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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79063 ***
+
+
+
+
+                          DESIGNS ON PREHISTORIC
+                               HOPI POTTERY
+
+                                    BY
+                            JESSE WALTER FEWKES
+
+               REPRINTED FROM THE THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT
+                    OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+                              [Illustration]
+
+                                WASHINGTON
+                        GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+                                   1919
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                      Page
+    Introduction                                                       215
+      Chronology of Hopi pottery symbols                               215
+    The ruin, Sikyatki                                                 218
+      Sikyatki epoch                                                   219
+      Human figures                                                    220
+      Quadruped figures                                                223
+      Reptilian figures                                                225
+      Winged figures                                                   227
+        Dorsal views of birds                                          228
+        Lateral views of birds                                         233
+        Feather designs                                                236
+          Feathers suspended from strings                              241
+      Sky-band                                                         242
+        Vertical attachment to sky-band                                243
+        Birds attached longitudinally to sky-band                      246
+          Decorations on exteriors of food bowls                       248
+          Curved figure with attached feathers                         251
+      Spider and insects                                               252
+      Butterfly and moth                                               252
+      Geometrical designs                                              255
+      Rain clouds                                                      256
+      Stars                                                            257
+      Sun emblems                                                      258
+      Rectangular figures representing shrines                         262
+      Symbols introduced from San Juan River settlements               264
+      Symbols introduced by the Snake people                           265
+    Tanoan epoch                                                       266
+      Symbols introduced from the Little Colorado                      267
+      Symbols introduced by the Badger and Kachina clans               273
+      Symbols introduced from Awatobi                                  275
+      Shalako mana                                                     275
+      Symbols of Hano clans                                            279
+    Conclusion                                                         281
+    Authorities cited                                                  284
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                      Page
+
+    PLATES
+
+     76. Various forms of conventionalized feathers                    238
+     77. Conventionalized tail feathers                                240
+     78. Conventionalized feathers attached to strings (nakwakwoci)    240
+     79. Sky-bands                                                     242
+     80. Geometrical figures on outside of bowls                       250
+     81. Geometrical figures on outside of bowls                       250
+     82. Geometrical figures on outside of bowls                       250
+     83. Geometrical figures on outside of bowls                       250
+     84. Geometrical figures on outside of bowls                       250
+     85. Conventionalized bird designs                                 250
+     86. Conventionalized bird designs                                 250
+     87. Bird, sun, and spider and sun symbols                         258
+     88. Conventionalized bird figures                                 258
+     89. Shalakomana, Corn Maid (from tablet dance)                    276
+     90. Top of butterfly vase                                         276
+
+    TEXT FIGURES
+
+     12. Human head with hair-in characteristic whorls                 221
+     13. Woman with serpent-like animal                                221
+     14. Kneeling woman, showing hair in characteristic whorls         222
+     15. Three human figures                                           223
+     16. _a_, Deer; _b_, rabbit                                        224
+     17. Quadruped                                                     224
+     18. Antelope or mountain sheep                                    224
+     19. Mountain lion                                                 225
+     20. Problematical reptile                                         225
+     21. Reptile                                                       225
+     22. Reptile                                                       225
+     23. Reptile                                                       226
+     24. Reptile                                                       227
+     25. Turtle                                                        227
+     26. Clouds and tadpoles                                           228
+     27. Tadpoles                                                      228
+     28. Dorsal view of a bird                                         229
+     29. Bird figure, two halves restored to natural position          229
+     30. Dorsal view of bird                                           230
+     31. Bird figure                                                   230
+     32. Bird figure                                                   231
+     33. Bird figure                                                   231
+     34. Bird figure                                                   231
+     35. Bird figure (Thunderbird)                                     231
+     36. Bird figure                                                   232
+     37. Highly conventionalized figure of bird from dorsal side       232
+     38. Conventional figure of a bird                                 233
+     39. Conventional figure of a bird                                 233
+     40. Conventional figure of a bird                                 233
+     41. Conventional figure of a bird                                 233
+     42. Conventional figure of a bird                                 234
+     43. Triangular form of bird                                       234
+     44. Triangular form of bird                                       234
+     45. Simple form of bird with terraced body                        234
+     46. Lateral view of triangular bird with two tail feathers        234
+     47. Lateral view of bird with three tail feathers                 234
+     48. Problematical bird figure                                     234
+     49. Bird with two tail feathers                                   234
+     50. Highly conventionalized bird figure                           234
+     51. Lateral view of bird                                          234
+     52. Profile of bird                                               235
+     53. Lateral view of bird with outspread wing                      235
+     54. Lateral view of bird with twisted tail and wing feathers      235
+     55. Lateral view of conventionalized bird                         236
+     56. Lateral view of conventionalized bird                         236
+     57. Feather symbol with black notch                               237
+     58. Feather symbol with black notch                               237
+     59. Feathers                                                      241
+     60. Curved feathers                                               241
+     61. Conventional feathers                                         241
+     62. Parallel lines representing feathers                          241
+     63. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    244
+     64. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    244
+     65. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    244
+     66. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    244
+     67. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    245
+     68. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    245
+     69. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    245
+     70. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    246
+     71. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    246
+     72. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    247
+     73. Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view    247
+     74. Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band                    247
+     75. Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band                    248
+     76. Lateral view of bird with extended wing                       248
+     77. Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band                    249
+     78. Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band                    249
+     79. Butterfly and flower                                          252
+     80. Butterfly with extended proboscis                             253
+     81. Highly conventionalized butterfly                             253
+     82. Moth                                                          254
+     83. Moth                                                          254
+     84. Moth of geometrical form                                      255
+     85. Geometrical form of moth                                      255
+     86. Highly conventionalized butterfly                             255
+     87. Geometrical form of moth                                      255
+     88. Circle with triangles                                         255
+     89. Rain cloud                                                    257
+     90. Rain cloud                                                    257
+     91. Ring with appended feathers                                   258
+     92. Two circles with figure                                       259
+     93. Sun with feathers                                             259
+     94. Sun symbol                                                    259
+     95. Ring with appended feathers                                   260
+     96. Ring figure with legs and appended feathers                   260
+     97. Sun emblem with appended feathers                             260
+     98. Sun symbol                                                    261
+     99. Sun symbol                                                    261
+    100. Horned snake with conventionalized shrine                     263
+    101. Shrine                                                        263
+    102. Shrine                                                        264
+    103. Conventionalized winged bird with shrine                      264
+    104. Lateral view of bird with double eyes                         269
+    105. Lateral view of bird with double eyes                         270
+    106. Bird with double eyes                                         271
+    107. Two birds with rain clouds                                    272
+    108. Head of Shalako mana, or Corn maid                            276
+    109. Head of Kokle, or Earth woman                                 280
+    110. Head of Hahaiwugti, or Earth woman                            280
+    111. Ladle with clown carved on handle and Earth woman on bowl     281
+    112. Püükon hoya, little War god                                   281
+
+
+
+
+DESIGNS ON PREHISTORIC HOPI POTTERY
+
+By JESSE WALTER FEWKES
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In the following pages the author has endeavored to draw attention to
+some of the most important symbols on Hopi pottery, especially those of
+prehistoric times.
+
+Consideration of this subject has led to a discussion of the character
+of pottery designs at different epochs and the interpretation, by study
+of survivals, of ancient designs in modern times. This chronological
+treatment has necessitated an examination of ceramic material from ruins
+of different ages and an ethnological study of ancient symbols still
+surviving in ceremonials now practiced. It has also led to sociological
+researches on the composition of the tribe, the sequence in the arrival
+of clans at Walpi, and their culture in distant homes from which they
+migrated. It will thus appear that the subject is a very complicated one,
+and that the data upon which conclusions are based are sociological as
+well as archeological. There are many ruins from which material might
+have been obtained, but only a few have been adequately investigated.
+The small number of ruins in the Hopi country which have thus far been
+excavated necessarily makes our knowledge not only provisional but also
+imperfect. It is hoped, however, that this article may serve to stimulate
+others to renewed field work and so add desired data to the little we
+have bearing on the subject.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGY OF HOPI POTTERY SYMBOLS
+
+At least three well-marked epochs can be distinguished in the history
+of Hopi ceramic symbolism. Each of these is intimately associated with
+certain clans that have from time to time joined the Hopi and whose
+descendants compose the present population. Although these epochs follow
+each other in direct sequence, each was not evolved from its predecessor
+or modified by it, except to a very limited extent. Each epoch has left
+to the succeeding one a heritage of symbols, survivals which are somewhat
+difficult to differentiate from exotic symbols introduced by incoming
+clans. So that while each epoch grades almost imperceptibly into the
+one directly following it, an abrupt change is sometimes evident in the
+passage.
+
+In order to appreciate the relations between ceramic decoration and
+history let me sketch in brief outline what I regard as the historical
+development of the Hopi living near or on the East Mesa. We know little
+of the group of people who first settled here except that they belonged
+to the Bear clan, which is traditionally referred to the eastern pueblo
+region. At about the time they entered Hopiland there was a settlement
+called Sikyatki composed of Jemez colonists, situated about 3 miles from
+the southern point of East Mesa, and other towns or pueblos on Awatobi
+Mesa and in Antelope Valley, 10 miles away.
+
+The first great additions to this original population were Snake
+clans, who came from the San Juan, followed by Flute clans from the
+same direction but originally of southern origin. Having become well
+established at the point of the East Mesa, the combined settlement
+overthrew Sikyatki and appropriated its clans.
+
+Then came the strenuous days of Spanish invasion and the destruction of
+Awatobi in 1700. The Little Colorado clans had already begun to seek
+refuge in the Hopi mountains and their number was greatly augmented by
+those from Zuñi, a Rio Grande settlement called Tewadi, and elsewhere,
+each addition bringing new forms of culture and settling new pueblos
+on or near the East Mesa, as has been shown in previous publications.
+Traditions point out their former settlements and it remains for the
+archeologist to excavate those settlements, now in ruins, and verify
+these traditions. This can be done by a study of artifacts found in them.
+
+As a rule archeologists have relied on technique, form, and especially
+color, in the classification of Pueblo pottery, leading, on the technical
+side, to the groups known as (a) rough, coiled ware, and (b) smooth,
+polished ware; and on that of form, to bowls, vases, jars, dippers, etc.
+When color is used as the basis of classification the divisions black and
+white, red, yellow, orange, and polychrome are readily differentiated.
+Classifications based on these data are useful, as they indicate
+cultural as well as geographical differences in Pueblo ceramics; but
+these divisions can be used only with limitations in a study of stages
+of culture growth. The fact that they are not emphasized in the present
+article is not because their importance is overlooked, but rather for the
+purpose of supplementing them with a classification that is independent
+of and in some particulars more reliable for indicating chronology and
+culture distinctions.
+
+The life-forms on ancient Sikyatki and other Hopi pottery are painted
+on what is known as yellow ware, which is regarded by some authors as
+characteristic of the Hopi area; but pottery of the same color, yet with
+radically different symbolic life-forms, occurs also in other areas. It
+thus appears that while a classification of Pueblo pottery by color is
+convenient, differences of color are not so much indications of diversity
+in culture as of geologic environment. Designs on pottery are more
+comprehensive and more definite in culture studies than color, and are so
+regarded in these pages.
+
+As there exists a general similarity in the form of prehistoric
+pottery throughout the Southwest, shape alone is also inadequate for
+a determination of Pueblo culture centers. The great multiplicity and
+localization of symbols on Pueblo pottery furnishes adequate material
+for classification by means of the designs depicted on vases, bowls,
+and other pottery objects. Sikyatki pottery is especially suited to
+a classification on such a basis, for it is recognized as the most
+beautiful and the most elaborately decorated prehistoric pottery found
+in the Southwest. Life-forms are abundant and their symbolism is
+sufficiently characteristic to be regarded as typical of a well-defined
+ceramic area. There can, of course, be no question regarding the ancient
+character of the designs on Sikyatki pottery, nor were they introduced or
+modified by white men, but are purely aboriginal and prehistoric.
+
+Pottery from the Sikyatki ruin is chosen as a type of the most highly
+developed or golden epoch in Hopi ceramics. Several other ruins were
+inhabited when Sikyatki was in its prime and pottery from these belongs
+to the same epoch, and would probably be equally good to illustrate its
+character. Fortunately, specimens are available from many of these, as
+Awatobi, and the ruins in Antelope Valley, old Shumopavi, and other
+Middle Mesa ruins. The date of the origin of this epoch, or the highest
+development of Hopi ceramics, is not known, but there is evidence that it
+lasted until the fall of Awatobi, in 1700. The destruction of Sikyatki
+occurred before 1540, but Sikyatki has given the name to the epoch and is
+taken as the type, not only because of the abundance of ceramic material
+available from that ruin, but also because there can be no doubt of the
+prehistoric nature of material from it.
+
+There is abundant evidence that the culture of Sikyatki was never
+influenced by white man. After the overthrow of Awatobi there developed
+on the East Mesa of the Hopi country a third ceramic epoch which was
+largely influenced by the influx of Tanoan (Tewa) clans. They came either
+directly from the Rio Grande or by way of Zuñi and other pueblos. Among
+other arrivals about 1710 were those clans which settled Hano, a Tewa
+pueblo on the East Mesa. The Hano and other symbols introduced in this
+epoch are best known in the present generation by the earlier productions
+of Nampeo, an expert modern potter.
+
+The pottery of this epoch differs from that of the second in form, color,
+and technique, but mainly in its symbolism, which is radically different
+from that of the epochs that preceded it. The symbolism of this phase
+is easily determined from large collections now in museums. This epoch
+was succeeded in 1895 by a fourth, in which there was a renaissance of
+old Sikyatki patterns, under the lead of Nampeo. In that year Nampeo
+visited the excavations at Sikyatki and made pencil copies of the designs
+on mortuary bowls. From that time all pottery manufactured by her was
+decorated with modified Sikyatki symbols, largely to meet the demand for
+this beautiful ancient ware. The extent of her work, for which there
+was a large demand, may be judged by the great numbers of Hopi bowls
+displayed in every Harvey store from New Mexico to California. This
+modified Sikyatki ware, often sold by unscrupulous traders as ancient, is
+the fourth, or present, epoch of Hopi ceramics. These clever imitations,
+however, are not as fine as the productions of the second epoch. There is
+danger that in a few years some of Nampeo’s imitations will be regarded
+as ancient Hopi ware of the second epoch, and more or less confusion
+introduced by the difficulty in distinguishing her work from that
+obtained in the ruins.
+
+
+
+
+THE RUIN, SIKYATKI
+
+
+The ruins of the ancient pueblo of Sikyatki, consisting of mounds and
+a few outcropping walls, are situated on rocky elevations rising from
+the sand hills at the eastern or sunny base of the East Mesa, about 3
+miles from the modern Hopi pueblo of Walpi in northeastern Arizona. The
+founders of Sikyatki are said, in very circumstantial migration legends,
+to have belonged to a [Keres?] clan called the Kokop, or Firewood,
+which previously lived in a pueblo near Jemez, New Mexico. Preliminary
+excavations were made at Sikyatki, under the author’s direction, by the
+Smithsonian Institution in 1895, when there was obtained, chiefly from
+its cemeteries, a valuable collection of pottery, most of which is now
+installed in the National Museum.[1]
+
+Little is known of the history of Sikyatki save through tradition, but
+enough has been discovered to show that it was abandoned before 1540, the
+year of the visit to Tusayan of Pedro Tovar, an officer of the Coronado
+expedition. It was probably settled much earlier, perhaps about the time
+the Bear clans, also said to have come from the Jemez region, built the
+first houses of Walpi near the point of the terrace at the west or cold
+side of the East Mesa, below the present settlement.[2] Both of these
+prehistoric pueblos occupied sites exposed to attack by enemies and
+were not built on mesa tops, hence it may be assumed that there were no
+enemies to fear in Tusayan at the time of their establishment. But later,
+when the Snake clans from the north joined the Bear settlement at Walpi,
+trouble seems to have commenced. As above mentioned, the Bear clans came
+from the same region as the Kokop and were presumably friendly, probably
+kin of the Sikyatkians; but the Snake clans came from Tokonabi, in the
+north, and were no doubt of foreign stock, implying a hostility that may
+have been the indirect cause of the overthrow of Sikyatki and Awatobi by
+the other Hopi.
+
+The two epochs in Hopi ceramic development that can be distinguished
+with certainty are (1) the Sikyatki epoch and (2) the Tanoan or historic
+epoch. The third, or renaissance, of the Sikyatki dates back to 1895, and
+may be called the modern epoch. The Sikyatki epoch gave way to the Tanoan
+about the beginning of the eighteenth century. It did not develop from
+any group preexisting in the neighborhood of the present Hopi pueblos but
+was derived from the east and it ceased suddenly, being replaced by a
+totally different group introduced by radically different clans.[3]
+
+
+SIKYATKI EPOCH
+
+The most characteristic Hopi pottery bearing symbols of the Sikyatki
+epoch occurs in a few ruins near the Hopi mesas, but from lack of
+exploration it is impossible to determine the boundaries of the area in
+which it is found.
+
+Several museums contain collections of Hopi ware of this epoch, among
+which may be mentioned the National Museum at Washington, the Field
+Columbian Museum of Natural History at Chicago, the Museum of the
+University of Pennsylvania, the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, and the
+Museum für Volkerkünde at Berlin, Germany. Many bowls of this epoch are
+likewise found in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, and
+in the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute. Several private collections in
+Europe and the United States likewise contain specimens of Sikyatki ware,
+among them being that gathered by the late Dr. Miller, now at Phoenix,
+Arizona. The collection of prehistoric Hopi pottery in the National
+Museum is particularly rich, containing many specimens gathered by the
+Stevenson expeditions, by the author, and by Dr. Hough, of the U. S.
+National Museum.
+
+The symbols on the ancient pottery from the Middle Mesa of the Hopi are
+almost identical with those of Sikyatki, indicating a similarity of
+culture, a common geographical origin, and a synchronous culture. From
+the character of the symbols on the ancient pottery from the ancient
+Middle Mesa pueblos it is probable that the clans who founded them
+came, like the colonists who settled Sikyatki, from the Jemez plateau
+in New Mexico. Although the Field collection is very rich in old Walpi
+ware, nothing of importance has been published on the symbols of this
+collection; it contains some of the most instructive examples of the
+Sikyatki epoch. A large and probably the most valuable portion of this
+collection was gathered by Dr. George A. Dorsey and Mr. Charles L. Owen,
+while many pieces were purchased from Mr. Frank Wattron, of Holbrook, and
+from the late Mr. T. V. Keam, of Keams Canyon, Arizona. The source of
+many of the Wattron specimens is unknown, but it is evident from their
+decoration that some of them are ancient Hopi and probably belong to the
+Sikyatki epoch and came from Shongopovi, Awatobi, or Sikyatki.
+
+Shortly before his death Mr. T. V. Keam sold to the Museum für
+Volkerkünde at Berlin, Germany, a rich collection of pottery obtained
+mainly from Awatobi and Sikyatki, containing several specimens of the
+Sikyatki epoch which are highly instructive. Some of the designs on the
+pottery of this collection are unique, and their publication would be a
+great aid to a study of the most important epoch of Hopi ceramics.
+
+A large proportion of life-forms used in the decoration of Sikyatki
+pottery are mythological subjects, showing the predominance of
+supernatural beings and their magic power in the minds of the makers.
+Like a child, the primitive artist is fond of complexity of detail, and
+figures in which motion is indicated appealed more to his fancy than
+those objects that do not move. It needs but a glance at the ancient
+Sikyatki life-figures to show a tendency to represent detail and to
+convince one of the superiority of the Sikyatki potters in this respect
+over those of modern times. There has been a gradual deterioration, not
+only less care being now devoted to the technique of the pottery but
+also to the drawing of the figures. This lack in itself is significant,
+for while modern ware reflects in its hasty crudeness the domination of
+commercialism, the ancient pottery shows no indication of such influence.
+Pottery is now made to please the purchaser; in ancient times another
+motive influenced the maker, for then it was a product worthy of the
+highest use to which it could be put, since it often formed a part of
+sacred paraphernalia in religious ceremonies.
+
+
+HUMAN FIGURES
+
+Sikyatki pictures of human beings depict men and women, singly or in
+company, and are few in number and crude in execution. Organs of the
+body—hands, feet, arms, and legs—are often represented separately. The
+hand is portrayed on two vessels, and the foot, elaborately drawn,
+appears on another; as a general thing when parts of the body are
+represented they are greatly conventionalized. The few human figures on
+Sikyatki pottery are crude representations as compared with those of
+animals, and especially of birds. Several of the figures are represented
+wearing ancient costumes and ornaments, and one or two have their hair
+done up in unusual styles; others have the body or face tattooed or
+painted; but as a whole these decorations are rare and shed little light
+on prehistoric customs. There is nothing that can be identified as a
+time count, calendric, hieroglyphic, or phonetic signs, or any record of
+historical events.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.—Human head with hair in characteristic whorls.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.—Woman with serpent-like animal.]
+
+None of the human figures are represented with masks or headdresses to
+indicate the impersonation of kachinas, nor are there double figures or
+animal heads depicted on human bodies. The absence of animal or kachina
+heads shows one of the marked differences between Sikyatki pictures and
+the designs so common on some other pottery, where a relatively large
+number of the heads of the latter occur. The best representation of a
+human head is shown in figure 12,[4] in which a characteristic coiffure
+is shown. Fig. 13 is identified as a figure of a maiden whose hair is
+dressed in two whorls, one above each ear, like a modern Hopi maid.[5]
+Opposite this maid is a reptile or similar animal with head decorated
+with two eyes on one side and a single foreleg. These two figures
+probably refer to some episode or Indian legend connecting a Sikyatki
+maiden with some monster.
+
+The maiden depicted in figure 14 is evidently kneeling, her knees being
+brought together below, and separated by four median parallel lines
+that are supposed to indicate feathers; the curved objects at the lower
+corners of the rectangular blanket probably are also feathers. One hand
+of the maiden is raised to her head, while the other holds an unknown
+object, possibly an ear of corn. The woman with an ear of corn recalls
+a figure on the elaborately painted wooden slab carried by women in the
+Hopi Marau dance or that on the wooden slab, or _monkohu_, carried by the
+priests representing Alosaka, Eototo, and other ceremonial personages.
+These painted slabs do not always bear pictures of corn ears, for those
+of the priests known as the Aaltû have, instead of pictures of corn,
+the corn itself tied to them; in the New-fire ceremony at Walpi members
+of the Tataukyamû priesthood, at Walpi, also hold ears of corn with or
+without wooden slabs, while those borne by the warrior Kwakwantû are
+carved in the form of the sacred plumed serpent, which is their patron.[6]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Kneeling woman, showing hair in characteristic
+whorls.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.—Three human figures.]
+
+Different styles of hairdressing are exhibited in figures 13 and 14, that
+of figure 14 being similar to the modern Hopi. The group of three figures
+(fig. 15) possibly illustrates some ancient ceremony. The middle figure
+of this group is represented as carrying a branched stick, or cornstalk,
+in his mouth.[7] The accompanying figure, or that to the right, has in
+his hand one of the strange frames used as rattles[8] in historic times
+by clans (Asa or Honani) of Jemez or of Tewa descent who had settled at
+the East Mesa. The author is inclined to identify the object held by this
+figure as one of these ceremonial frames and the man as a Yaya priest.
+
+Another interpretation of the central figure of the group, figure 15,
+is that he is performing the celebrated stick-swallowing act which was
+practiced at Walpi until a few years ago. The last explanation suggested
+implies that the human figures represent Snake and Antelope priests, a
+doubtful interpretation, since, according to legends, these priests were
+never represented at Sikyatki.[9]
+
+The character shown in another figure, not copied, may represent the
+supernatural being, called the God of the Dead (Masauû) whose body,
+according to legend, is spotted and girt by bands. The Little Fire god
+(Shulewitse), when personated in modern ceremonies of the Tewa at Hano,
+is represented by a man daubed with pigments of several colors. He is
+personated likewise in the Hopi (Tewa) village of Sichomovi.[10]
+
+Several Zuñi ceremonies show evidence of derivation from eastern New
+Mexican pueblos,[11] but a critical examination of the origin and
+migration of Zuñi clan relations of societies still awaits the student of
+this interesting pueblo. It is probable that Zuñi sociology is in some
+respects like that of Walpi and that the present population is composite,
+having descended from clans which have drifted together from different
+directions, each bringing characteristic ceremonies and mythological
+conceptions, while certain rites have been incorporated from time to time
+from other Pueblo people.
+
+
+QUADRUPED FIGURES
+
+Representations of quadrupeds are almost as rare as human figures
+in Sikyatki pottery decorations. The deer (fig. 16, _a_), antelope,
+mountain sheep, mountain lion, rabbit, and one or two other animals are
+recognizable, but pictures of these are neither so common nor so highly
+conventionalized as those of birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.—_a_, Deer; _b_, rabbit.]
+
+Figure 17 shows one of two mammalian figures on a bowl, the surrounding
+surface consisting of spatterwork, an uncommon but effective mode of
+treatment.
+
+The outline of the animal shown in figure 18 is intensified by
+spattering, as in the case of the animal last mentioned. The black spots
+along the back and tail are absent in other figures. The design below the
+figure suggests, in some particulars, that of a highly conventionalized
+shrine, but its true meaning is unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Quadruped.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.—Antelope or mountain sheep.]
+
+The design in figure 19 has been regarded as representing a mountain
+lion, but there is some doubt of the validity of this identification.
+Although the feet are like those of a carnivorous animal, the head is
+not. The two projections from the head, which may represent horns, are
+not unlike those associated with the two figures next described, which
+have been regarded as feathers.
+
+The creature shown in figure 20 is also problematical. The appendages
+to the head are prolonged, terminating in feathers that bend backward
+and touch the body. The anterior body appendage has two crescentic
+prolongations between which are parallel lines of unequal length.
+The posterior limb is jointed, the lower half extending backward and
+terminating in two claws, one long, the other short. Between these
+extensions are two groups of slightly radiating lines that may be
+regarded as feathers. The body has feathers like those of a highly
+conventionalized bird, while the limbs resemble those of a lizard. The
+body is serpentine, and tail feathers are wanting; both legs have talons
+like those of birds, and the appendage to the head suggests a feather
+headdress; the line connecting the head appendage and one claw of the
+posterior limbs recalls a sky-band, commonly found in representations of
+sky gods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.—Mountain lion.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.—Problematical reptile.]
+
+The animal depicted in figure 21, which resembles figure 19 in the form
+of the appendages to the head and mouth, is suspended inside of a circle
+in the one case and is half within a circle in the other.
+
+
+REPTILIAN FIGURES
+
+Several figures of reptiles and serpents occur in the Sikyatki
+collection. Figure 22 represents an animal like a reptile; only two
+legs are shown in the design and the form of the tail recalls that of
+a bird. The head of this figure bears two horns resembling feathers in
+some respects; the legs terminate in four claws. From a projection at the
+posterior end of the body there arises a curved line dotted at intervals
+and terminating in feathers. The dorsal appendage resembles the carapace
+of a turtle, from beneath which feathers project.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.—Reptile.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.—Reptile.]
+
+Figure 22 depicts a reptile from the head of which project horns and two
+long feathers. Its back bears a row of feathers, but it has only two legs.
+
+The legless creature, figure 23, has two triangular earlike feathers
+rising from the head, and two eyes; a wide-open mouth, in which are
+six long, curved teeth, three in each jaw. The tongue terminates in an
+arrow-shaped figure, recalling a conventional symbol of lightning, or
+the death-dealing power of the serpent. The meaning of the narrow line
+connecting the upper jaw with the tail is not known. The curved shape
+of the body of the reptile is necessitated by the shape of the bowl
+on which it is drawn. This figure may represent the monster feathered
+serpent of Sikyatki, or a flying reptile, one of the most mysterious of
+the elemental gods. It is interesting to note that while the effigies of
+the feathered serpent used in Hopi (Walpi) and Zuñi religious practices
+has a single horn on the head, the one here described is different from
+both, for it is provided with two appendages resembling conventionalized
+feathers. The Hopi feathered serpent was derived from the same source as
+the Zuñi, namely, clans which originally came to the Little Colorado from
+Gila Valley.[12]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.—Reptile.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.—Reptile.]
+
+The Hopi (Walpi) figure is in a measure comparable with that shown in
+figure 23—each has two hornlike feathers on the head, and the bodies are
+curved in the same direction—that is, with the center (?) on the right
+(dextral circuit), the reverse of modern Hopi pictures, which are placed
+as if the figures were moving in a sinistral circuit.[13]
+
+The form shown in figure 24 reminds one of a frog or a turtle. The body
+and feet are turtlelike. As in several pictures of reptiles, it is
+provided with an anterior appendage, evidently the front leg, which has
+characteristic claws. The row of white dots extending from the mouth
+through the neck represents the esophagus or windpipe. The author is
+unable to offer any interpretation of the appendages to the tail, but
+suggests that they may have been intended for feathers. Figure 25 _a_,
+_b_, is identified as a turtle.
+
+Figure 26 was evidently designed to represent several tadpoles swimming
+across a bowl between rows of rain clouds, the whole inclosed in a circle
+to which are attached five stars at approximately equal intervals. The
+form of the rain clouds reminds one of conventional tail feathers.
+There are six of these rain-cloud figures on one side of the field of
+decoration and five on the other. The tadpoles shown in figure 27 occur
+on the inside of the ladle.
+
+
+WINGED FIGURES
+
+The term “winged figures” is here employed to designate all flying
+creatures, as birds, insects, and bats, even though they belong
+zoologically to different groups of animals. Among the prehistoric Hopi,
+insects and birds were designated by similar symbols and when highly
+conventionalized sometimes merge into one another. It was the custom
+of Sikyatki potters to give more attention to specific than generic
+characters of flying creatures, distinguishing different kinds of
+birds by the form of their feathers. The symbol of a turkey, an eagle,
+or a hawk feather was distinct from that of an owl, and each kind of
+a bird had its own special symbolic marking, especially indicated in
+the different kinds of feathers. Thus it occurs that Sikyatki bird
+designs, instead of being realistically represented, are often so highly
+conventionalized that the genus can not be identified.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.—Turtle.]
+
+The flight of birds, like the movement of serpents, is regarded as
+mysterious, and anything mysterious or uncanny has always profoundly
+affected the mind of primitive man. The chief visible characteristics
+connected with the flight of a bird are wings and feathers, and the
+kind of feathers of a particular bird led to their association with
+the supposed magic power of the bird itself among both the ancient and
+modern Hopi. Different kinds of feathers have different powers; thus the
+feathers of the turkey, for example, among the modern Hopi, are potent in
+inducing rain; those of the eagle or the hawk pertain especially to the
+power of the sun; a breast feather of an eagle is chosen as an individual
+prayer bearer. The feathers of an owl, like the owl itself,[14] are
+generally regarded as having a sinister influence; but sometimes the
+feather of this bird is beneficial, it is believed, in making peach trees
+yield abundantly. From the variety of feather designs and the frequency
+with which they occur in modern Hopi ceremonies[15] it is evident that
+the Sikyatki people, like their descendants, attributed special magic
+power to different kinds of these objects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.—Clouds and tadpoles.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.—Tadpoles.]
+
+In their simplest forms bird symbols are little more than triangles,
+the tail feathers being represented by appended parallel lines, which
+are mere suggestions of birds and may be designated as cursive forms.
+Such simple pictures of birds sometimes have, in addition to the
+appended parallel lines referred to, an angular or a curved line or hook
+extending from one of the angles of the triangle to represent a beak.
+Such triangular bird figures may be free or attached; in the latter case
+they are suspended from other figures or rise from the corners of a
+rectangular design when one of the triangles may be without tail or beak
+appendages, another may have parallel lines, while a third may take a
+form readily recognizable as that of a bird. The form of the beak and the
+claws of bird figures also varies, the claws often appearing as simple
+crosses or crescents. The beak is sometimes toothed, often hooked like
+that of a raptorial bird. The bird is designated by the combination of
+the beak, claws, and body, as well as the feathers.
+
+
+DORSAL VIEWS OF BIRDS
+
+Among the conventional pictures of birds on Sikyatki pottery some are
+shown as seen from above, or dorsally, others from below, or ventrally,
+and still others laterally. These pictures sometimes become so
+conventionalized that it is difficult to identify the parts represented,
+as will appear from illustrations to follow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.—Dorsal view of a bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.—Bird figure, two halves restored to natural
+position.]
+
+Figure 28 represents a bird design in which three parallel bands
+representing tail feathers of a well-marked type hang between two curved
+extensions that occupy the relative position of wings. In the angles near
+the attachment of these tail feathers there are two globular enlargements
+which occur also in other pictures. The extremity of each winglike
+crescent is spirally curved inward. Two semicircular figures representing
+rain clouds are surmounted by two parallel lines and a heavy, solid band,
+appearing at the proximal end of the tail in the position where the body
+should end, as in other figures where the rain-cloud symbols are much
+more complex.
+
+The two drawings shown in figure 29 are the two halves of a single figure
+cut along its medial line. One of these halves is reversed in such a
+way that corresponding parts are found on the same side. Viewing these
+two parts in this position, we can readily identify various organs of a
+highly conventionalized bird whose wings are represented by a curved body
+terminating in a spiral, the body decorated with rain-cloud figures and
+the bowl with conventionalized figures. This is the only figure showing
+the distortions and reversions of the two halves of the bird’s body and
+appendages.
+
+Homologous parts are recognizable also in the bird design shown in figure
+30, but in this picture the size of the wings is greatly reduced, each
+consisting merely of two feathers. The rectangular body bears a single
+large terraced or rectangular rain-cloud symbol, three semicircular
+figures, and two triangles. Two tail feathers and two posterior
+extensions of the body, one on each side, are shown. There are three
+parallel lines on each side of these posterior extensions. In a bird
+design, figure 31, the body is decorated with four triangular rain clouds
+and the wings are extended. The tail has six feathers with a lateral
+extension on each side. The two detached figures associated with this
+bird design possibly were intended to represent the shrines of these
+birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.—Dorsal view of a bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.—Bird figure.]
+
+The curved appendages are spreading in figure 32, and at their point of
+junction with the body arises a typical feather symbol. The body has
+four solid semicircular figures, possibly representing rain clouds,
+and a single feather on the top of the head. Organs corresponding to
+wings, body, and tail are traceable, but they are somewhat modified in
+comparison with the forms already considered. This design is partly
+surrounded by a band to which two star designs are attached.
+
+We find all the parts or organs associated with the bird designs already
+described represented in figure 33, but the details of the symbolism
+are more elaborated than in any of the preceding. Here the wings are
+bent inward, while the feathers have taken more angular forms. The head
+is rectangular, bearing representations of two rain clouds just above
+the wings, while two others appear below. These have the same form as
+the cloud symbols shown in figure 20. Although this drawing is far from
+being a realistic representation of a bird, the presence of symbols
+characteristic of certain avian features leaves no doubt that a bird was
+intended.
+
+In figure 34 is shown a Sikyatki bird figure still further
+conventionalized, but the parts are depicted in such manner as to make
+the identification as a bird practically certain. Head, body, wings, and
+tail are elaborately represented. The head is semicircular and surmounted
+by a headdress with three vertical feathers. The wings are large, each
+terminating in two symbols representing the feathers,[16] with pointed
+distal extremities. The tail feathers have rounded extremities and
+are three in number. On each side of the feathers of the headdress,
+wings, and tail hang figures of unknown meaning. This is one of the most
+instructive bird figures in the collection from Sikyatki.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.—Bird figure.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.—Bird figure.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.—Bird figure.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.—Bird figure. (Thunderbird.)]
+
+Figure 35 represents a very elaborate figure of a bird, readily
+comparable with the last mentioned, from which it differs in certain
+particulars. This bird design is replete with symbolism and may be
+regarded as one of the most instructive pictures that has come to us from
+the ancient Hopi. The view is from the back, the legs being much reduced
+in size, the claws alone being represented at each upper corner of the
+body directly under the attachment of the wings. The beak is invisible,
+but an elaborate headdress,[17] in which tail feathers are conspicuous,
+is a prominent feature. The form of the tail and wing feathers of this
+bird is practically the same as the last, except that they are more
+elaborately drawn. Each wing has two feathers, and three others form the
+tail. The arrow points projecting from beneath the extremities of the
+wing feathers are possibly lightning symbols. Each is crossed by two bars
+in the same manner as the tongue projecting from the mouth of the serpent
+shown in figure 23, which is also a lightning symbol.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.—Bird figure.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.—Highly conventionalized figure of bird from
+dorsal side.]
+
+The design illustrated in figure 36 represents a bird, as seen from the
+back, with outstretched wings, recalling the lateral view of a bird shown
+in figure 54 in having smaller bird figures attached to the tips of the
+wings. The place of attachment of the wings to the body is embellished
+with crosshatched lines and stepped figures, recalling the rain-cloud
+symbols. The head is rectangular, destitute of a beak, inclosing two
+square figures with short parallel lines, representing falling rain,
+projecting from the upper side. On one side of the head is a semicircular
+design. The tail has three feathers, the two on the sides being broader
+than the one in the middle. These feathers are without markings, but
+the end of the body from which they depend is ornamented with stepped
+figures surmounted by two horizontal parallel lines and two triangles.
+In the background, at each side of the body, there are dotted circles,
+suggesting flowers, a feature often accompanying designs representing
+butterflies or moths.
+
+In figure 37 is shown a highly conventionalized dorsal view of a bird,
+with sickle-formed wings slightly extended, seven pointed tail feathers
+with lateral appendages, and a rectangular head with three semicircular
+rain-cloud figures. The globular enlargement at the base of the wings in
+one instance is accompanied by a fan-shaped figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.—Conventional figure of a bird.]
