was provided to furnish
+free education for girls.
+
+The church and convent of Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion was
+established by a Franciscan monk, Fray Antonio de la Cruz.
+
+The Church of San Cosme was founded in 1538, as a hospital for Indians,
+the chapel being dedicated to the Arabian doctors Cosmo and Damian. It
+later came under the charge of the Franciscans, who built the monastery
+and the present church which, however, was not completed till 1675, and
+dedicated to Nuestra Señora de la Consolacion, as an act of gratitude
+by one who received shelter in the monastery during a storm. A curious
+painting in the church represents the grateful donor transferring the
+title of patron, which he had declined, to San José. The painting is
+the work of José de Alcibar.
+
+In the Church of Santa Cruz y Soledad, built in 1731, but which
+was originally founded in 1534 as an Indian mission, are splendid
+decorations of altar and chapel by celebrated Mexican artists, but the
+most interesting feature is the image of Nuestra Señora del Refugio
+which was formerly attached to a wall on the Calle del Refugio.
+
+San Diego contains several paintings by Vallejo, the famous Mexican
+artist, the pupil of the Indian painter, Cabrera, the chief of which
+are _The Prayer in the Garden_ and _The Last Supper_, and the
+famed altar pieces _The Virgin of Guadalupe_ and _San José_.
+
+Santo Domingo is one of the finest and largest churches in the capital
+and contains some fine paintings especially _The Crucifixion_ and
+_San Ildefonso_. This church stands where the legend says the
+Aztecs saw the eagle with a serpent in its beak, the omen that decided
+on their establishing their chief seat. This church is on the Plaza de
+Santo Domingo in which is erected the handsome commemorative statue of
+Señora Doña Josefa Dominguez the heroine of the Independence, whose
+timely warning gave the patriots at Querétaro a chance of escape.
+
+The Church of San Francisco, now a protestant temple, is all that
+remains of the great religious establishment of the Franciscan Order,
+founded on the grounds once occupied by the menagerie of the Aztec
+Imperial household. The original church was erected by the Twelve
+Apostles of Mexico and Fray Pedro de Gante and the cost of building
+was borne by the Conqueror. With the grandeur of Spanish Mexico and
+with all the sorrows of Republican Mexico in its earlier days this
+great establishment was intimately concerned. It was the last to
+conspire against the nationality of Mexico as a republic and this
+conspiracy cost it its real existence, for it never recovered either
+its prestige or its entire possessions in the interval before the
+monastic institution was suppressed by President Juarez, in 1860. The
+great treasures of the church, the ornaments, jewels and paintings were
+then forfeited and placed in the Academy of Fine Arts. Historically
+the Church of San Francisco is the most interesting in the Republic.
+It was the centre of all the Catholic religion. Under able and zealous
+management it became the most powerful and prosperous church in the
+Crown colony. From it sprang the first Indian school and the first
+theological seminary and it was here the art of painting was first
+taught by the Spaniards. It was the favorite church of Cortés where he
+heard the mass.
+
+ [Illustration: THE SHRINE OF GUADALUPE.]
+
+Many of the viceroys worshipped here during the three centuries of
+Spanish rule. On December 27, 1821, was sung herein the Te Deum to
+commemorate the Independence of Mexico. On June 12, 1859, President
+Juarez signed the famous Leyes de Reforma, which aimed at the
+nationalization of all church property. These took effect in 1860, and
+the year after all religious orders were suppressed. This property
+of the Franciscans was sold and the money given to the hospitals and
+schools.
+
+San Hipolito stands on the spot made sacred by the defeat of the
+Spaniards by the Aztecs on _La Noche Triste_. On their recovery
+of the city on August 13, 1521, a little adobe chapel was erected
+in memory of the soldiers who fell on July 1, 1520, and in 1599
+the present magnificent edifice was begun which was not completed
+till 1739. For a long time, on the 13th of August, a commemorative
+procession bore in march the crimson banner of the Conquest.
+
+The defeat of the Dismal Night is commemorated on a stone tablet
+surmounting a corner of this church, which translated reads: “So great
+was the slaughter of the Spaniards by the Aztecs at this place on the
+night of July 1, 1520, called for that reason the Dismal Night, that
+after having in the following year re-entered the city in triumph, the
+conquerors resolved to build here a chapel, to be called the Chapel of
+the Martyrs; and which should be dedicated to San Hipolito, because the
+capture of the city occurred on that Saint’s Day.”
+
+ [Illustration: SANTA MONICA, GUADALUPE.]
+
+One of the most notable of the churches is that of Jesus Nazareno. It
+was founded as Nuestra Señora de la Purisima Concepcion by Cortés on
+the final occupation of the capital and furnished with ample funds for
+its erection and maintenance by the provisions of his will. In this
+church the bones of the conqueror rested from 1794 to 1823, when they
+were removed to Italy. The building began in 1575, and it was dedicated
+ninety years later, when its name was changed because of a miraculous
+image of Jesus of Nazareth that was bequeathed to the church by a
+pious Indian woman. The edifice contains much of the original interior
+carved woodwork, altars and other decorations. In this church lie the
+remains of Manuel Vilar, the sculptor, Lucas Alaman, the historian and
+statesman, Manuel Calderon and Fray Juan Crisostomo Najera.
+
+Nuestra Señora de Loreto was originally founded by the Jesuit Order
+in 1573, an edifice of canes and reeds, dedicated to San Gregorio.
+In 1675, Padre Juan Zappa brought the image of Our Lady of Loreto to
+Mexico. The erection of chapels took place in 1686 and 1738, but the
+present church was not dedicated till 1816. The tower of this church
+has leaned for seventy-eight years as the result of subsidence of one
+side of the edifice owing to inundation. There are some fine paintings
+by Joaquin Esquivel.
+
+ [Illustration: ORGAN IN THE CATHEDRAL, MEXICO CITY.]
+
+The Church of Nuestra Señora de los Angeles has a singular history. In
+1580, an Indian chief, Isayoque, found on the waters of the inundation
+a beautiful picture of the Virgin, to preserve which he built an adobe
+chapel, but instead of placing therein the original, he had a replica
+painted on the wall by an eminent artist. Later this wall was built
+into a larger chapel, and in 1607 the inundation almost obliterated
+the painting, save the hands and face, which was deemed a miracle. The
+present church was completed only in 1808. The miraculous picture is
+supplied with a dress to cover the missing parts and is now enclosed in
+glass to preserve what is left.
+
+One of the handsomest of the churches is La Profesa which dates from
+1595, when it was founded by the Jesuits, whose order accumulated great
+wealth and possessed great influence, till they were expelled in 1767.
+The decorations of this church are among the finest in Mexico and there
+are several pictures of considerable reputation, _The Adoration of
+the Cross_ and _The Seven Sacraments_ being of prominent merit.
+The splendid altar is the inspiration of Tolsa. This masterpiece was
+designed by Pelegrin Clave and his pupils, Petronilo Monroy, Felipe
+Castro and José Ramirez. It was in this church that the movement was
+planned as the result of which Iturbide acquired the independence of
+Mexico.
+
+Santa Teresa La Antigua is one of the very interesting church
+establishments. The convent of Santa Teresa was founded in 1616, and
+the building of the present church was commenced in 1678, and its
+completion and dedication was made in 1684; it was very badly injured
+by the earthquake of 1845, but has been splendidly restored. It
+possesses a miraculous crucifix brought from Spain in 1545, and long
+kept in a church at Cardonal, in Hidalgo state. The legend as to this
+crucifix says that it was once so disfigured by an accident that it was
+thrown into the fire, without any change resulting, that it was then
+buried and when later taken up it reassumed its original freshness and
+state. To secure the crucifix a pitched battle was fought between the
+partisans of Archbishop Zuniga and those of the Cardonal church, and
+the former were victorious, and the treasure was deposited in Santa
+Teresa.
+
+Another church founded by Cortés was Santa Vera Cruz, in connection
+with a brotherhood whose mission was to comfort condemned criminals.
+The church possesses a venerated shrine encircled with seven veils and
+within the shrine is a crucifix, a visit to which on a specified day
+secures indulgences. The present church dates from 1730.
+
+There are several protestant churches now in the City of Mexico. The
+Christ Church, Episcopal, Trinity, Methodist Episcopal and San Lorenzo
+for English speaking Catholics.
+
+The legends of a country often have a more real and actuating influence
+on its people than does its history. The miraculous or wonderworking
+thread woven into the tale appeals more forcefully than the soberer
+facts of very truth. The touch of mystery chains the interest while it
+seems to silence the spirit of questioning. Mexico is rich in legends,
+and their best lore is perpetuated in the many shrines.
+
+ [Illustration: CHURCH NEAR COYOACAN.]
+
+Of all the shrines of Mexico, the most sacred and venerated is “Our
+Lady of Guadalupe.” Here is the Christian shrine to the Mother of the
+Saviour; and here, too, the Aztecs tendered homage and worship to
+Tonatzin, who to them was the “Mother of Gods.” The Christian legend
+tells that in 1531, a pious Indian named Juan Diego was on his way from
+the village of Tolpetlac to attend mass at Santiago Tlaltelolco and
+passing around the hill of Tepeyácac, he heard sweet voices singing;
+terrified, he looked up and saw a lady who bade him listen to her: he
+should go to the bishop and tell him that she willed that a temple in
+her honor should be built on that hill. The figure vanished, and Diego
+did her command, but the bishop sent him away, giving no credence to
+his tale. Returning to the place of the vision, Diego found the lady
+awaiting him and he told her of his interview with the bishop. She
+bade him to return to the place the next day, Sunday. Diego returned
+accordingly and for the third time the vision greeted him, and he
+was commanded to repeat his former message to the bishop, who, still
+incredulous, required some convincing token of the truth of his
+message; at the same time he sent two servants to watch Juan Diego.
+On the latter’s approaching the hill he was lost to the view of the
+servants and passing round the side of the hill he saw the lady, to
+whom he stated the bishop’s requirement. She commanded him to come
+again the next day. This he was unable to do, for on returning home he
+found his uncle ill and he must attend him. On the day after, the uncle
+being at the point of death, Juan Diego set out for Tlaltelolco to
+fetch a confessor and fearing delay if he met the lady, he went around
+the other side of the hill. There to his surprise he saw her descending
+the hillside and calling to him. He made known his urgent case, and
+she assured him that his uncle was already cured of his fever. Then
+she commanded him to ascend to the barren hilltop to gather roses,
+and there, where none had ever grown, they appeared. She directed him
+to take these roses to the bishop as the desired token, bidding him
+to show them to none other. Happily did Juan fill his _tilma_
+with the lovely blooms and set out for the bishop’s dwelling. From
+the spot where the lady stood gushed forth a spring of crystal water
+which has continued flowing and is a cure for all human ills. Diego
+was soon before the bishop and unfolding his _tilma_ as he
+dropped the roses at the feet of the bishop, he saw the image of the
+Virgin depicted on the coarse fibrous material, painted in wonderfully
+beautiful colors, in a cloak of blue velvet bedecked with stars of
+gold. The prelate was convinced; he took the miraculous _tilma_
+and deposited it in his oratory as a priceless treasure. Diego returned
+to his home, escorted by the bishop’s servants, and found that his
+uncle had been cured at the very hour when the Virgin assured his
+recovery.
+
+ [Illustration: FAÇADE OF SAN AGUSTIN.]
+
+On the spot where the roses had miraculously bloomed, a church was soon
+built, and on February 7, 1532, the sacred _tilma_ was placed over
+the altar within the shrine. From that time an annual festival has been
+held on the 12th of December. But it was not until Pope Benedict XIV.,
+in 1754, issued a Bull authorizing the feast that official recognition
+of the Virgin of Guadalupe as protectress and patroness of Mexico was
+gained.
+
+ [Illustration: THE SACRED WELL AT GUADALUPE.]
+
+The church was the especial pride of the Indians, and they felt a new
+motive for joining the Christian establishment. They now had their
+Mother of God. The original portrait is richly framed in gold inlaid
+with diamonds and pearls. The picture appears alike on both sides of
+the rough canvas, which is without sizing or preparation. Experts have
+from time to time examined it without being able to account for its
+production or preservation. The coloring process is inexplicable; it
+partakes of the characteristics of oil, water and distemper coloring
+and relief work, and these processes are apparent in different portions
+of the picture; moreover the gilding of the stars embroidered on the
+cloak and in its texture, as well as in the light-rays emanating from
+the figure, is not applied like any known process, but appears rather
+to be woven into the fibre of the canvas than painted on it. A further
+miraculous attribute is seen in the complete preservation of the
+picture, which for many years was entirely unprotected by a covering,
+and exposed to conditions that would have destroyed even very hard
+substances.
+
+The devotion accorded to “Our Lady of Guadalupe” is universal in
+Mexico. The festival day is a religious holiday throughout the
+republic, and is especially kept by the Indians, who come from all
+quarters to the shrine for devotion. It was the banner of this Virgin
+that was taken from the little sanctuary at Atotonilco by Hidalgo when
+on his march on San Miguel and he adopted “Guadalupe” as the battle cry
+of independence.
+
+The holy image of the _tilma_ was removed from its shrine on the
+occasion of the great inundation of 1629, and the saving of the city by
+the Virgin implored. The image was placed in the cathedral, attended
+with imposing ceremony in transmission, and there it remained for four
+years. Its miracles are reputed wonderful, all manners of healing are
+attributed to it.
+
+In 1622, the image was enshrined in a new and much larger church.
+In 1709, the large temple was dedicated. The altar was designed by
+Tolsa in 1802, but was not completed till 1836. The great chancel was
+enclosed by a heavy silver railing set on a base of white marble.
+But the crowning glory of the edifice of “Our Lady of Guadalupe” was
+the great aspiration and chief lifework of Father Antonio Plancarte
+y Labastida, who began the work of restoration and embellishment in
+1887 and completed it in 1895, when the _tilma_ was crowned by
+authority of Pope Leo XIII., with attendant ceremonies of the most
+imposing magnificence, in the presence of thirty-eight archbishops and
+bishops, hundreds of priests and fifty thousand laymen from all parts
+of Mexico and the rest of the Western Continent, on October 12, 1895.
+
+The crown is a splendid product of the goldsmith’s art and of an
+enormous intrinsic value. The gold and the precious stones were
+contributed by the women of Mexico from their own most prized jewels
+and represent a vast treasure. Around the rim at the base are
+twenty-two enamelled shields representing the dioceses of the republic
+illumined with sapphires and emeralds. Above this is a row of angels,
+each bearing a brilliant ruby on its breast, and supporting six
+enamelled escutcheons blazoned with the arms of the six archbishops
+of Mexico, framed by exquisitely wrought wreaths and encircled with
+diamonds. Rising behind the angels and extending to the apex of the
+crown are festoons of roses of gold alternated with stars of diamonds,
+which cluster at the top beneath an enamelled globe on which Mexico and
+the Gulf are depicted. Above the globe is the Mexican eagle bearing
+in one talon the globe and with the other holding aloft a cross of
+diamonds. From a ring in the cross the crown is suspended over the
+sacred image by a cherub. The fineness and richness of the work, in
+which there is no repetition of a single decorative detail, make this
+crown the most distinguished of its class in religious use.
+
+The coronation scene was unique in the history of Mexico; the patron
+saint of the nation, the especial protectress of the Indians, was to
+receive divine honors with all the pomp and ceremony of official
+sanction and authority. Gorgeously robed, the dignitaries of the
+church surrounded the throne of the archbishop--for the church has the
+recognized organization of a cathedral--who received the priceless
+crown from the hands of twelve of Mexico’s distinguished women,
+representing the contributors, after the papal brief authorizing the
+coronation was read, and the action notarially certified. Then the
+air was rent with the salute of cannon and the unchained voices of
+the bells. Within the walls of the church crowded adorers knelt, and
+without, multitudes with bowed heads, reverentially adoring, awaited
+the solemn moment when the crown should be raised to the brow of the
+Virgin of Guadalupe.
+
+ [Illustration: LUNATIC ASYLUM.]
+
+The crown having been blessed by the archbishop, a solemn mass was
+celebrated, and then in grand procession it was borne by the canons
+through the crowded basilica and outside around the edifice and then
+returned to the sanctuary. Here, the archbishop of Mexico, assisted by
+the arch-prelate of Michoacán, ascended the lofty platform and placed
+the consecrated crown above the head of the Virgin of Guadalupe over
+the miraculous _tilma_. As the act of coronation was completed the
+devotional enthusiasm of the people broke forth amid tears and sobs,
+in shouts of “_Viva Dios!_” “_Viva Madre de Dios!_” “_Viva Mexico!_”
+and the cries were taken up without till the hill and the valley had
+spoken with tens of thousands of voices; then the bishops, one by one,
+ascended the altar steps and in devout homage laid crosiers and mitres
+before the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The great event, at the same
+moment, gave tongue to every church bell in the land, which proclaimed
+the glorious fact of the coronation to the devout children of the
+church.
+
+The restoration of the church was completed simultaneously with the
+coronation and the sacred image of the _tilma_ was returned from
+its eight-years’ repose in the neighboring church of the Capuchin Nuns
+to its own repository in the basilica of Our Lady, on September 30,
+1895. The benefactor, Father Plancarte y Labastida lived to rejoice in
+the crowning culmination of his great work; he died in 1898.
+
+The interior of the basilica is of the Doric order. It is about two
+hundred and fifty feet long and one hundred and twenty-five wide. Its
+three aisles are divided by eight Corinthian columns. Of the eighteen
+arches, the central one carries the dome with its lantern, the top of
+which is one hundred and twenty-five feet from the pavement of the
+church. The feature of chief interest is the high altar in which is
+framed the sacred _tilma_. This is of spotlessly white Carrara
+marble, magnificently sculptured and exquisitely wrought with gilded
+bronze, done after the designs of the celebrated Mexican artists,
+Agea and Salome Pina. The marble was carved by the sculptor Nicoli at
+Carrara and the bronze was wrought at Brussels. On the right and left
+sides of the altar are, respectively, marble figures of Juan Zumárraga,
+the first bishop of Mexico, and the Indian, Juan Diego, to whom the
+Virgin of Guadalupe appeared, and in front is the kneeling figure of
+Archbishop Labastida y Davalos, whose fostering care made the great
+work possible. Over the frame holding the image of the _tilma_
+are sculptured in relief three angels, emblematic of the archdioceses
+of Mexico, Michoacán and Guadalajara and commemorative of the services
+rendered by their archprelates in securing the papal authority for the
+coronation of the Virgin. The baldaquin over the altar is of byzantine
+style and is carried on pillars of Scotch granite; the arch is
+surmounted by a gilded cross of roses. The front arch of the baldaquin
+carries the arms of Pope Leo XIII., on the other three are those of
+the archbishops of Mexico, Michoacán and Guadalajara, and inscribed
+in Gothic letters are the Latin verses written by Leo XIII., for the
+occasion of the coronation:
+
+ Mexicus heic populus mira sub Imagine gaudet
+ Te colore, alma Parens, præsidioque frui.
+ Per te sic vigeat felix, teque auspice, Christi
+ Immotam servet firmior usque fidem.
+
+ LEO PP. XIII.
+
+“The Mexican people rejoice in worshipping Thee, Holy Mother, under
+this miraculous image, and in looking to Thee for protection. May
+that people, through Thee, flourish in happiness and ever under Thy
+auspices, grow stronger in the faith of Christ.” Bronze statues are
+placed between the arches, representing Prudence, Justice, Fortitude,
+Temperance.
+
+The vaulted roof is studded with gilded cedarwood stars; the beams
+are richly ornamented in rich Byzantine style. The dome is profusely
+decorated with gold and roses in festoons; and the panels are filled
+with frescoes of the Virgin of Guadalupe, of angels bearing scrolls,
+and allegorical tributes of the Virgin. In the four spaces between the
+dome stand figures of the four Evangelists.
+
+Splendid frescoes adorn the walls of the church.
+
+The homage paid to the Virgin of Guadalupe is universal in Mexico.
+In every home of rich and poor alike, her picture is to be found, an
+honored possession, even in most of the shops of Mexico a lamp burns
+ever before her picture and there are few churches without an altar
+before which to do her reverence. When the country was rent by the
+passions and fury of war and churches were stripped and despoiled of
+their priceless objects and decorations, the shrine of Our Lady of
+Guadalupe was too sacred for the despoiler. His hand was nerve-less to
+desecrate this revered shrine.
+
+This venerated basilica is the chief of a group of churches connected
+with the legend of Our Lady of Guadalupe. To the east of the shrine is
+the Chapel of the Well, built on the spot and in commemoration of the
+miracle of the spring that gushed where the Virgin stood at the moment
+that she dispatched Juan Diego to the bishop with the roses. The chapel
+was built in 1791, and the spring is just within its door. Beneath the
+dome, which is covered with glazed tiles, is the altar and a carved
+pulpit upborne by a figure of Juan Diego; the mural decorations are
+paintings of the Indian’s visions of the Virgin. The Chapel of the
+Little Hill, is erected on the spot where, at the Virgin’s will,
+bloomed the roses on the previously barren rock. The first chapel was
+built in 1660, but was replaced by the present edifice early in the
+eighteenth century. These auxiliary establishments are connected by a
+stone stairway, about halfway up which is a votive offering, the Stone
+Sails of Guadalupe, made by sailors who implored the aid of the Virgin
+in their distress and, being saved, they accordingly brought before the
+shrine the foremast of their vessel and the sails, which latter are
+there encased in stone.
+
+ [Illustration: THE GENERAL HOSPITAL, CITY OF MEXICO.]
+
+Besides these chapels, there is the church of the Capuchin Nuns,
+forming a group of establishments more widely known and honored and
+visited by more persons than any other shrine in Mexico. Our Lady of
+Guadalupe is the Lourdes of Mexico, the holiest of Mexico’s sacred
+places.
+
+Another shrine highly venerated by Mexicans is the Church of “Our Lady
+of Los Remedios.” The legend upon which its veneration rests antedates
+that of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The story told of the image enshrined in
+this church is that it was brought to Mexico from Spain by a soldier
+in the following of Cortés, named Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, who,
+in the flight on the _Noche Triste_ took the image from the great
+Aztec temple, where it had been placed in a shrine, and carried it
+as far as the hill of Totoltepec, where his strength failing, he hid
+it under a broad maguey plant. It was thereafter lost to knowledge
+for nearly twenty years, when an Indian chief, who was hunting on the
+hill was greeted by the Virgin, who required him to seek for her image
+hidden beneath a maguey plant. He searched in vain. Again the Virgin
+appeared and repeated her command, with the same result. A third time
+the vision appeared, and the same command was given. Further effort at
+length rewarded the searcher and he took the image to his home, but
+in the morning it was missing, and again was found under the maguey
+plant where it had been discovered. This time the Indian placed before
+the image a gourd filled with dainties of food; again it disappeared.
+Once more the chief brought it home and placed it in a bolted and
+locked box, on which, for further safety, he slept; but the box was
+empty in the morning. These strange experiences led the Indian to seek
+the advice of the _padres_, to whom he told his story, and they,
+deeming that a miracle had been wrought and a command conveyed to build
+a temple to the Virgin on the spot of her appearance, decided to fulfil
+the command.
+
+Soon thereafter, on the spot where the image was found, a shrine
+was built and dedicated by the Spaniards to “Our Lady of Succor” in
+gratitude for her salvation of their lives. The image is about eight
+inches high and is carved in wood; it bears in its arms a figure of the
+infant Jesus. The shrine also contains the gourd in which the food was
+placed before the sacred image, while under the main altar, near the
+remains of the Indian, Juan Aguila Tobar, is the box in which the image
+was locked to prevent its escape. The walls of the original church
+remain in the existing edifice, completed in 1575; but the church has
+lost much of its former magnificence and costly decorations of precious
+metals and paintings. The priceless wardrobe and jewels of the Virgin
+remain in testimony of the virtue attributed to the miraculous image.
+
+After the battle of Las Cruces, when Hidalgo was within six leagues
+of the capital with his independence army, Viceroy Venegas, alarmed,
+had the image of the Virgin of Los Remedios brought from Totoltepec to
+the cathedral in the capital, and there kneeling before it, invoked
+its aid, placed the viceregal staff in its hands, and solemnly hailed
+it as “lady captain general of the army.” The royalists inscribed on
+their banner the image of _Nuestra Senora de los Remedios_, just
+as Hidalgo had adopted for the patriots that of _Nuestra Senora de
+Guadalupe_. In seasons of drought, also, this sacred image is taken
+from its hill shrine and borne in solemn procession through the streets
+of the capital.
+
+Mexico City is liberally furnished with institutions for the care of
+the indigent afflicted and for orphans. The special retreats for the
+blind, the deaf and dumb strikingly exhibit the conception of the
+obligation of the municipality to ameliorate the distressing conditions
+which the afflicted in these respects suffer. Every care and comfort is
+provided for. So too, the orphans have a home that shields them from
+danger, ministers to their needs, and gives them instruction that will
+fit them for a life of personal advancement and state advantage.
+
+ [Illustration: THE CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL. FEDERAL DISTRICT.]
+
+The General Hospital is a monument of enterprise. It is the culmination
+of a long-cherished ambition of General Diaz, whose desire was to see
+Mexico equipped with a hospital for the poor that would meet all the
+needs of the City. It was completed in 1905, and is conceded to be one
+of the largest and most splendidly-appointed hospitals in the world.
+It has about twenty-eight pavilions and accommodations for over eight
+hundred patients.
+
+This splendid institution has every facility of a modern hospital,
+being built after years of study of all the hospitals of the world. It
+is conducted on scientific principles, and the system and precision
+with which it is managed has created great comment from scientists who
+have visited it. Its doors are always open and the poor have a refuge
+at all hours. There no questions are asked, a warm bed and good food
+are ready at all hours. It is under the direction of Dr. Liceago.
+
+The maternity ward is most interesting and there is a school and
+kindergarten for poor, infirm children of tender age. In connection
+with this there is a school for nurses which has opened a new field for
+women, as formerly all trained nurses were foreigners.
+
+The American Hospital and the American Benevolent Society are both good
+institutions, the later was founded by Honorable J. W. Foster, who was
+at that time American Minister in Mexico.
+
+There are many other charitable institutions of this kind in Mexico and
+the suburbs, some of them dating back to the time of Cortés, notably
+the Foundling Hospital, founded in 1767, and the Hospital of Jesus of
+Nazareth, founded by Cortés in 1527. The first meeting of Cortés and
+Montezuma took place on the site of the Hospital de Jesus Narareno.
+The quaint architectural features are most attractive. The building is
+nondescript, but surrounding this is a beautiful garden. On a tablet
+let into one of the walls is the interesting inscription in Spanish--A
+Hospital of the Clean Conception of the most Holy Mary and Jesus of
+Nazareth. It is the oldest and was founded on this famous site of
+Paganism known as Huitzillan, in the year 1527, and re-established and
+remodeled in 1838.
+
+El Hospicio De Ninos (the Children’s Hospital) at Tlalpam was founded
+in 1765 by Dr. Fernando Ortiz Cortés. It is non-sectarian and is
+supported by the government. It has lately been remodeled, and
+accommodates a thousand children. All classes of trades and useful arts
+are taught and some fine specimens of needle work are done by the girls.
+
+There are splendid charities under the protection of Madame Carmen
+Romero Rubio de Diaz, and many private institutions. The Home for
+Working Women was founded by her. The object of this establishment is
+the teaching and taking care of the children of working women. Madame
+Sofia de Osio de Landa y Escandon, the wife of the Governor of the
+district, is the president of a society for the protection of the poor.
+To this belong the best ladies of the city, who devote much of their
+time to the poor and friendless of the capital.
+
+Madame Ramon Corral and her beautiful daughters are most active in all
+charitable work.
+
+Under the supervision and encouragement of Madame Diaz the School
+of Nurses was established, where the native girls are educated free
+in medicine and nursing. Every year diplomas are granted to at least
+twenty trained nurses.
+
+The Florence Crittenden Industrial School was established in September,
+1902, under the direction of Señora Herlinda de la Guerra de Sepulveda,
+beginning with a small number of inmates. Its mission is to receive and
+protect poor girls, and to teach them to be self-supporting, giving
+them an industrial education and fitting them to take their places well
+equipped to render them good wives and mothers. There they receive the
+instruction prescribed by the Department of Public Instruction, with
+strict attention to the moral and physical development. The management
+of this school is under the direction of ladies competent to “instruct
+in the best moral training.” The kindergarten is one of the features.
+The school is located in the picturesque town of Mixcoac, quite
+near the city. It has lovely grounds and gardens and fine hygienic
+arrangements, making the place healthy and attractive. It has now
+about one hundred girls and the efficiency displayed in the management
+entitles this institution to all aid and sympathy.
+
+There are homes for disabled men and women; free hospitals for the sick
+and needy. There are churches where bread and nourishing food are given
+every day to those who seek it. There are homes for motherless babes,
+and a haven for all unfortunates. There are industrial colleges for
+wayward boys and girls, who are gently instructed in the ways of good
+citizens and many splendid records have been made by former inmates. In
+no country are there more charitable institutions than in Mexico.
+
+ [Illustration: PAVILIONS OF THE GENERAL HOSPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: STAIRWAY IN THE COLLEGE OF THE MASCARONES.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: NATIONAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.]
+
+ CHAPTER XIII
+
+ EDUCATION
+
+
+A marked difference is presented to-day in the picture of public
+instruction, sheltered under the mantle of peace, compared with
+that which was offered during the times of political agitation and
+revolution. This interesting feature, the principal and most solid
+foundation of the future prosperity of this country, receives each day
+further development, thanks to the vigorous impulse impressed upon it
+from all sides. While public authorities in all branches, moved by
+generous emulation, have made enduring souvenirs of their occupancy
+of office, this is particularly the case of the department of public
+instruction. Outside of the great cities the academy diffuses the light
+of civilization, and even in the smallest hamlet public and private
+schools extend the knowledge of the people in every useful department.
+Primary instruction is given almost everywhere. In the largest
+municipalities the governments either directly support or subsidize a
+great number of these establishments. Many schools the creation of
+which is due to private initiative are endowed by individuals or are
+under the direction and surveillance of benevolent societies. In 1906,
+there was created a new seat in the cabinet, the Secretary of Public
+Instruction and Fine Arts. Since then there is an increased interest in
+school work. Each year two professors from the Normal School are sent
+to America and Europe to see the best physical institutes and to study
+the new school systems.
+
+As in all progressive lands, education is the foundation of prosperity,
+and activity in that direction has been very great among those who
+realize that it is the basis of their existence. Schools have been
+established in all parts of the republic, and now the poorest Indian
+child has its opportunities for learning.
+
+Compulsory education being one of the features it is seldom that the
+common people are found without elementary knowledge. This branch of
+learning comprises civic instruction, the Mexican language, arithmetic,
+history of the country, natural science, practical geometry, drawing,
+singing, physical culture, fine needle work and plain sewing.
+
+ [Illustration: PATIO OF THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.]
+
+With the administration of President Diaz there was a great change in
+the educational policy. Day and night schools were opened everywhere
+for the poorer classes, and every substantial branch of practical
+learning has been placed within reach of not only the young but the
+adult laboring class, and the interest that has steadily grown in
+this movement has been of great material benefit to Mexico. In the
+general system of education in pursuance of the Government’s desire
+to educate the working element, there are two classes of schools,
+the supplementary, which are the means of giving primary instruction
+to those unable to acquire it, and the complementary, which gives an
+opportunity to those having a little learning to gain more. Primary,
+normal and professional schools are within the grasp of every one, the
+system of education being entirely free, even books and every facility
+to gain knowledge is furnished by the Government.
+
+ [Illustration: NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS.]
+
+Education in Mexico begun with the Conquest, and some institutions of
+learning were then established, among them the College of San Juan
+de Letran, in 1530, and the University of Mexico, which was opened
+in 1553. There was a lull in interest on account of the unstable
+conditions, and some of the great seats of learning were discontinued.
+When Baron Von Humboldt, the German explorer, visited Mexico in the
+earlier part of the eighteenth century, one of his first reports
+to his sovereign was relative to the great advancement of higher
+education in the New Spain. This was said of the higher classes, not
+of the poorer people, who were illiterate and superstitious. To-day
+the moral precepts that are instilled into these people as well as the
+development of their mental faculties, give every man an incentive to
+be a good and honorable citizen, and it is with great satisfaction that
+those interested in this great reform have seen its splendid results.
+After the adoption of the Federal Constitution, it required a great
+deal of activity on the part of the officials to establish a common
+school instruction throughout the republic.
+
+As each state was responsible for its schools it was very difficult
+after years of warfare and unsettled conditions to establish a system
+of education without taxation for that purpose. School buildings were
+erected, teachers employed, and gradually the interest of the people
+grew. Now no country can boast of a finer educational foundation than
+Mexico. Greater attention is directed toward manual training and
+domestic economy than in any other country in the world. The Federal
+primary schools are divided into two groups, day and night schools,
+for children, and the working classes of both sexes. Belonging to the
+first group are the kindergarten, elementary for mixed classes, and
+general high schools and special high schools. These are divided into
+mercantile and industrial, and those who graduate are permitted to
+enter the normal school.
+
+ [Illustration: SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR MEN.]
+
+All the primaries of the Federal District are under the general
+direction of Primary Education, except the kindergartens, which are
+under the supervision of the Minister of Instruction and Belles Artes.
+In Mexico City and its outlying territories much care has been taken
+to organize a splendid school system; new buildings, sanitary in
+every respect, suitable to accommodate the demand of the multiplying
+attendance, and a standard of education so advanced that Mexico has
+achieved a great thing in meeting the needs of her people. The better
+classes were in former years forced to send their children abroad to
+school. The best professors direct the courses of study and every
+art and craft known is taught. Splendid playgrounds for children and
+gymnasiums are installed in all the modern school buildings.
+
+Normal schools for men and women in which they become masters of the
+art of teaching are one of the chief features of the educational system.
+
+The Catholic Church takes great interest in education and maintains
+branches of all its well-known teaching fraternities and sisterhoods.
+Besides the parochial schools many academies and colleges are conducted
+throughout the land and the teaching is on the same high plane as in
+other countries. The Sisters of the Sacred Heart direct the finishing
+schools for girls and the Jesuits most of the colleges and seminaries
+for young men. There are many private schools with a high standard
+of study, besides finishing schools of splendid order. They are
+patronized by the better classes and the result is that Mexico boasts
+of delightful men and women, well informed boys and girls, and the
+Nation’s younger element are developing well in the progress of their
+country, and are being fitted for important positions they must surely
+fill some day.
+
+ [Illustration: SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR WOMEN.]
+
+The National Conservatory of Music sends yearly into the world finished
+artists and professors and the many histrionic and musical societies in
+the Capital are ample proofs of the splendid training received in this
+institution. Languages are taught in every school, and most versatile
+linguists are found in Mexico, from the tradesmen to the Ministers of
+the Cabinet. Some of the greatest men of Mexico, whose names are of
+universal fame, graduated from the National School of Jurisprudence and
+the School of Medicine.
+
+In the penitentiaries of every state in the Republic there are schools
+conducted with the finest masters to be obtained, and each prison has
+an orchestra or band which has the full benefit of instruction in
+music. The School of Engineering gives as good a course as may be had
+at any university. A School of Mines and a School of Agriculture exists
+and are splendid institutions. The Colegio de la Paz, once a religious
+school, is now controlled by the Government, and largely supported by
+its own endowment. Its building is one of the greatest in the city. In
+rank just below these great public institutions of instruction come
+the Schools of Industry for men and women, for deaf mutes and for the
+blind, reformatories, business colleges and a school of arts and crafts.
+
+ [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS.]
+
+ [Illustration: SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS.]
+
+Amid wars and the care of material affairs, Mexico has never neglected
+the æsthetic and the intellectual. Institutions devoted to culture
+of every kind are important and are very liberally maintained. The
+national library--_biblioteca national_--occupies the beautiful
+old edifice once the church of San Agustin, which has been modified
+to meet the purposes of a library while preserving the beauty of
+the old church. Along two sides of the building stretches a pretty
+garden enclosed by a high iron railing, the posts of which bear
+commemorative busts of eminent Mexican writers beginning with the Aztec
+Netzahualcoyotl, Ixtlilxochitl, and coming through the list of colonial
+writers brings us to the modern Mexican literati. The classic interior
+of the building lends a dignity and grace befitting the place. Statues
+of didactic writers adorn the walls, including the biblical teacher
+Isaiah and the great oriental master Confucius, and at the other
+extreme are the figures of Humboldt and Cuvier.
+
+Of the literature housed in this library a large portion consists
+of devotional and dogmatic works collected from the convents and
+monasteries on their suppression, numbering about two hundred thousand
+volumes. There are many very precious tomes in this library, unique
+specimens of priceless value, dating from early in the fourteenth
+century, and some Mexican pinturas done in deerskin by Montezuma
+as dispatches to his allies at the time of the invasion. Curios in
+literature are of deep interest to the lover of antique songs. Modern
+books on every subject make the National Library one of the valuable
+and interesting depositories of the world.
+
+ [Illustration: STAIRCASE, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS.]
+
+Besides this great library there are several others containing works of
+special interest to publicists and students--as those of the government
+departments, the National Museum, the Fine Arts Academy, the School of
+Engineering, the Law School, and the library at the National Palace.
+
+Higher education has its protection and many schools for the
+development of talent are found in Mexico. Besides a school for thought
+which comprises advanced ideas, Mexico is very proud of her Escuela
+Nacional de Artes y Oficios. It was established to give women and girls
+an opportunity to gain a profession that could give them a livelihood
+or fit them for the serious duties of life. In this school are taught
+all the branches of work, nursing, elementary learning, photography,
+upholstery, lace-making and in fact everything that the trained hand
+can do. This school has elevated the humble class to a condition of
+self respect, and the women who have had advantage of this training
+have been able to earn a good living, and liberal remuneration for
+their work and some have been known to establish little shops which
+have grown into good commercial standing. This institution is one
+of the great safeguards to women, who are protected by a feeling
+of independence and self-confidence. It is under the direction of
+the Government and the ladies of the highest society of Mexico, who
+do everything for the advancement of this class of women. The best
+teachers are employed, many of them having been sent abroad to make
+studies of schools of this kind.
+
+ [Illustration: NATIONAL PREPARATORY SCHOOL.]
+
+Realizing that many of the students were too poor to have proper food
+and nourishment, the influence of Madame Sierra, wife of the Minister
+of Education, and Madame Luz Cosio de Lopez, daughter of the Minister
+of War, resulted in plans to give them free meals, and the good
+nourishment given these girls, whose lots in life are not too easy, is
+one of the aids to the great success of the institution.
+
+ [Illustration: COMMERCIAL SCHOOL.]
+
+There are several English and American schools, among them the Sarah L.
+Keen College.
+
+It will be appreciated that the educational system has its practical
+as well as its æsthetic side. A fair amount of intelligence and a
+willingness to profit by the experience of other countries are the
+keynotes of educational propaganda. The many agricultural colleges
+throughout the country are modeled after those of Canada, where the
+idea of such schools was first worked out. From Germany the scheme of
+manual and industrial training was borrowed, while from the United
+States came the plans for the mining and applied science colleges.
