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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79061 ***</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<h1 class="nobreak">
+<i>GLIMPSES INTO PLANT-LIFE</i>
+</h1>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak x-ebookmaker-important" id="BY_THE_SAME_AUTHOR">
+    <i>BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</i>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+<hr>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="adverttitle"><b>WILD NATURE WON BY KINDNESS.</b>
+Illustrated. Seventh and Revised Edition.
+Crown 8vo, cloth, 5s.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="advert">“We have no space to draw particular attention to the
+multitude of good things to be found in this cheerful and
+unaffected little book, from every page of which there breathes
+a sincerity which is necessary to the enjoyment of such stories
+as these.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i></p>
+
+<p class="advert">“The book is one which may be warmly recommended for
+the simplicity with which it is written and the power of
+observation which it displays.”—<i>Athenæum.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<hr>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="adverttitle"><b>MORE ABOUT WILD NATURE.</b> With
+Illustrations by the Author. Third Edition.
+Crown 8vo, cloth, 5s.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="advert">“No better book can be given to juvenile naturalists.”—<i>Graphic.</i></p>
+
+<p class="advert">“When this delightful book, full of observation, of tenderness,
+and of humour, has been read, it becomes a friend, to be
+visited often and cherished much.”—<i>World.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="adverttitle"><b>INMATES OF MY HOUSE AND GARDEN.</b>
+Illustrated by <span class="smcap">Theo. Carreras</span>. Crown 8vo,
+cloth, 3s. 6d.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="advert">“This is a charming book, and prettily illustrated.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p>
+
+<p class="advert">“A charming series of sketches.”—<i>Times.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr>
+<p class="center">LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp49" id="i_004" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_004.jpg" alt="Plant with upright stem and
+long elongated leaves growing in a hanging basket. From the ends of the
+leaves hang down beaker-like outgrowths">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>NEPENTHES RAFFLESIANA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 150%;">GLIMPSES<br>
+INTO PLANT-LIFE</p>
+</div>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 80%;"><i>AN EASY GUIDE TO THE STUDY<br>
+OF BOTANY</i></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 60%; margin-top: 5.0em">BY</p>
+<p class="center">MRS. BRIGHTWEN, F.E.S.</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 80%;">
+<i>Author of “Wild Nature Won by Kindness,” &amp;c.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 90%; margin-top: 5.0em">
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR AND<br>
+THEO. CARRERAS</p>
+
+<p class="center blackletter" style="margin-top: 5.0em">
+London</p>
+<p class="center">T. FISHER UNWIN</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 60%;">PATERNOSTER SQUARE</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 60%;">1897</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+
+
+
+  <p class="center" style="margin-top: 10em; margin-bottom: 10em;">
+  <span style="font-size:110%; font-weight: bold;">
+    [<i>All rights reserved.</i>]
+  </span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center blackletter">
+To</p>
+<p class="center gesperrt" style="font-size: 120%">SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER,</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 90%">K.C.S.I., P.P.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., ETC.,</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 90%"><i>Formerly Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew</i>.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2.0em">
+  <span class="smcap">Dear Sir Joseph Hooker</span>,—
+</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: 5.0em">In conversation with you I have often been impressed
+by your conviction of the importance of inducing young
+people to observe the elementary facts of botany, and I have heard
+you express your admiration of the efforts made in this direction, in
+an earlier generation, by that distinguished botanist, Prof. Henslow.
+You have assured me of your sense of the value of independent
+observations made by young students, for themselves, in the simplest
+and clearest language.</p>
+
+<p>By your own example the studies of beginners have often been
+led in this direction, but in this little book, which I have ventured
+to produce, and of which you have kindly accepted the dedication,
+I have not attempted to compete with even your least ambitious
+flights.</p>
+
+<p>All I have endeavoured to do is to prepare the minds of young
+people for the study of botany by explaining in the simplest
+language some of the elementary phenomena of plant-life. It
+is an humble experiment, but made, as I believe, on lines which
+are novel so far as they go, and essentially practical.</p>
+
+<p>If, as is too likely to be the case, I have fallen into any technical
+errors, your good nature must not be held responsible for my fault.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span style="margin-right: 7.5em;">Believe me to be,</span><br>
+  <span style="margin-right: 2.5em;">Yours very sincerely,</span><br>
+  ELIZA BRIGHTWEN.
+</p>
+
+<p><i>April, 1897.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center">
+<i>⁂ The greater portion of this work has</i><br>
+<i>appeared in serial form in “The</i><br>
+<i>Girl’s Own Paper.”</i>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">
+    PREFACE
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5">
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_009.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="W">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">When</span> I was a
+young girl I can well
+remember how much I longed for
+some simple book that would help
+me to learn, not merely the name of
+a plant and what class and order it belonged
+to, but something about its life-history.</p>
+
+<p>It seemed very wonderful that, if I put seeds
+into the ground, dry and dead as they looked,
+I might feel sure young plants would presently
+come up; that, if I planted an acorn, a young
+oak-tree would in due time be seen; but how all
+this came to pass I could not discover. I had
+access to an excellent library, but although I
+searched there hour after hour, and found many
+a learned book about plants, they might as well
+have been written in Sanskrit for all I could
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span>understand of their scientific pages. There seemed
+nothing suited to the mind of a thoughtful child,
+and although, since that long-ago time, endless
+books have been written for young readers and
+thinkers, delightful books, too, which meet the
+needs of those who desire information and instruction,
+I have not hitherto met with one that
+makes the careful study of plant-life really interesting
+and practicable for those young people
+who may not have a teacher to help them in
+their study.</p>
+
+<p>It has been my aim in the little volume I
+now venture to send forth to my young friends,
+known and unknown, to supply this deficiency.
+I want to enable them to share the joy of spending
+hours in a garden learning to understand the
+structure of plants. I want to make them able,
+when they see a bud, or a root, or a twig, to
+know what the history of that object is, how it
+comes to have the shape it takes, how it developed
+into its present condition, and what its
+next form will be.</p>
+
+<p>The possession of the simple facts which I have
+tried to make plain to every intelligence in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>following pages will turn a country walk from a
+useless lounge into a lively object-lesson, delightful,
+from beginning to end, alike to teacher and
+taught. Nor will I apologise for the simple
+language which I have used, for my design has
+been, while taking advantage of all the latest discoveries
+of science, to use no terms and introduce
+no ideas which cannot be made intelligible
+to a thoughtful child. In the hope that even so
+humble an effort as this may not be without a
+use in enlarging and quickening a sense of that
+infinite harmony which runs through every part
+of the Creator’s marvellous plan of nature, I put
+forth, not without a full sense of its inadequacy,
+this little volume. It has, at any rate, given me
+an excuse for endless hours of pleasure within
+the precincts of my own woods and garden.</p>
+
+<p>I have to acknowledge great indebtedness to
+Mr. J. W. Odell, F.R.H.S., whose wide knowledge
+of botanical science has been of essential service
+in ensuring, as far as possible, the accuracy of
+my statements.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span style="margin-right: 1.5em;">ELIZA BRIGHTWEN.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a><a id="Page_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">
+    CONTENTS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5">
+
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr" style="font-size: 70%;">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Adaptation</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Plant collections—General view of vegetable growth—Lowest
+  forms of plant life—Water buttercup—Vallisneria—Water-lily—Mare’s-tail—Sea-weeds—Cacti—Orchids—Tillandsia—Seed
+  dispersion.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER II.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Roots</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Root fibres—Hygroscopic water—Root hairs—The evil
+  of stagnant water—Binding roots—Carex arenaria—Psamma
+  arenaria—Cheddar cliffs—Correlation of roots—Land,
+  water, and air roots—Laurel root in well—Horizontal
+  stems—Poa bulbosa—Earth-nut—Potato—Onion—Air
+  roots—Hoya—Aëroids—Parasitic roots—Yellow
+  rattle—Clover dodder—Flax dodder—Mistletoe—Root-cap—Office
+  of the root—Growing mustard-seed—Strength
+  of roots.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER III.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Tree Stems</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Expansion of bark—Shedding bark—Repairing injury—Epidermis—Fibro-vascular
+  bundles.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Leaves</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  A leaf a digestive organ—Petiole and blade venation—Monocotyledons—Dicotyledons—Radical
+  leaves—Phyllotaxis—Epidermis—Stomata—Influence
+  of foliage upon climate—Eucalyptus—Mesophyll—Chlorophyllon—Pallisade
+  tissue—Protoplasm—Absorption of carbon-dioxide—Jewel-weed—Alchemilla—Growing
+  wheat—Vertical
+  leaves of eucalyptus cork layer—Fall of the leaf—Useful
+  products of trees.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER V.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Buds</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Buds formed in summer—Hollow stalks of plane-tree—Terminal
+  and axillary buds—Spiral arrangement—Pollard
+  willow—Suckers—Dormant buds—Bulbils on lily stem—Protection
+  from cold—Leaf and flower buds—Folding
+  of embryo leaves and flowers.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Flowers</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Floral envelopes—Buttercup—-Gamopetalous—Polypetalous—Epipetalous—Apocarpous—Woodsorrel—Syncarpous
+  pistil—Geranium-coloured bracts—Composite
+  flowers—Fading flowers—Flower expansion—Flower
+  dissection—Cruciferous plants—Papilionaceous flowers—Honey
+  glands—Entomophilous flowers—Catkins—Monœcious
+  and diœcious flowers—Arum—Protection
+  from insects and moisture.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Pollination</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">175</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Cross pollination in dog’s mercury and hazel—Pin-eyed
+  primrose—Maiden pink—Wind pollination—Araucaria—Pollination
+  by moths—Nottingham catchfly—Attraction
+  of scent—Bartsia—St. John’s wort—Japanese toad-lily—Pollination
+  by humming-birds.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Fertilisation</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Pollen grains—Micropyle—Nucellus—Embryo-sac—Experiment
+  with lily pollen—Changes after fertilisation—Growth
+  of embryo—Albumen—Arillus in spindle-tree—Yew
+  and nutmeg—Persistent style of clematis—Ovules—Changes
+  in ovary of oak and datura.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Fruit</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Wide meaning of the word fruit—Diversity in appearance
+  and character of various fruits—Dehiscent and indehiscent
+  pericarp—Epicarp—Chestnut involucre—Mesocarp and
+  endocarp—Pericarp—Achene—Strawberry an apocarpous
+  fruit—Pineapple—Irritating hairs—Resinous protection of
+  cones—Coiled stem of cyclamen—Seed-pod of ivy-leaved
+  toad-flax hidden in wall crevices.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER X.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Dispersion of Fruits and Seeds</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Dispersion by hooks and spines—Martynia—Testa—Di
+  Quaglia—Burdock—Bedstraw—Dispersion by winged
+  seeds or achenes—Sycamore, pinus tribe, birch—Dispersion
+  by silky down or hairs—Dandelion, goat’s-beard,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span>  groundsel—Willow-herb—Bird agency—Seas and rivers—Dispersion
+  by elastic force—Pansy—Balsam—Furze—Broom—Squirting
+  cucumber—Dispersion by hygrometric
+  sensitiveness—Barley—Feather-grass—Mexican insect—Dispersion
+  by sticky glands—Linnæa Borealis—Salvia
+  glutinosa—Plumbago—Ground-nut self-buried.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Germination</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Testa and its various forms—Collomia—Axis, tigellum,
+  hypocotyle—Centre of growth—Double embryo—Three
+  conditions required for germination—Varying time in
+  different plants—Cedar of Lebanon—Railway-bank flora—Broad
+  beans—Cress seed—Tillandsia—Collecting seedling
+  trees—Fern and moss spores—Prothallium—Archegonium—Antheridium
+  germ cells—Capsular fruit of
+  mosses—Protonema.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER XII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Physiology of Plants</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Processes of plant growth—Nutrition—Water and gas as
+  plant food—Water culture—Osmosis—Experiment
+  showing absorption—Nitrates—Insectivorous plants able
+  to absorb nitrogen to some extent—Second experiment
+  on absorption—Preparation of plant food—Water bouquet—Transpiration—Use
+  of Stomates—Respiration—Seeds
+  give off carbon-dioxide—Effect of light, darkness, and
+  heat—Reproduction—Protococcus—-Strawberry runner—Asexual
+  and sexual reproduction—Effect of cold upon
+  seeds.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Insectivorous Plants</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">295</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Special purpose of each plant organ—Various modes by
+  which plants entrap insects—Sundew—Venus fly-trap—Trapping
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>  insects by sticky hairs—By viscid glands—By
+  pitchers containing fluid—Sarracenias—Roridula—Utricularia—Nepenthes—Pinguicula.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdc extrahigh" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Habit of Growth in Plants</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">313</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdj">
+  Tropical forest—Perching orchids not parasites—Mistletoe—Yellow
+  rattle—Saprophytes—Murderer fig-tree—Mutualism—Corn
+  blue-bottle—Clover and bacteria—Symbiosis
+  in white poplar and fungus—Sea anemone and
+  algæ—Bryony tendril—Mycetozoa.
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl extrahigh" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Glossary</span></td>
+<td class="tdr extrahigh"><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_SCIENTIFIC_WORDS">335</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a><a id="Page_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">
+    LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5">
+
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">NEPENTHES RAFFLESIANA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_004"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr" style="font-size: 70%;">PAGE</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">WATER BUTTERCUP</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_036">36</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">VALLISNERIA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_037">37</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">CATTLEYA WALKERIANA</span> (<i>A Brazilian Orchid</i>)</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_041">41</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">YOUNG SCOTCH FIR GROWING IN HOUSE-LEEK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_044">44</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">CREEPING GRASS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_056">56</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">POA BULBOSA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_057">57</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">LILY BULBILS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_060">60</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">CLOVER DODDER</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_064">64</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SECTION OF ROOT CAP</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_068">68</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">TURKEY OAK BARK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_076">76</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SCOTCH FIR BARK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_077">77</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SNAKE-BARK MAPLE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_078">78</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">TURKEY OAK STEM</span> (<i>struck by lightning</i>)</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_079">79</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PLANE TREE BARK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_080">80</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">HORSE-CHESTNUT BARK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_081">81</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">WHITE POPLAR BARK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_082">82</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SYCAMORE BARK</span>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_083">83</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">TREE-FERN BARK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_084">84</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">STEM OF YELLOW WATER-LILY</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_087a">87</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">STEM OF WHITE WATER-LILY</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_087b">87</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">GROUP OF BEECH-TREES WITH INTERLACING STEMS
+AND ROOTS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_093">93</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">CONVOLVULUS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_094">94</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">NETTED VEINS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_100">100</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">MONOCOTYLEDON</span><a id="tn-001"></a></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_101">101</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">DICOTYLEDON</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_102">102</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">TAMARIND SEEDLING</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_103">103</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">STOMATA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_107">107</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">LEAF SECTION</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_109">109</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">YOUNG SHOOT OF EUCALYPTUS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_116">116</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">MATURE FORM OF EUCALYPTUS LEAVES</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_117">117</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">OAK IN WINTER</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_127">127</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">OAK IN SUMMER</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_129">129</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">HORSE-CHESTNUT</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_135">135</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">YOUNG BEECH</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_138">138</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">UNFOLDING ARUM LEAF</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_140a">140</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">UNFOLDING LEAVES OF HART’S-TONGUE FERN</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_140c">140</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PEAR LEAF</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_140b">140</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BUDS OF WAYFARING TREE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_145">145</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PRIMROSE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_153">153</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">POINSETTIA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_157">157</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">WINTER CHERRY</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_160">160</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">WALLFLOWER</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_162">162</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SWEET-PEA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_165">165</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BIRCH FRUIT</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_168">168</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">WILD ARUM</span>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_170">170</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PRIMROSE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_179">179</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">MAIDEN PINK</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_181">181</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">ARISTOLOCHIA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_186">186</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">STAPELIA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_188">188</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">HYPERICUM</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_189">189</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">TOAD-LILY</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_191">191</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">POLLEN-GRAINS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_196">196</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">WHITE-LILY<a id="tn-025"></a> PISTIL. SECTION OF PISTIL</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_197">197</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">POLLEN TUBE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_198">198</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SECTION OF COCOA-NUT</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_203">203</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SPINDLE-TREE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_204">204</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">NUTMEG AND MACE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_205">205</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">CLEMATIS OR TRAVELLERS’ JOY</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_206">206</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SECTION OF PEACH</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_216">216</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">POPPY CAPSULE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_217">217</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">WOODY PEAR</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_218">218</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PINE-CONES</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_223">223</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SEED-POD OF MARTYNIA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_230">230</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BIRCH SEED</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_232">232</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PARACHUTE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_234">234</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">DANDELION SEED</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_235">235</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">GOAT’S-BEARD</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_236">236</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">COCOS-DE-MER</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_238">238</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BROOM AND SWEET-PEA PODS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_242">242</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">STIPA PINNATA (FEATHER GRASS)</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_244">244</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BIGNONIA SEED</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_252">252</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">DOUBLE EMBRYO OF ORANGE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_255">255</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BROAD BEANS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_258">258</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">GROWING MUSTARD SEEDS</span>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_261">261</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BEECH COTYLEDONS</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_264">264</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">ACORN</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_266">266</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">HORSE-CHESTNUT</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_267">267</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">YOUNG DATE-PALM</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_269">269</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">TRANSFUSION DIAGRAM</span><a id="tn-002"></a></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_278">278</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SKELETON LEAF</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_284">284</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SUNDEW</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_300">300</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">VENUS FLY-TRAP</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_304">304</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">SARRACENIA FLAVA</span><a id="tn-003"></a></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_306">306</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BLADDERWORT</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_308">308</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PITCHER OF NEPENTHES RAFFLESIANA</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_309">309</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BUTTERWORT</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_311">311</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">PERCHING ORCHID</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_317">317</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">RAFFLESIA ARNOLDII</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_320">320</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">GIANT COW-PARSNIP</span> (<i>Heracleum Giganteum</i>)</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_325">325</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">CORN BLUE-BOTTLE</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_326">326</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">BRYONY TENDRIL</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_331">331</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">TRICHIA THROWING OUT SPORES</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i_332">332</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“To me be Nature’s volume broad display’d,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">And to peruse its all-instructing page;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Or, haply catching inspiration thence</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Some easy passage raptur’d to translate,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">My sole delight.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Thomson.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a><a id="Page_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">
+    CHAPTER I
+    <br>
+    <i>ADAPTATION</i></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“My heart is awed within me, when I think</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Of the great miracle that still goes on</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">In silence round me—the perpetual work</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Of Thy creation, finished, yet renewed</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">For ever. Written on Thy works, I read</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">The lesson of Thine own eternity.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Bryant.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_I_1">
+    CHAPTER I
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">ADAPTATION</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_027.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="T">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">The</span>
+study of plants appears to me
+to be one of the most delightful and
+instructive that can be taken up by
+young people. It has this advantage over
+many other pursuits that it can be carried
+on almost everywhere, for, even if the student’s
+lot is to live in a town, there are generally botanic
+gardens within reach, and visits paid in the
+country are made the more enjoyable when some
+special study can be carried on in the daily
+walks.</p>
+
+<p>Then collections of dried leaves and flowers
+can be formed during the summer, and the arrangement
+and classification of these will provide
+pleasant winter occupation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p>
+
+<p>I fear that many young people are apt to
+consider botany a very dry study. They are
+naturally repelled by the long words and many
+technical terms used in describing plants.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been my belief that the study of
+botany should be approached through the garden
+rather than the schoolroom, beginning with a
+country ramble which should be an object-lesson
+opening out endless paths for future study.</p>
+
+<p>Our Heavenly Father has given us a beautiful
+world to live in, and, when our eyes have once
+been opened to observe what lies around us,
+nature becomes like an exquisite book of pictures,
+always revealing to us something new and wonderful
+as we turn over each fresh page.</p>
+
+<p>It is suited to all ages; the baby child begins
+by gathering daisies and buttercups, while older
+children make wild-flower collections and perhaps
+work in their own little gardens watching the
+growth of seeds and slips.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty of ferns and mosses is sure to
+lead to some painstaking study of those fascinating
+growths.</p>
+
+<p>Later on the fact that all trees have flowers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span>comes as a surprise to the unobservant, and thus,
+when rightly guided, young people can hardly
+fail to love a pursuit that promises such endless
+sources of interest.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapters that will follow on the subject
+of plant life, I do not purpose to write for quite
+young children, as my hope is that older readers
+will explain what is written, and make it interesting
+to the little ones as they walk in gardens
+and fields, giving as it were object-lessons on
+buds, leaves, and flowers, and training young
+minds to search for themselves into the wonders
+that lie around them.</p>
+
+<p>How much there is to learn about, even in
+the simplest things, some of the succeeding
+chapters will endeavour to show, for example:</p>
+
+<p>How young plants grow out of seeds;</p>
+
+<p>How those seeds are dispersed;</p>
+
+<p>How much is folded up in a bud;</p>
+
+<p>How flowers are formed;</p>
+
+<p>How the bark splits off different trees.</p>
+
+<p>Any one of these subjects would need very
+careful, patient observation truly to understand
+it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p>
+
+<p>I stand as it were only on the threshold of
+scientific research, and look with wonder at the
+work of such a student as Darwin, who gave
+twenty long years to observation of the common
+earth-worm before he wrote his deeply interesting
+book upon it. Again, we see Sir John Lubbock
+giving years of his life to the growing of seeds
+and their seed leaves, in order to learn exactly
+how plants begin their life, and two very thick
+volumes are required to contain the vast amount
+of information he has thus obtained.</p>
+
+<p>These two examples will suffice to show that
+the minutest objects in nature are worthy of
+reverent attention, and if these chapters tend to
+awaken young people to a perception of this
+fact and act as a humble guide to new lines
+of thought, I shall feel that they have not been
+written in vain.</p>
+
+<p>I fear it is impossible to explain the processes
+nature is carrying on in the plant-world without
+occasionally using scientific words, but, when I
+am obliged to do so I shall try to explain their
+meaning,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>, and when once we rightly understand
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>an exact expression we soon begin to use it,
+because it is more convenient and often saves
+repeating a long sentence.</p>
+
+
+<p>I would ask my readers to try and obtain
+from their gardens and fields the various objects
+mentioned at the close of each chapter, and
+compare them with the plates, learning all about
+them as they read the letterpress.</p>
+
+<p>This will, I feel sure, add much interest to the
+study, for having something to collect and examine
+tends to lighten mental work and enables
+us better to understand descriptive writing.</p>
+
+<p>In this introductory chapter I will simply take
+a general view of vegetable growth and its
+adaptation to the situation in which it is found.</p>
+
+<p>In many respects plants require the same
+conditions as animals, birds, and insects; they
+must have air, food, moisture and light in order
+to attain healthy growth, and although they differ
+from animals in being usually stationary, their
+life is carried on in a very similar way. Let us
+take a forest tree as a type.</p>
+
+<p>It is anchored in the soil by its roots which
+are its feeding organs; through them it draws
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span>up various kinds of nourishment from the earth
+in which it stands.</p>
+
+<p>The roots by several chemical processes render
+the elements they have taken up from the soil
+fit for the nourishment of the tree; they send
+it up through the stem and branches into the
+leaves, and these being the breathing organs
+have essential work to do in receiving from the
+air, and giving out again, certain gases which
+contribute largely to maintain the life and vigour
+of the tree. Thus it grows year by year, producing
+annually its flowers and seed, which is
+the end and aim of all plant life.</p>
+
+<p>We can trace another analogy with animal life,
+in the necessity for pure sweet air, plants
+growing in a vitiated or smoke-laden atmosphere
+soon showing unmistakable signs of weakness.