+
+The design shown in figure 38 is regarded as a highly conventionalized
+bird symbol, each wing being represented by a curved pendant, to the
+extremities of which feathers are attached. The body is rectangular and
+decorated with a median horizontal white band continued above and below
+into black lateral triangles which possibly may represent feathers, and
+flanked triangular white areas on each side.
+
+In figure 39 the design has been so greatly conventionalized that almost
+all resemblance to a bird has been lost. The wings are represented
+by simple terraces, the body by a rectangular figure, and the head
+terminates in three points. It is possible that the limit of bird
+conventionalization has been reached in this variant, and the difficulty
+of identification of organs is correspondingly great.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.—Conventional figure of a bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.—Conventional figure of a bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.—Conventional figure of a bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.—Conventional figure of a bird.]
+
+The design shown in figure 40 would perhaps more logically fall within
+the series of circular figures, identified as sun emblems, elsewhere
+considered, except for the extensions representing wings and tail. This
+is mentioned as one of the instances where organs of birds are combined
+with a circle to represent the Sun god.
+
+Figure 41 resembles figure 40 in some essential points and may also be
+considered in connection with sun emblems. On account of the presence of
+feathers it is here included among the bird designs.
+
+Figure 42 exhibits an exceptional bird form as viewed from the rear.[18]
+Wings, body, tail, and possibly the head, are recognized after some study.
+
+
+LATERAL VIEWS OF BIRDS
+
+Drawings representing side views of birds are usually highly
+conventionalized, often taking the forms of simple geometric figures, as
+shown in figures 43-45. The simplest representation of a bird viewed from
+the side is a triangle, but another, slightly elaborated and a little
+more complicated (fig. 43), consists of a triangular body with curved
+lines representing a head and beak, extending from one of the angles,
+and with two short lines indicating a feathered head crest. The head of
+the bird shown in figure 44 resembles a section of a Greek fret, which
+in figure 45 has become still further simplified. Figure 46 represents a
+bird with triangular body and key-shaped head. Figure 47 shows a similar
+design, except that the body is partly rectangular, with breast slightly
+concave. The body in figure 48 is simply an outline of a terrace and the
+tail is indicated by five parallel lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.—Triangular form of a bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.—Triangular form of bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.—Simple form of bird with terraced body.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.—Lateral view of triangular bird with two tail
+feathers.]
+
+The bird design shown in profile in figure 49 is realistic, all the parts
+being clearly recognizable. This figure is one of four, each attached to
+a corner of a rectangle.
+
+Another figure which may be a lateral view of a bird is represented
+in figure 50, in which the part, representing the head is curved, the
+body square, and two obliquely twisted feathers represent the tail.
+This figure exhibits avian features more obscurely than those already
+considered, but the head and the tail feathers are quite birdlike.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.—Lateral view of bird with three tail feathers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.—Problematical bird figure.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.—Bird with two tail feathers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.—Highly conventionalized bird figure.]
+
+In figure 51 is shown a lateral view of a bird, seemingly in flight,
+the head and beak of which are birdlike. The wings, feet, head, and
+body are not difficult to recognize. Two legs and one wing are shown,
+and the well-drawn tail, terminating in white-tipped feathers, suggests
+the turkey, which bird is regarded by the modern Hopi as so efficacious
+in bringing rain that its feathers are employed in almost all rain
+ceremonies. The author has seen a similar drawing on altar and other
+ceremonial paraphernalia among the Hopi priests of the present day. The
+white tips which characterize the tail feathers of the turkey originated,
+according to a Hopi legend, at the time when this bird dragged the end of
+its tail in the mud after a flood had subsided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.—Lateral view of bird.]
+
+The bird shown in figure 52 has a curved, elongated beak, a more or less
+angular body, two legs, and two small wings. The tail consists of three
+feathers[19] with characteristic projections.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.—Profile of bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.—Lateral view of bird with outspread wing.]
+
+One of the best bird pictures on Sikyatki pottery is shown in figure 53.
+The body is somewhat triangular in shape and the wing is spread out,
+here shown above the back; the tail is provided with three feathers
+placed vertically instead of horizontally, and bent over at their ends
+into triangles, evidently owing to the lack of available space. The beak
+is characteristically curved; the single eye is provided with a pupil.
+The long claws, single on each foot, suggest an eagle, hawk, or other
+raptorial bird. The spiral appendage to the under rim of the tail is of
+unknown meaning.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.—Lateral view of bird with twisted tail and wing
+feathers.]
+
+The design shown in figure 54 is one of the most complex bird drawings
+found on Sikyatki pottery. The head is triangular, with an eye situated
+in the center, and the beak continued into a very large, elaborate
+fret. The body is rhomboidal in shape, the upper portion being occupied
+by a patterned square. Rising above the body is a conventionalized
+wing, while depending from its lowermost angle is a diminutive figure
+resembling feathers. The tail consists of two elongate feathers, rounded
+at their outer ends and fused at the point of union with the body.
+
+Having seen how prone the ancient Hopi were to represent birds on their
+pottery and the extent to which conventionalization of these figures
+prevailed, one finds many designs so closely related to known bird
+figures that the tendency is to include with them many the identification
+of which is doubtful. Certain simple geometrical forms originally derived
+from bird designs were copied by these early potters, presumably without
+intending to represent birds, but rather merely as decorative motives.
+Two of these problematic designs are shown in figures 55 and 56.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.—Lateral view of conventionalized bird.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.—Lateral view of conventionalized bird.]
+
+
+FEATHER DESIGNS
+
+A large number of conventional figures representing feathers have been
+identified, but there are many others which yet remain to be interpreted,
+and the particular genus of birds to which each should be referred is
+likewise problematical. There is no doubt, from a study of the uses of
+different kinds of feathers in modern Hopi ceremonials, that each form
+depicted on pottery represents a feather which played an important rôle
+in ancient Hopi rituals.
+
+Many unquestionable feather designs pictured on Sikyatki pottery are
+found depicted on serpents, or are attached to inanimate objects, such as
+rainbows, clouds, and lightning.
+
+It is probable that the majority of feather designs on ancient Hopi
+earthenware are included in the following types, to which no doubt other
+forms of feather designs will be added later. These types are abundant in
+vessels of the Sikyatki epoch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.—Feather symbol with black notch.]
+
+From the above pictures of birds and many others it may be seen that
+feather symbols assume a variety of forms in sikyatki pottery decoration.
+There are probably more than 50 different designs, each representing
+a different kind of feather, and implying for each a distinct use or
+ceremonial efficacy, as among the modern Hopi. Our knowledge of ancient
+Hopi symbolism is not yet sufficient to enable us to identify all the
+different birds to which these various forms of feathers belong, nor do
+we know the uses to which all these feathers were put.[20]
+
+Several wooden slabs and idols on Hopi altars have features drawn upon
+them, and many ceremonial sand-pictures contain designs representing
+feathers. In rare instances, as in the altar of the Powamû,[21] typical
+Sikyatki symbols of feathers are still used, but feather symbols of a
+form not found on Sikyatki pottery far outnumber those from that ruin.
+The existence of one type of Sikyatki feathers on the figure of Pokema in
+kachina altars may point to the derivation of this feather symbol from
+Sikyatki, but some of these types are widespread.[22]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.—Feather symbol with black notch.]
+
+The forms assumed by feathers on Sikyatki pottery may best be presented
+by considering a few examples of the more common types. Figure 57
+represents an unusual type of feather symbol, readily distinguished from
+others by the notch at the end, the edge of which is commonly rounded.
+There are two subdivisions of this type, one with a dotted shaft (fig.
+58), the other plain. This form of feather design is found in most
+unexpected associations, occurring on the heads of serpents or attached
+to various parts of the body and under the wings of birds. It also hangs
+from diametrical bands drawn across the inside of food bowls and from
+other objects constituting the decoration of vessels. In a few instances
+this type of feather is enlarged and constitutes the essential part of
+the design, with other symbols attached.
+
+This type of feather sometimes forms a part of a bird’s tail, but it does
+not occur in the wings, although, as above stated, it occurs under a
+wing or on the body or the head of a bird, a localization that leads to
+the belief that the device was designed to represent a breast feather,
+such as the Hopi now use in their prayers. In ancient Hopi symbolism it
+is often attached to circles representing the sun and represents a tail
+feather.
+
+In plate 76, _a_, three feathers are represented with pointed tips and
+without interior markings. It is one of the simplest drawings of the type
+mentioned.
+
+This figure illustrates a well-known type of feather symbol. It has many
+variations, all clearly differentiated from the form last described,
+from which it differs in its elongate form and pointed tip. What may
+be regarded as a subtype of this is marked with diagonal bands drawn
+either at right angles at one edge or extending across the figure and
+terminating at right angles to the opposite edge. Feather symbols of
+this type, which have not been identified with any particular bird, are
+constantly found in birds’ tails and wings.
+
+The next design (pl. 76, _b_) is similar in outline, but the three
+feathers are painted solid black and are separated by spaces. This
+conventional form of feather is common on wings and tails of birds.
+
+The group of symbols shown in plate 76, _c_, has pointed tips, like the
+others described, but part of the shaft is painted, while the other is
+plain, the line of demarcation between which is drawn diagonally. This
+form occurs on the tails rather than on the wings of birds.
+
+The tips of the feathers in plate 76, _d_, are connected by a black band
+and are divided by short vertical lines. A distinguishing feature of this
+symbol is the oblique marking of each feather on the right side, by which
+the feathers are narrowed at the base. A solid semicircular figure with
+a double notch ornaments the upper edge. The few known examples of this
+type of feather symbol are from the tails of unknown birds.
+
+The next form of feather, shown in _e_, differs from the last in that the
+shaft is spotted and the proximal end is cut diagonally in a somewhat
+different way.[23] The tips are slit as in the figure last described.
+
+The width of the feathers shown in _f_ is uniform throughout. The distal
+ends are tipped with black; the proximal ends are each ornamented with a
+black triangle. Midway of the length of the feathers are four continuous
+parallel horizontal lines.
+
+The two feathers shown in _g_ have in one instance a black and in the
+other a white tip separated from the rest of the shaft by an oblique
+line. The essential difference between this form of pointed feather and
+those previously considered is that the diagonal line marking the tip is
+drawn at a greater angle.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 76
+
+VARIOUS FORMS OF CONVENTIONALIZED FEATHERS]
+
+The six feathers shown in _h_ resemble the last, but the terminal
+portions of three are spotted instead of solid black. Like some of the
+others described, this form tapers slightly from its distal end to its
+base.
+
+In _i_ the feathers are likewise pointed at their tips, but are of
+almost uniform breadth. Each is intersected by a series of triangles and
+parallel lines, and suspended from the latter, one in each feather, are
+several vertical lines, each with terminal dots.
+
+The symbol shown in _j_ is not unlike that already illustrated, but it
+has in addition to the structure enumerated a lateral hornlike appendage
+common in the tails of birds (see pl. 90, _i_, _tf_).
+
+The form of feather design shown in _k_ is somewhat different from those
+already considered. The distal end is broad and pointed; the proximal
+narrows almost to a point. The left half of the body of the feather is
+black; the remainder, including the point, is plain. The design _l_ has
+the same general form as _k_, but its tip is marked in a different manner.
+
+The double-pointed symbol represented in _m_ was evidently designed as
+a feather (possibly two feathers), with parallel sides, and pointed
+tips painted black. The symbol _n_ is similar to _d_ in outline, but it
+lacks the terminal slit and black bands. There project, however, from
+the angles formed by the tips of the feathers three vertical lines, each
+with an arrow point at the extremity and two short crosslines, as in one
+of the bird designs previously described (fig. 35). The present design
+represents wing feathers; the complete bird figure (fig. 35), where they
+also occur, represents a thunderbird.
+
+The three tail feathers shown in _o_ are in no respect peculiar. The
+two-pointed appendages seen above are an almost constant feature of the
+drawings of birds as seen from the back. The feathers represented in _p_
+are unlike others in their mode of attachment and in the ornamentation at
+the base.
+
+Thus far we have considered a type of feathers with pointed tips (pl. 76,
+_a-p_) imparting to the whole tail a serrate appearance. While in the
+next figure, _q_, the tail feathers still terminate in points, a black
+band connecting their extremities is prolonged at each side, recalling
+the tail of certain swallows.
+
+Feathers are often represented on Sikyatki pottery as elsewhere in the
+Southwest by parallel straight lines. The feathers represented in _r_ are
+exceptional in that their length varies considerably, the median feather
+here being the longest.
+
+While undoubtedly the series of designs shown in _s_ to _bb_, inclusive,
+in each instance representing the feathers in the tail of a bird, are
+all highly conventionalized, in one or two instances, as _u_ and _bb_,
+the relation to feathers can be recognized only by comparative studies.
+
+The design illustrated in _cc_, taken from the neck of a vase, represents
+several peculiar feathers of a type not yet described but highly
+characteristic. Comparison of this with that of _dd_ shows the similarity
+of the two and suggests that they pertain to the same kind of bird. The
+tails represented in _v_, _aa_, and _bb_ are characteristic; the last
+represents tail feathers hanging from the band later described.
+
+The series of feathers (possibly tail feathers) shown in several figures
+have rounded tips, and as a rule are of uniform size and without
+ornamentation. In plate 77, _a_, the three feathers composing the tail
+are painted black and are slightly separated, while those of _b_ are half
+black and half plain, the solid area being separated from the plain by a
+diagonal line extending from the proximal to the distal extremity.
+
+The four feathers in _c_ are separated by slight intervals and lightly
+shaded; otherwise they are similar to those in _a_. The two outside
+feathers of _d_ are much broader than the middle feather, which is
+reduced to a narrow line. In _e_ the three feathers are broader at the
+tips, in which respect they differ from _c_.
+
+In the tail shown in _f_, the feathers are indicated by shallow notches
+from which short parallel lines extend inward. They are without
+superficial markings. Figure _g_ belongs to the notched type represented
+above.
+
+The four feather symbols shown in the drawing of the bird’s tail
+illustrated in _h_ differ from all others in the shape of their distal
+ends, which are alternately black and plain, and are without superficial
+ornamentation. Evidently this feather design, which is represented on a
+single vessel from Sikyatki, is of a distinct type.
+
+There is some doubt whether _i_ represents a bird’s tail, the head and
+body from which the design was taken being more like those of a moth or a
+butterfly. The meaning of the design in _j_ is also doubtful. Figure _k_
+represents a single “breath” feather like that shown in figure 57.
+
+There is a general resemblance between the tail feathers of the bird
+designed in _e_ and _l_; the latter represents the tail of a bird,
+hanging between two triangles under a star design.
+
+Figure _m_ represents a bird’s tail with three tail feathers and lateral
+extensions, while in _n_, where we also have a figure of the tail of a
+bird, each feather is marked by a rectangular pattern. The four pairs of
+parallel lines extending from these feathers may be regarded as parts of
+these structures.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 77
+
+CONVENTIONALIZED TAIL FEATHERS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 78
+
+CONVENTIONALIZED FEATHERS ATTACHED TO STRINGS (NAKWAKWOCI)]
+
+Figures _o_ to _q_, while suggesting bird and feather designs, are still
+more or less problematical. In the same category belong the designs
+illustrated in figures _r_ to _u_. There is reason to believe that of
+these _o-r_ represent feathers, but a definite identification can not yet
+be made of figures _s-u_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.—Feathers.]
+
+Two triangular designs, one above another, are believed to represent
+feathers, but are rarely found on ancient Hopi pottery. They appear on
+the heads of birds in Acoma, Laguna, and other pottery designs, which are
+the nearest modern representatives of ancient Hopi decorations.
+
+A unique feather symbol from Sikyatki is characterized by a cigar-shaped
+body outlined at the distal end, which is plain (fig. 59).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.—Curved feathers.]
+
+There often occurs on Sikyatki pottery a combination of feather designs,
+generally three, with other symbols. One form of these (fig. 60) has
+four curved tail feathers. Other feathers of aberrant shape are shown in
+figure 61, _a-e_.
+
+
+FEATHERS SUSPENDED FROM STRINGS
+
+In their ceremonies the modern Hopi priests use in great numbers a kind
+of prayer offering called _nakwakwoci_, consisting of breast feathers
+tied in a prescribed way to the ends of strings. The same type of prayer
+offerings is one of the most common designs on Sikyatki pottery. Various
+modifications of it are shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 62).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.—Conventional feathers.]
+
+This use of the feather string as a decorative device is seemingly
+peculiar to prehistoric Hopi pottery, not having been found in the
+pictography of the people formerly inhabiting the valleys of San Juan and
+Little Colorado Rivers. This restriction in its use indicates its local
+origin and application, although descendants of clans from both the San
+Juan and the Little Colorado are represented among the Hopi.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.—Parallel lines representing feathers.]
+
+In one of the simplest forms of the stringed-feather designs is a
+line (pl. 78, _b_, _c_, _d_) sometimes taking the form of an elongate
+triangle, terminating in a ball from which spring three or more diverging
+or parallel lines. This enlargement on stringed-feather designs may
+represent a knot, as will appear from certain variations in the form of
+the feathered string to which attention will be given later.
+
+In some cases (_e_, _l_) two knots appear between the string and the
+attached feathers, while in another instance (_f_) one of the knots or
+balls is replaced by two triangles.
+
+Other representations of stringed-feather or _nakwakwoci_ designs show
+modifications in each of the three elements mentioned, the line (string),
+the enlargement (knot), and the terminal projections (feathers). The
+occurrence of crossbars near the dot (_g_, _h_, _i_) vary in number
+from one to four, and are always parallel, but usually are placed on
+one side of the knot, although in some cases (_i_) they appear on both
+sides. In one example (_j_) no ball or knot is provided, the _nakwakwoci_
+consisting merely of the string intersected by pairs of equidistant
+crosslines. A special modification of the dot with crosslines is shown in
+the figure with the leaflike attachment (_q_).
+
+One of the most significant of the stringed-feather designs is shown
+in _a_, where a feather of the first type is attached to the string
+intersected by crosslines. As a terminal element in corresponding designs
+is a typical feather symbol, this figure is also identical. The figure of
+a string with enlargements and a pair of lines (_g_) probably represents
+that form of stringed feather called by the Hopi a _purhu_, “road,”
+an offering laid by the Hopi on the trails approaching the pueblo to
+indicate that ceremonies are being performed, or on altars to show the
+pathway of blessings.
+
+In another stringed-feather design (_n_) appears a triangular symbol
+attached to the enlargement, the string terminating in radiating lines.
+The feather sometimes preserves its triangular form (_m_). These
+variations in the drawings of stringed feathers and the modifications of
+the knot, string, and terminal attachments, are constantly repeated in
+Sikyatki pottery decoration.
+
+
+SKY-BAND
+
+Many food bowls from Sikyatki have a band from which is suspended
+the figure of a nondescript animal passing diametrically across it.
+Representations of a similar band with like appendage girt the necks of
+small pottery objects and are, so far as is known, characteristic of
+prehistoric Hopi pottery.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 79
+
+SKY-BANDS]
+
+Lines identified as sky-bands shown in plate 79 vary from single (_a_)
+or double (_b_) to a broad undecorated band (_c_). In its simplest
+form the sky-band extends entirely across the inside of the bowl, but
+in the more complicated examples it surrounds the vessel parallel with
+the rim surrounding the design on the inside of the bowl. Appendages of
+several kinds as dots (_d_) or as stars (_f_), made up of oblong figures
+in terrace form placed at intervals, are attached to this band. The
+sky-band itself varies in width, being broad or narrow, crossed by series
+of vertical parallel, zigzag, or other lines arranged at intervals, or
+alternating with geometrical figures (_g_, _h_). In a single example
+(_i_) the decoration is etched into the burnt clay, although in most
+instances the decorations are painted.
+
+Various explanations of the meaning of this band have been suggested,
+it being regarded by some of the priests as the Milky Way, by others as
+the path of the sun through the sky, but so far as known this ancient
+design is rare on modern Hopi ware.[24] According to Harrington the Tewa
+recognize a “backbone” of the sky.
+
+In several Hopi legends there are allusions to a monster bird that
+had been killed and hung in the sky by a cultus hero; and the general
+character of this decorative band in Sikyatki pottery decoration renders
+it probable that it was intended to represent some supernatural being, as
+the Sky god.
+
+The chief interest of the Sikyatki sky-band lies in the figure or
+figures attached to it, or suspended from it, and regarded as the
+conventionalized representation of a bird. Sometimes the creature is
+placed longitudinally, sometimes vertically. In some instances it is
+elaborately drawn, in others it is a simple geometric figure bearing so
+little resemblance to a life form as to make it one of the most highly
+conventionalized of all ancient Hopi designs.
+
+Like other bird designs, these suspended figures may be considered
+under two heads: (1) Those attached to the band in such a way as to be
+seen from above (the dorsal side) or from below (the ventral side); and
+(2) those suspended lengthwise of the band, showing one side in which
+the tail and other parts are twisted into a plane at right angles. The
+structure and relations of the hanging figure can best be seen by holding
+the bowl in such manner that the sky-band is horizontal, bringing the
+body of the suspended animal into the lower semicircle.
+
+
+VERTICAL ATTACHMENT TO SKY-BAND
+
+Several Sikyatki pottery designs showing the sky-band with the bird
+figure hanging vertically from it are shown in the accompanying
+illustrations. In order that the modifications in form may be readily
+followed, those parts of the bird figures regarded as homologous are
+indicated by the same letters.
+
+The design in figure 63 represents one of the simplest forms of bird
+symbols. A hornlike appendage is attached to the sky-band, on each side
+of an elongate vertical body from which depends a number of parallel
+lines representing tail feathers. The identification of this design
+as that of a bird is based on comparative studies of designs less
+conventional in character, to which attention has been and will later be
+called.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+A modification of the pendent body on the sky-band[25] appears to have
+introduced the new element shown in figure 64 in which the body is drawn.
+Although considerable variation exists in the form of the other parts,
+a morphological identity exists in all these figures. In figure 65, in
+which the feathers differ somewhat from those of the last design, the
+parallel lines representing the bird’s tail are really seen. The design
+shown in figure 66 is still more elaborate than the last, especially in
+the anterior semicircle,[26] opposite that in which the tail feathers are
+depicted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+The portion of the design situated in the anterior semicircle of figure
+67 has no resemblance to a bird’s head, being destitute of eyes or beak.
+The backward extending appendages on each side of the tail and the tail
+itself has a projection on each side.
+
+In figure 68 the whole anterior part of the design above the sky-band
+is colored, the head appearing as a still darker semicircle. The tail
+feathers are here reduced to simple parallel lines. The general form of
+figure 69 is birdlike, but its affinity to the bird figures, pendent
+from a sky-band, is closer than to any others. The homologous parts—tail
+feathers, lateral body extensions, sky-band, and head—may be readily
+recognized; the last mentioned is an ornamented rectangle. The whole
+anterior hemisphere of this design is occupied by representations
+of feathers arranged in two clusters, while in the surrounding area
+their triple lines are crossed similarly to that occurring in other
+hanging bird figures. It is but a step from this figure to the group of
+unattached bird designs already considered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+The wings of figure 70 are outspread and the head consists of two
+terraced bodies conventionally placed. The body and the tail of this
+figure are not exceptional, but dragon flies are also represented.
+
+Figure 71 presents a conventionalized bird seen in profile, and a broad
+sky-band to which are attached representations of feathers and other
+organs suggesting a bird.
+
+An animal depicted in figure 72 is one of three similar figures from the
+neck of the same vase, which are connected by a line or band. The design
+shown in figure 73 represents a highly conventionalized bird hanging from
+the sky-band with head and wings on one side and tail feathers below.
+
+
+BIRDS ATTACHED LONGITUDINALLY TO SKY-BAND
+
+The designs shown in figure 74 represent the simplest forms of birds
+attached lengthwise to the sky-band. The parallel lines on the left hand
+of the observer are supposed to represent tail feathers and the curve on
+the right, the heads, or possibly the wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+One of the best designs representing a bird attached to a sky-band is
+shown in figure 75, taken from a bowl in the Wattron collection now owned
+by the Field Columbian Museum, of Chicago. The interior surface of this
+bowl is considerably worn by use, and the figure a little indistinct,
+but the extremities of a band appear. There is a fairly realistic
+figure on each side of a bird with head and wings above and tail below
+a diametrical band. There are zigzag markings, supposed to represent
+lightning, on the under side of the wing. The tail is spread out amply
+enough to show the different feathers which compose it; and at the bases
+or on its under side corresponding in position with like symbols on the
+wing there appear two zigzag figures. The significance of two curved
+bodies hanging from the sky-band, one on each side of the tail of this
+figure, can not be satisfactorily interpreted, but the bird design shown
+in figure 76 has four tail feathers, a prolongation on the opposite side
+representing a head, and a curved extension comparable with a wing in
+other figures. The so-called wing terminates in a triangular feather.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.—Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band;
+top view.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.—Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band.]
+
+The two designs, figures 76 and 77, have parts which evidently
+correspond, the latter being one of the most beautiful in the collection.
+Both represent from the side an unknown bird hanging from a band
+extending across the middle of the bowls. Although the details of organs
+are more carefully depicted in the latter, there can hardly be a doubt
+that similar animals were intended in both designs.
+
+It requires some imagination to discover a conventionalized bird in
+figure 78, but we may regard it as such. We have in this figure a good
+example of a change in outline that may be produced by duplication or by
+representing both sides of the body or its organs and appendages in the
+same place. Three tail feathers are here apparent; the body is square,
+with zigzag white lines, and the head, here twisted into a vertical
+position, has a triangular form. The two crescentic appendages, one on
+the right side, the other on the left, represent halves of wings which
+are theoretically supposed to have been slit longitudinally and folded
+backward[27] in order that both sides may be shown on the same plane; the
+two bodies arising from the concave edges of these crescents—one to the
+left, the other to the right of the square body—represent legs. Their
+unusual form is brought about by a twisting of body and tail, by which
+feathers of the latter are brought to longitudinal position, and one of
+the legs is twisted to the right side and the other to the left. If the
+two appendages supposed to represent the legs or the two parts shaped
+like crescentlike knives were brought together, the two crescents would
+likewise merge into one, and we would then have a highly conventionalized
+bird with three tail feathers and a triangular head, the body being
+represented by a square design crossed diagonally by zigzag figures each
+in its own rectangular inclosed field.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.—Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.—Lateral view of bird with extended wing.]
+
+
+DECORATIONS ON EXTERIORS OF FOOD BOWLS
+
+The exterior surface of almost every bowl from Sikyatki is decorated
+with lines or geometrical designs. Many of these designs may represent
+animals, probably birds highly conventionalized or so aberrant that
+the avian form can be recognized only by comparative or morphological
+studies. They are confined to one side of the bowl; there appears to
+be little resemblance and no connection between them and the figure
+depicted on the inside of the same bowls. Although linear in form, one
+end is sometimes so crooked or bent at an angle, not curved, as to form a
+head, while the other bears parallel lines, representations of the tail
+feathers, terraces, or triangles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.—Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.—Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band.]
+
+In plate 80, _a_, we have a characteristic example of one of these
+exterior decorations. The crooked end is supposed to represent a bird’s
+head; to the other end, or tail, are appended six feathers like those
+already considered. A row of five stars is strung along the band. A
+likeness to a bird is very obscure in _b_, while _c_ shows several simple
+triangles with stepped figures in the middle and triangles at the ends.
+Design _d_ has a square form and two triangles appended to each opposite
+angle. The appendages on the remaining opposite angles have four parallel
+lines. Design _e_ consists of two highly conventionalized bird symbols,
+united to a third which forms the interior design.
+
+The design _f_ recalls the sky-band described in the preceding pages. The
+extremities of this so-called band are enlarged into round spots from
+which arise parallel lines and triangular designs. From it hang terraced
+and crooked figures, while strung along one side at equal intervals are
+five stars, a common accompaniment of sky symbols. The bird symbol comes
+out clearly in _g_, where the crook design with terraces is repeated.
+
+All crooked figures have a similarity in general form, some more
+closely resembling birds than others, and it is taken for granted that
+the intention of the artist was to represent a bird in plate 81, _a_,
+notwithstanding the avian form is highly conventionalized. Design _b_
+is composite, consisting of a rectangular figure, to the angles of
+which are attached feathers. Terraced and triangular figures of unknown
+significance, stars, and other designs cover the rectangle. Design _c_ is
+made up of a triangle with notched borders and a central rectangle with
+a dot characterizes this design; it has also two triangular extensions
+that may represent feathers. Design _d_ resembles previous figures
+identified as feathers and terraces hanging from a sky-band.
+
+The most prominent part of the design _e_ is a crook and parallel lines.
+In _f_ are variously combined triangles with appended feathers, crooks,
+and terraced designs, so united as to make up a compound decoration of
+geometric character.
+
+The geometrical designs in the series, plate 82, _a-f_, may be
+interpreted as representing birds in flight or with extended wings.
+Considered in this way, it appears that we have in the figure on each
+side a highly conventionalized wing forming triangles with extensions at
+one angle, ending in terraces, crooks, or other designs. In these figures
+we constantly have a line that may be likened to the sky-band, each end
+generally terminating in a dot to which parallel lines are attached.
+
+Design _a_ has two triangular bodies resembling the letter W, and the
+line terminating in two dots has two crossbars, while in _b_ there is
+a union of designs. Elongated triangles terminate in lines which are
+enlarged into dots. These triangles are modified on one side into crooks
+with smaller triangles.
+
+From remote resemblances rather than similarity of form, _c_ is placed
+near the preceding. Here a band is enlarged at the end representing the
+knots with attached parallel lines or feathers. The triangular pendants
+of _b_ and the line with terminal dots of _a_ are here represented. On
+the middle vertical of this figure is a trapezoidal design with notched
+edges.
+
+The elements of _d_ form a compound in which triangles predominate. Two
+W-shaped designs, _e_ and _f_, have a form quite unlike _a_, _b_, _c_,
+and _d_. Of these, _f_ is the more complicated, but the similarity of the
+two is apparent.
+
+Plate 83, _a_, represents two triangles with serrate margins hanging to a
+horizontal band, one end of which terminates in dots and lines, the other
+with two parallel notched feathers.
+
+Plate 84, _a-c_, have the W shape shown in plate 82, _e_, _f_; the
+approach to the conventional bird form with extended wings and tail being
+most marked in _a_. Design _d_ on plate 84 recalls plate 83, _f_, with
+modifications that are apparent.
+
+The above-mentioned geometrical figures from the exteriors of Sikyatki
+food bowls show considerable variety of form but all can be reduced to
+a few elemental designs throughout in which the curved line is absent.
+The rectangular design is always dominant, but it will be seen from the
+following plate that it is not omnipresent, especially on the interiors
+of bowls.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 80
+
+GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 81
+
+GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 82
+
+GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 83
+
+GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 84
+
+GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 85
+
+CONVENTIONALIZED BIRD DESIGNS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 86
+
+CONVENTIONALIZED BIRD DESIGNS]
+
+
+CURVED FIGURE WITH ATTACHED FEATHERS
+
+The curved spiral figures shown in plates 85 and 86 are combinations
+of simple and complicated designs, among the most conspicuous of which
+are feathers. When these figures are placed in the same position it is
+possible to recognize three or four components which are designated (a)
+spiral, (b) appendage to the tip of the spiral, (c) a bundle of feathers
+recalling a bird’s tail, and (d) and (e) other parts of unknown homology
+occasionally represented. In plate 85, _A_ the appendage _b_ to the
+spiral _a_ is two triangles and two supplemental spirals arising from
+their attachments. There is no representation of _c_, _d_, or _e_ in this
+figure.
+
+In _B_ of the same plate the elements _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ are
+represented. The appendage _b_ attached to the tip of the spiral _a_ has
+the form of a feather of the first type (see pl. 76), and four parallel
+lines, _c_, indicating feathers, are attached to the body. The two
+toothlike appendages _e_, of unknown significance, complete the figure.
+In plate 85, _C_, the design _a_ has two dots _b_ on the distal tip, from
+one of which arises a number of lines. The fact that _b_ in figure _B_ is
+a feather leads to the belief that _b_ in figure _C_ is the same design.
+
+Plate 85, _D_ and _E_, have a resemblance in form, _a_ and _c_ being
+represented in both; _b_ and _e_ are wanting in _E_. The different
+elements in these designs can be readily seen by comparing the same
+lettering in _F_ and _G_, and in plate 86, _A_ and _B_, where a new
+element, _t_, is introduced.
+
+Plate 86, _B_ and _E_, are highly conventionalized designs; they suggest
+bird form, examples of which have been already considered elsewhere, but
+are very much modified.
+
+There can be no doubt that it was intended to represent birds or parts of
+birds as feathers in many of the above figures, but the perspective is so
+distorted that their morphology or relative position on the bird to which
+they belong can not be made out. In plate 86, _A_, for instance, the
+bird’s body seems to be split in two parts and laid on a flat plane. The
+pendent body, _t_, in the middle would be a representation of a bird’s
+tail composed of three feathers and with a double triangle terminating in
+dots from which arise lines of would-be feathers.
+
+Two of the parts, _a_ and _t_, that occur in the last mentioned, are
+found in plate 86, _B_, in somewhat modified form. Thus the position of
+the tail feathers, _t_, figure _C_, is taken by feathers of a different
+form, their extremities being cut off flat and not curved. The bundles
+of feathers in _B_ and _C_ are here reversed, the left side of _B_
+corresponding to the right of _C_, and the appendage on the left of the
+tail of _B_ being represented by the appendage on the right of _C_.
+There are other remote likenesses between them.
+
+
+SPIDER AND INSECTS
+
+Other flying animals, like bats and insects, are depicted on Sikyatki
+pottery, but not as constantly as birds. The spider, and insects like the
+dragon fly, moth, and butterfly, are the most common. In Hopi mythology
+the spider[28] and the sun are associated, the former being the symbol of
+an earth goddess. Although no design that can be referred to the spider
+has yet been found on Sikyatki pottery, it is not wanting from Hopi (pl.
+87, _c_).
+
+The symbol of the dragon fly, which occurs on several bowls from ancient
+Hopi ruins, is a line often enlarged at one end to form a head, and
+always with two crossbars near this enlargement to indicate wings. As
+this insect lives near springs and is constantly associated in modern
+symbolism with water it is probable that its occurrence on ancient Hopi
+pottery has practically the same significance as in modern conceptions.
+
+
+BUTTERFLY AND MOTH
+
+Five typical figures that may be referred to the butterfly or moth occur
+on Sikyatki pottery. These figures have in common a triangular body which
+suggests a highly conventionalized picture of a bird. Their wings are, as
+a rule, extended horizontally, assuming the attitude of moths while at
+rest, there being only one of the five examples where wings are folded
+above the back, the normal position of these organs in a butterfly. With
+one exception, all these conventional butterfly figures bear two curved
+rows of dots on the head, probably intended to represent antennæ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.—Butterfly and flower.]
+
+The figure of a moth in figure 79 has a body of triangular form, and the
+extremities of the wings are shown on each side of a medially placed
+backward-extending projection, which is the posterior end of the
+abdomen. These wings bear white dots on their posterior edges suggesting
+the markings on certain genera of butterflies.[29] There arises from the
+head, which here is circular, a single jointed appendage curved at the
+end, possibly the antenna, and an unjointed appendage, like a proboscis,
+inserted into a figure of a flower, mounted on a stalk that terminates
+at the other extremity in five parallel extensions or roots. A row of
+dots about the periphery of the flower suggests petals. The figures are
+accompanied by crosses representing stars.
+
+The second moth design (fig. 80) has even a closer resemblance to a bird
+than the last, for it also has a single antenna or row of dots connected
+by a curved line. It likewise has several curved lines resembling a crest
+of feathers on top of the head, and lines recalling the tail of a bird.
+The head this figure bears is a cross suggesting a female butterfly or
+moth.[30]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.—Butterfly with extended proboscis.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.—Highly conventionalized butterfly.]
+
+The body in figure 81 is crossed by five lines converging at one angle,
+imparting to it the appearance of having been formed by a union of
+several spherical triangles on each of which appear rectangular spaces
+painted black. A head is not differentiated from the body, but at the
+point of union of the five lines above mentioned there arise two rows of
+dots which have the form of circles, each inclosing a dot. From analogy
+these are supposed to represent antennæ. The middle of wing-shaped
+extensions recalling butterfly designs are marked by circular figures
+in figure 82, but the absence in this figure of a head with jointed
+appendages renders it doubtful whether it represents an insect. The shape
+of the body and its appendages resembling feathers indicate, so far as
+they go, that this design represents some bird.
+
+It will be noted that in one of the above-mentioned figures, identified
+as a moth, flowers are indicated by dotted circles, while in another
+similar circle, figures, also surrounded with dots, are represented on
+the wings. One pair of wings is represented in the last-mentioned figure,
+but a second pair placed behind the larger may have been confounded with
+the tail feathers. In one of these figures from Sikyatki there is a row
+of dots around the margin of the wings—a common but not universal feature
+in modern pictures of butterfly figures. None of the butterfly figures
+have representations of legs, which is not strange considering how
+inconspicuous these appendages are among these insects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.—Moth.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.—Moth.]
+
+A most striking figure of a butterfly is represented by six drawings
+on the so-called “butterfly vase” (fig. 83). These, like the
+above-mentioned, resemble birds, but they all have antennæ, which
+identify them as insects. These six figures (pl. 90) are supposed to
+be connected with the six cardinal points which in modern Hopi belief
+have sex—the butterfly corresponding to the north, male; to the west,
+female; to the south, male; to the east, female; to the above, male; and
+to the below, female. The wings of all these insects are represented as
+extended, the anterior pair extending far beyond the posterior, while
+both have a uniform color and are without marginal dots. The appendages
+to the head are two curved rows of dots representing antennæ, and two
+parallel lines are the mouth parts or possibly the proboscis. The
+markings on the bodies and the terminal parallel lines are like tail
+feathers of birds. The heads of three figures, instead of having diagonal
+lines, are covered with a crosshatching, _b_, _b_, _b_, and are supposed
+to represent the males, as the former, _a_, _a_, _a_, are females.[31]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.—Moth of geometrical form.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.—Geometrical form of moth.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.—Highly conventionalized butterfly.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.—Geometrical form of moth.]