+Already the beneficial effects of the training given are being noted;
+better farming, more economical mining, more skill in weaving, in
+dyeing, in metal working and thrifty housekeeping. The newly organized
+Federal Department of Public Instruction is zealously directed by the
+Secretary, Lic. Don Justo Sierra, ably assisted by the Sub-Secretary,
+Lic. Don Ezequiel Chavez. “Co-operating” is the federation of
+education: a convention of educators which meets from time to time
+makes practical recommendations for improvement wherever such should
+and can be undertaken. In another generation there will be no
+illiteracy among the Mexicans, a condition of which no European country
+can boast. Irresistibly, the mark of progress goes on, welding the
+races into one people. One man’s life, that of Porfirio Diaz, spans the
+whole improvement; and its inspiration is his, although the working out
+of the plans for betterment has been in the capable direction of his
+ministers supported by the whole-hearted efforts of an awakened people.
+
+ [Illustration: SAN CARLOS ACADEMY.]
+
+ [Illustration: MORELOS PARK, TOLUCA.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, TOLUCA.]
+
+ CHAPTER XIV
+
+ MEXICO
+
+
+It would require many years of study to present an adequate idea of the
+progress and enterprise that exist in the republic, and each state has
+contributed its share toward the rapid advancement that has marked the
+conditions within the past fifteen years.
+
+The State of Mexico is one of the most important in the republic. It
+is rich in mineral resources and picturesque in scenery. The people of
+this state are active and ambitious.
+
+Many extensive tracts of territory have been shorn from the empire
+which was granted to Cortés as his reward for the conquest. Two other
+whole states, Hidalgo and Morelos, were created out of Mexico and
+Guerrero and the Federal District have also had parts of this state
+added to them. Nearly ten thousand square miles are left, and upon this
+territory live more than a million industrious people, many of whom
+are of Indian descent. For purposes of government it is divided into
+fifteen districts but Nature has divided the state by means of mountain
+ranges into three almost distinct territories. The Valley of Mexico,
+which extends into the Federal District is paralleled to the west
+by the Valley of Toluca, in which the capital of the state, bearing
+the same name, is situated. The third district comprises the slope
+southwest of the main range toward the lowlands of Guerrero.
+
+The soft named and beautiful capital of this interesting state nestles
+at the foot of snow-crowned mountains, one of them the extinct volcano
+from which it is named, whose peak looks silently down with the calm
+of centuries upon this city of restless progress, as the still ages
+might look down upon the on-rushing to-day. Her wide and well-paved
+streets, her spacious plazas and shaded squares, the imposing
+buildings, some gray with centuries, some new with the modern spirit
+of the day, combined with the delightful situation and the grandeur of
+the surrounding scenery, make the city one of surpassing interest and
+beauty. Modern institutions devoted to education, progress, charity and
+humanity have given Toluca the well-deserved reputation of being one of
+the finest and best governed cities.
+
+In the Valley of Mexico, which averages throughout the state the same
+altitude as Mexico City, the principal pursuits are farming, cattle
+raising, and manufacturing. The numerous small towns are reached by
+branches of the national railroad system. Equally well provided with
+transportation facilities are the towns in the Toluca Valley. The
+average altitude here is above eight thousand feet, a thousand higher
+than the Valley of Mexico, and the temperature is proportionally lower.
+The air is wonderfully pure and the sanitary conditions exceptionally
+good.
+
+Toluca is only forty-five miles from Mexico City but, owing to the
+intervening mountains, the journey occupies three hours. Here, almost
+at the base of an extinct volcano, called the “White Mountain” by
+the Spaniards, Cortés set up the headquarters of his seigniory. The
+city to-day is one of the most pleasing in Mexico, with a large and
+intelligent population and contains many buildings of interest. It is
+built on both banks of the Xicualtenco River which is parallel to the
+main thoroughfares. The streets are for the most part straight and are
+always kept clean. The public squares and gardens are adorned with fine
+monuments. There are many delightful spots and interesting places found
+throughout the State of Mexico. Lofty peaks and deep barrancas, broad
+meadows and narrow vales, inaccessible height and cultivated fields
+succeed one another in delightful variety. The beauty of the scenery is
+indescribable, now and then through the arched forest trees the snowy
+volcanoes with their distant domes and the silvery lakes of the Valley
+of Mexico greet the vision.
+
+The ruins of an old Carmelite Convent standing on the slope of a
+hill are surrounded by noble forests of pine and oak and cedar--long
+and lofty forest-aisles, where the monks of former days wandered in
+peaceful meditation. Some poor Indians live among the ruins and possess
+the undisputed sovereignty of the woods. It is said that a benighted
+traveler who had lost his way in these solitudes and was miraculously
+saved from dying of cold, founded this rich convent of Carmelite
+Monks, in gratitude for his deliverance, expressing his desire that
+all travelers that passed that way should receive hospitality from the
+convent. Certainly no place more fitted for devotion could have been
+selected than this mountain retreat.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL FERNANDO GONZALEZ.]
+
+The way to Lerma is through a massive stone gateway from which the
+gates were removed long ago. The streets are broad but straggling,
+the houses comfortable rather than grand or even elegant and the many
+eucalyptus trees planted around the picturesque adobe and stone church
+date back to the time of Maximilian. Across the way from the church
+is an old grave-yard which is indisputably ancient, as the graves of
+the Spanish conquerors, nine in number, are marked with limestone slabs
+dated over four centuries ago. It is a custom among the Mexican Indians
+to sell pebbles from these graves to tourists who are always eager to
+carry away souvenirs from a spot of historical renown.
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNOR’S PALACE.]
+
+High in mid-air the climate of the State of Mexico leaves nothing to be
+desired by those to whom pure air without clean cutting winds, bright
+sun that does not scorch, and abundance of pure water melted from the
+eternal glistening snows, are indispensable. It is such that brings
+contentment and peace the year around, without undue lassitude at any
+time. Its variety permits the production of all classes of crops;
+wheat, Indian corn, and other cereals grow in abundant harvests in
+the valleys of Toluca, Iztlahuaca, Tenango, and Tezcoco, while sugar
+cane, coffee, and other tropical products grow in the districts of
+Temascaltepec, Tenancingo and other southern districts. The forest
+products are remarkable for their diversity and richness.
+
+The raising of cattle is one of the principal resources of this state,
+and is increasing rapidly each year. The annual product is exceedingly
+great, but pastoral life is giving way to more modern methods of
+existence. The railroads going through these vast plains around
+and among these lofty mountains are doing away with the primitive
+conditions that have existed.
+
+Toluca, the capital of the State, is united to Mexico City by the
+Mexican National Railway which traverses a most picturesque route
+all the way to San Luis Potosí. All the railways which centre in the
+metropolis cross the state giving it ready exportations for all its
+products. The Mexican National route also gives communication northward
+with the rest of the world.
+
+ [Illustration: MONUMENT TO COLUMBUS.]
+
+Practically all of the towns in the two valleys are lighted by
+electricity generated from hydraulic sources. In Tenancingo is the
+plant of the Toluca Electric Light and Power Company, which furnishes
+light and power to the home town, to Tenango, Calimaya, Tienguistenco
+and Toluca. In Tenancingo a local stream runs the big cotton spinning
+and weaving plant of La Guadalupe. In Sultepec water runs the smelter
+of La Concepcion, lights a district, supplies power to the mines
+and other reduction plants and has five hundred horse-power for the
+machinery of the Toluca Brewery. Mills at Calimaya, San Ildefonso and
+numerous other points making cotton cloth, woollen goods and paper all
+get their power from similar sources. Besides having plenty of water
+power, an abundance of labor, fertile farms and pastures, the two
+valleys are also rich in mineral wealth. Some of the most beautiful
+marble found in the world is quarried here and the mining industry is
+very much developed. There are mines producing gold, silver, lead and
+quicksilver. The best known of these are El Oro and Esperanza, whose
+British and American owners are quite frank in making their gains
+public.
+
+In the Sultepec district is another great producer, “La Quimica,” owned
+by Germans who are more reticent but who are known to ship a great
+amount of bullion. Besides these there is a host of minor shipping
+mines and the possibilities of a great range of country which has not
+been thoroughly prospected, notwithstanding the fact that the mines of
+this state have been worked for hundreds of years. Many of the mines
+now yielding rich ores are those once worked by primitive processes and
+were deserted because they were thought not to be worth the trouble.
+Modern crushing machinery, smelters, and chemical reduction works find
+a rich profit in these mines.
+
+ [Illustration: MUNICIPAL PALACE.]
+
+In the mines of Temascaltepec and Zacualpam, as in those of Oro, the
+profits are large; gold, silver, lead, iron, and copper being obtained
+in large quantities. The supply of sulphur from the great snow-capped
+mountain, Popocatepetl, is enormous. There is in this district coal of
+excellent quality and zinc is found in the form of blendes, accompanied
+by silver ore. The mining activity in this state is increasing every
+year, the Tejupilco district is being steadily developed and the
+Sultepec district, eighty kilometres southwest from Toluca is the
+centre of an extensive metalliferous zone running from Angangueo to
+Taxco, both famous mining camps. There are many veins in exploitation
+though some of them remain to be worked. Among these are: El Cobre,
+Maravillas, Laura, La Providencia, Alejo, La Soledad, San Luis and
+others. In all these it is observed that the richness of the vein gives
+great promise although the prospectors are very reticent concerning
+their yieldings.
+
+Besides having the mineral wealth itself, this state also is
+particularly well provided with the means of uncovering its buried
+riches. There is an abundance of lumber for timbering shafts, of
+water power to run hoisting and crushing machinery, and of the most
+docile labor, which is still cheap, though the competition of mills is
+gradually raising the scale of compensation.
+
+ [Illustration: TEMPLE OF VERA CRUZ, TOLUCA.]
+
+The third great natural section of the state drops in terraces in the
+southwest from an altitude of a mile and a half almost to sea level. On
+the upper ranges, as in the valleys of Toluca and Mexico, the crops are
+those of the temperate zone, corn predominating, and there is also much
+cattle raising. As the slopes fall, however, the natural products verge
+into the tropical: sugar, coffee, cotton, rubber and the citrous fruits
+abound.
+
+The Indian population of the state is a peaceful, law abiding people
+understanding and speaking Spanish and having entirely forgotten their
+primitive tongues. They do not mix in political matters but manifest
+a great interest in education, for which reason the governor of the
+state has insisted on plenty of schools being built in the districts,
+to which these Indians, in most cases, gladly contribute their personal
+labor.
+
+Toluca lies in the centre of the fertile plains west of the Sierra
+Madre. It is one of the cleanest cities in the country. The citizens
+are intelligent and well educated and their school system is of the
+highest standard. There is a splendid Girls’ and Boys’ Normal School
+of Arts and Trades, largely for the purpose of elevating the ignorant
+and inferior classes. In this school are many of the Mazahuatl, Otoli,
+and Aztec indigenes, whose ambition is to become teachers in their
+respective villages.
+
+ [Illustration: LEGISLATIVE PALACE, TOLUCA.]
+
+The literary institute of Toluca has been reorganized as the Scientific
+and Literary Institute of the State of Mexico. Public charities are
+also well organized. There is a general hospital in the city and local
+hospitals in each of the cities of Sultepec, Jilotepec, Tlalnepantla,
+Tezcoco, Valle de Bravo and all the small villages and mining
+districts. There are asylums for boys and girls and education is
+compulsory.
+
+The penitentiary is a spacious and sanitary institution where all
+the machinery is run by steam power and the establishment lighted by
+electricity. The object of this institution is the reformation of the
+criminal and the abolition of the death penalty. Humanitarian ideas are
+evident at all stages of one’s progress through this model prison. Each
+prisoner has his hour for instruction and the classes run from primary
+to the higher standard according to the knowledge of the prisoner, and
+by this system he is able to earn an honest livelihood by handicraft
+when he is liberated.
+
+Industrially the city is very well advanced. There are woollen mills
+which produce handsome cloths. In this country industry has made such
+rapid strides that it is fast becoming a manufacturing centre. Most of
+the factories of the state are located near water powers, notably in
+the capital is the site of one of the largest breweries in Mexico.
+
+ [Illustration: PALACE OF JUSTICE.]
+
+Most of the public buildings are of comparatively recent construction.
+The Palace of the Government, though it occupies the site of one built
+by Martin Cortés, son of the Conqueror, was not erected till 1872. It
+faces the Garden of the Martyrs. In its main hall is a collection of
+portraits of the early Governors of the State. The public offices are
+elegant and commodious and the reception room is magnificent in every
+detail. Other handsome buildings are the City Hall, the Maternity
+Hospital, Schools of Law, School of Arts and Crafts, and the Normal
+School, all of which are modern and beautifully constructed. The Public
+Library, containing many thousands of volumes, is also rich in original
+manuscript archives, and is much consulted by historians of the earlier
+periods of Mexico. The public market is of late construction and is one
+of the finest and most sanitary in the republic. Here all classes of
+goods are sold, from the products of the country, pottery and meats to
+the cloth that is woven in the mills, and the most picturesque sight
+that one can imagine is the Indians in their native costumes squatting
+in the market square, offering their goods. It is here that one sees
+the people face to face in their native dress, and receives valuable
+impressions of their customs and the products of the country.
+
+ [Illustration: INDEPENDENCE AVENUE, TOLUCA.]
+
+The Parochial Church dates back to the days of the Conquest. It
+was restored and enlarged in 1585. There are a number of other old
+churches, some of very large size, all noted for their beautiful
+paintings, their altars, and rich tapestries, one of which has a famous
+chime of bells and a very large organ. The public monuments are very
+notable. There are two of Hidalgo, one of Columbus and many others. In
+almost every park there are evidences of patriotic feeling, either a
+fountain dedicated to some hero or a tablet inscribed to the Martyrs of
+the War of Independence.
+
+ [Illustration: SCHOOL OF LAW.]
+
+The beautiful alameda, the rendezvous for the élite of the city on
+fête days and on Sundays is one of the most perfect parks in the
+republic. It is the result of the strenuous efforts of all the public
+officials to make the State of Mexico famous for its advancement and
+improvement. In this beautiful display of verdure, drive, and lakelets,
+worthy features have been added to the well-known beauty of Toluca.
+Entering this lovely park by wide arched gateways one is confronted by
+a masterpiece of art and industry. Swans gliding in the waters of the
+lakes curve their long necks to greet the visitor; deer already tamed
+by young children come forward sniffing a glad welcome, and on days of
+fiesta gather lovely señoritas, clad in delicate gowns, gay parasols,
+colors, everything pertaining to gladness and beauty. There one has
+the opportunity of studying a phase of life among the young folks in
+this vast country of beautiful customs. The women of this country are
+gentle, beautiful, tender, loving mothers, gracious and gifted, devoted
+to their husbands, and make their home-life all that is to be desired.
+
+ [Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS.]
+
+ [Illustration: MATERNITY HOSPITAL.]
+
+In 1519, Cortés found the people of Toluca the most prosperous and
+advanced of the subjects of Montezuma. From the deposits of precious
+stones in Toluca the Spanish had a splendid revenue and the mountain
+sides yielded emeralds, sapphires and garnets for the markets of
+Europe. Near the city may be seen the stone foundations laid for the
+structure of a home which the Conqueror began for the comfort of
+his old and wounded soldiers. This plan was not carried further on
+account of the changes in the fortune of this ambitious man. There is
+a splendid automobile road which leads from Mexico City to Toluca and
+it is very popular on account of the beautiful scenery. Many tourists
+find this a pleasing trip to make. Leaving the capital, one passes
+Chapultepec and all the outlying villages of the Valley of Mexico.
+Old temples rise majestically before the traveler and the swift ride
+up the Sierra Madre over cañons on the mountain crest looking down
+hundreds of feet into the valleys one has a vision of Toluca that can
+hardly be described. In going there from Mexico City, the way leads
+down the beautiful Paseo de la Reforma and takes one through Tacubaya
+and over a great mountain wall. The climbing begins to get very steep
+especially after leaving the pine belt. The fir trees in this region
+resemble the hemlock spruce but have a different arrangement of the
+needles. Polypodium ferns grow in tufts on every hand and cardinal
+flowers abound. Scarlet and blue tanagers fly about everywhere. There
+are also sparrow hawks even more beautiful in plumage; doves unusually
+brilliant in color and parrots of every hue and variety. On the crest
+of the mountain that divides the country of the Tolucans from the City
+of Mexico the character of the vegetation suddenly and marvelously
+changes. Here in the same altitude, but facing a warmer sun and milder
+winds, are forests of tropical trees. Mahogany and tangerine orange
+trees are seen and the ground is green with the grazing plant known as
+_alfilerea_. Half way down the mountain range is a wide plateau,
+and about half a mile from it, is the historic field, Las Cruces. The
+spot is marked by an obelisk, about thirty feet high made of limestone
+set upon a heavy foundation of concrete. This is the scene of the
+first real victory of the Mexicans over the Spaniards in the war of
+1810. It was here that the great patriot Hidalgo with his band of
+followers drove back the royalist troops with heavy loss. It was this
+great victory that gave the Mexicans self-confidence and proved to them
+that they might, under proper conditions, defeat the well-trained and
+completely armed soldiers of the Spanish viceroys.
+
+ [Illustration: TEMPLE OF MERCED.]
+
+On the same plateau is the old town of Las Cruces. The population
+is very small and its livelihood is derived entirely from the sale
+of toys, silver filigree work and beautifully polished woods of the
+mountain forests. Leaving Las Cruces the soil becomes well-watered and
+very fertile. Hundreds of farmers at their work in their fields of
+alfalfa, barley and maguey, and laborers in orchards of olives, prunes
+and native fruits, give life to the country. The peak of Toluca is more
+than sixteen thousand feet high but is not snow covered. There is an
+extensive snow field on its summit but this is hidden from view. The
+wind blows fine jets from the hidden snow field and this gives the
+mountain the appearance of smoking. In the early days of Montezuma the
+Aztecs regarded Toluca as having a supernatural power and many stories
+told of spirits hovering over the people lend attractive legends to the
+folklore. On the plains, the Lerma River, which is one of the great
+waters of Mexico, flows like a ribbon of silver toward Lake Chapala,
+from this it runs north and taking the name of Rio Grande de Santiago
+rolls onward to the Pacific Ocean, into which it flows near San Blas.
+The City of Lerma is on the rocky eminence, and the bell tower and dome
+of its famous church are very conspicuous, gleaming in the air. The
+whole plain rises gently from the marsh land at the foot of the hills
+and sweeps up to the base of the great mountain range of which the peak
+of Toluca is the culmination. Far as the eye can reach the soil is
+cultivated and gives evidence of lavish care. The variegated coloring
+of the fields planted in different varieties of grains, gives it the
+appearance of a mammoth checker-board. Everywhere are big villages or
+imposing haciendas. One of these, perched upon the last slope of the
+hillside, might have been taken bodily from one of the Italian cantons
+of Switzerland.
+
+In the outskirts of Toluca are two elaborate shrines where, often, one
+may see a group of farmers and laborers who have stopped on their way
+home to offer prayer. This is not confined to the class of Indians, for
+often a rich haciendado is seen passing on his horse to oversee his
+workmen, stopping there, too, to offer his prayers of thanksgiving.
+
+ [Illustration: STATE BANK.]
+
+The little village of Otumba, about thirty miles from Mexico, was the
+scene of one of Cortés’s greatest battles. Chalco is a little Indian
+town, and has great historical value. The Chalcas were a determined
+enemy of the Aztecs, and only after struggles, in which they were
+notably brave and daring, were they defeated by the combined forces of
+the armies of Mexico and Atzcapotzalco. They afterward became a part of
+the Aztec confederacy. The land of Chalco is one of the most productive
+parts of Mexico, as what was once a great lake is now the most fertile
+land that exists in the valley.
+
+The Governor of the State, Brigadier-general Fernando Gonzalez, is
+the son of an illustrious father, Manuel Gonzalez, who is known to
+history as one of the great presidents of Mexico. Governor Gonzalez
+has a brilliant record of thirty-two years of splendid service to his
+country, and the people of the State of Mexico, recognize in him an
+able and enthusiastic ruler. He is progressive, strong and able to
+handle affairs pertaining to the welfare of his State, and universal
+satisfaction is felt at his continuing in office a second term. No
+governor has ever had the ovation he received on the occasion of his
+re-election. Under his administration the State has greatly prospered
+and he maintains the strictest discipline among the rural guards,
+causes the roads to be kept in repair, and has greatly advanced the
+public school system in efficiency. The rural schools and those in
+the mining districts are the objects of his great interest and the
+reputation that this State enjoys for a splendid school system has been
+the result of the indefatigable labors of this distinguished man.
+
+During the feast of the Centennial, the State of Mexico entered into
+the spirit of the celebration with great enthusiasm, entertainments
+being most brilliant.
+
+The State of Mexico has earned her laurels as a well governed
+progressive State, probably as much as any State in the Union for she
+is better supplied with good roads, splendid railway communications,
+good service of telegraph and telephone lines, while the postal system
+is said to be the best regulated in the republic.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL HOSPITAL.]
+
+It is not difficult to understand why the State of Mexico is considered
+the most prosperous in the republic. It is one of the fertile States
+and occupies one of the most beautiful positions that can be seen in
+any part of the world. Nature is seen in almost all her phases; forest,
+green fields, snow-covered volcanoes, fertile lands and flowing rivers.
+What more superb setting can be found for so fair a jewel!
+
+ [Illustration: MUNICIPAL PALACE.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: RESIDENCE OF GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ.]
+
+ CHAPTER XV
+
+ PUEBLA
+
+
+It is not mere acreage or population, nor public institutions or
+monuments of any kind, however imposing, historic, or beautiful, that
+constitute a state. It is the men of thought and action who have
+brought Mexico from under the yoke of the Spaniard, who in three
+hundred years wrung so much treasure from a suffering people, and made
+of the down-trodden province a free and independent country among the
+nations of the globe.
+
+ [Illustration: MONUMENT TO NICOLAS BRAVO.]
+
+The State of Puebla is eminent in the annals of the Republic, alike
+for the great resources it has yielded from the time of the Conquest
+and its participation in the history-making of the nation and not
+less so for the distinction gained by its people. Puebla is the
+capital city; it was founded soon after the Conquest by Cortés, and
+at that time was one of the social centres. Its location near the
+Federal capital has brought the city into intimate acquaintance with
+the affairs of the world. It is finely laid out, with every modern
+improvement, and is exceedingly picturesque with alamedas and public
+squares. Its ancient palaces have been turned into offices for the
+chief officials. It is considered one of the most attractive cities in
+the republic. The people are noted for their refinement and culture,
+having many splendid public institutions of learning. There are over
+sixty churches and theological schools, charity schools, hospitals and
+benevolent establishments. It is one of the oldest cities in America,
+founded in 1531, and is considered, next to the Federal District, the
+most important. It is the cradle of manufacturing industry in Mexico,
+being one of the first to establish spinning and weaving factories. In
+addition to being an industrial centre, Puebla is connected with all
+parts of the republic by railroads which traverse the rich district
+of sugar plantations and other industrial centres. The climate is
+delightfully mild and agreeable and the country around is green with
+fertile fields. The view of the great volcano of Popocatepetl, seen at
+sunrise, is unrivalled. The snowy top and sides stand out like a great
+dome of alabaster and then the sun, rising higher and higher, from the
+radiant brow sheds its glory on all below. Puebla is a beautiful city
+with handsome houses built in the finest style of architecture, with
+broad and remarkably clean streets and avenues. It has a population
+of more than a hundred thousand; is the seat of an archbishop; and its
+historical associations make it exceedingly interesting. Some of the
+buildings are relics of the days of the viceroys. The architecture,
+distinguished by its Spanish influence, is very picturesque, with its
+multi-colored tiles of Talavera, for which the city was famous. This
+pottery ware was manufactured in this city in the seventeenth century
+and some of the wonderful relics are still found, though very seldom.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ.]
+
+The character of the citizens is marked by conventionality,
+conservatism being the keynote to everything in which they participate.
+The influence of the Catholic church prevails and one is often
+impressed at the sight of the people, from the poorest to the highest
+in society, kissing the hand of the archbishop or kneeling as the
+angelus is rung. From a military point of view, Puebla is considered
+the key to the national capital and during several foreign wars
+suffered many vicissitudes. Its history is very interesting, although a
+stormy one, and it has suffered more, perhaps, in the cause of war than
+any city in the republic. Augustin Iturbide, who proclaimed himself
+Emperor of Mexico, captured the city in August, 1821. In 1847, it was
+occupied by the United States forces. In 1862, it was the scene of
+Zaragoza’s victory. It was occupied by the French in 1863, and on April
+2, 1867, General Porfirio Diaz gained the most notable victory of his
+military career by driving out the French. In spite of the ravages
+of warfare and some of the relics of the war that exist, the city of
+Puebla still retains its beauty of former days embellished by the art
+of modern architecture. One of the most magnificent edifices in the
+world is the Cathedral. It is noble and inspiring. A pretty legend
+regarding the rapid progress of the building tells us that it was
+owing to the assistance of two angels, who descended nightly and added
+to its height, so that each morning the astonished workmen found their
+labor incredibly advanced. From this legend Puebla derives its name,
+“The City of the Angels.” This beautiful church is elegant and simple,
+and in excellent taste. The floor is of colored marble; the rich and
+artistically attractive high altar, of different varieties of Puebla
+onyx; and the beautiful iron work and wood carving about the choir make
+an interior which equals that of the Cathedrals of the old world. A
+great amount of wealth exists in Puebla, principally in connection with
+its churches, some of which are three hundred years old.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF GENERAL ZARAGOZA.]
+
+Other churches which claim attention are those of San Cristobal,
+founded in 1532, and rebuilt in 1667; San José, the Templo de la
+Compania, San Marcos, Nuestra Señora de la Soledad and Santa Catarina.
+In the interior of all these one finds a collection of paintings and
+beautiful carvings. The general effect is bewildering. In all these
+churches, silver railings, candelabra and rich tapestries are found and
+the domes and steeples of glazed Talavera tiles make the city flash in
+the sun.
+
+During the celebration of the Centennial, schools and public
+institutions were dedicated and the city was festive with
+entertainments of all kinds. The venerable Marqués de Polavieja was the
+guest of the government, and was given the freedom of the city. Puebla
+probably had more reason to celebrate the Centenary than any other
+city as it was the centre of all the historical events of the Spanish
+period.
+
+Music and opera have a charm for the Mexicans, and Puebla is a musical
+centre. There are some good theatres and one of the largest bull rings
+in the republic is here. Hundreds of people swarm into the city from
+other towns and nearby villages to witness a bull-fight and on the
+occasion of this performance everyone makes it a gala holiday.
+
+ [Illustration: STATE COLLEGE.]
+
+The oldest theatre in America is the Teatro Principal, which was
+inaugurated in 1760, by the Viceroy Ahumada. It was known in those days
+as the “Teatro de los Arrieros,” being the favorite amusement place
+of the mule drivers who came in from the country on feast days. For a
+while it was patronized by the best class of society, but is now given
+over to a cinematograph. The interior was completely destroyed by fire
+a few years ago. This old theatre is unusually interesting on account
+of its early Spanish architecture.
+
+The Guerrero Theatre was built in 1868, and stands on the site of the
+old city prison. It is owned by the city and has been greatly improved
+with modern scenery and stage fittings. Visitors are attracted to
+this theatre on account of its beauty of proportion and its artistic
+decoration.
+
+The principal buildings of the city are imposing gray stone structures
+with an atmosphere of the historical past surrounding them. The more
+modern ones are built on the most approved plan. The penitentiary
+is one of the most modern and sanitary prisons existing in the
+republic. It is built on the general plan that characterizes all these
+institutions and merits great attention. The Casa de Maternidad is one
+of the splendid institutions that stamp the Mexican nation as the most
+charitable in the world. Here, without a question being asked, a poor
+unfortunate woman may find a haven of refuge.
+
+ [Illustration: CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The Municipal Palace is a modern structure. It is situated opposite
+the Cathedral and is built in the Spanish Renaissance style, and
+occupies the site of the original palace, which was erected in 1536.
+A fine _salon_ on the second floor is of the French Renaissance,
+with allegorical paintings on the ceiling, done by native artists. The
+Government Library is in the palace and comprises a large collection
+of books. The entrance to this remarkable chamber is inspiring in the
+greatest degree. It is noted for its marvellous carvings. The reception
+rooms of the officials are exceedingly imposing and the military
+atmosphere lends color to the scene.
+
+The bronze equestrian statue of General Ignacio Zaragoza was erected
+by the State of Puebla in 1896. This is a most imposing monument. At
+the base of the pedestal appear the names of the generals who aided
+this great soldier in his expulsion of the French troops during their
+intervention. The Paseo Nuevo is a splendid avenue, which is the
+pride of the Pueblans. One of its attractions is a handsome bronze
+group of statuary erected to the memory of the heroes of the war for
+Independence by the State of Puebla. Other statues on the Paseo are
+those of Gabino Barreda and Esteban de Antuñano, founder of the cotton
+industry. At the south end of the Paseo is an imposing monument erected
+to General Nicolas Bravo, who was one of the heroes of the war and was
+one of the members of the Council of Notables which promulgated the new
+constitution for Mexico. He was president of Mexico for a short time in
+1846.
+
+ [Illustration: LA MATERNIDAD, PUEBLA.]
+
+In one of the squares is the beautiful fountain of San Miguel,
+constructed in 1777.
+
+The State College is also an imposing edifice and is a well-conducted
+institution. Among the other public buildings the Library containing
+about fifty thousand volumes, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Normal
+School, and several hospitals all go toward demonstrating the great
+progress and advancement of the people.
+
+ [Illustration: MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE, PUEBLA.]
+
+General Mucio P. Martinez, Governor of the State, is one of the most
+distinguished soldiers in the republic. His name is enrolled among the
+other great leaders of warfare. He is the hero of a hundred battles
+and has been the trusted friend and companion of General Diaz for many
+years. He entered the army when a young boy in 1861, and displayed
+such great bravery in many actions that in 1863 he was assigned to the
+cavalry and promoted to the rank of lieutenant. He has fought in all
+the wars that have taken place in his country since he enlisted and his
+services have been of such great value to his country that the grade
+of brigadier-general was conferred on him in 1884, which is his rank
+at the present time. He has been the Governor of Puebla since 1892,
+and has done so much to encourage all enterprise and progress in his
+state that he has the reputation of being one of the wisest and most
+intelligent administrators. The Governor has taken special interest in
+the public school system, and through his efforts it is supposed to be
+the best regulated in the republic. There are a number of institutions
+of higher education, preparatory schools, schools of law and medicine,
+and a most efficient school of engineering. Manual trades are taught
+and even in the penitentiary the prisoners have the benefit of a good
+common education.
+
+The Governor is noted for his charming personality, his kindness of
+heart, and his protection for all enterprises that are worthy of the
+attention of an official who is interested in the welfare of his
+state. He has surrounded himself with intelligent progressive gentlemen
+as State officials, and through their enterprising and intelligent
+administration, Puebla has been raised to the rank of second state
+in importance in the republic. Licenciado Augustin Fernandez, the
+Secretary of State, is an important factor in its government; he is a
+scientist and linguist and a man of great ability.
+
+ [Illustration: RIM OF THE CRATER OF POPOCATEPETL.]
+
+Industry is animated in various branches and is being actively
+developed, particularly the textile manufactures; and the products of
+the numerous and well-equipped mills for weaving and spinning cotton
+and wool, scattered through the State, rival the foreign products,
+for their variety and excellence. Commerce is very active and the
+culmination of its operation is guaranteed by the complete abolition
+of duties, as there are no more domestic custom houses. Merchandise
+circulates freely through the state, and the industrial establishments
+and mercantile houses are subject only to the payment of taxes, which
+have been advantageously substituted for the odious system of excise.
+The hotels in Puebla are particularly good. They are thronged with
+visitors from all parts of Mexico, attracted by the beautiful climate
+and noted sulphur baths that are in the suburbs. Some of these waters
+are boiling as they bubble from the ground and the odor can be detected
+quite a long distance away.
+
+In this state the onyx, famous all over the world, is quarried,
+near Puebla, and exquisite specimens are seen in some of the public
+buildings.
+
+ [Illustration: AN OLD CHURCH DOOR.]
+
+Few tropical localities in Mexico equal the privileged section of
+Northern Puebla. Here nature has lavished its profusion ungrudgingly,
+and for the man of energy, success and prosperity are assured. The
+natural products are many and diversified. Building woods and those
+suitable for making furniture exist mostly in dense forests, while
+dye-woods and a species of wild indigo abound. Various fibres suitable
+for the manufacture of brooms and brushes as well as those for ropes,
+etc., clothe forest, meadow and hill. There is plenty of wild game
+and large quantities of fish are found in the limpid streams. Along
+the western section long stretches of natural grass well-adapted
+for pasture and stock-raising bring very satisfactory results. The
+cultivated products are coffee, corn, sugar cane, tobacco, pineapple,
+banana and rubber. Corn yields here four hundred bushels for one;
+cane produces without irrigation. Rubber and coffee yield to the
+industrious planter a rich reward for his enterprise. The climate is
+very acceptable for farming; fruit growing, especially the tropical
+products, is a profitable occupation. Bee culture, in connection with
+vanilla, is now a source of wealth. The district of Atzlan lies at the
+base of the Sierra Madre Range in the State of Puebla and comprises the
+extreme north end of the rich and fertile country of Huachinango. It
+is located at a distance of eighty miles south of the port of Tuxpan
+and one hundred and forty miles northeast of Mexico. This district
+takes in an area of over one hundred and sixty square miles of the most
+excellent tropical land. A large English-speaking colony has settled
+in this district. The soil is a rich dark loam finely adapted for the
+cultivation of every vegetable, fruit and fibre and capable of yielding
+prolific products. The temperature in summer, though high at mid-day,
+is low in the mornings and evenings and the winter months are generally
+delightful. The lands are undulating slopes abounding with fine forests
+and inviting streams while the well-drained plains are covered with
+perennial grass. Every section of these lands is of easy access. The
+Ward Line steamers call at Tuxpan from Vera Cruz or Tampico every week
+and the Mexican mail boats every few days. The Valley of Atlixco is
+noted for its fertility and its abundant crops of vegetables as well as
+for the fineness of its fruit.
+
+The Metlaltoyuca colonization lands, which lie along the Gulf slope
+on the Mesa de los Coroneles, are quite important. The journey there
+from Mexico City is most interesting, leading across a deep chasm and
+beautiful valleys. Sometimes a road clings to the shoulder of the great
+mountain; sometimes it rushes suddenly into a lovely valley carpeted
+with Mexican flowers or gay with ruby coffee or tasselled corn. Wide
+fields of grain and banana spread for miles along the sides of the
+road, leading to the colony lands. Here and there are great forests of
+cedar, mahogany and rubber trees, interlaced with rich tropical foliage
+and parasites. Bright winged birds and orchids of wonderful color light
+up the recesses of the forests, and groves of luscious oranges and
+lemons perfume the air. Shortly before the road reaches the outskirts
+of the Metlaltoyuca lands it crosses the Pantepec River, swiftly making
+its way to the Gulf. The crystal waters reveal a pebbly bottom about
+sixty feet wide; and the entire stream forms one of the most beautiful
+rivers in Mexico.
+
+The prospects of this colony, composed of English-speaking people, are
+very promising. Extensive fields of grain may be seen here; the warm
+moist climate being particularly adapted to the raising of cereals.
+Nature has been lavish in gifts to this region; the climate is mild;
+the thermometer seldom going above eighty in the day time, while the
+nights are cool. The houses are of bamboo and comfortable. Some of
+them have rosewood floors, and little gardens around them make the
+region homelike and pleasant. In this small village of a few hundred
+inhabitants there is a spirit of association and friendship.
+
+The warm springs of Cuautla are reached by the Interoceanic Railroad.
+Surrounding this resort are mountains perpetually white, yet no snow
+ever falls on this tropical town. The arrival here is full of greatest
+interest, as the train pulls into the oldest railroad station in the
+world. It was built in 1657, and was formerly a church, but finally
+reverted to the government and was disposed of to the railroad company.
+It seems strange that a once beautiful church should end in being the
+scene of excitement that attends the arrival of a train. The sulphur
+baths of this resort are a little way out of town but a drive through
+the rustic scenery of a primitive region repays one for the trip. In
+this old town, full of peculiar legends and romances, the natural
+Indian folk mingle their ancient customs with the modern.
+
+Tehuacan is called Mexico’s Carlsbad. It is one of the popular springs
+that are splendid specifics for many ills. There are some modest
+hotels here. The little town is very picturesque and retains the mark
+of centuries, having been founded in 1524, by the Spaniards. The
+antiquity of the town, the primitive manners of the people, lend more
+attraction to the searcher for health than the more modern hotels of
+the fashionable resorts. There are comfort and pleasure to be found and
+accommodation for the most fastidious.
+
+Cholula is an old city that dates from before the Conquest. It was a
+commercial centre and was one of the most populous and flourishing
+cities during the time of the Aztec Confederacy. It was the scene,
+in 1519, of a fearful battle between the Spanish Conquerors and the
+Cholulans, in which many of the inhabitants were massacred.
+
+ [Illustration: THE ARCADE, PUEBLA.]
+
+The tradition of Quetzalcoatl and his life up among the great purple
+sunlit hills is a most beautiful story. Never was there a more tender
+spirit than Quetzalcoatl, who loved all living creatures and could
+not bear that any should suffer or live in sin and ignorance. But the
+people, while they loved him, feared the other powerful gods, who were
+devoted to bloodshed and battle. They built temples and altars and
+daily offered human sacrifices to the gods of war. This grovelling fear
+filled the great heart of Quetzalcoatl with pity and deep sorrow, and
+so he left his beautiful, peaceful home to teach these people, with
+a wonderful eloquence, the gospel of love and charity. Such was his
+influence that at last they deserted the altars of the cruel gods, and
+instead of offering human holocausts, in which quivering hearts burned
+upon the sacred fires, they climbed the hills to lay upon an altar of
+Quetzalcoatl flowers and fruits.
+
+The people of Cholula began the construction of the great pyramid
+in memory of Quetzalcoatl. On the top of it they built the temple
+of Cholula, and dedicated it to the worship of the “fair god.” For
+generations they tilled and builded until more than a century afterward
+the pyramid was completed, standing bold and distinct on the dust-blown
+plain, the everlasting token of a nation’s faith. They believed that
+this pyramid would stand until Quetzalcoatl should come back to them.
+
+The view from the top of the great pyramid toward evening is almost
+beyond description. With the softened light of the setting sun upon the
+plains and the hills one can easily understand why it was that the gods
+and the angels loved this region. Back from the soft tender lights in
+the valleys the great mountains stretch up bold and distinct against a
+background of the palest aërial blue that contrasts wonderfully with
+the varying lights on the mountain side.