+The stunted hedges and trees on the fringe of
+London always remind me of the poor, ill-grown
+children of the slums.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the plant life which we see around us in
+the shape of trees, shrubs, and flowers, there are
+lower and perhaps still more wonderful forms of
+vegetable life affording endless fields of study.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span></p>
+
+<p>Mosses, lichens, and fungi we are familiar
+with everywhere in the country, but below these
+again are such growths as the green stain&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> which
+makes the tree trunks in moist places as brilliant
+in colour as the leaves themselves. Looked at
+through a lens we see the colour arises from a
+growing plant of extremely simple form, little
+more in fact than a succession of cells, each living
+and increasing “after its kind.”</p>
+
+<p>Again, if we consider the process of fermentation,
+we find that when it is set up in a cask of
+wine its action is due to the growth of a minute
+vegetable that feeds upon the alcohol and sugar,
+and by robbing the wine of those two elements
+turns it into vinegar or acetic acid.</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat similar growth causes the thick
+jelly-like substance we sometimes find in our inkglass
+when it has been allowed to remain too long
+without renewal; the minute germs floating in the
+air have found the ink suitable to them, and thus
+their mycelium&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> begins to form at the bottom of
+the glass, to the great discomfort of the writer.</p>
+
+<p>The yeast with which our bread is fermented is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span>another of these minute plants, and consists of
+oval cells which multiply with great rapidity when
+placed in a pan of flour, and kept in a warm
+atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>By the careful study of these lower forms of
+vegetable life, Pasteur, Koch, Frankland, and
+others have discovered and classified the germs
+or microbes,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> as they are called, which give rise to
+various diseases. In books upon the subject, their
+different shapes are figured as they appear when
+immensely magnified, so that we can see that which
+will give rise to consumption, erysipelas, or cholera,
+and one reads with deep wonderment of all that
+science has ascertained of late years as to the
+presence in the air of these seeds of disease
+which are ever floating more or less around us.
+But for the restraining hand of God, it appears
+as if universal sickness and death would be our
+fate.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving these lower forms of growth, we may
+consider the three divisions into which plants are
+naturally classed as to their duration of life.</p>
+
+<p>Annuals are those which grow and flower, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>form their seeds in one year, within which their
+life-history is closed.</p>
+
+<p>Biennials produce leaves only in the first year;
+by their aid they lay up stores of nutriment in the
+form of tuberous roots, on this food they can exist
+through the winter, produce flowers the following
+summer, perfect their seeds, and then die.</p>
+
+<p>To this class we owe such useful plants as the
+carrot, parsnip, beetroot, and many others which
+afford us such nourishing vegetable diet.</p>
+
+<p>Perennial plants live on for an indefinite number
+of years, flowering annually, in some cases dying
+down to the root in autumn, and producing fresh
+foliage the following year.</p>
+
+<p>Water plants seldom have a fixed root, but remain
+floating, borne up and kept in position by the
+water, their roots being the means by which, in
+conjunction with the leaves, they derive nourishment
+from air and water. It is well worth while
+to observe the two forms of leaves in the water
+buttercup. Those on the surface are three-lobed,
+flat, and round, they absorb from the air such gases
+as the plant requires; while the leaves beneath
+the surface are divided into threads so as to offer
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span>no obstruction to the flow of water and enable the
+plant to collect needful food from the water. It
+can vary the form of its leaves according to its
+requirements, since in running streams it may
+often be found with the hair-like leaves only.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_036" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="Plant growing under water, with
+a part floating. The leaves under water have a very fine, strongly branched shape,
+the floating ones are more rounded and lobed. Above the water are some flowers,
+each having a crown of 5 leaflets.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>WATER BUTTERCUP.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the other hand, if its seeds are sown in moist
+earth, the seedlings will grow and develop those
+flat leaves only which are characteristic of land
+plants. This water buttercup, therefore, gives us a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span>wonderful example of adaptation to surrounding
+influences.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp38" id="i_037" style="max-width: 45.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_037.jpg" alt="Plant with very elongated
+leaves. A few thin stems grow winding to the surface.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>VALLISNERIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Adaptation is remarkably shown in the Vallisneria,
+a grass-like water-plant, found in Southern
+Europe;&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> it grows in freshwater lakes, rooted in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span>mud, and yet its flowers need to be fertilised in the
+air. In order to effect this, the small male flowers
+detach themselves from their stems, and, rising
+through the water, float about upon its surface.
+The female flowers are borne on a stalk, spirally
+twisted, so that it can uncoil and allow the flower
+to reach the top of the water whether it be deep
+or shallow. There the two kinds of flowers meet,
+the seeds are formed and the stem coils up again
+and brings the capsule below the surface, where
+it gradually matures.</p>
+
+<p>The water-lily can grow a long or short stem
+as the depth of the water may require to enable
+its leaves to lie flat upon the surface. I have
+gathered lily flowers in my lake with stems from
+four to five feet long, where the plant happened
+to be growing in deep water.</p>
+
+<p>In such plants as the mare’s-tail (<i>Hippuris
+vulgaris</i>), we find the stem specially adapted to
+a submerged life. Growing out of mud at the
+bottom of a stream the plant upholds its slender
+stalks by two different methods. Inside the epidermis
+(or outer skin) a strand of rather tough
+tissue running through the centre gives flexible
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>support, whilst the rest of the space is filled up
+with very large air cells, which give such buoyancy
+to the stems that even if they are three feet in
+length they are kept upright in the water, rising
+ten or twelve inches above the surface. It is a
+valuable as well as a curious plant, as it has the
+property of absorbing the gases emitted by stagnant
+water, and tends thus to purify the air.</p>
+
+<p>The same power of adaptation is to be found
+in sea-weeds. Those growing on rocky shores
+having short fronds covered with fructification,
+while out at sea, ribbons of oar-weed may be found
+many yards in length, formed, like the gulf-weed,
+of tough texture to bear the friction of waves and
+storms.</p>
+
+<p>If we were travelling in a Mexican desert, we
+should find those remarkable plants which can be
+so well studied in the cactus-house at Kew Gardens.
+Bearing in mind that for many months the plant
+must do without a drop of rain, or in fact without
+moisture of any kind, it has been necessary that
+the leaf-surface should be reduced to prevent loss
+of moisture by evaporation, and so spines take
+the place of leaves, and the stems are encased
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span>in a thick leathery skin, which protects the plant
+from the burning heat of the sun. Very little
+moisture escapes through this thick green epidermis;
+therefore when rain falls the plants receive
+and store up their liquid food, and live sparingly
+upon it during the long periods of drought, which
+last for three-quarters of the year. Some of these
+cacti, as we see them at Kew, are tall, straight-stemmed
+plants, others low-growing rounded
+masses, little spiny cushions, almost like vegetable
+hedgehogs.</p>
+
+<p>In the arid prairies of Texas, advantage is taken
+of the watery stores of the cactus, for when other
+supplies fail, its fleshy stems are cut open, and
+horses and cows greedily devour the succulent
+food, which answers the purpose of drink, as well
+as affording nutritious fodder.</p>
+
+<p>Our British spurge-plants have green leaves,
+a thin epidermis, and all the ordinary characters
+of the plants of a temperate region, but by comparing
+them with the spurges found in Madeira,
+we see how climate causes adaptation to differing
+conditions. One of these spurges growing in my
+greenhouse has a tall column-like stem, no leaves,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span>and a thick leathery skin, which would enable it
+to bear a hot, dry climate. It thus mimics the
+giant cacti of Mexico.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_041" style="max-width: 61.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="Plant with tuber formation
+directly above the roots. An oval-shaped leaf with smooth edges grows
+from a few tubers. The plant has 1 large flower with 6 petals">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="allsmcap">CATTLEYA WALKERIANA</span> (<i>a Brazilian Orchid</i>).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We may trace another contrast in our common
+groundsel and the large succulent groundsels of the
+Cape and the Canary Isles, with their thick fleshy
+leaves, the difference in form and texture being
+simply an expression of the wonderful modification
+due to climate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p>
+
+<p>The lovely tribe of orchids make the same
+provision for long periods of drought. Many of
+the species live in countries where the rainy season
+lasts about six months, and is succeeded by as
+many months of dryness and heat.</p>
+
+<p>The air-plants we obtain from these countries
+have large pseudo-bulbs, that is, the stems are
+enlarged so as to be storehouses of nutriment upon
+which the plant exists, and by means of which
+it brings out the gorgeous flowers which make
+Brazilian forests such fairylands of beauty; every
+tree-branch being laden with parasitic orchids,
+their lovely blossoms lasting month after month
+without the aid of rain or dew, because Nature
+has provided each plant with its special store of
+food, and has thus adapted it to the position it is
+created to adorn.</p>
+
+<p>Another of these perching-plants is <i>Tillandsia
+Usneoides<a id="tn-017"></a></i>, known in Florida as Spanish moss, and
+often called “old man’s beard.” It hangs from
+the tree-branches in tufts, like grey hair, and grows
+in such profusion that it is collected and used for
+stuffing cushions. This curious plant has no roots,
+but simply hangs from the branches, and lives like
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span>the orchids by absorbing water from the moist air
+in the humid forests where it is found.</p>
+
+<p>The absorption by the long, hanging, grey roots
+of the orchids in one case, and by the finely-divided
+leaves and stems in the other, are both instances
+of the wonderful way in which Nature “adapts”
+the parts of a plant to its requirements.</p>
+
+<p>It often happens that seeds, blown hither and
+thither by the wind, chance to fall upon places
+which are quite unsuitable to their mode of growth;
+then we have an opportunity of seeing how their
+power of adaptation enables them to triumph over
+almost insuperable difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>I have observed a tiny plant of groundsel
+growing out of a chink in a wall where there
+was scarcely any soil from which it could derive
+nourishment, contriving to live on, however, and
+make the best of its hard lot. Its stem, which
+should have been a foot high, could only attain
+about two inches, and instead of dozens of leaves
+it had but four, and yet it survived and even
+produced two small flowers, thus touchingly displaying
+its power of adaptation.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_044" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="The top of a wall on which
+a group of rosette-shaped plants grows. Between those plants grows a
+small fir tree">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>YOUNG SCOTCH FIR GROWING IN HOUSE-LEEK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Another more remarkable instance which occurs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>to me was that of a seedling Scotch fir, which had
+rooted itself in a lump of house-leek on the top
+of a garden wall. For eight years the young tree
+managed to live and grow, until it became a symmetrical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span>well-branched fir-tree, almost twelve inches
+high. By a supreme effort it produced a crop of
+miniature cones, and soon after it died from
+drought and starvation, the wonder being that it
+could have lived so long upon the modicum of
+food the barren wall supplied, besides having to
+endure at times periods of scorching heat as well
+as drought. The chief interest in this example is
+centred in the fact that as soon as fruit-bearing
+has been attained, then, and not till then, the little
+tree died, showing how persistently under all
+hindrances and difficulties a plant will endeavour
+to carry out the purpose of its creation.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen in these instances some striking
+examples of the way in which plant-life is adapted
+to its surroundings. Our examples have been
+such as are easy of attainment, and such as we
+can verify with our own eyes; but even more
+wonderful are the adaptations hidden away in
+the recesses of the plant, and as we progress in
+our study these arrangements of cells and tissues
+will be revealed to us. In order however to see
+them, and to understand their true significance,
+we must proceed step by step to study the parts
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>of an ordinary plant; because it is only by first
+mastering all we can of one part of a plant, and
+then comparing that part with other plants, that
+we can hope to gain real knowledge. Accordingly
+in our next chapter we shall take the root as our
+starting-point, and ascertain its functions and uses,
+and the part it has to play in the economy of the
+plant.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens to be obtained:—Green stain on treebark
+(<i>Protococcus</i>); yeast; annual, biennial, and
+perennial plants; water buttercup leaves; vallisneria;
+water-lily stems; mare’s-tail plant; cacti;
+spurge; orchids; tillandsia; plants growing in
+wall crevices.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">
+    CHAPTER II
+    <br>
+    <i>ROOTS</i>
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“While thus through all the stages thou hast push’d</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Of treeship—first a seedling, hid in grass;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Then twig; then sapling; and, as century roll’d</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Slow after century, a giant bulk</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Of girth enormous, with moss-cushion’d root</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Upheaved above the soil.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Cowper.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_II_1">
+    CHAPTER II
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">ROOTS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_049.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="L">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">Let</span>
+us begin our study of roots by
+considering the way in which plants
+obtain their nourishment from the
+earth, and are kept in an upright position
+by means of their root-fibres. These
+being out of sight, we may easily not be familiar
+with this part of the economy of plant life, but we
+shall soon see what important duties the roots have
+to fulfil, and how much they vary in character and
+appearance according to the soil, the climate, and
+the work they are required to do. The greater
+number of annual plants (those which live only
+one year) have fibrous roots, and of these we can
+find examples almost everywhere. A piece of
+groundsel or tuft of grass will answer our purpose.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span>On pulling it out of the ground we see a bunch of
+whitish threads or fibres springing from the crown
+of the plant (which is the junction between the
+stem and the root), and on these slender fibres are
+hairs which are really the active part of the root,
+for it is only through these hairs that the rootlets
+are able to absorb the liquid from the soil, the
+fibres simply acting as channels to convey the
+watery nourishment to the stem and leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Common earth consists of small particles of
+mineral substances such as flint, chalk, or iron, and
+also of such vegetable matter as decayed leaves
+and rotten wood.</p>
+
+<p>The spaces between the particles are more or
+less filled with air, each mineral particle being
+enveloped with a film of water. However dry the
+soil may appear, this will always be found to be
+the case. It may be tested by weighing in an
+agate balance some dry soil on a summer’s day.
+There is a very delicate instrument called a
+hygroscope, which can tell us when there is the
+slightest amount of moisture in the air, and a
+clever German writer, Von Sachs,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> has termed this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span>film of water, which gathers round earth-particles,
+hygroscopic water. It has been ascertained by
+careful experiment that it is only on this delicate
+watery film that the root-hairs of plants are able to
+feed. As these hairs drain away the hygroscopic
+film it is always being renewed by the free water
+which comes from rain and dew. The free water
+of the soil is constantly passing from the surface to
+the subsoil, and by this action plant-food, in the
+form of soluble earth salts, is presented to the
+roots. The passage of the water is of the highest
+service to the roots, since the warm air follows the
+water through the soil, and helps to oxidise the
+mineral particles; these are thus rendered soluble,
+and are taken up by the fine films of water, and
+so indirectly the roots are fed. If, however, there
+is no outlet for the water and the soil becomes
+water-logged this beneficial action is retarded, and
+to land-roots the water is hurtful.</p>
+
+<p>We can now understand why stagnant water
+in the ground is so injurious to plant-life, as it
+prevents the needful air from coming into contact
+with the roots, and this is the reason why farmers
+are careful to remove the surplus water from their
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span>fields by thorough drainage and ploughing. Roots
+adapt themselves very wonderfully to their situation.</p>
+
+<p>This piece of grass, which we are examining,
+if it grew in sandy soil, would have its root-fibres
+covered with a downy growth to enable them the
+more readily to absorb every particle of moisture
+in the sand. Dr. Bonar speaks of the date-palm
+as having this same characteristic. “These palm
+roots are peculiarly fitted to obtain every drop of
+water that the sand contains; they consist of long
+fleshy strings or ropes, shooting straight down
+into the sand, in numbers quite beyond our
+reckoning, and extending over a large circle.”</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of fibrous roots to bind sand
+together is taken advantage of on many of our
+sea-coasts, where the sand blows inland and
+renders acres of ground sterile and useless.
+There, if the <i>Carex arenaria</i> (a kind of sedge) is
+planted, its roots will spread far and wide, interlacing
+and creeping through the sandy soil, until
+in time the latter becomes solid and no longer
+drifts inland.</p>
+
+<p>An allied species of grass, <i>Psamma arenaria</i> (or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>marrem grass) grows abundantly at Bournemouth,
+and wishing to ascertain how far one of its
+underground stems extended, with some amount of
+patience I disinterred about six or seven feet of it
+in a bank on the sea-shore where it was accessible.
+As it seemed to have no end, I could not ascertain
+its entire length.</p>
+
+<p>Another instance of root growth adapting itself
+to situations occurs to me. In visiting the
+Cheddar Cliffs in Somersetshire I was struck by
+the beauty of a plant which grew here and there
+out of the crevices of the rocks. Its tufts of vivid
+green leaves looked so healthy and vigorous I
+could not help wondering how it could obtain
+moisture enough to produce such foliage, placed
+as it was high up on the dry face of a rock.</p>
+
+<p>Failing to reach its roots in any other way, I
+climbed up to a spot where I could remove some
+of the horizontal layers of stone. At last I lifted a
+flat piece of rock just above one of those plants,
+and there I saw at a glance the secret of its
+vigorous growth:</p>
+
+<p>The roots had spread out over the surface of the
+stone for a distance of eight or nine inches in a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>perfectly flat layer of fine fibrous rootlets no
+thicker than a sheet of paper; these would doubtless
+suck up abundant moisture whenever the rain
+beat upon the rocks, and there, pressed closely
+between the two layers of stone the plant has its
+water-supply stored up, and is enabled to look
+fresh and green when other vegetation is suffering
+from drought.</p>
+
+<p>In plant-life there is a marvellous variety in
+root-structure. Roots differ much, not only in
+form, but in texture and duration of life, so that to
+gain a true knowledge of them we must carefully
+examine those of herbs, shrubs, and trees, and
+observation will soon teach us the fact that there
+exists a close correlation between the form and
+texture of the root and the size and character of
+the plant. The external shape will depend principally
+upon whether a tap-root is developed or no.
+Such, for instance, as the carrot and the dock are
+those of the true tap-root character. Of branching
+roots we may find endless modifications amongst
+ordinary field or garden flowers from the fibrous
+roots of the little groundsel to the large fleshy
+tubers of the dahlia. Between these two types
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>there are others of an intermediate kind, but it is
+possible to recognise amongst common plants the
+roots belonging to one or other of the types I
+have described. For the purposes of study we
+may broadly group roots into classes according to
+their method of collecting and absorbing food.
+Thus we find one group growing in soil and
+feeding upon the soluble earth salts and moisture
+of the soil. Another group will be found growing
+in water, like the water-lily and pond weeds. A
+third group simply hangs down in space from
+some perching plant like the tropical orchid, whilst
+a fourth and very small group consists of parasitic
+roots, of which a very common example is the
+mistletoe. We will now study each of these
+groups separately.</p>
+
+<p>I have already spoken of some kinds of fibrous
+roots, and may add that if the root of a land plant
+is immersed in water, it will after a time develop a
+different kind of fibre, capable of receiving nourishment
+from water instead of earth. I remember
+seeing an instance of this in the case of a laurel
+bush which grew near a well in our garden. We
+had occasion to examine the water, and found that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>the laurel had thrown down its roots below the
+surface, where they grew luxuriantly, finely subdivided,
+of a delicate ivory white, owing to the
+absence of light, and more than a yard in length.
+They had adapted themselves to the duty of
+absorbing water only, but had we replanted them
+in earth they would have withered, from their
+unfitness to take up the hygroscopic water of
+which I have already spoken. On the other hand,
+if the seeds of a plant formed to live in the water,
+such, for instance, as the water-lily, are sown in
+ordinary soil, they adapt themselves to the new
+conditions, and are able to live on the hygroscopic
+water they find around the particles of earth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="i_056" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="Three tufts of grass, sprouting
+from a stem that grows horizontally">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>CREEPING GRASS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some plants send out a horizontal stem (culm)
+along the ground, with a bud and some roots
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>growing out of it at regular intervals. Each of
+these joints (or nodes) takes root and forms a
+separate plant. What are called strawberry
+runners are stems of this kind, and so are the
+creeping stems of <i>Potentilla reptans</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="i_057" style="max-width: 42.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_057.jpg" alt="A plant, consisting of bulbs
+from which roots grow downward and stems and long elongated leaves grow upward.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>POA BULBOSA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I once found a plant of the latter growing on
+a low wall, and, as I imagine, because it desired
+to reach the ground and root itself there, it had
+thrown down a stem a yard and a half long with
+eight young plants growing upon it at intervals
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>ready to form so many colonies when they should
+reach the ground.</p>
+
+<p>One may frequently find stems of various
+grasses running along the ground, and taking
+root at each joint. I have one such spray in my
+herbarium, with twelve young plants upon it at
+regular intervals.</p>
+
+<p>Some plants store up nourishment in their roots,
+as may be seen in one of our common seaside
+grasses (<i>Poa bulbosa</i>); this soon withers after
+flowering, and becoming uprooted, its bulbs, which
+are like small round cheeses strung together, may
+be seen blowing about in the wind.</p>
+
+<p>With such a provision as this, the parent plant
+is able to bear extremes of cold and drought.</p>
+
+<p>It is well for us that plants have this power of
+storing up their food underground, for to it we
+owe such useful tubers as the potato and Jerusalem
+artichoke.</p>
+
+<p>One of our native plants, the earth-nut (<i>Bunium
+flexuosum</i>), has a single round tuber which is eatable
+when roasted, and is often dug up by children.
+Long ago, when England was liable to famines,
+even this small tuber was valued as a means of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>eking out the labourer’s daily meal. It is worth
+while to examine the curious divided tubers of
+some of our common orchises, such as the spotted
+orchis (<i>O. maculata</i>), or the meadow orchis (<i>O.