+
+A moth with a conventionalized geometric form is represented in
+figure 84 with outstretched wings, a rounded abdomen, and a spotted
+rectangular body recalling designs on the upper embroidered margin of
+modern ceremonial blankets. A like figure has been elsewhere described
+by the author as a butterfly.[32] It occurs on the stone slab which
+once formed one side of an Awatobi altar.[33] We have more complicated
+forms of butterflies represented in figures 85-87, the identification
+of which is even more doubtful than the last. Figure 86 reproduces in
+its several parts figure 85, being composed of a central design, around
+which are arranged six triangles, one of the last being placed above,
+another below, the main figure, and there are two on each side. The
+design, figure 88, is circular, the alternately colored quadrants forming
+two hourglass combinations. The double triangle, shown in figure 84,
+resembles a butterfly symbol, having a close likeness to a figure of this
+insect found on the Awatobi tablet above mentioned. This figure also
+resembles triangular designs painted on the walls of modern Hopi rooms
+and in cliff-dwellings (Cliff Palace). These figures present very remote
+likenesses to butterfly symbols and their identification as such is
+difficult.
+
+
+GEOMETRICAL DESIGNS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.—Circle with triangles.]
+
+The geometrical designs on the pottery from Sikyatki consist of two
+well-recognized groups: (1) Purely ornamental or nonsymbolic geometrical
+figures, and (2) highly conventional life forms. Some of the figures of
+the second group may be geometrical representations of birds or other
+animals; but the former are simply embellishments used to beautify the
+objects on which they are painted. Purely decorative designs, not being
+symbolic, will not be specially considered, as they do not come within
+the scope of the present treatise. An interpretation of the significance
+of many of the second group of geometrical designs is not possible,
+although they probably represent animal forms.
+
+The strictly geometrical figures so frequently found on pottery from
+Sikyatki recall the linear decorations almost universal in ancient
+southwestern ware.
+
+No one who has carefully compared specimens of decorated pottery from
+Sikyatki with examples from any other southwestern region could fail to
+be impressed with the differences in some of the geometrical designs from
+the two localities. Such designs on the Sikyatki ware are almost always
+rectangular, rarely curved. As compared with pottery from cliff-dwellings
+there is a paucity or entire absence of terraced designs in the ancient
+Hopi ware, while zigzags representing lightning are comparatively rare.
+The characteristic geometrical decorations on Sikyatki pottery are found
+on the outside of the food bowls, in which respect they are notably
+different from those of other ceramic areas. Designs on Sikyatki pottery
+show few survivals of preexisting materials or evolution from transfer of
+those on textiles of any kind. Such as do exist are so masked that they
+shed little light on current theories of art evolution.
+
+The designs on ancient Hopi pottery are in the main mythological, hence
+their true interpretation involves a knowledge of the religious ideas
+and especially of such psychological elements as sympathetic magic, so
+prevalent among the Hopi of to-day. The idea that by the use of symbols
+man could influence supernatural beings was no doubt latent in the
+mind of the potter and explains the character of the symbols in many
+instances. The fact that the bowls on which these designs are painted
+were found with the dead, and contained food for the departed, implies a
+cult of the dead, or at least a belief in a future life.
+
+
+RAIN CLOUDS
+
+The most constant geometric designs on Pueblo pottery are those
+representing the rain cloud, and from analogy we would expect to find the
+rain-cloud figures conspicuously on ancient Hopi pottery. We look in vain
+on Sikyatki ware for the familiar semicircular symbols of rain clouds so
+constant among the modern Hopi; nor do we find the rectangular terraced
+form which is equally common. These modifications were probably lately
+introduced into Hopiland by those colonists of alien clans who came after
+the destruction of Sikyatki, and consequently are not to be expected on
+its pottery. Their place was taken by other characteristic forms closely
+allied to rectangular terraced figures from which hang parallel lines,
+representing falling rain in modern symbolism.[34] The typical Sikyatki
+rain-cloud symbol is terraced without rain symbols and finds its nearest
+relative on pottery derived from the eastern pueblo region. The form of
+rain-cloud symbol on Sikyatki pottery may be regarded as characteristic
+of the Kokop clan which, according to legends, settled this ancient
+pueblo. Modified variants of this form of rain-cloud symbol occur on
+almost every specimen in the Sikyatki collection, and can be seen hanging
+from “sky-bands” with appended star signs or without such connections.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.—Rain cloud.]
+
+The most common Sikyatki symbol of a rain cloud is shown in figure 89 and
+plate 90, _f_, _g_. These rain-cloud designs rarely occur singly, being
+more often six in number, as if intended to represent the six cardinal
+points recognized in Hopi ceremonies. We find the Sikyatki rain-cloud
+symbols resembling somewhat those of the modern Zuñi, or figures of
+clouds found on the characteristic designs on Little Colorado ceramics.
+Somewhat similar angular terraced forms are almost universally used in
+eastern pueblos as rain-cloud symbols, but the semicircular forms (fig.
+90) of modern Hopi ceremonials, being apparently a highly specialized
+modification, rarely occur on Sikyatki pottery.
+
+
+STARS
+
+The star sign occurs as an equal armed cross formed by the approximation
+of four squares, leaving a central uncolored area. It is generally
+accompanied by a rain-cloud symbol or bird figures, although likewise
+found without them. We often find one arm of the component arms of
+the cross missing and two of the remaining arms adherent to a band;
+often these crosses have a circular enlargement at the junction of
+their arms. A simple equal armed cross is the sole decoration on the
+interior of numerous food bowls, and there are several examples of St.
+Andrew’s crosses, the triangular arms of which have been interpreted as
+representing four conventionalized birds; no example of a cross with
+unequal arms has yet been found on Sikyatki pottery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.—Rain cloud.]
+
+These crosses, like that with four arms representing the Sky god in
+modern Hopi symbolism, probably represent the Heart of the Sky. A similar
+cross is figured on paraphernalia used in modern Hopi rites or on altar
+slabs; when it is represented by a wooden frame, it is called _tokpela_,
+and hangs before the altar. The same object is sometimes attached
+horizontally to the top of the helmet of the personification of the
+Sky god.[35] The swastika is rare in ancient pottery and was not found
+at Sikyatki, although a single example was dug up at Awatobi and a few
+others were obtained from the Little Colorado ruins.
+
+A multiple cross, formed of three parallel lines crossing three others
+at an angle, generally accompanies certain conventionalized figures of
+birds and in one example there are two multiple crosses, one on one side
+and one on another of a moth or butterfly symbol. The multiple cross is
+supposed to represent six canes used in a game, and on a prehistoric
+decorated bowl from ancient Shongopovi,[36] we find what appears to be a
+highly conventionalized bird figure occupying one-half of the interior
+of the bowl, while four figures representing these canes appear on the
+other. The bird figure, in this instance, is interpreted as a gambler’s
+god, or a representation of the god of chance.
+
+
+SUN EMBLEMS
+
+The most conventionalized sun emblem is a circle or ring with attached
+feathers. The Sikyatki design (pl. 87, _b_) is a circle bearing on its
+periphery appendages believed to represent feathers, with accompanying
+lines, generally painted red, to represent the rays of the sun.[37]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.—Ring with appended feathers.]
+
+The identification of the bird whose feathers are used in sun emblems has
+not yet been made, although the position of similar feathers on the body
+of other bird designs suggests that they represent eagle feathers. The
+feather of the eagle is commonly associated with both ancient and modern
+pictures representing the sun. Thus we have on a vessel from Sikyatki in
+figure 91 a design bearing four feathers arranged at intervals a quadrant
+apart alternating with radiating lines. If we interpret this figure in
+the light of modern symbolism the circle would be regarded as the sun
+and the feathers would be identified as eagle feathers, while the lines
+might be considered to represent the red rays of the four cardinal points.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 87
+
+BIRD, SUN, AND SPIDER AND SUN SYMBOLS]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 88
+
+CONVENTIONALIZED BIRD FIGURES]
+
+In a bowl found at old Shongopovi, a ruin inhabited at the same epoch as
+Sikyatki, the sun takes the form of a sky bird. In this design the ring
+figure is replaced by a bird with wings, tail, and a beak, evidently the
+sun bird, hawk, or eagle (pl. 88, _a_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.—Two circles with figure.]
+
+A theoretical interpretation of plate 88, _b_, is facilitated by a
+comparison of it with the design painted on a bowl from the Wattron
+collection, now in the Field Columbian Museum. As this has all the parts
+represented in figure 75, the conclusion would naturally be that the
+intention of the artist was to represent a bird figure.
+
+Ring or circle shaped figures are found on several bowls from Sikyatki,
+and in one case (fig. 92) we find two circles side by side separated by
+a rectangular figure. The meaning of these rings and the accompanying
+design is not known. Concentric circles diametrically accompanied with
+two figures, one with a head and two lateral feathers, the other with the
+form of a hash-knife figure, are shown in figure 93.
+
+In figure 94 the appendages of the ring design or sun emblem is much more
+complicated than any of the preceding. Each of the four quadrants has
+two appendages, a cluster with two feathers, and a curved body with a
+sickle-shaped extension, the whole giving a swastika-like appearance to
+the design. The interior of the circle is likewise complicated, showing a
+structure difficult to interpret. From comparisons with preceding figures
+this is likewise regarded as a sun emblem.[38]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.—Sun with feathers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.—Sun symbol.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.—Ring with appended feathers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.—Ring figure with legs and appended feathers.]
+
+The ring or circle shown in figure 95 hangs from a band that may be
+likened to the sky-band of previous description.[39] A triangle[40] is
+attached to the upper side of this band, while appended to the ring
+itself there is a featherlike object corresponding to a bird’s tail and
+wing. This figure is unique in the Sikyatki collection of ancient Hopi
+pictography.
+
+In figure 96 we find a leg appended to the lower side of the ring
+balanced by three wing feathers above or on the opposite side, two
+curved or crescentic extensions projecting from the rear, diametrically
+opposite which arises a curved body (head) with terminating sickle-shaped
+prolongation. This figure may be considered a bird design, having the
+tail twisted from a lateral to a vertical position and the wing raised
+from the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.—Sun emblem with appended feathers.]
+
+In figure 97 we find a similar ring still further modified, the
+appendages to it being somewhat different. The ring is here broader than
+the last, inclosing an area crossed by two lines forming a cross, with
+short parallel lines at the ends of each arm. There is a head showing a
+circular face with dots indicating eyes and mouth. The head bears a crest
+of feathers between two horns. Here we have in place of the appendage
+to the lower side an elongated curved projection extending to the left,
+balanced by a short, stumpy, curved appendage on the right, while
+between these appendages hang four parallel lines suggesting the highly
+conventional feathers of a tail. The horns with the crest of feathers
+between them recall the crest of the Sun god, of the Kachina clan,
+called Tunwup, a Sky god who flogs the children of modern Walpi.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.—Sun symbol.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.—Sun symbol.]
+
+The ring design in figure 98 has a bunch of three feathers in each
+quadrant, recalling the feathers of a sun emblem so well shown with other
+kinds of feathers in plate 76, _b_.
+
+In figure 99 we have a circle with four appended bifurcated geometrical
+extensions projecting outward on the periphery, and recalling featherless
+tails of birds. This is also a highly conventionalized sun emblem reduced
+to a geometrical figure.
+
+In connection with all these circular figures may be considered that
+shown in figure 92, the form of which is highly suggestive. In the
+various modifications above mentioned we detect two elements, the ring
+and its peripheral appendages, interpreted as feathers, head, feet,
+and other bird organs. Sometimes the ring predominates, sometimes the
+feathers, and sometimes a bird figure replaces all, the ring being lost
+or reduced in size. This variation is primitive and quite consistent with
+the Pueblo conceptions and analogies known to occur in Hopi ceremonial
+paraphernalia. This variation illustrates what is elsewhere said about
+the influence of the magic power on the pictorial art of Hopi.[41]
+
+The sun, to the Hopi mind, is likewise represented by a bird, or a
+compound of both becomes a Sky-god emblem; the horned serpent is the
+servant of the Sky god.
+
+We find among the modern Hopi several disks with markings and decorations
+of such a character that they are identified as representations of the
+sun. One of these is worn by the leader of the kachinas in a ceremony
+called the Powamû, an elaborate rite, the purpose of which is to purify
+from evil influences. This Sun god[42] is called Ahül, and the symbolism
+of his mask, especially feathers attached to the head, suggests some of
+the Sikyatki designs considered above.
+
+
+RECTANGULAR FIGURES REPRESENTING SHRINES
+
+The word _pahoki_, prayer-stick house or “shrine,” is applied by the
+modern Hopi to the receptacle, commonly a ring of stones, in which
+prayer offerings are deposited, and receives its name from the special
+supernatural personage worshiped. These shrines are regarded as sacred by
+the Hopi and are particularly numerous in the neighborhood of the Hopi
+mesas.[43] They are ordinarily simply rude inclosures made of stones or
+flat stone slabs set on edge, forming boxes, which may either be closed
+or open on one side. The simplest pictographic representation of such
+a shrine is the same as that of a house, or a circular or rectangular
+figure. A similar design is drawn in meal on the floor of the kiva or
+traced with the same material on the open plaza when the priest wishes to
+represent a house or shrine. Elaborate pictures made of different colored
+sands to represent gods are often inclosed by encircling lines, the whole
+called a house of the gods. Thus the sand picture on the Antelope altar
+of the Snake dance is called the house of the rain-cloud beings.[44]
+When reptiles are washed on the ninth day of the Snake dance they are
+said to be thrown into the house, a sand picture of the mountain lion.
+It is customary to make in some ceremonies not only a picture of the god
+worshiped, but also a representation of his or her house. The custom of
+adding a picture of a shrine to that of the supernatural can be seen
+by examining a series of pictures of Hopi kachinas. Here the shrine is
+a rain-cloud symbol introduced to show that the house of the kachina
+represented is a rain cloud.
+
+Sikyatki bowls decorated with figures identified as supernaturals often
+bear accompanying designs which may, from comparative reasoning, be
+interpreted as shrines of the supernatural being depicted. They have at
+times a form not unlike that of certain sand pictures, as in the case of
+the curved figure accompanying a highly conventionalized plumed serpent.
+A great variety of figures of this kind are found on Sikyatki bowls,[45]
+and often instead of being a rectangular figure they may be elongated
+more like a prayer offering.
+
+The rectangular figure that accompanies a representation of a great
+horned serpent (fig. 100) may be interpreted as the shrine house of
+that monster, and it is to be mentioned that this shrine appears to
+be surrounded by radial lines representing curved sticks like those
+set around sand pictures of the Snake and Antelope altars of the Snake
+ceremonies at Walpi.[46]
+
+It is suggested that the figure below the mountain sheep (see fig. 18)
+and the circles with dots accompanying the butterfly and bird designs may
+also represent shrines. Attention is also called to the fact that each
+of the six animal figures of the elaborate butterfly vase (pl. 90, _c_)
+is accompanied by a rectangular design representing a shrine in which
+feathers are visible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.—Horned snake with conventionalized shrine.]
+
+The general forms of these shrines, are shown in figures 101 and 102. The
+one shown in figure 103 is especially instructive from its association
+with a highly conventionalized animal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.—Shrine.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.—Shrine.]
+
+The Sikyatki epoch of Hopi ceramics is more closely allied to early
+Keresan[47] than to ancient Tanoan, and has many likenesses to modern
+Keresan pottery. In fact, none of the distinctive figures have yet been
+found on true Tanoan ware in any great numbers. There appear also no
+evidences of increments peculiar to the Little Colorado culture center
+of which Zuñi is the modern survival; consequently we look in vain for
+evidence of early communication between these two centers; possibly
+Sikyatki fell before Zuñi attained any prominence in the Little Colorado
+area.[48]
+
+
+SYMBOLS INTRODUCED FROM SAN JUAN RIVER SETTLEMENTS
+
+Although the majority of Hopi priests declare that the earliest clan
+to settle Walpi was the Bear, coming from the east, by far the largest
+number of early colonists are said to belong to the Snake people which
+came from Tokonabi and other great settlements on tributaries of the San
+Juan in northern Arizona. The route of their migration is fairly well
+known from legendary sources supported in late years by some limited
+excavations that have been made in ruins along its course, so that we
+know something of the character of the Snake pottery and the symbols,
+which these early colonists brought to the Bear settlement at the base of
+the East Mesa. These are not unlike those found along the San Juan and
+its tributaries from the Mesa Verde to Wukoki near the Black Falls on the
+Little Colorado, west of the Hopi Mesa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.—Conventionalized winged bird with shrine.]
+
+This ware is commonly either black and white, or red, and can be readily
+distinguished from that of Sikyatki by the wealth of geometrical
+decorations and the poverty of such animal figures as birds, reptiles,
+and insects. The designs of that early epoch appear to be uniform and
+hardly distinctive from those that occur in all parts of the Southwest.
+
+We may judge of the character of the symbols and designs on pottery from
+the San Juan and from the ruins of Wukoki on the Black Falls of Little
+Colorado. It is characterized by an abundance of geometric figures and
+an almost total absence of life forms or painted figures of men and
+animals. The pottery is thin, well made, and sometimes colored red, but
+the majority of specimens are gray or black-and-white ware not especially
+different from a widespread type occurring pretty generally throughout
+the Southwest. Coiled and incised ware is more abundant than smooth
+painted, but these are not as varied in form as later examples. There is
+no evidence available that there was any very great difference between
+the Hopi pottery decorations of the first epoch and that of contemporary
+time in the Southwest. When the Snake clans arrived at Walpi they found
+the village of Bear people living on the terrace at the base of the East
+Mesa, possessed of a symbolism like that of Sikyatki. The combined clans,
+Bear and Snake, were later joined by the Horn and Flute, and it is not
+unlikely that some of the likenesses between the pottery symbols of the
+settlement on the terrace below Walpi and Sikyatki may have developed
+about this time.[49]
+
+The designs on the ceramics of the Snake clans are best illustrated
+by the prehistoric pottery from ruins and cliff-dwellings in Utah and
+along the San Juan area, where geometrical patterns far outnumber those
+representing life forms. This does not deny that many of the pieces of
+pottery from this region are finely made, equal in technique perhaps to
+some of the Sikyatki, but the geometric designs on San Juan pottery and
+that from Sikyatki are radically different. This difference conforms with
+tradition that the Snake clans left their homes at Tokonabi, in the San
+Juan region, and came to Hopi after the foundation of Sikyatki, which had
+probably developed its beautiful ceramic art before Walpi was settled.
+There is no evidence that the potters of the Snake clan ever introduced
+any modification in the symbolic decoration of pottery by the women of
+Sikyatki.
+
+
+SYMBOLS INTRODUCED BY THE SNAKE PEOPLE
+
+The designs on pottery taken from prehistoric ruins of pueblos or
+villages once inhabited by the Snake clans claim the archeologist’s
+especial attention. These clans were the most important early additions
+to the Hopi villages and no doubt influenced early Hopi symbolism. There
+is little trace in early pottery that can be recognized as peculiar to
+the Snake. The Snake clans formerly lived at Betatakin, Kitsiel, and
+neighboring ruins.
+
+Among many significant differences that occur between the designs on
+pottery from the ruins in Navaho National Monument and those of Sikyatki
+may be mentioned the rarity of bird designs and the conventional
+feathers above described. Parallel lines and triangles have been found
+on the pottery from Kitsiel and Betatakin. Terraced figures are common;
+spirals are rare. Pottery designs from this region are simpler and like
+those of the Mesa Verde cliff-houses and the ruins along the San Juan
+River. Not only do the designs on prehistoric Sikyatki pottery have
+little resemblance to those from Tokonabi, a former home of the Snake
+clan, but the pottery from this region of Arizona is of coarser texture
+and different color. It is the same as that of the San Juan area, the
+decorations on which are about uniform with those from the Mesa Verde and
+Chelly Canyon. The best vases and bowls are of red or black-and-white
+ware.
+
+In the pottery symbols of the clans that lived at Tokonabi (Kitsiel,
+Betatakin, etc.) the archaic predominated. The passage architecturally
+from the fragile-walled dwelling into Prudden’s pueblo “unit type”
+had taken place, but the pottery had not yet been greatly modified.
+Even after the Snake clans moved to Wukoki, near the Black Falls of
+the Little Colorado, we still find the survival of geometrical designs
+characteristic of the prepuebloan epoch. Consequently when the Snake
+clans came to Walpi and joined the Hopi they brought no new symbols and
+introduced no great changes in symbols. The influence of the clans from
+the north was slight—too small to greatly influence the development of
+Hopi symbolism.
+
+
+
+
+TANOAN EPOCH
+
+
+The Tanoan epoch in the chronology of Hopi pottery symbolism is markedly
+different from the Keresan. It began with the influx of Tanoan clans,
+either directly or by way of Zuñi and the Little Colorado, being
+represented in modern times by the early creations of Hano women, like
+Nampeo. It is clearly marked and readily distinguished from the Sikyatki
+epoch, being well represented in eastern museums by pottery collected
+from Hano, the Tewan pueblo on the East Mesa.
+
+Migrations of Tanoan clans into the Hopi country began very early in Hopi
+history, but waves of colonists with Tanoan kinship came to Walpi at
+the close of the seventeenth century as a result of the great rebellion
+(1680), when the number of colonists from the Rio Grande pueblos was
+very large. The Badger, Kachina, Asa, and Hano clans seem to have been
+the most numerous and important in modifying sociological conditions,
+especially at the East Mesa of the Hopi. Some of these came directly
+to Walpi, others entered by way of Zuñi, and still others by way of
+Awatobi. They brought with them Tanoan and Keresan symbolism and Little
+Colorado elements, all of which were incorporated. The Tanoan symbols are
+very difficult to differentiate individually but created a considerable
+modification in the artistic products, as a whole.
+
+The symbolism that the colonists from the Little Colorado settlements
+brought to Walpi was mixed in character, containing certain Gila Valley
+elements. Among the last-mentioned were increments derived directly
+from Zuñi, as shown in the symbolism of their pottery. Among the most
+important thus introduced were contributions of the Asa, Kachina, Badger,
+and Butterfly clans. The most important element from the Little Colorado
+clans that originally came from the Gila Valley (Palatkwabi) are those
+connected with the plumed serpent.[50] It is possible to trace successive
+epochs in the history of ceramic decoration in the Little Colorado ruins
+and to identify, in a measure, the clans with which these epochs were
+associated, but to follow out this identification in this paper would
+take me too far afield and lead into a discussion of areas far distant
+from the Hopi, for it belongs more especially to the history of ceramic
+decorations of Zuñi decoration and composition.[51] In the present
+article all the Little Colorado influences are treated as belonging to
+the Tanoan epoch, which seems to have been the dominant one in the Little
+Colorado when emigration, comparatively modern in time, began to Hopi.
+
+
+SYMBOLS INTRODUCED FROM THE LITTLE COLORADO
+
+After the destruction of Sikyatki there was apparently a marked
+deterioration in the excellence of Hopi ceramics, which continued as
+late as the overthrow of Awatobi, when the Sikyatki epoch ceased.
+Shortly before that date and for a few years later there was a notable
+influx of foreigners into Hopiland; a number of southern clans from
+the Little Colorado successively joined the Hopi, bringing with them
+cultural conceptions and symbolic designs somewhat different from those
+existing previously to their advent. Among these clans are those known in
+migration legends as the Patki peoples. Although we can not distinguish
+a special Patki epoch in Hopi ceramics, we have some ideas of the nature
+of Patki symbolism from large collections from Homolobi, Chevlon, and
+Chavez Pass. From traditions and ceremonial objects now in use we also
+know something of the nature of the objective symbols they introduced
+into Walpi, and we can detect some of these on pottery and other objects
+used in ceremonies at Walpi. Some of these symbols did not come directly
+from the Little Colorado ruins, but went first to Awatobi and from there
+to Walpi[52] after the destruction of the former pueblo in the autumn of
+the year 1700. The arrival of southern clans at the East Mesa with their
+characteristic symbols occurred approximately in the seventeenth century,
+about 200 years after the date of the discovery of Hopi by Tovar. Awatobi
+received the Rabbit, Tobacco, and other clans from this migration from
+the south between the years 1632 and 1700, and Walpi received the Patki
+shortly after or at the same time the Hano clans came from the far east.
+The similarities in ancient pottery from the Little Colorado and that
+belonging to the Sikyatki epoch can not be ascribed to anything more
+profound than superficial contact. It is not probable that the ancient
+pottery of Awatobi or that of Kawaika and other Keres pueblos on the
+Awatobi mesa or in the adjacent plain was modified in any considerable
+degree by incoming clans from the south, but survived the Sikyatki epoch
+a century after Sikyatki had been destroyed.
+
+The advent of the clans from the Little Colorado into the Hopi country
+was too late to seriously affect the classic period of Hopi ceramics;
+it appears also not to have exerted any great influence on later times.
+Extensive excavations made at Homolobi, Chevlon, and Chavez Pass
+have revealed much pottery which gives a good idea of the symbolism
+characteristic of the clans living along this valley, which resembles
+in some respects the classic Hopi pottery of the time of Sikyatki,
+but several of these likenesses date back to a time before the union
+of the Hopi and Little Colorado clans. As a rule the bird figures on
+pottery from Homolobi, Chevlon, Chavez Pass, and other representative
+Little Colorado ruins are more realistic and less conventionalized and
+complex than those from Sikyatki. The peculiar forms of feathers found
+so constantly in the latter do not occur in the former, nor does the
+sky-band with its dependent bird figure ever occur on Little Colorado
+ware. We are here dealing with less-developed conventionalism, a cruder
+art, and less specialized symbolism. Even if the colors of the pottery
+did not at once separate them, the expert can readily declare whether
+he is dealing with a bowl from Sikyatki or Homolobi. There are, to be
+sure, likenesses, but well-marked differences of local development. The
+resemblances and differences in the case of bird figures on prehistoric
+Hopi ware and that from the ruins on the Little Colorado can be readily
+shown by considering figures 105, 106, and 107, found at Homolobi and
+Chevlon, and the corresponding preceding bird figures. It may be
+interesting to instance another example. Figure 104 shows a lateral view
+of a bird with wings extended, bearing marginal dentations representing
+feathers on the breast and a tail composed of four triangular feathers
+and two eyes, each with iris and pupil. The upper and lower jaws in this
+figure are extended to form a beak, as is customary in bird designs from
+the Little Colorado ruins, but never found at Sikyatki. In figure 105 we
+have another lateral view of a characteristic bird design from the Little
+Colorado region, and figures 106 and 107 show hourglass bodies, a special
+feature of the same region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.—Lateral view of bird with double eyes.]
+
+In the same way many other distinctive characteristics separating figures
+of animals from the two regions might be mentioned. Those above given
+may suffice to show that each is distinctive and in a way specialized in
+its development, but the main reason to believe that the clans from the
+Little Colorado never affected the symbolism of Sikyatki is the fact that
+the latter ruin was destroyed before these clans joined the Hopi villages.
+
+The ruins Homolobi and Chevlon were probably inhabited well into historic
+times, although there is no archeological evidence that artifacts from
+them were modified by European influences. The symbolism on pottery
+shows that their culture was composite and seems to have been the
+result of acculturation from both south and east. Some of the clans, as
+the Tobacco, that peopled these settlements joined Awatobi before its
+overthrow, while others settled at Pakatcomo, the ruins of which near
+Walpi are still visible, and later united with the people of the largest
+village of the East Mesa. So far as known, Sikyatki had been destroyed
+before any considerable number of people had entered the Hopi country
+from the Little Colorado,[53] the event occurring comparatively late in
+history.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.—Lateral view of bird with double eyes.]
+
+The pottery from the Little Colorado differs from prehistoric Hopi ware
+much less with respect to geometrical designs than life forms. The break
+in the encircling line, or, as it is called, the life gate, which is
+almost universally found on the ancient Hopi vases, bowls, dippers, and
+other objects, occurs likewise on pottery from Little Colorado ruins.
+Some of the encircling lines from this region have more than one break,
+and in one instance the edges of the break have appendages, a rare
+feature found in both prehistoric Hopi and Little Colorado ware.[54]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.—Bird with double eyes.]
+
+The influence of Keres culture on Zuñi may be shown in several ways,
+thus: A specimen of red ware from a shrine on Thunder Mountain, an
+old Zuñi site, is decorated with symbolic feathers recalling those
+on Sikyatki ware ascribed to eastern influence. The nonappearance of
+Keres and Tewa symbols on ancient pottery from the Zuñi Valley ruins,
+Heshotauthla and Hálonawan, and their existence in the mountain shrine
+above mentioned, implies that the latter settlement is more modern, and
+that the eastern clans united with preexisting Little Colorado clans
+comparatively late in its history. The first settlements in Zuñi Valley
+were made by colonists from the Gila. There are several ceremonies in
+the Walpi ritual which, like the New Fire, although immediately derived
+from Awatobi, came originally from Little Colorado pueblos, and other
+ceremonies came directly to Walpi from the same original source. Among
+the former are those introduced by the Piba (Tobacco) clan, which brought
+to Walpi a secret fraternity called the Tataukyamû. This brotherhood
+came directly from Awatobi, but the Tobacco clan from which it was
+derived once lived in a pueblo on the Little Colorado, now a ruin at
+Chevlon, midway between Holbrook and Winslow.[55] The identification of
+the Chevlon ruin with the historic Chipias has an important bearing on
+the age of the Little Colorado ruins, for Padre Arvide, a Franciscan
+missionary, was killed in 1632 by the Chipias, who lived west of Zuñi. In
+other words, their pueblo was then inhabited.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.—Two birds with rain clouds.]
+
+We know that the Piba joined Awatobi before 1700, or the year it was
+destroyed; consequently the desertion of the Chevlon ruin (Chipiaya,
+or Tcipiaiya) evidently occurred between 1632 and 1700, not so much
+on account of Apache inroads as from fear of punishment by the
+Spaniards.[56] As no clans from the other large pueblo on the Little
+Colorado or Homolobi joined Awatobi, we can not definitely fix the date
+that this group fled to the north, but it was probably not long after
+the time the Chevlon clans migrated to Awatobi, from which it follows
+that the Little Colorado settlements were inhabited up to the middle
+of the seventeenth century. While the Little Colorado clans did not
+influence the Sikyatki pottery, they did affect the potters of Awatobi to
+a limited extent and introduced some symbols into Walpi in the middle of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Among these influences may be
+mentioned those derived from Awatobi after its destruction in 1700. It is
+not possible to state definitely what modifications in pottery symbols
+were introduced into Walpi by the potters of the clans from Awatobi and
+the Little Colorado. Possibly no considerable modification resulted from
+their advent, as there was already more or less similarity in the pottery
+from these geographical localities. The southern clans introduced some
+novelties in ceremonies, especially in the Winter Solstice and New-fire
+festivals and in the rites of the Horned Serpent at the Spring Equinox.
+
+
+SYMBOLS INTRODUCED BY THE BADGER AND KACHINA CLANS
+
+As the clans which came to the Hopi country from Zuñi were comparatively
+late arrivals of Tewa colonists long after the destruction of Sikyatki,
+their potters exerted no influence on the Sikyatki potters. The ancient
+Hopi ceramic art had become extinct when the clans from Awatobi, the
+pueblos on the Little Colorado, and the late Tewa, united with the
+Walpi settlement on the East Mesa. The place whence we can now obtain
+information of the character of the symbolism of the Asa, Butterfly,
+Badger, and other Tewan clans is in certain ceremonies at Sichomovi,
+a pueblo near Walpi, settled by clans from Zuñi and often called the
+Zuñi pueblo by the Hopi. One of the Sichomovi ceremonies celebrated at
+Oraibi and Sichomovi on the East Mesa, in which we may find survivals
+of the earliest Tewa and Zuñi symbolism, is called the Owakülti. The
+Sichomovi variant of the Owakülti shows internal sociologic relation to
+the Butterfly or Buli (Poli) clan resident in Awatobi before its fall.
+This statement is attested by certain stone slabs excavated from Awatobi
+mounds, on which are painted butterfly symbols. The Walpi Lalakoñti,
+first described by the author and Mr. Owens in 1892, has also survivals
+of Awatobi designs. It appears that while it is not easy to trace any of
+the rich symbolism of Awatobi directly into Walpi pottery, it is possible
+to discover close relations between certain Awatobi symbols and others
+still employed in Walpi ceremonials. Sikyatki and Awatobi were probably
+inhabited synchronously and as kindred people had a closely allied or
+identical symbolism; there is such a close relation between the designs
+on pottery from the two ruins that Awatobi symbols introduced into Walpi
+have a close likeness to those of Sikyatki.[57]
+
+The natural conservatism in religious rites of all kinds has brought
+it about that many of the above-mentioned designs, although abandoned
+in secular life of the Hopi, still persist in paraphernalia used in
+ceremonies. It is therefore pertinent to discuss some of these religious
+symbols with an idea of discovering whether they are associated with
+certain clans or ruins, and if so what light they shed on prehistoric
+migrations. In other words, here the ethnologists can afford us much
+information bearing on the significance of prehistoric symbols.
+
+One great difficulty in interpreting the prehistoric pictures of
+supernaturals depicted on ancient pottery by a comparison of the
+religious paraphernalia of the modern Hopi is a complex nomenclature of
+supernatural beings that has been brought about by the perpetuation or
+survival of different clan names for the same being even after union
+of those clans. Thus we find the same Sky god with many others all
+practically aliases of one common conception. To complicate the matter
+still more, different attributal names are also sometimes used. The names
+Alosaka, Muyinwû, and Talatumsi are practically different designations of
+the same supernatural, while Tunwup, Ho, and Shalako appear to designate
+the same Sky-god personage. Cultus heroines, as the Marau mana, Shalako
+mana, Palahiko mana, and others, according as we follow one or another
+of the dialects, Keres or Tewa, are used interchangeably. This diversity
+in nomenclature has introduced a complexity in the Hopi mythology which
+is apparent rather than real in the Hopi Pantheon, as their many names
+would imply.[58] The great nature gods of sky and earth, male and
+female, lightning and germination, no doubt arose as simple transfer of
+a germinative idea applied to cosmic phenomena and organic nature. The
+earliest creation myths were drawn largely from analogies of human and
+animal birth. The innumerable lesser or clan gods are naturally regarded
+as offspring of sky and earth, and man himself is born from Mother Earth.
+He was not specially created by a Great Spirit, which was foreign to
+Indians unmodified by white influences.
+
+As the number of bird designs on Sikyatki pottery far outnumber
+representations of other animals it is natural to interpret them by
+modern bird symbols or by modern personations of birds, many examples of
+which are known to the ethnological student of the Hopi.
+
+In one of a series of dances at Powamû, which occurs in February, men and
+boys personate the eagle, red hawk, humming bird, owl, cock, hen, mocking
+bird, quail, hawk, and other birds, each appropriately dressed, imitating
+cries, and wearing an appropriate mask of the birds they represent. In
+a dance called Pamurti, a ceremony celebrated annually at Sichomovi,
+and said to have been derived from Zuñi, personations of the same birds
+appear, the men of Walpi contributing to the performance. Homovi, one of
+the Hopi Indians who took part, made colored pictures representing all
+these birds, which may be found reproduced in the author’s article on
+Hopi katcinas.[59]
+
+In the Hopi cosmogony the Sky god is thought to be father of all gods
+and human beings, and when personations of the subordinate supernaturals
+occur they are led to the pueblo by a personator of this great father of
+all life. The celebrations of the Powamû, at the East Mesa of the Hopi,
+represent the return of the ancestors or kachinas of Walpi, while the
+Pamurti is the dramatization of the return of the kachinas of Sichomovi
+whose ancestors were Zuñi kin.
+
+Life figures or animal forms, as birds, serpents, and insects, depicted
+on Little Colorado pottery differ considerably from those on Sikyatki
+ware. Take, for instance, bird designs, the most abundant life forms on
+ancient pueblo pottery on the Little Colorado, as well as at Sikyatki.
+It needs but a glance at the figures of the former to show how marked
+the differences are. The leader of the kachinas in the Powamû, which
+celebrates the return of these ancestral gods to the pueblo, Walpi, wears
+an elaborate dress and helmet with appended feathers. He is led into the
+village by a masked man personating Eototo.[60]
+
+
+SYMBOLS INTRODUCED FROM AWATOBI
+
+The women saved at Awatobi in the massacre of 1700, according to a
+legend, brought to Walpi the paraphernalia of a ceremony still observed,
+called the Mamzrauti. Naturally we should expect to find old Awatobi
+symbolism on this paraphernalia, which is still in use. The cultus
+heroine of the Mamzrauti is the Corn-mist maid, known by the name of
+Shalako mana or Palahiko mana.[61] We have several representations of
+this maid and their resemblance to the pictures of Shalako mana depicted
+by Hano potters would imply a common Tanoan origin.
+
+
+SHALAKO MANA
+
+The most common figure on the third epoch of Hopi pottery, commonly
+called modern Tewa and manufactured up to 1895 by Nampeo, a Hano potter,
+is a representation of the Corn-maid, Shalako mana, who, as shown, is
+the same personage as Marau mana and Palahiko mana in the festival of the
+Mamzrauti derived from Awatobi. The symbol of this goddess is instructive
+and easily recognized in its many variations. Her picture on Hano pottery
+is shown in figure 108.
+
+The most striking features of her symbolism, brought out in plate 89, are
+terraced bodies representing rain clouds on the head, an ear of maize
+symbol on the forehead, curved lines over the mouth, chevrons on the
+cheeks, conventionalized wings, and feathered garment. It is also not
+uncommon to find carved representations of squash blossoms occupying the
+same positions as the whorls of hair on the heads of Hopi maidens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.—Head of Shalako mana, or Corn maid.]