+
+The perpendicular height of the pyramid is one hundred and
+seventy-seven feet. Its base is one thousand four hundred and
+twenty-three feet long--twice as long as that of the great pyramid of
+Cheops. It may give some idea of its dimensions to state that its base,
+which is square, covers about forty-four acres and the platform on its
+truncated summit embraces more than one acre. It reminds one of those
+colossal monuments of brickwork which are still seen in ruins on the
+banks of the Euphrates, and in much better preservation on those of the
+Nile.
+
+“Nothing could be more grand than the view which met the eye from the
+area on the truncated summit of the pyramid. Toward the west stretched
+that bold barrier of porphyritic rock which nature had reared around
+the valley of Mexico, with the huge Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl
+standing like two colossal sentinels to guard the entrance to the
+enchanted region. Far away to the east was seen the conical head of
+Orizaba soaring high into the clouds, and nearer, the barren though
+beautifully-shaped Sierra de la Malinche, throwing its broad shadows
+over the plains of Tlaxcala. Three of these are volcanoes higher than
+the highest mountain peak in Europe and shrouded in snows which never
+melt under the fierce sun of the tropics. At the foot of the spectator
+lay the sacred city of Cholula, with its bright towers and pinnacles
+sparkling in the sun, reposing amidst gardens and verdant groves, which
+then thickly studded the cultivated environs of the capital. Such was
+the magnificent prospect which met the gaze of the conquerors, and
+may still, with slight change, meet that of the modern traveller, as
+from the platform of the great pyramid his eye wanders over the fairest
+portion of the beautiful plateau of Puebla.” So wrote Prescott.
+
+The great temple was afterward purified by Cortés’s orders and the
+standard of the cross solemnly planted in its midst. From this pyramid,
+it is interesting to know, Baron von Humboldt made many of his valuable
+astronomical calculations.
+
+The church now standing there is dedicated to the Virgin de los
+Remedios. The popular tradition among the native Indians is that the
+pyramid was erected by a family of giants who had escaped inundation
+and intended to raise it into the clouds, had not the gods become angry
+and sent down fire from heaven to stop them where it is truncated.
+
+Cholula probably numbers now some five thousand people. But there is no
+doubt that at the time of the conquest it was one of the largest towns
+in Mexico.
+
+But what a land of romance! How can busy twentieth-century people
+realize that in 1519 such events were making Mexican history, and that
+even then the pyramid dated far back of legend or tradition?
+
+ [Illustration: THE PENITENTIARY, PUEBLA.]
+
+ [Illustration: PORTALES, FACING THE PARK, TLAXCALA.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: AVENUE LEADING TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT.]
+
+ CHAPTER XVI
+
+ TLAXCALA
+
+
+Tlaxcala was the ancient republic for many years before the Conquest,
+and retained its independence against the Aztecs. It is noted in
+history as being the place where Cortés met with so much encouragement
+and help from the Tlaxcalans, after he had fought them and shown his
+strength. It looks like a place that had always been old and always
+picturesque. Romance is in the air at every turn. Of Cortés’s sojourn,
+there are many mementoes, an old silken banner which he presented to
+the Tlaxcalan chiefs, a curious piece of silken embroidery depicting
+the battle between the invaders and the natives, and a grant to
+Tlaxcala made by the Emperor Charles V., whose signature it bears.
+There is also to be seen a number of idols which have been dug up from
+time to time in the neighborhood. The baptismal robes of the chiefs,
+the genealogical tree of chief Xicotencatl, the charter of Philip
+II. to the city, bearing his signature and portrait, in the form of
+a beautiful parchment book bound in vellum, May 10, 1585, more than
+three hundred years ago. Tlaxcala abounds in interesting relics of
+ancient times. Among them are some very old portraits of the heroes of
+former days, a cloak which belonged to a noble Indian of that time who
+was the first to receive Christian baptism, and the wonderful standard
+which once belonged to Cortés. The Church of San Francisco was the
+first Catholic Church erected in the New World. Its architecture is
+very original inside and out and dates from 1524. The pulpit has a very
+peculiar form and exquisite filigraned work full of gilt carvings; and
+the sacred vestments, beautifully embroidered in silver and gold, were
+brought over from Spain and used in the first Roman Catholic service
+in this country. These vestments are shown to-day, with the first
+baptismal fountain. The Sanctuary is dedicated to the miraculous Virgin
+of Ocotlan, and is situated on the summit of a little hill close to
+the city. One curious thing about the temple is that one half of it is
+an architecture of several centuries ago, the walls being covered with
+the finest chiselled workmanship possible to imagine, and richly gilt,
+while the other half is entirely of modern style splendidly sculptured
+by modern artists. On the walls are hundreds of wax reproductions of
+human limbs, left there by invalids who had been miraculously cured of
+various diseases, and who celebrated their cures by giving the church
+these symbols.
+
+Tlaxcala is the capital of the State, which is bounded on the
+northeast and south by the State of Puebla and on the west by Mexico.
+Historically it is one of the most interesting states in the republic.
+Almost every building in the capital is a relic of the olden times.
+The Municipal Palace and a few modern homes, built with the open
+courtyard, are the only new houses. This presents a marked contrast
+with the old architecture. Through the enchanting San Martin valley
+will run a new railroad that will prove a boon to the grain growers.
+It will not only be an outlet for many rich properties and the grain
+of the fertile valley but it will be the most picturesque route in the
+republic. Wherever the railroads have gone the Indians are beginning to
+forsake their native speech. In Tlaxcala one realizes that the Aztec
+is not a dead language. The Governor of Tlaxcala, Colonel Prospero
+Cahuantzi, has done much to develop and perpetuate Indian tradition and
+institutions. He has published books to that end and also an ancient
+Tlaxcalan record which gives a curious history of the conquest told in
+pictures. He writes and speaks this language which is fast becoming
+extinct. The Governor is a pure blooded Indian, born in Ixtulco, a
+town situated a short distance from the City of Tlaxcala. For nearly
+twenty years he has governed the State so wisely and so well that new
+life has sprung into the old capital. Schools and private colleges are
+now established and industry has entered upon a period of development.
+There will be inaugurated this year an irrigation plant which will be
+of great benefit to the vegetation of the State. The city is alive
+with business and everything looks in a condition of prosperity. The
+political division of the State consists of six districts, which are
+subdivided into municipalities. Tlaxcala is the principal and most
+important. It has a population of seven thousand five hundred. Three
+railroads cross the State: the Mexican railroad which runs from Mexico
+to Vera Cruz and the Apizaco branch to Puebla, the Interoceanic from
+Mexico to Vera Cruz and Acapulco, and the Santa Anna and Tlaxcala road.
+The State has various good wagon roads which lead to the neighboring
+states. The telegraphic and telephonic service is good and extensive.
+
+ [Illustration: OLD CHURCH TOWER, TLAXCALA.]
+
+The soil is productive and the lands are suitable for the cultivation
+of all classes of fruits of the cold zone and all kinds of medicinal
+plants. The maguey is extensively grown and produces large quantities
+of pulque, a drink for the middle classes. It has excellent medicinal
+qualities and is very nutritious, and is consumed greatly by the
+inhabitants of the southern part of the republic. It is useful for
+fibre of the best class and also makes good alcohol. The State includes
+fertile and extensive plains, being occasionally broken by deep ravines
+or bare hills. The most important mountain range in Tlaxcala is that
+formed by the beautiful mountain of Malinche, or Malintzin. This peak
+rises to a height of four thousand four hundred and sixty-one metres
+above sea level and captivates the fancy by its imposing and fantastic
+figure, as it represents the body of a woman covered by a shroud and
+the head shining with the snow which forms a crown. Sometimes the
+figure is lost among the clouds which envelop a part of the mountain.
+Often these clouds are agitated by storms which render a spectacle
+startling to look on and without equal in the republic of Mexico. The
+climate is healthy, dry and cold, especially in the mountains, where
+frosts are frequent throughout the winter. The mining in the state is
+of importance. There are some silver, copper and lead mines. Iron,
+lime, chalk, and clays of good quality exist.
+
+Corn is the principal product, although everything grows in this rich
+soil, and through the introduction of modern methods of agriculture the
+produce of the State has been doubled.
+
+There are distilleries for the production of alcohol, flour mills, and
+factories of cotton goods and prints. These are all equipped with the
+latest machinery.
+
+In the Cuauhtemoc district there is a foundry for artistic bronze work
+which has been doing work of great credit to the State.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR CORONEL PROSPERO CAHUANTZI.]
+
+Tlaxcala was the scene of much human tragedy during the Cortés
+conquest. It is one of the oldest places in Mexico and it was founded
+by the Chichimecs. They came on the grand plateau about the same time
+as the kindred races, at the close of the twelfth century, and planted
+themselves on the western border of Lake Tezcuco. Here they remained
+many years engaged in the usual pursuits of a bold and partially
+civilized people. From some cause they incurred the enmity of the
+surrounding tribes; a coalition was formed against them and a bloody
+battle was fought on the plains of Poyauhtlan in which the Tlaxcalans
+were completely victorious. Disheartened with their residence among
+nations with whom they found so little favor the conquering people
+resolved to migrate. They separated into three divisions, the largest
+of which taking a southern course by the great volcano of Mexico, wound
+round the ancient city of Cholula and finally settled in the district
+of country overshadowed by the Sierra of Tlaxcala. The warm and
+fruitful valleys locked in the embrace of this brotherhood of mountains
+afforded means of subsistence for an agricultural people, while the
+bold eminences of the Sierra presented secure positions for their town.
+Yellow harvests of maize and the bountiful maguey covered the rocky
+hillside and contributed to the wealth of the little republic. Their
+geographical position was encompassed with mountains and their warlike
+bravery gave them a reputation as soldiers and excited the wonder of
+Cortés and his army. Nowhere else did the Spaniards encounter such
+troops or meet with such determined resistance, and the Spaniard was
+quick to see that the Tlaxcalans would serve him much better as friends
+than as enemies.
+
+ [Illustration: ARCHWAY ENTRANCE TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT.]
+
+“Nothing could be more picturesque than the aspect of these Indian
+battalions, with the naked bodies of the common soldiers gaudily
+painted, the fantastic helmets of the chiefs glittering with gold
+and precious stones, and the glowing panoplies of feather-work which
+decorated their persons. Innumerable darts and spears, tipped with
+points of transparent iztli, or fiery copper, sparkled bright in the
+morning sun, like the phosphoric gleams playing on the surface of a
+troubled sea, while the rear of the mighty host was dark with the
+shadows of banners on which were emblazoned the armorial bearings of
+the great Tlaxcalan and Otomi chieftains. Among these, the white heron
+on the rock, the cognizance of the house of Xicotencatl was conspicuous
+and still more the golden eagle with outspread wings, in the fashion of
+a Roman signum, richly ornamented with emeralds and silver-work, the
+great standard of the republic of Tlaxcala.
+
+ [Illustration: SACRED WELL OF OCOTLAN.]
+
+“The common file wore no covering except a girdle around the loins.
+Their bodies were painted with appropriate colors of the chieftain
+whose banner they followed. The feather-mail of the higher class of
+warriors exhibited also a similar selection of colors for the like
+object, in the same manner as the colors of the tartan indicate the
+peculiar clan of the Highlander. The caciques and principal warriors
+were clothed in quilted cotton tunics two inches thick, which, fitting
+close to the body, protected also the thighs and the shoulders. Over
+these the wealthier Indians wore cuirasses of thin gold plate or
+silver. Their legs were defended by leathern boots or sandals trimmed
+with gold. But the most brilliant part of their costumes was a rich
+mantle of the _Plumaje_ or feather work, embroidered with curious
+art, and furnishing some resemblance to the gorgeous surcoat worn by
+the European knight over his armor in the middle ages. This graceful
+and picturesque dress was surmounted by a fantastic head-piece, made
+of wood or leather, representing the head of some wild animal, and
+frequently displaying a formidable array of teeth. With this covering
+the warrior’s head was enveloped, producing a most picturesque and
+hideous effect. From the crown floated a splendid panache of the richly
+variegated plumage of the tropics, indicating by its form and colors
+the rank and family of the wearer. To complete this defensive armor,
+they carried shields or targets made sometimes of wood covered with
+leather, but more usually of a light frame of reed quilted with cotton,
+which were preferred as tougher and less liable to fracture than the
+former. They had other bucklers in which the cotton was covered with
+an elastic substance, enabling them to be shut up in a more compact
+form, like a fan or umbrella. These shields were decorated with showy
+ornaments, according to the taste or wealth of the wearer, and fringed
+with a beautiful pendant of feather-work.
+
+ [Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROYAL CHURCH, TLAXCALA.]
+
+“Their weapons were slings, bows and arrows, javelins, and darts. They
+were accomplished archers, and would discharge two or even three arrows
+at a time. But they most excelled in throwing the javelin. One species
+of this, with a thong attached to it, which remained in the slinger’s
+hand that he might recall the weapon, was especially dreaded by the
+Spaniards. These various weapons were pointed with bone or the mineral
+iztli (obsidian), the hard substance already noticed as capable of
+taking an edge like a razor, though easily blunted. Their spears and
+arrows were also frequently headed with copper. Instead of a sword they
+bore a two-handed staff about three and a half feet long, in which at
+regular distances were inserted, transversely, sharp blades of iztli,
+a formidable weapon, which, as an eye-witness assures us, he had seen
+fell a horse at a blow.
+
+“Such was the costume of the Tlaxcalan warrior, and of that great
+family of nations generally who occupied the plateau of Anahuac.”
+
+Their weapons, even with their bravery, were no match for the military
+science of the Spaniards; and after four terrible battles, preceded
+by a good deal of sharp skirmishing, the Tlaxcalans were defeated.
+After some political delays they were completely subdued and became
+the faithful allies of the Spaniards. Had this not been effected,
+it is doubtful if Cortés’s name would have descended as “the great
+conqueror,” at least in Mexico.
+
+Tlaxcala City dates far back of Cortés’s arrival in the place, where
+he fought and subdued with such excellent effect. The very air is
+alive with romance and tradition. Age, hoary and musty, is stamped
+everywhere, although the people are wideawake and prosperous.
+
+The houses were built for the most part of mud or earth, the better
+sort, of stone and lime, or of bricks dried in the sun. They were
+unimproved with doors or windows but in the apertures of the former
+hung mats fringed with pieces of copper or something which by its
+tinkling sound gave notice of anyone’s entrance.
+
+The streets were narrow and dark. The people gathered in the market
+places on a public day. These meetings were fairs, held, in all
+great towns, every fifth day, and attended by the inhabitants of the
+adjacent country, who brought there for sale every description of
+domestic produce and manufacture with which they were acquainted.
+They peculiarly excelled in pottery, which was considered equal to
+the best in Europe. It is further proof of civilized habits that the
+Spaniards found baths, both of vapor and of hot water, familiarly used
+by the inhabitants. A still higher proof of refinement was discerned
+in the existence of a vigilant police which suppressed everything like
+disorder.
+
+The ancient capital, through one-quarter of which flowed the rapid
+current of the Zahuatl, stretched along the summits and sides of
+the hills, at whose base are now gathered the remnant of its once
+flourishing population. Far beyond, to the southeast, extended the
+bold Sierra of Tlaxcala, and the huge Malinche, crowned with the
+usual silver diadem of the highest Andes, its shaggy sides clothed
+with dark green forests of firs, gigantic sycamores, and oaks whose
+towering stems rose to the height of forty or fifty feet unencumbered
+by a branch. The bleak winds of the Sierra gave an austerity to the
+climate unlike the sunny skies and genial temperature of the lower
+regions; it was far more favorable to development of both the physical
+and the moral energies. A bold and hardy peasantry was nurtured among
+the recesses of the hills, fit equally to cultivate the land in peace
+and to defend it in war. Unlike the spoiled child of Nature, who
+derives such facilities of subsistence from her too prodigal hand as
+supersede the necessity of exertion on his part, the Tlaxcalan earned
+his bread--not from an ungrateful soil--by the sweat of his brow.
+He led a life of temperance and toil. Cut off by his long wars with
+the Aztecs from a commercial intercourse he was driven chiefly to
+agricultural labor, the occupation most propitious to purity of morals
+and sinewy strength of constitution. His honest breast glowed with
+patriotism, or local attachment to the soil, which is the fruit of its
+diligent culture, while he was elevated by a proud consciousness of
+independence, the natural birthright of the child of the mountains.
+Such was the race with whom Cortés was associated for the achievement
+of his great work.
+
+ [Illustration: LA PARROQUIA.]
+
+Few people, perhaps none except scientists, know that in the heart of
+this ancient State is a race of pygmies. They are small of stature,
+with dark-brown skin, broad faces, and shocks of black tangled hair.
+They are very shy and wild-looking and wear serapes made of coarse
+sacking. Fine clearings on the hill-slopes extend almost to the crest
+of the mountains. Flourishing fields of grain, cattle grazing in the
+pastures, and log houses of substantial construction surrounded by neat
+little enclosures are occupied by these peaceful little men and women.
+
+Up in that region, between Ajutla and Juquila, is a marvelous lake
+of clouds. A deep blue sky and brilliant southern sun, without a
+suggestion of mist in the still air, make the place wonderful on a
+grand scale. Clad with foliage clear to the summit, the great ridge
+forms half of a mighty amphitheatre whose sides are furrowed by
+mountain torrents. Five distant mountains form the wall of an oval
+valley with lower peaks running parallel. At one side a spur juts out,
+making the only notable break in the enclosing rim. The great lake
+seems to approach this edge like a mighty river and pour over the great
+precipice like a dozen Niagaras combined in one. It is a cloud-lake,
+mighty, mysterious and noiseless, making one of the greatest wonders in
+this region of wonders.
+
+The Tlaxcala of to-day is situated in the centre of a beautiful country
+and has illimitable advantages. It is a favorite spot for the artist
+and student. Governor Prospero Cahuantzi has a most interesting and
+unique personality, and his hospitality to strangers is one of the
+reasons of the popularity of the capital city. A visit to Mexico is not
+complete without seeing this remarkable old historical place.
+
+ [Illustration: OLDEST PULPIT AND ALTAR IN AMERICA.]
+
+ [Illustration: ZOCALO IN REAL DEL MONTE.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: PANORAMA OF MINERAL DEL CHICO.]
+
+ CHAPTER XVII
+
+ HIDALGO
+
+
+Richly endowed by Nature, the State of Hidalgo contains throughout its
+extent, rich metalliferous deposits exceeding the wealth of Ormuz or
+of Ind. The innumerable enterprises for developing this country have
+produced marvellous results in mining its great resources.
+
+Besides silver ore, lead, gold and iron, some precious stones abound.
+It is rich in woods and luxurious verdure.
+
+This State bears the name of the great patriot, Hidalgo. It has a
+cluster of prosperous cities, El Salto, San Antonio, Marquez, Nopala,
+Cazbero, along the lines of the Mexican Central, Pachuca the busy
+capital, Tlaxcoapan, Rosal, Temoaya and Concepcion are on a branch
+line. It is a comparatively small State but it ranks as one of great
+importance, being a prolific source of agriculture and manufacture as
+well as mineral wealth, which has attracted the attention of the world.
+With a splendid chain of railroads and tramways, all parts of the State
+are easy to reach.
+
+Majestic mountains, valleys, and plains add to the natural beauty of
+the State and this part of the republic enjoys a pleasant but varied
+climate.
+
+Few rivers are found, but there is one famous water-fall, called
+the Regla Cascade, some mineral springs of medicinal note, and the
+beautiful lakes of Metztitlan, Tecomulco, Apam, Zupitlan.
+
+In the district of Pachuca are the mining camps, Zimapan, Jacala, and
+Cancando. Cancando, a magnetic iron mountain ten thousand feet high,
+appears to be one mass of iron so rich as to contain about eighty
+per cent. of pure iron. The ore, however, is so rich that a flux is
+required to smelt it. These mines were not exploited until after the
+war of independence, although as early as 1824 many mining claims in
+that district were taken up and denounced, among them San Antonio, El
+Carmen, San Cosme and Las Animas.
+
+Encarnacion has an up-to-date works, producing a million and a half
+kilos of bar iron per year and possesses all the modern equipments.
+One of the best known gold mines of the early days of New Spain was
+San José del Oro, ten thousand feet above the sea. It is difficult of
+access and is not worked to any great extent at the present day.
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNOR SEÑOR DON PEDRO RODRIGUEZ.]
+
+The State of Hidalgo produces millions of dollars worth of silver per
+year from its two mineral centres. Among the most notable mines of the
+district are Zimapan, San Martin, San Judas; of the Real del Monte
+groups, San Francisco, Santa Gertrudis, San Eugenio, San Rafael, San
+Miguel Tajo and Barron.
+
+Pachuca has twelve reduction works; El Chico, nine; Real del Monte,
+eight; and Zimapan, eight. There are in this State many iron works and
+in the districts of Zacualtipan and Huejutla are deposits of coal now
+developed by an important company. In Molango are graphite deposits.
+The mines in Pachuca were worked by the Spaniards in 1523, only two
+years after the conquest and untold millions have been withdrawn from
+the inexhaustible resource where busy men to-day still delve with the
+same eagerness as in the days of old.
+
+ [Illustration: THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE.]
+
+This is one of the few districts in the world where the plant vanilla
+grows, which contributes to the enormous, almost fabulous, riches of
+some of the Mexican planters. In this State is found the same class
+of maguey as in Mexico. It is called the marvel plant and is the very
+highest quality and largest yield. In Apam, Pachuca and Tula all
+classes of cereals are produced and Apam and Pachuca are the greatest
+centres for the production of pulque. In the hotter districts coffee,
+india rubber and other valuable products yield splendid bounty to the
+farmers and there is abundant supply of medicinal plants and valuable
+cabinet woods. The yield of pulque is about a gallon and a half a day
+for each plant during three months of the year. This industry alone
+yields millions of dollars a year in the State of Hidalgo. Mescal, a
+highly intoxicating liquor, ordinarily called Tequila, is made at the
+Tequila Hacienda. It is one of the popular drinks among certain classes
+and is noted for its fiery strength, which none but a cultivated taste
+can endure.
+
+The capital, Pachuca, is most interesting, with characteristics of
+a miners’ town. The houses are built with an idea of comfort and
+their appearance is somewhat different from the dwellings one sees
+in other large cities. American and English capital has taken a firm
+hold and the spirit of enterprise and energy has given this city the
+appearance of a business centre. The hotels are alive with mining men
+and travelers of staunch purpose, the colonies are alert with social
+enjoyment, while the government of the city is conducted with zealous
+care and attention. The conditions of the state, especially under the
+present Governor, lend themselves most favorably to the establishment
+of new enterprises.
+
+ [Illustration: SAN JULIO MINE.]
+
+Señor Don Pedro Ladislao Rodriguez was born in the State of Oaxaca,
+from whence came so many of Mexico’s noted statesmen. He has given his
+energies and active service to his country. He fought in the War of the
+Reform, the War of the Intervention, and afterward retired to a private
+life of strenuous work. He became expert in all branches of telegraphy,
+erected lines between Mexico City and various capitals of the states,
+besides being the director and manager of telegraph offices throughout
+the republic. He evinced such strong interest in political affairs
+that he was elected to Congress and through his strength and splendid
+bearing in public matters he rose to the prominence of one of Mexico’s
+leading political powers. Since assuming this important office, he has
+dedicated his best efforts to the advancement of his State. Through
+his wise administration, Hidalgo has paid its public debt, has a large
+surplus in the treasury, and the government has been placed on a
+splendid business basis. Public instruction is one of the main features
+of the administration of this able executive. He is endeavoring
+to wipe out illiteracy among the people; the school system has
+attracted widespread attention. There is a Scientific and Industrial
+Literary Institute in which are prosecuted the studies necessary for
+the occupations of assaying, topographic, hydrographic, and mining
+engineering. There is also a practical mining school belonging to the
+Federal Government where all practical training in mining exploitation
+under professors of Metallurgy is acquired.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF HIDALGO.]
+
+Pachuca has splendid architecture and some old palaces and churches
+form an interesting spectacle of the city. It is considered one of
+the most prosperous cities in the republic, in proportion to its
+population, and its rich metal districts make it noted as one of the
+most celebrated mining centres of the world.
+
+The churches, La Parroquia, San Francisco and San Juan de Dios are
+notable for their solid masonry and size. A beautiful theatre, a
+literary institute of higher education and good charitable institutions
+are among the more notable buildings. Private academies flourish and a
+Protestant church built by the English-speaking colony help to make
+this city picturesque and interesting, with its admixture of ancient
+and modern architecture.
+
+ [Illustration: HACIENDA LORETO.]
+
+During the month of September, when the Mexicans were celebrating
+their Centennial of Independence, this capital was foremost in its
+enthusiasm. Triumphant arches were erected, the city was festooned
+in gay national colors, myriads of lights gave a dazzling appearance
+of gaiety and the ceremonials that took place were very imposing.
+New schools were inaugurated, new monuments dedicated and all public
+buildings opened officially.
+
+Tula is a city built upon a series of terraces in a beautiful valley
+teeming with tropical flowers and foliage. It is noted for Toltec
+ruins and relics which have been found there. The old church built
+three hundred years ago has walls seven feet thick and the tower is
+one hundred and twenty-five feet high. It lies in the valley which the
+Toltecs entered when they came southward in 648, over twelve hundred
+and fifty years ago. A thousand years ago Tula was an important town
+and was the capital of Mexico until 1325. Proof of this antiquity lies
+everywhere--the grand houses, the broken columns, and quaint images
+that are still remaining relics in the present town. Here is the
+witchery of an old world, shadowy people, vague and mystical rights
+and ceremonies. In the small Plaza stand the remains of old gods, and
+crumbling into dust is an old pyramid, built many centuries ago. Where
+once the idolatrous worship of the Aztecs took place, a purer religion
+of to-day is worshipped and the people have thrown off the lethargy
+of the past. There are three ancient bridges in this vicinity. It is
+claimed that one of these bridges was built in 210 A.D., the ruins of
+which remain, forming a picturesque bit of Tula.
+
+ [Illustration: XATAL MINE.]
+
+“The Treasury of Montezuma,” now in ruins, is on the top of the hill.
+There are two distinct kinds of fragmentary walls, eight feet thick.
+There is one large room thirty-two feet long with the chunam flooring
+nearly perfect. The people of Tula visit these ruins continually,
+believing many treasures to be concealed there. They dream dreams, and
+then go out and sink pits in the flooring, hoping to enrich themselves
+with wonderful treasures of Montezuma’s time.
+
+There are other strange relics of ancient times on another hill near
+Tula. These are carved rocks resting upon a stratum of adobe, below
+which the hill slopes down to the river precipitously. The carvings are
+symbolical, and are supposed to have been made about 1160 A.D. in the
+Chichimec era.
+
+ [Illustration: REAL DEL MONTE MINE.]
+
+The canal of Nochistongo is an open cut about twelve miles long with an
+average depth of one hundred and eighty feet and an average width of
+three hundred feet, but one part is six hundred feet wide. It was built
+in 1607, to save the city of Mexico from the floods of Lake Tezcuco. It
+can be seen from the railroad, the trains passing along the side of the
+cut.
+
+In the Barranca of Itzala nature has been very lavish in her imposing
+and majestic beauty. The mountains of this State are unusually high and
+picturesque. The Sierras of Pachuca have lost much of their beauty on
+account of the mining camps interspersed, but the cañon of the virgin
+Omitlan affords beautiful views. The principal mountain chain is in
+Zacualtipan and Metztiplan which forms deep ravines and is a beautiful
+aspect to the lover of nature. Journeys through these mountains on the
+road to the different mining camps are very interesting.
+
+ [Illustration: SAN RAFAEL MINE.]
+
+ [Illustration: OFFICE OF THE NATIONAL RAILWAYS OF MEXICO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: DEVIL’S BACKBONE, TOMASOPO CAÑON.]
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+The position of Mexico on the western continent is so commanding as
+to assure it an ever-growing participation in the world’s commerce.
+With the coming of the locomotive a wilderness was transformed into a
+busy world. Eager miners have peopled the hills; industrious tillers,
+the fruitful valleys; the lumbermen have taken from the forests great
+timbers; a chain of central marts has stretched from border to border,
+joined by the magic steel way; and in many sections great industries
+have been established to convert raw products into materials demanded
+by modern civilization. The transformation has been complete and has
+given birth to new ambitions and imparted new energies to the people.
+
+The development of the material resources of a nation is directly
+dependent on the means of transportation and communication which it
+possesses. For centuries the great mineral wealth of Mexico has been
+liberally exploited and means of transportation secured, beginning with
+the forced labor of the Indians enslaved by the conquerors and passing
+through the intermediate stages of muleback and wagon-road till the
+modern railway appeared, to take the treasures of the mountain afar.
+Vast as these resources were, they were little better than wasted
+treasure without the means of transportation to domestic and foreign
+markets.
+
+The great change in means of transportation came late to Mexico.
+Political troubles long dominated national thought and absorbed the
+energy of the people. It was not until 1873, that the first railroad
+was opened from Mexico to Vera Cruz. From the moment that settled
+political conditions had been secured the people of Mexico turned to
+the task of developing railroad transportation and during the terms
+of General Diaz the extension of railroads has assumed a leading and
+constant policy of the government, the fruits of which are manifest
+in commerce, which has been enormously expanded; the active wealth
+of the nation increased; new industries introduced; cities and towns
+established and the general comfort and convenience of the people
+greatly augmented. With this enterprise in land transportation, there
+has been a persistent activity in providing port and harbor facilities.
+The progress and management of the railroads have always been
+assiduously observed by the government and the laws controlling them
+have been justly and liberally applied. Nevertheless, many conditions
+have operated to prevent a uniformly direct and efficient supervision
+commensurate with the growing importance of the service.
+
+In order to protect the people of Mexico, the government deemed it a
+duty to acquire a more efficient control by ownership of stock. In
+1902, the government purchased five million dollars of the stock of
+the Interoceanic Railway, which was to become the pivotal operation on
+which turned the great merger-system. In 1903, the Minister of Finance
+concluded negotiations with the interests in control of the National
+Railroad, which were making strenuous efforts to obtain control of the
+Interoceanic, by which the government acquired the majority holding in
+the National, which system was to be reorganized, the government giving
+as part consideration for its purchase the Interoceanic stock. It was
+expected that this degree of intervention would be sufficient to enable
+the government to prevent harmful combination of ownership.
+
+In 1906, the Mexican Central road was threatened with absorption by
+American financiers, an outcome that would be exceedingly in opposition
+to the policy of the government. A plan was adopted by Congress
+providing for the consolidation of the National and the Central
+systems by means of a new company, entirely Mexican, the majority of
+the shares in which the government should own. This plan required no
+cash payment for such shares, but the stock of the government in the
+National reverted to the new company and the government guaranteed an
+issue of bonds by it. The new concern was incorporated in July, 1907,
+with a bond capital of eight hundred and thirty-four millions and share
+capital of four hundred and sixty millions, Mexican currency value.
+
+ [Illustration: OLDEST RAILWAY STATION IN THE WORLD, CUAUTLA.]
+
+The merged systems included in the National Railways of Mexico are
+the former Mexican Central, the National, the International, the
+Interoceanic, and the Hidalgo and Northeastern, whose combined mileage
+is seven thousand and twelve. Besides these, the absolute ownership of
+the Tehuantepec National and the Vera Cruz and Isthmus Road is vested
+in the government. The result of this master-policy is that seventy
+per cent. of the trackage of roads built under concessions from the
+National Government is now either actually owned or controlled by it.
+
+The National Railways of Mexico offer six different routes between the
+United States and Mexico. A distinguished American, Mr. E. N. Brown, is
+the President of the National Railways.
+
+The importance of control of the railroads by the government cannot
+be overestimated in considering the development of the country. It
+operates as a salutary check on the independent roads in the matter of
+tolls and as an incentive to better service and enlarged facilities;
+it was an indispensable policy in view of the ineffectual control or
+supervision possible under the general railway law, if the government
+would regulate the management of railways, to secure proper advantages
+to Mexico, and prevent the growth of corporate influence which might
+even menace that of the government. The broad national policy assures
+full protection to industries, to capitalists, and to communities
+by protection against arbitrary regulations, discriminations, and
+the rest of the great brood of evils that have attended the march of
+railroad financing in the United States. It will tend to general and
+steady development of newer sections as the result of a comprehensive
+oversight that will extend inland facilities for national development
+to the full limit of the powers of the government and settlers, and
+investors will not be slow to realize the great advantages to them of
+stable progressive transportation facilities.
+
+ [Illustration: NOCHISTONGO CUT, BUILT BY THE AZTECS TO DRAIN
+ THE VALLEY OF MEXICO.]
+
+Of the Board of Directors, twelve reside in Mexico and nine in New
+York. This progressive move is part of the general effort being made
+throughout Mexico to arrange for adequate land and sea transportation
+of its products. New lines of railway are being opened up in the
+interior on the west coast to meet the requirements of new steamship
+connections, either established or projected. Additional steamers
+are being put upon services already operating and branch connections
+are being made over new land routes. The Tehuantepec Railway, which
+crosses the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, carrying freights received from
+the steamship lines plying between the great ports of the United
+States and the eastern and western termini, transported during the
+first year of its operation merchandise to the value of between
+twenty-five and thirty million dollars, and in the second year to the
+value of thirty-eight million dollars. This road, which is nearly
+one hundred and ninety miles in length, was constructed chiefly with
+British capital and controlled, in part at least, by the Mexican
+Government, and was built for the specific purpose of handling freight
+between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The harbor of Salina Cruz,
+the Pacific terminus of this railway, is equipped with breakwaters
+inclosing a harbor area of over one hundred and thirty acres, of which
+ninety-six have a depth of thirty-three feet, and a drydock capable of
+accommodating the largest ship on the Pacific Ocean. The wharves are
+furnished with electric derricks and every modern appliance for the
+handling of the enormous traffic of the Tehuantepec line.
+
+ [Illustration: ROCK BELOW CHONEBRIDGE, MEXICAN NATIONAL
+ RAILWAY.]
+
+Principal roads which are not included in the Government’s merger
+are the Mexican, the pioneer road in the republic, extending from
+Mexico City to Vera Cruz; the Vera Cruz and Isthmus, from Cordoba to
+Santa Lucrecia, and its branch line from Vera Cruz to Tierra Blanca
+on its main line; the Pan-American, from Gamboa, Oaxaca, to the
+Guatemalan frontier; and the Tehuantepec National from the gulf port
+of Puerto Mexico to Salina Cruz on the Pacific. On the west coast is
+the great system of the Southern Pacific of Mexico which connects
+Nogales, Arizona, with Guadalajara, Jalisco. Short gaps are now
+under construction. The trade is constantly increasing and there are
+improvements in the service.
+
+This system opens up a magnificent country of boundless and
+varied resources unsurpassably rich in minerals and agricultural
+possibilities, capable of sustaining in prosperity several million
+people. It is a country with a great future that borders on the
+present. Another great system in course of completion is the Kansas
+City, Mexico and Orient Line, whose route within Mexico extends six
+hundred and thirty-five miles from Presidio del Norte on the Rio Grande
+to the port of Topolobampo, in Sinaloa.
+
+Altogether there are some fifty railroads in operation within the
+republic and the work of extension and construction is in constant
+progress. The mere statement of systems, routes and mileage affords
+but a meagre and uninforming presentment of the great transportation
+facilities in Mexico.
+
+ [Illustration: TEQUIXQUIAC TUNNEL.]
+
+On December 12, 1908, President Diaz formally opened the new railroad
+from Guadalajara to Manzanillo.
+
+The rail communication established between Guadalajara and Colima and
+thence over the line already in operation to Manzanillo gives Mexico
+a second transcontinental railway connecting the two oceans. The
+Tehuantepec Railway is, of course, the principal and shortest route
+across the continent, but now it becomes possible to leave the steamer
+at Tampico or Vera Cruz and to travel overland through Guadalajara to
+Manzanillo with only two changes of cars.
+
+ [Illustration: CAÑON WEST SALAZAR, NATIONAL RAILWAY.]
+
+Increased exports of native products, including sugar, are reported
+since the opening of the rail connections to the coast, and large
+shipments of wheat are being received in Guadalajara and Zapotlan.
+Steamship communication with Pacific ports and those of China and Japan
+have been inaugurated, and Manzanillo, as a port of entry, will receive
+much merchandise which formerly had to be forwarded overland from
+Tampico.
+
+Manzanillo is one of the oldest and most celebrated ports of the
+republic. When the important port-works at Manzanillo are terminated
+it will be one of the best equipped and most desirable harbors on the
+Pacific Coast. The port-works are being built by Colonel E. K. Smoot,
+an American engineer.
+
+This operation has been in the course of construction since 1899,
+and when completed will give the harbor an area of one hundred and
+sixty-five acres and a depth of thirty-nine feet, thus enabling it to
+accommodate seagoing vessels of deep draught. The breakwater is one of
+the largest of its kind in the world, surpassing those of Cherbourg,
+France, and Plymouth, England. It is four hundred metres long, one
+hundred wide, and twenty-four deep, constructed of large stones and
+granite blocks weighing from fifty to sixty tons each.
+
+Within the coast lines of two thousand eight hundred miles on the
+Pacific and one thousand six hundred miles on the Gulf of Mexico
+and the Caribbean Sea, Mexico has no less than twenty-four ports on
+the Gulf of Mexico and thirty-one on the Pacific Ocean. Most of the
+natural harbors of Mexico are on the Pacific side, among them the
+splendid Bay of Acapulco, considered one of the most beautiful of the
+world. While the Atlantic side offers but few natural ports, some of
+them, especially Vera Cruz, and Tampico, have been improved and made
+accessible, so much so, that these two ports are now the most important
+commercial centres.
+
+Following are the ports of entry open to foreign trade, the other ports
+handling coastwise trade only:
+
+GULF PORTS: Campeche, Coatzacoalcos (Puerto Mexico), Chetumal,
+Frontera, Isla del Carmen, Isla de Mujeres, Progreso, Puerto Morelos,
+Tampico, Tuxpan, and Vera Cruz.
+
+PACIFIC PORTS: Acapulco, Altata, Bahia de la Magdelena, Guaymas, La
+Paz, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, San Blas, Santa
+Rosalia, Todos los Santos, Tonala and San Benito.
+
+Mexico may be reached from the sea by several lines, either from New
+York or the Gulf ports of the United States, or via San Francisco, or
+by one of the numerous lines plying between European and Mexican ports.
+
+ [Illustration: VIEW ON THE INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY.]
+
+The New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, Ward Line, maintains a
+regular service between New York and Vera Cruz and other Mexican ports.
+
+The fleet of the Ward Line has an aggregate tonnage of nearly
+seventy-five thousand. This embraces as staunch, fast and comfortable
+ships as are operated from any port in the world. They are
+full-powered, of the most modern construction, built expressly for this
+service, and offer all the luxury of travel combined with the greatest
+degree of safety.
+
+ [Illustration: DRY DOCK, SALINA CRUZ.]