+morio</i>). The tuber which produces the leaves and
+flowers withers away at the end of the summer,
+but it leaves behind it a second tuber in which is
+stored up the nourishment required to enable it to
+bring forth leaves and flowers in the following
+spring.</p>
+
+<p>Tubers are in reality underground stems which
+have thickened into rounded balls to contain plant
+food.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_060" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="Part of the stem of a plant
+with oval-shaped leaves with articulate veins. In the axils of the leaves grow
+small rounded bulbs. A detail of one of the bulbs shows it has rootlets and
+some compacted leaves">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>LILY BULBILS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>If we examine a potato we shall see that it contains
+true buds in the little hollows on its surface;
+these are called “eyes,” and each of them if sown
+in the ground will produce a new potato plant. If
+a potato is left in a damp cellar, each of these eyes
+will send out a stem, thus proving that the “eye”
+has the nature of a bud. If we cut the potato in
+half we shall see it is of an even substance mainly
+composed of starch, but if we halve an onion it will
+be found to consist of rings or layers of a thick
+fleshy nature, which proves it to be a bulb and not
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span>a tuber. The onion is like a large bud growing
+underground, instead of on a tree branch. We can
+prove how similar the onion and the bud are, by
+searching on a lily stem for buds or bulbils, which
+are often produced in the axils of the leaves; if we
+plant such a bud it will throw out fibres and become
+a bulbous-rooted plant. Some of our native grasses
+seem to have a singular power of adapting themselves
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>to their position. For instance, the common
+Timothy grass (<i>Phleum pratense</i>), which usually
+lives by means of a fibrous root, can, if needful,
+produce a bulb which enables it to keep living in
+a very dry place, but if removed to a wet soil it
+returns to a fibrous root. Other grasses have been
+observed to alter their root-growth in the same way,
+adapting themselves to their surroundings.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Air Roots.</h3>
+
+<p>These absorb the watery vapour of the air; they
+cannot adapt themselves to live in earth, but under
+certain conditions they can put forth other kinds of
+roots that are partially adapted for growing in soil.</p>
+
+<p>I may here give some personal observations
+about a certain <i>Hoya</i> plant that came into my
+possession so long ago as 1855. This muchenduring
+plant lived in a hanging basket for many
+years, in the dry air of a sitting-room. Its leaves
+were sometimes shrivelled from lack of water, and
+it never had vigour enough to produce flowers. At
+last, after enduring this life for twenty years, it was
+placed in a stove-house where the moist heat suited
+its requirements. Then it flowered charmingly, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>even now is showing a further degree of enterprise
+by growing a bunch of fibrous roots at the end of
+one of its stems. I imagine it intends to plant
+itself into another pot standing near. I am watching
+it with much curiosity, because if it does this,
+the old plant will prove that it has a high degree
+of intelligence, and that although it remained
+quiescent for so many years, it was only from lack
+of opportunity to do more than quietly endure its
+privations.</p>
+
+<p>In tropical countries, some plants and trees such
+as <i>Monstera</i> and <i>Philodendron</i> send down slender
+aerial<a id="tn-016"></a> roots called lianes, many hundred feet in
+length.</p>
+
+<p>In the Aëroid House at Kew, I remember seeing
+these lianes coming down from the roof of the
+house in search of water and earthy nourishment.
+It seemed like actual intelligence that directed
+these roots to a tank of water twenty-five feet
+distant from their starting-point above. Whilst we
+are considering this subject, I may mention the
+curious root action of a kind of fig-tree growing in
+the tropics which is sometimes known by the name
+of the “Murderer.” Its seed often falls, or is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span>dropped by birds, amongst the leaves in the head
+of a palm-tree, there it begins to grow and forms
+root after root, gradually descending the stem of
+the tree and clasping it so tightly that at last the
+palm is strangled and falls to the ground carrying
+its destroyer with it, where it roots and grows into
+a tree.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Parasitic Roots.</h3>
+
+<p>As in human society there are thievish characters
+who live by preying upon their neighbours, so in
+vegetable society we find quite a number of different
+plants growing at the expense of others, inserting
+their roots into the stems and roots of trees instead
+of drawing their nourishment from the ground.
+Careful distinction must be drawn between such
+plants as ivy, virginian creeper, clematis, lichens, &amp;c.,
+which simply grow and climb on the bark of trees,
+and the true parasites which are nourished by the
+juices of the trees and plants into which their routs
+penetrate.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_064" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_064.jpg" alt="Three separate pictures. To the
+left there are 3 germinating seeds, out of which grow thin threads. In the middle
+there is a stem of a clover plant with several trefoil leaves and a composite
+flower. The stem is entwined by a thread-like structure, bearing several groups
+of very small flowers. To the right is a clover seedling with 2 trefoil leaves,
+next to which a seed germinates from which a thread grows that has started to
+reach for the clover.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>CLOVER DODDER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some plants are only partially parasitic, such as
+the cow-wheat (<i>Melampyrum</i>) and the yellow rattle
+(<i>Rhinanthus</i>). These represent a very deceitful
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>kind of growth. To all appearance the plants are
+getting an honest living, the leaves are perfectly
+green and capable of performing all the duties of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span>leaves, and yet, if we remove a little of the soil the
+plant will be found to be attached to, and growing
+from the roots of some strong kind of grass, and is
+deriving its nourishment from the food collected
+by those grass roots.</p>
+
+<p>Yellow rattle grows abundantly in undrained
+marshy fields, where it is easy to obtain the plant,
+so as to examine its mode of growth. We may then
+go on to a clover-field and seek for that true parasite
+and most troublesome enemy to the farmer,
+the clover-dodder (<i>Cuscuta trifolii</i>). Its seeds are
+frequently mixed with the clover, and when
+sown they germinate on the surface, but the
+little thread-like stem, instead of entering the
+ground, feels about in the air until it reaches a
+young clover-plant. It soon clasps its victim
+with its fast-growing stem; as the clover grows
+the dodder coils around it and is carried away
+from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>As the wiry stem gains strength, it developes a
+series of suckers that eat into the clover stem and
+rob it of the food it has collected; it lives, flowers,
+and grows at the other’s expense. The rate of
+growth of the dodder exceeds that of the clover, so
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span>that the latter is both exhausted and choked by its
+snake-like enemy.</p>
+
+<p>I once sowed a patch of flax in a garden, and not
+knowing that it too had a parasitic enemy, I was
+greatly puzzled to find quantities of pinkish threads
+growing out of the flax stems. These threads bore
+round bunches of tiny flowers. All this was very
+pretty and interesting, but it resulted in my patch
+of flax becoming a mass of interlacing threads and
+dying a miserable death, fairly strangled by the
+flax dodder. Another species of <i>Cuscuta epilinum</i>,
+grows on furze and also on heather, it having the
+twine-like stems by which dodder may readily be
+known.</p>
+
+<p>We are all familiar with the mistletoe, its leathery
+leaves and its white berries.</p>
+
+<p>This plant grows out of the branches of poplar,
+hawthorn, and apple, and very occasionally upon
+the oak.</p>
+
+<p>In France and Belgium the custom of bordering
+the fields with single rows of Lombardy poplars
+seems to favour the growth of mistletoe, for its large
+green bunches form quite a feature in the landscape,
+and cannot fail to be observed by the traveller as he
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>journeys in the railway train. I have been told that
+mistletoe is sufficiently abundant to be used in
+Normandy as cattle-food.</p>
+
+<p>If a mistletoe-berry is gently pressed upon a
+young branch of an apple-tree, its own viscid juice
+will cause it to adhere, and before long it germinates
+and sends its roots into the tissues of the tree;
+as it grows, it fuses with them, and derives all its
+root nourishment from the substances in the branch.
+Of course the tree is weakened by this parasite, the
+sucking roots of which disturb the flow of the sap;
+woody knots are apt to form, and not unfrequently
+the branch is killed by the intruder which has
+fastened upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Having touched upon the four principal kinds of
+roots, we will now take a single root-fibre and
+examine it more closely. It seems scarcely possible
+that such a brittle, feeble thread should be able to
+penetrate into the ground and make its way
+amongst stones and sharp-edged fragments of earth
+without being bruised or torn. The chief friction is
+borne by the growing-point, and this always has for
+its protection a root-cap; the section of the growing-point
+of root-fibre given in the plate shows the outer
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>skin, called the epidermis, and over that is the root-cap
+shaped like a thimble formed of small cells.
+As they are worn away outside and become dead
+tissue, owing to friction with the soil, the cells are
+constantly being renewed from within. The root
+is thus enabled to grow and perform its part in
+maintaining the life of the plant. The presence of
+this root-cap and the absence of
+leaves are the marks by which a true
+root is known and distinguished from
+an underground stem. With a small
+lens one can see this extinguisher-like
+cap protecting the extreme point of
+the root, and it is well to examine a
+variety of specimens, and see how they
+differ slightly in size and shape.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w20" id="i_068">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="A microscopic picture of plant
+tissue. At the top are rows of cuboid cells. These rows narrow down to the
+bottom. That part is covered by a cap of more oval cells.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SECTION OF
+    ROOT CAP.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The one especial office of the root is to absorb
+liquid nourishment from the soil for the benefit of
+the plant, and, as I have already explained, this is
+done mainly through the hairs which grow upon
+the fibres of the roots. For instance, there is no
+absorption in old tree-roots, such as we sometimes
+see above the ground, nor in carrots, turnips, and
+parsnips, but thrown out from such bulbous plants
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>are the fibres and their hairs which enable them to
+grow to maturity. We may naturally inquire how
+the solid materials in the soil, which are needful to
+the growth of the stem and leaves, can possibly be
+taken up by these extremely minute hairs.</p>
+
+<p>We may look upon the earth as being a sort of
+storehouse<a id="tn-019"></a> of indigestible, unprepared plant-food
+which must be altered in its character before it will
+be fit for absorption by the roots. Some substances,
+such as sugar, will readily dissolve in water; others,
+such as starch and sand, are insoluble, but the effect
+of rain-water and atmospheric air passing through
+the soil, converts this insoluble dormant food into
+soluble active food.</p>
+
+<p>The root-hairs convey this food to the small
+fibres, and through them as channels it passes on
+to larger ones, until it reaches the stem and goes to
+feed the growing leaves and flowers.</p>
+
+<p>In order to remain in a healthy state, roots must
+absorb oxygen gas, and for this reason gardeners,
+when they find the soil growing caked and hard on
+the surface, dig and rake the flower-borders in order
+that air may freely permeate the soil and find access
+to the roots of the plants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p>
+
+<p>Roots appear to be endowed with certain remarkable
+attributes, about which learned books have
+been written of late, giving the result of patient
+investigation as to their power of movement, the
+way in which they are affected by gravitation, the
+influence of light, and other forces.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments of Darwin and other scientists
+have revealed very singular facts about the movements
+of plants. The term used to describe their
+motion is one we must learn, as it frequently appears
+in botanical works. Circumnutation we may translate
+as wavering around, and it well describes the
+curious way in which rootlets, for instance, are
+always moving slowly from one side to the other,
+describing a kind of oval zig-zag track through the
+earth. The fibres appear to have a discriminating
+power, enabling them to choose convenient crevices
+through which to penetrate hard soil, to avoid stone,
+and to seek out any attractive food which lies in
+their way.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as roots emerge from the seed they at
+once turn from the light and seek to bury themselves
+in the earth; the plumule from which the
+leaves will spring has exactly the reverse tendency,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>and invariably seeks the light and grows upwards.
+This can be proved by growing some mustard seeds
+on a piece of flannel about the size of a shilling,
+floating it on water in a saucer exposed to light
+from a single window; as soon as the leaves appear,
+they will lean towards the light, whilst the roots
+will point towards the dark part of the room.
+If a germinating seed is even placed with the
+root uppermost, and the plumule pointing downwards,
+it will very speedily right itself, the stem
+will turn and grow up, and the root will seek
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The amazing strength of growing tree roots can
+be imagined when we watch a tree in full leaf
+during a high wind. As the terrific force of the
+gale sways the trunk backwards and forwards the
+roots are subjected to an enormous strain. Like
+great india-rubber cables they give and retract, and
+when the wind subsides we find the trunk as rigid
+as ever.</p>
+
+<p>If my readers will seek for the specimens
+enumerated below, and compare them with the
+remarks made in this chapter, they will have such
+a general idea of the functions of roots as will, I
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>trust, enable them to enjoy the study of more
+advanced works upon the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens to be obtained and compared with
+the descriptions in this chapter:—Sedge or marrem
+grass growing on a sandy sea coast; plants growing
+between layers of stone; tree roots at the edge of
+a pond; strawberry runners; a plant of <i>Potentilla
+reptans</i>; creeping grasses; <i>Poa bulbosa</i> roots from
+the seaside; potato. Earth nuts; lily bulbils;
+Timothy grass; cow-wheat (<i>Melampyrum</i>); yellow
+rattle (<i>Rhinanthus</i>); clover dodder (<i>Cuscuta trifolii</i>);
+flax dodder (<i>Cuscuta epilinum</i>); mistletoe. Root
+fibres of various plants. Mustard seed sown on
+flannel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">
+    CHAPTER III
+    <br>
+    <i>TREE STEMS</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“If thou art worn and hard beset</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">With sorrows, that thou wouldst forget,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">If thou wouldst read a lesson, that will keep</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Go to the woods and hills! No tears</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Dim the sweet look that Nature wears.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Longfellow.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_III_1">
+    CHAPTER III
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">TREE STEMS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_075.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="A">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">A walk</span>
+through a wood on a bright
+day in February will afford us many
+interesting intuitions about the growth
+of trees.</p>
+
+<p>We are apt to think of winter as a
+dead season, and long for summer days once
+more, that we may pursue our botanical studies;
+but as soon as February begins there is already a
+secret work going on within the tree-stems, the sap
+is rising from the roots, and this ascent is easily to
+be traced if we look carefully at the trunks of those
+trees, such as the oak, elm, and others, which have
+rugged bark. The wood within is swelling; fresh
+layers of material will, a little later on, be added to
+the inner side of the bark as a result of this ascent
+of the sap.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span></p>
+
+<p>As the bark is hard and inelastic, it cannot
+expand in proportion, and therefore has to crack
+and split in yielding to the internal pressure. If
+we look for these fresh cracks, we shall see the
+clean new bark within, which, before long, will
+harden and become of the same shade of grey as
+the rest of the stem.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="i_076" style="max-width: 48.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk,
+covered by rough bark.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>TURKEY OAK BARK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It is at this season, too, that the plane-tree sheds
+off its fragments of bark in greatest quantity, as
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span>one may plainly see in the London squares, where
+this tree grows so remarkably well. Its stem is
+always peeling more or less throughout the year,
+and possibly that fact may be one of the reasons
+of its flourishing so well in the midst of smoke
+and fog.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp54" id="i_077" style="max-width: 48.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk,
+covered bu very rough bark, having deep grooves and some pellets that come loose.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SCOTCH FIR BARK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Trees shed their bark in many different ways.</p>
+
+<p>A reference to the illustrations will show the
+concentric rings of the horse-chestnut, the square
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span>pieces of the sycamore, which are due to the cleavage
+being both vertical and horizontal, the hexagonal
+shape of the divisions of the Scotch fir, the
+rugged bark of the Turkey oak, the sycamore and
+other species.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="i_078" style="max-width: 47.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of two tree
+trunks, having a striped bark.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SNAKE-BARK MAPLE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Where a woodpecker or a nuthatch has bored
+a hole into the living wood of a tree-stem, it is
+interesting to watch how the injury is repaired.
+New bark begins to form at the edges of the
+wound, and to this a layer is added each year, until
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span>at last the hole is filled up, and only a scar is left
+to show where it once existed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="i_079" style="max-width: 48.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk
+where the bark is damaged, showing the wood underneath.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="allsmcap">TURKEY OAK STEM</span> (<i>struck by lightning</i>).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I have been able to watch this repairing process
+going on for twelve years in the case of a Turkey
+oak, which was injured by lightning. I was watching
+the progress of the storm from one of our
+upper windows, and happened to be looking at
+this particular tree in the park, when out of a lurid
+cloud above it, a streak of forked lightning
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>descended upon the tree, and rent off the bark of
+one side from the top to the bottom, carrying away
+portions of it to a distance of fifty feet or more,
+leaving a white gash which looked pitiful enough
+for many months. Year by year a wave of new
+bark rolls on, covering the bare place by slow
+degrees, but it is never destined to be quite healed
+in this case, for the inner wood was killed to some
+extent by the lightning, so it has become a home
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span>for the boring beetles, who are riddling it with
+holes wherein to lay their eggs.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp54" id="i_080" style="max-width: 47.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_080.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk
+with a smooth bark, having dark and light patches. From the dark patches peaces of
+bark are coming loose.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PLANE-TREE BARK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="i_081" style="max-width: 47.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk
+with many fine grooves, creating a pattern of pellets.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>HORSE-CHESTNUT BARK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Such a tree becomes a happy hunting ground
+for the woodpecker, who is attracted by the insect
+diet he finds there. The large holes he makes in
+getting at his prey will let in the rain, so that after
+a time the moist rotten wood forms a suitable
+place for various fungoid growths, and all these
+agencies work together for the destruction of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>wood until the tree becomes a hollow stem, and the
+leafage above is solely produced by the sap carried
+upward by the bark.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_082" style="max-width: 48.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk
+with a smooth bark, containing many diamond-shaped darker patches.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>WHITE POPLAR BARK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_083" style="max-width: 48.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk
+with a bark having many horizontal grooves and a few vertical ones, creating
+the appearance of many rectangular scales.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SYCAMORE BARK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Let us inquire a little more carefully into the
+formation of a tree-stem, and the different parts of
+which it consists. Some rather hard names are
+given to the four principal parts of a tree trunk
+but, by reference to the plate, and by knowing the
+meaning of the names, I hope they will soon be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span>mastered, and then our future walks in the woods
+will be fuller of interest than ever, when once we
+understand something about the hidden work that
+is being carried on in those grand old trunks
+around us. A tree may be compared to a large
+manufactory. As we stand outside the building
+we see the brick walls and the roof, and smoke is
+coming out of the chimneys. We know that a
+great deal of work is being done inside, and carts
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span>are leaving its doors laden with the products of the
+machinery within, but how the work is done we
+cannot tell from the outside. We perhaps desire
+to obtain this knowledge, and under the guidance
+of the manager, we are taken from room to room
+and see the marvellous processes by which raw
+material is converted into exquisite fabrics, or it
+may be clay is turned into priceless china or
+porcelain. We leave the building full of wonder
+at the things we have seen, and those particular
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span>manufactures will ever afterwards be invested with
+a special interest for us, because we have seen
+with our own eyes how they are produced.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="i_084" style="max-width: 48.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="Photograph of part of a tree trunk
+covered with many oval an heart-shaped dark patches, close to one another.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>TREE-FERN BARK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Just in the same way we shall look upon trees
+in a new light, if we are able in some measure to
+follow the processes nature is carrying on in them
+year by year so as to ensure the foliage, flower, and
+fruit, which minister so much to our pleasure and
+profit.</p>
+
+<p>The four names we must learn about in order to
+understand the formation of wood are these. First
+the outer bark, called epidermis, from two Greek
+words <i>epi</i> upon, and <i>derma</i> the skin. <i>Cortex</i>, a
+Latin word meaning bark. Fibro-vascular bundles;
+this long phrase refers to certain threads or fibres
+which exist in stems and give them toughness and
+elasticity. From such fibres in the flax plant we
+obtain linen, and from the hemp fibres ropes are
+made. <i>Fibro</i> comes from the Latin <i>fibra</i>, a thread
+or fibre; and <i>vasculum</i> is Latin for a little vessel;
+we know the word better, perhaps, in another
+sense as <i>vasculum</i>, the tin box in which botanists
+place their plant collections.</p>
+
+<p>These thread-like vessels are well called bundles,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span>because they exist in little masses in the substance
+of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>Most young people know what is called King
+Charles’s Oak in the stem of the brake fern,
+so plainly seen when it is cut across with a
+penknife. The dark markings are the ends of the
+fibro-vascular bundles which happen to resemble
+an oak tree in form, though some think them more
+like an eagle with outstretched wings, so the fern
+is named <i>Pteris aquilina</i>, from <i>aquila</i>, an eagle.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth word is pith, the white substance in
+the centre of the stem, which can readily be seen
+by dividing a piece of elder branch, when the
+middle will be found full of white pith.</p>
+
+<p>When we have these four parts of the stem
+clearly in our minds it will be possible to go on
+with our study and learn about the spaces between,
+which are filled with different kinds of cells.</p>
+
+<p>The honey-comb formed by bees consists of
+small cells, little hollow spaces in which they store
+the honey or bee-food. Woody structure consists
+largely of cells of various shapes to contain sap
+and other substances. A beautiful specimen of
+cell net-work may be obtained by placing a thin
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span>slice of either white or yellow water-lily stem on a
+piece of glass and, holding it up to the light, a fine
+sort of lace-work will be seen. These are the cells
+which convey air and water through the stem up
+to the leaves and flowers. Or if we examine a
+flower petal with a magnifying glass we shall find
+it to be entirely composed of minute cells.</p>
+
+<div class="col50">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_087a" style="max-width: 37.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_087a.jpg" alt="Cross section of a stem showing
+many white circles, that grow smaller to the periphery. Dispersed are some darker spots.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>STEM OF YELLOW
+    WATER-LILY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+  <div class="col50">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_087b" style="max-width: 31.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_087b.jpg" alt="Cross section of a stem showing some
+large and several smaller white circles, in a compact dark matrix.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>STEM OF WHITE
+    WATER-LILY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p>In these little spaces are stored very many
+and very different materials, all necessary to the
+growth of a tree; we shall try and learn about
+them by degrees; at present we must endeavour
+to obtain a clear idea of their structure.</p>
+
+<p>A tree-stem increases in size yearly by the
+growth of fresh cells within the outer bark, and
+this active increase of tissue is due mainly to what
+is called the cambium layer, which is developed
+only in the spring and summer and does not exist
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>in winter; it forms bast, or phloëm, on the outer
+side next the bark, and on the inner side next the
+pith it creates woody tissue.</p>
+
+<p>Our English lime tree has a layer of fibre beneath
+the bark which is worth examination; it
+is the same in character, but not so wide or strong,
+as the bast which we import from Russia in mats
+to protect vegetation from frosts. Squirrels are
+very fond of this soft material; they strip it
+cleverly off the branches of our lime trees to form
+a warm lining for their nests.</p>
+
+<p>It is easily found by cutting the outer bark off
+any small branch of lime within reach, when we
+can peel off the inner layer of bast, or phloëm, as
+botanists call it.</p>
+
+<p>The phloëm from the lace-bark tree of the West
+Indies is like the finest possible net-work, and is
+used for many ornamental purposes. <i>Liber</i> (Latin
+for the inner rind of a tree) is another term applied
+to this cell formation.</p>
+
+<p>The study of different forms of woody fibre will
+be found most interesting.</p>
+
+<p>I obtained one of my best specimens of it by
+placing a very old Swedish turnip in water for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span>some months until the soft parts had melted away
+and only the round ball of fibre remained. If any
+one wishes to follow my example I would suggest
+placing the turnip and its pan of water in some
+outhouse where its perfume will not incommode
+any one. A maid came to me one day with a sad
+account of a fearful smell which had been noticed
+for some time in a lumber-room at the top of the
+house, and very naturally she thought that the
+plumber should be called in to remedy the evil. I
+had almost forgotten my interesting skeleton, but
+in due time I traced the odour to its right cause,
+and the turnip was banished to a distant spot,
+where many washings and some soaking in
+chloride of lime changed it into a really beautiful
+specimen of woody fibre. I possess now only a
+quarter of it, for botanists have so earnestly
+begged for pieces of it that I have been persuaded
+to share it with them.</p>
+
+<p>I have sometimes picked up on the seashore old
+cabbage-stems bleached to a delicate ivory white,
+forming really beautiful instances of woody fibre.