+
+The Shalakotaka male is likewise a common design readily recognized
+on modern pottery. Particularly abundant are figures of the mask of a
+Kohonino god, allied to Shalako, which is likewise called a kachina, best
+shown in paraphernalia of the Mamzrauti ceremony.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 89
+
+SHALAKO MANA, CORN MAID (FROM TABLET DANCE)]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY   THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT   PLATE 90
+
+TOP OF BUTTERFLY VASE.]
+
+It sometimes happens in Hopi dramatization that pictures of supernatural
+beings and idols of the same take the place of personations by priests.
+For instance, instead of a girl or a woman representing the Corn maid,
+this supernatural is depicted on a slab of wood or represented by a
+wooden idol. One of the best-known figures of the Corn maid (Shalako
+mana) is here introduced (pl. 89) to illustrate the relation of old
+Awatobi and existing Hopi symbolism; a modern figure (108) of this Corn
+maid, painted on a wooden slab, is sometimes carried by the Walpi women
+in their dance. Figures of the Awatobi germ god, Alosaka, otherwise
+called Muyinwû,[62] are depicted on the slabs used by most of the women
+at that time.
+
+The different designs on the slab under consideration (pl. 89) are
+indicated by letters and explained as follows: _a_ represents a circular
+fragment of the haliotis or abalone shell hanging midway from a figure
+of an ear of corn, _c_. The cheeks are tattooed or painted with
+characteristic figures, _cb_, the eyes rectangular of different colors.
+The letter _d_ is a representation of a wooden ear pendant, a square,
+flat body covered on one side with a mosaic of turquoise sometimes
+arranged in figures. The letter _e_ is the end of a string by which the
+ceremonial blanket is tied over the left shoulder, the right arm being
+free, as shown in the illustration. Over the right shoulder, however, is
+thrown a ceremonial embroidered kilt, _fb_.
+
+The objects in the hands represent feathers and recall one type of
+the conventional feathers figured in the preceding pages. The letters
+_fr_ represent falling rain embroidered on the rim of the ceremonial
+blanket and _rc_ the terraced rain clouds which in _arc_ become rounded
+above; _g_ represents a turquoise at the end of a string of turquoise
+suspended from shell necklaces _sn_; _m_ represents the butterfly and is
+practically identical with the decorations on dados of old Hopi houses;
+_s_ represents a star; _sb_ represents shell bracelets, many examples of
+which occur in ruins along the Little Colorado; _ss_ is supposed to have
+replaced the key patterns which some authorities identify as sprouting
+beans. There are commonly nine rectangular markings, _nc_, on the upper
+border of the embroidered region of ceremonial blankets and kilts, each
+of which represents either a month or a day, by some said to refer to
+ceremonial or germ periods.[63]
+
+The Shalako mana figures have not yet been found in the unmodified Little
+Colorado ware, but homologous figures have been found in the Rio Grande
+area.
+
+The design (pl. 88, _d_) with a horn on the left side of the head and a
+rectangle on the right, the face being occupied by a terrace figure from
+which hang parallel lines, reminds one of the “coronets” worn on the head
+by the _Lakone_ maids (manas) in the Walpi Basket dance of the Lalakoñti.
+The horn in the coronet is without terminal appendages, although a
+feather is tied to it, and the rectangle of plate 88, _d_, is replaced
+by radiating slats spotted and pointed at their ends, said to represent
+the sunflower. The whole design in plate 88, _d_, represents a bird,[64]
+recalling that of the figure Marautiyo on one of the appended slabs of
+the altar of the Walpi Marau ceremony. In this altar figure we find not
+only a horn on the left side of the head, but also a rectangular design
+on the right.
+
+On the corresponding right-hand side of this altar we have a picture
+of Marau mana (Shalako mana). It will thus appear that when compared
+with the Lakone coronet the figure on the Shongopovi bowl represents
+a female being, whereas when compared with the figure on the Marau
+altar it resembles a male being. There is, therefore, something wrong
+in my comparison. But the fact remains that there survive in the two
+woman’s festivals—Lakone maid’s coronet and Marau altar—resemblances to
+prehistoric Hopi designs from Shongopovi. Moreover, it is known that the
+Marau fetishes are stated by the chief Saliko to have been introduced
+from Awatobi into Walpi by her ancestor who was saved at the massacre of
+that town in 1700.
+
+The life figures of the Tanoan epoch, or that following the overthrow
+of Sikyatki, can be made out by a study of modern Hano pottery. Perhaps
+the most complex of these is that of the Corn maid, Shalako mana.
+Shalako mana plays a great rôle in the Mamzrauti, a ceremony derived
+from Awatobi, and figures representing her are common designs made on
+Hano pottery. Designs representing this being are common on the peculiar
+basket plaques made at the Middle Mesa and dolls of her are abundant.
+The constant presence of her pictures on basket plaques at the Middle
+Mesa would also seem to show an ancient presence in the Hopi country, and
+indicate an identity of pottery designs from ancient Shumopavi with those
+from the East Mesa and Awatobi.[65]
+
+One of her modern Walpi ceremonies has such pronounced Awatobi symbolism
+that it may be instanced as showing derivation; viz., the New-fire
+festival.[66] The women of the Marau and the men of the Tataukyamû regard
+themselves kindred, and taunt each other, as only friends may without
+offence, in this festival, and the Tataukyamû often introduce a burlesque
+Shalako mana into their performances.
+
+The designs painted on the bodies and heads of several modern dolls
+representing Corn maids are symbols whose history is very ancient in the
+tribe. For instance, those of feathers date back to prehistoric times,
+and terraced designs representing rain clouds are equally ancient. The
+dolls of the Corn maid (Shalako mana) present a variety of forms of
+feathers and the headdresses of many dolls represent kachinas, and show
+feathers sometimes represented by sticks on which characteristic markings
+are painted, but more often they represent symbols.[67]
+
+
+SYMBOLS OF HANO CLANS
+
+Hano, as is well known, is a Tewan pueblo, situated on the East Mesa,
+which was the last great body of Tewa colonists to migrate to Hopiland.
+While other Tewa colonists lost their language and became Hopi, the
+inhabitants of Hano still speak Tewa and still preserve some of their old
+ceremonies, and consequently many of their own symbols. Here were found
+purest examples of the Tanoan epoch.
+
+The potters of clans introduced symbols on their ware radically
+different from those of Sikyatki, the type of the epoch of the finest
+Hopi ceramics, and replaced it by Tewan designs which characterize Hopi
+pottery from 1710 to 1895, when a return was suddenly made to the ancient
+type through the influence of Nampeo. At that date she began to cleverly
+imitate Sikyatki ware and abandoned _de toto_ symbols introduced by Hano
+and other Tewa clans.
+
+Fortunately there exist good collections of the Tewa epoch of Hopi
+ceramics, but the ever-increasing demand by tourists for ancient ware
+induced Nampeo to abandon the Tewa clan symbols she formerly employed and
+to substitute those of ancient Sikyatki.[68]
+
+The majority of the specimens of Hano pottery, like those of the
+Tanoan epoch to which it belongs, are decorated with pictures of clan
+ancients called kachinas. These have very little resemblance to designs
+characteristic of the Sikyatki epoch. They practically belong to the same
+type as those introduced by Kachina, Asa, and Badger peoples. One of the
+most common of these is the design above discussed representing Shalako
+mana, the Corn maid, shown in figure 109. In this figure we have the
+face represented by a circle in the center and many lenticular figures
+arranged in rows attached to the neck and shoulders corresponding to the
+appendages explained in figure 108. It is said in the legends that when
+the Corn maid appeared to men she was enveloped in fleecy clouds and wore
+a feathered garment. These are indicated by the curved figures covered
+with dots and the parallel lines on the body. Feather symbols recalling
+those of the Sikyatki epoch hang from appendages to the head representing
+rain clouds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.—Head of Kokle, or Earth woman.]
+
+In figure 109 we have a representation of the head with surrounding
+clouds, and portions of the body of a kachina, called Kokle, who is
+personated in Winter ceremonies. It is instructive to note that this
+figure has symbols on the head that recall the Sikyatki epoch. The
+ancient Tewan earth goddess, Hahaiwugti, is represented in figure 110.
+She appears also in figure 111, where her picture is painted on a ladle,
+the handle of which represents an ancient Tewan clown called by the Hano
+people Paiakyamû.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.—Head of Hahaiwugti, or Earth woman.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.—Ladle with clown carved on handle and Earth
+woman on bowl.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.—Püükon hoya, little War god.]
+
+The War god, Püükon hoya, also a Tewan incorporation in the Hopi
+pantheon, appears frequently on pottery of the Tanoan epoch, as shown in
+figure 112. This figure, painted on a terra-cotta slab, is identified by
+the two parallel marks on each cheek.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to trace the
+chronological sequence of pottery symbols in Hopiland by pointing out
+distinct epochs in cultural history and correlating the sociology of the
+tribe. This takes for granted that the pottery symbols characteristic of
+this people are directly connected with certain clans. There have from
+time to time been sudden changes in symbols, or previous designs have
+suddenly disappeared and others have taken their places, as well as a
+slow development of existing symbols into more complicated forms. There
+persist everywhere survivals of old prepuebloan symbols inherited from
+the past and a creation of new products of Hopi environment not found
+elsewhere.
+
+The author will close this paper with a brief theoretical account of the
+unwritten culture history of Hopi, part of which explains certain pottery
+symbols. If we take that segment of southwestern history extending
+from the earliest to the present, we find evidences of the existence
+of a prepuebloan culture existing before terraced houses were built or
+circular kivas had been used for ceremonial purposes. This epoch was
+antecedent to the construction of the great walled compounds of the
+Gila, illustrated by Casa Grande. At that epoch known as the prepuebloan
+there extended from Utah to the Mexican boundary and from the Colorado
+to the Rio Grande a culture architecturally characterized by small
+fragile-walled houses not united or terraced. These houses were sometimes
+like pit dwellings, either partially or wholly subterranean. When above
+ground their walls were supported by upright logs in which canes or
+brushes were woven and covered with mud, the roofs being made of cedar
+bark or straw overlaid with adobe.
+
+The pottery of this early prehistoric epoch was smooth, painted mainly
+with geometric patterns, corrugated, or indented. Rectilinear or
+curved lines constituted the majority of the superficial decorations
+and life designs were few or altogether wanting. In addition to these
+architectural and ceramic characteristics, this prepuebloan cultural
+stage was distinguished by many other features, to mention which would
+take us too far afield and would be out of place in this article.
+Evidences of this stage or epoch occur everywhere in the Southwest
+and survival of the archaic characters enumerated are evident in all
+subsequent epochs.
+
+The so-called “unit type” or pure pueblo culture grew out of this early
+condition, and was at first localized in northern New Mexico and southern
+Colorado, where it was autochthonous. Its essential feature is the
+terraced communal house and the simplest form of the pueblo, the “unit
+type,” first pointed out by Dr. T. Mitchell Prudden—a combination of
+dwelling houses, with a man’s house or kiva and a cemetery. The dwellings
+are made of stone or clay and are terraced, the kiva is subterranean
+and circular, embedded in or surrounded by other rooms. The “unit type”
+originated in Colorado and, spreading in all directions, replaced the
+preexisting houses with fragile walls. Colonists from its center extended
+down the San Juan to the Hopi country and made their way easterly
+across the Rio Grande and southerly to the headwaters of the Gila and
+Little Colorado, where they met other clans of specialized prepuebloan
+culture who had locally developed an architecture of Great House style
+characteristic of the Gila and Salt River Valleys.
+
+The essential differences between the terraced pueblo and the previously
+existing fragile-walled house culture are two: The terraced architecture
+results from one house being constructed above another, the kiva or
+subterranean ceremonial room being separated or slightly removed from the
+secular houses.
+
+An explanation of the origin of the terraced pueblo is evident. This form
+of house implies a limited site or a congestion of houses on a limited
+area. An open plain presents no limitation in lateral construction;
+there is plenty of room to expand in all directions to accommodate the
+enlargement which results as a settlement increases in population. In
+a cave conditions are otherwise; expansion is limited. When the floor
+of the cavern is once covered with rooms the only additions which can
+possibly be made must be vertically. In protection lies the cause of the
+development of a terraced architecture such as the pueblos show, for the
+early people constructed their fragile-walled habitations in a cavern,
+and as an enlargement of their numbers occurred they were obliged to
+construct the terraced pueblos called cliff-dwellings, with rooms closely
+approximated and constructed in terraces. In the course of time these
+cliff-dwellers moved out of their caverns into the river valleys or to
+the mesa summits, carrying with them the terraced architecture, which,
+born in caverns, survived in their new environment. This explanation
+is of course hypothetical, but not wholly without a basis in fact, for
+we find survivals of the prepuebloan architecture scattered throughout
+the Southwest, especially on the periphery of the terraced house area,
+as well as in the area itself. The ancient terraced house architecture
+is confined to a limited area, but around its ancient border are people
+whose dwellings are characterized by fragile-walled architecture. These
+are the survivals of the prepuebloan culture.
+
+The environmental conditions along the San Juan and its tributaries
+in Colorado and New Mexico render it a particularly favorable culture
+center from which the pure pueblo type may have originated, and although
+observations have not yet gone far enough to prove that here was the
+place of origin of the unit type, and therefore of pueblo culture, there
+are strong indications that a fable of the Pueblos, that they came from
+the caves in the north, is not without legendary foundation so far as
+their origin is concerned.
+
+The term “cliff-dwelling,” once supposed to indicate a distinct stage
+of development, refers only to the site and is a feature inadequate for
+classification or chronology. All cliff-dwellings do not belong to the
+same structural type. There is little similarity save in site between
+Spruce-tree House on the Mesa Verde, and Montezuma Castle in the Verde
+Valley; the former belongs to the “pure pueblo type,” the latter to
+another class of buildings related to “compounds” of the tributaries of
+the Gila and Salt River valleys.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] A report on the field work at Sikyatki will be found in the
+_Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn._, part 2.
+
+[2] Traces of the ancient village of Walpi at this point are still to be
+seen, and certain ancestral ceremonies are still performed here, in the
+New-fire rites, as elsewhere described.
+
+[3] Pottery making is a woman’s industry, and as among the Pueblo the
+woman determines the clan, so she determines the symbolism of the
+pottery. Consequently symbolism of pottery is related to that of the clan.
+
+[4] Many of the illustrations appearing in this paper are taken from the
+author’s memoir on the results of the Sikyatki excavations in the _17th
+Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol._, part 2.
+
+[5] Hopi maidens dress their hair in two whorls, one above each ear,
+which on marriage are taken down and braided in two coils. There are
+differences in the style of putting up the hair, as appear in different
+ceremonial personages, but the custom of wearing it in whorls was
+probably general among ancient Pueblo maidens and is still followed in
+certain ceremonial dances in which women are personated by men. For
+the difference in the style of the whorls, see the author’s series of
+pictures of Hopi kachinas in the _Twenty-first Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer.
+Ethn._
+
+[6] The best idol of this god known to the author appears on one of the
+Flute altars at Oraibi. It has a single horn (representing the serpent
+horn) on the head, two wings, and two legs with lightning symbols their
+whole length. The horned plumed Lightning god of the Kwakwantû at Walpi
+is represented by plumed serpent effigies in the March ceremony or
+dramatization elsewhere described.
+
+[7] In the Antelope dance at Walpi, a stalk of corn instead of a snake is
+carried in the mouth on the day before the Snake dance. (Fewkes, Snake
+Ceremonials at Walpi, pp. 73-74.)
+
+[8] For descriptions of similar objects see Fewkes, Hopi Ceremonial
+Frames from Cañon de Chelly, Arizona, pp. 664-670; Fewkes, The Lesser
+New-fire Ceremony at Walpi, p. 438, pl. XI; also _Twenty-first Ann. Rept.
+Bur. Amer. Ethn._, pls. XXXIV, XXXV.
+
+[9] As a matter of history, the Snake people of Walpi may have been
+hostile to the Kokop of Sikyatki on account of linguistic or tribal
+differences which culminated in the destruction of the latter pueblo in
+prehistoric times.
+
+[10] The pueblo of Sichomovi, called by the Hopi Sioki, or Zuñi pueblo,
+was settled by Asa clans, who were apparently of exotic origin but who
+went to Sichomovi from Zuñi, in which pueblo the Asa people are known
+as Aiyahokwe. The Sichomovi people still preserve Zuñi ceremonies and
+Zuñi kachinas, although they now speak the Hopi language—an example of a
+pueblo in which alien ceremonies and personations have survived or been
+incorporated, although its language has been superseded by another.
+
+[11] Thus the Heyamashikwe may be supposed to have originally come from
+Jemez. The Zuñi Sumaikoli, like that of the Hopi, is practically Tewa in
+origin.
+
+[12] See Fewkes, The Butterfly in Hopi Myth and Ritual, pp. 576-594.
+
+[13] The clay images representing the Tewa plumed serpent on the Winter
+Solstice altar at Hano have rows of feathers inserted along their backs
+(as in the case of the reptile shown in figure 22) as well as rudimentary
+horns, teeth made of corn kernels, and necklaces of the same. (Fewkes,
+Winter solstice altars at Hano pueblo, pp. 269-270.) A mosaic of corn
+kernels on a clay base (_kaetukwi_) is known in ceremonies derived from
+Sikyatki and Awatobi.
+
+[14] The hoot of the owl portends disaster among the Hopi, as among the
+ancient Greeks.
+
+[15] Every priest has a box in which his feathers are preserved until
+needed.
+
+[16] Compare with feathers, pl. 90, _d_.
+
+[17] Probably the serrated circle to which the headdress is attached was
+not designed as the outline of the head, but the headband turned out of
+perspective.
+
+[18] See _Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn._, pt. 2, pl. CXLI, _a_.
+A circle is here drawn on each side of the bird.
+
+[19] It is, of course, only a coincidence that so many of the Sikyatki
+bird designs have three tail feathers like Egyptian representations.
+
+[20] Feathers are among the most important objects employed in Pueblo
+ceremonies, and among the modern Hopi feathers of different birds are
+regarded as efficacious for different specific purposes. Thus the turkey
+feather symbol is efficacious to bring rain, and the hawk and eagle
+feathers are potent in war. The specific feather used ceremonially by
+modern Hopi priests is regarded by them as of great importance, and the
+same doubtless was true of the priests of ancient Sikyatki and Awatobi.
+Belief in a difference in the magic power of certain feathers was deeply
+rooted in the primitive mind, and was regarded as of great importance by
+the ancient as well as the modern Hopi.
+
+[21] Compare the sand-mosaic of the sun associated with the Powalawû
+altar of Oraibi, and the sun emblem shown in fig. 98.
+
+[22] Mallery (_Fourth Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn._, p. 47, fig. 12) illustrates
+two clusters of characteristic Hopi feathers copied by Mr. G. K. Gilbert
+from petroglyphs at Oakley Springs, Arizona. The first cluster belongs
+to the type shown in our fig. 57 as eagle tails, the second to that
+illustrated in fig. 31. They were identified by the Oraibi chief, Tuba,
+and so far as known have not been subsequently figured.
+
+[23] Compare feathers, pl. 90, _wf_.
+
+[24] The only design in modern Hopi symbolism comparable with the
+sky-band occurs on a wooden slab on the altar of the Owakülti, a
+society priestess whose ancestors are said to have formerly lived at
+the historic pueblo of Awatobi. This slab is attached to the uprights
+of an altar, by means of flat slabs of wood, some arranged vertically,
+others horizontally. On it is depicted, among other symbolic figures, a
+representation of a bird.
+
+[25] The author has seen in the American Museum of Natural History, New
+York, a single specimen of doubtful provenance, bearing a similar design.
+
+[26] For convenience this may be designated the anterior in distinction
+to that on the other side of the sky-band which may be termed the
+posterior semicircle.
+
+[27] See also _Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn._, pl. CL, _a_, and
+CXLVI, _d_.
+
+[28] The Kokyan, or Spider, clan is not made much of in Hopi legends
+gathered at Walpi, but Kokyanwügti, the Spider woman, is an important
+supernatural in the earliest mythologies, especially those of the Snake
+people. She was the mentor of the Snake youth in his journey to the
+underworld and an offering at her shrine is made in the Oraibi Snake
+dance. The picture of the spider with that of the sun suggests that the
+Spider woman is a form of the earth goddess. No personation of Spider
+woman has been seen by the author in the various ceremonies he has
+witnessed.
+
+[29] Except that the head bears a jointed antenna this figure might be
+identified as a bird, the long extension representing the bird’s bill.
+
+[30] The figures of serpents on the sand mosaic of the Antelope altar at
+Walpi bear similar crosses or diagonals, crossing each other at right
+angles. The Antelope priests interpret this marking as a sign of the
+female.
+
+[31] Rain, lightning, animals, plants, sky, and earth, in the modern Hopi
+conception, are supposed to have sex.
+
+[32] The Butterfly in Hopi Myth and Ritual, fig. 61, _f_.
+
+[33] Ibid., p. 586.
+
+[34] Introduced into the Hopi pueblos by colonists from the Rio Grande;
+its most conspicuous variant can be seen on the tablets worn in a masked
+dance called Humis (Jemez) Kachina.
+
+[35] One symbol of the Sky god has the form of a Lightning god. It has
+a single curved horn on the head, lightning symbols on the legs, and
+carries a wooden framework in one hand and a bull-roarer in the other.
+
+[36] _Twenty-second Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn._, pt. 1, fig. 74.
+
+[37] In modern Hopi symbolism the sun is a disk with representations of
+eagle feathers around the periphery and radial lines at each quadrant,
+symbolic of the sun’s rays. In disks worn on the back where real feathers
+are used the radial lines, or the sun’s rays, are represented by
+horsehair stained red. In ceremonials the Sky god is personated by a bird
+whose figure occurs on Sikyatki pottery.
+
+[38] In the Hopi ceremony, Powatawu, as performed at Oraibi, a picture
+representing the sun composed of a number of concentric circles of four
+different colors is made of sand on the kiva floor.
+
+[39] If we interpret the sky-band as the path of the sun in the zenith
+the solar emblem hanging to it is significant.
+
+[40] Some of the significant sun masks used by the Hopi have the mouth
+indicated by a triangle, others by hourglass designs.
+
+[41] Pictures made by prehistoric man embody, first, when possible,
+the power of the animal or thing represented, or its essential
+characteristics; and second, the realistic form, shape, or outline.
+
+[42] Several Hopi clans celebrate in a slightly different way the return
+of their Sun god, which is known by different names among them. The
+return of the Sun god of the Kachina clan at Walpi, commonly called Ahül,
+is elsewhere described. Shalako, the Sun god of the Patki clans, was
+derived from the Little Colorado region, the same source from which the
+Zuñi obtained their personage of the same name. His return is celebrated
+on the East Mesa of the Hopi at Sichomovi, the “Zuñi pueblo among the
+Hopi.” Pautiwa is a Sun god of Zuñi clans at Sichomovi and is personated
+as at Zuñi pueblo. Kwataka, or the Sun god whose return is celebrated
+at Walpi in the winter solstice, Soyaluna, is associated with the great
+plumed serpent, a personation derived from the peoples of the Gila or
+some other river who practice irrigation. Eototo is a Sikyatki Sun god,
+derived from near Jemez, and is celebrated by Keres colonists.
+
+[43] Fewkes, Hopi Shrines Near the East Mesa, Arizona, pp. 346-375.
+
+[44] The sand picture made by the Antelope priest is regarded as a house
+of the rain gods depicted upon it.
+
+[45] _Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn._, pt. 2.
+
+[46] The author has a drawing of the Snake altar at Mishongnovi by
+an Indian, in which these crooks are not represented vertically but
+horizontally, a position illustrating a common method of drawing among
+primitive people who often represent vertical objects on a horizontal
+plane. An illustration of this is seen in pictures of a medicine bowl
+where the terraces on the rim normally vertical are drawn horizontally.
+
+[47] In using this term the author refers to an extreme area in one
+corner of which still survive pueblos, the inhabitants of which speak
+Keres.
+
+[48] There is no published evidence in Zuñi legends that Sikyatki
+received increments from that pueblo.
+
+[49] Since the author’s work at Sikyatki, excavations have been made
+by the Field Columbian Museum at this ruin, but nothing bearing on the
+relations of symbols has been published so far as known to the writer.
+
+[50] The Tanoan people (clans) also introduced a horned snake, but
+different in symbolism from that of the Patki clans.
+
+[51] The oldest pottery in the Zuñi Valley belongs to the same group as
+that of the oldest Little Colorado ruins and shows marked Gila Valley
+symbolism. The modern pottery of Zuñi is strongly influenced by Tanoan
+characters. As these have been transmitted to Hopi they are considered
+under the term “Tanoan epoch,” derived from Little Colorado settlements
+to which Zuñi culturally belongs.
+
+[52] Pakatcomo in the plain below Walpi was their first Hopi settlement.
+
+[53] As has been pointed out, the designs on ancient Zuñi ware are
+closely related to those of ruins farther down the Little Colorado, and
+are not Hopi. Modern Zuñi as well as modern Hopi pueblos were influenced
+by Keres and Tewa culture superimposed on the preexisting culture, which
+largely came from the Gila.
+
+[54] No invariable connection was found in the relative position of
+this break and figures of birds or other animals inclosed by the broken
+band. The gaps in different encircling bands on the same bowl are either
+diametrically opposite each other or separated by a quadrant, a variation
+that would appear to indicate that they were not made use of in a
+determination of the orientation of the vessel while in ceremonial use,
+as is true of certain baskets of modern Navaho.
+
+[55] The author has the following evidence that the inhabitants of the
+village at Chevlon were the historic Chipias. The Hopi have a legend
+that the large ruin called Tcipiaiya by the Zuñi was also situated on a
+river midway between Walpi and Zuñi. The Hopi also say that the Chevlon
+pueblo was inhabited by the Piba (Tobacco) clan and that the Awatobi
+chief, Tapolo, who brought the Tataukyamû fraternity to Walpi from
+Awatobi, belonged to the Tobacco clan. The Tewa name of the Tataukyamû is
+Tcipiaiyu, or “men from Tcipia.”
+
+[56] It is known from an inscription on El Morro that a punitive
+expedition to avenge the death of Father Letrado was sent out under Lujan
+in the spring of 1632, hence the guilty inhabitants may have abandoned
+their settlement and departed for Hopi at about that time.
+
+[57] The Buli (Poli) clan is probably Tewa, as the word indicates, which
+would show that Tewa as well as Keres clans lived at Awatobi. No legend
+mentions Buli clans at Sikyatki, but several traditions locate them at
+Awatobi.
+
+[58] A unification of names of these gods would have resulted when the
+languages of the many different clans had been fused in religions, as the
+language was in secular usage. The survival of component names of Hopi
+gods is paralleled in the many ancient religions.
+
+[59] _Twenty-first Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn._
+
+[60] Ibid., p. 76. Eototo, also called Masauû, was the tutelary of
+Sikyatki, as Alosaka or Muyinwû was of Awatobi.
+
+[61] A somewhat similar personage to Shalako mana in Aztec ceremonies was
+called Xalaquia (Shalakia).
+
+[62] An account of this dance with details of the nine days’ ceremony as
+presented in the major or October variant will be found in the _American
+Anthropologist_, July, 1892. The minor or Winter ceremony, in which the
+Corn maids are personated by girls, is published in the same journal for
+1900. The Corn maid has several aliases in this ceremony, among which are
+Shalako mana, Palahiko mana, and Marau mana.
+
+[63] This Corn maid is one of the most common figures represented by
+dolls.
+
+[64] The two parallel lines on the two outside tail feathers recall the
+markings on the face of the War god Puükoñghoya.
+
+[65] A personation of Shalako mana at Oraibi, according to Mr. H. R.
+Voth, came from Mishongnovi. This conforms exactly with the legends
+that state the Mamzrauti may have been introduced into Mishongnovi from
+Awatobi, for at the division of the captive women at Maski many of the
+women went to that pueblo.
+
+[66] See Fewkes, The New-fire Ceremony at Walpi, pp. 80-138. The New-fire
+rites at Walpi are celebrated in November, when four societies, Aaltû,
+Wüwütcimtû, Tataukyamû, and Kwakwantû, take part. As in all new-fire
+ceremonies, phallic or generative rites are prominent, the Wüwütcimtû and
+Tataukyamû who kindle the fire being conspicuous in these rites. Their
+bodies have phallic emblems painted on them and the latter bear Zuñi
+symbols.
+
+[67] The designs on the wooden slats carried by women in the dance known
+as the Marau ceremony are remarkably like some of those on Awatobi and
+Sikyatki pottery.
+
+[68] Much of the pottery offered for sale by Harvey and other dealers
+in Indian objects along the Santa Fe Railroad in Arizona and New Mexico
+is imitation prehistoric Hopi ware made by Nampeo. The origin of this
+transformation was due partly to the author, who in the year named was
+excavating the Sikyatki ruins and graves. Nampeo and her husband, Lesou,
+came to his camp, borrowed paper and pencil, and copied many of the
+ancient symbols found on the pottery vessels unearthed, and these she has
+reproduced on pottery of her own manufacture many times since that date.
+It is therefore necessary, at the very threshold of our study, to urge
+discrimination between modern and ancient pottery in the study of Hopi
+ware, and careful elimination of imitations. The modern pottery referred
+to is easily distinguished from the prehistoric, inasmuch as the modern
+is not made with as much care or attention to detail as the ancient.
+Also the surface of the modern pottery is coated with a thin slip which
+crackles in firing.
+
+
+
+
+AUTHORITIES CITED
+
+
+  FEWKES, JESSE WALTER. Snake ceremonials at Walpi. _Journal of American
+    Ethnology and Archæology_, vol. IV, pp. 1-126. Boston and New York,
+    1894.
+
+  ——. Archeological expedition to Arizona in 1895. _Seventeenth Annual
+    Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, pt. 2, pp. 519-742.
+    Washington, 1898.
+
+  ——. Winter solstice altars at Hano pueblo. _American Anthropologist_,
+    n. s. vol. I, no. 2, pp. 251-276. New York, 1899.
+
+  ——. The New-fire ceremony at Walpi. _American Anthropologist_, n. s.
+    vol. II, no. 1, pp. 80-138. New York, 1900.
+
+  ——. The lesser New-fire ceremony at Walpi. _American Anthropologist_,
+    n. s. vol. III, no. 3, pp. 438-453. New York, 1901.
+
+  ——. Hopi katcinas. _Twenty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of
+    American Ethnology_, pp. 13-126. Washington, 1903.
+
+  ——. Two summers’ work in Pueblo ruins. _Twenty-second Annual Report of
+    the Bureau of American Ethnology_, pt. 1, pp. 17-195. Washington,
+    1904.
+
+  ——. Hopi ceremonial frames from Cañon de Chelly, Arizona. _American
+    Anthropologist_, n. s. vol. VIII, no. 4, pp. 664-670. Lancaster,
+    1906.
+
+  ——. Hopi shrines near the East Mesa, Arizona. _American Anthropologist_,
+    n. s. vol. VIII, no. 2, pp. 346-375. Lancaster, 1908.
+
+  ——. The butterfly in Hopi myth and ritual. _American Anthropologist_,
+    n. s. vol. XII, no. 4, pp. 576-594. Lancaster, 1910.
+
+  MALLERY, GARRICK. On the pictographs of the North American Indians.
+    _Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, pp. 13-256.
+    Washington, 1886.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79063 ***
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+
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79063 ***</div>
+
+<main>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">DESIGNS ON PREHISTORIC<br>
+HOPI POTTERY</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br>
+JESSE WALTER FEWKES</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">REPRINTED FROM THE THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT<br>
+OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter titlepage illowp56" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/tp-deco.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<p class="titlepage">WASHINGTON<br>
+GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br>
+1919</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<nav>
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdpg">Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Introduction</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Chronology of Hopi pottery symbols</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The ruin, Sikyatki</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#THE_RUIN_SIKYATKI">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Sikyatki epoch</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Human figures</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Quadruped figures</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Reptilian figures</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Winged figures</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h4">Dorsal views of birds</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h4">Lateral views of birds</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h4">Feather designs</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h5">Feathers suspended from strings</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Sky-band</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h4">Vertical attachment to sky-band</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h4">Birds attached longitudinally to sky-band</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h5">Decorations on exteriors of food bowls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h5">Curved figure with attached feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Spider and insects</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Butterfly and moth</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Geometrical designs</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Rain clouds</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Stars</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Sun emblems</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Rectangular figures representing shrines</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Symbols introduced from San Juan River settlements</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Symbols introduced by the Snake people</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Tanoan epoch</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#TANOAN_EPOCH">266</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Symbols introduced from the Little Colorado</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Symbols introduced by the Badger and Kachina clans</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Symbols introduced from Awatobi</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Shalako mana</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="h3">Symbols of Hano clans</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Conclusion</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CONCLUSION">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Authorities cited</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#AUTHORITIES_CITED">284</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</nav>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<nav>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdpg">Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">PLATES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">76.</td>
+    <td>Various forms of conventionalized feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate76">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">77.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized tail feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate77">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">78.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized feathers attached to strings (nakwakwoci)</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate78">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">79.</td>
+    <td>Sky-bands</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate79">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">80.</td>
+    <td>Geometrical figures on outside of bowls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate80">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">81.</td>
+    <td>Geometrical figures on outside of bowls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate81">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">82.</td>
+    <td>Geometrical figures on outside of bowls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate82">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">83.</td>
+    <td>Geometrical figures on outside of bowls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate83">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">84.</td>
+    <td>Geometrical figures on outside of bowls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate84">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">85.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird designs</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate85">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">86.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird designs</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate86">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">87.</td>
+    <td>Bird, sun, and spider and sun symbols</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate87">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">88.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird figures</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate88">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">89.</td>
+    <td>Shalakomana, Corn Maid (from tablet dance)</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate89">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">90.</td>
+    <td>Top of butterfly vase</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#plate90">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">TEXT FIGURES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">12.</td>
+    <td>Human head with hair-in characteristic whorls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure012">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">13.</td>
+    <td>Woman with serpent-like animal</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure013">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">14.</td>
+    <td>Kneeling woman, showing hair in characteristic whorls</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure014">222</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">15.</td>
+    <td>Three human figures</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure015">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">16.</td>
+    <td><i>a</i>, Deer; <i>b</i>, rabbit</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure016">224</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">17.</td>
+    <td>Quadruped</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure017">224</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">18.</td>
+    <td>Antelope or mountain sheep</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure018">224</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">19.</td>
+    <td>Mountain lion</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure019">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">20.</td>
+    <td>Problematical reptile</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure020">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">21.</td>
+    <td>Reptile</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure021">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">22.</td>
+    <td>Reptile</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure022">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">23.</td>
+    <td>Reptile</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure023">226</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">24.</td>
+    <td>Reptile</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure024">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">25.</td>
+    <td>Turtle</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure025">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">26.</td>
+    <td>Clouds and tadpoles</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure026">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">27.</td>
+    <td>Tadpoles</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure027">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">28.</td>
+    <td>Dorsal view of a bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure028">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">29.</td>
+    <td>Bird figure, two halves restored to natural position</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure029">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">30.</td>
+    <td>Dorsal view of bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure030">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">31.</td>
+    <td>Bird figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure031">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">32.</td>
+    <td>Bird figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure032">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">33.</td>
+    <td>Bird figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure033">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">34.</td>
+    <td>Bird figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure034">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">35.</td>
+    <td>Bird figure (Thunderbird)</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure035">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">36.</td>
+    <td>Bird figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure036">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">37.</td>
+    <td>Highly conventionalized figure of bird from dorsal side</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure037">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">38.</td>
+    <td>Conventional figure of a bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure038">233</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">39.</td>
+    <td>Conventional figure of a bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure039">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">40.</td>
+    <td>Conventional figure of a bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure040">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">41.</td>
+    <td>Conventional figure of a bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure041">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">42.</td>
+    <td>Conventional figure of a bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure042">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">43.</td>
+    <td>Triangular form of bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure043">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">44.</td>
+    <td>Triangular form of bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure044">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">45.</td>
+    <td>Simple form of bird with terraced body</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure045">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">46.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of triangular bird with two tail feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure046">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">47.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird with three tail feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure047">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">48.</td>
+    <td>Problematical bird figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure048">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">49.</td>
+    <td>Bird with two tail feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure049">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">50.</td>
+    <td>Highly conventionalized bird figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure050">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">51.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure051">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">52.</td>
+    <td>Profile of bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure052">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">53.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird with outspread wing</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure053">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">54.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird with twisted tail and wing feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure054">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">55.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of conventionalized bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure055">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">56.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of conventionalized bird</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure056">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">57.</td>
+    <td>Feather symbol with black notch</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure057">237</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">58.</td>
+    <td>Feather symbol with black notch</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure058">237</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">59.</td>
+    <td>Feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure059">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">60.</td>
+    <td>Curved feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure060">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">61.</td>
+    <td>Conventional feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure061">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">62.</td>
+    <td>Parallel lines representing feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure062">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">63.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure063">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">64.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure064">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">65.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure065">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">66.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure066">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">67.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure067">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">68.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure068">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">69.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure069">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">70.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure070">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">71.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure071">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">72.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure072">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">73.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized bird form hanging from sky-band, top view</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure073">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">74.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure074">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">75.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure075">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">76.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird with extended wing</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure076">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">77.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure077">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">78.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure078">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">79.</td>
+    <td>Butterfly and flower</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure079">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">80.</td>
+    <td>Butterfly with extended proboscis</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure080">253</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">81.</td>
+    <td>Highly conventionalized butterfly</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure081">253</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">82.</td>
+    <td>Moth</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure082">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">83.</td>
+    <td>Moth</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure083">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">84.</td>
+    <td>Moth of geometrical form</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure084">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">85.</td>
+    <td>Geometrical form of moth</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure085">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">86.</td>
+    <td>Highly conventionalized butterfly</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure086">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">87.</td>
+    <td>Geometrical form of moth</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure087">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">88.</td>
+    <td>Circle with triangles</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure088">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">89.</td>
+    <td>Rain cloud</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure089">257</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">90.</td>
+    <td>Rain cloud</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure090">257</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">91.</td>
+    <td>Ring with appended feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure091">258</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">92.</td>
+    <td>Two circles with figure</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure092">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">93.</td>
+    <td>Sun with feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure093">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">94.</td>
+    <td>Sun symbol</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure094">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">95.</td>
+    <td>Ring with appended feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure095">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">96.</td>
+    <td>Ring figure with legs and appended feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure096">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">97.</td>
+    <td>Sun emblem with appended feathers</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure097">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">98.</td>
+    <td>Sun symbol</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure098">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">99.</td>
+    <td>Sun symbol</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure099">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">100.</td>
+    <td>Horned snake with conventionalized shrine</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure100">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">101.</td>
+    <td>Shrine</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure101">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">102.</td>
+    <td>Shrine</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure102">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">103.</td>
+    <td>Conventionalized winged bird with shrine</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure103">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">104.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird with double eyes</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure104">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">105.</td>
+    <td>Lateral view of bird with double eyes</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure105">270</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">106.</td>
+    <td>Bird with double eyes</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure106">271</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">107.</td>
+    <td>Two birds with rain clouds</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure107">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">108.</td>
+    <td>Head of Shalako mana, or Corn maid</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure108">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">109.</td>
+    <td>Head of Kokle, or Earth woman</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure109">280</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">110.</td>
+    <td>Head of Hahaiwugti, or Earth woman</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure110">280</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">111.</td>
+    <td>Ladle with clown carved on handle and Earth woman on bowl</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure111">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">112.</td>
+    <td>Püükon hoya, little War god</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#figure112">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+</nav>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p>
+
+<h1>DESIGNS ON PREHISTORIC HOPI POTTERY</h1>
+
+<p class="center larger">By <span class="smcap">Jesse Walter Fewkes</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In the following pages the author has endeavored to draw attention
+to some of the most important symbols on Hopi pottery, especially
+those of prehistoric times.</p>
+
+<p>Consideration of this subject has led to a discussion of the character
+of pottery designs at different epochs and the interpretation,
+by study of survivals, of ancient designs in modern times. This
+chronological treatment has necessitated an examination of ceramic
+material from ruins of different ages and an ethnological study of
+ancient symbols still surviving in ceremonials now practiced. It has
+also led to sociological researches on the composition of the tribe, the
+sequence in the arrival of clans at Walpi, and their culture in distant
+homes from which they migrated. It will thus appear that the subject
+is a very complicated one, and that the data upon which conclusions
+are based are sociological as well as archeological. There are
+many ruins from which material might have been obtained, but only
+a few have been adequately investigated. The small number of ruins
+in the Hopi country which have thus far been excavated necessarily
+makes our knowledge not only provisional but also imperfect. It is
+hoped, however, that this article may serve to stimulate others to
+renewed field work and so add desired data to the little we have
+bearing on the subject.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Chronology of Hopi Pottery Symbols</span></h3>
+
+<p>At least three well-marked epochs can be distinguished in the history
+of Hopi ceramic symbolism. Each of these is intimately associated
+with certain clans that have from time to time joined the Hopi
+and whose descendants compose the present population. Although
+these epochs follow each other in direct sequence, each was not
+evolved from its predecessor or modified by it, except to a very
+limited extent. Each epoch has left to the succeeding one a heritage
+of symbols, survivals which are somewhat difficult to differentiate
+from exotic symbols introduced by incoming clans. So that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>while each epoch grades almost imperceptibly into the one directly
+following it, an abrupt change is sometimes evident in the passage.</p>
+
+<p>In order to appreciate the relations between ceramic decoration
+and history let me sketch in brief outline what I regard as the historical
+development of the Hopi living near or on the East Mesa.