+
+The ships of this company are all built under contract with the United
+States Government and are required to undergo a rigid examination
+by naval officers before being placed in the service. They are
+exceptionally seaworthy vessels, and as, in the event of war, powerful
+batteries would be installed on them, they are necessarily strongly
+built. The service of the company is well known. Passengers who go by
+the Ward Line for the first time do not fail to remark the unusual
+interest taken in their comfort and enjoyment of the voyage by the
+officers of the ship, and the exceptional attention of the stewards and
+attendants. It is this hospitable solicitude for the welfare of its
+patrons and the splendid cuisine and comfortable quarters that make the
+general passenger-service of the company equal in all respects to that
+of a high-class hotel.
+
+The itinerary of the Ward Line is very complete, covering, with
+railroad connections, practically all points in Mexico.
+
+The largest and fastest steamers are operated in the express service
+between New York and Vera Cruz; steamers call at Havana, Cuba, and
+Progreso, Mexico. At Vera Cruz, the terminal of this route, rail
+connections are made with the Mexican Railway and the Interoceanic
+Railway, connecting with the Mexican Southern Railway for all interior
+points. Direct steamers ply between New York and Tampico, Mexico.
+
+There is a fast freight line running from London direct to Havana,
+Puerto Mexico, Vera Cruz and Tampico, with sailings every four weeks.
+This belongs to the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company and is one of the
+oldest steamship lines touching Mexican ports. It dates back to 1840,
+and was one time a passenger service between England and Mexico.
+
+The Mexican-American Steamship Company, the Wolvin Line, the
+Compania Transatlantica and the Compania Mexicana de Navegacion, the
+American-Hawaiian Steamship Company have established regular steamers
+to Mexico.
+
+The Munson Steamship Line to Cuba and Mexico has contracted with the
+Mexican Government for a service of at least two round trips per month
+between ports of the United States on the Atlantic Coast or the Gulf of
+Mexico and one or more Mexican Gulf ports. The term of the contract is
+for three years from January, 1909.
+
+ [Illustration: TELEGRAPH OFFICE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT.]
+
+On the Pacific side, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company provides the
+means of communication, its steamers sail regularly every ten days from
+San Francisco, calling at Mazatlan, San Blas, Manzanillo, Acapulco, and
+Salina Cruz, making the run from San Francisco to Salina Cruz in eleven
+days, while the time employed between San Francisco and the other
+ports varies according to their respective distances. This company have
+established a through service from San Francisco to Panama, making the
+trip much shorter.
+
+This offers a splendid chance to see the Pacific side of Mexico. The
+steamers are luxurious and pass through the most tropical part of the
+republic. This is a favorite route to New York, as it touches at Panama
+and connects with the Panama Railroad and Steamship Line for New York.
+The steamers of this line are noted for comfort and elegance.
+
+The Panama Railroad is the great International highway between the
+Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and gives the passengers an opportunity of
+seeing the famous Panama Canal now under construction.
+
+The Pacific Coast Steamship Company’s vessels leave San Francisco
+on the seventh of every month, calling at Ensenada, Magdalena Bay,
+Mazatlan, Altata, La Paz, Topolobampo, Santa Rosalia and Guaymas. The
+steamers of the Kosmos Line sail from San Francisco every two or three
+weeks and call at Mazatlan, San Blas, Manzanillo, Acapulco, Salina
+Cruz, Tonala and San Benito.
+
+The Jebsen Line issues through bills of lading to all interior points
+and passenger tickets into Mexico via the newly-opened railways from
+Manzanillo.
+
+Several lines of steamers maintain a regular coastwise service between
+the different ports of Mexico, the most important of these being the
+Campania Naviera del Pacifico, which is subsidized by the Mexican
+Government.
+
+The French Steamship Company, the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique,
+has inaugurated a regular freight service between France and Puerto
+Mexico, the Atlantic terminal of the Tehuantepec Railway.
+
+The Italian Navigation Company of Genoa also has in contemplation a
+steamer service to Puerto Mexico.
+
+It is from this port that Hawaiian sugar shipped over the Isthmian
+route is forwarded on the Atlantic side. The sugar is carried by the
+American-Hawaiian Steamship Company to Salina Cruz on a schedule
+providing for three steamers a month, with an average cargo of twelve
+thousand tons each. It is estimated that over three hundred and
+seventy-five thousand tons of sugar were handled over the Tehuantepec
+Railroad in 1910. Additional ships are to be added to the Honolulu, San
+Francisco, and Salina Cruz service, as the requirements of the traffic
+make it necessary.
+
+In the month of November, 1908, Congress passed a law establishing a
+system of receipts for postal money orders both at home and abroad, the
+former being inaugurated February 1, 1909, and the latter, embracing
+Canada, Germany, France, Great Britain and Salvador, on March 1, 1909.
+Through the German service a system of postal money orders was also
+established between Mexico and Turkey, and the parcels-post rates with
+Germany are modified.
+
+The federal telegraph lines in the republic have an extension of
+forty thousand and six hundred and forty miles and new offices are
+being opened in accordance with the needs of the service. Government
+adherence to the International Wireless Convention, signed at Berlin,
+Germany, November 30, 1906, has been announced. Wireless telegraph
+stations have been installed in Lower California, placing that district
+in communication with the rest of the republic.
+
+Señor Camilo Gonzalez is the director of the Federal Telegraph of
+Mexico and under his splendid supervision the system has been much
+improved. In June, 1900, there were two million eight hundred and
+thirty-three thousand two hundred and ninety-six messages transmitted
+and in the same month of 1910, four million four hundred and sixty-six
+thousand eight hundred and sixty-six messages were sent.
+
+ [Illustration: TOMASOPO CAÑON.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL.]
+
+ CHAPTER XIX
+
+ OAXACA
+
+
+The road to Oaxaca leads through a great amphitheatre of lofty and
+mighty mountains with rushing water at the base and flecks of green
+fields and beautiful foliage sweeping out into the distance. This
+State is known as the cradle of the patriots. The influence of the
+native land of the president has been felt throughout the republic,
+for no State has furnished such brilliant men, such valiant soldiers,
+financiers and able statesmen. The echoes of history resound with the
+brave deeds of Benito Juarez, Porfirio Diaz, Romera and Mariscal.
+
+Oaxaca, one of the largest of the Mexican States, has an area of over
+sixty thousand square miles. It lies between the States of Puebla and
+Vera Cruz on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the south. The lower or
+eastern end of the State is part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Here,
+as in most other Mexican States, there are three distinct zones of
+vegetation. In the mountains, of which there are several ranges, and on
+the higher plains, the crops and timber are similar to those of the
+northern United States. Below the foothills, corn, cotton, sugar and
+tobacco are the principal crops and in the very deep valleys and toward
+the coast the vegetation is purely tropical.
+
+More than one-third of the population, estimated at about one
+million, are pure blooded Indians, mostly belonging to tribes of the
+Zapotec nation. These people are great fighters and delight in war;
+notwithstanding, during the administration of President Diaz, they
+realized the benefit of peace and order and the charm of industry.
+
+Great herds of cattle are the main support in the central parts of the
+State. It has long been the custom to drive the exportable surplus of
+these cattle to Mexico and Puebla, the trip consuming three months,
+but since the railways are finished the profits of the ranchmen have
+increased by the easier transportation.
+
+Two main lines now serve parts of the State. One, the Mexican Southern,
+runs from Puebla to Oaxaca, and the other, the Tehuantepec, crosses the
+foot of the State.
+
+The hospitality of Oaxacans is well known. It is sufficient to knock
+at any door in that charming State to have it opened with offers of
+shelter, food, and friendliness, without money and without price. Until
+within a few years, inns and hotels were unknown, the hospitality among
+the private houses doing away with the need of such accommodations.
+The friendship and affection of the Oaxacans for one another are
+proverbial. Social reunions are constantly held, and there is much
+gaiety and light-heartedness in consequence.
+
+From its geographical position, geological formation, fuel and water,
+means of communication and climate, the State of Oaxaca is a veritable
+paradise for the prospector and capitalist seeking investment in mining
+properties. Two vast mountain ranges traverse the State from north to
+south, whose peaks in many cases rise to an altitude of from ten to
+twelve thousand feet.
+
+These mountain ranges, which are the culminations of the Rocky
+Mountains of the United States and the Sierra Madre of Southern Mexico,
+are highly mineralized throughout their length and breadth.
+
+The principal metals found in these hills are gold, silver, copper,
+lead, and iron, either free or in various combinations and with one
+another. The veins carrying free gold are those most extensively worked
+and although comparatively few mines have been opened up, those which
+have been are producing large quantities of exceedingly rich mineral.
+
+The whole State is practically an unexplored field, only a few
+districts have been superficially prospected.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ.]
+
+Oaxaca is a maritime State and extends farther south than any other in
+Mexico. The great chain of the Mexican Andes crosses the State giving
+it some of the most magnificent scenery in the entire republic. Chains
+and ridges make a surprisingly picturesque and beautiful variety to the
+country. The most remarkable summit is that of Zempoaltepec, in the
+district of Villata, which rises to an elevation of eleven thousand
+five hundred and forty-two feet, and from the top of which may be had
+magnificent views of the country, with glimpses of both the Atlantic
+and the Pacific Oceans. The climate of Oaxaca is in general very
+salubrious, for, although it is nearer the equator than other states,
+its high mountainous altitudes give it healthful breezes. Besides its
+vast mining resources the agricultural possibilities of Oaxaca are
+practically limitless. All the products of the temperate zone are
+raised in great abundance, while the more profitable ones of the torrid
+zone abound. The cacao raised here is the best in the world, while the
+annual yield of cochineal is about five hundred thousand pounds. The
+cultivation of fruit is one of the most profitable enterprises. There
+are various fibrous plants such as maguey, ramie, and the sisal hemp.
+These plants require no care, some of them being used as hedges to
+divide fields or estates. The government encourages foreign enterprise
+and favors colonists in every way, including exemption from taxation
+for a period of ten years; freedom from import duties on all goods,
+machinery, building material or cattle coming into the country for
+their use, and exemption from military service.
+
+Waterpowers are countless. The many in use driving large factories or
+producing electric light and power for the cities and mines.
+
+Before the Spanish rule, Oaxaca was the source of much mineral wealth,
+the native records indicating this region as the principal source of
+the precious metals.
+
+Many of these old workings have been reopened in the last few years, a
+smelter has been erected in Oaxaca City and many reduction works have
+been built in the mining country. The ores contain gold and silver,
+copper and silver, and copper.
+
+Although Oaxaca is practically an agricultural state, there are a great
+many manufactures.
+
+The State and especially the Valley of Oaxaca and its tributaries are
+rich in subjects for research and have never had the attention their
+importance demands.
+
+The city is two hundred and eighty-eight miles south of the capital of
+the republic and a mile above sea level. It was founded in 1486, under
+the name of Huaxyacac and fell under the Spanish rule in 1528. It has
+a rapidly increasing population of forty thousand. The streets are
+regularly laid out, wide and spacious, and the houses are handsome and
+substantial. The principal buildings are the Cathedral, the Santuario
+de la Soledad, and other churches and convents gorgeously decorated.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF GENERAL ANTONIO DE LEÓN.]
+
+There are also the Cabildo, or city hall, the Episcopal Palace, the
+government buildings, and several handsome plazas, embellished with
+flowers, trees, and fountains.
+
+The surrounding country is remarkably picturesque, being literally
+covered with flower gardens and cochineal groves. The hospital in
+Oaxaca is one of the best in Mexico. The city is extremely pleasant.
+Its houses are white and on the balconies every day may be seen groups
+of young people well-dressed and cheerful, giving a festive air to
+the whole city. The government palace is magnificent, recalling the
+splendor of the edifices of the time of the viceroys.
+
+ [Illustration: FAÇADE OF THE CASINO.]
+
+In the Plaza de Armas is a monument to the patriot Juarez, one of the
+most elegant in Mexico. The park of Guadalupe is very delightful, large
+and stately with flowers and groves of trees.
+
+There are a great many schools in Oaxaca, including the Scientific
+Institute, Seminary, Historical Museum, Public Library and many private
+institutions. There are Official Schools for primary instruction for
+boys and girls, and more than five hundred schools supported by the
+government.
+
+As always in Mexico, the churches present many points of interest. The
+Cathedral, begun in 1553, and completed two centuries later, was one of
+the grandest erected by the Spaniards and ranked with those of Mexico
+City and Puebla. But it has suffered so many bombardments and been
+looted so frequently that little of its former glory remains. Only the
+façade, beautifully decorated with sculptures by unrecorded artists,
+attests the original splendor. All the valuable paintings, statuary and
+ornaments that once made gorgeous the interior have disappeared.
+
+ [Illustration: STAIRWAY IN THE INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE.]
+
+The church of Santo Domingo, with monastery attached, tells a similar
+tale. Built at a cost of thirteen million dollars on a most massive
+scale, the strength of its walls made of it a fortress whose strategic
+importance is well attested by the scars made by shot and shell. The
+interior, however, has not been altogether despoiled. An authority on
+ecclesiastical art, writing of this church, says, “The interior is one
+of the most splendid in Mexico, the most superb example of baroque
+decoration in the country. The walls and the great barrel-arched
+ceiling are covered in every part with heavily-gilded ornaments and
+polychrome sculpture in high relief. The effect is one of indescribable
+splendor. The scheme of decoration in the domed vaulting of the
+organ-loft ceiling may be compared to an enormous tree, extending
+in all directions its branches and its innumerable leaves of gold,
+between which appear the busts of saints diminishing in size as the
+height increases until at the apex only the faces are shown.”
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ, ON THE MOUNTAIN
+ OVERLOOKING HIS NATIVE CITY.]
+
+Several times when churches were being looted it was proposed by
+parties in possession to scrape the wonderful decorations from this
+ceiling to recover the gold used therein, but somehow the work was
+never attempted, the pillagers contenting themselves with the pictures,
+statuary, altar ornaments, which could be more readily seized. The
+monastery itself was reduced to bare walls and is now used as a
+barracks.
+
+Other buildings worthy of inspection are the State House, Federal
+Building, and the Public Library containing fourteen thousand volumes,
+in which are found many old manuscripts relating to the period of the
+Conquest.
+
+These buildings and the residences of Oaxaca impress one as being more
+distinctively of Moorish design than those in other cities. It would
+seem as if the note struck by the early builders had been held by all
+their successors. Having this impression, the modernity of the trolley
+cars and electric lights brings a curious feeling of anachronism which
+may easily be enhanced by a visit to the ruins of Mitla.
+
+Not far from the City is the big tree of Tule. It is one hundred and
+fifty-four and a half feet around, six feet from the ground. It takes
+forty men to reach around it. It is of the cypress family and must have
+been there long before Columbus touched the western shores. On the tree
+is a tablet placed there by Humboldt.
+
+Through three centuries of its history Oaxaca has grown as an interior
+town, in the full sense of the term. It lies in one of the most
+beautiful and fertile valleys of Mexico, or rather at the meeting point
+of three valleys. It is shut off from the ocean on the south by a solid
+range of mountains; it is separated from the cities of Central Mexico
+on the north by a range of rough and broken country.
+
+Next in importance to the capital among the cities of the State is
+Tehuantepec, with its twelve thousand inhabitants. It is inland
+about twenty miles from the Pacific Ocean and is most noteworthy
+sociologically. Here was the home, the chief fastness, of the
+Zapotec people and here live to-day the purest-blooded descendants
+of that race. The women show a strong and noble people and they are
+distinguished for beauty of face and symmetry of form. Tehuantepec was
+the base of supplies for General Diaz when he was opposing the French
+invasion and his fort is still one of the sights of the town. There are
+some splendid hot springs of efficacy for the cure of rheumatism, and
+also many interesting sights of local color.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. EMILIO PIMENTEL, GOVERNOR OF
+ OAXACA.]
+
+The Isthmus is that narrow neck of land in tropical Mexico which lies
+between parallels eighteen degrees and sixteen degrees N., dividing the
+Atlantic and Pacific waters. The shortest transcontinental railroad
+on this hemisphere is built there and its trains run across in about
+six hours. It is not only a magnificent and beautiful country, but has
+also the most delightful tropical climate. Twice the United States
+government spent a great deal of time and money making a survey across
+that neck of land with a view of cutting a canal; once in 1852, and
+again in 1871, when Captain Shufeldt, of the United States Navy, was
+sent with a large expedition to make surveys. Again, Captain Eads spent
+a great deal of time there on his plan to build a ship railway. Now
+that the Isthmus is opened up by a railway and steamship communication,
+that portion of Mexico, more than any other, will participate in the
+wonderful progress Mexico is now making.
+
+ [Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR WOMEN.]
+
+The distance from Oaxaca to Tehuantepec is considerably less than from
+Puebla to Oaxaca. The railway connection has made this southern half
+of Mexico an outlet to the Pacific. Down the cañon of Tomellin the
+builders have pushed their way, solving some of the most difficult
+problems ever encountered in railway construction. They not only
+tunnelled to get a passage for the trains, but they bored the spurs of
+the mountains in three places to give the river new channels. The bare
+gray and brown and red cliffs tower two thousand feet above the track.
+Tourists journey across the United States for brief half hours in cañon
+scenery; on the Mexican Southern Railway the traveller rides half a day
+through awe-inspiring gorges. The train reels down and then staggers
+up grades which are only a fraction below the legal limit of four per
+cent. The route is through masses of rock; in some places the boulders
+are so poised that it seems that a slight jarring would dislodge them.
+The traveller, when the train starts down these curves can look ahead
+and see the route and the stations an hour in advance of the schedule
+time.
+
+The completion of the Tehuantepec Railway and its opening to traffic
+have attracted much attention. The construction of the railway was
+a matter of national importance. It was carried out by the Mexican
+government at its own cost by the advice of President Diaz, who
+recognized its strategic value.
+
+The Isthmus of Tehuantepec can boast of advantages unequalled in the
+commercial world. It is connected by the Tehuantepec Railroad with the
+Atlantic and Pacific Ocean steamship facilities, making connection with
+every large market in the world. The Mexican government has expended
+over eighty millions upon the construction and equipment of the
+Atlantic port, Coatzacoalcos, now Puerto Mexico, and the Pacific port
+of Salina Cruz. Steamers, drawing over thirty feet of water, enter both
+ports and discharge their tremendous cargoes in an incredibly short
+time by means of great modern electric cranes and the best docking
+facilities, which the government has installed.
+
+ [Illustration: CORRIDOR OF THE INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE.]
+
+Travel throughout the state is remarkably free from danger, the
+officials are uniformly kind and considerate in their treatment of
+strangers, gladly welcoming the investor, who they know, in seeking to
+better his own condition, cannot fail to improve those with whom he is
+thrown in contact.
+
+The State of Oaxaca is notable for having been the stronghold of the
+Mixtecas, a race of Indians who emigrated many centuries ago from the
+north, and displacing the Chochones, occupied the state, together
+with Puebla and Guerrero. They were an intelligent and progressive
+race and were governed by independent chiefs. The Aztecs afterward
+subdued some of the Mixtecas but those of Oaxaca remained independent,
+and many of them still are found in parts of the State. Remains
+of their former cities, temples and fortresses show that they had
+considerable intelligence. They believed in a heaven called Sosola,
+and had sacred caves in the mountains. Probably they had something to
+do with the original Mitla. They had a distinct language with several
+dialects. A Mixtecan grammar was published in 1593 and there are still
+existing religious treatises printed in Mixtecan in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries. The Mixtecans of to-day are well-bred and quiet
+citizens.
+
+After the Conquest, Oaxaca, on the arrival of the first Viceroy, was
+elevated to the category of an intendency which character it retained
+until 1821.
+
+On the 31st of January, 1824, it was raised to the rank of a federal
+entity, and since then it has formed an integral part of the Mexican
+Confederation.
+
+It now forms one of the twenty-seven states that compose the Mexican
+Republic; free and sovereign in so far as refers to its interior
+management, but in union with the other parts of the republic in
+accordance with the Political Constitution of the republic of the 5th
+of February, 1857, together with all the additions and amendments
+thereto.
+
+The governor of Oaxaca, who may be considered the advance agent of its
+prosperity, has done much to attract to it the attention of foreign
+investors. Señor Don Emilio Pimentel is a native of Oaxaca and was
+educated in its public schools, its state institute and its college of
+law. Sent to Congress for several terms he became a leader, and for a
+number of years afterward practised law in Mexico City, of which he
+was finally elected Mayor. His broad intelligence and grasp of the
+problems confronting the nation early attracted the notice of President
+Diaz, whose confidence he has since enjoyed. He has been sent to Europe
+on government missions and represented Mexico in the Latin-American
+Congress at Montevideo. At one time he was offered a portfolio by
+President Diaz, but at that time his health had been broken by overwork
+and he was obliged to decline. In his law practice he represented
+several of the most important financial interests in the republic.
+Thus, was he fitted peculiarly to be of service to his native State
+when elected as its governor in 1902. Now serving his third term in
+that office he bends every effort to the promotion of the State’s
+welfare. Practically, all the foreign capital now employed in Oaxaca
+was invested there at his solicitation.
+
+He has endeavored to give impulse to everything that means progress and
+prosperity by granting advantageous concessions to men of enterprise.
+To him is also due the development of railways in the State, the
+increasing network of tramways in the city, and the railway company
+to San Felipe. The capital city is also indebted to him for many
+improvements. All branches of public administration receive his special
+attention. He has organized new schools and charities and has appointed
+a commission to study the laws of primary and normal instruction. The
+public treasury has, under his able and correct administration, paid
+all the expenses and the State is out of debt. Governor Pimentel has
+organized the rural police force and has attended to all sanitary
+affairs in the capital. He has a clean political career which promises
+him a brilliant future. Oaxaca will place his name on the golden page
+of its great benefactors.
+
+ [Illustration: THE PORFIRIO DIAZ HIGH SCHOOL.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE CITY OF ORIZABA.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE PEAK OF ORIZABA]
+
+ CHAPTER XX
+
+ VERA CRUZ
+
+
+The State of Vera Cruz is one of the important states of the republic.
+The climate has a range of temperature that rises from cool and bracing
+to hot and stifling. It is pre-eminently agricultural and with the
+exception of rich fields of mineral oil, and cattle-raising, which is a
+lucrative source of revenue, the chief products of this fertile State
+are coffee, bananas, sugar, vanilla and cotton. In the northwest is
+the Huasteca region, the finest cattle lands on the continent, and in
+the southwest, the Sotavente district is rich in agricultural soil and
+watered by the mighty Paploapam.
+
+The southern part of the State is open to colonization and there are
+many foreign enterprises engaged in the principal industry of sugar
+making.
+
+The State is very liberal and progressive and under the administration
+of the present Governor, Señor Don Teodora Dehesa, port-works,
+water-works and sewers, drainage, public buildings and many other
+advanced ideas of reform have been inaugurated.
+
+The Federal Quarantine Station at Vera Cruz has been declared by health
+experts as the most complete and thorough in existence. It can be now
+recorded that the entire absence of yellow fever is assured. Vera Cruz
+now enjoys the distinction of being the cleanest city in the republic.
+
+ [Illustration: POST OFFICE, VERA CRUZ.]
+
+The City of Vera Cruz was founded in 1519, by Hernando Cortés. It was
+at one time the capital of the State, but Jalapa is now the seat of
+the government. It was built in a semi-circle fronting the sea, and
+was formerly enclosed by a wall six feet high and three feet thick
+and defended by two redoubts on shore and by the Castle of San Juan
+de Ulua which stands on an island. The streets are regular and wide
+and form many squares, and little plazas or parks, beautiful in rich
+tropical flowers and trees which make the city very attractive. The
+houses are strongly built of coral limestone in the old Spanish style.
+It is an ideal spot for the traveler who enjoys a warm climate and
+beautiful sun. Old churches, public buildings bearing the marks of
+centuries, old convents that have stood the test of time, and beautiful
+modern buildings are found side by side in sublime contrast. The
+Municipal Palace was built in 1609, and the Public Library, in which
+are wonderful old volumes and archives, was founded in 1870. There are
+several beautiful churches, theatres, hospitals, an artillery school,
+and a new post office.
+
+ [Illustration: OLD GATEWAY, ORIZABA.]
+
+The lately constructed port-works have converted the ancient rockbound
+roadstead along the Atlantic coast line into a safe and commodious
+harbor. The protected harbor covers fifty-four acres. The length of the
+breakwater is three thousand three hundred and thirty metres.
+
+The present city of Vera Cruz is not the same that was built by
+Cortés in the year 1519. The Villa Rica de Vera Cruz--“the rich town
+of the true cross”--is six miles distant from the present city. The
+inhabitants of this busy city are renowned for their culture, their
+frank and simple manners and their patriotism, of which they have given
+many proofs in the various sieges which the town has sustained against
+foreign foes, thus justifying the appellation of “heroic” given to it.
+
+ [Illustration: INDIAN WOMEN IN THE TROPICS.]
+
+Nowhere in Mexico is there a more beautiful spot than the City of
+Jalapa. When the atmosphere is clear, one can see the shipping in the
+harbor of Vera Cruz with an ordinary spy glass and the white caps of
+the waves with the naked eye. The elevation of Jalapa above the sea is
+a little more than four thousand feet. It is situated on a shelf of
+the mountain, the summit of which at Perote, a distance in a direct
+line of about twenty miles, is four thousand five hundred feet higher
+than Jalapa. The whole horizon, except in the direction of Vera Cruz,
+is bounded by mountains--among them Orizaba, distant from Jalapa about
+twenty-five miles, though owing to the clearness of the atmosphere and
+the sun shining upon the snow with which it is covered it appears to
+be much nearer. All the tropical fruits grow in the district, and are
+cultivated with great care and skill. It is not an exaggeration to say
+that it is impossible for one who has not been on the tableland of
+Mexico to conceive of a climate so elysian.
+
+ [Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, JALAPA.]
+
+Jalapa is indeed a rare old place. It seems to be built on edge, with
+streets like stairs climbing the hills, while terraced houses cling to
+the hillsides.
+
+Orizaba lies about midway between the two extremes of the coast and the
+plateau. It is one of the busiest manufacturing towns of Mexico. It is
+on the line of the oldest railway in the country, within easy access of
+the interior cities.
+
+The town of Coatzacoalcos is at the mouth of the river of the same
+name, and is one of the few places that look like an American town.
+It is growing rapidly and has the second finest port-works on the
+continent.
+
+On the Mexican Railroad, Cordoba, nestling under the shadow of the
+snow-capped peak of Orizaba is a tropical refuge for many travelers
+seeking sunshine. Fruits, flowers, palms and ferns grow in abundance.
+In this tropical part of Mexico one finds many beautiful pictures that
+would look almost unreal if painted on canvas.
+
+The red-brown coloring of the Indians in their costumes and the
+half-naked children basking in the sun or enjoying the shade of the
+verdant palms, and the perfume of the flowers that permeates the
+atmosphere almost transport one with enthusiasm and enjoyment.
+
+ [Illustration: PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR SALAZAR.]
+
+In Cordoba grows the finest coffee in the world. The loveliest scene on
+Nature’s canvas is a coffee plantation. The leaves of the plant are a
+very dark green, the flowers white and freighted with a rich aromatic
+incense, and the berries are deep red. This bean is cultivated with
+great care. The shrub is graceful and drooping and the flower is as
+sweet as the orange blossom.
+
+The State of Vera Cruz is rapidly gaining fame for the variety, beauty
+and sublimity of its scenic attractions.
+
+ [Illustration: THE HARBOR, VERA CRUZ.]
+
+The Castle of San Juan de Ulua, which was the last foothold of the
+Spaniards in Mexico, was surrendered by them to the patriots in 1825.
+In 1838, Vera Cruz was bombarded and taken by the French and again in
+1847, by the Americans, under General Scott. It was surrendered to the
+allied British, French and Spanish squadron in December, 1861, and was
+restored to Mexico in 1867.
+
+The experience of three Mexican Revolutions makes it easier to conceive
+the extent to which this unfortunate city must have suffered in the
+struggle made by the Spaniards to preserve the Castle, their last
+bulwark on this continent. San Juan de Ulua remains a lasting memorial
+of the great works which, almost immediately after their arrival on
+these shores, were undertaken by the Spanish conquerors.
+
+ [Illustration: OLD FORT OF SANTIAGO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: TAMESI RIVER FRONT, TAMPICO.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXI
+
+ TAMAULIPAS
+
+
+Tamaulipas derives its name from a tribe of Indians which formerly
+inhabited this region. It is one of the closest Mexican neighbors of
+Texas and is one of the richest agricultural and mineral states in the
+republic.
+
+Bordering on Texas on the north, with the Gulf of Mexico on the eastern
+boundary and the tropical states of Vera Cruz and San Luis Potosí
+on the south, and Nuevo León on the west, Tamaulipas is one of the
+most accessible of the Mexican states and equal in size to many of
+the western states of her northern neighbor. The principal cities of
+the State are Ciudad Victoria, the capital, Tampico, the great Gulf
+port, Matamoros, historically located just across the Rio Grande from
+Brownsville, Texas. A majestic mountain range, the Sierra Madre, enters
+the State in the southern end and runs through it in a north-easterly
+direction penetrating into the neighboring state of Nuevo León. The
+Sierra Madre running from east to west, covered with thick forests,
+rises to a high altitude, and is cut in all directions by deep gorges
+and ravines and protrudes its massive spurs east and west into
+various important chains. The mountains are rich in minerals and the
+mineral development of the State is in its infancy. It has an area of
+twenty-eight thousand six hundred and fifty-nine square miles and a
+population considerably above two hundred thousand.
+
+The coast is low and sandy and there are several lagoons along the
+shore, the largest of which, Laguna Madre, is over one hundred miles
+long and in some parts over twenty miles wide. The principal rivers
+of this State are the Fernando, Borbon, Santander and Tampico. In the
+northern part the flat coast lands extend inward for many miles and
+then rise to elevated plains; in the south the country is diversified
+by many mountains and valleys and the scenery is very picturesque.
+There are rich silver and copper mines which promise great and
+undiscovered wealth. Valuable timber abounds on the mountains; the soil
+is fertile, and all the fruits, grains and vegetables of the temperate
+and torrid zones are easily raised. This is also an excellent State for
+stock-raising of all kinds.
+
+Tamaulipas was originally named Santa Anna de Tamaulipas. In area,
+richness of soil and variety of climate, the State is one of the most
+important in Mexico. Its location is naturally excellent. In the long
+stretches of flat lands of the Tierra Caliente; there are rivers with
+many branches which reach out in every direction.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON JUAN B. CASTILLO, GOVERNOR OF
+ TAMAULIPAS.]
+
+Señor Don Juan de Castillo has been the distinguished governor for
+the past ten years. He has devoted his energies to the development of
+all enterprises in his State. He encourages colonization and gives
+financial aid and concessions which promise to develop the resources
+of Tamaulipas. During his administration many new schools have been
+opened in the country districts and he has given special attention to
+the extension of education throughout the State. In the larger cities
+new school buildings have been erected, embodying all modern ideas.
+Governor Castillo has caused improvement in sanitary conditions and the
+State is now free from epidemics which threatened it in the past.
+
+The general interest shown on the part of foreign capitalists and the
+advantages offered to investors have resulted in the forming of several
+good colonies.
+
+There are many fertile valleys well watered and free from the malarial
+diseases which afflict the hot lands. These lands are still very cheap
+and suitable for colonization.
+
+ [Illustration: AVENIDA PRIETO, SHOWING GOVERNOR’S PALACE,
+ VICTORIA.]
+
+Ciudad Victoria, the capital city, is situated in a beautiful and
+healthful locality. It is well built and has splendid palaces and
+public buildings, hospitals and good schools. There is a normal
+training school for teachers, a primary normal school, the state
+institute and a law school; another school which does excellent work
+is the Juan José de la Gaza Institute. The state legislature has made
+extension of all public roads. The city has many beautiful parks and
+monuments.
+
+ [Illustration: PLAZA JUAREZ, VICTORIA.]
+
+No sections of the republic are receiving greater evidence of the
+influx of capital and the stream of immigration than the Gulf ports.
+With the natural advantages of location, harbor and transportation
+facilities, the port and city of Tampico are of the greatest commercial
+importance.
+
+Tampico is built upon a rocky bluff forty feet high, surrounded by
+lagoons of salt water. The architecture of Tampico is more American
+than most Mexican towns display, owing, doubtless, to its ready
+communication with other northern ports. The houses are built both of
+wood and stone, with sloping roofs and outer verandas. Color prevails
+everywhere, the houses being painted in blues and yellows, each street
+looking fresh, bright and clean and especially so the brilliant façades
+clustering about the plaza. The latter is a densely shaded park paved
+with granite and provided with seats. No flowers grow in this plaza but
+the house-holders around it seem to vie with one another in window and
+veranda gardening. All the houses have balconies on the street-front
+with rows of blossoming orchids and amaryllis along the walls. Just
+out of Tampico may be found thousands of orchids growing wild, hanging
+thick on the seaward side of the rocks, where the tropical sun and
+perpetual moisture give them a most luxurious growth.
+
+ [Illustration: PLAZA DE ARMAS, TAMPICO.]
+
+Then there is a wonderful old church with ancient wood-carving and
+frescoes by Spanish artists. It is a strange mixture of old and new
+that is met at every turn in Tampico; the jetties built out from the
+mouth of the Panuco seven thousand feet into the Gulf are, perhaps, the
+most interesting of all. These jetties have great banks of stone with
+easy slopes and rounded tops like those at the mouth of the Maas in
+Holland. The sand-bar which once obstructed this harbor has entirely
+disappeared and now the inland harbor of Tampico is one of the most
+important on the American continent.
+
+Approaching ships pass into calm water between two great jetties
+extending a mile out into the Gulf and on through a wide channel kept
+constantly open and deepening by the current of the great Panuco River
+and its tributaries, which drain a watershed of thousands of square
+miles and discharge their waters into the Gulf of Mexico through
+the entrance to the harbor. These jetties, built by the Mexican
+Government, are constructed of stone of a superior quality secured
+from the mountains of the interior. Constant additions are being made
+to them and plans are now under consideration which will result in
+further extension. The Panuco River is at this point the dividing line
+between the State of Vera Cruz on the south and that of Tamaulipas on
+the north. Just as a ship reaches the actual mouth of the river the
+government lighthouse may be seen to the best advantage looming up on
+the horizon on the Tamaulipas side.
+
+ [Illustration: A FIELD OF ZAPUPE.]
+
+Upon the bluff sloping gently to the sea level is an ideal residence
+section overlooking the harbor and the system of surrounding water
+ways, whose shores lined with tropical trees and vegetation combine to
+form a most beautiful landscape.
+
+The Mexican Central Railway furnishes the best transportation
+facilities to Tampico, one branch running west to Aguascalientes on
+the main line and tapping the great mining and agricultural centres.
+Along this route some of the best agricultural lands of Mexico are
+traversed. To the north another branch of the Mexican Central connects
+Tampico with all Texas points via Monterey. The Mexican Central makes
+a direct connection with the National capital. Running direct between
+Tampico and Vera Cruz, _Progreso_ and _Puerto Mexico_ are two
+steamers doing a coastwise trade.
+
+ [Illustration: TARPON CAUGHT BY THE OFFICERS OF THE BRITISH
+ CRUISER _BRILLIANT_.]
+
+The good climate, the sea bathing, the excellent tarpon fishing and
+hunting make Tampico the most attractive winter and summer resort
+on the Gulf Coast. As one walks through the office and lobby of the
+Southern Hotel and sees the specimens of large fish which are hanging
+on the walls at various points it is easy to realize the importance of
+the industry which the proprietor of the hotel, Mr. A. N. Poindexter,
+has built up in this line.
+
+Only a few years ago the tarpon banks near Tampico were known by very
+few people, but Mr. Poindexter recognized that this was a sportsman’s
+paradise and began in a small way to make known to those of his
+guests who were interested in such sports the possibilities of real
+active sport, with a little touch of adventure in it, and to-day many
+distinguished people from all parts of the world, visit this port for
+the sole purpose of tarpon fishing and wild-fowl shooting.
+
+Within a radius of one hundred and fifty miles of Tampico there are
+fifteen American colonies being located at Atascagor, La Palma,
+Columbus, Colonia Americana, Alta Vista, Quaker City, Chamal, San
+Diegurto, and other small colonies. Many of them are settling rapidly
+and have established good schools and churches. They are employed in
+agriculture and many other enterprises.
+
+In this State are found various seams of coal and many mineral
+deposits. Among the metals that are found in the State are copper,
+silver, gold, lead, zinc and iron. The oil wells of Tamaulipas are
+already famous. The oil belt reaches into the State of Vera Cruz and
+will be found all along the State of Tamaulipas, as far as Texas.
+Prominent oil experts predicted that this State would become one of the
+greatest oil-producing sections in Mexico.
+
+The cultivation of the zapupe fibre plant has received most attention
+in the Tampico section. Within the last three years several companies
+have been formed for the cultivation of zapupe near Tampico and in
+addition a number of individuals are engaged in planting the fibre.
+It is claimed that zapupe matures more quickly, that it produces more
+fibre to the plant than henequen.
+
+In Victoria and vicinity, about one hundred miles north of Tampico,
+henequen growing is receiving much attention. Land not fit for any
+other kind of cultivation seems to be well adapted for henequen.
+
+ [Illustration: PLAZA, VICTORIA.]
+
+During the Civil War in the United States, 1861–1865, Tamaulipas made
+a handsome income by raising cotton and exporting it to that country.
+Many farmers became rich in that way; but when the war was over, and
+cotton fell in price with the return of peace and the revival of the
+southern states, the production declined. There is no reason why
+Tamaulipas should not grow cotton as abundantly as the State of Vera
+Cruz.
+
+Matamoros is a frontier city of Tamaulipas, being only forty miles
+from the mouth of the Rio Grande, and directly opposite the City of
+Brownsville, Texas. It has a population of over twelve thousand, made
+up mostly of Americans and people of Spanish descent. English is
+commonly spoken. The City is finely situated on a bend of the river.
+Its wide streets cross at right angles, and the houses are mostly
+of brick and built in modern style. There is a beautiful Cathedral
+as well as numerous churches and convents. There is a good public
+school system, besides plenty of private schools. The climate is hot
+from April to September, and cool from December to March. Matamoros
+was founded early in the last century, and was named after the great
+patriot, Marino Matamoros, whose bones lie with those of Hidalgo and
+Morelos in the Cathedral at Mexico City.
+
+Laredo is a name by which one of the lines of the Condes of Spain was
+called. A Royal Commission called “Vista General” in 1767 laid out
+the town, giving it four leagues of land, two on each side of the Rio
+Grande, and laid off above and below the town tract on both sides, the
+tract now called Porciones, distributing it to the settlers. Since
+that time Laredo has been recognized as a town with municipal powers.