+These we can prepare for ourselves, if desired, by
+soaking the stems in water until they can be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span>brushed perfectly clean, and then bleached by
+mixing a little chloride of lime in water and
+letting them soak in it till they are white and
+free from odour.</p>
+
+<p>In a manufactory there must of necessity be a
+series of windows on the different floors, not only
+to let in light but for purposes of ventilation.
+Now, the processes of tree-growth are carried on
+without light in the stem, but air is necessary, and
+it is supplied by means of small apertures called
+lenticels. These are not open holes, but are more
+like gratings which admit a small amount of air
+through loosely-packed cells.</p>
+
+<p>These lenticels are the small brown specks
+which may be traced in great numbers on the
+young branches of almost any tree. They remain
+open through the spring and summer, admitting
+the needful air to the interior of the bark, but
+when the tree-growth is over for the season, and
+air is no longer needed, a layer of cork forms
+within the lenticel which entirely shuts it up and
+keeps out the wintry cold. Thus it remains sealed
+up till, by the growth of the cambium layer in the
+following spring, the corky barrier is split open
+and air is again admitted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p>
+
+<p>These lenticels are nature’s ventilators, opening
+and shutting in this curious way in order that the
+manufacture which is going on beneath the bark
+may receive from the outer air the various gases
+essential to the work which is being carried on
+within.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that many and various things are
+stored in the stem-cells of trees. It would occupy
+too much space to attempt to make anything like
+a complete list of the liquids and solids which are
+obtained from trees, but I will enumerate a few of
+those with which we are familiar from their usefulness
+in every-day life.</p>
+
+<p>Turpentine is obtained from various kinds of
+firs—the Scotch fir, larch, and others. Burgundy
+pitch from the spruce fir. A kind of tar is also
+prepared from Scotch fir and larch. From various
+kinds of cinchona we obtain quinine, so valuable
+as a remedy for fever. Camphor is a product of a
+Chinese tree. Tannin, by which skins are converted
+into leather, is obtained from the bark of
+the oak-tree. A kind of sugar is made from the
+sap of the maple, which is largely used in America.
+Gum arabic and a great number of gums used in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span>medicine are produced by foreign trees of various
+kinds. The interior pith of a West Indian palm
+tree produces the sago of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Stems, like every other part of a plant, are to be
+seen in endless variety when we come to examine
+them for ourselves. In common garden plants
+such as the calceolaria and petunia, the consistence
+is soft, and such stems are known as herbaceous;
+these generally die down in autumn. Roses and
+rhododendrons have stems of a harder and more
+rigid character, and seem to be intermediate between
+the soft herbaceous stems and tall tree trunks.</p>
+
+<p>If in some country ramble we resolve to make
+the trunks and bark of trees our study, we shall
+find much that is interesting and well worthy of
+observation.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_093" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="Photograph of a group of tree trunks
+growing from a web of entangled roots.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>GROUP OF BEECH-TREES WITH INTERLACING STEMS AND ROOTS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Lombardy poplar, with its tall bending stem,
+the graceful willow and the silver birch, contrast
+strongly with the thick and sturdy trunks of the
+elm and oak. Even these two differ, the wood of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>the elm being short and brittle, whilst that of the
+oak is hard and flexible. Again, we may note the
+slender drawn-up stems of trees growing thickly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span>together in a wood, where light and air are in a
+measure shut out, and compare them with other
+specimens standing in a park in free air and light.
+There we see trees, growing as nature intended, with
+grand sturdy trunks and welldeveloped
+branches spreading out
+on all sides. Lastly, in this chapter,
+we may note the climbing
+stems; these are especially numerous
+and diversified in their
+manner of growth. Almost every
+part is modified and adapted to
+assist the stem to climb. The
+common ivy develops upon the
+surface of its stem numerous
+rootlets, and by their clasping
+nature the ivy is enabled to
+ascend the smoothest tree-trunk.
+The hop and the convolvulus
+climb by means of their habit of twining around
+some rigid stem or twig. Then the peas and
+vetches send out little clasping tendrils in the
+place of leaflets, whilst that lovely ornament of
+the hedges—traveller’s joy—climbs by occasionally
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span>using the leaf stalk for a clasping holdfast. Not
+less interesting are the plants that climb by means
+of their hooks; the common bramble is of this
+kind; it scrambles over the hedge in a very enterprising
+and aggressive manner, while its spines
+and hooks effectually prevent it from slipping back.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w20" id="i_094" style="max-width: 27.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="Stem or stick entwined
+by a thin stem from which heart-shaped leaved grow and some flowers. The leaves
+show their veins. The flowers are funnel-shaped and have some 5 or 6 petals.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>CONVOLVULUS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A very highly developed organ of climbing
+is that to be found upon the stems of the
+small Virginian creeper (<i>Ampelopsis Veitchii</i>).
+On the points of its small tendrils we shall discover
+little globular, crimson-coloured pads, which,
+when pressed against a tree or wall, secrete
+a kind of vegetable glue. This fixes the
+tendril and enables the weak slender stem to
+climb upwards. In these instances, as well as
+others mentioned earlier in the chapter, we
+have again evidences of how wonderfully plants
+are adapted to their wants and environment.</p>
+
+<p>Things to observe and collect:—The various
+ways in which trees shed their bark; how trees
+repair holes in the stem; fibres in flax stem
+and in hemp; specimens easily obtained by
+sowing linseed and hemp-seed; section of brake-fern
+stem; section of elder stem; thin section of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span>white or yellow water-lily stem; flower petal;
+piece of bast matting; West Indian lace-bark;
+turnip and cabbage stalk prepared as specimens of
+woody fibre; lenticels on various trees; suitable
+leaves for skeletonising—holly, magnolia, tulip-tree,
+pear, poplar, aspen, mahonia, plum and
+maple; suitable capsules—poppy, stramonium,
+henbane, winter-cherry, campanula, and the calyces
+of the yellow-rattle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">
+    CHAPTER IV
+    <br>
+    <i>LEAVES</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent20">“These naked shoots</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Barren as lances, among which the wind</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Makes wintry music, sighing as it goes,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Shall put their graceful foliage on again,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">And more aspiring, and with ampler spread,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Shall boast new charms, and more than they have lost.</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Then each, in its peculiar honours clad,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Shall publish even to the distant eye,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Its family and tribe.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Cowper.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_IV_1">
+    CHAPTER IV
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">LEAVES</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_099.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="W">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">We</span>
+have learned in the previous chapters
+that the roots are the means by
+which a plant gathers out of the earth
+the various constituents which are needful
+to maintain its life.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves have also to do their part in collecting
+from the air such gases as are required to
+effect the processes carried on within the substance
+of the leaf.</p>
+
+<p>The leaf is really the digestive organ of the
+plant; it feeds, breathes, and gives off in the form
+of vapour any excess of water not required for its
+work. For these purposes sunlight and air are
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>A leaf consists of a stalk, called a petiole, and
+the flat green part, which we may call the blade.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w30" id="i_100" style="max-width: 33.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="An oval shaped leaf
+with a pointed tip showing its veins. Those are arranged in a feather-like
+branching structure, sprouting from a central vein that is placed straight from
+the base to the tip. Near the edge the veins connect to each other.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>NETTED VEINS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>If we hold a leaf up to the light we see a
+network of veins, and it is by their help the leaf
+becomes a broad expansion of tissue, so exposed
+that it gets the fullest possible benefit from the
+sunlight and air. This fibrous
+network gives strength to the
+leaf, and answers to the bones
+in animal structure.</p>
+
+<p>The fibro-vascular bundles,
+which we see in the stem, go
+up through the petiole, and
+branch out in a beautiful and
+regular manner. We may observe
+this arrangement very
+clearly in a skeleton leaf, the
+midrib<a id="tn-020"></a> forming a backbone to
+the whole structure, while the
+smaller veins tend off to the
+edge of the leaf, and then
+overlap so as to form a
+system of girders supporting the edge, and preventing
+the wind from tearing the delicate tissues
+into shreds.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of leaf network is called
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span>venation, and by a glance at it we can at once
+see to which of the great divisions in botany a
+plant belongs. If the fibres are straight and run
+parallel to each other without being netted, then
+we know the leaf is that of a plant which begins
+its life with only one seed-leaf; such
+are all the species of corn and grass,
+bulbs, palm-trees, bananas, and others.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w20" id="i_101" style="max-width: 20.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="A seed from which a young plant
+emerges. At the bottom there are some roots. The plant has one leaf, that forms
+a sheath around the small, growing stem.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>MONOCOTYLEDON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The long name applied to this
+division of plants must be explained,
+as it is a term we cannot
+do without, and I must own it looks
+formidable until we understand its
+meaning.</p>
+
+<p>The first leaf that comes out of a
+seed is called a cotyledon, from
+<i>kotúle</i>, a cavity, or cup. The Greek
+for one is <i>mónos</i>, so plants with one
+seed-leaf are called monocotyledons.</p>
+
+<p>If we sow a date-stone or a few seeds of Indian
+corn in moist soil they will grow readily, and
+afford us nice little specimens of a one-seed leaf-plant.</p>
+
+<p>If we see that a leaf has netted veins, then we
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span>know its seed produced two leaves at first,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> so
+plants belonging to this great division are called<a id="tn-018"></a>
+dicotyledons.</p>
+
+<p>In order to watch the growth of two-leaved
+seedlings, we may select a broad bean, or some
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span>of the seeds out of tamarind jam; either will
+grow readily in a pot of earth, if it is placed in
+a sunny window, or near a stove, and kept moist.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="i_102" style="max-width: 60.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="A seed, from which one long root
+grows downward. Equally long is the stem that grows upward. The stem has four
+leaves, grouped in pairs. The bottom pair have elongated shapes with smooth edges and
+veins that are arranged longitudinally. The upper pair have more of a heart shape
+with serrated edges. Their veins are arranged in a feather-like structure.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>DICOTYLEDON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Orange and lemon pips may sometimes be
+found sprouting within the fruit, and either of
+these seeds will germinate, and form charming
+little evergreen plants to brighten a town window-ledge.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_103" style="max-width: 34.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_103.jpg" alt="A germinating seed, from
+which a root grows into the soil. The seed is lifted above the ground. It
+consists of 2 lobes and in between are 2 small, feather-like leaves.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>TAMARIND SEEDLING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Now we need not be afraid of those two long
+words which are used to describe
+one-leaved and two-leaved
+seedlings, since we
+know their meaning, and it
+will be interesting when we
+come across some new plant
+to see to which division it
+belongs, because knowing that will mean knowing
+a great deal besides.</p>
+
+<p>All our English trees (with the exception of the
+firs, which have many seed-leaves) are dicotyledons;
+they increase their stems from the outside,
+and are therefore called exogens, and most of our
+plants belong to this division.</p>
+
+<p>The monocotyledons increase from the centre,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span>that is to say, the second leaf grows out of the
+first, and the third leaf and its stem grow out of
+the sheath of the second leaf, and so on; and this
+is the law of their growth, whether they be corn
+plants or palm-trees. These sheathing leaves and
+the straight veins will always enable us to recognise
+a one-seed leaf-plant at sight.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the stem has a marked
+influence upon the arrangement of the leaves;
+these, in such plants as the cyclamen, sundew, or
+primrose, are said to be radical; that is, growing
+from the root. Close observation will reveal the
+cause to be the non-development of the internodes,
+the leaves being crowded upon a very short, suppressed
+stem, and thus we get the beautiful little
+rosettes we find in the daisy and plantain. When
+the stem is of greater length the leaves are ranged
+at definite intervals, the spaces between the leaves
+(the internodes) varying in length in proportion to
+the size of the leaf. Small leaves are thus much
+thicker upon the tree than larger ones. This will
+readily be seen if we compare a branch of sycamore
+with one of elm, the former having its large
+leaves much further apart than the latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p>
+
+<p>Then, also, the arrangement of leaves upon the
+stem (<i>phyllotaxis</i>) varies much. If we take a spray
+of beech we shall find that its buds are placed
+alternately on either side of the stem, so that the
+third bud is exactly below the first, and the second
+bud is in a line with the fourth, and so on. This
+is also the plan of the elm, hazel, lime, hornbeam,
+and many other trees. In the alder and whitebeam
+the buds occur in three rows, and in some of
+the willows in series of eight.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves of the horse-chestnut are borne in
+pairs on alternate sides of the stem, and this plan
+is common to a number of plants, especially those
+of the type of the dead nettle and speedwell.</p>
+
+<p>Quite a distinct arrangement is that to be found
+in the woodruff and bedstraws, where the leaves
+are placed in a ring (a whorl) at regular intervals on
+the stem.</p>
+
+<p>The botanical student should carefully observe
+the differing methods of leaf arrangement, since,
+as branches are developed from buds, the varying
+order in their position must naturally modify the
+general aspect of a tree, and has also much
+physiological importance. We shall find that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span>buds are so placed that each leaf shall receive
+its full share of sunlight and air, for it needs this
+position in order to enable it to carry out the
+wonderful work of assimilation which it has to
+perform.</p>
+
+<p>The upper surface of a leaf is covered by a thin
+layer of cells, known as the epidermis (or skin);
+this does not prevent the light from falling
+through, and its outer surface is protected by a
+thickening, known as the cuticle. This is of great
+use in controlling the escape of moisture, otherwise
+the leaf would soon shrivel up in a hot sun.
+In a young seedling leaf the cuticle is not developed,
+and it can therefore breathe out moisture
+very rapidly; later on, when the cuticle is formed,
+it controls the escape of moisture, which can then
+only exude through the under surface of the leaf.</p>
+
+<p>We can easily peel off a portion of the skin
+from the under surface of the leaf, and if we place
+it in a little water between two pieces of glass
+and look at it in a microscope we shall see that
+it consists of an extremely thin layer of cells,
+with numbers of little openings called stomata
+(from the Greek <i>stoma</i>, a mouth), answering
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span>somewhat to the lenticels to be found in young
+tree-stems, only those are solely for the admission
+of air, while these little mouths are to let in and
+out not only air, but water, vapour, and oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>These stomata look like little crescent-shaped
+slits with a curved cell on either side, and as
+they curve more or less, the mouths are opened
+or shut as the plant may require. These little
+mouths play a very important
+part in the economy of the leaf,
+and they exist in immense quantities
+on its under surface.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_107" style="max-width: 27.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="A microscopic image showing
+vertical lines, that picture cellular borders.There are 3 openings between
+the cells that have an elliptical shape and each are bordered by 2 banana-shaped
+structures that join at the tips and thus enclose the opening.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>STOMATA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It has been calculated that a
+million stomata exist on a single
+leaf of the lime tree. When the
+root has taken up more moisture than is required,
+then it is the office of these pores, or stomata, in
+the leaf to give out this extra water in the form
+of vapour, and we can thus see how the action of
+leaves must influence climate. If forests are recklessly
+cut down, the bare country, with no foliage
+to throw moisture into the air, may become an
+almost barren desert, and again in marshy places,
+where the air is too damp, a wise reduction in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span>number of trees may alter the climate to a healthy
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable results have been obtained by planting
+the Australian gum-tree, <i>Eucalyptus globulus</i>;
+it thrives well in malarious places, and at once
+produces a marked hygienic change in the air. A
+Monsieur Gimbert relates that “A farm some
+twenty miles from Algiers was noted for its pestilential
+air, and in the spring of 1867, 13,000
+eucalyptus trees were planted there, since which
+time not a single case of fever has occurred.</p>
+
+<p>“The gum-tree grows rapidly and absorbs as
+much as ten times its weight of water from the
+soil, and emits camphoraceous antiseptic vapour
+from its leaves. It is therefore often called the
+fever-destroying tree.”</p>
+
+<p>Experiments have been made to try and find
+out how much moisture is really given out by
+leaves. It was found that a sunflower three and a
+half feet high, with a leaf expanse of over five
+thousand inches, exhaled one pint of liquid in the
+course of the day.</p>
+
+<p>No wonder, therefore, that trees tend to make
+the air damp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span></p>
+
+<p>Each stomate leads into air spaces between the
+cells, and is thus connected with the interior of the
+leaf.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="i_109" style="max-width: 53.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="Microscopic image showing several
+layers of tissue. The top layer consists of square cells that are tightly
+connected. The second layer consist of long, elongated rectangular cells, grouped
+with their long sides next to each other and their short base to the top layer.
+These cells contain dark particles. The third layer consists of shorter
+rectangular cells, also with their longer sides connected to each other and with
+their shorter base to the layer above. These cells too contain particles, that
+are somewhat larger that in the layer above and have a lighter colour.
+The following layer consists of irregularly shaped cells that from a spongy
+tissue with large gaps between the cells. These cells contain 2 types of particles:
+one type similar to the ones in the layer above, and a second type that is very
+dark. Finally the bottom layer consists, like the top layer, of square,
+interconnected cells, a bit smaller though. At one point an opening in this layer
+can be seen. This opening is bordered by 2 very small cells.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>LEAF SECTION.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The tissue and cells of a leaf (bifacial)&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> can be
+understood by reference to the accompanying diagram.
+Between the upper and under surfaces of
+a leaf there is a layer, more or less thick, of soft
+green tissue known as <i>mesophyll</i>, and if we hold a
+leaf to the sunlight we shall see the veins traversing
+this tissue.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of the mesophyll consists of
+elongated cells arranged at right angles to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span>surface, and placed so evenly parallel to each other
+that they have been compared to the pales of a
+fence, and are called palisade tissue. These cells
+contain a quantity of the green substance called
+<i>chlorophyllon</i> (from <i>chloros</i>, green, and <i>phyllon</i>, a
+leaf), so named because to this bright green substance
+we owe all the lovely verdure of our woods
+and gardens.</p>
+
+<p>Below this palisade tissue is another of quite a
+different form, consisting of large spongy cells, and
+therefore known as spongy tissue.</p>
+
+<p>In its intercellular spaces are stored those
+secretions which make certain herbs, such as
+thyme, marjoram, and others so fragrant when
+bruised.</p>
+
+<p>The chemical changes which are ever going on
+in these various layers, require a constant supply
+of the outer air, and this is secured by the little
+openings, called stomata, on the under surface of
+the leaf, which have been already described; these
+constitute the breathing apparatus of the leaf, for
+they open and shut, and regulate the supply of
+air into little air chambers, from which it passes
+into the structure of the plant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span></p>
+
+<p>Before going any further I must try and explain
+a little about the wonderful substance called protoplasm.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we have ever watched a potter at work, we
+know he takes a lump of clay and moulds it
+according to his purpose, into a rough pot, or a
+lovely vase; now protoplasm seems to be just
+such a foundation material from which the Divine
+Creator causes animal and vegetable forms to proceed.