+We know little of the group of people who first settled here except
+that they belonged to the Bear clan, which is traditionally referred
+to the eastern pueblo region. At about the time they entered
+Hopiland there was a settlement called Sikyatki composed of Jemez
+colonists, situated about 3 miles from the southern point of East
+Mesa, and other towns or pueblos on Awatobi Mesa and in Antelope
+Valley, 10 miles away.</p>
+
+<p>The first great additions to this original population were Snake
+clans, who came from the San Juan, followed by Flute clans from
+the same direction but originally of southern origin. Having become
+well established at the point of the East Mesa, the combined
+settlement overthrew Sikyatki and appropriated its clans.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the strenuous days of Spanish invasion and the destruction
+of Awatobi in 1700. The Little Colorado clans had already
+begun to seek refuge in the Hopi mountains and their number was
+greatly augmented by those from Zuñi, a Rio Grande settlement
+called Tewadi, and elsewhere, each addition bringing new forms of
+culture and settling new pueblos on or near the East Mesa, as has
+been shown in previous publications. Traditions point out their
+former settlements and it remains for the archeologist to excavate
+those settlements, now in ruins, and verify these traditions. This
+can be done by a study of artifacts found in them.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule archeologists have relied on technique, form, and especially
+color, in the classification of Pueblo pottery, leading, on the
+technical side, to the groups known as (a) rough, coiled ware, and
+(b) smooth, polished ware; and on that of form, to bowls, vases, jars,
+dippers, etc. When color is used as the basis of classification the
+divisions black and white, red, yellow, orange, and polychrome are
+readily differentiated. Classifications based on these data are useful,
+as they indicate cultural as well as geographical differences in
+Pueblo ceramics; but these divisions can be used only with limitations
+in a study of stages of culture growth. The fact that they are
+not emphasized in the present article is not because their importance
+is overlooked, but rather for the purpose of supplementing them with
+a classification that is independent of and in some particulars more
+reliable for indicating chronology and culture distinctions.</p>
+
+<p>The life-forms on ancient Sikyatki and other Hopi pottery are
+painted on what is known as yellow ware, which is regarded by some
+authors as characteristic of the Hopi area; but pottery of the same
+color, yet with radically different symbolic life-forms, occurs also
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>in other areas. It thus appears that while a classification of Pueblo
+pottery by color is convenient, differences of color are not so much
+indications of diversity in culture as of geologic environment. Designs
+on pottery are more comprehensive and more definite in culture
+studies than color, and are so regarded in these pages.</p>
+
+<p>As there exists a general similarity in the form of prehistoric
+pottery throughout the Southwest, shape alone is also inadequate for
+a determination of Pueblo culture centers. The great multiplicity
+and localization of symbols on Pueblo pottery furnishes adequate
+material for classification by means of the designs depicted on vases,
+bowls, and other pottery objects. Sikyatki pottery is especially suited
+to a classification on such a basis, for it is recognized as the most
+beautiful and the most elaborately decorated prehistoric pottery
+found in the Southwest. Life-forms are abundant and their symbolism
+is sufficiently characteristic to be regarded as typical of a well-defined
+ceramic area. There can, of course, be no question regarding
+the ancient character of the designs on Sikyatki pottery, nor were
+they introduced or modified by white men, but are purely aboriginal
+and prehistoric.</p>
+
+<p>Pottery from the Sikyatki ruin is chosen as a type of the most
+highly developed or golden epoch in Hopi ceramics. Several other
+ruins were inhabited when Sikyatki was in its prime and pottery
+from these belongs to the same epoch, and would probably be equally
+good to illustrate its character. Fortunately, specimens are available
+from many of these, as Awatobi, and the ruins in Antelope Valley,
+old Shumopavi, and other Middle Mesa ruins. The date of the
+origin of this epoch, or the highest development of Hopi ceramics, is
+not known, but there is evidence that it lasted until the fall of
+Awatobi, in 1700. The destruction of Sikyatki occurred before 1540,
+but Sikyatki has given the name to the epoch and is taken as the type,
+not only because of the abundance of ceramic material available from
+that ruin, but also because there can be no doubt of the prehistoric
+nature of material from it.</p>
+
+<p>There is abundant evidence that the culture of Sikyatki was never
+influenced by white man. After the overthrow of Awatobi there developed
+on the East Mesa of the Hopi country a third ceramic epoch
+which was largely influenced by the influx of Tanoan (Tewa) clans.
+They came either directly from the Rio Grande or by way of Zuñi
+and other pueblos. Among other arrivals about 1710 were those
+clans which settled Hano, a Tewa pueblo on the East Mesa. The
+Hano and other symbols introduced in this epoch are best known in
+the present generation by the earlier productions of Nampeo, an
+expert modern potter.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of this epoch differs from that of the second in form,
+color, and technique, but mainly in its symbolism, which is radically
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>different from that of the epochs that preceded it. The symbolism
+of this phase is easily determined from large collections now in
+museums. This epoch was succeeded in 1895 by a fourth, in which
+there was a renaissance of old Sikyatki patterns, under the lead of
+Nampeo. In that year Nampeo visited the excavations at Sikyatki
+and made pencil copies of the designs on mortuary bowls.
+From that time all pottery manufactured by her was decorated with
+modified Sikyatki symbols, largely to meet the demand for this
+beautiful ancient ware. The extent of her work, for which there was
+a large demand, may be judged by the great numbers of Hopi bowls
+displayed in every Harvey store from New Mexico to California.
+This modified Sikyatki ware, often sold by unscrupulous traders as
+ancient, is the fourth, or present, epoch of Hopi ceramics. These
+clever imitations, however, are not as fine as the productions of the
+second epoch. There is danger that in a few years some of Nampeo’s
+imitations will be regarded as ancient Hopi ware of the second epoch,
+and more or less confusion introduced by the difficulty in distinguishing
+her work from that obtained in the ruins.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_RUIN_SIKYATKI">THE RUIN, SIKYATKI</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The ruins of the ancient pueblo of Sikyatki, consisting of mounds
+and a few outcropping walls, are situated on rocky elevations rising
+from the sand hills at the eastern or sunny base of the East Mesa,
+about 3 miles from the modern Hopi pueblo of Walpi in northeastern
+Arizona. The founders of Sikyatki are said, in very circumstantial
+migration legends, to have belonged to a [Keres?] clan called
+the Kokop, or Firewood, which previously lived in a pueblo near
+Jemez, New Mexico. Preliminary excavations were made at Sikyatki,
+under the author’s direction, by the Smithsonian Institution in 1895,
+when there was obtained, chiefly from its cemeteries, a valuable collection
+of pottery, most of which is now installed in the National
+Museum.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the history of Sikyatki save through tradition,
+but enough has been discovered to show that it was abandoned before
+1540, the year of the visit to Tusayan of Pedro Tovar, an officer of
+the Coronado expedition. It was probably settled much earlier, perhaps
+about the time the Bear clans, also said to have come from the
+Jemez region, built the first houses of Walpi near the point of the
+terrace at the west or cold side of the East Mesa, below the present
+settlement.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Both of these prehistoric pueblos occupied sites exposed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>to attack by enemies and were not built on mesa tops, hence it may
+be assumed that there were no enemies to fear in Tusayan at the
+time of their establishment. But later, when the Snake clans from
+the north joined the Bear settlement at Walpi, trouble seems to have
+commenced. As above mentioned, the Bear clans came from the
+same region as the Kokop and were presumably friendly, probably
+kin of the Sikyatkians; but the Snake clans came from Tokonabi,
+in the north, and were no doubt of foreign stock, implying a hostility
+that may have been the indirect cause of the overthrow of
+Sikyatki and Awatobi by the other Hopi.</p>
+
+<p>The two epochs in Hopi ceramic development that can be distinguished
+with certainty are (1) the Sikyatki epoch and (2) the
+Tanoan or historic epoch. The third, or renaissance, of the Sikyatki
+dates back to 1895, and may be called the modern epoch. The
+Sikyatki epoch gave way to the Tanoan about the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. It did not develop from any group preexisting
+in the neighborhood of the present Hopi pueblos but was derived
+from the east and it ceased suddenly, being replaced by a totally
+different group introduced by radically different clans.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Sikyatki Epoch</span></h3>
+
+<p>The most characteristic Hopi pottery bearing symbols of the
+Sikyatki epoch occurs in a few ruins near the Hopi mesas, but from
+lack of exploration it is impossible to determine the boundaries of
+the area in which it is found.</p>
+
+<p>Several museums contain collections of Hopi ware of this epoch,
+among which may be mentioned the National Museum at Washington,
+the Field Columbian Museum of Natural History at Chicago,
+the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, the Peabody Museum
+at Cambridge, and the Museum für Volkerkünde at Berlin, Germany.
+Many bowls of this epoch are likewise found in the American
+Museum of Natural History, New York, and in the Museum of the
+Brooklyn Institute. Several private collections in Europe and the
+United States likewise contain specimens of Sikyatki ware, among
+them being that gathered by the late Dr. Miller, now at Phoenix,
+Arizona. The collection of prehistoric Hopi pottery in the National
+Museum is particularly rich, containing many specimens gathered by
+the Stevenson expeditions, by the author, and by Dr. Hough, of the
+U. S. National Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The symbols on the ancient pottery from the Middle Mesa of the
+Hopi are almost identical with those of Sikyatki, indicating a similarity
+of culture, a common geographical origin, and a synchronous
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>culture. From the character of the symbols on the ancient pottery
+from the ancient Middle Mesa pueblos it is probable that the clans
+who founded them came, like the colonists who settled Sikyatki,
+from the Jemez plateau in New Mexico. Although the Field collection
+is very rich in old Walpi ware, nothing of importance has been published
+on the symbols of this collection; it contains some of the most
+instructive examples of the Sikyatki epoch. A large and probably
+the most valuable portion of this collection was gathered by Dr.
+George A. Dorsey and Mr. Charles L. Owen, while many pieces were
+purchased from Mr. Frank Wattron, of Holbrook, and from the
+late Mr. T. V. Keam, of Keams Canyon, Arizona. The source of
+many of the Wattron specimens is unknown, but it is evident from
+their decoration that some of them are ancient Hopi and probably
+belong to the Sikyatki epoch and came from Shongopovi, Awatobi,
+or Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly before his death Mr. T. V. Keam sold to the Museum für
+Volkerkünde at Berlin, Germany, a rich collection of pottery obtained
+mainly from Awatobi and Sikyatki, containing several specimens
+of the Sikyatki epoch which are highly instructive. Some of
+the designs on the pottery of this collection are unique, and their publication
+would be a great aid to a study of the most important epoch
+of Hopi ceramics.</p>
+
+<p>A large proportion of life-forms used in the decoration of Sikyatki
+pottery are mythological subjects, showing the predominance
+of supernatural beings and their magic power in the minds of the
+makers. Like a child, the primitive artist is fond of complexity
+of detail, and figures in which motion is indicated appealed more to
+his fancy than those objects that do not move. It needs but a glance
+at the ancient Sikyatki life-figures to show a tendency to represent
+detail and to convince one of the superiority of the Sikyatki potters
+in this respect over those of modern times. There has been a gradual
+deterioration, not only less care being now devoted to the technique
+of the pottery but also to the drawing of the figures. This lack in
+itself is significant, for while modern ware reflects in its hasty
+crudeness the domination of commercialism, the ancient pottery
+shows no indication of such influence. Pottery is now made to please
+the purchaser; in ancient times another motive influenced the maker,
+for then it was a product worthy of the highest use to which it
+could be put, since it often formed a part of sacred paraphernalia
+in religious ceremonies.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Human Figures</span></h3>
+
+<p>Sikyatki pictures of human beings depict men and women, singly
+or in company, and are few in number and crude in execution. Organs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>of the body—hands, feet, arms, and legs—are often represented
+separately. The hand is portrayed on two vessels, and the foot,
+elaborately drawn, appears on another;
+as a general thing when parts
+of the body are represented they
+are greatly conventionalized. The
+few human figures on Sikyatki pottery
+are crude representations as
+compared with those of animals,
+and especially of birds. Several of
+the figures are represented wearing
+ancient costumes and ornaments,
+and one or two have their hair done
+up in unusual styles; others have
+the body or face tattooed or
+painted; but as a whole these decorations
+are rare and shed little light
+on prehistoric customs. There is nothing that can be identified
+as a time count, calendric, hieroglyphic, or phonetic signs, or any
+record of historical events.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure012" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure012.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Human head with hair in
+    characteristic whorls.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure013" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Woman with serpent-like animal.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>None of the human figures are represented with masks or headdresses
+to indicate the impersonation
+of kachinas, nor are there
+double figures or animal heads depicted
+on human bodies. The absence
+of animal or kachina heads
+shows one of the marked differences
+between Sikyatki pictures
+and the designs so common on some
+other pottery, where a relatively
+large number of the heads of the
+latter occur. The best representation
+of a human head is shown in
+<a href="#figure012">figure 12</a>,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> in which a characteristic
+coiffure is shown. <a href="#figure013">Fig. 13</a> is identified
+as a figure of a maiden whose
+hair is dressed in two whorls, one above each ear, like a modern
+Hopi maid.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Opposite this maid is a reptile or similar animal with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>head decorated with two eyes on one side and a single foreleg. These
+two figures probably refer to some episode or Indian legend connecting
+a Sikyatki maiden with some monster.</p>
+
+<p>The maiden depicted in <a href="#figure014">figure 14</a> is evidently kneeling, her knees
+being brought together below, and separated by four median parallel
+lines that are supposed to indicate feathers; the curved objects at the
+lower corners of the rectangular blanket probably are also feathers.
+One hand of the maiden is raised to her head, while the other holds
+an unknown object, possibly an ear of corn. The woman with an
+ear of corn recalls a figure on the elaborately painted wooden slab
+carried by women in the Hopi Marau dance or that on the wooden
+slab, or <i>monkohu</i>, carried by the priests representing Alosaka, Eototo,
+and other ceremonial personages. These painted slabs do not always
+bear pictures of corn ears, for those
+of the priests known as the Aaltû
+have, instead of pictures of corn,
+the corn itself tied to them; in the
+New-fire ceremony at Walpi members
+of the Tataukyamû priesthood,
+at Walpi, also hold ears of corn
+with or without wooden slabs, while
+those borne by the warrior Kwakwantû
+are carved in the form of the
+sacred plumed serpent, which is
+their patron.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure014" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure014.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Kneeling woman, showing
+    hair in characteristic whorls.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure015" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure015.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Three human figures.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Different styles of hairdressing
+are exhibited in figures 13 and 14,
+that of <a href="#figure014">figure 14</a> being similar to
+the modern Hopi. The group of
+three figures (<a href="#figure015">fig. 15</a>) possibly illustrates some ancient ceremony.
+The middle figure of this group is represented as carrying a branched
+stick, or cornstalk, in his mouth.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The accompanying figure, or that
+to the right, has in his hand one of the strange frames used as rattles&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
+in historic times by clans (Asa or Honani) of Jemez or of Tewa
+descent who had settled at the East Mesa. The author is inclined
+to identify the object held by this figure as one of these ceremonial
+frames and the man as a Yaya priest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span></p>
+
+<p>Another interpretation of the central figure of the group, <a href="#figure015">figure 15</a>,
+is that he is performing the celebrated stick-swallowing act which
+was practiced at Walpi until a few years ago. The last explanation
+suggested implies that the human figures represent Snake and Antelope
+priests, a doubtful interpretation, since, according to legends,
+these priests were never represented at Sikyatki.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>The character shown in another figure, not copied, may represent
+the supernatural being, called the God of the Dead (Masauû) whose
+body, according to legend, is spotted and girt by bands. The Little
+Fire god (Shulewitse), when personated in modern ceremonies of
+the Tewa at Hano, is represented by a man daubed with pigments of
+several colors. He is personated
+likewise in the Hopi (Tewa) village
+of Sichomovi.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>Several Zuñi ceremonies show
+evidence of derivation from eastern
+New Mexican pueblos,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> but a
+critical examination of the origin
+and migration of Zuñi clan relations
+of societies still awaits the
+student of this interesting pueblo.
+It is probable that Zuñi sociology
+is in some respects like that of
+Walpi and that the present population
+is composite, having descended
+from clans which have
+drifted together from different directions, each bringing characteristic
+ceremonies and mythological conceptions, while certain rites
+have been incorporated from time to time from other Pueblo people.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Quadruped Figures</span></h3>
+
+<p>Representations of quadrupeds are almost as rare as human figures
+in Sikyatki pottery decorations. The deer (<a href="#figure016">fig. 16</a>, <i>a</i>), antelope, mountain
+sheep, mountain lion, rabbit, and one or two other animals are
+recognizable, but pictures of these are neither so common nor so
+highly conventionalized as those of birds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure016" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure016.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—<i>a</i>, Deer; <i>b</i>, rabbit.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><a href="#figure017">Figure 17</a> shows one of two mammalian figures on a bowl, the
+surrounding surface consisting of spatterwork, an uncommon but
+effective mode of treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The outline of the animal shown in <a href="#figure018">figure 18</a> is intensified by spattering,
+as in the case of the animal last mentioned. The black spots
+along the back and tail are absent
+in other figures. The design
+below the figure suggests,
+in some particulars, that of a
+highly conventionalized shrine,
+but its true meaning is unknown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure017" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure017.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Quadruped.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure018" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure018.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Antelope or mountain sheep.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The design in <a href="#figure019">figure 19</a> has
+been regarded as representing a
+mountain lion, but there is some doubt of the validity of this identification.
+Although the feet are like those of a carnivorous animal, the
+head is not. The two projections from the head, which may represent
+horns, are not unlike those associated with the two figures next described, which
+have been regarded as feathers.</p>
+
+<p>The creature shown in <a href="#figure020">figure 20</a> is also problematical. The appendages
+to the head are prolonged, terminating in feathers that
+bend backward and touch the body. The anterior body appendage
+has two crescentic prolongations between which are parallel lines
+of unequal length. The posterior limb is jointed, the lower half extending
+backward and terminating in two claws, one long, the other
+short. Between these extensions are two groups of slightly radiating
+lines that may be regarded as feathers. The body has feathers
+like those of a highly conventionalized bird, while the limbs resemble
+those of a lizard. The body is serpentine, and tail feathers are wanting;
+both legs have talons like those of birds, and the appendage to
+the head suggests a feather headdress; the line connecting the head
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>appendage and one claw of the posterior limbs recalls a sky-band,
+commonly found in representations of sky gods.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure019" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure019.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Mountain lion.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure020" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure020.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Problematical reptile.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The animal depicted in <a href="#figure021">figure 21</a>, which resembles <a href="#figure019">figure 19</a> in the
+form of the appendages to the head and mouth, is suspended inside
+of a circle in the one case and is half within a circle in the other.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Reptilian Figures</span></h3>
+
+<p>Several figures of reptiles and serpents occur in the Sikyatki collection.
+<a href="#figure022">Figure 22</a> represents an animal like a reptile; only two legs
+are shown in the design and the form of the tail recalls that of a bird.
+The head of this figure bears two horns resembling feathers in some
+respects; the legs terminate in four claws. From a projection at the
+posterior end of the body there arises a curved line dotted at intervals
+and terminating in feathers. The dorsal appendage resembles
+the carapace of a turtle, from beneath which feathers project.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure021" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure021.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Reptile.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure022" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure022.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Reptile.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#figure022">Figure 22</a> depicts a reptile from the head of which project horns
+and two long feathers. Its back bears a row of feathers, but it has
+only two legs.</p>
+
+<p>The legless creature, <a href="#figure023">figure 23</a>, has two triangular earlike feathers
+rising from the head, and two eyes; a wide-open mouth, in which are
+six long, curved teeth, three in each jaw. The tongue terminates in
+an arrow-shaped figure, recalling a conventional symbol of lightning,
+or the death-dealing power of the serpent. The meaning of the narrow
+line connecting the upper jaw with the tail is not known. The
+curved shape of the body of the reptile is necessitated by the shape
+of the bowl on which it is drawn. This figure may represent the
+monster feathered serpent of Sikyatki, or a flying reptile, one of the
+most mysterious of the elemental
+gods. It is interesting to note
+that while the effigies of the
+feathered serpent used in Hopi
+(Walpi) and Zuñi religious practices
+has a single horn on the
+head, the one here described is
+different from both, for it is provided
+with two appendages resembling
+conventionalized feathers.
+The Hopi feathered serpent
+was derived from the same source
+as the Zuñi, namely, clans which
+originally came to the Little Colorado
+from Gila Valley.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure023" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure023.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Reptile.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure024" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure024.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Reptile.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Hopi (Walpi) figure is in a measure comparable with that
+shown in <a href="#figure023">figure 23</a>—each has two hornlike feathers on the head, and
+the bodies are curved in the same direction—that is, with the center
+(?) on the right (dextral circuit), the reverse of modern Hopi
+pictures, which are placed as if the figures were moving in a sinistral
+circuit.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>The form shown in <a href="#figure024">figure 24</a> reminds one of a frog or a turtle.
+The body and feet are turtlelike. As in several pictures of reptiles,
+it is provided with an anterior appendage, evidently the front leg,
+which has characteristic claws. The row of white dots extending
+from the mouth through the neck represents the esophagus or windpipe.
+The author is unable to offer any interpretation of the appendages
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>to the tail, but suggests that they may have been intended for
+feathers. <a href="#figure025">Figure 25</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, is identified as a turtle.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#figure026">Figure 26</a> was evidently designed to represent several tadpoles
+swimming across a bowl between rows of rain clouds, the whole inclosed
+in a circle to which are attached five stars at approximately
+equal intervals. The form of the
+rain clouds reminds one of conventional
+tail feathers. There are
+six of these rain-cloud figures on
+one side of the field of decoration
+and five on the other. The tadpoles
+shown in <a href="#figure027">figure 27</a> occur on
+the inside of the ladle.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Winged Figures</span></h3>
+
+<p>The term “winged figures” is
+here employed to designate all
+flying creatures, as birds, insects,
+and bats, even though they belong
+zoologically to different groups of animals. Among the prehistoric
+Hopi, insects and birds were designated by similar symbols and when
+highly conventionalized sometimes merge into one another. It was
+the custom of Sikyatki potters to give more attention to specific than
+generic characters of flying creatures, distinguishing different kinds
+of birds by the form of their feathers. The
+symbol of a turkey, an eagle, or a hawk
+feather was distinct from that of an owl,
+and each kind of a bird had its own special
+symbolic marking, especially
+indicated in the
+different kinds of feathers.
+Thus it occurs that
+Sikyatki bird designs,
+instead of being realistically
+represented, are
+often so highly conventionalized
+that the genus
+can not be identified.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure025" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure025.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Turtle.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The flight of birds, like the movement of serpents, is regarded as
+mysterious, and anything mysterious or uncanny has always profoundly
+affected the mind of primitive man. The chief visible characteristics
+connected with the flight of a bird are wings and feathers,
+and the kind of feathers of a particular bird led to their association
+with the supposed magic power of the bird itself among both the
+ancient and modern Hopi. Different kinds of feathers have different
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>powers; thus the feathers of the turkey, for example, among the
+modern Hopi, are potent in inducing rain; those of the eagle or the
+hawk pertain especially to the power of the sun; a breast feather of
+an eagle is chosen as an individual
+prayer bearer. The feathers of an
+owl, like the owl itself,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> are generally
+regarded as having a sinister
+influence; but sometimes the
+feather of this bird is beneficial,
+it is believed, in making peach
+trees yield abundantly. From the
+variety of feather designs and
+the frequency with which they
+occur in modern Hopi ceremonies&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+it is evident that the Sikyatki
+people, like their descendants,
+attributed special magic power to
+different kinds of these objects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure026" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure026.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Clouds and tadpoles.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure027" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure027.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Tadpoles.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In their simplest forms bird symbols are little more than triangles,
+the tail feathers being represented by appended parallel lines, which
+are mere suggestions of birds and may be designated as cursive forms.
+Such simple pictures of birds sometimes have, in addition to the
+appended parallel lines referred to, an angular or a curved line or
+hook extending from one of the
+angles of the triangle to represent
+a beak. Such triangular bird figures
+may be free or attached; in
+the latter case they are suspended
+from other figures or rise from the
+corners of a rectangular design
+when one of the triangles may be
+without tail or beak appendages,
+another may have parallel lines,
+while a third may take a form
+readily recognizable as that of a
+bird. The form of the beak and
+the claws of bird figures also
+varies, the claws often appearing
+as simple crosses or crescents. The beak is sometimes toothed, often
+hooked like that of a raptorial bird. The bird is designated by the
+combination of the beak, claws, and body, as well as the feathers.</p>
+
+<h4>DORSAL VIEWS OF BIRDS</h4>
+
+<p>Among the conventional pictures of birds on Sikyatki pottery some
+are shown as seen from above, or dorsally, others from below, or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span>ventrally, and still others laterally. These pictures sometimes become
+so conventionalized that it is difficult to identify the parts represented,
+as will appear from illustrations to follow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure028" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure028.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Dorsal view of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure029" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure029.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Bird figure, two halves restored to natural
+    position.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#figure028">Figure 28</a> represents a bird design in which three parallel bands
+representing tail feathers of a well-marked type hang between two
+curved extensions that occupy the relative position of wings. In the
+angles near the attachment of these
+tail feathers there are two globular
+enlargements which occur also
+in other pictures. The extremity
+of each winglike crescent is spirally
+curved inward. Two semicircular
+figures representing rain clouds are
+surmounted by two parallel lines
+and a heavy, solid band, appearing
+at the proximal end of the
+tail in the position where the body
+should end, as in other figures
+where the rain-cloud symbols are
+much more complex.</p>
+
+<p>The two drawings shown in <a href="#figure029">figure
+29</a> are the two halves of a single
+figure cut along its medial line. One of these halves is reversed in
+such a way that corresponding parts are found on the same side.
+Viewing these two parts in this position, we can readily identify various
+organs of a highly conventionalized bird whose wings are represented
+by a curved body
+terminating in a spiral, the
+body decorated with rain-cloud
+figures and the bowl
+with conventionalized figures.
+This is the only figure
+showing the distortions
+and reversions of the two
+halves of the bird’s body
+and appendages.</p>
+
+<p>Homologous parts are
+recognizable also in the
+bird design shown in <a href="#figure030">figure
+30</a>, but in this picture
+the size of the wings is greatly reduced, each consisting merely
+of two feathers. The rectangular body bears a single large
+terraced or rectangular rain-cloud symbol, three semicircular
+figures, and two triangles. Two tail feathers and two posterior
+extensions of the body, one on each side, are shown. There are
+three parallel lines on each side of these posterior extensions. In
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>a bird design, <a href="#figure031">figure 31</a>, the body is decorated with four triangular
+rain clouds and the wings are extended. The tail has six feathers
+with a lateral extension on each side. The two detached figures associated
+with this bird design possibly
+were intended to represent
+the shrines of these birds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure030" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure030.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Dorsal view of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure031" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure031.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Bird figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The curved appendages are
+spreading in <a href="#figure032">figure 32</a>, and at
+their point of junction with the
+body arises a typical feather symbol.
+The body has four solid
+semicircular figures, possibly representing
+rain clouds, and a single
+feather on the top of the head.
+Organs corresponding to wings,
+body, and tail are traceable, but
+they are somewhat modified in
+comparison with the forms already
+considered. This design is partly surrounded by a band to
+which two star designs are attached.</p>
+
+<p>We find all the parts or organs associated with the bird designs
+already described represented in <a href="#figure033">figure 33</a>, but the details of the
+symbolism are more elaborated than in any of the preceding.
+Here the wings are bent inward, while the feathers have taken
+more angular forms. The head is
+rectangular, bearing representations
+of two rain clouds just above
+the wings, while two others appear
+below. These have the same form
+as the cloud symbols shown in
+<a href="#figure020">figure 20</a>. Although this drawing
+is far from being a realistic representation
+of a bird, the presence
+of symbols characteristic of certain
+avian features leaves no doubt
+that a bird was intended.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure034">figure 34</a> is shown a Sikyatki
+bird figure still further conventionalized,
+but the parts are depicted
+in such manner as to make the
+identification as a bird practically certain. Head, body, wings, and
+tail are elaborately represented. The head is semicircular and surmounted
+by a headdress with three vertical feathers. The wings are
+large, each terminating in two symbols representing the feathers,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+with pointed distal extremities. The tail feathers have rounded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span>extremities and are three in number. On each side of the feathers of
+the headdress, wings, and tail hang figures of unknown meaning.
+This is one of the most instructive bird figures in the collection from
+Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure032" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure032.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Bird figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure033" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure033.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Bird figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure034" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure034.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Bird figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure035" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure035.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Bird figure. (Thunderbird.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#figure035">Figure 35</a> represents a very elaborate figure of a bird, readily
+comparable with the last mentioned, from which it differs in certain
+particulars. This bird design is replete with symbolism and may
+be regarded as one of the most instructive pictures that has come to
+us from the ancient Hopi. The view is from the back, the legs being
+much reduced in size, the claws alone being represented at each upper
+corner of the body directly under the attachment of the wings. The
+beak is invisible, but an elaborate headdress,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> in which tail feathers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span>are conspicuous, is a prominent feature. The form of the tail and
+wing feathers of this bird is practically the same as the last, except
+that they are more elaborately drawn. Each wing has two feathers,
+and three others form the tail. The arrow points projecting from
+beneath the extremities of the
+wing feathers are possibly lightning
+symbols. Each is crossed by
+two bars in the same manner as the
+tongue projecting from the mouth
+of the serpent shown in <a href="#figure023">figure
+23</a>, which is also a lightning
+symbol.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure036" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure036.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Bird figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure037" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure037.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Highly conventionalized figure of
+    bird from dorsal side.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The design illustrated in <a href="#figure036">figure
+36</a> represents a bird, as seen from
+the back, with outstretched wings,
+recalling the lateral view of a bird
+shown in <a href="#figure054">figure 54</a> in having
+smaller bird figures attached to
+the tips of the wings. The place
+of attachment of the wings to the
+body is embellished with crosshatched lines and stepped figures,
+recalling the rain-cloud symbols. The head is rectangular, destitute
+of a beak, inclosing two square figures with short parallel lines, representing
+falling rain, projecting from the upper side. On one side
+of the head is a semicircular design.
+The tail has three feathers,
+the two on the sides being
+broader than the one in the middle.
+These feathers are without
+markings, but the end of the
+body from which they depend
+is ornamented with stepped figures
+surmounted by two horizontal
+parallel lines and two triangles.
+In the background, at
+each side of the body, there are
+dotted circles, suggesting flowers,
+a feature often accompanying
+designs representing butterflies
+or moths.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure037">figure 37</a> is shown a highly conventionalized dorsal view of a
+bird, with sickle-formed wings slightly extended, seven pointed tail
+feathers with lateral appendages, and a rectangular head with three
+semicircular rain-cloud figures. The globular enlargement at the base
+of the wings in one instance is accompanied by a fan-shaped figure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure038" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure038.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—Conventional figure of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The design shown in <a href="#figure038">figure 38</a> is regarded as a highly conventionalized
+bird symbol, each wing being represented by a curved pendant,
+to the extremities of which feathers
+are attached. The body is rectangular
+and decorated with a median
+horizontal white band continued
+above and below into black lateral
+triangles which possibly may represent
+feathers, and flanked triangular
+white areas on each side.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure039">figure 39</a> the
+design has been
+so greatly conventionalized
+that almost all
+resemblance to a bird has been lost. The wings
+are represented by simple terraces, the body by a
+rectangular figure, and the head terminates in
+three points. It is possible that the limit of bird
+conventionalization has been reached in this variant,
+and the difficulty of identification of organs is
+correspondingly great.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure039" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure039.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—Conventional
+    figure of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp65" id="figure040" style="max-width: 10.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure040.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Conventional
+    figure of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp83" id="figure041" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure041.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—Conventional figure
+    of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure042" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure042.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Conventional
+    figure of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The design shown in <a href="#figure040">figure 40</a> would perhaps
+more logically fall within the series of circular
+figures, identified as sun emblems,
+elsewhere considered, except
+for the extensions representing wings and tail.
+This is mentioned as one of the instances where
+organs of birds are combined with a circle to represent
+the Sun god.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#figure041">Figure 41</a> resembles
+<a href="#figure040">figure 40</a> in some essential
+points and may also be
+considered in connection
+with sun emblems. On
+account of the presence of feathers it is
+here included among the bird designs.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#figure042">Figure 42</a> exhibits an exceptional bird
+form as viewed from the rear.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Wings,
+body, tail, and possibly the head, are recognized
+after some study.</p>
+
+<h4>LATERAL VIEWS OF BIRDS</h4>
+
+<p>Drawings representing side views of birds are usually highly conventionalized,
+often taking the forms of simple geometric figures,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span>as shown in figures 43-45. The simplest representation of a bird
+viewed from the side is a triangle, but another, slightly elaborated
+and a little more complicated (<a href="#figure043">fig. 43</a>), consists
+of a triangular body with curved lines representing
+a head and beak, extending from one of the
+angles, and with two short lines indicating a
+feathered head crest. The head of the bird shown
+in <a href="#figure044">figure 44</a> resembles a section of a Greek fret,
+which in <a href="#figure045">figure 45</a> has become
+still further simplified. <a href="#figure046">Figure
+46</a> represents a bird with triangular
+body and key-shaped head. <a href="#figure047">Figure 47</a>
+shows a similar design, except that the body is
+partly rectangular, with breast slightly concave.