+In the earlier days of its existence, savage Indians continually
+committed depredations on the surrounding country and robbed the
+people of their horses and cattle; but the citizens, inured to such
+hardships, often chastised the savages and killed many of them in
+battle, always maintaining a justly merited reputation for skill,
+courage and gallantry. Laredo was a kind of supply station during the
+Texas revolution, but took no very active part in the war. It remained
+under the control of Mexico as a part of Tamaulipas until 1846, when it
+was divided into two towns, Nuevo Laredo on the Mexican side remaining
+a quiet, progressive town, whose principal industry has been stock
+raising,--horses, cattle, and sheep; and several handsome fortunes have
+been made in it.
+
+The Tamaulipas Mexicans are brave, daring patriots, who are zealous to
+a man for the integrity and independence of their country. This State
+gave the nucleus of the heroic army of the north during the French
+campaign and the stoic bravery of the Tamaulipan soldiers will never
+be forgotten in the history of the siege and fall of Querétaro; many
+of their illustrious names will ever stand for the bravest and most
+inflexible of patriots.
+
+ [Illustration: TAMPICO PLAZA.]
+
+ [Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, SALTILLO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: JUAREZ MARKET, SALTILLO.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXII
+
+ COAHUILA
+
+
+Coahuila is a highly productive State. It is a hilly and mountainous
+country, but its valleys are very fertile. Minerals are found
+extensively but the most important product in this State is coal, which
+is being shipped to all parts of the country. The Rio Grande separates
+it from the United States of America, on the east it is bounded by the
+State of Nuevo León, on the west by the States of Chihuahua and Durango
+and on the south by Zacatécas, Nuevo León, and San Luis Potosí. It
+embraces an area of one hundred and sixty-five thousand and ninety-nine
+square kilometres. Its population is about two hundred and ninety-seven
+thousand. Its capital, Saltillo, is an industrial and mercantile centre.
+
+The other chief city, Torreon, founded as recently as 1887, is a
+commercial emporium of the greatest importance. Cotton and all classes
+of cereals and fruits are the chief products. The wines of Parras,
+which is a great grape cultivating country, are famed throughout the
+entire republic and the best woods grown in the country are found in
+these parts.
+
+The City of Monclova, which was for a long time the capital of the
+State, is also of commercial importance.
+
+The governor of the State is Señor Licenciado Don Jesus de Valle, is
+an illustrious and progressive gentleman, experienced and well-versed
+in political and administrative science, who knows so well all the
+branches of State government. Since taking office he has diminished
+the public debt and caused many reforms in the capital and in the
+neighboring cities, and through his encouragement colonists are welcome
+and all kinds of franchises are granted to those whose purpose is
+the establishment of enterprises that will revert to the good of the
+people and the country. With splendid irrigation facilities and all
+the advantages of a rich country, Coahuila is an open field for future
+prosperity.
+
+Saltillo is reached by the Mexican National Railroad. It was founded
+in 1586, and incorporated as a city in 1827. The government palace,
+the Church of Santiago, and the old convent of San Esteban are the
+chief edifices of interest. The climate is good, the city being a
+delightful resort at all seasons. The “Coahuila” is one of the most
+beautiful hotels in the republic and enjoys great popularity. Many of
+the hostelries in Mexico are old private dwellings or palaces which
+are to a certain extent picturesque, but this modern hotel offers
+encouragement to the seeker of health and pleasure.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LICENCIADO DON JESUS DE VALLE, GOVERNOR
+ OF COAHUILA.]
+
+The Plaza de la Independencia is a modern park, very attractive
+with its beautiful flowers and ferns. The Cathedral is an imposing
+structure filled with beautiful paintings and priceless altars. The
+new penitentiary is one of the finest of its kind in the country.
+Hospitals, public libraries and the finest normal school in the
+republic are the results of the enterprise and progress of the State.
+Some of these educational establishments are noted for their handsome
+architecture. Special attention is paid to the sanitary conditions of
+the school houses.
+
+There are many philanthropic societies and charitable institutions; one
+of the most important is the asylum of the Immaculate Conception.
+
+The many brightly colored serapes, which are hand-woven and form one
+of the industries of this city, cannot be duplicated, and all the
+factories of the republic are making strenuous efforts to imitate those
+made here. The Delft blue shade, which is noted all over the world, is
+no longer made here as it has become a lost art, but other colors most
+artistically and intricately woven mark one of the chief features of
+the native craft.
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, SALTILLO.]
+
+Some of the finest pleasure resorts on the continent are found here.
+The famous Hot Springs are at Hermanas. Here are the largest springs
+of hot mineral water in America, that flowing out of the hillside form
+a river of hot clear water which passes through a fine grove of trees.
+The natural temperature of the water is one hundred and ten degrees
+Fahrenheit. With unexcelled scenery, the climate is invigorating and
+the splendid conditions make it a great health resort.
+
+The construction of the Mexican International Railroad was a very
+important event in the State of Coahuila. It penetrated a country rich
+in resources where splendid inducements to the miner, manufacturer
+and agriculturist are offered. The prosperous condition of various
+enterprises situated adjacent to the line of this road testifies beyond
+question to the practicability of profitable investment.
+
+Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, named in honor of the President of the republic,
+is one of the most enterprising of the Mexican border-towns. The custom
+house and post office buildings, including other federal offices are
+splendid specimens of modern architecture.
+
+Coahuila has attained commendable progress under the able
+administration of Governor Jesus de Valle. The State has given to
+the Mexican nation many men distinguished in politics, in war and in
+science. Some of these were Don Melchor Muzquiz, who became president
+ad interim and from whom the city of Muzquiz gets its name; General
+Ignacio Zaragoza, hero of the glorious victory of the national army
+over the French on the 5th of May, 1862, in Puebla, and from whom the
+State receives the name of Coahuila de Zaragoza; Don Miguel Ramos
+Arizpe, statesman, who was a deputy to the Court of Spain in 1812,
+and on account of his idea in favor of independence was eleven years
+a prisoner, until the Declaration of Independence; he was one of
+the deputies to the Constitutional Congress in 1824, and Minister
+of the State; Don Juan Antonio de la Fuente caused a law to be made
+for the separation of the church and state in 1858; he was also
+minister plenipotentiary from Mexico to France and England and figured
+prominently in France by his indignant protest against the Preradical
+Interference of Napoleon III., on Mexican Territory. Here was born
+Manuel Acuña, one of the most notable and sublime writers which Mexico
+produced in the nineteenth century.
+
+ [Illustration: STATE CIVIL COLLEGE, SALTILLO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNOR’S PALACE, MONTEREY.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ NUEVO LEÓN, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ, AGUASCALIENTES
+
+
+The kingdom of Nuevo León was once the name of the State of Nuevo León.
+It is inland, bordering on Tamaulipas, Coahuila and San Luis Potosí.
+Its surface is irregular, as several branches of the Sierra Madre Range
+come into it and one-fourth of the State forms a part of the great
+central tableland of Mexico.
+
+Mineral productions abound in the mountains. The climate is perfect.
+The atmosphere is seldom chilled with frost but sometimes it steals
+in at long intervals like a thief in the night to disappear in the
+darkness ere the sun has risen. Snow is unknown in the Valley of
+Monterey and is seen rarely on the peaks of the mountains which
+surround the city.
+
+The Topo Chico hot springs are in the suburbs. This is a famous
+health resort. The thermometer never descends to freezing point and
+the condition of the atmosphere permits the weakest and most delicate
+invalid to promenade in the plazas.
+
+Monterey is fifteen hundred feet above sea level; it is one of the
+oldest cities but has been made over and has now all sorts of modern
+improvements. Nature is vested in gladness expressed by beauty
+and wealth of color, over which flows the mellow radiance of a
+semi-tropical sunshine. It is surrounded by some of the most beautiful
+mountain scenery in the world. The houses are well-built and tasteful
+both in architecture and interior decorations. The Casino is the
+principal club.
+
+Honorable Philip C. Hanna, the American consul general, has endeared
+himself to the people of Monterey. He was appointed the special
+representative of the American Red Cross and did a notable work during
+the flood which came near destroying Monterey in 1909. At the Consulate
+he protected hundreds of the unfortunate, giving food and clothing to
+the desolate in the flooded district.
+
+Monterey is only a few hours ride from Laredo, in Texas. It is a very
+American city, with splendid churches, schools and manufacturing
+establishments.
+
+ [Illustration: PLAZA ZARAGOZA.]
+
+
+ SAN LUIS POTOSÍ
+
+No country is more beautiful in its picturesque vegetation and useful
+products than San Luis Potosí. There the highest trees give support to
+a multitude of creeping vines and to a swarm of vegetable parasites
+which create an agreeable confusion and form obscure thickets where the
+foot of man has never yet penetrated. The multitude of color, the green
+leaves and the divers hues of the flowers, with a half-light produced
+in many places by the shade of the trees, allowing an occasional vista
+of purest blue sky; the silence of the bosks at certain hours of the
+day; the harmonious songs of the birds at the rising and the setting of
+the sun, are all poetical, and invite to meditation and the adoration
+of the Author and source of so many marvels. The entire State is a gem
+of varied beauty.
+
+ [Illustration: PALACE OF GOVERNOR, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ.]
+
+In the towns to the southeast and east of the capital there are lands
+well adapted for agriculture. The enterprise directed to this class of
+work will find there every kind of products which temperate and torrid
+climates know, not only in cereals and fibre-bearing plants, but also
+in fruits and hard woods. In all portions of the State Indian corn is
+cultivated as well as wheat and beans, all most useful as food for
+the inhabitants; but the branches of agriculture which have been most
+developed are the cultivation of coffee and tobacco. The coffee plants
+number about four million, with a mean yield of forty thousand quintals.
+
+San Luis Potosí may justly lay claim to a first rank among cities
+of the Mexican Republic, whether considered from a historical,
+political, or commercial point of view. Founded in the days of the
+Spanish Conquest, the geographical position, some six thousand feet
+above the level of the sea, secured pre-eminence from the earliest
+times. The history of the city may to a great extent be read in its
+outward appearance. Grand old Spanish churches, such as that of San
+Francisco, dating from the sixteenth century, El Carmen with its
+two-hundred-year-old carvings, and the Guadalupe, with its charming
+sacred associations. The imposing French-built government palace
+and the Mexican cathedral, the old Spanish Plaza with its American
+tram-lines and electric lights, the old fortified mint, telling of
+revolutionary times, the college hospital, the library, and the
+splendid theatre, with many new and elegant buildings, speak for the
+prosperity and advancement of the present day.
+
+ [Illustration: CATHEDRAL, AGUASCALIENTES.]
+
+It has always been a very busy and flourishing place, holding the
+same relation to eastern Mexico that Guadalajara holds to western
+Mexico. The surrounding country is a very fertile district and San Luis
+furnishes a ready market for its produce. There are many fine buildings
+in the capital. The government palace is attractive in appearance;
+the cathedral shows some fine stone-work on its towers. There is a
+characteristic painting of high quality in the church of El Carmen. The
+old church has a clock which was given by the King of Spain in return
+for the largest piece of silver ore ever taken from a mine. On the
+entrance to this beautiful sanctuary are these comforting and inspiring
+words:
+
+ Aqui el que pide recibe,
+ El que busca halla,
+ El que toca se le abre.
+
+(“Here he who asks receives, he who seeks finds, to him who knocks it
+is opened.”)
+
+ [Illustration: THE BATHS AT AGUASCALIENTES.]
+
+The two tall towers of this church form the most striking feature of
+the city to the traveler approaching from the south.
+
+The Theatre in San Luis Potosí, one of the handsomest in Mexico, is
+a monument to the progressive spirit of the late General Carlos Diez
+Gutierrez, the former governor of the State. The building is of stone,
+massive and large. Immense columns of stone and iron adorn the front.
+The entrance is very much like that of the Grand Opera in Paris. It is
+elegant yet massive in design. There is a grand and beautiful lobby
+which is approached by wide marble steps and covered by a dome of heavy
+stained glass. Seen from below, this last has a magnificent appearance
+with a huge balcony winding around in the interior, with a heavy iron
+railing. This is entered above by beautiful glass doors, opening from
+an immense hall, large enough for a ball-room, with marble-tiled
+floors. The stage has all the latest improvements, and the whole
+theatre is a noble example of what taste can do when backed by immense
+wealth. The governor’s private box, facing the stage, is magnificently
+fitted up, with the coat-of-arms of the State in silver and bronze.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE IN AGUASCALIENTES.]
+
+The law requires that all houses shall be kept freshly painted, so
+that the city is bright in every quarter. The markets are particularly
+interesting, with picturesque water-carriers, many fountains and novel
+scenes. The statue of Hidalgo formerly occupied the Plaza de Armas,
+but has been removed to a more important place and a kiosk erected
+in its place. When the evenings are warm, as most of them are in San
+Luis, the Plaza presents a most attractive appearance with families
+promenading to the gay music under the silvery light of the moon or the
+more brilliant radiance of the electric light. This historic city has
+the record that here was made the first discovery of silver in Mexico,
+which went so far as to found the country’s greatness. The tradition
+is that early in the sixteenth century an Indian was climbing the San
+Luis hills, when his foot slipped and to save himself he clutched at a
+neighboring bush, which giving way beneath his weight, was uprooted and
+exposed to view the native silver beneath.
+
+San Luis is far advanced in education. There are many magnificent
+schools. In the School of Arts and Trades for Girls are taught English
+and French. There are civil and military schools, and hospitals, all of
+which are supported by the government.
+
+ [Illustration: THE BISHOP’S PALACE, MONTEREY.]
+
+The governor of this State is José Maria Espinosa y Cuevas. The success
+of the opening of the port at Tampico gave San Luis Potosí commercial
+advantages equal if not superior to those of any other city in the
+Republic of Mexico.
+
+In the northern part of the State is the mining town of Catorce, “The
+Silver City.” These mines were discovered by a group of fourteen
+bandits and are the most celebrated in Mexico.
+
+
+ AGUASCALIENTES
+
+Aguascalientes though one of the smallest is one of the most
+interesting States in Mexico. The eastern district consists of
+tablelands six thousand feet above sea-level and the western portion
+includes the Sierras of Laurel and Pinal, spurs of the Sierra Madre.
+The tablelands produce abundant crops of cereals. The capital is
+Aguascalientes, which means hot waters. It is an attractive city, noted
+for its hot springs, well-appointed bath houses and healthful climate.
+
+One of the most celebrated and well-attended fairs of the republic,
+the Feast of San Marcos, is held at Aguascalientes in April of each
+year and thousands of people from all parts of the country throng the
+streets and plazas of this quaint old city. There are many special
+attractions notably the beautiful needle-drawn work which is made by
+the Indians and excels in beauty the celebrated Fayal work which is so
+much better known.
+
+The city takes its name from the warm mineral springs in its
+neighborhood. The baths are reached by long avenues of superb
+cottonwood trees. They are built of soft red stone and are much
+frequented. On one side through a canal flows the surplus water from
+the springs, which is used for bathing by those who are unable to pay
+the small charge for the baths.
+
+There is a handsome alameda. The country around is fertile and highly
+cultivated. In the tropical altitudes of Mexico and in the hot spring
+sections there is a sort of Egyptian disregard of the conventionalities
+in attire and the disposition to take a daily fashion hint from the
+Garden of Eden, the children disregarding even the fig leaf.
+
+The water-carrier of Cairo is much like his brother of Mexico. The
+groups about the fountains all over the republic have long earthen jars
+of pottery borne by the women and balanced on the shoulders of the men
+and look very oriental.
+
+The climate is healthful and is noted for its constant sunshine. Many
+invalids go there from the north. It is half way between the City of
+Mexico and the northern border.
+
+ [Illustration: TEMPLE OF SAN MARCOS, AGUASCALIENTES.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE FEDERAL PALACE, QUERÉTARO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: CONVENT OF THE CROSS WHERE MAXIMILIAN WAS
+ IMPRISONED.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ QUERÉTARO
+
+
+Querétaro is a State around which has been cast a spirit of romance.
+The interest that centres here is great on account of it being the
+scene of many tragic events. Many famous men and women who have figured
+in the history of Mexico were born here. It was in this State that
+the first steps toward independence were taken and the efforts of the
+patriot Hidalgo to incite the people to open rebellion found ready
+response.
+
+It occupies a part of the Cordilleran Plateau and while it contains
+much fertile land it is traversed by numerous mountains. In these, many
+minerals are found. Gold, silver, lead, copper, antimony, quicksilver
+and tin abound, and fine forests of timber and precious woods are the
+product of the mountains. Extensive fields of all kinds of grains,
+sugar and tobacco are cultivated.
+
+Many lakes, such as the Cerro Grande, the Concha, the San Cillo and the
+Saledon, lend natural beauty to nature’s already prolific endowment.
+
+The mining in this State is very promising, the regions are among the
+richest in Mexico. Precious and semi-precious stones abound. Owing to
+the extremely mountainous country it is difficult to operate many of
+the mines, but new railways and modes of transportation are eliminating
+that drawback.
+
+The chief city and capital is Querétaro, one of the most beautiful in
+the republic, situated one hundred and ten miles northwest of Mexico on
+a plateau six thousand feet above sea level. It occupies the sides and
+summits of several hills and is separated from the picturesque little
+suburbs by a small river. It is an old city dating back to 1400, and
+is famous for its beautiful churches, the splendid architecture of the
+public buildings and dwellings, and also is of interesting historical
+value on account of the tragic ending of Maximilian, the erstwhile
+Emperor of Mexico, who was executed on the “Hill of the Bells.”
+
+To one who sees the capital for the first time, it has a great
+fascination. There is something different about the architecture, the
+atmosphere, and even the sun seems to shine brighter here. Palms and
+bananas grow in the open squares, and the many churches with their
+melodious chimes ringing at almost all hours lend it an influence that
+is delightful.
+
+Napoleon took upon himself the task of exporting an Emperor to Mexico,
+Maximilian of Austria, a dreamer imbued with the idea of the divine
+rights of kings. He listened to the seductive assurances of an emperor
+who himself had secured the right to rule by rapine and blood. Carlota
+was ambitious, an ardent Catholic, and the Pope gave the new rulers
+consecration and his blessing. The United States government put sixty
+thousand troops into Texas on the Mexican border and then Napoleon was
+told in unmistakable language that the French troops that sustained
+Maximilian must be withdrawn. Maximilian was advised to abdicate,
+and would have done so but for the proud and ambitious Carlota. She
+volunteered to go to France to intercede with Napoleon. He was deaf to
+her entreaties, and she then fled to the Pope for relief, but with no
+better success. Repulsed, her finely-strung nature succumbed and she
+became bereft of her reason, perhaps the best surcease, except death,
+from the humiliation, the defeat, and the greater grief that were to
+follow.
+
+Maximilian with a few thousand troops was shut within the city. On the
+night of May 19, 1867, the city was captured, and he was tried and
+condemned to be shot, together with his two trusted Generals, Mejia
+and Miramon. The execution took place two miles out from the city one
+month later. Maximilian said as the fatal pilgrimage was begun, “I am
+ready; it is a beautiful day to die.” Holding the crucifix over his
+breast, as an indication to the soldiers where to fire, and with his
+faithful generals at his side to share the same fate, he received the
+death-dealing bullets. This historical spot is now marked by a chapel
+which has been built in recent years, but until that time three rude
+stones with an iron-railed enclosure were all that were placed to
+commemorate an event so important to Mexico, for thus the last attempt
+ended to plant a monarchy upon this continent.
+
+ [Illustration: AQUEDUCT AT QUERÉTARO.]
+
+The Convent of Santa Clara and the Church of Santa Rosa, both noted
+for their exterior and interior carvings, are the masterpieces of
+Tresguerras, an architect, sculptor, painter and poet. He was born
+in Celaya in 1765, and died there in 1833. These are churches of
+which Querétaro should be proud, as they are incomparable monuments
+of Mexican art. It is difficult to describe the splendor of the
+wonderfully rich wood-carving, heavily gilded, the elaborate and
+graceful metal work, including balconies and grills of wrought iron,
+and the painting and sculpture all from the hand or design of this
+great artist. The old church of San Francisco dates back to 1690.
+
+The public buildings and educational and charitable establishments are
+splendid monuments to the ambition of an exceedingly good government.
+The Civil College, the Conservatory of Music, the Academy of San
+Fernando, and the School of Fine Arts are among the most important
+educational institutions. There are two public hospitals, the Vagara
+Hospital and the Civil Hospital, and many private institutions of this
+kind are extant. The palace of the governor contains all the public
+offices and the halls of legislature. It has also a historical chamber,
+which is full of famous relics that have a bearing on the history
+of the country. Portraits of all the former rulers and many curious
+objects adorn this chamber. The building is a relic of the days of
+Spanish rule and is a remarkable specimen of carving and masonry. It
+was once the residence of Josefa Ortiz, wife of a valiant figure in the
+War for Independence. She gave valuable information which aided in the
+fight for liberty, and enshrined herself in the history of her country.
+
+Señor Coronel Don Francisco Cosio has been governor for many terms. He
+is a distinguished gentleman of honorable ancestry and besides being
+a statesman universally esteemed, is patriotic, public-spirited and
+well-loved by the people.
+
+ [Illustration: MEMORIAL CHAPEL TO MAXIMILIAN, MARKING THE
+ PLACE OF HIS EXECUTION.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: A GENERAL VIEW OF ZACATECAS.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXV
+
+ ZACATECAS
+
+
+Zacatecas is celebrated for its enormous output of silver. It is an
+inland State south of Durango and surrounded by Coahuila and San Luis
+Potosí, Aguascalientes and Jalisco. The hilly country of the middle and
+west is interspersed with wide valleys and deep gorges and ravines,
+furnishing a variety of wild and beautiful scenery. It has long ranked
+first in importance among the mining regions of Mexico. The State is
+poorly watered, there being no large streams. Mining is the chief
+industry, although agriculture is extensively and profitably carried on.
+
+Zacatecas is a picturesque city lying in a deep gorge of the mountains
+about three hundred miles northeast of the capital. It is called the
+Jerusalem of Mexico. It has many churches, hospitals, a mint and good
+schools and a literary institute founded in 1868. The first mine was
+discovered in September, 1546. On July 1, 1818, it was estimated that
+the total output of the mines since their discovery aggregated the
+sum of seven hundred million dollars. These silver mines are steadily
+producing an increased quantity of ore.
+
+The city is reached by a steep slope from the railway station and the
+narrow streets are wonderfully clean. Everywhere the little courtyards
+are seen through open doorways. There are many market-places and the
+central one has a great stone fountain around which at almost every
+hour of the day may be seen women and children with great red earthen
+jars and little gourd-shaped cups which they use to fill the jars.
+
+ [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, ZACATECAS]
+
+To see Zacatecas one must go down a steep side street to the beautiful
+old church with its great façade of curved freestone and three unique
+spires and the arcade covered with its double row of arches. Everything
+glows with color--the sky, the frescoes, the flowers, the trees, the
+gaily dressed people and the broad stone seats. The inner court of
+the government patio is finished with a dado and frieze of blue and
+yellow; the slender pillars in double columns between the arches of
+the first and second floors are brilliant with stencilled wreaths of
+flowers; the broad stone steps curving away to the upper galleries are
+ornamented with pots of tropical plants. From a corner of one of these
+galleries one sees a beautiful picture. The red sandstone towers of the
+cathedral, with their artistic carving, are barbaric in splendor and
+still harmonious. Against the sapphire sky their outlines are wonderful
+and there is no end of novelty.
+
+The low-topped houses and domed churches remind one of Palestine. Far
+up on the mountain called “La Bufa” is the shrine which the Mexican
+devotees visit to obtain remission of their sins, many of them scaling
+the steep sides of the mountain upon their hands and knees as an
+exceptional self-imposed penance. The people wear their peculiarly
+picturesque garb and should it be Sunday and the band playing in
+the plaza the moving throngs form a veritable kaleidoscopic scene,
+wonderfully pleasing to the eye.
+
+Water is comparatively scarce in Zacatecas. The fountains in the plaza
+are always thronged with people and as early as four o’clock each
+morning men and women of the poorer classes are at the fountain filling
+their jars with water, which they sell to later arrivals at a centavo
+for four gallons, the quantity a jar holds.
+
+There are schools, hospitals and markets, the latter with their many
+varieties of fruit unknown in other countries. Many of the vendors
+spread shawls on the pavement and divide their articles into sundry
+little piles, each of which is sold for one cent. These sometimes
+consist of cooked articles, and many a passer-by gets a meal for that
+sum. One market-place is devoted entirely to potteries.
+
+ [Illustration: FAÇADE OF CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The principal interest of the people of Zacatecas is mining. Among the
+public buildings is the Aduana, built of red sandstone with handsome
+carving around the entrance and the yard. Then there is the new
+public market, a fine theatre with pretty decorations and all modern
+improvements. Close to the market is the Cathedral, built of red
+stone, with a wonderful front on three sides magnificently carved. The
+interior is equally rich. Toward the back of the theatre is the old
+church and convent of Santo Domingo. This formerly was very large,
+and the centre of the Inquisition, as were all the convents of the
+Dominican Order almost everywhere. The portion forming the convent is
+now the city prison; the old church and the chapter assembly-room still
+belong to the order of Santo Domingo.
+
+This church was the first one built in the State of Zacatecas and
+was erected between 1560 and 1570. All that remains to show that
+it belonged to the Inquisition under the Dominican Order is the
+assembly-room or “Sala de Actas.” The decoration of the church is very
+fine. The next place of interest is the church and convent of San
+Francisco. The church is small and very poor; the front is of carved
+stone, and the interior decoration appears to have been very rich in
+former years. The convent now is almost in ruins, a small part being
+used as a _meson_, another as a dwelling place for the poorer
+class, a small piece as a brickyard, but by far the greater portion
+has become dilapidated with age and neglect. The old convent of San
+Augustin has been almost entirely turned into dwelling houses, but the
+church, a very fine building, has been left entire, and belongs to the
+Presbyterian missions.
+
+Huge stone walls and mountain sides are everywhere, with patches of
+green here and there, making up a picturesque combination.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, ZACATECAS]
+
+There are several silver mines in the vicinity of Zacatecas, some of
+them exceedingly valuable. The principal mining districts in the State,
+besides Zacatecas, are Fresnillo, Sombrerete, Chalchihuites, Nieves,
+Piños, Mazapil, Ojo, Caliente and Mezquital del Oro. These furnish,
+in addition to large quantities of gold and silver, copper, tin,
+lead, iron, cobalt, antimony, cinnebar, arsenic, sulphur, and alum.
+The products of these mines average yearly from five to six million
+dollars, the mint coining five hundred thousand dollars per month.
+
+This place is renowned for health, and no case of consumption was ever
+known there.
+
+Guadalupe, a suburb of nine thousand people some six miles distant, can
+be reached by tramway. The cars, operated by the gravitation system,
+start slowly but are soon whirling down the steep hills, passing by
+the queer adobe houses, the track now crossing over a bridge beneath
+which are seen droves of burros carrying the ore from the mines. Again,
+through a gulch around some huge boulders or past the yawning mouth
+of some mine, the magnificent views and the varied objects creating a
+thousand vivid impressions.
+
+The Cathedral of Guadalupe with its tiled dome and its beautiful
+surroundings, presents a delightful appearance as one approaches
+through the plaza planted thickly with roses and countless varieties
+of flowers. Upon the altar are life-sized figures representing the
+crucifixion, and in the background is a painting of the hill of
+Calvary with the attending Roman soldiers and the Jews grouped around.
+Attached to the cathedral is an art gallery containing many magnificent
+paintings, the subjects drawn from the Holy Scriptures and in their
+treatment showing the work of some master hand. The new chapel on
+the north of the cathedral, the gift of a lady of great wealth, is
+considered one of the finest in the world. The steps leading to the
+altar are of onyx, only the rarest kind being used. The rail of the
+altar is of solid silver, and the altar itself in parts is constructed
+of solid silver and gold.
+
+The remains of an old convent is occupied by a school. In this
+institution there are over two hundred boys from the poorer classes
+of Guadalupe and Zacatecas, who are being taught the trades of
+wool-working and weaving, printing, bookbinding, carpentry, carriage
+and car-building, blacksmithing, and shoemaking. The blankets made
+here are equal in manufacture to any that might be bought either in
+the States or in Europe. This school was awarded medals at the Paris
+Exposition of 1887, and at the Exposition at Chicago, 1893, for
+woollen and silk goods made on the premises. Music and the English
+language are also important branches taught here. The establishment is
+self-supporting and certainly is well worth visiting. This is the pet
+institution of Governor Zarate, who manifests the deepest interest in
+the progress of the pupils. He is an able executive and shows great
+wisdom in the direction of the affairs of the State.
+
+There is a new theatre, a magnificent hospital of rose-colored stone,
+fitted with all the requirements of modern science; an elaborate system
+of lighting; a school for girls, with ample grounds and all the latest
+appliances known to educators; a science institute; a normal school
+for boys and other public schools and improvements of importance to
+the capital city. This policy has not been confined to the seat of
+local government, however, as many useful improvements have been made
+throughout the State, including new schools, city halls, public gardens
+and markets. A word should be added in praise of the fine system of
+education in Zacatecas. The State spends nearly three million dollars
+in primary and higher public institutions. There are about twenty-five
+thousand students with two thousand more in private schools maintained
+by other individuals.
+
+ [Illustration: THE CHURCH OF GUADALUPE, ZACATECAS.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, DURANGO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THEATRE, DURANGO.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXVI
+
+ DURANGO
+
+
+Durango is politically divided into thirteen districts, which are
+subdivided into municipalities; these districts are Durango, Mapimí,
+Santiago Papasquiaro, Tamazula, San Juan del Rio, Cuencamo, Nombre de
+Dios, El Oro, Indé, Nazas, San Juan de Guadalupe, Mezquital and San
+Dimas.
+
+The climate varies according to the different altitudes. In the extreme
+northwest the peaks of the Sierra Madre and Tarahumara are perpetually
+covered with snow and in contrast to that the heat of the southeastern
+portion is extremely tropical. The rest of the State possesses an even
+temperature and this combined with the richness of the fields attracted
+many settlers, who for generations have lived here and have enjoyed
+the fruits of this bountiful land. The proof of this is that one
+family having settled here remains forever. Among the natives there
+is a great characteristic of hospitality, and frankness, and a certain
+romanticism remains.
+
+The principal resources are mineral and agricultural, one ranking with
+the other but still unexploited to the best possibilities. Under a
+reign of peace, the progress of this State is in close competition with
+the other States of the Union. With natural riches and resources this
+State should rank among the first.
+
+Statistics change naturally with the progress of the country, and
+with the rapid strides that are daily taking place in the affairs of
+an important State it is impossible to give a correct idea of all the
+enterprises.
+
+Another great source of wealth is the fine wood, which is of such
+varied production and estimable quality as to attract the attention of
+the world. This branch of production is exploited on a small scale and
+is not cultivated as it deserves. Also cereals and every agricultural
+product are fast reaching the point of development that will elevate
+this State to one of great importance.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LICENCIADO DON ESTEBAN FERNANDEZ,
+ GOVERNOR OF DURANGO.]
+
+In mining the State of Durango ranks very high. This industry while
+still in its embryonic state is incalculable in riches of precious
+metals and building stone. Through this branch of industry, cities
+with beautiful plazas, splendid homes have sprung up and changes on
+the highway to prosperity under the protection of the wise laws have
+demonstrated all that the progress of a country demands. Gold, silver,
+lead, iron, zinc, sulphur, and coal are the principal minerals. In
+the parts of the State that the railroads traverse there are many
+flourishing mines. In Valardeña there is a great smelter with all the
+modern improvements.
+
+The iron found in Durango is the finest in the world. It has been
+studied by mineralogists, who marvel at it. There is one large
+mountain called Cerro del Mercado, which has attracted a great deal
+of attention. The iron in its native state contains ninety three and
+three-tenths of oxide of iron. Much iron has been extracted without
+seeming to lessen the amount that exists.
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNOR’S PALACE, DURANGO.]
+
+At present there are one hundred and nineteen mining industries in
+exploitation, employing twenty-five thousand workmen, and fifteen
+million dollars’ worth of mineral is exported yearly.
+
+Durango abounds in industries. There are small cities that have their
+manufactories whose products are confined to the State on account of
+the high rate of freight with which they have to contend. There are
+cotton mills, distilleries, wood manufactories, dynamite factories and
+flour mills, all in a flourishing condition. Financial crises that
+often affect the nation seldom trouble this State. Very rarely do the
+industries suffer the depression experienced in many other States.
+We find also thirty electric light works, and many manufactories of
+cigars and cigarettes give steady employment to the people. Telegraph
+lines extend throughout the country. Telephones connect with all
+parts. New roads are being built and the government officials are in
+every way assisting the enterprises in the interior by proper means of
+communication within their possibilities.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR LICENCIADO DON ALBERTO CINCUNEGUI,
+ SECRETARY OF STATE.]
+
+In the year 1892, the first railroad in this State was built. In
+all, there are about ten hundred and seventy-nine miles of railroad,
+including a short electric line. The prolongation of the lines through
+the great merger-system will be of great benefit to this State. The
+increase in the number of public schools in all districts has been
+remarkable. Durango occupies one of the first places of all the States
+of the Union in its rapid progress on the question of instruction. All
+the schools combine the best conditions of cleanliness and sanitation.
+One-fifth of the sum for public improvement goes toward instruction.
+
+ [Illustration: CERRO DEL MERCADO.]
+
+The capital is Durango, which is beautifully situated some seven
+thousand feet above the sea. It was founded in 1560, by Alonzo Pacheco
+as a military station, and soon after was made an Episcopal See. The
+most noteworthy buildings are the government house, the cathedral, a
+number of parish churches, a spacious hospital, a penitentiary and a
+state prison. There are attractive public gardens, public squares, and
+public baths. Thermal springs supply the city with water and the place
+is remarkable for cleanliness. The mint at Durango coined twenty-seven
+million nine hundred and sixty-two thousand six hundred and sixty-eight
+dollars between 1811 and 1845. There is an institute in which law,
+languages, and the sciences are taught, with several very good public
+and private schools.
+
+There are large mineral districts around the capital not yet explored,
+and Americans have found some good gold bearing properties. The people
+are rich and contented, and the resident merchants do not care to have
+competition. The fact that there are no failures is a good indication
+of solidity. The developed mining district is very rich and the cattle
+industry is large. Cotton, woollen, and print-mills represent large
+capital. The climate is perfect all the year; never lower than twenty
+degrees above zero nor higher than eighty. The people are getting
+more enterprising, after nineteen years of railroad communication,
+but Durango is a solid, business place, entirely able to exist
+independently of the world.
+
+ [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO PENITENTIARY, DURANGO.]
+
+The agricultural interests in the State have not been neglected, the
+situation being especially favorable to the cultivation of cotton as
+well as other profitable crops. A ready market is found in the City of
+Mexico for all the State products.
+
+The rich agricultural district surrounding Lerdo is under irrigation
+and from eighty to one hundred thousand bales of cotton are raised here
+yearly in addition to the corn, cane, beans and fruits. A few miles
+out from Durango is the Fabrica del Tunal, one of the oldest cotton
+factories in the country, having been established by the father of the
+present owner, Señor Emilio Stahlknecht, in 1837. This establishment
+includes bleaching and print works, and its products of fine cloths
+are known everywhere as among the finest cotton goods of Mexican
+manufacture. The governor of this State realizes that the happiness of
+the people and law abiding conditions depend greatly on education.
+
+To Governor Esteban Fernandez the State owes a great deal of the
+changes, for there is nothing necessary for the progress of Durango
+that this ambitious governor fails to do. He has made it a life study
+to lift his State to a splendid prosperity, and with the rich resources
+and the high minded people who co-operate with him, he has elevated his
+country to a high standard and has carried through all his enterprises
+with great brilliancy. He is an intimate friend of the President,
+and during the Centennial he had many _fêtes_ in honor of the
+Independence. Monuments were unveiled and schools opened and many
+ceremonies were held in appropriate celebration of this great occasion.
+
+The City of Durango is noted for its wonderful police regulation. It is
+well lighted and offers every advantage for the establishment of great
+enterprises. Its climate makes it a unique place for recreation as here
+one finds an unbroken springtime.
+
+ [Illustration: ALAMEDA, DURANGO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ CHIHUAHUA
+
+
+Separated from the United States of America by the Rio Grande,
+Chihuahua is the largest State in the Republic. It cannot be termed a
+beautiful State from a scenic point of view, but there are parts where
+it furnishes picturesque scenery not to be outrivalled anywhere in
+the world. A prolongation of the Sierra Madre mountains traverses the
+western part of the State and is rich in minerals. It is practically
+an undulating tableland, the plains averaging four thousand to five
+thousand feet above the sea, while the mountain-tops rarely rise more
+than a thousand feet higher. The climate is pleasant, the seasons being
+about like those of southern Texas.
+
+The capital city, Chihuahua, has a large mixed population: English
+is as much spoken as Spanish, and many American enterprises and
+manufactories give it an air of progress. It is distinctly a mining
+State. Numerous and important exploitations of silver ore has been
+made for many years. The mines of Chihuahua have been celebrated for
+centuries. The most important are Batopilas, Santa Eulalia, Parral,
+Cerro Colorado and Minas Nuevas. Santa Eulalia is the famous mining
+camp to which Chihuahua owes its origin and prosperity. It is still one
+of the great silver-lead producers of the world. Batopilas became noted
+for its ruby silver at an early period, and is best known for both
+quality and quantity.
+
+Batopilas has only about four thousand inhabitants and is located on
+the river of the same name, a mountain stream low and quiet during nine
+months in the year, but during the rainy season rising to a mighty
+torrent. Owing to the steady work in the mines this town is more
+advanced than others in the vicinity. The Batopilas mines are among the
+richest in the world, although in this State there are others which
+rank almost equally well.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE IN CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+In cattle-raising the State of Chihuahua is one of the most important.
+The temperate climate and the fertile fields serve to nourish thousands
+of head, which are shipped to points in the Republic and to the United
+States. The price of pasture lands is low, owing to much undeveloped
+land. The stock is thoroughly healthy and the government maintains a
+strict quarantine on all imported animals.
+
+The ride over the Mexican Central route down through Chihuahua
+furnishes an ever-changing series of infinitely interesting views. The
+distant heights are rich in mineral dyes and exquisite in outline.
+Through some break in the hills one catches a glimpse of an exquisite
+valley with slanting sunlight streaming across it. Silent faraway
+cities, forests of cacti and yucca plants, and a host of brilliant
+flowers are always fleeting backward until the approach to Chihuahua
+brings one to the first distinctly Mexican city. Purpled mountains are
+in the distance below, two large steeples of the cathedral dominate the
+landscape, and low flat roofed houses lie along the reddish horizon
+with a truly oriental effect.
+
+ [Illustration: MONUMENT TO JUAREZ, CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+Inside the city streets, long colonnades with arches outside the houses
+offer shelter from the mid-day sun, and the outer walls are frescoed
+in pastel colors. Broad stone seats with high backs line the principal
+streets while clumps of Mexican aloes and prickly cacti hedge the
+roadway.