+<i>First material</i> seems to me to be a term
+that actually expresses the meaning of the word
+protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p>It lines the cell walls of leaves, it is capable of
+forming fresh cells, it can absorb moisture and
+other matters, it contracts and expands, it has
+power of movement, as one may readily see when
+a portion of a leaf is placed in a microscope, so as
+to show the grains of bright green chlorophyll
+circulating in the lining of each little cell.</p>
+
+<p>Learned volumes would be needed to explain
+the nature of protoplasm, so I must be content
+with these simple facts about its nature, and proceed
+to the chemical action going on in leaves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span></p>
+
+<p>In ordinary atmosphere there is a very small
+quantity of a gas called carbon-dioxide.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> The
+leaves absorb this gas from the air, and because
+there is so little of it, each tree needs to spread out
+an immense amount of foliage, that it may drink
+in, by its means, all the carbon-dioxide that can
+possibly be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>When this gas comes in contact with the
+chlorophyll in a leaf, one part of the oxygen is set
+free, and returns to the air in a pure condition,
+thus making it more healthy for us to breathe;
+then the carbon and the remaining oxygen combine
+with water in the leaf cells, and form starch,
+the leaves retain the carbon, to build up their own
+structure; it enters indeed so largely into the
+composition of vegetable substance, that in some
+cases if we could burn one hundred parts of it, fifty
+parts of the ashes would prove to be carbon or
+charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>In a rough sort of way we may see for ourselves
+how much carbon there is in woody fibre, by lighting
+an ordinary wooden match and letting it burn
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span>itself out; the black portion that remains will be a
+piece of charcoal not very much smaller than the
+original match.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, in the process of burning, the match
+has lost the resin, and other organic substances
+which were stored up in the cells of the wood; all
+these have passed into the air, and only the carbon
+remains. If, however, instead of this slow manner
+of combustion, we had set light to a whole box
+of matches so that it burnt fiercely, the flame
+would have been strong enough to consume the
+charcoal, and nothing would then be left but
+mineral ashes.</p>
+
+<p>When charcoal burners are at work in a forest,
+we may see them making a stack of wood, which
+they cover with a thick layer of clay so that the
+wood may burn away very slowly; in this case
+the charcoal will be left in the same way as when
+we burnt the single match.</p>
+
+<p>As long as the upper side of leaves are soaking
+in the sunlight, starch is being formed, as I have
+described; but during the night the starch thus
+formed is dissolved, and passing through the leaf
+fibres finds its way into every part of the plant,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span>either to be used in forming new tissue, or else
+to be stored up for future use.</p>
+
+<p>The net-work of veins act as a service of tiny
+pipes, to convey the liquids up and down the
+petiole (leaf-stalk).</p>
+
+<p>Generally the water given off from the stomata
+is in the form of vapour; but in some plants
+drops of water exude from the apex or point of the
+leaf through the water pores. In <i>Saxifraga crustata</i>,
+there are pores round the edges of the
+leaves, through which water, highly charged with
+lime and other salts, passes out, and as it evaporates
+a white deposit of lime remains which is quite
+visible in the form of a frosted edging to the
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p>There is an American plant called the jewel-weed,
+which shows to perfection this power of distilling
+drops of water. I will quote a short description
+of its appearance at night-fall.</p>
+
+<p>“Upon the approach of twilight, each leaf droops
+as if wilted, and from the notches along the edge,
+the crystal beads begin to grow until its border is
+hung full with its gems. It is Aladdin’s lantern
+that you see among a bed of these succulent pale
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span>green plants, for the spectacle is like dreamland.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>A very similar effect may be observed if we
+visit a plant of Lady’s-mantle (<i>Alchemilla vulgaris</i>)
+at early morning after a warm dewless night; each
+leaf will be found beautifully decked with dewdrops
+at equal distances round the edge of the
+leaves where the pores have exuded the moisture
+with which they are charged.</p>
+
+<p>Nasturtium and fuchsia may also be examined
+for this purpose and will show exudation from
+their leaf pores.</p>
+
+<p>If a small quantity of wheat is grown in some
+cocoa fibre, it will illustrate this power of giving
+off water, for when the little blades are a few
+inches high, they will be found each morning
+tipped with a large dewdrop, the result of exudation
+during the night.</p>
+
+<p>In countries where the sun is intensely hot, if
+the leaves of trees were to be exposed to its full
+power, they would probably wither, and vegetation
+would perish.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp69" id="i_116" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_116.jpg" alt="A stem with 8 leaves, grouped
+in pairs. The leaves grow smaller toward the tip. They are of a rounded shape
+with smooth edges. Veins are clearly visible. At the tip is a bud. The leaves
+directly underneath seam to grow small stalks with buds from there axils.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>YOUNG SHOOT OF EUCALYPTUS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Against this danger some trees are enabled to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span>make special provision, by changing the form of
+their leaves, and their mode of hanging on the
+branch. In Australia, for instance, where the sun
+is almost vertical, the acacias and eucalyptus trees,
+instead of holding their leaves flat or horizontally
+as trees do in England, so that they may catch
+every ray of sunlight, avoid the heat as much as
+possible, by holding them edgeways to the light.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_117" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="Photograph of a branch with
+leaves and flowers. The leaves are oval, elongated, with sharp tips. The flowers,
+some still in buds, some flowering, some finished already, have a round shape with
+a multitude of hairlike parts.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>MATURE FORM OF EUCALYPTUS LEAVES.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p>
+
+<p>While eucalyptus trees are young, and partially
+shaded by surrounding vegetation, their leaves are
+flat and oval, and English seedlings of this tree
+usually retain such leaves from five to ten years,
+our climate not being hot enough to require the
+mature form of leaf which hangs vertically, and is
+of an entirely different form.</p>
+
+<p>Reference to the plates will show a young shoot
+of <i>Eucalyptus globulus</i> and a branch of the older
+leaves, with their edges only exposed to sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>The curved sickle-shaped leaves of the eucalyptus
+afford very little shade to the traveller in
+Australia for this reason, that only fine intercrossing
+lines of shadow are seen on the ground.
+To make this clear, let my readers take a sheet
+of notepaper out of doors on a sunny day and
+hold it perfectly flat, so as to expose it to all the
+sunlight it can receive upon its surface, as if it
+were a growing beech-leaf, and it will throw a
+large shadow on the ground. Then hold it edgeways
+to the sun, and it will form the kind of thin
+line of shadow that would be cast by a mature
+eucalyptus leaf.</p>
+
+<p>Preparation for the fall of the leaf begins in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span>spring, when a fine line or ridge may be traced
+just below the junction of the leaf with the stem.
+This dark line is in reality a thin layer of cork,
+which, during the summer months, continues to
+grow inwards to form in due time a covering
+for the bare place on the stem that will be left
+when the leaf falls off; this is called the leaf-scar.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to watch this line, growing more
+and more visible as the year goes on.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious fact is, that some of the starch
+which the leaves have been making during the
+summer, becomes stored up in autumn at the base
+of the leaf-stalk, so as to afford nourishment to the
+bud which will arise out of the axil of the leaf.
+When a weak solution of iodine is applied to it,
+this starch turns blue, and in this way its presence
+can be ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of the leaf appears to take place mainly
+because the starch has the effect of softening the
+cells of the leaf-stalk; as it dries up it loses its
+hold of the twig, and either the wind or a slight
+frost will suffice to bring the leaves down to the
+ground in showers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span></p>
+
+<p>Another reason for their fall is, that their year’s
+work is done. Like good servants, they have been
+hard at work all through the summer and autumn
+months, taking in stores of nourishment for the
+benefit of the tree, and giving out volumes of
+oxygen, so helpful for the maintenance of human
+life. They have secured and laid up sufficient
+nutriment for the development of the next year’s
+buds, and having done this, their special office
+being at an end, they fall beneath the tree to
+become leaf-mould, which, in its turn when fully
+decayed, will yield nourishing elements to be
+carried by the winter and spring rains to the tree
+roots.</p>
+
+<p>I might add many more useful objects which
+we owe to trees, and I commend it to my young
+readers as an instructive study to try and make
+out a complete list of the useful products of our
+English trees. I imagine we do not yet know
+all that might be obtained from them, new discoveries
+continue to reveal their value in the way
+of medicines; for instance, the crystals of the
+willow (called salicine) are now frequently prescribed
+as a remedy for rheumatism. Euonomine
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span>and many others might be included amongst the
+valuable gifts which nature has stored in the cells
+of tree-stems.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens to be obtained:—Leaves with straight
+veins, such as grass or corn, hyacinth, narcissus, or
+any bulbous plants; leaves with netted veins, such
+as oak, ivy, vine, &amp;c.; monocotyledon seedlings;
+dicotyledon seedlings. Leaf-skin to be examined
+through a microscope, in order to see stomata,
+chlorophyll, network, and cells. Examine waterpores
+in leaves when exuding moisture. Observe
+shadows thrown by leaves held flat and edgeways
+to the sun. Compare young and old eucalyptus
+leaves. Observe line of cork below leaf-scars.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subtext">Leaves can be made into beautiful skeletons by soaking a good
+many together in a pan of soft water until the upper and under
+surfaces of the leaves are sufficiently decayed to be easily removed
+by a soft brush; the fibre which is left can then be bleached with
+chloride of lime. When mounted with fine wire these skeleton
+leaves form an interesting group to place under a glass shade.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a><a id="Page_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">
+    CHAPTER V
+    <br>
+    <i>BUDS</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Oh! who can speak the joys of spring’s young morn,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">When wood and pasture open on his view,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">When tender green buds blush upon the thorn</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">And the first primrose dips its leaves in dew.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Clare.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_V_1">
+    CHAPTER V
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">BUDS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_125.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="H">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">How</span>
+we watch for the buds as tokens
+of the coming spring! We delight
+to see them daily growing larger, and
+opening out their leafy treasures to the
+sun.</p>
+
+<p>The re-clothing of the trees has always an
+element of wonder about it; the change is truly
+a resurrection; a few days of warm sunshine
+and gentle rain, and then the dry, dead-looking
+branches begin to bud and blossom as if by a
+miracle.</p>
+
+<p>We may, however, trace the secret of this
+sudden change, if we look back to the processes
+Nature was carrying on during the previous
+summer, and we may learn from her many a
+useful lesson of foresight and preparation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p>
+
+<p>If during the summer we lift up the branch
+of any deciduous tree and search amongst the
+leaves, we shall find that the buds for the following
+year are already there, waiting to be developed
+in due time. When the leaves turn dry and sere,
+they fall off and leave the buds to be hardened
+and matured by the rain, snow, and frost of
+winter.</p>
+
+<p>Certain species of Turkey oak, young beeches,
+hornbeams in hedges, and other trees, appear to
+retain their leaves, to some extent, as if to protect
+the buds until the rising sap in spring loosens
+their hold upon the branches, and makes them
+fall off.</p>
+
+<p>The plane-tree appears to be an exception to
+most trees in the curious protection it affords its
+young buds. If we search for these in the summer
+or autumn, they are not to be found, for the leaf-stalk
+is so swollen and hollow at the base as to
+enclose the bud within it; even when the leaf falls
+off, the bud is covered by a tough outer case
+coated with resin, and within are many fur-lined
+scales. When these are removed we see the tiny
+leaves wrapped in silky coverings, and when the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span>warmth of spring enables them to expand, their
+under surfaces have such a thick coat of down
+that the plane is known in some countries as the
+cotton-tree. From its fruit being in the form of
+hanging circular balls, its name in America is the
+button-wood. The need of this special protection
+against cold is shown by the fact that if severe
+frost returns after the leaves have expanded, they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span>frequently shrivel and perish. Some Japanese
+maples have the same arrangement of hollow leaf-stalks
+to contain the buds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_127" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="A large, leafless tree
+on the top of a hill.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>OAK IN WINTER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When buds are situated at the end of a branch
+they are called terminal, and their office is to
+increase the length of the branch.</p>
+
+<p>When they grow in the axil of a leaf (that is,
+where the leaf-stalk joins the stem) then they are
+called axillary, and as they grow out and form
+fresh stems and leaves, the branch broadens on
+either side.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_129" style="max-width: 59.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="A large tree bearing leaves
+together with other ones in a fenced-off meadow.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>OAK IN SUMMER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Seeing that the branches of a tree thus spring
+from the buds, it follows that the position and
+development of the buds upon the stem, as we
+tried to show in the last chapter, have much to do
+with the ultimate shape of the tree. The development
+of the axil buds, as well as of the terminal
+bud, gives rise to a branched tree like the oak;
+these buds, however, are often erratic, and in some
+trees the terminal bud of the shoot is often suppressed
+and the axil buds grow with extra vigour,
+whilst in other instances the terminal bud grows
+strongly and the axil buds either grow feebly or
+are altogether suppressed. In the bamboos, palms,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span>and sugar-cane we get good examples of this
+terminal bud-growth, the axillary buds being
+suppressed; the suckers that grow from the axils
+of the lower leaves of the palm are often evidence
+of the presence of axillary buds, although they
+are, as a rule, dormant. We are all more or less
+familiar with the character of ordinary forest trees,
+the rounded outline of the oak, the slender sprays
+of the birch, the spreading branches of the beech,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span>but perhaps we may not have remarked how much
+these variations of form are due to the position of
+the buds upon the branches. We will suppose
+that on a winter’s day we are looking at the
+tracery of some elm-branches against the sky;
+the form of each branch shows that the terminal
+bud in this tree usually ceases to grow, and allows
+the lateral shoots to increase in length, and take
+its place; this produces short, twiggy branches,
+and a stem which makes a tall tree rather than
+a wide-spreading one. The horse-chestnut, again,
+produces its flowers in the terminal buds; this
+arrests their growth, and side shoots have to grow
+on instead, thus usually giving height rather than
+breadth to the tree. We may note the differing
+outline of the willow, birch, and many others
+where the terminal buds do not cease to grow,
+but each year continue to add to the breadth as
+well as the height of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>In pine-trees the buds are produced at the ends
+of the branches, and several shoots proceed from
+one bud.</p>
+
+<p>The spiral arrangement of leaves is well seen
+in a young coniferous shoot, also in the flower-bud,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span>and especially in the fir-cone itself, in which
+an ever-varying double spiral can be traced.</p>
+
+<p>Loudon remarks, “The perfection of a fir consists
+in height rather than in lateral expansion;
+buds are produced very sparingly and nearly
+always at the extremities of the shoots. Provision
+is thus made for the upward growth of
+the tree more than for side expansion.”</p>
+
+<p>When we speak of a coniferous shrub having
+lost its leader, we mean that the terminal bud on
+the topmost shoot having been broken off, one
+or more of the lower branches must rise up and
+take its place, and thus lateral buds in time
+become terminal and grow upright instead of
+sideways.</p>
+
+<p>A silver fir, that I have been observing
+for years past, bears such a crop of heavy
+cones on its slender upper branches that the
+leader is almost invariably broken off by the
+weight, and the lateral shoots have to take its
+place, to the great detriment of the central stem,
+which is twisted and curved out of shape by the
+efforts the tree makes to repair its terminal
+shoot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span></p>
+
+<p>In other trees, again, the unfolding of all the
+buds is nearly simultaneous, but in the fir tribe
+the bud which terminates the summit of the tree
+and is destined to form its leading shoot and
+increase its height is developed last; this delay
+seems a provision of nature for the safety of the
+most important shoot which the tree can produce,
+ensuring its height rather than its breadth, and
+the production of timber by the preservation of
+its permanent trunk rather than by its temporary
+branches.</p>
+
+<p>If a willow is deprived of the upper part of
+its stem and so made a pollard tree, it develops
+a bushy head of small stems which spring from
+the other buds thrown out to repair the loss of
+the central stem. This pollarding is often resorted
+to in order to obtain wood of the right
+kind for basket-making, and young ash trees are
+thus treated, so that slender rods suitable for
+hop-poles and tool-handles may spring from the
+lopped stem.</p>
+
+<p>When buds are found growing on any other
+part of a plant except those just mentioned,
+they are called adventitious buds. These may
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span>be found growing on the edges of the leaves
+of the marsh tway-blade; they also spring out of
+the flat surface of the fronds of the viviparous
+fern.</p>
+
+<p>Under favourable conditions every part of a
+plant will produce buds, and, taking advantage
+of this fact, florists increase their stock of succulent
+plants by putting the leaves on a wet surface,
+which induces them quickly to send out buds and
+roots. Such plants as begonias, gloxinias, hoyas,
+and sedums are readily increased by this mode
+of propagation. Underground stems will often
+send out buds, and they produce the underwood
+from the stumps of fallen trees.</p>
+
+<p>We are all familiar with the suckers of trees
+which spring up in our lawns and gravel paths
+often many yards away from the parent tree;
+these all arise from active buds on underground
+stems. Gardeners are always careful to prune
+away such growths at the base of their wall-fruit-trees,
+since they rob their valuable peaches,
+nectarines, and apricots of strength and nourishment.
+These well-named “suckers” spring from
+the common stock upon which the choice fruit-trees
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span>were grafted, as one may see by gathering
+a leaf from a sucker and comparing it with a
+peach or nectarine leaf.</p>
+
+<p>On the oak, chestnut, lime, beech, and other
+trees there are sometimes to be found dormant
+buds in the form of rounded knobs covered
+with bark and increasing in size with the growth
+of the tree; these, in the event of other buds
+perishing, will start into active growth and do
+their part in preserving the life of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>Such woody balls when found on the oak are
+worth examination, as when divested of their
+bark they show exquisite structure of woody fibre.</p>
+
+<p>The small bulbils we find in the axils of lily
+stems, on the cuckoo-flower, on <i>Dentaria bulbifera</i>,
+and on some species of Allium, are all adventitious
+buds, which drop off in due time and become
+young plants.</p>
+
+<p>They are in many respects similar to bulbs,
+and if we cut one in half and compare it with
+a divided hyacinth we shall see that they both
+consist of over-lapping scales. In the onion
+these scales are fleshy and succulent, but in
+most tree buds they are dry, hard membranes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span></p>
+
+<p>The pear and magnolia buds are secured
+against wintry cold by woolly linings to the
+scales, and in the horse-chestnut they are covered
+with a kind of resin which renders them impervious
+to moisture.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="i_135" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="A large bare tree in a meadow
+with other bare trees in the background. In the foreground there are some
+lighter patches at the soil.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>HORSE-CHESTNUT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span></p>
+
+<p>It requires a careful use of the microscope to
+trace all that a bud contains; I will therefore
+quote the words of a German naturalist
+who dissected a horse-chestnut bud gathered in
+winter, and found that it contained sixty flowers.
+It would be interesting to select a terminal
+flower-bud of this tree; by taking it carefully to
+pieces one might, with patience and using a
+powerful lens (or a microscope if one is available),
+see for ourselves a good deal of what the
+writer describes:—</p>
+
+<p>“Having removed the outer scales, seventeen
+in number, cemented together by a gummy substance
+to render the bud waterproof<a id="tn-004"></a>, I discovered
+four leaves surrounding a spike of flowers, so
+clearly visible when magnified that I not only
+counted the number of flowers, but could discern
+the pollen on the stamens.”</p>
+
+<p>The winter covering of a bud, both the inner
+and outer scales, are only a temporary protection
+in order to keep out moisture and keep in warmth,
+so that as the sun begins to gain power, the
+gummy covering of the bud melts and yields
+to the expanding pressure from within, when one
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span>after another the sticky scales fall off, showing the
+young leaves with their soft woolly surfaces;
+these leaves rapidly unfold and hang droopingly
+until the midribs gain strength enough to hold
+them upright.</p>
+
+<p>Evelyn remarked that, “As soon as the leading
+shoot of the horse-chestnut has come out of the
+bud, it continues to grow so fast as to be able to
+form its whole summer’s shoot, sometimes eighteen
+inches long, in about three weeks. After this it
+grows but little more in length, only thickens,
+becomes strong and woody, and forms the buds
+for next year’s shoot.”</p>
+
+<p>Buds have always been to me a most interesting
+subject of study; there is much variety of
+character in them, and to those who observe them
+closely they reveal in the autumn and winter
+what the tree is purposing to do in the following
+season.</p>
+
+<p>A beech-tree on my lawn bears its nuts only
+every second or third summer, and in the previous
+autumn I can always tell whether the squirrels are
+likely to be well off for food in the coming year,
+by observing the size and shape of the buds.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span>Those which contain the flowers are round and
+bulky, whilst the leaf-buds are long and slender.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="i_138" style="max-width: 46.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="A bare tree, standing amidst
+some shrubs. In the background some fir trees.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>YOUNG BEECH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Embryo flowers are disposed in the buds in
+different ways. The woodsorrel<a id="tn-021"></a> is rolled into a
+spiral, rose-petals are placed one within the other,
+the pink is folded in five divisions, and others are
+pleated and fluted into the smallest possible space.
+Perhaps of all others the bud of the great Oriental
+poppy is the best example of exquisite packing.
+Early on a summer’s morning you may see its
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span>huge green hairy bud at the end of a stem several
+feet in length, and whilst you are looking the
+sepals or calyx leaves suddenly divide and fall
+off, the mass of vivid scarlet petals crumpled into
+a thousand folds begins to open out, and before
+long the glorious flower, which is often as much as
+seven inches across, holds itself erect in majestic
+beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Those who possess a tulip-tree will find its
+opening buds reward examination. The leaves
+are folded in half and bent double, a pair of
+leaf-scales enclosing each of the true leaves. One
+may unpack the entire bud until we come to
+leaves almost too minute to be discerned.</p>
+
+<p>Young sycamore-trees often have buds of large
+size and brilliant crimson colour; the foldings of
+their leaves are very intricate, and form an interesting
+contrast to those of the tulip-tree. Hart’s-tongue
+fern, arum, and pear leaves afford three very remarkable
+modes of folding in the bud.</p>
+<div class="col50">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="i_140a" style="max-width: 28.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_140a.jpg" alt="A rolled-up leaf, with a
+pointed tip, yielding a cigar-like shape.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>UNFOLDING ARUM
+    LEAF.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+  </div>
+<div class="col50">
+<figure>
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp57" id="i_140b" style="max-width: 29.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_140b.jpg" alt="A leaf that is rolled-up from
+both sides, yielding two small cylinders alongside the stalk.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PEAR LEAF.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="i_140c" style="max-width: 32.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_140c.jpg" alt="Two leaves rolled-up lengthwise,
+each yielding a short cylinder, perpendicular to the stalk.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>UNFOLDING LEAVES
+    OF HART’S-TONGUE
+    FERN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another point of character in buds is of considerable
+importance to the horticulturist, namely, the
+fact that in some cases the value of the flowers
+produced varies with the position of the buds. For
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span>instance, the blossoms produced from the crownbud&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+of certain chrysanthemums are poor and pale
+in colour compared with those grown on the side
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span>shoots; the latter are therefore retained and
+fostered, so that from them flowers of the finest
+description may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In cultivating fruit-trees it is found needful not
+only to prune away redundant branches which
+bear leaves only, but also where strong woody
+roots are promoting the growth of leaf-buds, they
+also have to be pruned, so that the check thus
+given to the growth of the tree may result in the
+formation of fibrous roots, which will tend to the
+production of flower-buds and a resulting crop of
+fruit.</p>
+
+<p>I have often observed that the transplantation
+of trees leads to their throwing out flowers in the
+succeeding year. This was notably the case with
+an avenue of deodars which had overgrown my
+carriage drive; they received a considerable check
+in being transplanted, but in the following year
+their branches were covered with male catkins and
+some few cones succeeded.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason the removal of fruit-trees is not
+unfrequently resorted to, as a means of inducing
+fruit-bearing.</p>
+
+<p>So much vigour is stored up in the bud, that it
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span>will bear being removed from one tree and inserted
+in the stem of another, within which it will grow
+and become a part of the living tree. This is one
+of the means by which we have obtained such an
+infinite variety of roses; the buds from choice
+species being readily made to grow upon strong
+briar stocks, and thus one may also see roses of
+several different colours blossoming on the same
+stem. Choice varieties of fruit-trees are cultivated
+in the same way by means of buds inserted in the
+bark.</p>
+
+<p>Having observed how flowers are arranged in
+the bud, we may go on to dissect incipient leaves
+and learn how they are placed.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> We shall find
+that the frond of the hart’s-tongue fern is rolled up
+from the tip, the arum gracefully curved lengthwise.
+Pear leaves are rolled from side to side
+towards the middle, and so is the primrose, but the
+reverse way. Beautiful examples of curled leaves
+may also be seen in the water-lily and banana.</p>
+
+<p>In grasses the first leaves are equivalent to budscales,
+and protect those which continue to grow
+from the centre, each one sheathing out of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span>previous leaf after the manner of monocotyledons.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The colouring of buds is one of the lovely
+features of spring. Seen against the blue of the
+sky, the coral red of the lime, sycamore, and
+Japanese maple buds, cannot be passed by without
+notice. The whitebeam has a beauty of its own
+for its buds are large and white with downy coverings,
+giving promise of the future leaves which are
+so light-coloured underneath, that the effect when
+they are blown aside by the wind is curious and
+beautiful. The Germans call it <i>mehl-baum</i> or meal-tree,
+from its whitish downy leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The variegated vine, sometimes seen in greenhouses,
+has exquisite buds of pinkish crimson, with
+bright yellow stipules. By way of contrast, I once
+placed some sprays of it in a glass with twigs of
+purple hazel which are of a deep claret brown;
+they were not only opposite in colour, but curiously
+different in habit, the vine holding its bud erect,
+and the hazel as persistently drooping. These
+variations lead me again to remark that, to a close
+observer, buds will be found to differ much in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span>character and to be well worthy of close attention.</p>
+
+<p>I will mention some trees whose buds are specially
+remarkable for beauty of form whilst unfolding.