+The body in <a href="#figure048">figure 48</a> is simply an outline of a terrace
+and the tail is indicated by five parallel lines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp90" id="figure043" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure043.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Triangular
+    form of a bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure044" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure044.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—Triangular
+    form of bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure045" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure045.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Simple
+    form of bird with terraced body.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure046" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure046.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Lateral view of triangular
+    bird with two tail feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The bird design shown in profile in <a href="#figure049">figure 49</a> is realistic, all the
+parts being clearly recognizable. This figure is one of four, each
+attached to a corner of a rectangle.</p>
+
+<p>Another figure which may be a lateral view of a bird is represented
+in <a href="#figure050">figure 50</a>, in which the part, representing the head is curved, the
+body square, and two obliquely twisted feathers represent the tail.
+This figure exhibits avian features more obscurely than those already
+considered, but the head and the tail feathers are quite birdlike.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure047" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure047.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Lateral view of bird with
+    three tail feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure048" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure048.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Problematical
+    bird figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure049" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure049.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Bird with two
+    tail feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure050" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure050.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—Highly conventionalized bird
+    figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure051">figure 51</a> is shown a lateral view of a bird, seemingly in flight,
+the head and beak of which are birdlike. The wings, feet, head, and
+body are not difficult to recognize.
+Two legs and one wing are shown,
+and the well-drawn tail, terminating
+in white-tipped feathers, suggests
+the turkey, which bird is regarded
+by the modern Hopi as so
+efficacious in bringing rain that its feathers are employed in almost
+all rain ceremonies. The author has seen a similar drawing on altar
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span>and other ceremonial paraphernalia among the Hopi priests of the
+present day. The white tips which characterize the tail feathers of
+the turkey originated, according to a Hopi legend,
+at the time when this bird dragged the end of
+its tail in the mud after a flood had subsided.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure051" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure051.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Lateral view
+    of bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The bird
+shown in
+<a href="#figure052">figure 52</a> has
+a curved,
+elongated
+beak, a more or less angular
+body, two legs, and two small
+wings. The tail consists of
+three feathers&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> with characteristic
+projections.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure052" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure052.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Profile of bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure053" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure053.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Lateral view of bird with outspread
+    wing.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the best bird pictures
+on Sikyatki pottery is shown
+in <a href="#figure053">figure 53</a>. The body is somewhat triangular in shape and the
+wing is spread out, here shown above the back; the tail is provided
+with three feathers placed
+vertically instead of horizontally,
+and bent over at
+their ends into triangles, evidently
+owing to the lack of
+available space. The beak
+is characteristically curved;
+the single eye is provided
+with a pupil. The long
+claws, single on each foot, suggest an eagle,
+hawk, or other raptorial bird. The spiral
+appendage to the under rim of the tail is
+of unknown meaning.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure054" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure054.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Lateral view of bird
+    with twisted tail and wing feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The design shown in <a href="#figure054">figure 54</a> is one of
+the most complex bird drawings found on
+Sikyatki pottery. The head is triangular,
+with an eye situated in the center, and the beak continued into a very
+large, elaborate fret. The body is rhomboidal in shape, the upper
+portion being occupied by a patterned square. Rising above the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span>body is a conventionalized wing, while depending from its lowermost
+angle is a diminutive figure resembling feathers. The tail consists
+of two elongate feathers, rounded at their outer ends and fused at
+the point of union with the body.</p>
+
+<p>Having seen how prone the ancient Hopi were to represent birds on
+their pottery and the extent to which conventionalization of these figures
+prevailed, one finds
+many designs so closely related
+to known bird figures
+that the tendency is to include
+with them many the
+identification of which is
+doubtful. Certain simple
+geometrical forms originally
+derived from bird designs
+were copied by these early
+potters, presumably without
+intending to represent birds,
+but rather merely as decorative
+motives. Two of
+these problematic designs
+are shown in <a href="#figure055">figures 55
+and 56</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure055" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure055.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Lateral view of conventionalized bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure056" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure056.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Lateral view of conventionalized bird.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4>FEATHER DESIGNS</h4>
+
+<p>A large number of conventional figures representing feathers
+have been identified, but there are many others which yet remain to be
+interpreted, and the particular genus of birds to which each should
+be referred is likewise problematical.
+There is no doubt,
+from a study of the uses of
+different kinds of feathers
+in modern Hopi ceremonials,
+that each form depicted
+on pottery represents
+a feather which played an
+important rôle in ancient
+Hopi rituals.</p>
+
+<p>Many unquestionable
+feather designs pictured on
+Sikyatki pottery are found
+depicted on serpents, or are attached to inanimate objects, such as
+rainbows, clouds, and lightning.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the majority of feather designs on ancient Hopi
+earthenware are included in the following types, to which no doubt
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span>other forms of feather designs will be added later. These types
+are abundant in vessels of the Sikyatki epoch.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure057" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure057.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Feather
+    symbol with black notch.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>From the above pictures of birds and many others it may be seen
+that feather symbols assume a variety of forms in sikyatki pottery
+decoration. There are probably more than 50 different designs,
+each representing a different kind of feather, and implying for each
+a distinct use or ceremonial efficacy, as among the modern Hopi.
+Our knowledge of ancient Hopi symbolism is not yet sufficient to
+enable us to identify all the different birds to which
+these various forms of feathers belong, nor do we
+know the uses to which all these feathers were put.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>Several wooden slabs and idols on Hopi altars
+have features drawn upon them, and many ceremonial
+sand-pictures contain designs representing feathers. In rare
+instances, as in the altar of the Powamû,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> typical Sikyatki symbols
+of feathers are still used, but feather symbols of a form not found
+on Sikyatki pottery far outnumber those from that ruin. The existence
+of one type of Sikyatki feathers on the figure of Pokema in
+kachina altars may point to the derivation of this feather symbol
+from Sikyatki, but some of these types are widespread.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure058" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure058.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Feather
+    symbol with black notch.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The forms assumed by feathers on Sikyatki pottery may best be
+presented by considering a few examples of the more common types.
+<a href="#figure057">Figure 57</a> represents an unusual type of feather
+symbol, readily distinguished from others by the
+notch at the end, the edge of which is commonly
+rounded. There are two subdivisions of this type,
+one with a dotted shaft (<a href="#figure058">fig. 58</a>), the other plain.
+This form of feather design is found in most unexpected associations,
+occurring on the heads of serpents or attached to various parts of the
+body and under the wings of birds. It also hangs from diametrical
+bands drawn across the inside of food bowls and from other objects
+constituting the decoration of vessels. In a few instances this type
+of feather is enlarged and constitutes the essential part of the design,
+with other symbols attached.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span></p>
+
+<p>This type of feather sometimes forms a part of a bird’s tail, but
+it does not occur in the wings, although, as above stated, it occurs
+under a wing or on the body or the head of a bird, a localization
+that leads to the belief that the device was designed to represent a
+breast feather, such as the Hopi now use in their prayers. In ancient
+Hopi symbolism it is often attached to circles representing the sun
+and represents a tail feather.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#plate76">plate 76</a>, <i>a</i>, three feathers are represented with pointed tips and
+without interior markings. It is one of the simplest drawings of the
+type mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>This figure illustrates a well-known type of feather symbol. It
+has many variations, all clearly differentiated from the form last
+described, from which it differs in its elongate form and pointed tip.
+What may be regarded as a subtype of this is marked with diagonal
+bands drawn either at right angles at one edge or extending across
+the figure and terminating at right angles to the opposite edge.
+Feather symbols of this type, which have not been identified with
+any particular bird, are constantly found in birds’ tails and wings.</p>
+
+<p>The next design (<a href="#plate76">pl. 76</a>, <i>b</i>) is similar in outline, but the three
+feathers are painted solid black and are separated by spaces. This
+conventional form of feather is common on wings and tails of birds.</p>
+
+<p>The group of symbols shown in <a href="#plate76">plate 76</a>, <i>c</i>, has pointed tips, like
+the others described, but part of the shaft is painted, while the other
+is plain, the line of demarcation between which is drawn diagonally.
+This form occurs on the tails rather than on the wings of birds.</p>
+
+<p>The tips of the feathers in <a href="#plate76">plate 76</a>, <i>d</i>, are connected by a black
+band and are divided by short vertical lines. A distinguishing feature
+of this symbol is the oblique marking of each feather on the
+right side, by which the feathers are narrowed at the base. A solid
+semicircular figure with a double notch ornaments the upper edge.
+The few known examples of this type of feather symbol are from
+the tails of unknown birds.</p>
+
+<p>The next form of feather, shown in <i>e</i>, differs from the last in that
+the shaft is spotted and the proximal end is cut diagonally in a somewhat
+different way.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The tips are slit as in the figure last described.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the feathers shown in <i>f</i> is uniform throughout. The
+distal ends are tipped with black; the proximal ends are each ornamented
+with a black triangle. Midway of the length of the feathers
+are four continuous parallel horizontal lines.</p>
+
+<p>The two feathers shown in <i>g</i> have in one instance a black and in
+the other a white tip separated from the rest of the shaft by an
+oblique line. The essential difference between this form of pointed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span>feather and those previously considered is that the diagonal line
+marking the tip is drawn at a greater angle.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate76" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate76.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 76</p>
+    <p>VARIOUS FORMS OF CONVENTIONALIZED FEATHERS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The six feathers shown in <i>h</i> resemble the last, but the terminal portions
+of three are spotted instead of solid black. Like some of the
+others described, this form tapers slightly from its distal end to its
+base.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>i</i> the feathers are likewise pointed at their tips, but are of
+almost uniform breadth. Each is intersected by a series of triangles
+and parallel lines, and suspended from the latter, one in each feather,
+are several vertical lines, each with terminal dots.</p>
+
+<p>The symbol shown in <i>j</i> is not unlike that already illustrated, but
+it has in addition to the structure enumerated a lateral hornlike
+appendage common in the tails of birds (see <a href="#plate90">pl. 90</a>, <i>i</i>, <i>tf</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The form of feather design shown in <i>k</i> is somewhat different from
+those already considered. The distal end is broad and pointed; the
+proximal narrows almost to a point. The left half of the body of
+the feather is black; the remainder, including the point, is plain.
+The design <i>l</i> has the same general form as <i>k</i>, but its tip is marked
+in a different manner.</p>
+
+<p>The double-pointed symbol represented in <i>m</i> was evidently designed
+as a feather (possibly two feathers), with parallel sides, and
+pointed tips painted black. The symbol <i>n</i> is similar to <i>d</i> in outline,
+but it lacks the terminal slit and black bands. There project, however,
+from the angles formed by the tips of the feathers three vertical
+lines, each with an arrow point at the extremity and two short
+crosslines, as in one of the bird designs previously described (<a href="#figure035">fig.
+35</a>). The present design represents wing feathers; the complete
+bird figure (<a href="#figure035">fig. 35</a>), where they also occur, represents a thunderbird.</p>
+
+<p>The three tail feathers shown in <i>o</i> are in no respect peculiar. The
+two-pointed appendages seen above are an almost constant feature
+of the drawings of birds as seen from the back. The feathers represented
+in <i>p</i> are unlike others in their mode of attachment and in
+the ornamentation at the base.</p>
+
+<p>Thus far we have considered a type of feathers with pointed tips
+(<a href="#plate76">pl. 76</a>, <i>a-p</i>) imparting to the whole tail a serrate appearance. While
+in the next figure, <i>q</i>, the tail feathers still terminate in points, a black
+band connecting their extremities is prolonged at each side, recalling
+the tail of certain swallows.</p>
+
+<p>Feathers are often represented on Sikyatki pottery as elsewhere in
+the Southwest by parallel straight lines. The feathers represented
+in <i>r</i> are exceptional in that their length varies considerably, the
+median feather here being the longest.</p>
+
+<p>While undoubtedly the series of designs shown in <i>s</i> to <i>bb</i>, inclusive,
+in each instance representing the feathers in the tail of a bird, are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>all highly conventionalized, in one or two instances, as <i>u</i> and <i>bb</i>, the
+relation to feathers can be recognized only by comparative studies.</p>
+
+<p>The design illustrated in <i>cc</i>, taken from the neck of a vase, represents
+several peculiar feathers of a type not yet described but highly
+characteristic. Comparison of this with that of <i>dd</i> shows the similarity
+of the two and suggests that they pertain to the same kind of
+bird. The tails represented in <i>v</i>, <i>aa</i>, and <i>bb</i> are characteristic; the
+last represents tail feathers hanging from the band later described.</p>
+
+<p>The series of feathers (possibly tail feathers) shown in several figures
+have rounded tips, and as a rule are of uniform size and without
+ornamentation. In <a href="#plate77">plate 77</a>, <i>a</i>, the three feathers composing the tail
+are painted black and are slightly separated, while those of <i>b</i> are
+half black and half plain, the solid area being separated from the
+plain by a diagonal line extending from the proximal to the distal
+extremity.</p>
+
+<p>The four feathers in <i>c</i> are separated by slight intervals and lightly
+shaded; otherwise they are similar to those in <i>a</i>. The two outside
+feathers of <i>d</i> are much broader than the middle feather, which is
+reduced to a narrow line. In <i>e</i> the three feathers are broader at the
+tips, in which respect they differ from <i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the tail shown in <i>f</i>, the feathers are indicated by shallow notches
+from which short parallel lines extend inward. They are without
+superficial markings. Figure <i>g</i> belongs to the notched type represented
+above.</p>
+
+<p>The four feather symbols shown in the drawing of the bird’s tail
+illustrated in <i>h</i> differ from all others in the shape of their distal ends,
+which are alternately black and plain, and are without superficial
+ornamentation. Evidently this feather design, which is represented
+on a single vessel from Sikyatki, is of a distinct type.</p>
+
+<p>There is some doubt whether <i>i</i> represents a bird’s tail, the head
+and body from which the design was taken being more like those of a
+moth or a butterfly. The meaning of the design in <i>j</i> is also doubtful.
+Figure <i>k</i> represents a single “breath” feather like that shown in
+<a href="#figure057">figure 57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>There is a general resemblance between the tail feathers of the
+bird designed in <i>e</i> and <i>l</i>; the latter represents the tail of a bird, hanging
+between two triangles under a star design.</p>
+
+<p>Figure <i>m</i> represents a bird’s tail with three tail feathers and
+lateral extensions, while in <i>n</i>, where we also have a figure of the tail
+of a bird, each feather is marked by a rectangular pattern. The four
+pairs of parallel lines extending from these feathers may be regarded
+as parts of these structures.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate77" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate77.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 77</p>
+    <p>CONVENTIONALIZED TAIL FEATHERS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="plate78" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate78.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 78</p>
+    <p>CONVENTIONALIZED FEATHERS ATTACHED TO STRINGS (NAKWAKWOCI)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Figures <i>o</i> to <i>q</i>, while suggesting bird and feather designs, are still
+more or less problematical. In the same category belong the designs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span>illustrated in figures <i>r</i> to <i>u</i>. There is reason to believe that of these
+<i>o-r</i> represent feathers, but a definite identification can not yet be
+made of figures <i>s-u</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure059" style="max-width: 6.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure059.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Two triangular designs, one above another, are
+believed to represent feathers, but are rarely found
+on ancient Hopi pottery. They appear on the
+heads of birds in Acoma, Laguna, and other
+pottery designs, which are the nearest modern representatives
+of ancient Hopi decorations.</p>
+
+<p>A unique feather symbol from Sikyatki
+is characterized by a cigar-shaped body outlined
+at the distal end, which is plain (<a href="#figure059">fig. 59</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure060" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure060.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Curved feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There often occurs on Sikyatki pottery a
+combination of feather designs, generally
+three, with other symbols. One form of these (<a href="#figure060">fig. 60</a>) has four
+curved tail feathers. Other feathers of aberrant shape are shown
+in <a href="#figure061">figure 61</a>, <i>a-e</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Feathers Suspended from Strings</span></h5>
+
+<p>In their ceremonies the modern Hopi priests
+use in great numbers a kind of prayer offering
+called <i>nakwakwoci</i>, consisting of breast
+feathers tied in a prescribed way to the ends
+of strings. The same type of prayer offerings
+is one of the most common designs on Sikyatki
+pottery. Various modifications of it are shown
+in the accompanying illustration (<a href="#figure062">fig. 62</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp42" id="figure061" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure061.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Conventional
+    feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This use of the feather string as a decorative
+device is seemingly peculiar to prehistoric
+Hopi pottery, not having been found in the pictography
+of the people formerly inhabiting the
+valleys of San Juan and Little Colorado Rivers.
+This restriction in its use indicates its local
+origin and application, although descendants of clans from both the
+San Juan and the Little Colorado are represented among the Hopi.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp45" id="figure062" style="max-width: 6em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure062.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Parallel
+    lines representing feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In one of the simplest forms of the stringed-feather
+designs is a line (<a href="#plate78">pl. 78</a>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>) sometimes
+taking the form of an elongate triangle,
+terminating in a ball from which spring three
+or more diverging or parallel lines. This enlargement
+on stringed-feather designs may represent
+a knot, as will appear from certain variations
+in the form of the feathered string to which attention will be
+given later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span></p>
+
+<p>In some cases (<i>e</i>, <i>l</i>) two knots appear between the string and
+the attached feathers, while in another instance (<i>f</i>) one of the knots
+or balls is replaced by two triangles.</p>
+
+<p>Other representations of stringed-feather or <i>nakwakwoci</i> designs
+show modifications in each of the three elements mentioned, the
+line (string), the enlargement (knot), and the terminal projections
+(feathers). The occurrence of crossbars near the dot (<i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>) vary
+in number from one to four, and are always parallel, but usually
+are placed on one side of the knot, although in some cases (<i>i</i>) they
+appear on both sides. In one example (<i>j</i>) no ball or knot is provided,
+the <i>nakwakwoci</i> consisting merely of the string intersected
+by pairs of equidistant crosslines. A special modification of the
+dot with crosslines is shown in the figure with the leaflike attachment
+(<i>q</i>).</p>
+
+<p>One of the most significant of the stringed-feather designs is
+shown in <i>a</i>, where a feather of the first type is attached to the string
+intersected by crosslines. As a terminal element in corresponding
+designs is a typical feather symbol, this figure is also identical. The
+figure of a string with enlargements and a pair of lines (<i>g</i>) probably
+represents that form of stringed feather called by the Hopi a <i>purhu</i>,
+“road,” an offering laid by the Hopi on the trails approaching the
+pueblo to indicate that ceremonies are being performed, or on altars
+to show the pathway of blessings.</p>
+
+<p>In another stringed-feather design (<i>n</i>) appears a triangular symbol
+attached to the enlargement, the string terminating in radiating
+lines. The feather sometimes preserves its triangular form (<i>m</i>).
+These variations in the drawings of stringed feathers and the modifications
+of the knot, string, and terminal attachments, are constantly
+repeated in Sikyatki pottery decoration.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Sky-Band</span></h3>
+
+<p>Many food bowls from Sikyatki have a band from which is suspended
+the figure of a nondescript animal passing diametrically
+across it. Representations of a similar band with like appendage
+girt the necks of small pottery objects and are, so far as is known,
+characteristic of prehistoric Hopi pottery.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp42" id="plate79" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate79.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 79</p>
+    <p>SKY-BANDS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Lines identified as sky-bands shown in <a href="#plate79">plate 79</a> vary from single
+(<i>a</i>) or double (<i>b</i>) to a broad undecorated band (<i>c</i>). In its simplest
+form the sky-band extends entirely across the inside of the bowl,
+but in the more complicated examples it surrounds the vessel parallel
+with the rim surrounding the design on the inside of the bowl.
+Appendages of several kinds as dots (<i>d</i>) or as stars (<i>f</i>), made up
+of oblong figures in terrace form placed at intervals, are attached
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span>to this band. The sky-band itself varies in width, being broad or
+narrow, crossed by series of vertical parallel, zigzag, or other lines
+arranged at intervals, or alternating with geometrical figures (<i>g</i>, <i>h</i>).
+In a single example (<i>i</i>) the decoration is etched into the burnt clay,
+although in most instances the decorations are painted.</p>
+
+<p>Various explanations of the meaning of this band have been suggested,
+it being regarded by some of the priests as the Milky Way,
+by others as the path of the sun through the sky, but so far as
+known this ancient design is rare on modern Hopi ware.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> According
+to Harrington the Tewa recognize a “backbone” of the sky.</p>
+
+<p>In several Hopi legends there are allusions to a monster bird that
+had been killed and hung in the sky by a cultus hero; and the
+general character of this decorative band in Sikyatki pottery decoration
+renders it probable that it was intended to represent some
+supernatural being, as the Sky god.</p>
+
+<p>The chief interest of the Sikyatki sky-band lies in the figure or
+figures attached to it, or suspended from it, and regarded as the
+conventionalized representation of a bird. Sometimes the creature
+is placed longitudinally, sometimes vertically. In some instances
+it is elaborately drawn, in others it is a simple geometric figure
+bearing so little resemblance to a life form as to make it one of the
+most highly conventionalized of all ancient Hopi designs.</p>
+
+<p>Like other bird designs, these suspended figures may be considered
+under two heads: (1) Those attached to the band in such a way
+as to be seen from above (the dorsal side) or from below (the
+ventral side); and (2) those suspended lengthwise of the band,
+showing one side in which the tail and other parts are twisted into
+a plane at right angles. The structure and relations of the hanging
+figure can best be seen by holding the bowl in such manner that
+the sky-band is horizontal, bringing the body of the suspended
+animal into the lower semicircle.</p>
+
+<h4>VERTICAL ATTACHMENT TO SKY-BAND</h4>
+
+<p>Several Sikyatki pottery designs showing the sky-band with the
+bird figure hanging vertically from it are shown in the accompanying
+illustrations. In order that the modifications in form may be
+readily followed, those parts of the bird figures regarded as homologous
+are indicated by the same letters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span></p>
+
+<p>The design in <a href="#figure063">figure 63</a> represents one of the simplest forms of
+bird symbols. A hornlike appendage is attached to the sky-band,
+on each side of an elongate vertical body from which depends a
+number of parallel lines representing tail feathers. The identification
+of this design as that of a bird is based on comparative studies
+of designs less conventional in character, to which attention has been
+and will later be called.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure063" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure063.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure064" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure064.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure065" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure065.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure066" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure066.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>A modification of the pendent body on the sky-band&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> appears to
+have introduced the new element shown in <a href="#figure064">figure 64</a> in which the
+body is drawn. Although considerable variation exists in the form
+of the other parts, a morphological identity exists in all these figures.
+In <a href="#figure065">figure 65</a>, in which the feathers differ somewhat from those of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>last design, the parallel lines representing the bird’s tail are really
+seen. The design shown in <a href="#figure066">figure 66</a> is still more elaborate than the
+last, especially in the anterior semicircle,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> opposite that in which
+the tail feathers are depicted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure067" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure067.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure068" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure068.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The portion of the design situated in the anterior semicircle of
+<a href="#figure067">figure 67</a> has no resemblance to a bird’s head, being destitute of eyes
+or beak. The backward extending appendages on each side of the
+tail and the tail itself has a projection on each side.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure068">figure 68</a> the whole anterior part
+of the design above the sky-band
+is colored, the head appearing
+as a still darker semicircle.
+The tail feathers are here reduced
+to simple parallel lines. The general
+form of <a href="#figure069">figure 69</a> is birdlike,
+but its affinity to the bird figures,
+pendent from a sky-band, is closer
+than to any others. The homologous
+parts—tail feathers, lateral
+body extensions, sky-band, and
+head—may be readily recognized;
+the last mentioned is an ornamented
+rectangle. The whole anterior
+hemisphere of this design is occupied by representations of
+feathers arranged in two clusters, while in the surrounding area their
+triple lines are crossed similarly to that occurring in other hanging
+bird figures. It is but a step from this figure to the group of unattached
+bird designs already considered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure069" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure069.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure070" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure070.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Conventionalized bird form hanging from
+    sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The wings of <a href="#figure070">figure 70</a> are outspread and the head consists of
+two terraced bodies conventionally placed. The body and the tail
+of this figure are not exceptional,
+but dragon flies
+are also represented.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#figure071">Figure 71</a> presents a conventionalized
+bird seen in
+profile, and a broad sky-band
+to which are attached
+representations of feathers
+and other organs suggesting
+a bird.</p>
+
+<p>An animal depicted in
+<a href="#figure072">figure 72</a> is one of three
+similar figures from the
+neck of the same vase,
+which are connected by a
+line or band. The design
+shown in <a href="#figure073">figure 73</a> represents
+a highly conventionalized bird hanging from the sky-band
+with head and wings on one side and tail feathers below.</p>
+
+<h4>BIRDS ATTACHED LONGITUDINALLY TO SKY-BAND</h4>
+
+<p>The designs shown in <a href="#figure074">figure 74</a> represent the simplest forms of
+birds attached lengthwise to the sky-band. The parallel lines on the
+left hand of the observer
+are supposed to represent
+tail feathers and the
+curve on the right, the
+heads, or possibly the
+wings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure071" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure071.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Conventionalized bird form hanging from
+    sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure072" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure072.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Conventionalized bird form
+    hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the best designs
+representing a bird attached
+to a sky-band is
+shown in <a href="#figure075">figure 75</a>, taken
+from a bowl in the Wattron
+collection now owned
+by the Field Columbian
+Museum, of Chicago. The
+interior surface of this
+bowl is considerably worn
+by use, and the figure
+a little indistinct, but the
+extremities of a band appear. There is a fairly realistic figure on
+each side of a bird with head and wings above and tail below a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span>diametrical band. There are zigzag markings, supposed to represent
+lightning, on the under side of the wing. The tail is spread
+out amply enough to show the different feathers which compose it;
+and at the bases or on its under side corresponding in position with
+like symbols on the wing there appear two zigzag figures. The
+significance of two curved bodies
+hanging from the sky-band, one
+on each side of the tail of this
+figure, can not be satisfactorily interpreted, but the bird design shown
+in <a href="#figure076">figure 76</a> has four tail feathers, a prolongation on the opposite side
+representing a head, and a curved extension comparable with a wing
+in other figures. The so-called
+wing terminates in a triangular
+feather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure073" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure073.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Conventionalized bird
+    form hanging from sky-band; top view.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp58" id="figure074" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure074.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—Lateral view of bird hanging
+    from sky-band.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The two designs, <a href="#figure076">figures 76 and
+77</a>, have parts which evidently
+correspond, the latter being one
+of the most beautiful in the collection.
+Both represent from the
+side an unknown bird hanging
+from a band extending across the
+middle of the bowls. Although
+the details of organs are more
+carefully depicted in the latter,
+there can hardly be a doubt that
+similar animals were intended in
+both designs.</p>
+
+<p>It requires some imagination
+to discover a conventionalized
+bird in <a href="#figure078">figure 78</a>, but we may
+regard it as such. We have in this figure a good example of a change
+in outline that may be produced by duplication or by representing
+both sides of the body or its organs and appendages in the same
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span>place. Three tail feathers are here apparent; the body is square, with
+zigzag white lines, and the head, here twisted into a vertical position,
+has a triangular form. The two crescentic appendages, one on
+the right side, the other on the
+left, represent halves of wings
+which are theoretically supposed
+to have been slit longitudinally
+and folded backward&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> in order
+that both sides may be shown on
+the same plane; the two bodies
+arising from the concave edges
+of these crescents—one to the left,
+the other to the right of the
+square body—represent legs.
+Their unusual form is brought
+about by a twisting of body and
+tail, by which feathers of the
+latter are brought to longitudinal
+position, and one of the legs is twisted to the right side and the other
+to the left. If the two appendages supposed to represent the legs or
+the two parts shaped like crescentlike knives were brought together,
+the two crescents would likewise merge into one, and we would then
+have a highly conventionalized bird with three tail feathers and a
+triangular head, the body being represented by a square design
+crossed diagonally by zigzag figures
+each in its own rectangular
+inclosed field.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure075" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure075.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure076" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure076.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Lateral view of bird with extended wing.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Decorations on Exteriors of Food Bowls</span></h5>
+
+<p>The exterior surface of almost
+every bowl from Sikyatki is decorated
+with lines or geometrical designs.
+Many of these designs may
+represent animals, probably birds
+highly conventionalized or so aberrant
+that the avian form can be
+recognized only by comparative or
+morphological studies. They are
+confined to one side of the bowl;
+there appears to be little resemblance
+and no connection between them and the figure depicted on the
+inside of the same bowls. Although linear in form, one end is sometimes
+so crooked or bent at an angle, not curved, as to form a head,
+while the other bears parallel lines, representations of the tail feathers,
+terraces, or triangles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure077" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure077.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Lateral view of bird hanging
+    from sky-band.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure078" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure078.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—Lateral view of bird hanging from sky-band.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#plate80">plate 80</a>, <i>a</i>, we have a characteristic example of one of these
+exterior decorations. The crooked end is supposed to represent a
+bird’s head; to the other end, or tail, are appended six feathers like
+those already considered. A row
+of five stars is strung along the
+band. A likeness to a bird is very
+obscure in <i>b</i>, while <i>c</i> shows several
+simple triangles with stepped figures
+in the middle and triangles at
+the ends. Design <i>d</i> has a square
+form and two triangles appended
+to each opposite angle. The appendages
+on the remaining opposite
+angles have four parallel
+lines. Design <i>e</i> consists of
+two highly conventionalized
+bird symbols, united to a third
+which forms the interior design.</p>
+
+<p>The design <i>f</i> recalls the sky-band described in the preceding pages.
+The extremities of this so-called band are enlarged into round spots
+from which arise parallel lines and triangular designs. From it
+hang terraced and crooked figures, while strung along one side at
+equal intervals are five
+stars, a common accompaniment
+of sky symbols.
+The bird symbol comes out
+clearly in <i>g</i>, where the
+crook design with terraces
+is repeated.</p>
+
+<p>All crooked figures have
+a similarity in general
+form, some more closely
+resembling birds than
+others, and it is taken for
+granted that the intention
+of the artist was to represent
+a bird in <a href="#plate81">plate 81</a>, <i>a</i>,
+notwithstanding the avian
+form is highly conventionalized.
+Design <i>b</i> is composite,
+consisting of a rectangular figure, to the angles of which
+are attached feathers. Terraced and triangular figures of unknown
+significance, stars, and other designs cover the rectangle.
+Design <i>c</i> is made up of a triangle with notched borders and a central
+rectangle with a dot characterizes this design; it has also two triangular
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>extensions that may represent feathers. Design <i>d</i> resembles
+previous figures identified as feathers and terraces hanging from a
+sky-band.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent part of the design <i>e</i> is a crook and parallel
+lines. In <i>f</i> are variously combined triangles with appended feathers,
+crooks, and terraced designs, so united as to make up a compound
+decoration of geometric character.</p>
+
+<p>The geometrical designs in the series, <a href="#plate82">plate 82</a>, <i>a-f</i>, may be interpreted
+as representing birds in flight or with extended wings. Considered
+in this way, it appears that we have in the figure on each side
+a highly conventionalized wing forming triangles with extensions at
+one angle, ending in terraces, crooks, or other designs. In these
+figures we constantly have a line that may be likened to the sky-band,
+each end generally terminating in a dot to which parallel lines are
+attached.</p>
+
+<p>Design <i>a</i> has two triangular bodies resembling the letter W, and
+the line terminating in two dots has two crossbars, while in <i>b</i> there
+is a union of designs. Elongated triangles terminate in lines which
+are enlarged into dots. These triangles are modified on one side
+into crooks with smaller triangles.</p>
+
+<p>From remote resemblances rather than similarity of form, <i>c</i> is
+placed near the preceding. Here a band is enlarged at the end representing
+the knots with attached parallel lines or feathers. The
+triangular pendants of <i>b</i> and the line with terminal dots of <i>a</i> are
+here represented. On the middle vertical of this figure is a
+trapezoidal design with notched edges.</p>
+
+<p>The elements of <i>d</i> form a compound in which triangles predominate.
+Two W-shaped designs, <i>e</i> and <i>f</i>, have a form quite unlike <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>,
+<i>c</i>, and <i>d</i>. Of these, <i>f</i> is the more complicated, but the similarity of
+the two is apparent.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#plate83">Plate 83</a>, <i>a</i>, represents two triangles with serrate margins hanging
+to a horizontal band, one end of which terminates in dots and lines,
+the other with two parallel notched feathers.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#plate84">Plate 84</a>, <i>a-c</i>, have the W shape shown in <a href="#plate82">plate 82</a>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>; the approach
+to the conventional bird form with extended wings and tail
+being most marked in <i>a</i>. Design <i>d</i> on <a href="#plate84">plate 84</a> recalls <a href="#plate83">plate 83</a>, <i>f</i>,
+with modifications that are apparent.</p>
+
+<p>The above-mentioned geometrical figures from the exteriors of
+Sikyatki food bowls show considerable variety of form but all can
+be reduced to a few elemental designs throughout in which the
+curved line is absent. The rectangular design is always dominant,
+but it will be seen from the following plate that it is not omnipresent,
+especially on the interiors of bowls.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="plate80" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate80.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 80</p>
+    <p>GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="plate81" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate81.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 81</p>
+    <p>GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="plate82" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate82.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 82</p>
+    <p>GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="plate83" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate83.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 83</p>
+    <p>GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="plate84" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate84.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 84</p>
+    <p>GEOMETRICAL FIGURES ON OUTSIDE OF BOWLS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="plate85" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate85.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 85</p>
+    <p>CONVENTIONALIZED BIRD DESIGNS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="plate86" style="max-width: 32.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate86.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 86</p>
+    <p>CONVENTIONALIZED BIRD DESIGNS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Curved Figure with Attached Feathers</span></h5>
+
+<p>The curved spiral figures shown in plates 85 and 86 are combinations
+of simple and complicated designs, among the most conspicuous
+of which are feathers. When these figures are placed in the same
+position it is possible to recognize three or four components which
+are designated (a) spiral, (b) appendage to the tip of the spiral,
+(c) a bundle of feathers recalling a bird’s tail, and (d) and (e)
+other parts of unknown homology occasionally represented. In <a href="#plate85">plate
+85</a>, <i>A</i> the appendage <i>b</i> to the spiral <i>a</i> is two triangles and two supplemental
+spirals arising from their attachments. There is no representation
+of <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, or <i>e</i> in this figure.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>B</i> of the same plate the elements <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, and <i>d</i> are represented.
+The appendage <i>b</i> attached to the tip of the spiral <i>a</i> has the form
+of a feather of the first type (see <a href="#plate76">pl. 76</a>), and four parallel
+lines, <i>c</i>, indicating feathers, are attached to the body. The two
+toothlike appendages <i>e</i>, of unknown significance, complete the figure.
+In <a href="#plate85">plate 85</a>, <i>C</i>, the design <i>a</i> has two dots <i>b</i> on the distal tip,
+from one of which arises a number of lines. The fact that <i>b</i> in figure
+<i>B</i> is a feather leads to the belief that <i>b</i> in figure <i>C</i> is the same
+design.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#plate85">Plate 85</a>, <i>D</i> and <i>E</i>, have a resemblance in form, <i>a</i> and <i>c</i> being represented
+in both; <i>b</i> and <i>e</i> are wanting in <i>E</i>. The different elements in
+these designs can be readily seen by comparing the same lettering in
+<i>F</i> and <i>G</i>, and in <a href="#plate86">plate 86</a>, <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, where a new element, <i>t</i>, is introduced.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#plate86">Plate 86</a>, <i>B</i> and <i>E</i>, are highly conventionalized designs; they suggest
+bird form, examples of which have been already considered
+elsewhere, but are very much modified.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that it was intended to represent birds or
+parts of birds as feathers in many of the above figures, but the
+perspective is so distorted that their morphology or relative position
+on the bird to which they belong can not be made out. In <a href="#plate86">plate 86</a>, <i>A</i>,
+for instance, the bird’s body seems to be split in two parts and laid
+on a flat plane. The pendent body, <i>t</i>, in the middle would be a
+representation of a bird’s tail composed of three feathers and with
+a double triangle terminating in dots from which arise lines of
+would-be feathers.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the parts, <i>a</i> and <i>t</i>, that occur in the last mentioned, are
+found in <a href="#plate86">plate 86</a>, <i>B</i>, in somewhat modified form. Thus the position
+of the tail feathers, <i>t</i>, figure <i>C</i>, is taken by feathers of a different
+form, their extremities being cut off flat and not curved. The bundles
+of feathers in <i>B</i> and <i>C</i> are here reversed, the left side of <i>B</i> corresponding
+to the right of <i>C</i>, and the appendage on the left of the tail
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>of <i>B</i> being represented by the appendage on the right of <i>C</i>. There
+are other remote likenesses between them.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Spider and Insects</span></h3>
+
+<p>Other flying animals, like bats and insects, are depicted on Sikyatki
+pottery, but not as constantly as birds. The spider, and
+insects like the dragon fly, moth, and butterfly, are the most common.
+In Hopi mythology the spider&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and the sun are associated, the
+former being the symbol of an earth goddess. Although no design
+that can be referred to the spider has yet been found on Sikyatki
+pottery, it is not wanting from Hopi (<a href="#plate87">pl. 87</a>, <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The symbol of the dragon fly, which occurs on several bowls from
+ancient Hopi ruins, is a line often enlarged at one end to form a
+head, and always with two crossbars near this enlargement to indicate
+wings. As this insect lives near springs and is constantly associated
+in modern symbolism with water it is probable that its occurrence
+on ancient Hopi pottery has practically the same significance
+as in modern conceptions.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Butterfly and Moth</span></h3>
+
+<p>Five typical figures that may be referred to the butterfly or moth
+occur on Sikyatki pottery. These figures have in common a triangular
+body which suggests a highly
+conventionalized picture of a bird.