+
+The Cathedral faces the beautiful Plaza de la Constitucion. It was
+completed in 1789, being under construction about fifty years. There is
+a barbaric richness of ornamentation about the façade of this beautiful
+edifice, carved in solid stone by native artists. Within its sacred
+portals and under the flickering lights of the altars many troubled
+souls find solace.
+
+Chihuahua was founded in 1698, but the town proper was not built
+until 1718, and it was elevated to the dignity of a city in 1824. Its
+principal public buildings are monuments of art and industry. The
+governor’s palace is a gray stone building covering a square, with wide
+balconies and a large courtyard. It is not only a handsome building
+but it is furnished with an elegance and a refinement of taste that is
+so indicative of the Mexican people. Most Mexican towns are built in
+the Mexican style with plazas and garden spots and one-storied houses,
+but in this city there are evidences of the foreigner and it has the
+appearance of some of the Texan cities. In the Plaza de Hidalgo is a
+monument commemorating the execution on the spot of the first heroes of
+Mexican independence.
+
+As the scene of several historical events Chihuahua has many monuments
+to the nation’s heroes. The city is very much Americanized: banking
+houses and investment companies are well organized institutions.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF HIDALGO, CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+There are hospitals, houses of correction, military schools and the
+State Normal School, which has a very high standard of education. A
+technical or industrial school for young ladies has been of great
+benefit to young women who are called upon to support themselves by
+their own efforts, and it is one of the prides of the city.
+
+Public education receives much attention and is conducted in a most
+progressive manner. Among the most important schools are the Scientific
+and Literary Institute, which consists of preparatory, special and
+professional courses. There are also departments of commercial,
+industrial, mechanical, mining and farming and these embrace a very
+practical course of learning.
+
+ [Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+In Ciudad Juarez, a school of agriculture has been installed under the
+supervision of the Government.
+
+Industry is taking a firm hold in the State. All enterprises have the
+full encouragement and protection of the government. There are several
+smelters, a brewery, ice and gaseous water factory, canneries, and iron
+and steel foundries. Arts and crafts establishments abound in all the
+smaller cities.
+
+Chihuahua has the honor of being represented in the Cabinet by Señor
+Don Enrique C. Creel, who was formerly the Mexican ambassador to
+Washington, and the governor of the State. His administration was noted
+for the manner in which he endeavored to elevate the Indians, and
+create in them an ambition to become good and useful citizens, to own
+land and cultivate it. He was called to Mexico to fill the place of the
+late Señor Mariscal.
+
+Shortly after leaving Chihuahua one approaches the smelting works of
+the celebrated Santa Eulalia mine, which was discovered in 1703, and
+not far away is a great hacienda comprising more than sixty thousand
+acres of fine land. On that estate is an adobe palace two hundred feet
+long and one hundred and twenty-five feet wide. The gates and pillars
+are of cut stone, finely carved by natives. It has beautiful towers
+at the angles and a patio within that is as large as the plaza of
+some towns and much more attractive. This hacienda has a yearly crop
+of seventy-five thousand bushels of wheat and of twenty-five thousand
+bushels of corn.
+
+Agriculture was once the great resource of the State, but has given
+place to mining. Farming is carried on in a primitive way. The land is
+rich and all kind of fruits grow in abundance. Alfalfa produces several
+crops a year. Fine timber is found on the mountain slopes.
+
+Escalon is the junction point with the Mexican Northern Railway running
+to the great mining districts of Sierra Mojada, seventy-eight miles
+east of one of the largest carbonate camps in the world.
+
+Paso del Norte, now known as Ciudad Juarez in this State, is the
+connecting link between El Paso, Texas, and the republic. It gets its
+name from Benito Juarez, the first president of Mexico and during the
+occupation of Mexico City by Maximilian it was the seat of government.
+
+ [Illustration: RESIDENCE OF SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL,
+ CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+The people of this city have stood foremost and served as an example
+for their patriotism and loyalty and it was to them that Benito Juarez
+owed his great assistance of food and money in 1865, when the Liberal
+cause was passing through dark and uncertain times.
+
+ [Illustration: THEATRE OF THE HEROES, CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+One of the most interesting spots in the State of Chihuahua is Casas
+Grandes, a town of a few thousand inhabitants on the San Miguel
+River. This place is noted for its ruined houses, which are probably
+the relics of some Indian metropolis. The main features seem to have
+been three large structures connected by ranges of corridors or low
+apartments and enclosing several courtyards of various dimensions. The
+extent from north to south is eight hundred feet, and from east to
+west two hundred and fifty feet. A range of narrow rooms, lighted by
+circular openings near the top, and having enclosures three or four
+feet high in one corner, supposed to be granaries, extends along one
+of the main walls. Many of the apartments are very large, and some of
+the enclosures are too vast ever to have been covered by a roof. About
+two hundred feet west of the main building are three mounds of loose
+stone, which may have been burial places, and two hundred feet west of
+these are the remains of a building one story high and one hundred and
+fifty feet square, consisting of a number of apartments ranged around
+a square court. For twenty leagues along the Casas Grandes and Llanos
+rivers are found artificial mounds from which have been dug up stone
+axes, corn grinders and various articles of pottery, such as pipes,
+jars, pitchers, etc., of a texture far superior to that made by the
+Mexicans of the present day, and generally ornamented with angular
+figures of blue, red, brown, and black, on a red or white ground. The
+best specimens command a high price in Chihuahua and neighboring towns.
+On the summit of a mountain about ten miles from Casas Grandes are the
+remains of an ancient stone fortress which may have been intended as a
+lookout.
+
+Santa Rosalia is famous for its hot springs, which for curative
+properties are claimed by those who have used these waters, to excel
+any known springs in America. They are especially noted for their
+wonderful properties in cases of inflammatory rheumatism and all blood
+and skin diseases.
+
+Jimenez is a city of about nine thousand inhabitants and is the railway
+shipping point for the rich silver mines of the Parral and Guanacevi
+districts. Archæologists find this town interesting on account of the
+enormous meteorites found here. The greatest ones picked up are now in
+the National School of Mines in Mexico City.
+
+ [Illustration: PART OF THE ARCHWAY OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT,
+ CHIHUAHUA.]
+
+ [Illustration: FALLS OF JUANACATLAN, JALISCO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+ JALISCO
+
+
+Jalisco borders on the Pacific Ocean as well as on the States of
+Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Michoacán and Colima. In
+colonial times it was known as the kingdom of Nueva Galicia. There
+are many beautiful valleys and rivers, the largest of the latter, the
+Santiago, being six hundred miles long, rising in Lake Lerma in the
+State of Mexico and flowing through Lake Chapala, which is itself
+seventy miles long and from ten to thirty-five wide. Lake Sayula and
+Magdalena are smaller, but noted for their delicious fish.
+
+The climate of Jalisco varies from generally cold in the higher and
+northern altitudes to delightfully mild in Guadalajara and hot on the
+west coast. The capital of Jalisco is Guadalajara, the population of
+which is estimated at two hundred thousand. The city is beautifully
+located and is constructed with elegant blocks of houses fronting
+on clean, wide and well-paved streets, and the people are noted for
+hospitality, culture and refinement, cheerfulness, politeness and
+frankness of character. It easily holds the position of the Queen
+City of the Republic. Its cathedral, while smaller than that of the
+metropolis, is much handsomer and of greater architectural merit.
+One of the theatres, Degollado, is one of the most beautiful in the
+country. A superb granite penitentiary, built and managed in accordance
+with the latest developments and improvements in that line, is greatly
+admired by visitors. An entire square is covered by the government
+palace, which, while somewhat resembling the national palace in the
+City of Mexico, is even more harmonious and elegant in its architecture.
+
+Captain Juan de Oñate founded the Villa del Espiritu Santo de
+Guadalajara, which name was given to the town in compliment to Guzman,
+whose birthplace was the Spanish city of Guadalajara in New Castile.
+But the site then chosen proved undesirable, and a year or two later
+the town was removed to the Valley of Tlocatlan, not by the free choice
+of the townsfolk, but by the order of the Oidor, where, by a royal
+cedula of the emperor, Charles V., dated November 8, 1536, it was
+granted a coat of arms as a city. But this second site became the more
+distasteful the longer they remained in it, and especially because they
+were exposed to the frequent and cruel assaults of the wild Indians.
+
+Commissioners were appointed to choose a site and decided upon a fair
+valley called Atamazac; and eight days later all the townsfolk went out
+together in good order and in that fair valley made their home. In this
+spirited fashion was the present City of Guadalajara founded in the
+year of our Lord, 1541.
+
+In this city is the celebrated “Assumption” of Murillo, which belongs
+to the cathedral and hangs in the sacristy. Its authenticity is not a
+matter of doubt.
+
+The foundation of this cathedral was laid in 1548. The present building
+was commenced in 1561, and the corner stone was laid in 1571, by Bishop
+Ayala. The building was completed in 1618. Its towers were thrown
+down by the earthquake of 1818, and the clock between the towers was
+badly injured. The interior is rich in decorations and paintings. The
+two towers of this cathedral are wholly unlike any others in Mexico.
+In one of them is the “campanito del correo” the little bell of the
+courier, which rang only in the announcement of some important event.
+Another bell called San Clemente, was in former times rung during
+a thunderstorm to ward off lightning. An important adjunct to the
+cathedral is the Sagrario, a comparatively new structure, commenced in
+1808, and completed in 1843. The churches are numerous and interesting
+historically. In loyalty to the church, Guadalajara is second to no
+other city in Mexico and makes good its claim by works of charity and
+mercy.
+
+One of the most famous of the institutions of Guadalajara is the
+Hospicio. The building is an imposing one of white stone, handsome and
+attractive, covering an entire square, and containing twenty-five
+patios or courts, with fountains, flowers, shrubs, palms and trees,
+from which echo the melodious reverberating songs of children and
+birds, which seem to touch the hearts of all visitors, and to embody
+almost a life in itself. This is not a hospital, as is popularly
+supposed, but a home for the poor of all ages, from the baby in the
+cradle to the aged nearing the grave. The institution is admirably
+managed under authority of the State of Jalisco. Children are taught
+all that may be learned in schools of the highest order, and as they
+grow older they learn some useful occupation in the higher arts and
+sciences. The product of their labor is offered for sale in support of
+the Hospicio and includes some of the most exquisite embroideries and
+laces, made by the girls.
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, GUADALAJARA.]
+
+The public square and jardines in Guadalajara are pretty and well-kept.
+Twice a week and on Sundays an excellent band discourses sweet music in
+the plaza, attracting a large crowd of people. There the best society
+and the prettiest young ladies are seen. By common consent the sexes
+and classes separate on the promenade. The inner or wider promenade
+is reserved for the better class. The gentlemen keep in line on one
+side and in one direction while the ladies do the same in an opposite
+direction, the two streams passing each other constantly.
+
+The plaza is a beautiful garden surrounded by magnificent buildings.
+On one side is the government palace, on another, the cathedral, and
+on the other two sides are long rows of portales, with their graceful
+arches. Guadalajara is one of the brightest of Mexican cities and has
+many charms within its gates. The government building has a modern air
+that is pleasing; its stucco is colored a light gray, and its white
+trimmings are decidedly agreeable to the eye.
+
+The American Club is the general meeting place for Americans of the
+city and vicinity. The Country Club, just organized, is composed of
+Americans and other foreigners, as well as a number of Mexicans. The
+French and German colonies in the city have their respective clubs.
+
+There are two church congregations of Americans and English--the
+Union Church and St. Marks’ Episcopal Mission. The Methodists,
+Congregationalists and Baptists maintain mission schools and chapels.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA.]
+
+The government building has an inscription of a Bible passage. “Nisi
+Dominus custodierit civitatem, frustra vigilat qui custodit eam.”
+“Except the Lord keep the city, the watchman waketh but in vain.”
+
+ [Illustration: DEGOLLADO THEATRE, GUADALAJARA.]
+
+In one of the principal squares is the monument commemorative of
+General Ramón Corona, a brave soldier, whose memory is loved by all
+true Mexicans, and who was assassinated by a lunatic in 1880.
+
+The Chapala Hydro-Electric and Irrigation Company, which owns the water
+rights and franchises, is now installing new plants on the Santiago
+with a capacity of fifteen thousand horse-power to furnish additional
+current to Guadalajara and the mining districts in the northwestern
+part of Jalisco, and this will bring the total production of electrical
+energy of that company up to twenty-five thousand horse-power.
+
+The city is equipped with a successful modern sanitary sewer system,
+constructed by Americans at an immense cost, and has an abundance of
+the purest mountain water, brought through a subterranean aqueduct from
+the Colomos range. Several artesian wells have been bored for auxiliary
+supply to the city system.
+
+The new colonies that have been opened in this city are very beautiful
+and the houses are constructed in splendid style and the architecture
+is exceedingly fine. Many of the English and American residents have
+built mansions and the Country Club is one of the most exclusive clubs
+in the republic. Mr. Samuel E. Magill, the American Consul, is much
+appreciated in Guadalajara. Mexico glories in her watering places and
+pleasure resorts. Lake Chapala is the largest lake in the republic.
+The principal village on this little inland sea is Chapala, where
+there are some famous hot springs and a fine new hotel of modern
+equipment called the Ribera Castellanos. This resort is very convenient
+to Guadalajara. No more charming excursion for a lover of beautiful
+scenery can be found in all Mexico than around this beautiful lake. For
+water-fowl shooting during the fall and winter months and for sailing
+and bathing during the entire year, these shores are delightful. Most
+all the members of Mexican society find themselves there during Holy
+Week and other holidays. The President goes on his yearly hunting
+trip to these parts, accompanied by his son and some members of his
+cabinet and intimates. He is noted for his powers of endurance, often
+outstripping the others in his ardent quest for game.
+
+San Pedro is the favorite suburb of Guadalajara where the famous
+pottery-ware is made. This celebrated pottery is known the world over.
+
+This is a rich agricultural and fruit-growing country, producing large
+crops of wheat, corn and sugar, and the finest oranges that grow in the
+republic.
+
+La Piedad, one of the quaint old places, has a population of some eight
+thousand. La Barca is a city of twelve thousand people, situated on
+the Lerma or Santiago River, near where it empties into Lake Chapala.
+Fifty miles west of La Barca and fifteen miles east of Guadalajara, at
+the station of El Castillo, a tramway conveys passengers to the famous
+Falls of Juanacatlan, justly called the “Niagara of Mexico.” The river
+at this point plunges over a precipice sixty-five feet in height to
+the rocks below, making a picture of grandeur and interest well worth
+seeing.
+
+ [Illustration: THE HOSPICIO, GUADALAJARA.]
+
+Sixteen miles beyond La Barca lies Ocotlan. This pretty place is on
+the River Sula, a short distance above its junction with the Lerma.
+The station is connected with the town by street cars, which run to
+the bridge just above the steamboat landing. Ocotlan is situated on a
+plain which slopes southward a few miles to the shore of the lake. With
+its pretty plaza, its beautiful church spire, its portales, and two
+bridges, Ocotlan is very picturesque.
+
+ [Illustration: PATIO OF THE AMERICAN CONSULATE, GUADALAJARA.]
+
+Atequisa is in sight half a mile away on the left. Atequisa hacienda
+has miles of wheat-fields, hundreds of oxen and other animals and
+thousands of men at work on its farms or ranches. Here are the
+headquarters of the vast estate, storehouses, corrals, workmen’s homes,
+mills, hospitals, school houses and a church, besides the princely
+residence of the owner. There are other fine haciendas, and among those
+may be found the most cordial hospitality in the world. The life of a
+country gentleman here is that of a hermit, in the total absence of all
+society in the nearly unbroken solitude that surrounds him. For leagues
+and leagues there may be no habitation but his own, the nearest village
+may be distant half a day’s journey over an almost impassable road. But
+he is “monarch of all he surveys,” a king among his farm servants and
+Indian workmen. Nothing can exceed the independence of his position.
+
+Capitalists who seek a sure and productive investment for their money
+should take into account not only the richness of the soil, the
+mildness of the climate and the thousand attractions offered by life in
+that zone, but also the assured importance of Guadalajara as a railway
+centre of first rank with facilities for transportation of its varied
+products rapidly, not only to the principal markets of the republic but
+also to those abroad, for which it will have seven or eight points of
+outlet.
+
+One of these products that will seek speedy exportation will be the
+mineral wealth of Jalisco, which exists in great quantities and which
+possesses a richness of which there is now but little known.
+
+There are more than two hundred and fifty mines, the greater number
+being of silver with some traces of gold, three or four of gold, some
+of copper, and others of quicksilver, iron, lead and other metals.
+
+The city of Guadalajara has had for many years a mint in constant
+activity, coining silver and gold from the mines of Jalisco.
+
+Mining in Jalisco is in its infancy and awaits only the energetic and
+decisive action of companies with sufficient capital to astonish the
+continent with the fabulous riches of its veins, many of them as yet
+untouched.
+
+Guadalajara with its constant sunshine, its skies even bluer than those
+of far-famed Italy, and its mellow, genial warmth, is one of the most
+beautiful garden spots of the world.
+
+The intellectual condition of Jalisco is up to the standard of modern
+times and lifts the people into a state above the ordinary. The schools
+are of the best, the State and the cities spending large sums of
+money on them, so that the primaries are being extended even to the
+distant ranches, while the secondary and professional schools rank
+among the best in Mexico. Jalisco’s lawyers have attained the highest
+reputation, her doctors command the respect of all, her engineers have
+attained national fame and her “Seminario de los Obispos” (Seminary of
+the Bishops) is known everywhere as having graduated some of the most
+notable of the Mexican clergy.
+
+ [Illustration: LAKE CHAPALA, JALISCO.]
+
+ [Illustration: THE JUAREZ THEATRE, GUANAJUATO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: VIEW OF THE PORFIRIO DIAZ TUNNEL, GUANAJUATO.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXIX
+
+ GUANAJUATO
+
+
+The peculiar situation of Guanajuato, the capital city, with its
+crooked and irregular streets and its fortress-like houses, makes it
+look very ancient and feudal, and, oddly, amid all this antiquity
+stretch the wires of the telegraph and telephone, linking the old
+civilization with the new in a way that is strangely paradoxical.
+The heart of the city is the Plaza de Mejia Mora, where there is a
+tablet which states that here was born Benito Leon Acosta, Mexico’s
+distinguished engineer and man of science.
+
+It is one of the quaintest and most delightful places in the world, a
+walled city among the mountains, set upon the sides of heights so steep
+that the houses seem to cling to the rock, and that a misstep might
+precipitate one into the midst of the plaza three or four hundred feet
+below.
+
+This lovely, bewildering spot is full of lanes and archways and winding
+market-places, where the picturesque people seem to be selling every
+oddity imaginable. The upper balconies of the beautiful homes are gay
+with awnings and flowers; the old church of the Jesuits with its fine
+arches of soft pink stone and carvings like lace-work is magnificent;
+the overhanging hills show brilliantly against the blue sky wherever
+one turns; through a hundred different arches some vision of
+slender-pillared inner courts, bright with blossoms and fresh greenery,
+continually flashes out.
+
+The climate of Guanajuato is temperate; no extremes of heat or cold.
+It is a land of blue skies and fresh breezes; the atmosphere is clear
+and invigorating. Mellow sunlight pours its flood of gold on fruitful
+fields. The forests are rich in timber of great value. Guanajuato is
+one of the oldest mining regions of the New World. Only one-fourth of
+the area of the State has been scientifically explored, and yet there
+are already over three hundred mines perfectly studied and capable of
+giving good profits.
+
+ [Illustration: EL CARMEN CHURCH, CELAYA.]
+
+The celebrated mines of Valenciana, discovered in 1770, and abandoned
+during the War of Independence, in 1810, had up to that time produced
+two hundred and seventy-one million dollars. Baron de Humboldt, on his
+visit to Guanajuato, found a shaft eight hundred feet deep. He made a
+special study of these mines, an account of which is to be found in his
+records.
+
+The earliest settlers were the Tarascan Indians who, upon arriving
+here, found a large stone in the shape of a frog, of which they made
+an idol, and they named the site of the future city Guanajuato, or the
+Hill of the Frogs. It was founded in 1554 and made a city in 1741. The
+site of the city was a gift from Mendoza to Don Roderigo Vasques, one
+of the conquistadores, as a reward for his military services.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, GUANAJUATO.]
+
+The curious and picturesque cemetery of Guanajuato or “pantheón,” is
+among the “sights.” The burial place is on the top of a steep hill
+which overlooks the city. The pantheón is enclosed by high walls
+entered through ponderous gates. The dead are buried for the little
+time that the peculiar dryness of the soil and air takes to mummify
+them. Then they are filed away in pigeon-holes in the walls. When the
+rentals cease the partially mummified remains are taken out of the
+pigeon-holes and corded up in subterranean chambers tunneled out of
+solid rock. Here the skeleton-guarded walls are musty, the light is
+pale and gruesome and the air is laden with the odor of the decaying
+dead. On all sides are the spectral forms. They are arranged upright
+around the walls, and there they keep their silent vigil until
+disintegration. A few years ago, when William Jennings Bryan visited
+Guanajuato he was horrified on seeing these mummies in the catacombs
+and suggested to the authorities that they be covered, as the sight
+was very offensive to him. Out of respect for the opinion of their
+distinguished visitor the municipal authorities have voted sufficient
+funds to keep these mummies properly garbed. It is almost as gruesome a
+sight to see them now clothed in long flowing robes as it was when they
+were disinterred and placed there.
+
+The Manuel Gonzalez Dam was commenced on the 5th of March, 1889, during
+the governorship of General Manuel Gonzalez, the former president of
+Mexico, and completed in 1893. The material employed is a metamorphic
+deposit known in the locality as green rock, and exceedingly handsome.
+In the ornaments are used sandstone of different colors. The effect
+of these combinations is beautiful beyond description, and all these
+varied materials are the products of the immediate locality. A
+wall, containing over forty thousand cubic metres, has been built,
+measuring one hundred and sixty-six metres in thickness at the base, or
+foundation, and twenty-four at the upper part. The maximum height in
+the interior is thirty-three metres and eighty-eight centimetres. This
+dam contains one million six hundred thousand cubic metres of water. On
+account of the short distance from the capital, only about three miles,
+and the difference of the height of the ground, the City of Guanajuato
+is supplied with water enough for all its needs and it will be possible
+to establish hydraulic motors of calculable usefulness.
+
+The picturesque and dangerous stream which churned its way through the
+centre of the town causing many times great disasters by flood and
+wrecking properties at different intervals no longer wreaks this damage
+as Guanajuato is now protected from this inundation by a wonderful
+tunnel called the Porfirio Diaz. It is the work of Governor Joaquin
+Obregon Gonzalez, who has caused so many innovations and improvements
+in the city.
+
+ [Illustration: THE MANUEL GONZALEZ DAM, GUANAJUATO.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: PLAZA, COLIMA.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXX
+
+ COLIMA
+
+
+The old realm of Colima was founded by the Aztecs, who made pilgrimages
+to this part of the country thinking to find a place to establish their
+empire. Their capital was situated in Cojitlan about twenty miles from
+the coast. Under the dominion of Spain it was a much larger territory
+than it now comprises. In 1824 it formed part of the State of Jalisco,
+in 1836 it was included in the State of Michoacán, but in 1846, it
+became a territory of the republic. During these distinct epochs it
+was governed first by sub-delegates and later by jefe-politicos,
+many of whom were foreigners. Owing to the remoteness from the seat
+of government there were many abuses of the people and the lack of
+transportation was a great drawback to their progress. Following the
+downfall of Santa Anna, General Comonfort occupied the Plaza de Colima
+in 1855, after having conquered Zapotlan, now the city of Guzman. In
+1856, the popular movement of Ayutla obtained a general benefit to the
+country and the War of Reform wrested the entire republic from the
+crippling grasp of the church and started the people in a career of
+advancement.
+
+The geographical position is good and has been of great value to Colima
+in her progress.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, COLIMA.]
+
+The port of Manzanillo, which is a natural harbor, is an open door to
+all foreign trade and lately the establishment of important commercial
+intercourse has given the country fine opportunities. Every resource
+which nature has so bounteously bestowed is cultivated. With ambition
+and the liberal education of the people this State ranks as one of
+importance. The sanitary conditions have greatly improved through the
+vigilance of the Federal government, and all danger of fever that was
+once a drawback to Colima has been wiped out. There is a constant
+influx from all parts of the republic and foreign immigration is
+steadily increasing. One of the largest colonies is composed of staunch
+and representative Germans.
+
+ [Illustration: CATHEDRAL, COLIMA.]
+
+Newspapers and other publications have a firm footing, and many
+scientific and social societies are composed of the best sons of the
+State.
+
+ [Illustration: AT THE FOOT OF THE COLIMA VOLCANO.]
+
+The most important rivers are the Armería, Coahuayana, the Sihuatlan,
+Maravasco, Chocala, Paticajo, and Mamey are all formed from one
+enormous stream and flow in different directions to the Pacific. On the
+south and southeast the Coahuayana separates this State from Michoacán
+as far as the Puente del Naranjo or the mouth of the Apiza, while the
+River Tuxpan separates Jalisco from Colima.
+
+ [Illustration: MAGUAY GROWING AT THE FOOT OF THE COLIMA VOLCANO.]
+
+The physical aspect of this coast State presents an admirable
+mixture of beautiful scenery. With chains of mountains like a great
+amphitheatre, the magnificent volcanoes, covered with snow, or seething
+with fire, the splendid vegetation which presents itself in every
+locality and the nearness to the Pacific Ocean give it a distinctness
+of type that is very interesting. Rivers coursing down the mountains
+and placid lakes reflecting the rays of the sun and tropical fruits
+growing in greatest abundance add to the joys of the traveller who
+finds himself on the way to Guadalajara, while the magnificent view
+of the stately Colima with its snow glistening in the light and
+the multi-colored clouds that fleck the skies above form a striking
+contrast to the deep and dangerous looking barrancas.
+
+From the cold air of the volcanic country to the warm tropical climes,
+every vegetation known exists and the richness of the products cannot
+be excelled. The Volcano of Colima, which is forty miles from the
+capital, is eleven thousand eight hundred and eight feet high. It has
+been in eruption since 1869. The beautiful sight of this mountain with
+its clouds of fire and smoke, its molten lava running down the sides,
+can be witnessed for many miles.
+
+ [Illustration: RESIDENCE OF COLONEL EDGAR K. SMOOT,
+ MANZANILLO.]
+
+The largest lakes are Cuyutlan, which is navigable, San Pedrito, north
+of Manzanillo, and the Calabazo and Alcuzahue, in the municipality of
+Ixtlahuacán.
+
+At the port of Manzanillo the government has built a splendid
+breakwater and the harbor is one of the finest in the world. The coasts
+bathed by the great Pacific are ragged and dangerous, but there are
+some fine pleasure resorts, notably Cuyutlán, where many families go
+during the months of March, April and May. In the forests woods of all
+kinds flourish. Among them resinous, medicinal, and dye-woods are found
+in great profusion.
+
+The government of this State is noted for its liberal and progressive
+attitude. Public benefits supply sufficient funds for hospitals and
+all establishments of charity and protection. The national railways of
+Mexico unite Manzanillo to the interior and have been of great benefit
+to the commercial conditions. The telephone system is well established
+between the ports and the capital and many branch lines extend to the
+neighboring haciendas.
+
+The last census shows sixty-five thousand one hundred and thirty
+inhabitants. In the city of Colima the principal buildings are very
+imposing and beautiful. The Government Palace, the Santa Cruz Theatre,
+the Market de la Madrid, the Porfirio Diaz High School and the
+Cathedral are among these. The new Porfirio Diaz Hospital is being
+built on a very approved plan.
+
+ [Illustration: COLIMA IN ERUPTION.]
+
+Since the origin of the State there have been twenty-eight governors,
+some elected by popular vote and others as substitutes. The present
+governor, Señor Licenciado Enrique O. de la Madrid, has been eight
+years in office and his splendid administration has regulated the
+destiny of the State.
+
+ [Illustration: SUMMIT OF COLIMA VOLCANO.]
+
+He was born in the City of Colima on the 22d of March, 1862, and comes
+from one of the most distinguished families on the west coast. His high
+moral attitude and his splendid executive ability have caused the
+people of his State to realize that the reins of government could find
+no better hands for guidance than his. Besides numerous public works
+and great improvements in cities and ports, one of the greatest events
+during his gubernatorial period is the opening of the railroad which
+unites the coast to the capital of the nation. On the 12th of December,
+1909, General Porfirio Diaz formally opened this railroad, assisted
+by the Vice-President, Señor Don Ramón Corral, Señor Don Leandro
+Fernandez, Governor de la Madrid and many distinguished people.
+
+ [Illustration: PACK TRAIN ON THE ROAD TO COLIMA.]
+
+ [Illustration: IRRIGATING CANAL, CULIACAN.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO MAZATLAN.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXXI
+
+ THE WEST COAST
+
+
+There is always interest in observing the progress of a people, their
+gradual conquest over evil conditions and their energy in removing all
+obstacles which stand in the way of advancement. The demonstration of
+strength and determination which result in triumph, stimulates the
+energies of men of all countries, and the gratification that is gained
+through overcoming difficulties becomes a natural pride. This example
+the Mexican nation has shown to the world.
+
+SINALOA owes a great part of her progress to the people. The actual
+government, comprised of sons of the State, is a body of men of
+action and intelligence, and the welfare of the country is their
+first consideration. All public works and improvements are jealously
+protected and every class of enterprise, mineral, commercial, maritime,
+industrial, educational and agricultural are prosecuted to the full
+extent of possible development.
+
+As a maritime State she possesses a wonderful future. Mazatlan has
+become a great Mexican port of the Pacific and is in close competition
+with the port of Vera Cruz, though neither are rivals, on account of
+their geographical positions. The country is well supplied with banking
+and commercial facilities and vast enterprises for land development
+have taken hold here. Railroad service and quick communication with
+the Pacific have given Sinaloa a wider scope, developing with greater
+rapidity all this western stretch of territory which has hitherto been
+confined to a small area.
+
+The Southern Pacific Railroad connects the United States with the
+port of Mazatlan and opens one of the richest undeveloped mining and
+agricultural sections in the country. In a few years Sinaloa, under the
+dominion of energetic and enterprising citizens, will become one of the
+garden spots of America.
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNOR DIEGO REDO, SINALOA.]
+
+The mineral and agricultural elements have greatly advanced and
+enriched the State and she is on the road to become a most powerful
+industrial centre.
+
+Sinaloa is a maritime State and compares most favorably with all coast
+territories. The situation between the great Gulf of California and the
+Pacific is most enviable and all active movements of communication are
+practical and convenient.
+
+The mineral zones that have been exploited are famous throughout
+the world for their riches. There are many precious metals in the
+picturesque mountains and judging from the prolific production of the
+relatively few enterprises now at work, a rich and incalculable fortune
+awaits the prospector.
+
+In the northern part of the State is the great silver belt. El Fuerte
+district has extensive gold-placer ground.
+
+The climatic conditions are excellent. The fruit and flowers are of
+superior quality and in the high and mountainous regions all the
+products of a temperate climate exist in profusion and are easily
+cultivated. There is plenty of good land at the disposition of foreign
+colonists and the government is always eager to place every advantage
+before the settler. A great number of foreigners are living in this
+country and they have all the rights and obligations of the natives.
+
+Rivers and extensive irrigating plants make the land fertile and with
+many canals and plenty of water-power immense quantities of electrical
+power can be supplied to all enterprises and industries that exist and
+to those that may become established in the future.
+
+ [Illustration: NEW MOUNTAIN ROAD AT MAZATLAN.]
+
+The principal sugar estates are the El Dorado, La Aurora, the
+Navaolota, Los Mochis, and El Aguila.
+
+El Dorado is one of the finest sugar plantations in the republic. It is
+located on the San Lorenzo River. It is connected with the main line of
+the Southern Pacific by a branch from Quila. This hacienda is equipped
+with the best machinery and produces fine cube sugar.
+
+ [Illustration: THE HARBOR, MAZATLAN.]
+
+The writer spent some days at El Dorado and was the recipient of
+most charming courtesies and was initiated into the intricacies of
+sugar-making.
+
+La Aurora hacienda is in the outskirts of the city of Culiacan. This
+sugar estate has been under cultivation for years and is noted for its
+purity of product.
+
+The name of Redo has been associated with the State of Sinaloa for
+over half a century. Señor Joaquin Redo, the father of the governor,
+founded many industries, among them sugar factories, steel plants, and
+iron foundries, and it is natural that Señor Diego Redo takes such
+an interest in the State his forefathers helped to build. He is one
+of the most progressive men in the republic and has done so much for
+the advancement of every enterprise in his State that he is loved and
+respected by all, from the humblest peon to the greatest statesman.
+There is no doubt that the young governor, who not forty years old, has
+set the pace for energetic and modern advancement. He has taken the
+initiative in promoting every form of fruit culture and agricultural
+development. In the establishment of the Agricultural Mortgage Bank
+now in contemplation he will accomplish an incalculable benefit to the
+State. In this movement he has the co-operation of strong interests
+in the United States and in the Federal District. This will be a great
+acquisition and will materially aid in the construction of irrigation
+works and other enterprises which are necessary to the success of the
+State.
+
+ [Illustration: PLAZA DE LA REPUBLICA, MAZATLAN.]
+
+The building of many cities is one of the plans of the governor and
+by his aggressive attitude in the actual progress of his State he is
+determined to make Sinaloa one of the most important in the Union. The
+first thing accomplished with the aid of the State legislators was
+the establishment of an engineering corps. This corps costs the State
+about sixty thousand dollars a year and is composed of the finest
+engineers obtainable. Surveys of the entire country are made, sites
+for cities are located and the proper locations of the big valleys
+and level of the streams are obtained. In this way, it was discovered
+that the Sinaloa River makes a loop of about eighteen miles and then
+passes itself within a distance of only one hundred and sixty metres.
+The division of the river is by a single mountain ridge through which
+a tunnel is to be bored. This will afford a sufficient drop to produce
+more than six hundred horse-power and at the same time supply the
+immediate valley with plenty of water for irrigating purposes. Through
+this means of survey the sites of some of these cities has been located.
+
+Governor Redo is noted for his policy and perception and is always a
+prominent figure in ceremonials where the distinguished men of the
+country are gathered, and when a new building is dedicated or a new
+railroad inaugurated, this gentleman is always present.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, CULIACAN.]
+
+On the opening of the Tucson and West Coast of Mexico Railway an
+important link was formed in an interoceanic and international line,
+from the shores of the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Ocean on the west
+shores of the Republic of Mexico. Citizens of the two great republics
+met and ceremonies befitting so great an occasion were held. An
+intelligent and delicate tribute was paid to the meeting of General
+Diaz and President Taft by Governor Redo in an appropriate address, of
+which is given the following extract: “The joyous echoes of the feasts
+held in El Paso and Ciudad Juarez on the occasion of the meeting of
+our Presidents are still resounding in the hearts of Americans and
+Mexicans. We still recall the words of President Diaz affirming in the
+name of the Mexican nation the reciprocity of the cordial sentiments
+which on this solemn occasion were evinced by the countrymen of the
+immortal Washington;” and the words of President Taft expressing in
+the name of the people of the United States the same sacred sentiments
+of friendship and ‘their profound admiration and high esteem for the
+great, illustrious and patriotic President Diaz.’ And our present
+celebration may be considered as the confirmation of those assertions
+no longer in the sphere of diplomatic formalities, but in manner
+more effective, as being the direct approximation of the individual
+correspondents of both nations. You have invited your Mexican friends
+to a great practical and symbolic feast; practical on account of the
+utility which the new railroad line will bring to both countries by
+quickening traffic, reducing freight rates, linking markets close
+together and offering occasion and pretext for a better mutual benefit
+understanding; symbolic, because this material approachment is the
+concrete and plastic representation of brotherly neighborhood of two
+nations, who, putting aside all possible bitterness, take pleasure in
+the solace of a cordial friendship, and overcoming differences of race
+and obstacles of language, seek the ideal of a human solidarity, ever
+working for the common welfare.”
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON JOAQUIN REDO]
+
+ [Illustration: CUTTING SUGAR CANE, EL DORADO.]
+
+The capital of the State is Culiacan. It occupies the site of the old
+Aztec city of Colhuacan, famed in Mexican history. It has a population
+of about twenty thousand and is rapidly growing in importance. Being
+one of the oldest cities in the republic, many antique buildings
+still exist in a state of preservation which shows the remarkable
+craft of the builders centuries ago. It is in the midst of the gold
+mining district and is the centre of extensive trade. There are
+cotton factories, sugar refineries and several manufactories of great
+importance. The city has a fine public square and the streets are
+very attractive. Among the principal buildings are the Government
+Houses, new schools, banking houses and a magnificent cathedral, which
+has a collection of paintings of the old masters. The press is well
+represented in this State, there being several interesting “Dailies.”
+
+ [Illustration: AQUEDUCT, CULIACAN.]
+
+The fibre industry has advanced with great rapidity, and some of the
+manufactories are in a flourishing condition.
+
+Altata is the seaport of the city of Culiacan and is the outlet for
+the large agricultural and mining country. The export of ores, sugar
+and brazil-wood forms the trade of this port. A short railroad line
+connects this town with the capital.
+
+Mazatlan is a most important mercantile centre, but there are other
+cities that follow it in close competition. There are many important
+importing and exporting establishments. It is the most progressive city
+on the west coast and has taken on the appearance of a busy American
+port town.
+
+The people are well educated, cultured and refined. The educational
+system has every facility for mental equipment.
+
+ [Illustration: PORTALES, CULIACAN.]
+
+The principal newspaper is _El Diario del Pacifico_.
+
+One is impressed with the beautiful approach to this port, the flanking
+mountains and the blue Pacific waters making a contrast with the
+tropical palms and ferns ashore.
+
+Silver mines are found in this locality and the chief exports are gold
+and silver, dye woods and fine pearls.
+
+
+ SONORA
+
+Baron Humboldt called the West Coast the “mineral storehouse of the
+world.”
+
+Sonora is notably a mining State and covers an area of seventy-seven
+thousand square miles and the mining industry dates back to the time
+of the Spanish Conquerors. Some of the mines worked by them are still
+producing. Deposits of gold, silver and copper occur in remarkable
+abundance and with modern mining facilities have developed great
+commercial importance, while hundreds of mines remain unworked since
+their abandonment during the revolution against Spain from 1810 to
+1821. In silver production Sonora has been surpassed by the interior
+States but from the beginning it has held first place as the chief
+producer of gold and copper.
+
+Since the Yaqui disturbances have been quelled by the government and
+there can be no possible chance for another outbreak, on account of
+the strenuous measures taken to conquer this unruly tribe, Sonora has
+begun to take on an air of great prosperity. Some of these Indians
+finding themselves under the absolute control of the authorities have
+settled down to farming and mining and some of them have joined the
+army; in consideration of this schools and churches have been erected
+for them. One of the greatest benefits occurring from the establishment
+of peace has been the betterment of public education. It is the object
+of the officials to improve the school system in every manner possible,
+and all money formerly used as a war fund against the Yaqui is now
+turned to their interest.