+The mountain ash has very graceful leaves when
+just emerging from the bud; they show on their
+upper and under surfaces two distinct shades of
+green.</p>
+
+<p>The unfolding weigelia buds are extremely
+pretty in shape, the leaves being pointed and
+delicately curled.</p>
+
+<p>I need hardly mention the beech; nothing can
+be more exquisite than a spray of its opening
+buds with their silky fringed young leaves and
+crimson leaf-scales. I look forward every spring
+to the joy of watching the unfolding of these
+caskets.</p>
+
+<p>A warm shower or two and some sunny days
+cause them to expand with a rapidity which seems
+magical, and one almost regrets to find the beauty
+of the buds in their early stages so quickly passing
+away. The ash attracts notice by its jet-black
+buds, and the wayfaring tree by the delicate venation
+of its young leaves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span></p>
+
+<p>I cannot refrain from mentioning another beautiful
+effect arising from young buds in the case of a
+<i>Picea nobilis glauca</i>, which long name simply means
+a sea-green silver-fir, standing on our lawn. In
+the summer its terminal buds are a very pale sea-green,
+and as they grow and
+are seen against the dark green
+of the rest of the foliage the
+effect is very curious, as though
+each branch had become tipped
+with frosted silver.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_145" style="max-width: 31.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="Three stems each with several
+small leaves. The leaves are more or less folds and have very pronounced
+veins.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUDS OF WAYFARING
+    TREE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The soft silky buds of the
+willow, and especially those of
+the low growing sallow which
+are gathered as “palm” for
+church decoration, are amongst
+the welcome signs of early
+spring. The sallow has its
+male blossoms on one tree,
+but not far away we shall
+find the female tree bearing
+the flowers which will eventually produce the seeds.
+We may therefore seek for three kinds of buds,
+those which produce the flowers on each tree, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span>the others which will clothe the tree with leaves
+when the blossoms are over.</p>
+
+<p>This chapter shows us how much there is to
+instruct the student of nature during the winter as
+well as the summer months.</p>
+
+<p>I have but indicated a very few out of the many
+lines of study which may be taken up; one could
+write essay after essay upon the growth of a single
+hedgerow, but all I can hope to do in simple
+chapters of this kind is to throw out hints and
+indications, and trust that my young readers may
+find their interest sufficiently excited by what they
+have read, to lead them on to fuller, deeper study of
+each point touched upon.</p>
+
+<p>Nature is an inexhaustible storehouse of
+wonders, and the further we explore, the more
+our eyes are opened to see the vistas that lie
+before us, branching out in various directions.</p>
+
+<p>This special path of botanical study is one that,
+more or less, can be pursued at intervals, as opportunity
+may offer through life, and as it adds much
+pleasure to leisure hours, I specially commend it
+to my young readers.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens to be obtained and compared with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span>the descriptions in this chapter:—Search for buds
+in summer; plane-tree buds; Japanese maples;
+terminal and axillary buds; observe shape and
+outline of trees; buds of coniferous trees; fir cone;
+fir-tree that has lost its leading shoot; pollard
+willow, and other trees, buds on marsh tway-blade,
+and viviparous fern; buds on underground stems;
+suckers from wall-fruit trees; dormant buds or
+knobs on tree-stems; bulbils on lily, dentaria
+and allium; horse-chestnut terminal bud; observe
+leading shoot of horse-chestnut in early summer;
+flower and leaf buds on beech; various flower-buds;
+Oriental poppy; tulip-tree buds; various
+leaf-buds unfolding; colouring of Japanese maple,
+lime, and sycamore buds; whitebeam; variegated
+vine; purple hazel; mountain ash; spray of beech
+buds; ash buds; <i>Picea nobilis glauca</i>; willow and
+sallow, male and female flower buds and leaf
+buds; bamboo.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a><a id="Page_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">
+    CHAPTER VI
+    <br>
+    <i>FLOWERS</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Your voiceless lips, O flowers, are living preachers;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Each cup a pulpit, every leaf a book</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Supplying to the fancy numerous teachers</div>
+      <div class="verse indent14">From loneliest nook.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Horace Smith.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_VI_1">
+    CHAPTER VI
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">FLOWERS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_151.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="I">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">Instead</span>
+of looking at flowers as bright
+and beautiful objects made to be a
+source of continual delight in our
+daily lives, though such they truly are,
+we will rather now, for purposes of study,
+consider them as the means by which the plant
+carries out the purpose of its creation, namely, to
+perfect its seed and thus perpetuate its species.</p>
+
+<p>In the life-history of shrubs, trees, and plants we
+find this is their one aim, and that everything else
+is subservient to it.</p>
+
+<p>The stamens and pistil being of essential importance
+in forming the seed, we find them placed for
+safety in the centre of the flower; folded round
+them are the petals or coloured parts of the flower,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span>and outside these again are the green sepals, or
+leaves of the calyx.</p>
+
+<p>These two sets of enfolding leaves are called
+“floral envelopes,” because they fold over and
+protect the central organs, the stamens and the
+pistil.</p>
+
+<p>We will select a buttercup as a type, and taking
+it to pieces we will try to learn the names and
+uses of its various parts.</p>
+
+<p>The outside is a greenish-yellow cup which is
+called the calyx.</p>
+
+<p>The divisions of this little green cup are called
+sepals, and their office is to protect the five bright
+yellow leaves within, which are called petals when
+we speak of them singly, but, taken all together,
+form the corolla.</p>
+
+<p>In the buttercups the petals are all separate, but
+if we look at a primrose we shall see that the
+corolla is in one piece, united in a tube; so also is
+the calyx.</p>
+
+<p>The botanical term for a corolla thus formed is
+<i>gamopetalous</i>, a long word but easily understood
+when we know that <i>gamos</i> means united; a flower
+with petals in one instead of many divisions is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span>more easily referred to by this word than if we
+had each time to express it by a sentence.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="i_153" style="max-width: 40.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="A flower, viewed from the top.
+It has 5 petals. In the centre is a pentagon formed by small stripes. In the
+centre of the pentagon is a circular shape. The flower as a whole has a
+circular shape.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PRIMROSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Gathering a newly-opened flower, we can see at
+a glance that the sepals are placed quite below the
+central green organs of the flower, and that they
+are in no way influenced by the petals; we also see
+that the petals are entirely separate from the other
+parts of the flower, and we learn, as the result of
+our examination, that the parts of the buttercup
+are <i>free</i>. To express this botanically we prefix
+the word “poly” to the words sepals and petals,
+and so we get <i>polysepalous</i>, meaning that the sepals
+are quite free and distinct, and <i>polypetalous</i> referring
+to the same condition of the petals.</p>
+
+<p>Now, having removed the petals and sepals, we
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span>can proceed to study the other parts of the
+flower.</p>
+
+<p>First we find a great number of little yellowish
+stalks tipped with tiny pouches; these are the
+stamens, and in the little pouches (anthers) the
+yellow powder termed pollen is developed. We
+will carefully take away these stamens, and note in
+so doing that they are all distinct and all sprung
+below the green central part. Like the sepals and
+petals, we find the stamens are free and uninfluenced
+by the other parts. If we again compare
+this with a primrose-flower we shall find a
+difference; the stamens of the primrose spring
+from the petals and are therefore called <i>epipetalous</i>
+(<i>epi</i> upon, a petal). Again in the sweet-pea or
+scarlet runner we find the stalks of the stamens
+are all joined together. We now have left upon
+the flower-stalk the little central green parts
+previously mentioned; there are quite a number
+of them; each one is distinct from its neighbour
+and is free. These bodies are known as carpels,
+they are large at one end and taper to a curved
+point at the other, the broad end being attached to
+the stem. Collectively these carpels constitute the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span><i>pistil</i>, and because the carpels are apart and free it
+is said to be <i>apocarpous</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The flower of the little woodsorrel (<i>Oxalis
+acetosella</i>) will help us to understand better the
+arrangement of the carpels. If we take away the
+sepals, petals and stamens, we shall have only the
+carpels left, and these are five in number. They
+are in the same position as those of the buttercup,
+but they are not separate, they are joined by their
+inner surfaces. We can plainly see that this is the
+case, since each carpel is distinctly outlined and
+there are five little tapering ends (stigmas). The
+pistil in this case is said to be <i>syncarpous</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Names are given to express some quality, and
+they often draw our attention to interesting facts
+about the plant’s mode of growth or the place
+where it is found; for instance, the pretty blue
+nemophila is so called from <i>nemos</i>, a grove, and
+<i>philo</i>, I love, because it delights in shady places.</p>
+
+<p>Geranium is derived from <i>geranos</i>, a crane,
+because the fruit of some of the species resemble
+the beak of that bird.</p>
+
+<p>Some plants are named after famous botanists,
+as <i>Linnæa</i> after Linnæus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span></p>
+
+<p>Others derive their names from their mode of
+growth, as stone-crop, which is called sedum, from
+<i>sedo</i>, I sit, the plant having scarcely any stalk, and
+sitting, as it were, on walls and rocks.</p>
+
+<p>These instances will show that it is well worth
+while to study names and learn their meanings, as
+they often throw so much light upon the history of
+a plant.</p>
+
+<p>In the flowers of bulbous plants we find that the
+calyx and petal leaves are frequently alike in
+colour and texture; in that case the three sepals
+and three petals, of which they usually consist, are
+spoken of as a perianth.</p>
+
+<p>In looking at the brilliant colouring of a flower
+we should hardly imagine that the petals have to
+some extent the nature of leaves, and under certain
+conditions may be changed to the green colour
+and form of ordinary leaves.</p>
+
+<p>In very wet seasons we may sometimes find
+rose-buds with the sepals of the calyx developed
+into perfect green leaves. The floral envelopes
+therefore possess the nature of true leaves.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_157" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_157.jpg" alt="A tree branch with some
+20 leaves, all growing from the end. The leaves are elongated, oval, with sharp
+tips. From the end of the branch some flowers grow. In detail a flower consists
+of a bulbous form with a lip-like structure. At the top of the bulb grows a bud
+from which curly threads appear.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>POINSETTIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The brilliant scarlet so-called flowers of the
+poinsettia are really coloured bracts, the true
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a><a id="Page_158"></a>[Pg 158]</span>flower being the small inconspicuous blossom in
+the centre.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapter on leaves we saw that bracts are
+those small imperfectly-shaped leaves in the axils
+of which flowers are placed. They are usually
+green, but may be also brilliantly tinted as in the
+mauve-coloured Bougainvillia, the bright violet
+spikes of the <i>Salvia Hormineum</i>, and also pure
+white as in the spathe of the arum.</p>
+
+<p>By special cultivation flowers can be made
+double, for excess of nourishment will cause the
+plant to multiply its petals. Instead of the five
+pink petals of the wild rose we find one of our
+garden roses bearing as many as eighty or a
+hundred petals.</p>
+
+<p>Double flowers but rarely produce seeds, because
+the stamens and pistil have been turned into petals,
+and as there is no need to attract insects for
+fertilising purposes, there is no secretion of honey,
+and therefore we scarcely ever see honey-bees in
+double flowers; they are wise enough to know
+that their visits to them would be in vain.</p>
+
+<p>In composite flowers such as asters and sunflowers
+the change, when they are double, occurs
+in several ways.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span></p>
+
+<p>The centre may become filled with florets similar
+to those in the outside ring, or the florets in the
+middle may become larger or of a different colour.</p>
+
+<p>These various changes may be readily observed
+in the cultivated chrysanthemums, in which every
+form and variety of flowering can be traced.</p>
+
+<p>When the pollen has reached the pistil the
+flower begins to fade, because its end has been
+attained; nature, however, has such variety in
+even the smallest of her operations that the
+passing away of a flower is accomplished in
+different ways. In the primrose the corolla withers
+and drops to the ground. The flower of the
+spiderwort, one of our common garden plants,
+becomes pulpy as it fades, in this way resembling
+the pineapple<a id="tn-022"></a> plant, the flower of which eventually
+becomes the luscious succulent fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The poppy is proverbial for its fleeting petals,
+which scarcely last more than a few hours, a
+passing wind soon scattering them far and wide.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Pleasures are like poppies spread,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">You seize the flower, its bloom is shed!</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Or like the snow-fall in the river,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">A moment white—then melts for ever.” (<span class="smcap">Burns.</span>)</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some flowers, as the hydrangea, have persistent
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span>petals, which simply lose their brilliant tints and
+become tough and brown.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_160" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_160.jpg" alt="A branch bearing four fruits,
+that are heart shaped and show heavy veins. They are hanging from bent stalks.
+In detail a cross section is shown. There is the stalk, ending in a circular shape.
+Dotted lines indicate the heart-shape of the outer structure.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>WINTER CHERRY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The calyx of the physalis or winter cherry
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span>continues to grow after the flowers are fertilised
+until the round balloon-like bag is formed in
+which the fruit is enclosed.</p>
+
+<p>We will now examine the parts of a flower
+separately, beginning with the calyx.</p>
+
+<p>In the buttercup the calyx consists of one whorl
+or ring of five sepals.</p>
+
+<p>In the strawberry there are two whorls of sepals,
+and in the cotton plant there are three whorls
+forming its green calyx.</p>
+
+<p>There are also variations in the mode of flower
+expansion.</p>
+
+<p>As a poppy-bud opens it detaches its calyx
+from the stem, and the sepals fall off (the calyx is
+therefore called caducous, a term which means
+ready to drop off).</p>
+
+<p>Many flowers retain the calyx until the petals
+wither and it falls off with them. It is then called
+a deciduous calyx.</p>
+
+<p>Others again have a permanent calyx, so that
+when, as in the primrose, the corolla withers and
+drops off, the sepals close over the seed-vessel and
+protect it until the seeds are matured; this would
+be called botanically a persistent calyx.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span></p>
+
+<p>The best way to learn the names of the different
+parts of a flower is to pull it carefully to pieces
+and arrange the separate organs on a thin card.
+They can be tacked on to the card with a stitch
+or two of fine thread, and
+when the lesson is over, if the
+card is placed between sheets
+of blotting-paper under a
+weight, the flower dissections
+will dry and be useful for
+reference later on.</p>
+
+<p>Each separate part of the
+flower should have its name
+neatly written beneath it, so
+that when a good many different
+flowers have been thus
+dissected they may be compared
+and the variations in
+form and position duly noted.</p>
+
+<p>A wallflower will be a
+good subject for our dissection.</p>
+
+<p>At the back of the petals we first take off the
+calyx, which consists of four divisions called
+sepals. We then pull off the four yellow petals,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span>and as they are placed in the form of a cross it
+shows that this plant is a crucifer, or cross-bearer,
+one of a very large natural order, <i>Cruciferæ</i>,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> none
+of which are poisonous and very many are useful
+food-plants, such as cabbage, turnip, watercress,
+and cauliflower. Now there remain six stamens—four
+long and two shorter ones; these last rise
+outside of and alternate with two nectaries or
+honey-glands.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w30" id="i_162" style="max-width: 31.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_162.jpg" alt="A stem bearing three small leaves
+at the base. Upward there are about 10 flowers, in different stages of ripeness.
+At the top there are still buds, in the middle they are in full bloom and further
+down blooming is over. Each flower has 4  equally sized petals. They emerge from
+an elongated calyx, that sits on a short stalk.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>WALLFLOWER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The stems of the stamens are called filaments,
+from <i>filum</i>, a thread; and the upper part, containing
+yellow powder, is called the anther, the proper
+name for the powder itself being pollen.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the flower is the pistil, the lower
+part of which is the ovary, the part of a flower
+which contains the ovules, and is so named from
+<i>ovum</i>, an egg.</p>
+
+<p>The stem part of the pistil is called the style
+and the top of it is the stigma.</p>
+
+<p>Such simple words as I have given must be
+learned, else we cannot understand botanical
+descriptions, and if this page is studied whilst we
+have the flowers in our hands it will not be difficult
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span>to identify each separate organ; when these are
+once arranged on a card with the name of each
+part written beneath it, we shall have attained
+some very useful information ready for future
+study.</p>
+
+<p>In the buttercup flower all the five petals are
+the same size and shape; therefore, like hundreds
+of other evenly-formed blossoms, it would be
+described as “regular”; but if we take a sweet-pea,
+balsam, or monkshood-flower and examine its
+separate petals, we shall find they vary very much
+in form, and they are known as “irregular”
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The sweet-pea is a type of a large order of
+plants producing what are called butterfly-shaped
+flowers, and <i>papilio</i> being Latin for a butterfly,
+they are therefore called papilionaceous flowers.
+If we learn clearly about the various parts of such
+a flower we shall henceforth be able to recognise it
+at a glance.</p>
+
+<p>In the sweet-pea we find a broad petal at the
+back of the flower which is called the standard,
+beneath it are the two side petals called wings, and
+within them is the keel, so named because it is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span>shaped like the bottom of a ship. Within the keel
+lie the stamens and pistil—the most important
+parts of the flower, and to protect them from injury
+the standard is so formed as to catch the wind like
+a sail and turn the blossom round so that this
+broad petal shelters the keel from rain.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="i_165" style="max-width: 51.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="A bunch of 4 flowers, one
+of which still in bud, the others fully flowering. Each flower has a complex form
+because the petals are of different shapes and sizes. On top is one large petal,
+lower down are 2 smaller petals, arranged alongside each other. At the bottom is a
+smaller structure formed out of 1 or 2 petals. Each flower has a small, flat
+calyx and sits on a thin stalk.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SWEET-PEA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In our next ramble out of doors it will be well
+to try and gather all the specimens we can find of
+this order of plants. If it be in summer or autumn
+we shall soon collect a handful of these butterfly-shaped
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p>On a common we shall find broom, furze, restharrow,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span>vetches, tares, trefoil, clover, saintfoin, and
+other plants. In the garden and greenhouse we
+shall see many more species belonging to this
+class.</p>
+
+<p>Having shown the difference between a regular
+and irregular flower, we will now proceed to notice
+how irregularity is caused.</p>
+
+<p>If we pull off one of the buttercup petals and
+look at the base of it, we shall see a small pouch
+which contains honey; it is called a nectary or
+honey gland, and the position of this gland has
+much to do with the shape of the flower.</p>
+
+<p>As each petal of the buttercup has a nectary at
+its base it follows that, all the petals being the same
+size and shape, the flower is perfectly regular—like
+a small golden cup. Now in other flowers we
+shall find the nectary very large and confined to
+one petal or sepal only, and this results in the
+flower having an irregular shape. Gather a violet,
+examine and compare the petals; four of them
+will be found to be nearly alike, but the lower petal
+is much larger because it has grown into a tube
+(called a spur) to secrete honey, and I need hardly
+say that the honey is intended to attract the bees
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span>so that the flower may be enabled to produce
+fertile seed. The enlargement of the lower petal
+gives the flower an irregular shape, and the same
+thing happens in the monkshood and many other
+flowers, where both the petals and sepals are
+thrown out of shape to form nectaries. In the
+orchid family this influence may be traced to a
+wonderful degree. The contrivances for insuring
+the fertilisation of their flowers are so many and
+various that books of the greatest interest have
+been written on that subject alone.</p>
+
+<p>In the flowers we have hitherto noticed, both
+stamens and pistils are found, the petals are
+coloured, honey-glands exist, and some specimens
+also possess a powerful scent.</p>
+
+<p>Such flowers are obviously very attractive to
+insects, and on that account they are called by
+modern botanists, entomophilous, which long word
+means that they are beloved by insects.</p>
+
+<p>In sharp contrast to these gay and conspicuous
+flowers we may observe the very simple catkins of
+the birch, <i>Betula alba</i>. If we examine a twig of
+this tree in spring, we shall find two very distinct
+kinds of flowers (or catkins, as tree-blossoms ought
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span>properly to be called), one a stiff green spike
+standing upright, and the other longer and of
+yellowish colour, always to be found hanging
+down.</p>
+
+<p>The former consists of a number of scales
+arranged on a central stem, and in the axil of each
+scale is the little pistil, with its pointed and divided
+stigmas. This catkin, later on, becomes the fruit
+of the tree, and sheds out with every passing breeze
+its little winged fruits, which are carried far and
+wide and often sow themselves in rocky crevices,
+and appear able to grow and flourish with only a
+modicum of soil.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_168" style="max-width: 53.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_168.jpg" alt="Two pictures of a seed, one
+natural size, one magnified. The magnification shows a grain in the centre
+with two wings at the sides. The grain is elliptic, with pointed ends. The
+wings are rounded.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    BIRCH FRUIT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The pendulous catkin is very soft and loose, and
+on the inner surface of its scales we find the
+stamens, which in due time will shed from their
+anthers the fertilising pollen. Here then we see
+flowers which are not so attractive to insects,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span>flowers in which the stamens and pistils are
+separated and developed in different catkins, and
+such flowers are termed monœcious, from <i>monos</i>,
+single, and <i>oikos</i>, a house.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting feature of these tree-blossoms
+is their fertilisation by the wind; the
+slightest puff of air liberates little clouds of pollen
+from the loose swinging anthers; these pollen
+grains become entangled in the upright catkins
+bearing the pistils, and the future seed thus
+becomes fruitful. There are many trees and plants
+which are thus fertilised by the agency of the wind,
+and they are termed by botanists <i>anemophilous</i>,
+from the Greek words <i>anemos</i>, wind, and <i>philos</i>,
+beloved by.</p>
+
+<p>In the common bryony of the hedges, we get
+another example of a green inconspicuous flower.
+Gather a few sprays of this in early summer,
+taking care to keep the specimens of each plant
+separate. Take up one specimen and you will find
+each flower has a small green calyx, a minute
+corolla, and five little stamens; not one pistil can
+we find on the spray.</p>
+
+<p>The flowers on the next spray look very
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span>similar, but in them there are no stamens, the
+centre of each flower being occupied by a small
+pistil, and thus we learn that there are two distinct
+sexes in the bryony plant, the one bearing only
+staminate flowers, and the other
+producing those bearing only
+pistils. Such plants are termed
+diœcious, from <i>di</i>, two, and <i>oikos</i>,
+a house.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w30" id="i_170" style="max-width: 28.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_170.jpg" alt="A cross section of a flower.