+Their wings are, as a rule, extended
+horizontally, assuming the
+attitude of moths while at rest,
+there being only one of the five
+examples where wings are folded
+above the back, the normal position
+of these organs in a butterfly.
+With one exception, all these conventional
+butterfly figures bear
+two curved rows of dots on the
+head, probably intended to represent
+antennæ.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure079" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Butterfly and flower.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The figure of a moth in <a href="#figure079">figure 79</a>
+has a body of triangular form,
+and the extremities of the wings are shown on each side of a medially
+placed backward-extending projection, which is the posterior end
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span>of the abdomen. These wings bear white dots on their posterior
+edges suggesting the markings on certain genera of butterflies.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+There arises from the head, which here is circular, a single jointed
+appendage curved at the end, possibly
+the antenna, and an unjointed
+appendage, like a proboscis, inserted
+into a figure of a flower,
+mounted on a stalk that terminates
+at the other extremity in five
+parallel extensions or roots. A
+row of dots about the periphery
+of the flower suggests petals. The
+figures are accompanied by crosses
+representing stars.</p>
+
+<p>The second moth design (<a href="#figure080">fig. 80</a>)
+has even a closer resemblance to
+a bird than the last, for it also has
+a single antenna or row of dots
+connected by a curved line. It
+likewise has several curved lines resembling a crest of feathers on
+top of the head, and lines recalling the tail of a bird. The head this
+figure bears is a cross suggesting a female butterfly or moth.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure080" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure080.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—Butterfly with extended proboscis.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure081" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure081.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—Highly conventionalized butterfly.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The body in <a href="#figure081">figure 81</a> is crossed
+by five lines converging at one
+angle, imparting to it the appearance
+of having been formed by a
+union of several spherical triangles
+on each of which appear rectangular
+spaces painted black. A head
+is not differentiated from the body,
+but at the point of union of the
+five lines above mentioned there
+arise two rows of dots which have
+the form of circles, each inclosing
+a dot. From analogy these are
+supposed to represent antennæ.
+The middle of wing-shaped extensions
+recalling butterfly designs
+are marked by circular figures in <a href="#figure082">figure 82</a>, but the absence
+in this figure of a head with jointed appendages renders it doubtful
+whether it represents an insect. The shape of the body and its
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span>appendages resembling feathers indicate, so far as they go, that
+this design represents some bird.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted that in one of the above-mentioned figures, identified
+as a moth, flowers are indicated by dotted circles, while in another
+similar circle, figures, also surrounded with dots, are represented
+on the wings. One pair
+of wings is represented in the last-mentioned
+figure, but a second
+pair placed behind the larger may
+have been confounded with the
+tail feathers. In one of these figures
+from Sikyatki there is a row
+of dots around the margin of the
+wings—a common but not universal
+feature in modern pictures of
+butterfly figures. None of the
+butterfly figures have representations
+of legs, which is not strange
+considering how inconspicuous
+these appendages are among these
+insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure082" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure082.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Moth.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure083" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure083.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—Moth.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>A most striking figure of a butterfly is represented by six drawings
+on the so-called “butterfly vase” (<a href="#figure083">fig. 83</a>). These, like the above-mentioned,
+resemble birds, but they all have antennæ, which identify
+them as insects. These six figures (<a href="#plate90">pl. 90</a>) are supposed to be connected
+with the six cardinal points which in modern Hopi belief have
+sex—the butterfly corresponding to the north, male; to the west,
+female; to the south, male; to the
+east, female; to the above, male;
+and to the below, female. The
+wings of all these insects are represented
+as extended, the anterior
+pair extending far beyond the
+posterior, while both have a uniform
+color and are without marginal
+dots. The appendages to
+the head are two curved rows of
+dots representing antennæ, and
+two parallel lines are the mouth
+parts or possibly the proboscis.
+The markings on the bodies and
+the terminal parallel lines are like
+tail feathers of birds. The heads of three figures, instead of having
+diagonal lines, are covered with a crosshatching, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, and are
+supposed to represent the males, as the former, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, are females.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure084" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure084.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—Moth of geometrical form.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure085" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure085.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—Geometrical
+    form of moth.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp90" id="figure086" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure086.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—Highly conventionalized
+    butterfly.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure087" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure087.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—Geometrical form of moth.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>A moth with a conventionalized geometric form is represented in
+<a href="#figure084">figure 84</a> with outstretched wings, a rounded abdomen, and a spotted
+rectangular body recalling designs on
+the upper embroidered margin of modern
+ceremonial blankets. A like figure
+has been elsewhere described by the
+author as a butterfly.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> It occurs on the
+stone slab which once formed one side of an Awatobi altar.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> We
+have more complicated forms of butterflies represented in figures
+85-87, the identification of which is even more
+doubtful than the last. <a href="#figure086">Figure 86</a> reproduces in
+its several parts <a href="#figure085">figure 85</a>, being composed of a
+central design, around which
+are arranged six triangles,
+one of the last being placed
+above, another below, the
+main figure, and there are
+two on each side. The design, <a href="#figure088">figure 88</a>, is
+circular, the alternately colored quadrants
+forming two hourglass combinations. The
+double triangle, shown in <a href="#figure084">figure 84</a>, resembles a butterfly symbol,
+having a close likeness to a figure of this insect found on the Awatobi
+tablet above mentioned. This figure also resembles triangular designs
+painted on the walls of modern
+Hopi rooms and in cliff-dwellings
+(Cliff Palace). These figures
+present very remote likenesses to
+butterfly symbols and their identification
+as such is difficult.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Geometrical Designs</span></h3>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure088" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure088.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—Circle
+    with triangles.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The geometrical designs on the pottery from Sikyatki consist of
+two well-recognized groups: (1) Purely ornamental or nonsymbolic
+geometrical figures, and (2) highly conventional
+life forms. Some of the figures of the second group
+may be geometrical representations of birds or other
+animals; but the former are simply embellishments
+used to beautify the objects on which they are
+painted. Purely decorative designs, not being symbolic,
+will not be specially considered, as they do
+not come within the scope of the present treatise. An
+interpretation of the significance of many of the second group of
+geometrical designs is not possible, although they probably represent
+animal forms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span></p>
+
+<p>The strictly geometrical figures so frequently found on pottery
+from Sikyatki recall the linear decorations almost universal in ancient
+southwestern ware.</p>
+
+<p>No one who has carefully compared specimens of decorated pottery
+from Sikyatki with examples from any other southwestern region
+could fail to be impressed with the differences in some of the
+geometrical designs from the two localities. Such designs on the
+Sikyatki ware are almost always rectangular, rarely curved. As
+compared with pottery from cliff-dwellings there is a paucity or
+entire absence of terraced designs in the ancient Hopi ware, while
+zigzags representing lightning are comparatively rare. The characteristic
+geometrical decorations on Sikyatki pottery are found on
+the outside of the food bowls, in which respect they are notably different
+from those of other ceramic areas. Designs on Sikyatki pottery
+show few survivals of preexisting materials or evolution from
+transfer of those on textiles of any kind. Such as do exist are so
+masked that they shed little light on current theories of art evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The designs on ancient Hopi pottery are in the main mythological,
+hence their true interpretation involves a knowledge of the religious
+ideas and especially of such psychological elements as sympathetic
+magic, so prevalent among the Hopi of to-day. The idea that by
+the use of symbols man could influence supernatural beings was no
+doubt latent in the mind of the potter and explains the character
+of the symbols in many instances. The fact that the bowls on which
+these designs are painted were found with the dead, and contained
+food for the departed, implies a cult of the dead, or at least a belief
+in a future life.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rain Clouds</span></h3>
+
+<p>The most constant geometric designs on Pueblo pottery are those
+representing the rain cloud, and from analogy we would expect to
+find the rain-cloud figures conspicuously on ancient Hopi pottery.
+We look in vain on Sikyatki ware for the familiar semicircular
+symbols of rain clouds so constant among the modern Hopi; nor do
+we find the rectangular terraced form which is equally common.
+These modifications were probably lately introduced into Hopiland
+by those colonists of alien clans who came after the destruction of
+Sikyatki, and consequently are not to be expected on its pottery.
+Their place was taken by other characteristic forms closely allied
+to rectangular terraced figures from which hang parallel lines, representing
+falling rain in modern symbolism.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The typical Sikyatki
+rain-cloud symbol is terraced without rain symbols and finds its
+nearest relative on pottery derived from the eastern pueblo region.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>The form of rain-cloud symbol on Sikyatki pottery may be regarded
+as characteristic of the Kokop clan which, according to legends,
+settled this ancient pueblo. Modified variants of this form of rain-cloud
+symbol occur on almost every specimen in the Sikyatki collection,
+and can be seen hanging from “sky-bands” with appended
+star signs or without such connections.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure089" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure089.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—Rain cloud.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The most common Sikyatki symbol of a rain cloud is shown in <a href="#figure089">figure
+89</a> and <a href="#plate90">plate 90</a>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>. These rain-cloud designs rarely occur singly,
+being more often six in number, as if
+intended to represent the six cardinal
+points recognized in Hopi ceremonies.
+We find the Sikyatki rain-cloud symbols
+resembling somewhat those of the modern
+Zuñi, or figures of clouds found on
+the characteristic designs on Little
+Colorado ceramics. Somewhat similar angular terraced forms are
+almost universally used in eastern pueblos as rain-cloud symbols, but
+the semicircular forms (<a href="#figure090">fig. 90</a>) of modern Hopi ceremonials, being
+apparently a highly specialized modification, rarely occur on Sikyatki
+pottery.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Stars</span></h3>
+
+<p>The star sign occurs as an equal armed cross formed by the approximation
+of four squares, leaving a central uncolored area. It is
+generally accompanied by a rain-cloud
+symbol or bird figures, although likewise
+found without them. We often find one
+arm of the component arms of the cross
+missing and two of the remaining arms
+adherent to a band; often these crosses
+have a circular enlargement at the junction
+of their arms. A simple equal armed
+cross is the sole decoration on the interior
+of numerous food bowls, and there are several examples of St.
+Andrew’s crosses, the triangular arms of which have been interpreted
+as representing four conventionalized birds; no example
+of a cross with unequal arms has yet been found on Sikyatki
+pottery.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure090" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure090.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Rain cloud.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These crosses, like that with four arms representing the Sky god
+in modern Hopi symbolism, probably represent the Heart of the Sky.
+A similar cross is figured on paraphernalia used in modern Hopi
+rites or on altar slabs; when it is represented by a wooden frame, it
+is called <i>tokpela</i>, and hangs before the altar. The same object is
+sometimes attached horizontally to the top of the helmet of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span>personification of the Sky god.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> The swastika is rare in ancient
+pottery and was not found at Sikyatki, although a single example was
+dug up at Awatobi and a few others were obtained from the Little
+Colorado ruins.</p>
+
+<p>A multiple cross, formed of three parallel lines crossing three others
+at an angle, generally accompanies certain conventionalized figures
+of birds and in one example there are two multiple crosses, one on
+one side and one on another of a moth or butterfly symbol. The
+multiple cross is supposed to represent six canes used in a game,
+and on a prehistoric decorated bowl from ancient Shongopovi,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> we
+find what appears to be a highly conventionalized bird figure occupying
+one-half of the interior of the bowl, while four figures representing
+these canes appear on the other. The bird figure, in this
+instance, is interpreted as a gambler’s god, or a representation of the
+god of chance.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Sun Emblems</span></h3>
+
+<p>The most conventionalized sun emblem is a circle or ring with
+attached feathers. The Sikyatki design (<a href="#plate87">pl. 87</a>, <i>b</i>) is a circle bearing
+on its periphery appendages believed to represent feathers,
+with accompanying lines, generally
+painted red, to represent
+the rays of the sun.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure091" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure091.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Ring with appended feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The identification of the bird
+whose feathers are used in sun
+emblems has not yet been made,
+although the position of similar
+feathers on the body of other bird
+designs suggests that they represent
+eagle feathers. The feather
+of the eagle is commonly associated
+with both ancient and modern
+pictures representing the sun. Thus we have on a vessel from
+Sikyatki in <a href="#figure091">figure 91</a> a design bearing four feathers arranged at intervals
+a quadrant apart alternating with radiating lines. If we
+interpret this figure in the light of modern symbolism the circle
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span>would be regarded as the sun and the feathers would be identified
+as eagle feathers, while the lines might be considered to represent
+the red rays of the four cardinal points.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="plate87" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate87.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 87</p>
+    <p>BIRD, SUN, AND SPIDER AND SUN SYMBOLS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="plate88" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate88.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 88</p>
+    <p>CONVENTIONALIZED BIRD FIGURES</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In a bowl found at old Shongopovi,
+a ruin inhabited at the same epoch
+as Sikyatki, the sun takes the form of a
+sky bird. In this design the ring figure
+is replaced by a bird with wings, tail,
+and a beak, evidently the sun bird, hawk,
+or eagle (<a href="#plate88">pl. 88</a>, <i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure092" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure092.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Two circles with figure.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A theoretical interpretation of <a href="#plate88">plate 88</a>, <i>b</i>, is facilitated by a comparison
+of it with the design painted on a bowl from the Wattron
+collection, now in the Field Columbian
+Museum. As this has all the
+parts represented in <a href="#figure075">figure 75</a>, the conclusion
+would naturally be that the intention
+of the artist was to represent a
+bird figure.</p>
+
+<p>Ring or circle shaped figures are found
+on several bowls from Sikyatki, and in
+one case (<a href="#figure092">fig. 92</a>) we find two circles
+side by side separated by a rectangular
+figure. The meaning of these rings and
+the accompanying design is not known.
+Concentric circles diametrically accompanied with two figures,
+one with a head and two lateral feathers, the other with the
+form of a hash-knife figure, are shown
+in <a href="#figure093">figure 93</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure094">figure 94</a> the appendages of the
+ring design or sun emblem is much
+more complicated than any of the preceding.
+Each of the four quadrants
+has two appendages, a cluster with two
+feathers, and a curved body with a
+sickle-shaped extension, the whole giving
+a swastika-like appearance to the
+design. The interior of the circle is
+likewise complicated, showing a structure difficult to interpret. From
+comparisons with preceding figures this is likewise regarded as a
+sun emblem.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure093" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure093.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—Sun with feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp85" id="figure094" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure094.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Sun symbol.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure095" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure095.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—Ring with appended
+    feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp100" id="figure096" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure096.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—Ring figure with legs
+    and appended feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span></p>
+
+<p>The ring or circle shown in <a href="#figure095">figure 95</a> hangs from a band that
+may be likened to the sky-band of previous description.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
+    A triangle&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+is attached to the upper side of
+this band, while appended to the ring
+itself there is a featherlike object corresponding
+to a bird’s tail and wing. This
+figure is unique in the Sikyatki collection
+of ancient Hopi pictography.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure096">figure 96</a> we find a leg appended to
+the lower side of the ring balanced by
+three wing
+feathers above
+or on the opposite
+side, two
+curved or crescentic extensions projecting
+from the rear, diametrically opposite
+which arises a curved body (head) with
+terminating sickle-shaped prolongation.
+This figure may be considered a bird
+design, having the tail twisted from a
+lateral to a vertical position and the wing raised from the body.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure097" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure097.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—Sun emblem with appended feathers.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure097">figure 97</a> we find a similar ring still further modified, the appendages
+to it being somewhat different. The ring is here broader
+than the last, inclosing an area
+crossed by two lines forming a
+cross, with short parallel lines
+at the ends of each arm. There
+is a head showing a circular
+face with dots indicating eyes
+and mouth. The head bears a
+crest of feathers between two
+horns. Here we have in place
+of the appendage to the lower
+side an elongated curved projection
+extending to the left,
+balanced by a short, stumpy,
+curved appendage on the right,
+while between these appendages
+hang four parallel lines
+suggesting the highly conventional feathers of a tail. The horns
+with the crest of feathers between them recall the crest of the Sun
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span>god, of the Kachina clan, called Tunwup, a Sky god who flogs the
+children of modern Walpi.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure098" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure098.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—Sun symbol.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp75" id="figure099" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure099.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—Sun symbol.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The ring design in <a href="#figure098">figure 98</a> has a bunch of three feathers in each
+quadrant, recalling the feathers of a sun emblem so well shown with
+other kinds of feathers in <a href="#plate76">plate 76</a>, <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure099">figure 99</a> we have a circle with four
+appended bifurcated geometrical extensions
+projecting outward on the periphery, and
+recalling featherless tails of birds. This is
+also a highly conventionalized sun emblem
+reduced to a geometrical figure.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with all these circular figures
+may be considered that shown in <a href="#figure092">figure
+92</a>, the form of which is highly suggestive.
+In the various modifications above mentioned we detect two elements,
+the ring and its peripheral appendages, interpreted as feathers, head,
+feet, and other bird organs. Sometimes the ring predominates, sometimes
+the feathers, and sometimes a bird figure replaces all, the ring
+being lost or reduced in size. This variation is primitive and quite
+consistent with the Pueblo conceptions
+and analogies known to occur
+in Hopi ceremonial paraphernalia.
+This variation illustrates what is
+elsewhere said about the influence of
+the magic power on the pictorial art
+of Hopi.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>The sun, to the Hopi mind, is
+likewise represented by a bird,
+or a compound of both becomes
+a Sky-god emblem; the horned
+serpent is the servant of the Sky
+god.</p>
+
+<p>We find among the modern Hopi several disks with markings
+and decorations of such a character that they are identified as
+representations of the sun. One of these is worn by the leader of the
+kachinas in a ceremony called the Powamû, an elaborate rite, the
+purpose of which is to purify from evil influences. This Sun god&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>is called Ahül, and the symbolism of his mask, especially feathers
+attached to the head, suggests some of the Sikyatki designs considered
+above.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rectangular Figures Representing Shrines</span></h3>
+
+<p>The word <i>pahoki</i>, prayer-stick house or “shrine,” is applied by the
+modern Hopi to the receptacle, commonly a ring of stones, in which
+prayer offerings are deposited, and receives its name from the special
+supernatural personage worshiped. These shrines are regarded as
+sacred by the Hopi and are particularly numerous in the neighborhood
+of the Hopi mesas.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> They are ordinarily simply rude inclosures
+made of stones or flat stone slabs set on edge, forming boxes,
+which may either be closed or open on one side. The simplest pictographic
+representation of such a shrine is the same as that of a
+house, or a circular or rectangular figure. A similar design is drawn
+in meal on the floor of the kiva or traced with the same material on
+the open plaza when the priest wishes to represent a house or shrine.
+Elaborate pictures made of different colored sands to represent gods
+are often inclosed by encircling lines, the whole called a house of
+the gods. Thus the sand picture on the Antelope altar of the Snake
+dance is called the house of the rain-cloud beings.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> When reptiles
+are washed on the ninth day of the Snake dance they are said to be
+thrown into the house, a sand picture of the mountain lion. It is
+customary to make in some ceremonies not only a picture of the god
+worshiped, but also a representation of his or her house. The custom
+of adding a picture of a shrine to that of the supernatural can be seen
+by examining a series of pictures of Hopi kachinas. Here the shrine
+is a rain-cloud symbol introduced to show that the house of the
+kachina represented is a rain cloud.</p>
+
+<p>Sikyatki bowls decorated with figures identified as supernaturals
+often bear accompanying designs which may, from comparative
+reasoning, be interpreted as shrines of the supernatural being depicted.
+They have at times a form not unlike that of certain sand
+pictures, as in the case of the curved figure accompanying a highly
+conventionalized plumed serpent. A great variety of figures of this
+kind are found on Sikyatki bowls,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> and often instead of being a
+rectangular figure they may be elongated more like a prayer offering.</p>
+
+<p>The rectangular figure that accompanies a representation of a
+great horned serpent (<a href="#figure100">fig. 100</a>) may be interpreted as the shrine
+house of that monster, and it is to be mentioned that this shrine appears
+to be surrounded by radial lines representing curved sticks
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span>like those set around sand pictures of the Snake and Antelope
+altars of the Snake ceremonies at Walpi.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>It is suggested
+that the figure
+below the
+mountain sheep
+(see <a href="#figure018">fig. 18</a>)
+and the circles
+with dots accompanying
+the butterfly
+and bird designs
+may also
+represent
+shrines. Attention
+is also
+called to the
+fact that each
+of the six animal
+figures of
+the elaborate
+butterfly vase
+(<a href="#plate90">pl. 90</a>, <i>c</i>) is accompanied
+by a
+rectangular design
+representing
+a shrine in
+which feathers
+are visible.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp57" id="figure100" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure100.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Horned snake with conventionalized shrine.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The general forms of these shrines, are shown in <a href="#figure101">figures 101
+and 102</a>. The one shown in <a href="#figure103">figure 103</a> is especially instructive
+from its association with a highly conventionalized
+animal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp43" id="figure101" style="max-width: 10.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure101.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—Shrine.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp64" id="figure102" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure102.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>—Shrine.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Sikyatki epoch of Hopi ceramics is more
+closely allied to early Keresan&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> than to ancient
+Tanoan, and has many likenesses to modern Keresan
+pottery. In fact, none of the distinctive figures have
+yet been found on true Tanoan ware in any great
+numbers. There appear also no evidences of increments
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span>peculiar to the Little Colorado culture center of which Zuñi
+is the modern survival; consequently we look in vain for evidence of
+early communication between these
+two centers; possibly Sikyatki fell
+before Zuñi attained any prominence
+in the Little Colorado area.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Symbols Introduced from San Juan River Settlements</span></h3>
+
+<p>Although the majority of Hopi
+priests declare that the earliest
+clan to settle Walpi was the Bear,
+coming from the east, by far the
+largest number of early colonists
+are said to belong to the Snake
+people which came from Tokonabi
+and other great settlements on
+tributaries of the San Juan in
+northern Arizona. The route of
+their migration is fairly well known from legendary sources supported
+in late years by some limited excavations that have been made
+in ruins along its course,
+so that we know something
+of the character of the
+Snake pottery and the symbols,
+which these early colonists
+brought to the Bear
+settlement at the base of
+the East Mesa. These are
+not unlike those found
+along the San Juan and its
+tributaries from the Mesa
+Verde to Wukoki near the
+Black Falls on the Little
+Colorado, west of the Hopi
+Mesa.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure103" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure103.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>—Conventionalized winged bird with
+    shrine.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This ware is commonly
+either black and white, or
+red, and can be readily distinguished from that of Sikyatki by the
+wealth of geometrical decorations and the poverty of such animal
+figures as birds, reptiles, and insects. The designs of that early epoch
+appear to be uniform and hardly distinctive from those that occur
+in all parts of the Southwest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span></p>
+
+<p>We may judge of the character of the symbols and designs on
+pottery from the San Juan and from the ruins of Wukoki on the
+Black Falls of Little Colorado. It is characterized by an abundance
+of geometric figures and an almost total absence of life forms
+or painted figures of men and animals. The pottery is thin, well
+made, and sometimes colored red, but the majority of specimens are
+gray or black-and-white ware not especially different from a widespread
+type occurring pretty generally throughout the Southwest.
+Coiled and incised ware is more abundant than smooth painted, but
+these are not as varied in form as later examples. There is no evidence
+available that there was any very great difference between the
+Hopi pottery decorations of the first epoch and that of contemporary
+time in the Southwest. When the Snake clans arrived at Walpi
+they found the village of Bear people living on the terrace at the
+base of the East Mesa, possessed of a symbolism like that of Sikyatki.
+The combined clans, Bear and Snake, were later joined by the Horn
+and Flute, and it is not unlikely that some of the likenesses between
+the pottery symbols of the settlement on the terrace below Walpi
+and Sikyatki may have developed about this time.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>The designs on the ceramics of the Snake clans are best illustrated
+by the prehistoric pottery from ruins and cliff-dwellings in
+Utah and along the San Juan area, where geometrical patterns
+far outnumber those representing life forms. This does not deny
+that many of the pieces of pottery from this region are finely made,
+equal in technique perhaps to some of the Sikyatki, but the geometric
+designs on San Juan pottery and that from Sikyatki are
+radically different. This difference conforms with tradition that
+the Snake clans left their homes at Tokonabi, in the San Juan
+region, and came to Hopi after the foundation of Sikyatki, which
+had probably developed its beautiful ceramic art before Walpi was
+settled. There is no evidence that the potters of the Snake clan
+ever introduced any modification in the symbolic decoration of
+pottery by the women of Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Symbols Introduced by the Snake People</span></h3>
+
+<p>The designs on pottery taken from prehistoric ruins of pueblos
+or villages once inhabited by the Snake clans claim the archeologist’s
+especial attention. These clans were the most important early additions
+to the Hopi villages and no doubt influenced early Hopi
+symbolism. There is little trace in early pottery that can be recognized
+as peculiar to the Snake. The Snake clans formerly lived
+at Betatakin, Kitsiel, and neighboring ruins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span></p>
+
+<p>Among many significant differences that occur between the designs
+on pottery from the ruins in Navaho National Monument and
+those of Sikyatki may be mentioned the rarity of bird designs and
+the conventional feathers above described. Parallel lines and triangles
+have been found on the pottery from Kitsiel and Betatakin.
+Terraced figures are common; spirals are rare. Pottery designs
+from this region are simpler and like those of the Mesa Verde cliff-houses
+and the ruins along the San Juan River. Not only do the
+designs on prehistoric Sikyatki pottery have little resemblance to
+those from Tokonabi, a former home of the Snake clan, but the
+pottery from this region of Arizona is of coarser texture and different
+color. It is the same as that of the San Juan area, the decorations
+on which are about uniform with those from the Mesa Verde
+and Chelly Canyon. The best vases and bowls are of red or black-and-white
+ware.</p>
+
+<p>In the pottery symbols of the clans that lived at Tokonabi (Kitsiel,
+Betatakin, etc.) the archaic predominated. The passage architecturally
+from the fragile-walled dwelling into Prudden’s pueblo
+“unit type” had taken place, but the pottery had not yet been
+greatly modified. Even after the Snake clans moved to Wukoki,
+near the Black Falls of the Little Colorado, we still find the survival
+of geometrical designs characteristic of the prepuebloan epoch.
+Consequently when the Snake clans came to Walpi and joined the
+Hopi they brought no new symbols and introduced no great changes
+in symbols. The influence of the clans from the north was slight—too
+small to greatly influence the development of Hopi symbolism.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="TANOAN_EPOCH">TANOAN EPOCH</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Tanoan epoch in the chronology of Hopi pottery symbolism
+is markedly different from the Keresan. It began with the influx
+of Tanoan clans, either directly or by way of Zuñi and the Little
+Colorado, being represented in modern times by the early creations
+of Hano women, like Nampeo. It is clearly marked and readily
+distinguished from the Sikyatki epoch, being well represented in
+eastern museums by pottery collected from Hano, the Tewan pueblo
+on the East Mesa.</p>
+
+<p>Migrations of Tanoan clans into the Hopi country began very
+early in Hopi history, but waves of colonists with Tanoan kinship
+came to Walpi at the close of the seventeenth century as a result of
+the great rebellion (1680), when the number of colonists from the
+Rio Grande pueblos was very large. The Badger, Kachina, Asa,
+and Hano clans seem to have been the most numerous and important
+in modifying sociological conditions, especially at the East Mesa of
+the Hopi. Some of these came directly to Walpi, others entered by
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>way of Zuñi, and still others by way of Awatobi. They brought
+with them Tanoan and Keresan symbolism and Little Colorado
+elements, all of which were incorporated. The Tanoan symbols are
+very difficult to differentiate individually but created a considerable
+modification in the artistic products, as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism that the colonists from the Little Colorado settlements
+brought to Walpi was mixed in character, containing certain
+Gila Valley elements. Among the last-mentioned were increments
+derived directly from Zuñi, as shown in the symbolism of their pottery.
+Among the most important thus introduced were contributions
+of the Asa, Kachina, Badger, and Butterfly clans. The most important
+element from the Little Colorado clans that originally came
+from the Gila Valley (Palatkwabi) are those connected with the
+plumed serpent.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> It is possible to trace successive epochs in the
+history of ceramic decoration in the Little Colorado ruins and to
+identify, in a measure, the clans with which these epochs were associated,
+but to follow out this identification in this paper would take
+me too far afield and lead into a discussion of areas far distant from
+the Hopi, for it belongs more especially to the history of ceramic
+decorations of Zuñi decoration and composition.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> In the present
+article all the Little Colorado influences are treated as belonging to
+the Tanoan epoch, which seems to have been the dominant one in the
+Little Colorado when emigration, comparatively modern in time,
+began to Hopi.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Symbols Introduced from the Little Colorado</span></h3>
+
+<p>After the destruction of Sikyatki there was apparently a marked
+deterioration in the excellence of Hopi ceramics, which continued as
+late as the overthrow of Awatobi, when the Sikyatki epoch ceased.
+Shortly before that date and for a few years later there was a
+notable influx of foreigners into Hopiland; a number of southern
+clans from the Little Colorado successively joined the Hopi, bringing
+with them cultural conceptions and symbolic designs somewhat
+different from those existing previously to their advent. Among
+these clans are those known in migration legends as the Patki peoples.
+Although we can not distinguish a special Patki epoch in Hopi
+ceramics, we have some ideas of the nature of Patki symbolism
+from large collections from Homolobi, Chevlon, and Chavez Pass.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>From traditions and ceremonial objects now in use we also know
+something of the nature of the objective symbols they introduced into
+Walpi, and we can detect some of these on pottery and other objects
+used in ceremonies at Walpi. Some of these symbols did not come
+directly from the Little Colorado ruins, but went first to Awatobi
+and from there to Walpi&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> after the destruction of the former pueblo
+in the autumn of the year 1700. The arrival of southern clans at the
+East Mesa with their characteristic symbols occurred approximately
+in the seventeenth century, about 200 years after the date of the
+discovery of Hopi by Tovar. Awatobi received the Rabbit, Tobacco,
+and other clans from this migration from the south between the years
+1632 and 1700, and Walpi received the Patki shortly after or at the
+same time the Hano clans came from the far east. The similarities
+in ancient pottery from the Little Colorado and that belonging to the
+Sikyatki epoch can not be ascribed to anything more profound than
+superficial contact. It is not probable that the ancient pottery of
+Awatobi or that of Kawaika and other Keres pueblos on the Awatobi
+mesa or in the adjacent plain was modified in any considerable degree
+by incoming clans from the south, but survived the Sikyatki epoch
+a century after Sikyatki had been destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The advent of the clans from the Little Colorado into the Hopi
+country was too late to seriously affect the classic period of Hopi
+ceramics; it appears also not to have exerted any great influence on
+later times. Extensive excavations made at Homolobi, Chevlon, and
+Chavez Pass have revealed much pottery which gives a good idea of
+the symbolism characteristic of the clans living along this valley,
+which resembles in some respects the classic Hopi pottery of the time
+of Sikyatki, but several of these likenesses date back to a time before
+the union of the Hopi and Little Colorado clans. As a rule the bird
+figures on pottery from Homolobi, Chevlon, Chavez Pass, and other
+representative Little Colorado ruins are more realistic and less conventionalized
+and complex than those from Sikyatki. The peculiar
+forms of feathers found so constantly in the latter do not occur in the
+former, nor does the sky-band with its dependent bird figure ever
+occur on Little Colorado ware. We are here dealing with less-developed
+conventionalism, a cruder art, and less specialized symbolism.
+Even if the colors of the pottery did not at once separate them, the
+expert can readily declare whether he is dealing with a bowl from
+Sikyatki or Homolobi. There are, to be sure, likenesses, but well-marked
+differences of local development. The resemblances and differences
+in the case of bird figures on prehistoric Hopi ware and that
+from the ruins on the Little Colorado can be readily shown by considering
+figures 105, 106, and 107, found at Homolobi and Chevlon, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span>the corresponding preceding bird figures. It may be interesting to
+instance another example. <a href="#figure104">Figure 104</a> shows a lateral view of a bird
+with wings extended, bearing marginal dentations representing feathers
+on the breast and a tail composed of four triangular feathers and
+two eyes, each with iris and pupil. The upper and lower jaws in this
+figure are extended to form a beak, as is customary in bird designs
+from the Little Colorado ruins, but never found at Sikyatki. In
+<a href="#figure105">figure 105</a> we have another lateral view of a characteristic bird design
+from the Little Colorado region, and <a href="#figure106">figures 106 and 107</a> show hourglass
+bodies, a special feature of the same region.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure104" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure104.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>—Lateral view of bird with double eyes.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the same way many other distinctive characteristics separating
+figures of animals from the two regions might be mentioned. Those
+above given may suffice to show that each is distinctive and in a way
+specialized in its development, but the main reason to believe that
+the clans from the Little Colorado never affected the symbolism of
+Sikyatki is the fact that the latter ruin was destroyed before these
+clans joined the Hopi villages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span></p>
+
+<p>The ruins Homolobi and Chevlon were probably inhabited well
+into historic times, although there is no archeological evidence that
+artifacts from them were modified by European influences. The
+symbolism on pottery shows that their culture was composite and
+seems to have been the result of acculturation from both south and
+east. Some of the clans, as the Tobacco, that peopled these settlements
+joined Awatobi before its overthrow, while others settled at
+Pakatcomo, the ruins of which near Walpi are still visible, and later
+united with the people of the largest village of the East Mesa. So
+far as known, Sikyatki had been destroyed before any considerable
+number of people had entered
+the Hopi country from the
+Little Colorado,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> the event occurring
+comparatively late in
+history.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure105" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure105.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>—Lateral view of bird with double eyes.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The pottery from the Little
+Colorado differs from prehistoric
+Hopi ware much less
+with respect to geometrical
+designs than life forms. The
+break in the encircling line,
+or, as it is called, the life gate,
+which is almost universally
+found on the ancient Hopi
+vases, bowls, dippers, and
+other objects, occurs likewise
+on pottery from Little Colorado
+ruins. Some of the encircling lines from this region have more
+than one break, and in one instance the edges of the break have
+appendages, a rare feature found in both prehistoric Hopi and Little
+Colorado ware.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure106" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure106.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—Bird with double eyes.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The influence of Keres culture on Zuñi may be shown in several
+ways, thus: A specimen of red ware from a shrine on Thunder
+Mountain, an old Zuñi site, is decorated with symbolic feathers
+recalling those on Sikyatki ware ascribed to eastern influence. The
+nonappearance of Keres and Tewa symbols on ancient pottery from
+the Zuñi Valley ruins, Heshotauthla and Hálonawan, and their
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>existence in the mountain shrine above mentioned, implies that the
+latter settlement is more modern, and that the eastern clans united
+with preexisting Little Colorado clans comparatively late in its
+history. The first settlements in Zuñi Valley were made by colonists
+from the Gila. There are several ceremonies in the Walpi ritual
+which, like the New Fire, although immediately derived from Awatobi,
+came originally from Little Colorado pueblos, and other ceremonies
+came directly to Walpi from the same original source.
+Among the former are those introduced by the Piba (Tobacco) clan,
+which brought to Walpi a secret fraternity called the Tataukyamû.
+This brotherhood came directly from Awatobi, but the Tobacco clan
+from which it was derived once lived in a pueblo on the Little Colorado,
+now a ruin at Chevlon, midway between Holbrook and Winslow.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+The identification of the Chevlon ruin with the historic
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>Chipias has an important bearing on the age of the Little Colorado
+ruins, for Padre Arvide, a Franciscan missionary, was killed in 1632
+by the Chipias, who lived west of Zuñi. In other words, their
+pueblo was then inhabited.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure107" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure107.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—Two birds with rain clouds.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We know that the Piba joined Awatobi before 1700, or the year it
+was destroyed; consequently the desertion of the Chevlon ruin
+(Chipiaya, or Tcipiaiya) evidently occurred between 1632 and 1700,
+not so much on account of Apache inroads as from fear of punishment
+by the Spaniards.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> As no clans from the other large pueblo on
+the Little Colorado or Homolobi joined Awatobi, we can not definitely
+fix the date that this group fled to the north, but it was probably
+not long after the time the Chevlon clans migrated to Awatobi,
+from which it follows that the Little Colorado settlements were inhabited
+up to the middle of the seventeenth century. While the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span>Little Colorado clans did not influence the Sikyatki pottery, they did
+affect the potters of Awatobi to a limited extent and introduced some
+symbols into Walpi in the middle of the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries. Among these influences may be mentioned those derived
+from Awatobi after its destruction in 1700. It is not possible to
+state definitely what modifications in pottery symbols were introduced
+into Walpi by the potters of the clans from Awatobi and the
+Little Colorado. Possibly no considerable modification resulted
+from their advent, as there was already more or less similarity in
+the pottery from these geographical localities. The southern clans
+introduced some novelties in ceremonies, especially in the Winter
+Solstice and New-fire festivals and in the rites of the Horned Serpent
+at the Spring Equinox.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Symbols Introduced by the Badger and Kachina Clans</span></h3>
+
+<p>As the clans which came to the Hopi country from Zuñi were comparatively
+late arrivals of Tewa colonists long after the destruction
+of Sikyatki, their potters exerted no influence on the Sikyatki potters.