+
+The Chamber of Commerce has taken steps to renew public confidence and
+open up old business relations with the sections of the State that
+have transferred their operations to other points on account of these
+troubles; the result is, that all inactive towns have taken on new life
+and public improvement has made rapid strides.
+
+This country unites all the conditions necessary for happy, reasonable
+living. The climate is temperate, water excellent and abundant and
+there is plenty of timber. It is a fine country for coffee, corn, cane
+and cotton and the annual shipment of bananas exceeds that of any other
+State. The agricultural resources should be properly developed and
+although recent improved mining conditions have made them a secondary
+feature, there is no doubt that farming is to be one of the best
+resources of this rapidly advancing State. The fruit culture of Sonora
+is gradually gaining pace with California and the oranges from this
+part have been pronounced the finest in the world. The fact that all
+produce ripens a few weeks in advance of that in California is a good
+reason for farmers to know the value of this section. The steady influx
+of earnest people anxious to cast their lot in a country so rapidly
+coming to the front leads one to believe that the history of the
+pioneers of the Golden West is soon to be repeated.
+
+Hermosillo, the capital of Sonora, is one of the first and important
+cities on the west coast reached after leaving American territory. It
+is situated on the Sonora Railway, which is a branch of the Southern
+Pacific. In a beautiful valley with majestic mountains towering in
+the distance, this charming city occupies a splendid geographical
+position and is destined to become the centre of great commercial and
+business enterprises. Stately public buildings, grand old churches,
+and beautiful parks of palms and native fruits give the city a
+semi-oriental appearance and, with all its quaintness, this is one of
+the most attractive cities in this part of the republic.
+
+There are no frosts in the winter months to chill the air, and no
+excessive heat in the summer. Possessed of a climate equal to that of
+Southern California, it is a most delightful abiding place.
+
+Within the past year the city has taken on a tremendous degree of
+activity; improvements are being made daily, buildings reconstructed
+and a company of local capitalists have laid out an addition to the
+town, grading the streets, macadamizing the roadways and in every way
+beautifying the city. Houses on the American plan have been built
+and many beautiful residences in this new colony are adding greatly
+to the appearance of the city. The energetic interest that the State
+government has taken in the progress of this country has given a great
+stimulus to the people and it is remarkable how many prospectors have
+flocked from the United States to cast their lots in this promising
+city.
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL LUIS TORRES, GOVERNOR OF SONORA.]
+
+Hermosillo has about fifteen thousand inhabitants. It has several
+public parks that are being continuously improved. The Ramón
+Corral Park is the most beautiful. It was named in honor of the
+Vice-President, once the Governor of the State, and was donated by him.
+The Plaza de Armas is in front of the Municipal Palace and is very
+bright and pretty. It is one of the most attractive sights of the city
+in the evening when lighted with its brilliant display of electricity.
+A mountain in the city limits called Cerro de las Campanas has been
+converted into a pleasure resort with a fine drive to its summit, with
+byways laid out in a very attractive manner with rustic seats and many
+features of beauty. A handsome kiosk is in course of construction where
+military bands will give concerts.
+
+A large statue of the patriot Hidalgo stands in a square facing the
+Bank of Sonora, one of the most important establishments in the State.
+There are many fine banking and commercial houses in this city which
+give an idea of the prosperity that reigns supreme.
+
+The Chamber of Commerce and the Chamber of Agriculture are very
+active in the interests of the State and Hermosillo boasts of fine
+institutions of learning, the idea of the government being to make the
+schools of this State the best and most advanced in the republic.
+
+One of the most important is the Colegio de Niñas de Leona Vicario,
+named in honor of the great heroine of the Revolution. It has a
+conservatory of music, a library, a gymnasium and a branch of arts and
+crafts. This school has been opened lately.
+
+ [Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, HERMOSILLO.]
+
+The Academy for Boys is a large and handsome building with an excellent
+system of manual training in connection with other branches. The
+public schools of the city are maintained at a cost of eighty thousand
+dollars a year. American interests are well protected by Mr. Louis
+Hostetter, who is the Consul. He is well loved by the natives and
+has the respect of all the government officials. He has enlarged the
+trade with the United States and his work is much appreciated. Public
+improvements are steadily going on. A concession has been granted for
+a dam in the Sonora River, about ten miles from the city. This will be
+of great benefit to the outlying districts as well as to the capital,
+for there has been a great waste of water that should irrigate at least
+five hundred thousand acres of land. There will be a larger power plant
+to connect with the factories and electricity is to be generously
+distributed.
+
+ [Illustration: CATHEDRAL AT ALAMOS, SONORA.]
+
+General Luis E. Torres, the Governor of the State, is the General of
+the Military Zone. His duty consumes most of his time and the acting
+Governor, Señor Alberto Cubillas, uses great energy and activity in
+carrying out the policies of the executive. General Torres is one of
+the noted figures of Mexican history. The government of this State is
+wise, fearless and impartial and all the officials are directing their
+earnest efforts toward advancement.
+
+Guaymas is situated on the bay of the same name and is a very old city.
+The antique houses of one story constructed on a solid basis still
+hold their own with the later structures of modern architecture, and
+the contrast between the two styles is very strange. It is the second
+city of importance in the State. The harbor is said to be one of the
+finest in the world. The works lately built, some parts are still in
+construction, have been done at great expenditure on the part of the
+Federal Government. Large vessels can now enter the port. The scenery
+surrounding this port city is very attractive and pleasure-seekers
+from the North have made it a winter resort as the climate is mild and
+equable. Fishing, hunting and boating are indulged in by those living
+here, and the great commercial activity grows in importance with each
+year. It is the headquarters of the Sonora Railroad whose commodious
+offices are very handsome. The Pacific Salt Company is one of the most
+extensive in commercial importance and there is scarcely a commodity
+that is not manufactured in this city. The Custom House, with the
+wireless telegraph station, and the Marine Hospital are important
+buildings. The public parks are well laid out and are very attractive
+with tropical palms and flowers.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON ALBERTO CUBILLAS, VICE-GOVERNOR OF
+ SONORA.]
+
+Five miles from Guaymas is Empalme, a little town of Americans. It is
+growing very fast. The houses are all constructed of brick and wood and
+are very modern and sanitary. The terminal and machine shops of the
+Sonora-Pacific Railway extension are here. Other cities, Esperanza,
+Alamos and Cananea, are in close competition in mining activity. Alamos
+is an old and picturesque town surrounded by beautiful scenery and its
+history is full of old legends and traditions.
+
+ [Illustration: BAY AT GUAYMAS.]
+
+Cananea is the headquarters of one of the largest mining companies in
+the State. It gives employment to over three thousand Mexicans and half
+as many Americans. It is a progressive little town with a variety of
+enterprises, theatres, steam laundries, department stores, a newspaper
+printed in English, called the _Bulletin_, and a mercantile bank
+doing a thriving business.
+
+Nogales is called the Gateway of Mexico. It is divided by an imaginary
+line from the town of Nogales, Arizona. There was a great deal of
+smuggling carried on at one time owing to the fact that on one side
+of a street was American territory and on the other Mexican. But this
+no longer exists owing to the strenuous means on the part of both
+governments. The main offices of the Sonora Railway and of the Cananea
+Division of the Cananea, Rio Yaqui and Pacific are located here. In
+speaking of the favorable conditions which exist in Sonora the words
+of General Torres are most appropriate: “So great is the area; so
+varied the products and so fertile the soil of the opulent State of
+Sonora that no man even after a lifetime spent within her borders can
+make more than mention of her resources. This year Sonora is more than
+ever prepared for the fullest development of her history, owing to
+the subjugation of the Yaquis and the consequent settlement of Indian
+trouble. The resources of Sonora fall naturally into three great
+divisions; mining, agriculture and stock-raising.
+
+ [Illustration: BANK OF SONORA, GUAYMAS.]
+
+“In mining it has produced millions of dollars worth of gold, silver,
+copper and lead, and will produce millions more in the new wave of
+progress which is sweeping over the State. Mines which have been
+producing since the middle of the sixteenth century are being driven
+deeper and rich new prospects are being opened up all over the State.
+
+“Stock-raising, the original industry, suffered a severe setback during
+the recent Indian troubles, but is again being raised to the place of
+prominence it should occupy in the wealth-producing land of Sonora.”
+
+ [Illustration: RAMÓN CORRAL PARK, HERMOSILLO.]
+
+South of Sinaloa along the Pacific Coast lies the Territory of TEPIC.
+It originally belonged to the State of Jalisco but it was declared a
+free territory during the administration of General Lerdo de Tejada.
+
+Its agricultural products are rich and all kinds of tropical fruits
+grow in great abundance.
+
+The chief industry is salt, which is of great importance commercially.
+
+The Tepic territory is remarkable for the number of waterfalls it
+contains, and the rivers which supply water throughout the entire
+territory.
+
+ [Illustration: YAQUI INDIANS.]
+
+While the beauties of southern California are well known, the imaginary
+line that separates from Baja California marks no difference in soil or
+climate. It is a continuation of the same general features.
+
+The Peninsula of Lower California was discovered by Cortés in 1536.
+It is traversed by a volcanic range of mountains. The Jesuits formed
+establishments there about 1690 and instructed the native Indians in
+the arts of agriculture and civilization. They remained there until
+1767 and the ruins of their old missions are to-day exceedingly
+picturesque.
+
+At La Paz the pearl fisheries are very extensive and some of the finest
+pearls in the world are among these deposits. More than a thousand
+divers are employed during the season, which lasts from May till
+November.
+
+Politically, the peninsula is a territory. The two chief cities are La
+Paz, in the south, and Ensenada in the north. Ensenada is an American
+town exceedingly attractive in appearance. It is beautifully situated
+in a healthful location and is a natural outlet of great inland
+business and mineral wealth.
+
+Magdalena Bay is one of the beautiful places along the Pacific Coast,
+and is surrounded by a green country. Orchilla is a parasitic moss
+which hangs from the trees throughout this region, adding a touch of
+picturesqueness to the natural beauties of the place. Large quantities
+of it are gathered on the seashore and in the vicinity, pressed and
+shipped to Europe, where it is used for the purpose of dyeing sealskins.
+
+The region around Cape San Lucas is beautiful in the extreme, and not
+far from there lies the picturesque little village of San José del
+Cabo, which is a shipping port with a coast custom house section. The
+_Orizaba_ and the _Coos Bay_, steamers of the Pacific Coast
+Company, stop at all principal ports, and furnish the best possible
+means of communication between San Francisco and Guaymas, Sonora.
+
+ [Illustration: MUNICIPAL PALACE, GUAYMAS.]
+
+ [Illustration: LAKE PATZCUARO, MICHOACÁN.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE PLAZA, ZAMORA.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXXII
+
+ MICHOACÁN, MORELOS, GUERRERO
+
+
+Cortés took an excursion through Michoacán after the fall of Mexico
+and was delighted with what he saw. It was at this time a powerful and
+independent State, inhabited by one of the kindred Nahuatlac races. The
+Spaniards advanced across the State and erected a cross on the Pacific
+Coast in the name of their Catholic majesties. On their return they
+took back samples of gold and California pearls, and the report of the
+great Southern Ocean beyond. Cortés wrote: “Most of all do I exult in
+these tidings of a great ocean. For, in it, as cosmographers and those
+learned men who know most about the Indies inform us, are scattered
+rich isles, teeming with gold and spices and precious stones.” Even
+then had the Spaniards begun to look on Mexico as a great treasure
+house to be drawn upon to support their own extravagant country.
+
+Michoacán lies on the western slope of the great cordillera of Anahuac.
+The territory is extremely mountainous and its scenery strikingly
+picturesque, characterized by enchanting gorges, beautiful valleys and
+vast plains of fertile lands along the banks of glistening streams,
+whose course is sometimes impeded by huge rocks, and which occasionally
+acquire great rapidity, as can be observed especially at the Falls of
+Onendo. Its most noted mountain peak is the volcano of Jorullo. The
+State is called Michoacán de Ocampo in honor of one of the great heroes
+of Mexican independence.
+
+The story of Ocampo adds another to the many romantic episodes of
+Mexican revolutionary days. He was one of the great heroes who
+sacrificed life for the sake of the country he was so determined to
+free from foreign tyranny. When he was captured by the enemy and
+condemned to be shot his last request was that his heart should be
+taken from his dead body and carried back to his native State. This
+was done and the State was rechristened Michoacán de Ocampo, in loving
+memory of one of its greatest heroes.
+
+Morelia, the capital, was founded in 1541 by the Spaniards and received
+the name of Valladolid. It stands upon a rocky hill six thousand four
+hundred and thirty-eight feet above the sea. The streets are wide and
+regularly laid out. On one side of the Plaza de los Martires, the
+principal square, stands the noble cathedral and extensive arcades are
+along the others: this is the principal business centre. The houses are
+very substantially built and the government building is very handsome.
+The San Nicolas College, which was built in the sixteenth century
+and remodeled in 1868, is one of the finest edifices in the republic
+of Mexico. By moonlight Morelia is exceedingly attractive, with its
+fine square, beautiful streets and houses. Near by is the hill of
+Las Bateas, where by the order of Morelos two hundred Spaniards were
+murdered in cold blood to revenge the death of the curate Matamoros,
+who had been taken prisoner and shot by Iturbide.
+
+ [Illustration: CHURCHYARD GATE, TZINTZUNTZAN.]
+
+Patzcuaro is a pretty little city with sloping roofs situated on
+the shores of the lake and in front of the little Indian village
+of Janicho, built on a beautiful small island in the midst of the
+lake. There are churches bearing the date of 1580. The first Bishop
+of Michoacán, Vasco de Quiroga, who died in Uruapan, was buried in
+Patzcuaro, and the Indians of this State still venerate his memory.
+He was the father and benefactor of the Tarascan Indians, and went to
+rescue them from their degraded state. He not only preached morality,
+but encouraged industry among them by assigning to each village its
+particular branch of commerce. Thus, one was celebrated for its
+manufacture of saddles, another for its shoes, a third for its bateas
+(painted trays) and so on. Every useful institution of which some
+traces still remain among them is due to this excellent prelate, an
+example of what one good and zealous and well-judging man may effect.
+The old church of Patzcuaro is handsome and rich in gildings. At
+the door is printed in large letters, “For the Love of God all good
+Christians are requested not to spit in this holy place.” In this old
+town, too, one may see specimens of that mosaic work which all ancient
+writers upon Mexico have celebrated and which was nowhere brought to
+such perfection as in Patzcuaro. It was made with the most beautiful
+and delicate feathers, chiefly of the hummingbirds, which they called
+huitzitzilin. But it is now many years since the last artist in this
+branch lived in Patzcuaro, and, though it is imitated by the nuns,
+the art is no longer in the state of perfection to which it had been
+brought in the days of Cortés. Several persons were employed in each
+painting, and the work required extraordinary patience and nicety in
+the blending of colors and the arrangement of the feathers. Many were
+sent to Spain and to different museums both in Europe and in Mexico
+but the art does not belong to the present utilitarian age. Patzcuaro
+is well entitled to its name, which means “a place of delights.” The
+station is on the lake shore; a diligence runs to the town, two miles
+up the hill, and the drive is a most charming one. There is a little
+steamer on the lake which runs from the dock to the northern shores,
+making several landings where there are no railroads and perhaps never
+will be. The object of the voyage on the lake, and in fact, the trip to
+Patzcuaro, is the famous painting in the old church at the village of
+Tzintzuntzan on the east shore of the lake--_The Entombment_, by
+Titian, presented to the Bishop of Michoacán by Philip II. of Spain.
+Such is the veneration of the Indians for this beautiful painting that
+the bishop has refused to allow it to be removed. Enormous sums have
+been offered by enthusiastic art-lovers, but the church authorities
+have declined to entertain them, and the picture still hangs where it
+was first placed by the loving hands of its original owners more than
+three hundred years ago. The old church is fast crumbling to decay,
+and its pristine glory has departed from it. Tzintzuntzan was once the
+capital of the powerful empire of Tarasco, which successfully resisted
+to the last the incursions of the Montezumas. After the Spanish
+conquest this was the seat of the Bishopric of Tarasco and was held in
+high esteem by Philip II. The steamer runs irregularly but need not be
+depended on for the trip to Tzintzuntzan.
+
+Uruapan, farther west, is the gem of the Indian villages. It has a few
+good houses and fine streets; but its boast is of the Indian cottages
+all so clean and snug and tasteful, surrounded by fruit trees. In this
+region the finest coffee in the world is raised, the “Uruapan” being
+everywhere recognized as the finest of brands.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON PABLO ESCANDON, GOVERNOR OF MORELOS.]
+
+A number of old Indian customs are still kept up here, modified by
+the introduction of Christian doctrines, in the marriages, feasts,
+burials, and superstitious practices. The citizens also preserve the
+same simplicity in their dress, united with the same vanity and love
+of show in their ornaments that always distinguished them. The poorest
+Indian women still wear necklaces of red coral or a dozen rows of red
+beads.
+
+ [Illustration: PALACE OF CORTÉS, CUERNAVACA.]
+
+
+ MORELOS
+
+Cuernavaca is situated at the foot of the southern slope of Ajusco,
+where the cold storms which sweep the Gulf Coast in winter can hardly
+gain access; hence it enjoys the perfection of a winter climate. Its
+summer climate is also agreeable, for its elevation of five thousand
+feet above sea level precludes oppressive heat. Moreover, the rain is
+said to fall here mostly by night. From this point one has a nearer
+view than from the city of Mexico of the great snowy summits rising
+above forested slopes, and here the interest of the view is greatly
+enhanced by the striking contrast afforded by an intermediate range of
+bare red rock, disordered masses serrated, castellated, and pinnacled
+beyond description. Below the town opens out into a wide valley which
+is green throughout the year with plantations of cane. Streams of pure
+water course down through every street, and fountains are frequent. To
+this quaint and quiet town, verdant and shady under bright, warm skies,
+was attracted the ill-fated Maximilian and hither he was wont to ride
+by night to hide from assassins in the thick wood of his high-walled
+garden.
+
+Cuautla de Morelos has been the theatre of important historical events.
+Here it was that the curate Morelos shut himself up with his troops
+until the Spaniards under Calleja besieged it and the priest and his
+party were compelled to abandon their position.
+
+Among the attractions of Cuernavaca are the ancient palace of Cortés
+and the famous garden of La Borda, on which over a million dollars were
+lavished. Maximilian, when Emperor, had his winter home here, as had
+Cortés long before. The former lived for a time on La Borda estate, and
+Carlota and the Emperor breakfasted under its trees and spent long days
+in the great walled garden.
+
+ [Illustration: FLYING BUTTRESS, CUERNAVACA.]
+
+Cuernavaca, the ancient Cuauhnahuac, was one of the thirty cities which
+Charles V. gave to Cortés, and it afterward formed part of the estate
+of the Duke of Monteléone, representative of the family of Cortés,
+as Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. It was celebrated by the ancient
+writers for its beauty, its delightful climate, and the strength of
+its situation. It was the capital of the Tlahuica nation, and after
+the conquest Cortés built a splendid palace, a church, and a convent
+of Franciscans, believing that he was laying the foundation of a great
+city. The conqueror’s palace is now the government house. It is most
+picturesque, standing on a hill behind which starts up a great white
+volcano. There are some good houses and the remains of the church which
+Cortés built, celebrated for its fine arch.
+
+Morelos is a sugar cane State. Governor Pablo Escandon is interested in
+developing the agricultural and horticultural resources; he has in view
+an agricultural school and model farm where farmers may see the results
+of new methods. He has made a complete reform of the public school
+system. New schools are built and the best teachers employed. Taking
+into consideration that the largest proportion of children of school
+age in the State are those of farmers and laboring men and believing
+that they should be taught in school matters the things that will be
+of assistance to them in later life, he has added to the curriculum a
+thorough system of manual training and domestic economy.
+
+ [Illustration: LA BORDA GARDEN, CUERNAVACA.]
+
+The late Frederick E. Church, the painter of nature, said of Cuernavaca
+“So far as I can judge from inquiry of good authorities, as well as
+from personal observation, it possesses in an eminent degree all the
+requirements demanded. No other place that I have visited in Mexico
+can compare with it in that respect. The climate is wonderful. The
+situation commands more grand and lovely views and in greater variety
+than any city I have visited in all my travels. Cuernavaca will, in the
+very near future, become a very great resort and will be crowded all
+the year, for very few northerners have an idea of the climates of the
+country and that they are even more attractive in summer than at any
+other season.”
+
+
+ GUERRERO
+
+The State of Guerrero was named in honor of Vicente Guerrero, who was
+born at Tixtla, 1770, and executed at Cailipa, February 14, 1831.
+Guerrero was a mulatto and originally a slave. In the struggle for the
+independence of Mexico he exhibited great courage and after the death
+of Mina became one of the leaders of the insurgents.
+
+The State is traversed by the Sierra Madre with its many spurs, and is
+consequently very mountainous, its climate varying with the elevation
+from very hot in the low countries to cold in the higher portions. The
+soil is very fertile; vegetation, particularly arboreal, is rich and
+varied and there are extensive virgin forests, containing excellent
+timber and many species of fine woods. Many of the inhabitants are
+miners, and on the coast numbers are engaged in pearl fishing.
+
+The first capital of Guerrero was Tixtla which, on its selection in
+1849, was immediately raised to the rank of a city. It is picturesquely
+situated in a narrow gorge of the Sierra Madre, and has not yet become
+of great importance in any respect. It is five thousand feet above sea
+level and its chief occupations are coarse manufactures and agriculture.
+
+The present capital is Chilpancingo, a few miles southwest of Tixtla
+and situated on a pleasant tableland on the western side of the
+mountain range.
+
+In January, 1902, an earthquake almost destroyed the old palace in
+which were all the executive offices and the Senate chamber and a new
+palace was built under the direction of Señor Manuel Galindo, the chief
+engineer of the war department. It was completed in 1906, and was
+opened on the 21st of March, which was the anniversary of the birth
+of the great benefactor, Benito Juarez. This palace is a remarkable
+structure with splendid reception halls and offices. The windows and
+doors, the face of the public clock and many fixtures were brought
+from the United States. All the furniture came from the factories of
+San Luis Potosí.
+
+One of the first duties of the governor, Señor Don Damian Flores, was
+to reconstruct the prison, which presented a very bad aspect, being
+in the centre of the city. This prison adjoined the Normal School for
+Professors, in which was also the Preparatory School and the School
+of Jurisprudence. This building was totally destroyed by the last
+earthquake and in view of the fact that it was not an appropriate
+situation for a school a beautiful prison was constructed. This is one
+of the most magnificent buildings in the capital. Its construction
+was undertaken by two young engineers, Carlos Baz and Rafael Najera,
+under the direction of the governor himself, whose original plans were
+carried out by the contractor, Señor Luis Pozzi. The first stone was
+laid on a memorable political anniversary, February 5, 1908, and within
+eleven months it was inaugurated. It is of Doric style of architecture
+with some changes indicated by necessity. The Portales, of the
+Greco-Roman style, are of purest interpretation.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON DAMIAN FLORES, GOVERNOR OF GUERRERO.]
+
+Continued earthquakes, in 1907, destroyed many public buildings. Among
+the most important was the Civil Hospital. A new and modern building
+of the most approved style now occupies the site of the old hospital.
+The plans were executed with fine detail and it is one of the most
+perfect establishments of this kind in the republic. Other annexes
+to this hospital are in contemplation, destined to be for general
+administration and the maternity asylum. The city of Chilpancingo was
+united with Iguala by an imperfect road that was impossible to pass
+at times without great danger to man and beast. The government long
+appreciated the great necessity of a splendid roadway. Some railroad
+companies studied the conditions with the intention of constructing a
+road to Acapulco touching this city and other small villages on this
+same roadway. It was an impossible and expensive work. In 1905, the
+late Governor of the State put in practical construction the road which
+led to Mexcala by the way of Xochipala to the point called Milpillas
+and which returned to the old road and by this deviation avoided the
+passage over the barrancas. This work partially finished reached the
+small village of Xochipala when the death of the Governor suspended
+all operations. In 1907, when Governor Flores occupied the office of
+first Magistrate of the State he began to make a study of the prospect
+of this road being completed. In order to have a successful outcome
+of this plan he appealed to the State for help--and the federation
+subsidized a plan to the extent of one thousand dollars for every
+kilometre finished; the respective plans being approved the work
+was begun, being divided into three sections, one road from Iguala
+to Mexcala, another from Mexcala to Zumpango and the other from
+Chilpancingo to Zumpango.
+
+ [Illustration: THE PALACE, CHILPANCINGO.]
+
+On the section from the capital to Zumpango, the Governor himself
+directed the greater part of the work. When the road was finished
+the President of the Republic formally inaugurated it on the 10th
+of May, 1910, accompanied by the Vice-President, the Secretary
+of Communications and Public Works and other high officials and
+personages. He made the trip in an automobile to the capital. It was a
+gala day when the nation’s chief executive reached Chilpancingo amid
+waving banners and patriotic exclamations. Banquets and distinguished
+hospitality were extended to these visitors. Besides the inauguration
+of this automobile road the laying of the corner stone of the monument
+dedicated in honor of the great hero Guerrero was formally done in
+fitting ceremony in the midst of a great assemblage of patriotic
+citizens.
+
+ [Illustration: TAMARINDO TREES, IGUALA.]
+
+Acapulco is perhaps the most important town in Guerrero, as it has
+one of the best harbors on the entire west coast. During the Spanish
+dominion Acapulco was the focus of the China and East Indian route, and
+was a place of considerable importance. The California trader later
+gave it a period of transitory commercial life, as it was a coaling
+station for the steamers between Panama and San Francisco; but with the
+new railroad now in process of construction, Acapulco is destined to
+see greater days than ever. The region around produces the best lemons
+in the world, the fruit being large and juicy and far more desirable
+than either the Californian or Sicilian product. The way will soon be
+opened for marketing this product in New York and other ports, when the
+lemon industry is likely to blossom out into the chief soil product of
+Guerrero.
+
+“The Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific” is a line that is to give Mexico
+standard gauge connection with the old and historic port of Acapulco,
+whither came once the richly freighted galleons of Spanish commerce
+from China and Japan. In this connection it is worthy of note that the
+first fair and equitable treaty with Japan in modern times was made in
+Mexico.
+
+ [Illustration: BALSAS RIVER, GUERRERO.]
+
+ [Illustration: ARCADE, SHOWING HOME OF SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO
+ PEON, MERIDA.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE, GRAND PLAZA.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+ YUCATÁN
+
+
+In 1517, Hernandez de Cordoba discovered the beautiful Peninsula of
+Yucatán.
+
+Bathed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico and
+possessing throughout immense area lakes and beautiful scenery, it is
+one of the most picturesque States in the republic. Geographically
+considered, the Peninsula of Yucatán extends to the Isthmus of
+Tehuantepec. The natural condition and elements have made this
+territory a theme for many studies on account of the great interest
+that is taken in the various resources that are presented.
+
+Lovers of art and history and students of archæology have been drawn
+toward Yucatán for over a century.
+
+The scenery impresses one as being strangely unique. Back of the coast
+stretches a broad lagoon many miles in extent and varying in depth
+with the sea. Here the northern birds spend their winters. Beyond the
+lagoon, the bed of coral which composes the entire peninsula rises
+slightly above the sea level, presenting the appearance of a dry swamp.
+On the roads, which run parallel with the railways, patient oxen plod
+slowly along, their heads bowed under heavy yokes, hauling great loads
+of henequen in rude carts with wooden wheels.
+
+The great industry of this State is the cultivation of hemp, which
+is a species of the cacti family known as “sisal.” The magnitude and
+importance of this business can scarcely be imagined. The hemp grows
+wild in great profusion and seems to thrive best on barren lots and
+desert sands or in very thin soil where nothing else could find its
+abode. A “henequen” plant attains its full perfection in seven years.
+A stem shoots out from the centre of it, the leaves gradually detach
+themselves in the form of an immense spear or “Spanish bayonet,” with
+sharp thorns along the edges, terminating in a strong needle-like
+point. A bale of henequen fibre represents the product of about seven
+thousand leaves. In most places the process of making the fibre by hand
+is discarded as unprofitable, and the stripping of the leaves is done
+with great machines driven with powerful steam engines. The scraper
+consists of a large wheel with strong blunt knives around its rim. The
+henequen leaves are pressed against this rim and by means of a lever
+worked by machinery the knives remove in an instant the pulp which
+covers the fibre. The pulp having been removed, the fibre is taken from
+the leaves in long strips, like very fine silk thread of a beautiful
+green tint. It is made into small bundles and placed in the sun to dry.
+In the packing house the dried hanks are put up into four-hundred pound
+bales by a cotton-press. It is then ready for market, where its value,
+like other commodities, varies.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE M. ARISTEGÚI, GOVERNOR OF
+ YUCATÁN.]
+
+On account of the present low price of henequen it is difficult to
+support the factories and meet the numberless expenses incurred during
+the long period of seven years until it reaches maturity and becomes
+commercially valuable. The farmers are now thinking about reducing the
+area of future plantations. They are also considering the cultivation
+of cotton, “pochote,” castor oil plant, and all the products indigenous
+to their climate.
+
+A great interest is awakening in the manufacture of ropes, twines of
+all sizes and bagging of all description, to such an extent that the
+factory La Industrial has been manufacturing these articles for more
+than a year and selling them at such profit that the demand is greater
+than the supply. Had it not been for the excessively low price of hemp
+the farmers would not have awakened to the fact that the time had come
+for them to look for new cultures and develop new industries, and the
+fall in the price of henequen has deeply impressed the minds of the
+growers, with the result that many new industries will soon become
+established in this State.
+
+ [Illustration: SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO PEON.]
+
+Next in value to henequen comes the bromelia pita, locally known as
+“ixtle” the ancient Aztec name. From this the Mayas’ clothes are
+made: it formed the foundation of the beautiful feathered cloaks of
+Montezuma’s time. The ixtle furnishes the poorer classes with their
+garments and hammock-beds in which they are born and die, and their
+baskets and household utensils and paper are manufactured from the
+fibre. From the roots of the plant a favorite intoxicant is brewed;
+the juice of its bruised leaves is the best known remedy for wounds;
+its thorns are the Indian pins and needles. A few years ago some
+ixtle fibre was sent to England for experiment in the great cloth
+manufactories and from it some handkerchiefs were woven which have
+since figured in several expositions, to the astonishment of all
+beholders.
+
+While the Mexican people are noted for their politeness and courtesy,
+the Yucatecas seem to have more than their share of delightful
+_simpatia_. The women are beautiful and cultured and in no part of
+the republic is the social element more remarkable than here. Merida is
+called “The White City” and has been famous for its brilliant carnival
+celebrations. At these times enthusiasm and animation reign supreme.
+
+ [Illustration: VIEW OF MERIDA.]
+
+Merida was founded by Don Francisco de Montejo in 1542. The original
+home of its founder is still standing. It is located on the principal
+plaza and is an object of great interest. The entrance to this house is
+a wonderful specimen of antique carving.
+
+The cathedral is one of the handsomest and largest in the republic and
+the many beautiful temples are most interesting to visit. Some fine old
+carvings of the time of the Spanish viceroys are seen in many of these
+churches.
+
+The new Peon Contreras Theatre ranks in beauty with any building of its
+kind in the world. The splendid appointments of this theatre and its
+marble columns and corridors are a marvel to those who have seen it.
+It was built under the supervision of Señor Don J. Rafael de Regil,
+demonstrating splendid taste and judgment.
+
+Many prominent buildings have been erected in late years which are
+a great credit to the city. The General Hospital, the Penitentiary,
+the Insane Asylum and all the city government buildings are modern
+structures equipped with every luxurious necessity. The Episcopal
+Palace is a specimen of antique architecture and is one of the largest
+in the republic. Merida has many benevolent societies and the public
+benefit is well guarded. Orphan asylums, correctional schools of arts
+and crafts, an asylum for beggars, and a maternity house.
+
+ [Illustration: HIS GRACE, MONSEIGNOR MARTIN TRISHLER, FIRST
+ ARCHBISHOP OF YUCATÁN.]
+
+Some of the finest hammocks in the world are made in Yucatán. They are
+hand woven of the sacci fibre and are of unusual size. This State is as
+famous for its hammocks as Switzerland is for its clocks. The finest
+come from the penitentiary at Merida.
+
+The Paseo Montejo is one of the fashionable drives. On it are handsome
+residences, among which is the palatial home of General Francisco
+Canton.
+
+The prehistoric race that peopled Yucatán and the wonderful monuments
+and ruins they left behind them have baffled explorers from all parts
+of the world and there are many theories advanced concerning the
+builders. The natives regard these decayed cities with superstitious
+awe, and they remain much in obscurity because few have braved
+the wilderness in order to explore them. The ancient knowledge of
+architecture is proved by these marvellous structures and amazing
+relics. The ruins of Chichen-Itza and Uxmal are accessible from Merida.
+
+ [Illustration: CORRIDOR OF THE CURATE HOUSE, MERIDA.]
+
+There are two agricultural chambers in Merida, “La Camara Agricula
+Nacional” and “La Camara Agricula de Yucatán,” which are doing great
+work in promoting the industries of the State. One of these recently
+had an exhibit demonstrating the wonderful possibilities of the
+henequen, and among the numerous articles were baskets, hammocks and
+cloth, three widely different articles. The fruit and vegetable display
+consisted of the products of the State.
+
+A monthly magazine devoted to the interest of farming called _El
+Agricultor_, is published by the Camara Agricula.
+
+ [Illustration: MODEL SCHOOL FOR BOYS, MERIDA.]
+
+In the Yucatán Museum there is an interesting collection of monoliths,
+statues, prints and other details of the old Maya architecture,
+utensils and personal ornaments of a primitive and mysterious race that
+inhabited the peninsula. Another museum which merits special notice is
+that of the late Bishop De Crescencio Carrillo y Ancona, who was the
+first director of the State Museum. Fine parks and public gardens help
+to add to its beauty: in one of these parks stands a splendid statue
+of General Manuel Zepeda Peraza, the great patriot of Yucatán.
+
+Señor Don Augusto Peon is the mayor of the city and many reforms have
+been executed during his administration. New streets and avenues have
+been opened and schools have been established. He is noted for his
+philanthropy and the poor have found in him a good friend. His family
+is one of the most distinguished in the State and he is held in great
+admiration and respect.
+
+ [Illustration: THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE.]
+
+Public education is given the most rigid attention. Among the most
+important schools are those of San Vicente de Paul, under the direction
+of Obras de la Ensenanza. These schools are conducted upon monthly
+subscription by those interested in the Christian education. In the
+scientific and religious instruction all the precepts of modern
+pedagogy are followed. The elementary schools for boys and girls are
+supported by the estate of the late Leandro Leon Ayala. These schools
+are divided into five branches with an inspector appointed for the
+supervision of each. The literary institute founded by General Peraza
+is under the personal direction of Señor Licenciado D. Olegario Molina,
+who is one of the distinguished statesmen of the republic. To this
+noted gentleman the State of Yucatán owes its wonderful growth within
+the last ten years. He has occupied many high official positions,
+having been governor of the State before assuming the cabinet office.
+He was the engineer who had charge of the construction of the first
+railroad that was built in the Peninsula, which connects the capital
+city with the port of Progreso.
+
+ [Illustration: FAÇADE OF THE MONTEJO HOUSE, MERIDA.]
+
+ [Illustration: INDIAN HEMP CUTTER.]
+
+This railroad was constructed with local capital and the entire
+enterprise was organized with great success. In the cultivation
+and development of the henequen industry, Señor Molina has been
+foremost in the enterprise. He is noted for entering into everything
+with enthusiasm and in the reconstruction of his State while he was
+governor, he adopted the famous system of his chief magistrate, General
+Diaz, of “less politics and much administration.” With perseverance,
+which is characteristic of this official, Señor Molina consecrated
+his attention to the irrigation and industry of the State, which are
+important factors in the national good, and during his administration
+agriculture assumed splendid results and the record that remains
+behind him is a monument to his greatness. The present governor is
+Señor D. Enrique Muñoz Aristegúi, who is progressive and enterprising
+and has followed closely the example set by his predecessors.
+
+The United Railroads of Yucatán have eight hundred kilometres of
+various lines which extend to all important points of this State and to
+Campeche. This company was formed in 1902, being a merger of several
+independent lines, as follows: The railroad from Merida to Progreso
+with a branch to Izamal; from Merida to Valladolid with a branch to
+Progreso; the Peninsula Railroad; the railroad from Merida to Peto
+with a branch to Sotuta. The construction of the first railroad was
+organized by Señor José Rendon Peniche.
+
+ [Illustration: JUAREZ PENITENTIARY, MERIDA.]
+
+The principal points which these railroads touch are Valladolid, which
+is known as the Sultana of the East, and was at one time a city of
+much more importance than to-day; Tizimin, where the three kings,
+Magos, annually met; Motul, the next largest city of the State, and
+a centre of importance on account of the henequen industry; Izamal,
+another important industrial centre and famous for the pilgrimages to
+the Virgin de la Asuncion; Tekas and Peto, important cities of the
+sugar industry; Ticul, the centre of the corn region; Halacho, another
+point famous for its religious feasts. The only port in the State is
+Progreso. The Ward Line steamers touch this port and this company runs
+excursions from the port to Merida, giving the passengers a glimpse
+of this unique part of Mexico, returning to the steamer in time to
+continue their voyage.
+
+ [Illustration: STAIRWAY IN THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE.]
+
+Mr. W. P. Young, of the New York and Cuba Mail and Steamship Company,
+has formulated plans for excursions to Yucatán on a twenty-day tour to
+see the ruins and enjoy the wonders of a semi-tropical climate during
+the winter months. This is an excellent opportunity for the student or
+traveller.
+
+ [Illustration: ARCH BUILT TO CELEBRATE THE CENTENNIAL,
+ MERIDA.]
+
+ [Illustration: PLAZA DE LA INDEPENDENCIA, CAMPECHE.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, CAMPECHE]
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+ CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS
+
+
+The State is called Campeche de Baranda in honor of the father of the
+late Señor Joaquin Baranda, who was in the cabinet of General Diaz in
+1896.
+
+The capital is the City of Campeche, which is also an important seaport
+for all the surrounding States. It is situated on the Bay of Campeche
+at the mouth of the San Francisco River. It has a population of about
+twenty-five thousand, and is fast growing. The narrow streets are
+irregular, and the houses remarkable for their uniform height of one
+story, their square form, and for all being built of the limestone
+which abounds near the city.
+
+Campeche was founded in the middle of the sixteenth century and has
+figured in history more or less ever since. It was sacked by the
+British in 1659, and again by pirates in 1678, and by filibusters
+in 1685. Its site has been twice changed, the present one being
+honey-combed with subterranean chambers which were dug out years ago
+by the Maya Indians, ruins of which structures may be seen in the
+vicinity of Campeche. The city has several churches and convents, a
+museum containing interesting aboriginal relics, a theatre and several
+schools and colleges. It has a beautiful alameda, embellished with
+alleys of orange trees and seats of the native marble. The port is
+defended by three fortresses.