+Calyx and petals are shown schematically. They build a flask-like shape. From the
+bottom grows an intricate structure. At the base is a bulbous shape built from
+smaller forms, giving it the appearance of a blackberry. On top of that is a
+ball, with a pattern of small circles. On top of that is a club-like shape, about
+2 times the size of the bulbs beneath it combined. At the base of the club grow
+hairs.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>WILD ARUM.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One of the earliest spring
+flowers is the arum of the hedges,
+known to village children as
+“lords and ladies.” Accustomed
+as we are to bright-hued flowers
+if in our gardens and fields, it is
+somewhat difficult to recognise
+that the pale-green sheath of
+the arum is a flower at all. It
+consists of a beautifully-folded
+spathe or bract, curving over at
+the top, and if we remove that we find a central
+stalk bearing a number of little naked flowers,
+arranged in the order shown in the plate.</p>
+
+<p>First, below the club-like apex, a few hairs tending
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span>downwards, then the anthers containing pollen,
+and below these the pistils with protruding stigmas.
+The whole stalk is termed a spadix.</p>
+
+<p>The outer green spathe forms a kind of prison,
+into which flies are enticed by the somewhat fetid
+odour which is exhaled by the flower. The flies
+easily creep in past the circle of hairs, which, as
+they point downwards, do not prevent their
+entrance, but, once in, these hairs are like a
+<i>chevaux-de-frise</i>, and hinder the escape of the
+insects. The flies in all probability carry upon
+their wings pollen from some other arum flower,
+and in their efforts to escape they brush off this
+pollen upon the stigmas, which thus become
+fertilised. When this has taken place the stigmas
+throw out a sweet juice upon which the insects
+feed; the anthers now shed out their pollen, with
+which the flies become covered; the hairs meanwhile
+have withered, and thus the flies, having done
+their appointed work in fertilising the flower, are
+free to crawl out and perform the same office for
+some neighbouring plant.</p>
+
+<p>We have not space to do more than allude to
+certain plants, whose flowers never open and are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span>self-fertilised. The common violet, for instance
+produces, in addition to its well-known fragrant
+flowers, certain inconspicuous blossoms, hidden
+under the leaves and close to the root, very seldom
+noticed by any but botanists, and known to them
+as cleistogamic flowers; these are fertile, and
+always produce seed. Other such plants are the
+woodsorrel and sundews.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to observe the various ways in
+which flowers are protected from browsing animals,
+snails, and caterpillars by thorns, spines, prickles,
+and spiny bracts. The teasel secretes water in the
+bracts around its stem, which prevents ants from
+ascending to the flowers, and in many plants we
+may see quantities of small insects caught by a
+sticky gum exuded from the leaves and twigs.</p>
+
+<p>Many delicate plants entirely alter the position
+of their flowers in order to protect them from rain.
+On a sunny day the wood-anemone holds its little
+snowy cup so as to receive the full sunlight, but on
+a damp day every blossom is closed and held
+downwards. We may observe this in the poppy,
+the blue-anemone, and nearly all composite flowers.</p>
+
+<p>These are merely hints scattered over a wide
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span>field of study, which some readers may like to
+follow out.</p>
+
+<p>Objects to collect and examine:—Buttercup
+flowers, seed-vessel of wild-geranium, stonecrop
+growing on walls, flowers of bulbous plants, flowers
+of poinsettia, bougainvillia, salvia hormineum,
+arum. Examine various chrysanthemum flowers,
+sunflowers, asters and woodsorrel. Difference
+between hydrangea and poppy flowers, winter
+cherry (physalis); prepare flower dissections.
+Examine various cruciferous flowers and pea-shaped
+flowers, regular and irregular flowers, birch
+catkins, wild arum flowers, cleistogamous flowers,
+protection of flowers, position of flowers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a><a id="Page_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">
+    CHAPTER VII
+    <br>
+    <i>POLLINATION</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent6">“When summer shines,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">The bee transports the fertilising meal</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">From flower to flower, and even the breathing air</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Wafts the rich prize to its appointed use.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Cowper.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_VII_1">
+    CHAPTER VII
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">POLLINATION</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_177.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="W">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">We</span>
+now come to the consideration of the
+real function of the flower of a plant.
+In whatever form it is developed,
+whether as a gay and fragrant blossom,
+in a dull foul-smelling structure like the
+arum, or as a green inconspicuous little floret like
+the grass, its main office is to reproduce itself by
+the formation of seed. We will first glance at
+some of the wonderful agencies that actively help
+in this work.</p>
+
+<p>There are at least three distinct processes
+necessary for the complete formation of a perfect
+seed, and we must, I fear, persuade ourselves to
+learn some of the long words by which botanists
+speak of these processes. They are known as
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span>pollination, fertilisation, and the growth of the
+ovule. There is so much to be said about the
+first subject, that I must leave the two latter for
+a succeeding chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Before seed can be formed it is necessary that
+the powder contained in the anthers, which is
+called pollen, should be transferred from those
+anthers to the stigma or upper part of the pistil,
+and this transference is called pollination. If we
+examine a tulip or, better still, a buttercup, we
+find the anthers and stigmas so near together
+that the transfer of the dust-like pollen to the
+sticky-looking stigmas can easily take place.
+This would be called an instance of self-pollination,
+but although cases of this kind do
+occur in nature, they are not at all common.
+As a rule, in order to ensure what is called
+cross-pollination, the transfer of the pollen of one
+flower to the stigma of another, many wonderful
+and interesting arrangements exist even in some
+of our commonest flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Cross-pollination must be the case in such plants
+as dog’s mercury, because we find in a colony of
+these plants—so frequently seen by the roadside—that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span>some plants have flowers with stamens only,
+and others containing only pistils. Again, in the
+hazel we may see how impossible it is for self-pollination
+to take place, as, if we examine the
+pistils, we find that they consist of scales bearing
+stamens and pollen only, whilst somewhere close
+by, on the same stem, hangs the pretty little red
+flower which possesses the pistil and forked stigma.
+If seed is to be formed in either of these flowers
+and in many others similarly arranged, then the
+pollen of one flower must be transferred to the
+stigma of the other.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_179" style="max-width: 56.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_179.jpg" alt="Two flowers is cross section.
+Both have a funnel-like shape. In both sections the anthers en pistils are shown.
+In the left one the pistil is short, so it only reaches halfway the funnel.
+The anthers are in the opening. In the right on the pistil is long and reaches
+the opening. The anthers are halfway the funnel.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PRIMROSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are interesting facts to be learned about
+the common primrose. When we examine a little
+bunch of these flowers we find quite half of them
+are what children call pin-eyed, meaning that the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span>stigma, which is at the end of a long pistil, is like
+the head of a pin in the throat of the primrose.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at the sketch, we see at once that self-pollination
+is hindered by the fact that the anthers
+in this flower being at the bottom of the tube, the
+pollen they contain must be transferred by some
+direct agency before it can come in contact with
+any stigma. Now let us examine the other flowers
+in our primrose nosegay; we find the stamens in
+these are placed in the mouth of the tube, and the
+pistil is quite short and low down in position. At
+first sight it appears as if the pollen would fall
+directly upon the pistil, since the stamens are
+above that organ, but this is not exactly what
+happens; the pollen of this particular form of
+flower is shed before the stigma is mature, so
+that when it has reached maturity the pollen
+is all gone.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of nature is as follows. An
+insect attracted by the sweet-smelling bank of
+primroses will visit the flowers, thrusting its
+proboscis down a pin-eyed flower until in so
+doing its head has been dusted with the pollen
+of the stamens; then withdrawing from that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span>flower the insect visits another near by, possibly
+one with a short pistil; the pollen on its head
+is now rubbed off and falls upon the stigma below
+and pollinates it, for that is the term used when
+this act takes place.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="i_181" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_181.jpg" alt="Two flowers, both funnel-shaped.
+Each has 5 petals of equal size, arranged around the opening. In the left one
+the stigma is shown that has 2 parts, each a thread-like structure that grow
+out of the opening, to opposite sides of the flower. In the right one the
+anthers are shown: a group a small bud-like shapes standing on thin stalks, right
+in the opening of the flower.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>MAIDEN PINK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The pretty maiden-pink will help us still more
+clearly to understand how cross-pollination is promoted
+in flowers containing both stamens and
+pistils. Select a flower that has just opened, the
+petals of which are spreading and fringed, whilst
+from the centre of the flower a cluster of stamens
+projects with the pollen mature and easily shaken
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span>out of the anther lobes; the pistil is concealed in
+the long tube, and in this stage there is no sign
+of stigma. In a short time, however, if we examine
+the flower again, we shall find the stamens have
+shrivelled up, and in their place a forked stigma
+appears, as shown in the sketch. Here again it is
+obvious that the fact of the stamens ripening first
+and expending their energy before the pistil is ripe
+must mean, that in order to secure seed the pollen
+from some younger flower must be transferred,
+probably also by insect agency. It will give fresh
+interest to our garden rambles if we remember that
+the bees and flies we see hovering over the flowers
+are not only collecting honey or feasting upon it,
+but are also performing a very important office for
+the benefit of the plants they are visiting.</p>
+
+<p>We may now proceed to notice the various
+agencies for the conveyance of pollen between
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p>These agencies are water, wind, insects and birds.</p>
+
+<p>In an earlier chapter I gave an account of the
+<i>Vallisneria spiralis</i>, which will serve as a type of
+a water-pollinated flower.</p>
+
+<p>Those pollinated by wind are, as I have said in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span>a previous chapter, called anemophilous (<i>anemos</i>,
+wind, and <i>philos</i>, loving). They are usually of
+small size and inconspicuous character, with very
+little or no scent, and devoid of colour; these are
+characteristics that are not always associated in the
+same species; thus in the hazel, which is a wind-pollinated
+flower, we find a bright yellow catkin (so
+well known to children as lambs’ tails) and a small
+but bright red pistil.</p>
+
+<p>Let us notice, however, how wonderfully these
+plants are adapted for this method of pollination;
+the stamens are usually hanging, and the pollen,
+produced in great quantities, is easily set free by
+the slightest breath of wind. The stigma of the
+hazel, of different grasses and of sedges are both
+forked and plumed, so that pollen grains floating in
+the air are readily intercepted.</p>
+
+<p>The firs and pines are excellent examples of
+wind-pollinated trees. I remember once possessing
+a ripe male cone of the <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, and
+ascertaining that it contained as much as a wine-glassful
+of pollen. Speaking about this fact to the
+gardener at the Pinetum at Dropmore, I was
+shown how this fertilising dust from the great
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span>Araucaria (which was planted there in 1830) was
+carried by the wind for an amazing distance to a
+female tree on the other side of the garden, pollinating
+its cones so that they produced fertile seeds.
+In some of the Canadian pine forests, the trees
+shed forth such quantities of pollen in the flowering
+season that the ground becomes perfectly yellow.
+The early settlers, being unable to account
+for the strange phenomenon in any other way,
+ascribed it to showers of sulphur descending from
+the clouds. Even in our own country the foliage
+and undergrowth in the neighbourhood of fir
+woods is often thickly coated with the yellow dust
+falling from the male catkins of the trees; the
+structure of the pollen grains is such that they float
+very buoyantly, each grain being provided with two
+air bladders. I may mention in passing that this
+apparently wasted pollen affords a rich feast to
+endless species of bees and flies, and is in many
+cases stored up by them as food for their young
+grubs. The various adaptations for wind pollination
+will perhaps be better understood if we glance
+at the attractions which flowers offer to birds and
+insects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></p>
+
+<p>Colour serves to render flowers attractive to
+insects, and to make them conspicuous; the bracts,
+petals, and sepals of flowers are usually of some
+light or dark colour quite distinct from the green
+tone of the foliage.</p>
+
+<p>It has been ascertained also that plants which
+are pollinated by night-flying moths generally have
+white or light-yellow flowers so as to be easily seen
+in twilight.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting of these night-pollinated
+flowers is <i>Silene nutans</i>, the Nottingham
+catchfly. In the daytime the five narrow petals
+are curled up and look dead and withered, but as
+night comes on they change their position, and the
+flower has the expanded shape of an alpine pink.
+In this open condition it is visited by the moths
+which, flying from one flower to another, transfer
+the pollen, and thus accomplish at night what more
+frequently occurs in the sunlight; at daybreak the
+petals roll up once more, and one would again suppose
+the flower to be dead; but no, it will continue
+to open at nightfall until some moth finally succeeds
+in pollinating its blossom. A small species
+of moth&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> visits this catchfly in order to deposit its
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span>eggs; these, by means of a very long ovipositor, it
+places in the ovary, and in that somewhat inflated
+cavity they produce microscopic caterpillars which
+find shelter and nutriment in the strange nest.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span>When the caterpillars arrive at maturity they
+escape by biting a hole in the wall of the capsule,
+and creeping out, they seek for a suitable place in
+which to turn to chrysalides.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_186" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_186.jpg" alt="A stem with 4 leaves and a flower.
+The leaves are grouped in pairs. In each par one leaf is small and sits directly
+on the stem. The other is large, heart-shaped and sits on a stalk. The flower
+sits on a stalk that emerges from the axil of the upper pair of leaves. It has the
+form of an antique clay pipe, or a saxophone. The base is small and directed
+downward, but then it widens and bends upward. The petals have a pattern of small
+irregular spots, like a leopard skin.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>ARISTOLOCHIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Scentless flowers usually have some equivalent
+form of attraction, such as honey, brilliant colour
+pollen in abundance, or the grouping of a number
+of small florets, in order to secure a conspicuous
+effect as in the ox-eye daisy, or hedge parsley.</p>
+
+<p>Strong and varied odours are great helps to
+ensure pollination by insects. The bee-tribe and
+moths and butterflies are specially attracted by the
+sweet scents of roses, violets, carnations, and sweet-peas,
+and the powerful odour emitted by such
+flowers as the evening primrose, tobacco, and night-flowering
+rocket as evening comes on tends to
+guide the nocturnal moths to these and similar
+flowers. An odour may, of course, be pleasant to
+an insect which to us would be simply intolerable.
+The arum of the hedges, and those curious plants,
+the aristolochias and stapelias, all emit scents of
+the most fœtid description, as we think, but flies, on
+the contrary, are attracted by thousands, and
+hold apparently joyous revels in the blossoms
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span>which they are pollinating by their frequent
+visits.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_188" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_188.jpg" alt="A stem covered with
+scale-like leaves from which a bud and a flower grow, both on stalks.
+The bud is round, a little flattened and with a point where the petals meet
+in the centre. The flower is shown from above. It has 6 equally formed petals.
+Each is rounded with a sharp tip. The petals have a pattern of dark spots and lines
+perpendicular to their axis. The petals are arranged around a centre that is about
+half the diameter of the flower as a whole. The centre is dotted as well and in the
+midst the is a star shape that contains pistil and anthers.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>STAPELIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A little care and patience in watching the visits
+of insects to different flowers will soon be rewarded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span>by a perception of the tastes and likings of insect
+life, and we shall gradually learn to expect to see
+certain insects on the flowers they specially frequent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_189" style="max-width: 34.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="A stalk with at the end
+2 elongated leaves, a pistil that sits on a stalk of its own and a group of 8
+anthers. Each anther has a 2-lobed shape and sits on a thin stalk.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>HYPERICUM.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I would call attention to the interesting fact that
+if one agency fails to effect pollination, another is
+adopted in order to attain the desired end. Thus,
+when the flowers of the
+common bartsia first open,
+they are visited by insects;
+but, in the later stages of
+flowering, the pollen is blown
+out by the wind, and the
+neighbouring stigmas thus
+become pollinated. We see
+in the arrangement of the
+flower of the St. John’s wort
+(<i>Hypericum</i>) a perfect type
+of this provision against any
+possible failure of pollination. The stigma is surrounded
+by groups of stamens of unequal length;
+those in the centre nearest to the stigma are as long
+as the style itself, whilst those on the outside are
+short, and these shed their pollen first, whilst those
+in close contact with the stigma shed their contents
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span>last. Thus we find that if insects fail to effect
+cross-pollination by means of the short and early
+opened stamens, it is secured by means of the
+longer stamens whose anthers are in close contact
+with the stigma. Again, when we stand under a
+sycamore tree, we may see that the green tassel-like
+flowers are having their pollen dispersed both by
+wind and bees.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot draw hard-and-fast lines in nature,
+for although a special end may be kept in view, the
+various means and adaptations by which it is
+attained are a continual source of admiration and
+wonder to the reverent student of nature.</p>
+
+<p>We have already seen that there are all kinds of
+devices by which the pollen of one flower may be
+made sure to reach the stigma of another; but, if
+by any means this crossing fails, if the weather is
+such that insects are scarce, or other conditions
+cause failure, then, in the case of many flowers,
+most curious contrivances are provided to secure
+seed by self-pollination. Truly this is one of the
+most beautiful of God’s wonders in floral construction.
+One of the gems of my own flower garden
+is a lovely little Japanese toad-lily (<i>Tricyrtis hirta</i>).
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span>In this flower there are three styles which stand
+well above the stamens; the points of the styles
+are bent over as in the plate, and the stigmatic surface
+grows mature before the anthers shed their
+pollen; if, however, no insect visits the flowers, pollination
+is effected in the following way. The
+styles bend down and place their forked points in
+direct contact with the open anther-lobes (as shown
+in drawing), the style assuming
+almost the form of a semicircle.
+This is done very deliberately,
+for it is often fully
+a week before the act is complete.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_191" style="max-width: 31.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="2 drawings of a pistil and anther.
+In both the pistil is on top. It is a large form, bent downward at the end. The
+anther is lower and consists of a 2-lobed structure at the end of a straight stalk,
+almost perpendicular to the base of the pistil. In the left drawing the pistil
+is bent to the extreme, thus making contact with the anther. In the right drawing
+the pistil is bent less, and there is no contact.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>TOAD-LILY.</p>
+    <p><i>Stigma and Stamen.</i></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Pollination is effected in tropical countries not
+only by insects of many kinds, but by the lovely
+tribes of humming-birds which abound in those
+regions. Their slender, curved beaks are specially
+adapted to penetrate the honey-laden flowers with
+long-tubed blossoms, which could only be pollinated
+by some such agency.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are within reach of the Natural History
+Museum at South Kensington may there see a
+gallery filled with exquisite specimens of humming-birds,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span>arranged in cases, and some of the birds are
+shown as they appear in life, hovering over tropical
+flowers, drawing honey from their hanging blossoms,
+and performing the useful office of transferring the
+pollen from one flower to another, thus ensuring
+the fertilisation of the seed.</p>
+
+<p>I might go on multiplying examples of the
+various methods by which seed is rendered fertile,
+but perhaps enough has been said to show what
+hidden force exists in flowers to enable them to
+attain the end for which they mainly exist, namely,
+the perpetuation of their species by means of seed.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens to be obtained and compared with
+the descriptions in this chapter:—Buttercup flower,
+dog’s mercury, hazel catkins, primrose flowers,
+male blossoms of pine trees in June, Nottingham
+catchfly, ox-eye daisy, bartsia, St. John’s wort
+flowers, and Japanese toad-lily.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">
+    CHAPTER VIII
+    <br>
+    <i>FERTILISATION</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent34">“The men</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Whom Nature’s works can charm, with God Himself</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Hold converse.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Akenside.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_VIII_1">
+    CHAPTER VIII
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">FERTILISATION</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_195.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="H">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">Having</span>
+now considered some of the
+many wonderful arrangements by
+which the pollen of plants is dispersed,
+we will endeavour by tracing the course
+of the pollen-grains after they reach the
+stigma, to learn what is meant by the term “fertilisation
+of the ovules.” These are the minute
+specks contained in the ovary which are to become
+seeds, and by means of which the plant will
+eventually reproduce itself.</p>
+
+<p>To the naked eye the yellow pollen we see on
+the anthers of flowers appears as small grains;
+but, when magnified, these grains are seen to be
+singularly beautiful, each little sphere having on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span>its surface a chequered network and delicately
+sculptured patterns.</p>
+
+<p>The forms, too, are as varied as the ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>Some plants have triangular grains, some oval-shaped
+and others many-sided.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_196" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="Pollen grains, numbered 1–7.
+Nr. 1 has the shape of a rounded cylinder, with small buds at the circumference in
+the middle.
+Nr. 2 is rounded with a skin consisting of hexagons.
+Nr. 3 is perfectly round, with small circular dots on the outside.
+Nr. 4 is perfectly round, with a pattern of pentagonal ribs on the surface.
+Nr. 5 consists of three semi-round shapes, stuck to each other in a line. So
+one is in the middle of the other two. The one in the middle is deformed into an
+trapezoid shape. It contains a small dot on the surface. The whole arrangement is
+not completely linear, but bent somewhat.
+Nr. 6 is elongated, with a stripe lengthwise.
+Nr. 7 is triangular, with little spikes on the surface.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>POLLEN-GRAINS.</p>
+    <p>
+    1 <i>Morina.</i>   
+    2 <i>Cobea.</i>   
+    3 <i>Convolvulus.</i>   
+    4 <i>Dianthus.</i>   
+    5 <i>Pinus.</i><br>
+    6 <i>Albucca.</i>   
+    7 <i>Buphthalmum.</i></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I have given a few examples, and would
+specially call attention to the pollen-grains of
+the Pinus tribe (fir-trees), to which I alluded in
+the last chapter. These are remarkably buoyant,
+owing to the two little bladders with which they
+are furnished.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_197" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="Two drawings of a pistil, one
+from the outside, one in cross section. The outside shows the pistil growing on
+a stalk. At the base is a bulbous shape, somewhat elongated, followed by a
+long shaft, ending in a shape consisting of 3 smaller bulbs, slightly wider
+than the shaft. In cross section the shaft and the bulb at the base are hollow.
+The bulb contains a small stalk with 12 circular forms along the length of it.
+At the top of the shaft is a small black circular form, with a thin thread into
+the hollow of the shaft that ends in one of the circular shapes at the base.">
+  <figcaption>
+  <p style="display: flex; justify-content: center;">
+  <span style="text-align: left;">WHITE-LILY PISTIL.</span>
+  <span style="text-align: right;">SECTION OF PISTIL.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p>Now we are going to watch this yellow dust
+performing its appointed office in the central
+organ of a flower. In order to do so we will take
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a><a id="Page_198"></a>[Pg 198]</span>a white garden lily, and remove the petals, sepals,
+and stamens, leaving only the pistil, which, as
+shown in the drawing, consists of three parts, the
+club-like stigma, a very long style, and its base the
+ovary, which contains three cavities. In these
+last we see a number of small, colourless spore-like
+bodies termed ovules (from <i>ovum</i>, an egg), each
+consisting of an outer coat, and a mass of cells in
+the centre called the <i>nucellus</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w20" id="i_198" style="max-width: 24.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_198.jpg" alt="A microscopic image of a cross-
+section. It shows a round, hollow shape with thick walls and an opening at the top.