+The ancient Hopi ceramic art had become extinct when the clans
+from Awatobi, the pueblos on the Little Colorado, and the late Tewa,
+united with the Walpi settlement on the East Mesa. The place
+whence we can now obtain information of the character of the symbolism
+of the Asa, Butterfly, Badger, and other Tewan clans is in
+certain ceremonies at Sichomovi, a pueblo near Walpi, settled by
+clans from Zuñi and often called the Zuñi pueblo by the Hopi. One
+of the Sichomovi ceremonies celebrated at Oraibi and Sichomovi
+on the East Mesa, in which we may find survivals of the earliest Tewa
+and Zuñi symbolism, is called the Owakülti. The Sichomovi variant
+of the Owakülti shows internal sociologic relation to the Butterfly or
+Buli (Poli) clan resident in Awatobi before its fall. This statement
+is attested by certain stone slabs excavated from Awatobi
+mounds, on which are painted butterfly symbols. The Walpi Lalakoñti,
+first described by the author and Mr. Owens in 1892, has also
+survivals of Awatobi designs. It appears that while it is not easy
+to trace any of the rich symbolism of Awatobi directly into Walpi
+pottery, it is possible to discover close relations between certain
+Awatobi symbols and others still employed in Walpi ceremonials.
+Sikyatki and Awatobi were probably inhabited synchronously and
+as kindred people had a closely allied or identical symbolism; there
+is such a close relation between the designs on pottery from the two
+ruins that Awatobi symbols introduced into Walpi have a close
+likeness to those of Sikyatki.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span></p>
+
+<p>The natural conservatism in religious rites of all kinds has brought
+it about that many of the above-mentioned designs, although abandoned
+in secular life of the Hopi, still persist in paraphernalia used
+in ceremonies. It is therefore pertinent to discuss some of these
+religious symbols with an idea of discovering whether they are associated
+with certain clans or ruins, and if so what light they shed on
+prehistoric migrations. In other words, here the ethnologists can
+afford us much information bearing on the significance of prehistoric
+symbols.</p>
+
+<p>One great difficulty in interpreting the prehistoric pictures of
+supernaturals depicted on ancient pottery by a comparison of the
+religious paraphernalia of the modern Hopi is a complex nomenclature
+of supernatural beings that has been brought about by the
+perpetuation or survival of different clan names for the same being
+even after union of those clans. Thus we find the same Sky god with
+many others all practically aliases of one common conception. To
+complicate the matter still more, different attributal names are also
+sometimes used. The names Alosaka, Muyinwû, and Talatumsi are
+practically different designations of the same supernatural, while
+Tunwup, Ho, and Shalako appear to designate the same Sky-god
+personage. Cultus heroines, as the Marau mana, Shalako mana,
+Palahiko mana, and others, according as we follow one or another
+of the dialects, Keres or Tewa, are used interchangeably. This
+diversity in nomenclature has introduced a complexity in the Hopi
+mythology which is apparent rather than real in the Hopi Pantheon,
+as their many names would imply.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> The great nature gods of sky
+and earth, male and female, lightning and germination, no doubt
+arose as simple transfer of a germinative idea applied to cosmic
+phenomena and organic nature. The earliest creation myths were
+drawn largely from analogies of human and animal birth. The
+innumerable lesser or clan gods are naturally regarded as offspring
+of sky and earth, and man himself is born from Mother Earth. He
+was not specially created by a Great Spirit, which was foreign to
+Indians unmodified by white influences.</p>
+
+<p>As the number of bird designs on Sikyatki pottery far outnumber
+representations of other animals it is natural to interpret them by
+modern bird symbols or by modern personations of birds, many
+examples of which are known to the ethnological student of the Hopi.</p>
+
+<p>In one of a series of dances at Powamû, which occurs in February,
+men and boys personate the eagle, red hawk, humming bird, owl,
+cock, hen, mocking bird, quail, hawk, and other birds, each appropriately
+dressed, imitating cries, and wearing an appropriate mask
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>of the birds they represent. In a dance called Pamurti, a ceremony
+celebrated annually at Sichomovi, and said to have been derived
+from Zuñi, personations of the same birds appear, the men of Walpi
+contributing to the performance. Homovi, one of the Hopi Indians
+who took part, made colored pictures representing all these birds,
+which may be found reproduced in the author’s article on Hopi
+katcinas.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>In the Hopi cosmogony the Sky god is thought to be father of all
+gods and human beings, and when personations of the subordinate
+supernaturals occur they are led to the pueblo by a personator of
+this great father of all life. The celebrations of the Powamû, at
+the East Mesa of the Hopi, represent the return of the ancestors or
+kachinas of Walpi, while the Pamurti is the dramatization of the
+return of the kachinas of Sichomovi whose ancestors were Zuñi kin.</p>
+
+<p>Life figures or animal forms, as birds, serpents, and insects, depicted
+on Little Colorado pottery differ considerably from those on
+Sikyatki ware. Take, for instance, bird designs, the most abundant
+life forms on ancient pueblo pottery on the Little Colorado, as well
+as at Sikyatki. It needs but a glance at the figures of the former
+to show how marked the differences are. The leader of the kachinas
+in the Powamû, which celebrates the return of these ancestral gods
+to the pueblo, Walpi, wears an elaborate dress and helmet with appended
+feathers. He is led into the village by a masked man personating
+Eototo.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Symbols Introduced from Awatobi</span></h3>
+
+<p>The women saved at Awatobi in the massacre of 1700, according to
+a legend, brought to Walpi the paraphernalia of a ceremony still
+observed, called the Mamzrauti. Naturally we should expect to find
+old Awatobi symbolism on this paraphernalia, which is still in use.
+The cultus heroine of the Mamzrauti is the Corn-mist maid, known
+by the name of Shalako mana or Palahiko mana.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> We have several
+representations of this maid and their resemblance to the pictures
+of Shalako mana depicted by Hano potters would imply a common
+Tanoan origin.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shalako Mana</span></h3>
+
+<p>The most common figure on the third epoch of Hopi pottery, commonly
+called modern Tewa and manufactured up to 1895 by Nampeo,
+a Hano potter, is a representation of the Corn-maid, Shalako mana,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span>who, as shown, is the same personage as Marau mana and Palahiko
+mana in the festival of the Mamzrauti derived from Awatobi. The
+symbol of this goddess is instructive and easily recognized in its
+many variations. Her picture on Hano pottery is shown in <a href="#figure108">figure
+108</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking features of her symbolism, brought out in <a href="#plate89">plate
+89</a>, are terraced bodies representing rain clouds on the head, an ear
+of maize symbol on the forehead, curved lines over the mouth,
+chevrons on the cheeks, conventionalized wings, and feathered garment.
+It is also not uncommon to find carved representations of
+squash blossoms occupying the same positions as the whorls of hair
+on the heads of Hopi maidens.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure108" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure108.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—Head of Shalako mana, or Corn maid.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Shalakotaka male is likewise a common design readily recognized
+on modern pottery. Particularly abundant are figures of the
+mask of a Kohonino god, allied to Shalako, which is likewise called
+a kachina, best shown in paraphernalia of the Mamzrauti ceremony.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp27" id="plate89" style="max-width: 20.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate89.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 89</p>
+    <p>SHALAKO MANA, CORN MAID (FROM TABLET DANCE)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="plate90" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate90.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY <span class="spacer">THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT</span> PLATE 90</p>
+    <p>TOP OF BUTTERFLY VASE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It sometimes happens in Hopi dramatization that pictures of
+supernatural beings and idols of the same take the place of personations
+by priests. For instance, instead of a girl or a woman
+representing the Corn maid, this supernatural is depicted on a slab of
+wood or represented by a wooden idol. One of the best-known figures
+of the Corn maid (Shalako mana) is here introduced (<a href="#plate89">pl. 89</a>) to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span>illustrate the relation of old Awatobi and existing Hopi symbolism;
+a modern figure (<a href="#figure108">108</a>) of this Corn maid, painted on a wooden slab,
+is sometimes carried by the Walpi women in their dance. Figures of
+the Awatobi germ god, Alosaka, otherwise called Muyinwû,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> are
+depicted on the slabs used by most of the women at that time.</p>
+
+<p>The different designs on the slab under consideration (<a href="#plate89">pl. 89</a>) are
+indicated by letters and explained as follows: <i>a</i> represents a circular
+fragment of the haliotis or abalone shell hanging midway from a
+figure of an ear of corn, <i>c</i>. The cheeks are tattooed or painted with
+characteristic figures, <i>cb</i>, the eyes rectangular of different colors.
+The letter <i>d</i> is a representation of a wooden ear pendant, a square,
+flat body covered on one side with a mosaic of turquoise sometimes
+arranged in figures. The letter <i>e</i> is the end of a string by which the
+ceremonial blanket is tied over the left shoulder, the right arm
+being free, as shown in the illustration. Over the right shoulder,
+however, is thrown a ceremonial embroidered kilt, <i>fb</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The objects in the hands represent feathers and recall one type of
+the conventional feathers figured in the preceding pages. The letters
+<i>fr</i> represent falling rain embroidered on the rim of the ceremonial
+blanket and <i>rc</i> the terraced rain clouds which in <i>arc</i> become
+rounded above; <i>g</i> represents a turquoise at the end of a string of turquoise
+suspended from shell necklaces <i>sn</i>; <i>m</i> represents the butterfly
+and is practically identical with the decorations on dados of old Hopi
+houses; <i>s</i> represents a star; <i>sb</i> represents shell bracelets, many examples
+of which occur in ruins along the Little Colorado; <i>ss</i> is supposed
+to have replaced the key patterns which some authorities identify
+as sprouting beans. There are commonly nine rectangular markings,
+<i>nc</i>, on the upper border of the embroidered region of ceremonial
+blankets and kilts, each of which represents either a month or a day,
+by some said to refer to ceremonial or germ periods.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>The Shalako mana figures have not yet been found in the unmodified
+Little Colorado ware, but homologous figures have been found
+in the Rio Grande area.</p>
+
+<p>The design (<a href="#plate88">pl. 88</a>, <i>d</i>) with a horn on the left side of the head
+and a rectangle on the right, the face being occupied by a terrace
+figure from which hang parallel lines, reminds one of the “coronets”
+worn on the head by the <i>Lakone</i> maids (manas) in the Walpi Basket
+dance of the Lalakoñti. The horn in the coronet is without terminal
+appendages, although a feather is tied to it, and the rectangle of
+<a href="#plate88">plate 88</a>, <i>d</i>, is replaced by radiating slats spotted and pointed at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span>their ends, said to represent the sunflower. The whole design in
+<a href="#plate88">plate 88</a>, <i>d</i>, represents a bird,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> recalling that of the figure Marautiyo
+on one of the appended slabs of the altar of the Walpi Marau ceremony.
+In this altar figure we find not only a horn on the left side
+of the head, but also a rectangular design on the right.</p>
+
+<p>On the corresponding right-hand side of this altar we have a picture
+of Marau mana (Shalako mana). It will thus appear that when
+compared with the Lakone coronet the figure on the Shongopovi
+bowl represents a female being, whereas when compared with the
+figure on the Marau altar it resembles a male being. There is, therefore,
+something wrong in my comparison. But the fact remains
+that there survive in the two woman’s festivals—Lakone maid’s
+coronet and Marau altar—resemblances to prehistoric Hopi designs
+from Shongopovi. Moreover, it is known that the Marau fetishes
+are stated by the chief Saliko to have been introduced from Awatobi
+into Walpi by her ancestor who was saved at the massacre of that
+town in 1700.</p>
+
+<p>The life figures of the Tanoan epoch, or that following the
+overthrow of Sikyatki, can be made out by a study of modern
+Hano pottery. Perhaps the most complex of these is that of the
+Corn maid, Shalako mana. Shalako mana plays a great rôle in the
+Mamzrauti, a ceremony derived from Awatobi, and figures representing
+her are common designs made on Hano pottery. Designs
+representing this being are common on the peculiar basket plaques
+made at the Middle Mesa and dolls of her are abundant. The constant
+presence of her pictures on basket plaques at the Middle Mesa
+would also seem to show an ancient presence in the Hopi country,
+and indicate an identity of pottery designs from ancient Shumopavi
+with those from the East Mesa and Awatobi.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>One of her modern Walpi ceremonies has such pronounced Awatobi
+symbolism that it may be instanced as showing derivation; viz., the
+New-fire festival.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The women of the Marau and the men of the
+Tataukyamû regard themselves kindred, and taunt each other, as
+only friends may without offence, in this festival, and the Tataukyamû
+often introduce a burlesque Shalako mana into their performances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span></p>
+
+<p>The designs painted on the bodies and heads of several modern
+dolls representing Corn maids are symbols whose history is very
+ancient in the tribe. For instance, those of feathers date back to
+prehistoric times, and terraced designs representing rain clouds are
+equally ancient. The dolls of the Corn maid (Shalako mana) present
+a variety of forms of feathers and the headdresses of many dolls
+represent kachinas, and show feathers sometimes represented by
+sticks on which characteristic markings are painted, but more often
+they represent symbols.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Symbols of Hano Clans</span></h3>
+
+<p>Hano, as is well known, is a Tewan pueblo, situated on the East
+Mesa, which was the last great body of Tewa colonists to migrate to
+Hopiland. While other Tewa colonists lost their language and became
+Hopi, the inhabitants of Hano still speak Tewa and still preserve
+some of their old ceremonies, and consequently many of their
+own symbols. Here were found purest examples of the Tanoan epoch.</p>
+
+<p>The potters of clans introduced symbols on their ware radically
+different from those of Sikyatki, the type of the epoch of the finest
+Hopi ceramics, and replaced it by Tewan designs which characterize
+Hopi pottery from 1710 to 1895, when a return was suddenly made
+to the ancient type through the influence of Nampeo. At that date
+she began to cleverly imitate Sikyatki ware and abandoned <i>de toto</i>
+symbols introduced by Hano and other Tewa clans.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately there exist good collections of the Tewa epoch of
+Hopi ceramics, but the ever-increasing demand by tourists for ancient
+ware induced Nampeo to abandon the Tewa clan symbols she formerly
+employed and to substitute those of ancient Sikyatki.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>&#x2060;</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the specimens of Hano pottery, like those of the
+Tanoan epoch to which it belongs, are decorated with pictures of clan
+ancients called kachinas. These have very little resemblance to designs
+characteristic of the Sikyatki epoch. They practically belong
+to the same type as those introduced by Kachina, Asa, and Badger
+peoples. One of the most common of these is the design above discussed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span>representing Shalako mana, the Corn maid, shown in <a href="#figure109">figure
+109</a>. In this figure we have the face represented by a circle in the
+center and many lenticular figures arranged in rows attached to the
+neck and shoulders corresponding to the appendages explained in
+<a href="#figure108">figure 108</a>. It is said in the legends that when the Corn maid appeared
+to men she was enveloped in fleecy clouds and wore a
+feathered garment. These are indicated
+by the curved figures covered with dots
+and the parallel lines on the body. Feather
+symbols recalling those of the Sikyatki
+epoch hang from appendages to the head
+representing rain clouds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure109" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure109.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—Head of Kokle, or Earth woman.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In <a href="#figure109">figure 109</a> we have a representation
+of the head with surrounding clouds, and
+portions of the body of a kachina, called
+Kokle, who is personated in Winter ceremonies.
+It is instructive to note that this
+figure has symbols on the head that recall
+the Sikyatki epoch. The ancient Tewan
+earth goddess, Hahaiwugti, is represented in <a href="#figure110">figure 110</a>. She appears
+also in <a href="#figure111">figure 111</a>, where her picture is painted on a ladle, the handle
+of which represents an ancient Tewan clown called by the Hano
+people Paiakyamû.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp66" id="figure110" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure110.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—Head of Hahaiwugti,
+    or Earth woman.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp48" id="figure111" style="max-width: 14.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure111.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—Ladle with clown carved
+    on handle and Earth woman on bowl.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figmulti illowp60" id="figure112" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure112.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—Püükon hoya, little
+    War god.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span></p>
+
+<p>The War god, Püükon hoya, also a Tewan incorporation in the
+Hopi pantheon, appears frequently on pottery of the Tanoan epoch,
+as shown in <a href="#figure112">figure 112</a>. This figure,
+painted on a terra-cotta slab, is identified
+by the two parallel marks on
+each cheek.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONCLUSION">CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In the preceding pages an attempt
+has been made to trace the chronological
+sequence of pottery symbols in
+Hopiland by pointing out distinct
+epochs in cultural history and correlating
+the sociology of the tribe. This
+takes for granted that the pottery
+symbols characteristic of this people
+are directly connected with certain
+clans. There have from time to time
+been sudden changes in symbols, or
+previous designs have suddenly disappeared
+and others have taken their
+places, as well as a slow development
+of existing symbols into more complicated
+forms. There persist everywhere survivals of old prepuebloan
+symbols inherited from the past and a creation of new
+products of Hopi environment not found elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The author will close this paper with
+a brief theoretical account of the unwritten
+culture history of Hopi, part of
+which explains certain pottery symbols.
+If we take that segment of southwestern
+history extending from the earliest to the
+present, we find evidences of the existence
+of a prepuebloan culture existing
+before terraced houses were built or circular
+kivas had been used for ceremonial
+purposes. This epoch was antecedent to
+the construction of the great walled compounds
+of the Gila, illustrated by Casa
+Grande. At that epoch known as the prepuebloan
+there extended from Utah to the
+Mexican boundary and from the Colorado to the Rio Grande a culture
+architecturally characterized by small fragile-walled houses not united
+or terraced. These houses were sometimes like pit dwellings, either
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>partially or wholly subterranean. When above ground their walls
+were supported by upright logs in which canes or brushes were woven
+and covered with mud, the roofs being made of cedar bark or straw
+overlaid with adobe.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of this early prehistoric epoch was smooth, painted
+mainly with geometric patterns, corrugated, or indented. Rectilinear
+or curved lines constituted the majority of the superficial decorations
+and life designs were few or altogether wanting. In addition to
+these architectural and ceramic characteristics, this prepuebloan
+cultural stage was distinguished by many other features, to mention
+which would take us too far afield and would be out of place in this
+article. Evidences of this stage or epoch occur everywhere in the
+Southwest and survival of the archaic characters enumerated are
+evident in all subsequent epochs.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called “unit type” or pure pueblo culture grew out of this
+early condition, and was at first localized in northern New Mexico
+and southern Colorado, where it was autochthonous. Its essential
+feature is the terraced communal house and the simplest form of the
+pueblo, the “unit type,” first pointed out by Dr. T. Mitchell Prudden—a
+combination of dwelling houses, with a man’s house or kiva
+and a cemetery. The dwellings are made of stone or clay and are
+terraced, the kiva is subterranean and circular, embedded in or
+surrounded by other rooms. The “unit type” originated in Colorado
+and, spreading in all directions, replaced the preexisting houses
+with fragile walls. Colonists from its center extended down the
+San Juan to the Hopi country and made their way easterly across
+the Rio Grande and southerly to the headwaters of the Gila and
+Little Colorado, where they met other clans of specialized prepuebloan
+culture who had locally developed an architecture of Great
+House style characteristic of the Gila and Salt River Valleys.</p>
+
+<p>The essential differences between the terraced pueblo and the previously
+existing fragile-walled house culture are two: The terraced
+architecture results from one house being constructed above another,
+the kiva or subterranean ceremonial room being separated or
+slightly removed from the secular houses.</p>
+
+<p>An explanation of the origin of the terraced pueblo is evident.
+This form of house implies a limited site or a congestion of houses
+on a limited area. An open plain presents no limitation in lateral
+construction; there is plenty of room to expand in all directions to
+accommodate the enlargement which results as a settlement increases
+in population. In a cave conditions are otherwise; expansion is limited.
+When the floor of the cavern is once covered with rooms the
+only additions which can possibly be made must be vertically.
+In protection lies the cause of the development of a terraced
+architecture such as the pueblos show, for the early people constructed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span>their fragile-walled habitations in a cavern, and as an enlargement
+of their numbers occurred they were obliged to construct
+the terraced pueblos called cliff-dwellings, with rooms closely approximated
+and constructed in terraces. In the course of time these
+cliff-dwellers moved out of their caverns into the river valleys or to
+the mesa summits, carrying with them the terraced architecture,
+which, born in caverns, survived in their new environment. This
+explanation is of course hypothetical, but not wholly without a basis
+in fact, for we find survivals of the prepuebloan architecture scattered
+throughout the Southwest, especially on the periphery of the
+terraced house area, as well as in the area itself. The ancient terraced
+house architecture is confined to a limited area, but around its
+ancient border are people whose dwellings are characterized by
+fragile-walled architecture. These are the survivals of the prepuebloan
+culture.</p>
+
+<p>The environmental conditions along the San Juan and its tributaries
+in Colorado and New Mexico render it a particularly favorable
+culture center from which the pure pueblo type may have originated,
+and although observations have not yet gone far enough to prove
+that here was the place of origin of the unit type, and therefore of
+pueblo culture, there are strong indications that a fable of the
+Pueblos, that they came from the caves in the north, is not without
+legendary foundation so far as their origin is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The term “cliff-dwelling,” once supposed to indicate a distinct
+stage of development, refers only to the site and is a feature inadequate
+for classification or chronology. All cliff-dwellings do not
+belong to the same structural type. There is little similarity save in
+site between Spruce-tree House on the Mesa Verde, and Montezuma
+Castle in the Verde Valley; the former belongs to the “pure pueblo
+type,” the latter to another class of buildings related to “compounds”
+of the tributaries of the Gila and Salt River valleys.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> A report on the field work at Sikyatki will be found in the <i>Seventeenth Ann. Rept.
+Bur. Amer. Ethn.</i>, part 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Traces of the ancient village of Walpi at this point are still to be seen, and certain
+ancestral ceremonies are still performed here, in the New-fire rites, as elsewhere described.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Pottery making is a woman’s industry, and as among the Pueblo the woman determines
+the clan, so she determines the symbolism of the pottery. Consequently symbolism of
+pottery is related to that of the clan.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Many of the illustrations appearing in this paper are taken from the author’s memoir
+on the results of the Sikyatki excavations in the <i>17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.</i>, part 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Hopi maidens dress their hair in two whorls, one above each ear, which on marriage
+are taken down and braided in two coils. There are differences in the style of putting up
+the hair, as appear in different ceremonial personages, but the custom of wearing it in
+whorls was probably general among ancient Pueblo maidens and is still followed in certain
+ceremonial dances in which women are personated by men. For the difference in the style
+of the whorls, see the author’s series of pictures of Hopi kachinas in the <i>Twenty-first
+Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> The best idol of this god known to the author appears on one of the Flute altars at
+Oraibi. It has a single horn (representing the serpent horn) on the head, two wings,
+and two legs with lightning symbols their whole length. The horned plumed Lightning
+god of the Kwakwantû at Walpi is represented by plumed serpent effigies in the March
+ceremony or dramatization elsewhere described.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> In the Antelope dance at Walpi, a stalk of corn instead of a snake is carried in the
+mouth on the day before the Snake dance. (Fewkes, Snake Ceremonials at Walpi,
+pp. 73-74.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> For descriptions of similar objects see Fewkes, Hopi Ceremonial Frames from Cañon
+de Chelly, Arizona, pp. 664-670; Fewkes, The Lesser New-fire Ceremony at Walpi, p. 438,
+pl. <span class="allsmcap">XI</span>; also <i>Twenty-first Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.</i>, pls. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIV</span>, <span class="allsmcap">XXXV</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> As a matter of history, the Snake people of Walpi may have been hostile to the
+Kokop of Sikyatki on account of linguistic or tribal differences which culminated in the
+destruction of the latter pueblo in prehistoric times.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> The pueblo of Sichomovi, called by the Hopi Sioki, or Zuñi pueblo, was settled by Asa
+clans, who were apparently of exotic origin but who went to Sichomovi from Zuñi, in
+which pueblo the Asa people are known as Aiyahokwe. The Sichomovi people still preserve
+Zuñi ceremonies and Zuñi kachinas, although they now speak the Hopi language—an
+example of a pueblo in which alien ceremonies and personations have survived or been
+incorporated, although its language has been superseded by another.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Thus the Heyamashikwe may be supposed to have originally come from Jemez. The
+Zuñi Sumaikoli, like that of the Hopi, is practically Tewa in origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> See Fewkes, The Butterfly in Hopi Myth and Ritual, pp. 576-594.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> The clay images representing the Tewa plumed serpent on the Winter Solstice altar at
+Hano have rows of feathers inserted along their backs (as in the case of the reptile shown
+in <a href="#figure022">figure 22</a>) as well as rudimentary horns, teeth made of corn kernels, and necklaces of
+the same. (Fewkes, Winter solstice altars at Hano pueblo, pp. 269-270.) A mosaic of
+corn kernels on a clay base (<i>kaetukwi</i>) is known in ceremonies derived from Sikyatki and
+Awatobi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> The hoot of the owl portends disaster among the Hopi, as among the ancient Greeks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Every priest has a box in which his feathers are preserved until needed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Compare with feathers, <a href="#plate90">pl. 90</a>, <i>d</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Probably the serrated circle to which the headdress is attached was not designed as the
+outline of the head, but the headband turned out of perspective.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> See <i>Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.</i>, pt. 2, pl. <span class="allsmcap">CXLI</span>, <i>a</i>.
+    A circle is here drawn
+on each side of the bird.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> It is, of course, only a coincidence that so many of the Sikyatki bird designs have
+three tail feathers like Egyptian representations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Feathers are among the most important objects employed in Pueblo ceremonies, and
+among the modern Hopi feathers of different birds are regarded as efficacious for different
+specific purposes. Thus the turkey feather symbol is efficacious to bring rain, and the
+hawk and eagle feathers are potent in war. The specific feather used ceremonially by
+modern Hopi priests is regarded by them as of great importance, and the same doubtless
+was true of the priests of ancient Sikyatki and Awatobi. Belief in a difference in the
+magic power of certain feathers was deeply rooted in the primitive mind, and was regarded
+as of great importance by the ancient as well as the modern Hopi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Compare the sand-mosaic of the sun associated with the Powalawû altar of Oraibi, and
+the sun emblem shown in <a href="#figure098">fig. 98</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Mallery (<i>Fourth Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn.</i>, p. 47, fig. 12) illustrates two clusters of
+characteristic Hopi feathers copied by Mr. G. K. Gilbert from petroglyphs at Oakley
+Springs, Arizona. The first cluster belongs to the type shown in our <a href="#figure057">fig. 57</a> as eagle tails,
+the second to that illustrated in <a href="#figure031">fig. 31</a>. They were identified by the Oraibi chief, Tuba,
+and so far as known have not been subsequently figured.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Compare feathers, <a href="#plate90">pl. 90</a>, <i>wf</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> The only design in modern Hopi symbolism comparable with the sky-band occurs on a
+wooden slab on the altar of the Owakülti, a society priestess whose ancestors are said
+to have formerly lived at the historic pueblo of Awatobi. This slab is attached to the
+uprights of an altar, by means of flat slabs of wood, some arranged vertically, others
+horizontally. On it is depicted, among other symbolic figures, a representation of a bird.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> The author has seen in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, a single
+specimen of doubtful provenance, bearing a similar design.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> For convenience this may be designated the anterior in distinction to that on the
+other side of the sky-band which may be termed the posterior semicircle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> See also <i>Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.</i>, pl. <span class="allsmcap">CL</span>, <i>a</i>,
+    and <span class="allsmcap">CXLVI</span>, <i>d</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> The Kokyan, or Spider, clan is not made much of in Hopi legends gathered at Walpi,
+but Kokyanwügti, the Spider woman, is an important supernatural in the earliest mythologies,
+especially those of the Snake people. She was the mentor of the Snake youth
+in his journey to the underworld and an offering at her shrine is made in the Oraibi
+Snake dance. The picture of the spider with that of the sun suggests that the Spider
+woman is a form of the earth goddess. No personation of Spider woman has been seen
+by the author in the various ceremonies he has witnessed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Except that the head bears a jointed antenna this figure might be identified as a
+bird, the long extension representing the bird’s bill.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> The figures of serpents on the sand mosaic of the Antelope altar at Walpi bear similar
+crosses or diagonals, crossing each other at right angles. The Antelope priests interpret
+this marking as a sign of the female.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Rain, lightning, animals, plants, sky, and earth, in the modern Hopi conception, are
+supposed to have sex.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> The Butterfly in Hopi Myth and Ritual, fig. 61, <i>f</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Ibid., p. 586.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Introduced into the Hopi pueblos by colonists from the Rio Grande; its most conspicuous
+variant can be seen on the tablets worn in a masked dance called Humis (Jemez)
+Kachina.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> One symbol of the Sky god has the form of a Lightning god. It has a single curved
+horn on the head, lightning symbols on the legs, and carries a wooden framework in one
+hand and a bull-roarer in the other.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> <i>Twenty-second Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn.</i>, pt. 1, fig. 74.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> In modern Hopi symbolism the sun is a disk with representations of eagle feathers
+around the periphery and radial lines at each quadrant, symbolic of the sun’s rays. In
+disks worn on the back where real feathers are used the radial lines, or the sun’s rays, are
+represented by horsehair stained red. In ceremonials the Sky god is personated by a bird
+whose figure occurs on Sikyatki pottery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> In the Hopi ceremony, Powatawu, as performed at Oraibi, a picture representing the
+sun composed of a number of concentric circles of four different colors is made of sand
+on the kiva floor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> If we interpret the sky-band as the path of the sun in the zenith the solar emblem
+hanging to it is significant.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Some of the significant sun masks used by the Hopi have the mouth indicated by a
+triangle, others by hourglass designs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Pictures made by prehistoric man embody, first, when possible, the power of the
+animal or thing represented, or its essential characteristics; and second, the realistic
+form, shape, or outline.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Several Hopi clans celebrate in a slightly different way the return of their Sun god,
+which is known by different names among them. The return of the Sun god of the
+Kachina clan at Walpi, commonly called Ahül, is elsewhere described. Shalako, the Sun
+god of the Patki clans, was derived from the Little Colorado region, the same source from
+which the Zuñi obtained their personage of the same name. His return is celebrated on
+the East Mesa of the Hopi at Sichomovi, the “Zuñi pueblo among the Hopi.” Pautiwa
+is a Sun god of Zuñi clans at Sichomovi and is personated as at Zuñi pueblo. Kwataka,
+or the Sun god whose return is celebrated at Walpi in the winter solstice, Soyaluna, is
+associated with the great plumed serpent, a personation derived from the peoples of the
+Gila or some other river who practice irrigation. Eototo is a Sikyatki Sun god, derived
+from near Jemez, and is celebrated by Keres colonists.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Fewkes, Hopi Shrines Near the East Mesa, Arizona, pp. 346-375.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> The sand picture made by the Antelope priest is regarded as a house of the rain gods
+depicted upon it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> <i>Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.</i>, pt. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> The author has a drawing of the Snake altar at Mishongnovi by
+an Indian, in which these crooks are not represented vertically but
+horizontally, a position illustrating a common method of drawing
+among primitive people who often represent vertical objects on a
+horizontal plane. An illustration of this is seen in pictures of a medicine bowl where
+the terraces on the rim normally vertical are drawn horizontally.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> In using this term the author refers to an extreme area in one corner of which still
+survive pueblos, the inhabitants of which speak Keres.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> There is no published evidence in Zuñi legends that Sikyatki received increments
+from that pueblo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Since the author’s work at Sikyatki, excavations have been made by the Field Columbian
+Museum at this ruin, but nothing bearing on the relations of symbols has been published
+so far as known to the writer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> The Tanoan people (clans) also introduced a horned snake, but different in symbolism
+from that of the Patki clans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> The oldest pottery in the Zuñi Valley belongs to the same group as that of the oldest
+Little Colorado ruins and shows marked Gila Valley symbolism. The modern pottery of
+Zuñi is strongly influenced by Tanoan characters. As these have been transmitted to
+Hopi they are considered under the term “Tanoan epoch,” derived from Little Colorado
+settlements to which Zuñi culturally belongs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Pakatcomo in the plain below Walpi was their first Hopi settlement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> As has been pointed out, the designs on ancient Zuñi ware are closely related to those
+of ruins farther down the Little Colorado, and are not Hopi. Modern Zuñi as well as
+modern Hopi pueblos were influenced by Keres and Tewa culture superimposed on the
+preexisting culture, which largely came from the Gila.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> No invariable connection was found in the relative position of this break and figures
+of birds or other animals inclosed by the broken band. The gaps in different encircling
+bands on the same bowl are either diametrically opposite each other or separated by a
+quadrant, a variation that would appear to indicate that they were not made use of in a
+determination of the orientation of the vessel while in ceremonial use, as is true of certain
+baskets of modern Navaho.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> The author has the following evidence that the inhabitants of the village at Chevlon
+were the historic Chipias. The Hopi have a legend that the large ruin called Tcipiaiya
+by the Zuñi was also situated on a river midway between Walpi and Zuñi. The Hopi
+also say that the Chevlon pueblo was inhabited by the Piba (Tobacco) clan and that the
+Awatobi chief, Tapolo, who brought the Tataukyamû fraternity to Walpi from Awatobi,
+belonged to the Tobacco clan. The Tewa name of the Tataukyamû is Tcipiaiyu, or “men
+from Tcipia.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> It is known from an inscription on El Morro that a punitive expedition to avenge the
+death of Father Letrado was sent out under Lujan in the spring of 1632, hence the guilty
+inhabitants may have abandoned their settlement and departed for Hopi at about that
+time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> The Buli (Poli) clan is probably Tewa, as the word indicates, which would show that
+Tewa as well as Keres clans lived at Awatobi. No legend mentions Buli clans at Sikyatki,
+but several traditions locate them at Awatobi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> A unification of names of these gods would have resulted when the languages of the
+many different clans had been fused in religions, as the language was in secular usage.
+The survival of component names of Hopi gods is paralleled in the many ancient religions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> <i>Twenty-first Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Ibid., p. 76. Eototo, also called Masauû, was the tutelary of Sikyatki, as Alosaka
+or Muyinwû was of Awatobi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> A somewhat similar personage to Shalako mana in Aztec ceremonies was called
+Xalaquia (Shalakia).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> An account of this dance with details of the nine days’ ceremony as presented in the
+major or October variant will be found in the <i>American Anthropologist</i>, July, 1892. The
+minor or Winter ceremony, in which the Corn maids are personated by girls, is published
+in the same journal for 1900. The Corn maid has several aliases in this ceremony, among
+which are Shalako mana, Palahiko mana, and Marau mana.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> This Corn maid is one of the most common figures represented by dolls.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> The two parallel lines on the two outside tail feathers recall the markings on the face
+of the War god Puükoñghoya.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> A personation of Shalako mana at Oraibi, according to Mr. H. R. Voth, came from
+Mishongnovi. This conforms exactly with the legends that state the Mamzrauti may
+have been introduced into Mishongnovi from Awatobi, for at the division of the captive
+women at Maski many of the women went to that pueblo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> See Fewkes, The New-fire Ceremony at Walpi, pp. 80-138. The New-fire rites at
+Walpi are celebrated in November, when four societies, Aaltû, Wüwütcimtû, Tataukyamû,
+and Kwakwantû, take part. As in all new-fire ceremonies, phallic or generative rites are
+prominent, the Wüwütcimtû and Tataukyamû who kindle the fire being conspicuous in
+these rites. Their bodies have phallic emblems painted on them and the latter bear
+Zuñi symbols.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> The designs on the wooden slats carried by women in the dance known as the Marau
+ceremony are remarkably like some of those on Awatobi and Sikyatki pottery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Much of the pottery offered for sale by Harvey and other dealers in Indian objects
+along the Santa Fe Railroad in Arizona and New Mexico is imitation prehistoric Hopi
+ware made by Nampeo. The origin of this transformation was due partly to the author,
+who in the year named was excavating the Sikyatki ruins and graves. Nampeo and her
+husband, Lesou, came to his camp, borrowed paper and pencil, and copied many of the
+ancient symbols found on the pottery vessels unearthed, and these she has reproduced on
+pottery of her own manufacture many times since that date. It is therefore necessary,
+at the very threshold of our study, to urge discrimination between modern and ancient
+pottery in the study of Hopi ware, and careful elimination of imitations. The modern
+pottery referred to is easily distinguished from the prehistoric, inasmuch as the modern
+is not made with as much care or attention to detail as the ancient. Also the surface of
+the modern pottery is coated with a thin slip which crackles in firing.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" aria-hidden="true">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="AUTHORITIES_CITED">AUTHORITIES CITED</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Fewkes, Jesse Walter.</span> Snake ceremonials at Walpi. <i>Journal of American
+Ethnology and Archæology</i>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, pp. 1-126. Boston and New York, 1894.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. Archeological expedition to Arizona in 1895. <i>Seventeenth Annual Report
+of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, pt. 2, pp. 519-742. Washington,
+1898.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. Winter solstice altars at Hano pueblo. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, n. s.
+vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, no. 2, pp. 251-276. New York, 1899.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. The New-fire ceremony at Walpi. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, n. s. vol.
+<span class="allsmcap">II</span>, no. 1, pp. 80-138. New York, 1900.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. The lesser New-fire ceremony at Walpi. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, n. s.
+vol. <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, no. 3, pp. 438-453. New York, 1901.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. Hopi katcinas. <i>Twenty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American
+Ethnology</i>, pp. 13-126. Washington, 1903.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. Two summers’ work in Pueblo ruins. <i>Twenty-second Annual Report
+of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, pt. 1, pp. 17-195. Washington, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. Hopi ceremonial frames from Cañon de Chelly, Arizona. <i>American
+Anthropologist</i>, n. s. vol. <span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>, no. 4, pp. 664-670. Lancaster, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. Hopi shrines near the East Mesa, Arizona. <i>American Anthropologist</i>,
+n. s. vol. <span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>, no. 2, pp. 346-375. Lancaster, 1908.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">——. The butterfly in Hopi myth and ritual. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, n. s.
+vol. <span class="allsmcap">XII</span>, no. 4, pp. 576-594. Lancaster, 1910.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Mallery, Garrick.</span> On the pictographs of the North American Indians.
+<i>Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, pp. 13-256. Washington,
+1886.</p>
+
+</main>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79063 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+[Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook [#79063](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/79063)