+
+Carmen has the best harbor on the coast, and is one of the least known
+ports. Large quantities of mahogany are felled in the interior and
+floated down the stream to the port.
+
+ [Illustration: PALACE OF JUSTICE, CAMPECHE.]
+
+The commerce of Campeche was, under the Spanish colonial system, in a
+most flourishing state; but it is now confined mostly to salt, sugar,
+hides, henequen and articles manufactured from it. Logwood and other
+dyestuffs are still exported in quantities, but the cigar industry is
+greater. The Campeche cigars are made from Tabasco tobacco and are
+often sold in foreign markets for the Havana product.
+
+Between Merida, the capital of Yucatán, and Campeche, there is a
+railway line which connects the two cities. This is a delightful route
+on account of the magnificent scenery. Rich forests filled with timber
+and valuable dye-woods extend throughout the State. This is one of the
+chief exports, finding a ready market in Europe and the United States.
+
+The governor of Campeche is Señor Garcia Gual, whose interest in his
+State is very evident. He is handicapped by many difficulties in
+the climatic influences, distinctly of the tropical belt, but his
+administration has been remarkable for the improved sanitary conditions
+and the spirit of advancement he has instilled into the minds of his
+people.
+
+Public education is the first step of the Mexican on taking the reins
+of a government. Schools and all benevolent institutions have in the
+governor an able advocate, and he carries his plans of reconstruction
+and enterprise with a firm hand.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF HIDALGO, CAMPECHE.]
+
+The latest-formed Territory of Mexico, Quintana Roo, lies between
+the State of Campeche and Guatemala. The inhabitants are principally
+Maya Indians, that race that has been so troublesome to the Mexican
+Government. The language is mostly Indian and they seem to show no
+disposition to speak Spanish, or to become used to the forms of modern
+civilization. Most of the industries consist of hand-work and Indian
+crafts, but the Territory is rich in valuable woods, and many tropical
+fruits. There are some good tobacco districts and the country bids fair
+to become a good agricultural section. The policy of the administration
+of General Diaz is clearly demonstrated in the splendid manner in which
+the Federal Government gained control over the unruly tribe of Indians
+in this Territory.
+
+On account of the condition of the country the population and the area
+have not been ascertained. Military control makes it secure that there
+will be no more outbreaks such as have hitherto threatened peace and
+life. In spite of the characteristics of these Indians, the towns are
+well equipped with schools.
+
+
+ TABASCO
+
+Tabasco is the great fruit growing State. It stretches along the coast
+of the Gulf of Mexico and has become greatly developed within the
+last few years by various colonies from the North. The population is
+largely composed of peaceful Indians, although many foreigners have
+yielded to the temptations that the rich and abundant resources have
+offered. There are many lagoons and inlets along the coast, and the
+Islands of Laguna Carmen and Puerto Real. The surface is flat except in
+the southern portion, where it rises toward the mountains of Chiapas.
+There are two navigable rivers, the Usumacinta and the Tabasco. There
+is a large amount of freight shipped on these streams, as they are the
+principal thoroughfares of the State. An unusual amount of mahogany
+and other useful woods abound. All tropical products are extensively
+cultivated and magnificent opportunities for further development are
+offered.
+
+The capital and largest city is San Juan Bautista. Cortés and the
+Spanish army discovered Tabasco and made a landing there before they
+went on to Mexico. It was then a very popular place, with the better
+houses built of stone and lime and the others of mud or adobe. The
+inhabitants, the Tabascan Indians, gave proof of superior refinement as
+well as unusual valor. Their stout resistance, however, did not prevent
+Cortés and his soldiers from finally gaining and capturing the country
+“in the name of the Crown.”
+
+ [Illustration: GENERAL ABRAHAM BANDALA, GOVERNOR OF TABASCO.]
+
+Many of the Spanish conquerors settled in Tabasco; others, in the
+cordillera toward the rich slopes and valleys of Oaxaca.
+
+A great deal of the country is sloping and very much broken, but at
+least four-fifths could be well cultivated. Coffee always require
+a slope. The population, which is sparse, consists principally of
+Indians. These people labor faithfully and cheerfully at light work,
+such as coffee gathering.
+
+ [Illustration: STREET SCENE, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA.]
+
+There is no finer country in the world awaiting development than this
+general slope. The rainfall is abundant. The climate is very healthful.
+
+There is a good quantity of water-power available all through this
+State; the supply of it toward the wilder end of the slope is
+practically unlimited.
+
+There is plenty of building stone in the country. Part of the slope has
+an unlimited quantity of marble of all colors.
+
+The trade of the State is controlled by Spaniards, who also own nearly
+all the steamers sailing under the Mexican flag in the Gulf of Mexico.
+They send home to Spain about one million dollars annually. A good many
+marry in the country and their children are among the best types in the
+State.
+
+This country unites all the conditions for happy, reasonable living. It
+is a fine coffee, corn, cane and cotton country and the annual shipment
+of bananas exceeds that of some of the larger tropical States.
+
+The capital, San Juan Bautista, is on an island of volcanic origin
+thrown up in the midst of the alluvial plain of the Grijalva, about
+sixty-five miles from the sea. It has a population of about fourteen
+thousand and is provided with street railroads and a first-class
+electric light plant which furnishes extensive service. More than a
+million dollars have been put into new buildings since 1897, about half
+of that amount having been invested by foreigners. This city is noted
+for its rapid advancement and great prosperity. Although at certain
+seasons it is excessively hot there seems to be a bracing influence,
+for the streets have an air of activity and the shops seem always busy.
+
+ [Illustration: STATUE OF JUAREZ, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA.]
+
+The Governor of Tabasco, General Abraham Bandala, is a hard-working and
+able functionary to whose heart the interest of the people under his
+care is ever the first consideration. He is one of the great soldiers
+of the Mexican Wars and his record is emblazoned on the history of the
+country.
+
+
+ CHIAPAS
+
+The general aspect of Chiapas is very unlike that of Northern Mexico.
+There is very little barren country, the medium and lower regions
+being covered by forests of valuable woods while the cultivated parts
+show fields of all kinds and abundance of crops. Through the ports of
+Tonala and San Benito, on the Pacific, the rich districts of Tonala and
+Soconusco can be reached and from the former port the towns of Tuxtla,
+Chiapa and San Cristobal are accessible by means of an automobile road.
+
+Chiapas is the most southern State in the Mexican republic.
+
+Commerce is the most important industry of this State, while
+agriculture within the last few years has made rapid strides and has
+added materially to the wealth of the State. On the Pacific side coffee
+is extensively cultivated and there are several sugar-cane plantations,
+as well as tobacco fields.
+
+ [Illustration: PARK IN SAN JUAN BAUTISTA.]
+
+El Salto, headquarters for the department officials, is situated on the
+Tulija River.
+
+Since the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards, the cacao of this
+district has been famous. Large amounts of foreign capital are
+streaming into the country for investment.
+
+Tuxtla-Gutierrez is the capital and the residence of the State
+officials. It is the best trading town, being in communication with
+all sections of the State. A well constructed automobile road connects
+Tuxtla with the Port of Tonalá and the branch near the coast extends to
+the Tehuantepec Railway. Splendid roads connect the capital with the
+towns of Suchiata and Chiapa and the plains that follow the left side
+of the Chiapa River render the country accessible as far as Guatemala.
+
+New colonies are being exploited and hundreds of thousands of acres of
+land are being bought by settlers.
+
+To the governor of the State, Señor Don Ramón Rebasa, is given credit
+for the close attention to the extension of public roads and the
+encouragement of education.
+
+In the opening of the railroad extension from San Geronimo, on the
+Tehuantepec road, to Tapachula in Chiapas, another link in the great
+Pan-American Railway was completed. The inauguration on May 5, 1908,
+was made the occasion of great rejoicing in the State of Chiapas, being
+presided over by the governor and celebrated with enthusiasm by the
+inhabitants.
+
+ [Illustration: PAROCHIAL CHURCH, CHIAPA.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: YAQUI INDIAN DANCE.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXXV
+
+ CUSTOMS
+
+
+The characteristics of a country are always an interesting theme and it
+seems that Mexico is bountifully supplied with legends and traditions
+that lend to her all the charms of a poetic and romantic nation. Born
+in a land of natural wealth and beauty, breathing the balmy air and
+beholding the bright sunshine of this country, the Mexican must be by
+nature _allègre_ and alert to all the graces of living.
+
+The customs of the people, like those of all rapidly developing
+nations, are fast changing and in a few years there will remain few
+habits and fashions to distinguish this country from any other land.
+At the same time, Mexico retains many charming characteristics that
+she will never lose. Her warm hospitality, the frank extension of a
+friendly hand, the open door of the home, the adoration and respect
+paid to her women and the love and reverence bestowed upon her heroes
+will always stamp the Mexican as exceedingly attractive.
+
+In the home the life is sweet and supremely happy. Little children kiss
+their parent’s hands, the old folks the hands of their elders, and the
+benediction of the padre, who comes to pay a short call, is eagerly
+sought by old and young. In matters pertaining to religious education
+the Mexican child is reared in rigid form. He is taught to hold in
+reverence all the church feasts, and the precepts of the priest in
+charge of the parish are faithfully followed.
+
+Carmen Day has been a great religious feast for six hundred years in
+the Catholic calendar. Hundreds of homes are annually made happy with
+visits and gifts to the Carmens, who are remembered by their friends.
+Since Madame Diaz has been the first lady in the land, Carmen Day has
+been more popular than ever, as it is the feast of her patron saint.
+
+Every town in the republic has its plaza, which is always laid out with
+beautiful flowers and shrubs, with walks going around the square wide
+enough to permit many people passing back and forth. In the evenings
+and on Sundays the Municipal Bands render popular music and the young
+folks promenade for several hours. The young men take one direction and
+the señoritas the opposite, so they meet face to face at every turn. In
+this way the language of the eyes plays an important part. Sometimes a
+tiny note is slipped, sometimes a stolen word, by a bolder aspirant.
+
+The architecture of the Mexican house, with its barred windows and
+well-guarded doors tends to incline the people to lead exclusive lives,
+and yet once within these massive portals the beauty and love of the
+home life are seen in many ways.
+
+ [Illustration: INDIAN MAIDEN WATER CARRIER.]
+
+The custom of the master placing his house and everything in it at
+your disposal (_esta a la disposition de usted_) is very pleasing
+to note. You admire a ring, it is at your service; a horse is offered
+you; letters are dated from your house (_la casa de usted_). Some,
+from ignorance of the custom of these mere expressions of civility,
+often place their hosts in a dilemma. A charming American lady, wife
+of one of the great generals, once admired a handsome fan belonging
+to one of the ladies in the official circle and on being told it was
+hers accepted it with great delight, much to the consternation and
+embarrassment of the señora. She carried her treasure home, but later
+learned that the gracious proffer was a custom of the land and returned
+the fan with a diplomatic note.
+
+The market places are a source of great wonder and interest. Here small
+tables and bits of straw matting are placed on all sides and upon these
+the men and women display their wares. Vegetables, fruits, and goods of
+all description are arranged in heaps, always with an eye to system and
+attractiveness. The people are sheltered from the intense rays of the
+sun by awnings of cloth or matting. They are all polite, and with their
+bright smiles easily gain customers.
+
+Together with the vegetables or flowers are found fat, pretty babies
+with black eyes, and always sweet and charming. The flower-market is
+a place of enchantment, for the love of flowers is a strong trait of
+character in these people. Here are men and women arranging great
+bunches of exquisite blossoms with a delicacy of taste that is
+surprising.
+
+ [Illustration: TYPE OF TEHUANTEPEC WOMAN.]
+
+One of the Easter customs is the hanging in effigy of Judas Iscariot,
+which is done everywhere in the country, from the large cities to the
+smallest hamlets. Mexicans attire themselves in black during Holy
+Week, and on the Saturday before Easter Day these grotesque figures of
+him who betrayed the Master are brought out everywhere and hanged and
+burned with all the contempt due to the betrayer.
+
+Peculiar little rattles which make a clatter representing the breaking
+of the bones of Judas are sold on the streets on Good Friday.
+
+On the twenty-first of August the Indians observe a feast in memory
+of the tortures to which Cuauhtemoc and his general were subjected
+by Cortés in an effort to secure information concerning the buried
+treasure.
+
+The laws of Mexico provide for the welfare of the Indians in a
+liberal manner and the best means of improving their mental and moral
+development is occupying the attention of the leading educators
+of the country. A society has just been formed in Mexico City for
+the protection of the Indians. The question as to what should be
+the political responsibility of the primitive people, untrained in
+independent thought and action, is not easily disposed of, and blunders
+which have been committed by the most enlightened nations in this
+respect prove how important is this problem.
+
+The Indian is still a child in mental and moral growth, but he is
+progressing under the benign influence of peace and security. Those who
+dwell in the mountainous districts have preserved in all their purity
+their ancient habits and primitive language.
+
+In some districts, as in the region of the Sierra, they preserve their
+native dances, and during certain religious ceremonies they execute
+these dances in their temples before the most venerated images.
+
+ [Illustration: IN RIDING COSTUME--CHARRO SUITS.]
+
+Many Mexican families are of noble lineage, dating back to the eight
+hundred years’ war with the Moors, when their ancestors were ennobled
+for gallantry of service to their kings. Some of the best families are
+very poor but conserve their dignity and position always.
+
+Newer families of social distinction are descendants of successful
+soldiers who stood somewhat in the same relation to the old aristocracy
+as did the marshals and generals of Napoleon I. to the old French
+nobility. Descendants of presidents constitute another kind of
+aristocracy, in fact, service to the State in high office gives one’s
+family and descendants a claim on popular consideration and respect.
+There are many descendants of the Aztec monarchs living in other
+countries, but few in Mexico. One of the small number remaining is
+Coronel Prospero Cahuantzi, Governor of the Aztec State, Tlaxcala. He
+is a pure-blood Aztec Indian and speaks the language with a softness
+that is delightful.
+
+The ancient marriage customs of Yucatán are unusual as well as
+interesting. From time immemorial the Maya women have worn a simple
+form of dress which they never vary. It consists of two pieces, a very
+full skirt falling to the ankles and a loose upper garment called
+huipil, joined under the arms, only it hangs in graceful folds after
+the manner of the Greek peplum. Cotton or linen is the material, always
+plain white, though trimmed with colored embroidery. The women load
+their necks and ears with beautiful hand-wrought filigree jewelry.
+
+ [Illustration: A TYPE OF THE MAYA WOMAN, YUCATÁN.]
+
+In almost every State there are certain dances and music typical of the
+people. In Yucatán there is a particular dance called the vaqueria. It
+is performed at the public fiestas by the mestizos dressed in exquisite
+costumes, brilliant in colored embroideries. The graceful dancers are
+inspired by music from a stringed orchestra of native performers, and
+their dainty feet move with a rhythm that is most fascinating.
+
+Mexico owes much of its peculiar beauty to the religious fervor of
+her inhabitants. Everywhere white crosses gleam among the trees, in
+solitary paths, on mountain tops and at the openings of mines. Even the
+haystacks have crosses fashioned in a rude way upon them, and buildings
+in course of construction are never without the sign of the cross.
+Wherever the footsteps of man pass, on rude huts, or barren rocks,
+the emblem of the faith stands, and in every hamlet the temple of God
+arises in comparative splendor. The symbol of the cross, strange as
+it may appear, was known to the Mexican Indians before the coming of
+Cortés. There was a temple dedicated to the Holy Cross by the Toltecs
+in Cholula and near Tulancingo a rock stands, engraved with a cross
+and other hieroglyphs or signs. Among the faithful-looking old trees
+a church will be found, gray and ancient, always gleaming in the soft
+light, the insignia of the Christian faith. The Indian, plodding to the
+nearest village with his wares will stop for a few moments to mumble
+his prayers before a cross that stands at the roadside. Wherever a
+murder or an accident has occurred rude crosses are always planted;
+sometimes it is only the branch of a tree fashioned in a primitive way,
+but always a cross.
+
+ [Illustration: MEXICAN BASKET SELLERS.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: SAN BARTOLO MINE, ZACATECAS]
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+ RESOURCES
+
+
+Few Americans realize that Mexico was “discovered” and settled by
+Cortés a hundred years before any settlement was made in the United
+States. And in natural advantages no other portion of this marvellous
+western hemisphere can claim a place above her.
+
+Mexico is the geographical centre of the earth, an imperial place in
+the great highways of the world. The country extends between fourteen
+degrees and thirty minutes and thirty-two degrees forty-two minutes
+north latitude, and between eighty-eight degrees fifty-four minutes and
+one hundred and nineteen degrees twenty-five minutes of longitude west
+of Greenwich.
+
+The frontier line which separates Mexico from the United States starts
+near the mouth of the Rio Grande from a point in the sea three leagues
+from the coast, follows the line of the river to its intersection
+with the parallel of latitude thirty-one degrees thirty-seven minutes
+forty-seven seconds North (at Ciudad Juarez), runs in a straight line
+westward one hundred miles and then bends to the south to thirty-one
+degrees twenty minutes, then follows the parallel westward to one
+hundred and eleven degrees of longitude west from Greenwich, and
+continues in a straight line to a point at the Rio Colorado twenty
+miles from its confluence with the River Gila, then it turns toward
+the north of this confluence and bends toward the west, following the
+line between Lower and Upper California. From Ciudad Juarez westward
+the boundary lines are marked with two hundred and fifty-eight massive
+stone and iron monuments. It has a northern frontier of fourteen
+hundred, and a southern of three hundred and forty-five miles. It has
+a seaboard of sixteen hundred and seventy-seven miles on the Gulf of
+Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, two thousand and forty on the Gulf of
+California and four thousand four hundred and eight on the Pacific
+Ocean, making six thousand and eighty-six.
+
+The area of this immense republic is nearly eight hundred thousand
+square miles. The face of the country is extremely diversified. The
+littoral regions are in general low and sandy, especially on the
+Atlantic side, where they were probably submerged at no remote period
+as far as the foot of the mountains. In no part of the republic within
+thirty miles of the sea does the land rise higher than one thousand
+feet, except, perhaps, in Chiapas, where the chain of the Mexican Andes
+presents a mural barrier facing the ocean, toward which the descent is
+exceedingly rapid. On the railway from Vera Cruz to the capital every
+variety of climate is experienced within the space of a few hours, and
+the natural productions peculiar to each are successively passed in
+review, from the sugar-cane, indigo plant and plantain of the tropics
+to the pines, firs, and lichens of the North.
+
+The Valley of Mexico is an elliptical plain with an area of about nine
+hundred and forty square miles, fringed on the east, south and west,
+by lofty peaks, some of which are active volcanoes; the plain may be
+regarded as one vast volcanic hearth, roughed at intervals by isolated
+hills rising abruptly from the surrounding level. The most elevated
+summits are at the southeast, where Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl tower
+majestically over all the rest. So regular is the great plateau formed
+exclusively by the broad, undulating, flattened crest of the Mexican
+Andes, and so gentle are the slopes where depressions occur that the
+journey from Mexico to Santa Fé, New Mexico, might be performed in a
+four-wheeled vehicle.
+
+There are seventeen mountains--ten of which are volcanoes--which are
+over ten thousand feet in height. Popocatepetl ranks first at seventeen
+thousand five hundred and forty feet, and Orizaba next at seventeen
+thousand one hundred and seventy-six feet.
+
+The volcanic zone is about six hundred miles long from east to west,
+and over sixty miles wide. Its central line starts at the volcano of
+Colima near the Pacific and ends in the volcano of San Andres Tuxtla,
+near the north of Mexico.
+
+The crest of these vast cordilleras, seen from the savannas of
+the coast, is defined from afar sometimes against a blue and all
+transparent sky, sometimes against a misty background. Granitic rocks
+or snowy peaks accentuate a country which rises in vast echelons to the
+central plateau. Bounded on the east and on the west by a succession
+of heights, which merge into the axis of the two grand mountain chains
+into which the cordillera divides, it is different in many points from
+those ranges which traverse South America and of which they are the
+continuation.
+
+ [Illustration: SUGAR MILL, ATEQUIZA HACIENDA.]
+
+The mineral deposits of Mexico are richer than those of any other
+country, and it is known that still more valuable mines of silver and
+gold are being discovered.
+
+The mines during the colonial period were crown property, and those
+who worked them paid one-fifth of the product to the king. When Mexico
+became independent they were declared public property and miners were
+required to pay into the national treasury only a small percentage of
+the yield. Even this tax was afterward abolished, and anyone can by
+right of discovery, denounce or record a mine and obtain authority
+to work a certain number of varas free of tribute. A slight tax, is
+however, imposed on melting and coining the metal.
+
+Situated below the tropics, the climate of Mexico is not less uniform
+than diversified. The temperature of each locality is almost always the
+same, yet the different localities present many distinct temperatures.
+
+There is comparatively little difference between summer and winter,
+except that one is the wet season and the other the dry. The climate
+can, as a whole, be classified as temperate, yet the country may be
+considered as divided into three zones--the hot, the temperate, and the
+cold.
+
+The hot region of this country comprises the Peninsula of Yucatán, the
+State of Tabasco, and the greater part of the States of Vera Cruz and
+Tamaulipas near the coast. The torrid district on the Pacific Ocean
+extends to the Territory of Lower California.
+
+The cold district and the central plateau occupy the plains on the
+north of the States of Michoacán and Mexico, the Federal District,
+the northern and eastern parts of the State of Puebla, the States
+of Tlaxcala, Hidalgo, Querétaro, and Guanajuato, part of Jalisco,
+the State of San Luis Potosí, except its western part, the States of
+Aguascalientes and Zacatecas, and the Plains of Durango.
+
+The healthiest climates are, of course, the driest ones, whether hot or
+cold. Mineral springs abound on the tablelands and on the slopes of the
+cordilleras.
+
+The mean temperature of the city of Mexico is about fifty-eight degrees
+Fahrenheit the year through. In no other country does the temperature
+become so much cooler after sunset, and one may walk a mile even at
+noon under the tropical sun without fatigue.
+
+ [Illustration: PULQUE VATS.]
+
+The rainy season begins at the end of May and lasts into October.
+During this time the sun comes out brightly in the morning, about
+noon pleasant showers without wind or violence come up, and by sunset
+all is bright again. On the Pacific Coast between the twenty-fifth
+and thirty-fifth parallels the case is reversed, and the rainy season
+falls in the winter months. The difference between winter and summer
+is hardly felt. In the rainy season the climate during the day time is
+slightly cooler, but altogether delightful.
+
+The soil throughout Mexico is, for the most part, extremely fertile.
+Artificial irrigation is in many places resorted to, and is effected
+by dams or canals. Developed property is estimated at over one billion
+pesos and the vegetation everywhere is magnificent.
+
+Every variety of fruit known in Europe or America is found usually
+growing in profusion. Owing to the peculiar structure of the country
+all fruits, with every kind of garden vegetable, may be obtained in the
+Mexican markets the year round.
+
+ [Illustration: BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN JALISCO AND TEPIC.]
+
+The flowers of Mexico are among the richest and most varied in the
+world. On Sunday mornings the streets of the capital are literally
+enamelled with blossoms of the most fragrant perfumes and most
+brilliant colors.
+
+The fields in the hot districts are adorned with the beautiful green
+of the tobacco, the sugar-cane, and the pampas grass of the coast
+region; and the plantations of mangrove-trees, and the bamboo with its
+branching foliage, give shade to the river banks. In the virgin forests
+are gigantic fir-trees, with immense cedars, mahogany trees, and many
+others rich in foliage as well as useful for their fruits and woods.
+The most luxuriant vines trail from the highest branches of the trees,
+and many varieties of orchids are found.
+
+In the temperate regions the character of the vegetation changes,
+but its beauty does not lessen. Magnificent forests of liquidamber,
+various kinds of oak, laurel, magnolia, and myrtle, cover the base of
+the mountains; mosses, ferns, and lichens carpet the smooth surface
+of the rocks, as also the rough bark of the trees. Every dale or glen
+is an orchard where one can gather the most palatable of fruits while
+enjoying the most delightful breezes, and where the sighing of the
+winds, the singing of the birds, and the murmur of the waterfalls make
+sweetest music.
+
+In a country so teeming with foliage and brilliant flowers, the soil is
+naturally fertile and productive, because of its richness agriculture
+is perhaps the easiest and most useful occupation.
+
+Mr. John Barrett, Director General of the Bureau of American Republics,
+says: “Mexico is not only a land of great natural resources in
+the process of utilization, but of vast potentialities capable of
+remarkable development. Mexico has such a variety of natural products,
+such agricultural and mineral wealth, such mingling of fertile plateaus
+and valleys with large timber areas, such extensive coast lines on both
+the Pacific and Atlantic sides of America, such a network of railways,
+and, with all, such a progressive government under the able direction
+of General Diaz, that few, if any, countries in the world have, in
+proportion to population and area, better prospects and greater
+possibilities for the future.”
+
+ [Illustration: AVENUE OF DATE PALMS, SONORA.]
+
+Mr. Barrett has made a study of all Latin America and has always been
+particularly interested in the Republic of Mexico.
+
+In the cultivated regions is grown the maguey, from which the national
+drink, pulque, is extracted. It grows on the great plains and plateaus
+at a height of over seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. On
+the Plains of Apam, as far as the eye can reach it encounters long rows
+of these plants, about nine feet apart.
+
+ [Illustration: A COFFEE AND BANANA PLANTATION.]
+
+The maguey, or agave americana, grows not only in fields, which are
+planted thickly, but in ditches set along the fences, and in many
+odd corners which seem to be good for nothing else. It grows in good
+land to a great size, the central stem often attaining a height of
+twenty-five or thirty feet and a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches;
+the branches in some instances are a foot and a half wide and four or
+five inches thick. One maguey plant frequently yields a hundred and
+fifty gallons of pulque. A single plant will often yield four hundred
+and fifty-two cubic inches in twenty-four hours.
+
+One can scarcely imagine the appearance of these immense maguey
+plantations. In the country between Mexico and Vera Cruz for hundreds
+of miles the plains and hillsides are seen covered with long, close
+lines of agave in every stage, from the strong, large, generous beauty
+of the full-grown plant to the young, tender green of the newly
+transplanted shoots. The plant combines within itself a dozen different
+materials for comfort and use. Growing in an absolutely dry soil, with
+no help from irrigation, it has the property of condensing moisture
+and coolness about its roots, which makes it yield at full growth an
+incredible amount of liquid.
+
+The maguey furnishes two other liquors, not unlike our brandy and
+whiskey, very intoxicating, but very little used.
+
+It supplies the native, besides, with a primitive needle and thread; it
+gives a species of hempen cloth from the coarser tissue and of paper
+from the inner pulp; it provides a good thatch for houses; and the
+débris, dried, makes fuel in regions where wood is scarce.
+
+It is said to be the most wholesome drink in the world, and remarkably
+agreeable when one has overcome the first shock occasioned by its
+rancid odor. At all events, the maguey is a source of unfailing profit,
+the consumption of pulque being enormous, so that many of the richest
+families in the capital owe their fortune entirely to the produce of
+their magueys.
+
+Of recent years Mexico has come forward with a new resource that bids
+fair to outrival the United States in oil production. The oil fields in
+various parts of the country have developed to such an extent that many
+prospectors from Europe as well as other parts of America have reaped
+great results.
+
+There is a curious production of nature, the organos, which resembles
+the barrels of pipes of an organ. The plants growing close together and
+about six feet high and being covered with prickles, make the strongest
+natural fence imaginable, besides being covered with beautiful flowers.
+
+The sugar-cane was unknown to the ancient Mexicans, who made syrup of
+honey and also from the maguey, and sugar from the stalk of maize.
+The sugar-cane was brought by the Spaniards from the Canary Islands
+to Santo Domingo, whence it passed to Cuba and Mexico. The first
+sugar-canes were planted in 1520, by Don Pedro de Atienza. The first
+cylinders were constructed by Gonzalez de Velosa and the first sugar
+mills built by the Spaniards at that time were worked by hydraulic
+wheels, and not by horses. Humboldt, who examined the will of Cortés,
+said that the conqueror had left sugar-plantations near Coyoacan.
+
+ [Illustration: COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR CORDOBA.]
+
+There is no enterprise in Mexico at the present time which can be
+compared with coffee culture. Mexico is admirably adapted to coffee
+growing, and her coffee ranks among the finest in the world. The finest
+quality is produced in Colima, Oaxaca, Michoacán, Morelos, and Vera
+Cruz.
+
+The soil and climatic conditions necessary to the successful production
+of the coffee-berry are so peculiar that, though it grows in all
+countries between the tropics, the acreage exactly adapted to it is
+comparatively small. Entire absence of extremes of heat and cold,
+a moist atmosphere, fertile soil, and freedom from drought, are
+indispensable to the production of remunerative crops.
+
+Among the few districts in the world where the vanilla bean grows are
+the States of Jalisco and Hidalgo, Vera Cruz, Chiapas and Oaxaca. The
+exportation of this product has given Mexico an enviable reputation, as
+its properties are most favorably known abroad.
+
+Tobacco is cultivated in several places in the States of Vera Cruz,
+Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatán. An excellent grade is raised and there
+has been a great increase in the exportation lately. It was introduced
+into Mexico during the Cuban War, and cigars were made by the refugees.
+
+To the process of manufacture which the Cuban immigrants brought into
+Mexico is due the progress made in this branch of the national industry.
+
+There are favorable conditions for cotton culture, and Mexico might
+easily rival the United States and the Indies. The use of cotton
+clothes was, in fact, general with the ancient Mexicans; and from the
+beginning of this century cotton was worth at Vera Cruz three or four
+times less than anywhere else.
+
+Henequen, of all the textile plants which abound in Mexico, is one
+which is the most assiduously cultivated.
+
+The “Pita,” which abounds in a wild state in Oaxaca gives a fibre
+resembling that of the ramie and answering the same purposes. Ropes
+made with Oaxaca pita are four times stronger than those of hemp.
+
+The cultivation of the India-rubber tree has become very profitable.
+Young trees transplanted from a forest to a cultivated field in
+Soconusco have yielded rubber for more than thirty-five years, the
+present annual product is averaging more than fifty pounds of gum for
+each tree.
+
+The Mexican gum deserves to be taken into consideration. The plants
+which produce it are found in considerable quantities in all the
+forests of the hot districts, and especially in those of the States of
+Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, and Tabasco, and on the Pacific slope, on the
+coast of the States of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tepic, etc. It is
+stated that in Tuxpan the milk drawn from the rubber trees is placed in
+earthenware jars and whipped with a weed called coyuntla which is an
+astringent that causes the milk to curdle, making the crude rubber.
+
+The mulberry tree, to which place is here given because it is the
+indispensable complement of the silk industry, grows in both hot and
+temperate climates. Under the colonial régime several successful
+attempts to plant mulberry trees were made in Mexico.
+
+The tree grows with great rapidity in this country. Besides the
+plantations of small shoots, there have been made considerable
+plantings of the mulberry seed, which have proved profitable.
+
+The interest taken by Japan in the resources of Mexico was evident by
+the number of representatives that country sent to make a complete
+study of the conditions, in order to increase the trade between the
+two countries. An exhibition of Japanese arts and crafts in Mexico
+City during the Centennial was one of the interesting features. It
+was under the direction of the Japanese Chargé d’affaires, Honorable
+Kuma Horigoutchi, who has done so much to promote a friendly relation
+between the two nations.
+
+ [Illustration: PACK TRAIN WITH SUGAR ON THE ROAD TO MARKET.]
+
+ [Illustration: “GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: CHAC-MOOL IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, CITY OF
+ MEXICO.]
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+ RUINS
+
+
+Mexico is pre-eminently the land of mystery of the Western World. It
+contains abundant traces of a civilization far older than any other
+on this continent, and now that a key to the Maya inscriptions has
+been found, it is reasonable to expect that systematic exploration
+will result in reconstructing, at least partially, the history of a
+vanished race, and throw some light on the interesting question of its
+antiquity as well as of its origin and with it give us some knowledge
+of what is now the prehistoric period of North America. It is scarcely
+possible to overestimate the importance of Mexico’s movement to have
+the archæological treasures of the country properly investigated. A
+bill has been passed by Congress to empower American scientists to make
+excavations in this country, provided the objects found be divided
+equally between the two nations.
+
+The ruins of Mitla are situated in the State of Oaxaca. They cover
+many acres of ground and are the best preserved ruins in Mexico. Where
+vandalism has not destroyed them, the walls are as perfect as when
+erected.
+
+ [Illustration: RUINS AT MITLA.]
+
+ [Illustration: SEPULCHRE, NEAR MITLA, OAXACA.]
+
+The buildings are very extensive, and are magnificent in the skill and
+art shown in their construction. They were so designed as to face a
+central square. They were not connected at the corners, but the centre
+court was projected by a wall of rock and mortar which filled the
+spaces. Each building had only three openings, all facing the court.
+There were no windows or other means of lighting the interior. The
+walls were made of a very tenacious adobe, veneered both within and
+without with finely cut stone laid in regular courses and interspersed
+with panels that are filled with what may be denominated herringbone
+work, in a profusion of patterns each cut to fill its particular
+place, whether a square or a scroll, and the joints are so perfect
+that only the thinnest kind of cement could be used, and, after
+centuries of earthquakes, these joints are so perfect as to call forth
+the admiration of all who behold them. The lintels over the doorways
+are each of one solid stone, and with all our modern appliances and
+engineering skill, it would be considered a great triumph to place them
+in their position.
+
+ [Illustration: ARCH OF THE “GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL,
+ YUCATÁN.]
+
+Recently there have been some excavations made on the Island of
+Sacrificios by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, a native of California and a member
+of many archæological societies. Until this interesting woman explored
+these parts no knowledge of prehistoric edifices existed. But her
+discoveries of pottery and the remains of a fallen city have added
+another ruin to those already explored in Mexico.
+
+Among the ruins which have most frequently attracted the attention of
+explorers in Mexico is a monument which Baron von Humboldt designated
+the “Military Entrenchments of Xochicalco.” It is a few miles from
+Cuernavaca in the State of Morelos. The walls of this pyramid and the
+exterior are sculptured with what is supposed to be chronological
+hieroglyphics. These are in a state of decay but under the clinging
+moss one may distinguish serpents and warriors in oriental posture
+with adornments and plumes on the head. Animals of all kinds are
+distinguishable in these unique carvings. Several caves of great
+importance have been discovered, chief of these is the _Cueva de los
+Amates_.
+
+The venerable pyramids of San Juan Teotihuacan are the most remarkable
+remnants of ancient American civilization. They were found by the
+Aztecs, according to their traditions, on their entrance into the
+country. The two principal pyramids were dedicated to Tonatiuh, the
+sun, and Mextli, the moon. They are not inferior to those of some of
+the kindred monuments of Egypt. They were divided into four stories,
+three of which are now discernible. The interiors are composed of clay
+mixed with pebbles, encrusted on the surface with the light, porous
+stone tetzontli, so abundant in the neighboring quarries. Over this
+was a thick coating of stucco, resembling in its reddish color that
+found in the ruins of Palenque. According to tradition, the pyramids
+are hollow, but hitherto the attempt to discover the cavity in that
+dedicated to the sun has been unsuccessful. These monuments were
+devoted to religious uses, and it would be only conformable to the
+practice of antiquity on the eastern hemisphere that they should have
+served for tombs as well as temples.
+
+These ruins cover an area very nearly as large as that of the present
+city of Mexico and the streets are distinctly marked by the ruins of
+the houses.
+
+ [Illustration: CHICHEN-ITZA, YUCATÁN.]
+
+It has been said that America is a land without traditions, without
+poetry, and without castles. Ignorance is the only excuse for those
+under this impression; for in Mexico are ancient ruins of buildings
+that were hoary with age when the famous castles of the Rhine and the
+comparatively young strongholds of England were in process of erection.
+Away back in the Middle Ages, when the romance of Europe is supposed to
+have originated, there was a civilization in Mexico that was even then
+historic. It is an ignorance that may, perhaps, be pardoned, since
+even our wisest archæologists and deepest scientific students of modern
+times cannot yet determine the age or origin of the most ancient of
+these landmarks.
+
+ [Illustration: RUINS AT MITLA, OAXACA.]
+
+ [Illustration: PYRAMID OF THE SUN, SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN.]
+
+No more interesting people for the modern student ever existed than the
+Aztecs, who seem to have been the equal in intelligence and advancement
+of any tribe in the world at the time. The Aztecs were most sincere
+in the practice of their religious rites. They believed in a supreme
+creator, invisible yet omnipresent, but requiring numerous assistants
+to perform his will, each of whom presided over some special natural
+phenomenon or phase of human existence. They had thirteen principal and
+several hundred inferior deities. The dread Huitzilopochtli, the war
+god of the Aztecs, was the patron divinity of the race, and myriads of
+human victims were sacrificed to him yearly in countless pyramidal
+temples throughout the realm. Quetzalcoatl, a more beneficent deity,
+was described by the natives as a tall white man, with a large forehead
+and flowing beard, who taught his favored people the art of government
+and the various arts of peace, forbade bloody sacrifices and permitted
+only those of bread, roses, and perfumes. This god of the air, as he
+was named, having incurred the displeasure of one of the other chief
+deities, was compelled to leave the country, but on quitting the shores
+of the gulf, he promised to return, and the Mexican always looked
+forward to the auspicious day.
+
+ [Illustration: RUINS OF PALENQUE, CHIAPAS.]
+
+The ruins of Uxmal, Chichen, Izamal, Mayapan, and Labna have been
+explored by Stephens and other archæologists. Those of Uxmal, the
+most remarkable, are situated about fifty miles southwest of Merida.
+They comprise numerous massive limestone structures built on broad
+terraced platforms, and all highly ornamented. The largest single
+building, called “the government house,” has a front of three hundred
+and twenty-two feet, and contains twenty-four rooms. The most beautiful
+structure is the “house of the nuns,” composed of four ranges
+enclosing a large courtyard, with eighty-eight apartments. The “house
+of the dwarf,” on a very steep mound eighty-eight feet high was a
+teocalli for human sacrifices. But little definite is known of the use
+of the temples and other vast edifices, which, from their size and
+profuse ornamentation in carved and colored figures and bas-relief,
+are, even in their ruined state, among the most wonderful architectural
+relics of the Western World.
+
+Equally interesting are the ruins of Chichen-Itza, which are perhaps
+the most remarkable in Yucatán. They have the distinguishing feature
+common to all--the impossibility of ascertaining the purposes or uses
+of the extraordinary structures which still stand in testimony of the
+high degree of civilization of a people long since forgotten.
+
+In Campeche, where many wild animals and enormous serpents abound, the
+ruins of Hôch-ob stand in a retreat of tropical verdure. Though small
+in proportion to those of Yucatán, the construction has been pronounced
+even superior by scientists who have braved great dangers to explore
+them.
+
+ [Illustration: “HOUSE OF THE DOVES,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN.]
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
+corrected silently.
+
+2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
+been retained as in the original.
+
+3. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79275 ***
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