+In the centre is a peanut-shaped object, with a black spot at the side directed
+to the opening. A tube enters through the opening and contacts the peanut-shape
+at the black spot.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>POLLEN TUBE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>An opening exists at one end
+of each ovule called the micropyle
+(meaning a little gate or entrance),
+and this opening leads down into
+the middle of the nucellus, where
+lies what we may call the life-principle,
+but what is known in botany
+as the embryo-sac.</p>
+
+<p>We need the aid of a microscope to enable us
+to see how the pollen exerts its influence upon the
+ovules.</p>
+
+<p>If we place a drop of very weak sugar and
+water upon a slip of grass, and sprinkle over it
+some pollen grains of the common white lily,
+then allowing the slide to remain for a few
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span>hours in a dark place, it will be fit for our
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>When placed in the microscope we shall observe
+that many of the grains will have thrown out long
+thread-like tubes, and this is just what happens
+when pollen falls upon the viscid stigma of the
+lily. Referring to the section of a lily pistil we
+see that a pollen grain has rested on the stigma,
+and, excited into growth by the sweetish fluid
+which holds it there, it sends down a slender tube
+through the centre of the pistil, which is lined with
+a very delicate loose tissue of cells filled with
+starch, oils and food-materials. The pollen-tube
+is stimulated and fed by this nourishment stored
+up in the conducting tissue, and on it goes until,
+passing through the micropyle, it enters the
+embryo-sac of one of the ovules, adheres to it, and
+renders it fertile.</p>
+
+<p>Only one grain is shown in the drawing for the
+sake of clearness, but of course each ovule is
+sought out and fertilised by a pollen-tube. With
+infinite variation this process takes place in every
+flower, so that even the commonest weed affords
+evidence of the marvellous provisions made by
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span>an All-Wise Creator for the preservation of
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The time occupied by the passage of the pollen-tube
+varies considerably. In the fir tribe it takes
+nearly twelve months, in the hazel-nut and orchis
+it requires several weeks, whilst in many other
+plants the whole process is completed in a few
+hours.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first results of fertilisation is a rapid
+withering of the style and flower; the great end
+of the flowering period has been attained, and so
+without further expense of energy the bright petals
+die away.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time other external changes take
+place, which are obvious to every observer of
+nature. The lower end of the pistil, known as
+the ovary, begins its second growth, and in a short
+time swells into a large structure, the shape of
+which varies much in different species of plants.
+Finally, the ovary changes colour and develops
+other characteristics quite different from its
+former conditions. These characters have reference
+to the distribution of its seeds, and in our
+chapter on fruits we shall learn something about
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span>the interesting botanical significance of the various
+hard and soft fruits, and see how they all arise
+from fertilisation.</p>
+
+<p>Take, for example, the flower of an apple
+immediately after fertilisation is effected. The
+petals fall off, the styles shrivel up and the ovary
+rapidly enlarges; the tube of the calyx becomes
+fleshy, and finally the well-formed apple is
+produced. The change, however, does not end
+here; in this stage of development the little apple
+is bitter and is charged with a vegetable acid. As
+the fruit grows on, however, this acid changes into
+sweet juice varying in flavour according to the
+species of apple.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us examine the interior of the ovary
+and see what changes have arisen as a consequence
+of fertilisation.</p>
+
+<p>The egg cell which has received the pollen
+grain becomes filled with an embryo, whilst the
+thin delicate coat of the ovule develops into strong
+seed-coats.</p>
+
+<p>The embryo is the first germ of the young plant
+that is to be. It is a tiny speck indeed in its
+beginning, but deeply interesting to us when we
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span>realise that, because it possesses life, it will grow
+on and on, and result, according to its species,
+either in a plant but a few inches in height, or
+in a grand forest-tree which may give shelter
+to man and animals for hundreds of years.</p>
+
+<p>The naked eye can scarcely trace any indications
+of form in the embryo, but when dissected
+and examined with a lens it is seen to consist of a
+tiny plant, root, stem and leaves (cotyledons).</p>
+
+<p>The size of the embryo in comparison with the
+other part of the seed is a point which should be
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>As the embryo develops it absorbs the special
+nutrient or reserve tissue that exists in all ovules;
+a bean embryo, for example, rapidly absorbs all
+the nucellus of the ovule, so that at length the
+seed-coat<a id="tn-005"></a> contains nothing but the embryo, the
+two cotyledons of which are thick and filled with
+stores of food for the first growth of the seed.</p>
+
+<p>I would advise students to plant a few broad
+beans in a little damp cocoa fibre, and carefully
+watch their growth. It is advisable to dissect
+these beans successively at different stages, so as
+to watch the development of the radicle (root) and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span>plumule (young leaf-bud). Place the seed in what
+position we may, the radicle will always find its
+way down into the earth, while the plumule obeys
+its vegetable instinct, and rises into the air. The
+embryo of the castor-oil bean and that of the
+cocoa-nut do not, however, use up all the nutritive
+matter in the ovule as the broad bean does, so
+that when the seed is ripe we find inside it, not
+only the embryo, but also a quantity of cheesy
+matter known as <i>albumen</i>, and seeds of this kind
+are hence called <i>albuminous</i>, whilst peas, beans
+and hazel-nuts are classed as <i>ex-albuminous</i> (without
+albumen).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_203" style="max-width: 51.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="A section showing an oval form
+with several layers. The outside layer is about one quarter of the total volume.
+It's called 'Pericarp'. The second layer is much thinner, and very dense.
+No name is attached to it. The third layer is of a lighter shade and also
+about one quarter. It's called 'nucellus'. The central circle is empty.
+In the third layer a small elongated shape is drawn, oriented radially,
+and called 'embryo'.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SECTION OF COCOA-NUT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>An interesting development consequent upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span>fertilisation is a growth which occurs in some
+plants from the base of the ovule. The pretty
+red coverings of the seeds of the spindle-tree, and
+the bright berry-like structure on the seeds of
+the yew-tree are examples of this growth, which
+is known botanically as an aril (from <i>arillus</i>, a
+wrapper). In the willows this aril is a very
+lovely covering of silky hairs, these serve to float
+the seeds on the atmosphere at every puff of
+wind.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_204" style="max-width: 62.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_204.jpg" alt="A small branch with 7 flowers,
+some open, some still closed. Each flower sits on a stalk and is built from 4
+lobes, that open to form the calyx. Within the calyx are small petals.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SPINDLE-TREE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The pretty lace-like covering on the nutmeg is
+another example of an aril, better known to us in
+the form of the fragrant spice called mace.</p>
+
+<p>The style, which in most plants dies as soon as
+the ovules are fertilised, is in other cases persistent,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span>as in the hedge-climber called travellers’ joy.
+The white, feathery-looking seeds owe their
+special character to the persisting styles, which,
+after fertilisation, grow into the bunches of fluffy
+seeds, which hang in profusion on hedges in the
+country.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_205" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_205.jpg" alt="A short branch with 3 leaves and
+a nut. The leaves are elongated with pointed ends, and sit on short stalks. The nut
+also sits on a stalk and has an outer shell, which is partly opened and shows its
+contents: a shape with ribs and grooves. This contents is shown separately.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>NUTMEG AND MACE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_206" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="The drawing is in two parts.
+The top part shows a bunch of threads at the top of a stalk. The threads
+pointing in every direction. The bottom part shows a single thread, that appears
+to be covered by short hairs to give it a feathery appearance. At the base of the
+thread is a small globule, less than one tenth of the length of the hair.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>CLEMATIS OR TRAVELLERS’ JOY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I will conclude this chapter with a reference to
+a change of quite a different character. Not unfrequently,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span>fertilisation results in the suppression
+of certain chambers in the ovary, and in the
+consequent failure of the development of the
+ovules.</p>
+
+<p>A cross-section of a young oak ovary shows a
+three-chambered structure, each cavity containing
+two ovules, so that the ovary in this stage contains
+six ovules in three chambers. Soon after the
+act of fertilisation, one of the fertilised ovules takes
+the lead in growth, starves the other five ovules,
+and, as it grows, pushes the partitions of the other
+chambers aside, and gradually fills up the whole
+interior, converting it into a one-celled structure.
+This change happens also in the birch; its two-chambered
+ovary becomes one; and in the lime,
+though at first it has a many-chambered ovary,
+yet in the ripened fruit there is rarely more than
+one to be found.</p>
+
+<p>In a few plants, changes of quite an opposite
+character take place. In the ovary of the datura,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+for instance, we find two cells; after fertilisation,
+two false or spurious partitions are developed,
+dividing the original two-celled structure into four
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span>parts, and as a consequence we get a four-chambered
+fruit. The same change takes place
+in some of the pea family.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens to be observed:—Examine pollen
+grains, with lens or microscope, dissect white lily,
+flower-pollen on glass slide. Observe changes
+in growing apple, plant broad beans, castor-oil
+seeds, and maize; examine spindle-tree berries
+(<i>euonymus</i>), yew-tree berries, willow seeds, nutmeg,
+and mace; travellers’ joy (clematis), section
+of oak ovary in the pistillate flower. Examine
+birch catkins and lime-tree flowers. Datura seed-vessel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">
+    CHAPTER IX
+    <br>
+    <i>FRUIT</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Here, as I steal along the sunny wall,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Where Autumn basks, with fruit empurpled deep,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">My pleasing theme continual prompts my thought;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Presents the downy peach; the shining plum;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">The ruddy, fragrant nectarine; and dark,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Beneath his ample leaf, the luscious fig.</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">The vine, too, here her curling tendrils shoots,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Hangs out her clusters, glowing to the south,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">And scarcely wishes for a warmer sky.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">James Thomson.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_IX_1">
+    CHAPTER IX
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">FRUIT</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_211.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="I">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">If</span>
+we are shown a collection of delicious
+apples, pears, grapes, peaches and
+cherries, we form a very appreciative
+opinion of the use and function of fruit,
+but that opinion is somewhat modified
+when we are shown a basket of poppy-heads,
+acorns, the light downy seeds of the thistle, the
+small dry carpels of the buttercup or the winged
+fruits of the maple. We usually connect the term
+fruit with some luscious product of the vinery or
+kitchen-garden, and we may include as such the
+brightly-coloured berries of the hawthorn and
+wild rose, which are so conspicuous on trees and
+hedges in autumn; but if we examine the subject
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span>botanically we shall have to widen our ordinary
+conception of the term.</p>
+
+<p>There is probably no part of a plant so difficult
+to understand as its fruit, and this difficulty is due
+to those many changes which I described in my
+last chapter. A very general definition of fruit is
+that it consists of the ripened ovary, and this will
+be found to be correct in a great number of cases,
+but this term is not exactly wide enough to
+express the general formation of all fruit. In
+some cases it is composed of the ripened ovary with
+the parts of the stalk or the original flower, enlarged
+or incorporated in the structure of the fruit,
+but in other specimens we find the ovary, although
+present, very little enlarged, and playing but a
+minor part in the ultimate character of the mature
+fruit.</p>
+
+<p>No fact seems so emphatic to the observant
+botanist as that which upsets his artificial rules
+and classifications of plants and the parts of plants.
+We say, for instance, that fruit is the ripened ovary,
+and yet directly we leave our books and go out to
+study botany in the fields and woods, we find a
+large group of fruits perfectly innocent of any such
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span>structure. The firs and pines have no organ of
+this kind, and yet their fruits are most important
+and extremely interesting. Scarcely any part of a
+plant varies so much in different species as the
+fruit does. Although leaves may be found of
+every size and shape, they still have some general
+similarity of form, but we hasten to observe what
+an immense contrast there is between the huge
+<i>Musa</i> fruit (banana) and that of the oak (acorn),
+although the former is, compared to the latter,
+but a poor weakly plant.</p>
+
+<p>Again, let us note the difference between the
+cocoa-nut palm fruit, a nut, which with its outer
+husk is almost as large as a peck measure, and
+that of the St. John’s wort or any other of our
+native wild flowers.</p>
+
+<p>These differences in size have their counterparts
+in other directions. We generally think of fruits
+as being soft, luscious, and pleasant to the taste.
+Many fruits of delightful colour and texture are,
+however, bitter as gall, and possess highly noxious
+qualities. I well remember gathering a plateful of
+rich purple berries from a plant I discovered in
+one of my childish rambles and carrying them
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span>home as a great prize; I was not a little disappointed
+when I learned that they were the
+poisonous fruits of the deadly nightshade; their
+deceitful resemblance to plums, as well as the
+berries of the woody nightshade to red currants,
+make these two of our most dangerous native
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>As offering very distinct contrasts to the above,
+we may note the dry membranous fruits of many
+of our forest-trees, the hard nuts of the hazel and
+walnut and the leathery husk of the chestnut.
+Again, the shape of fruits is wonderfully diversified.
+We have round and oval apples, plums, and
+gooseberries; the linear seed-pods of the cabbage,
+cauliflower, wallflower, peas and beans, and other
+plants in endless varieties of forms.</p>
+
+<p>There are contrasts again in the smooth surface
+of some fruits and the hairy coats of others where
+the roughness is due to hooks, prickles and other
+contrivances. How different, too, is the airy
+pappus of the dandelion to those heavy fruits
+which drop like stones and are to be found lying
+exactly beneath the branches where they have
+ripened.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span></p>
+
+<p>These differences in external form are multiplied
+when we examine fruit more minutely. We shall
+then find a useful dividing line in the manner in
+which fruits allow their seeds to escape. In one
+large division the fruit when perfectly ripe splits
+open and allows the seed to fall out; such fruits
+are termed dehiscent (from <i>dehisco</i>, I gape). In
+the other division the fruit remains closed, and the
+substance of it must decay before the seeds can
+escape and grow; these are classed as indehiscent
+(I gape not). Before referring to a few examples
+of each division we will endeavour to distinguish
+clearly the various parts of a fruit and learn their
+proper botanical names.</p>
+
+<p>We must be careful not to confound the seed
+and the coats of the ovary; the latter is termed the
+pericarp (<i>peri</i>, around, <i>karpos</i>, a fruit). In some
+fruits this pericarp is developed into distinct coats,
+or layers. In a peach, for instance, the outer coat
+is rough and hairy, this is called the epicarp (1) (<i>epi</i>,
+upon, <i>karpos</i>, a fruit); the middle coat is the
+succulent delicious fruit, and is known as the mesocarp
+(2) (<i>mesos</i>, middle, <i>karpos</i>, fruit), whilst the inner
+coat is the hard stone, or endocarp (3) (<i>endon</i>, within,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span><i>karpos</i>, fruit), and inside it lies the kernel, or true
+seed. As a type of a dehiscent fruit we may
+select a pea-pod; here we get no division of the
+coats into distinct parts, the pericarp is dry and
+tough, and when perfectly ripe it bursts open,
+and allows the seeds to escape.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_216" style="max-width: 59.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_216.jpg" alt="A cross section of a fruit,
+containing a stone. The stone has deep grooves. Parts of the fruit are
+numbered. The outer surface has number 1, the part below has number 2 and
+the stone number 3.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SECTION OF PEACH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It would be very interesting to make a collection
+of various seed-vessels, and note the immense
+variety of ways in which the seeds find their way
+out of the dry capsules. A poppy-head, campanula
+and antirrhinum sprays, henbane, columbine,
+stramonium, and many other plants afford
+good examples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_217" style="max-width: 33.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_217.jpg" alt="A complex structure at the
+end of a stalk. It is a bulbous shape connected to the stalk by a thin neck,
+somewhat resembling an upside-down bottle. The top of it has an opening,
+made by a ring of small lips around the circumference. The opening is
+covered by a lid, that has a pattern of ribs radiating from its centre.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>POPPY CAPSULE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The woody pear is the hard fruit of a New
+Holland plant which splits open to release the
+seeds. The horse-chestnut is a conspicuous instance
+of a dehiscing fruit, the rough prickly part is the
+pericarp, and when the fruit is mature this splits
+open and allows the two large chestnuts (seeds)
+to escape. In the sweet-chestnut
+we get an altogether
+different structure.
+If we pick up one of its spiny
+burrs, we hold in our hand
+what is called in botany an
+involucre (from <i>involucrum</i>,
+a cover), that is, a number
+of bracts which have grown
+together and formed an
+outer case to the fruit. The
+acorn-cup is an involucre, and
+we may find other good examples in composite
+flowers and those of the umbelliferæ. The small
+green whorl in which a daisy-flower is set is, therefore,
+not a calyx, but an involucre consisting of
+minute bracts grown together. The true fruit of
+the sweet-chestnut is enclosed in a mass of spiny
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span>bracts, and thus differs entirely from the pericarp
+of the horse-chestnut; if we wish to speak of it
+correctly we must call it either a cupule or involucre.
+We will now select a few examples of
+fruits that are indehiscent.</p>
+
+<p>On the outside of an
+orange we find the yellow
+coat of the pericarp,
+next to it is the white
+mesocarp, and inside is
+the juicy endocarp,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> in
+which the seeds are embedded.
+When an orange
+falls to the ground these
+different coats simply
+decay, and the seeds are
+aided in their efforts to
+grow by the succulent
+flesh of the fruit, which affords them moisture
+and nutriment. The hazel-nut is a fruit of
+another texture altogether. The hard shell is the
+pericarp, and the one or two seeds within it must
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span>remain enclosed there until the shell decays and the
+kernels can germinate and become new plants.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w30" id="i_218" style="max-width: 40.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_218.jpg" alt="A fruit, partly burst open, that
+consists of 4 equal parts, joined at the centre. Every part has a broad base and
+narrows down at the top. In the middle are some seeds.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>WOODY PEAR.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the currant, gooseberry, and date we find
+examples of indehiscent fruits with a sweet fleshy
+pericarp. In the date there is only one seed in
+each fruit, and a curious thin endocarp can be
+observed enveloping the solitary seed. Many
+allied species, as well as the date, possess this
+sweet pericarp, which must decay in order to
+liberate the seeds, and in the case of succulent
+fruits the process is frequently assisted by the
+fruit-eating birds.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to draw attention to the very
+simple kind of fruit possessed by the buttercup
+and other similar plants. It is a dry membranous
+pericarp, and inside one seed exists free from the
+pericarp; this remains closed, like other forms of
+the indehiscent types, and technically this fruit is
+known as an achene (from <i>achanes</i>, not gaping),
+and it is well named, as it remains closed until
+decay enables the growing radicle to break through
+the pericarp and enter the ground. The curious
+after-development of the strawberry fruit is worth
+a little careful study.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span></p>
+
+<p>This flower is known as apocarpous (<i>apo</i>, apart,
+<i>karpos</i>, fruit), consisting of a number of distinct
+ovaries each with one ovule; these ovaries when
+ripe are exactly like the achenes of the buttercup,
+but they are developed upon a receptacle which,
+when fertilisation has taken place, begins to dilate
+and swell, with the result that the little achenes
+are gradually scattered over the surface of a large
+fleshy receptacle which, as it nears its time of perfection,
+becomes of a most tempting crimson
+colour. The little seed-like dots we notice on the
+strawberry are distinct and perfect fruits embedded
+in a sweet succulent floral receptacle. Thus we
+find that the strawberry, speaking botanically, is
+not a berry, but a collection of achenes, the term
+“berry” being usually restricted to such fruits as
+the currant and gooseberry. For this reason the
+strawberry and the common fig are sometimes
+termed spurious fruits, for in these the soft pulpy
+flesh is really the receptacle and the little round
+so-called seeds are the true fruit.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very different formation in the pineapple,
+since this fruit is the development of an
+entire spike of flowers; these in their early stage
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span>are crowded together on the flower stalk, but as
+time goes on they coalesce and fuse, with their
+ovaries, bracts, and receptacles, into a succulent
+mass, the various parts of which can be well defined
+if we cut a section through a pineapple before it
+is quite ripe.</p>
+
+<p>This chapter may fittingly conclude with a brief
+reference to the ultimate purpose of these varied
+forms and textures of fruit, for that they each have
+their special work, and that there is a meaning for
+every form, is a truism we may accept without
+doubt. The fruit is in reality the storehouse for
+the seeds, the latter being the vital part of the
+plant. If we review the life-history of a plant,
+first its producing flowers, then the special and
+intricate processes of pollination and fertilisation,
+and subsequently the growth of that wonderful
+little part, the ovule, into a seed, and further if we
+reflect that the whole strength of the plant has
+been concentrated on producing that seed, we
+shall then comprehend the true significance of
+fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The seed is first stored up in the recesses of the
+ovary; clearly then the ovary, which subsequently
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span>becomes the fruit (pericarp), is intended to protect
+the seeds, and it is interesting to note some of the
+various ways in which this protection is afforded.
+Take first the soft and sweet fruits so plentiful in
+the autumn; this edible sweet flesh is not developed
+until the seeds are quite ripe. All through
+the period of growth and ripening the pericarp
+is hard or stringy or it may be also sour or acid.
+This is especially true of hedgerow fruit, such as
+crab-apples, sloes, and wild pears, texture and juice
+alike affording complete protection.</p>
+
+<p>Again, such fruit as the walnut and chestnut
+are protected by their rough covering and hard
+shells, and many others have their outer coats
+covered with prickles and spines for the same
+reason. The most extreme case is perhaps that
+of <i>Mucuna pruriens</i>, a leguminous climber found
+in the tropics; this has downy pods not unlike
+those of a sweet-pea, and these pods are covered
+with brownish hairs which, if incautiously touched,
+enter the pores of the skin and cause a most
+intolerable irritation; a truly formidable protection
+this to the seed.</p>
+
+<p>Let me now point out how the seed is protected
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span>in some of the pine family (firs), where there is
+no pericarp. During the growth and development
+of the pine seeds, the woody cone is rich in resin,
+and should an enterprising nuthatch try to peck
+out the seeds, he finds his beak covered with the
+resin and his effort baffled.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_223" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_223.jpg" alt="Two pine cones, one closed and the
+other open. Between them, an enlarged seed. The closed one is somewhat oval, with
+a pointed end. It is covered in diamond-shaped scales. The open one shows that these
+scales are the ends of little sticks that are attached to a common centre.
+By opening, these sticks are bent apart. The seed has a small, dark kernel with
+a very light wing attached. The wing has one straight edge, while the other is bent,
+almost part of a circle. The seed sits at the end of the wing.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PINE-CONES<a id="tn-006"></a>.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Protection is also afforded to the seed by the
+movements of fruit after fertilisation, and of this
+the cyclamen flower affords a good illustration.
+As soon as fertilisation has taken place the flower
+stalk coils up like a watch-spring, and the seed-pod
+is thus placed safely beneath the leaves to
+ripen.</p>
+
+<p>In crevices of old walls we may often find that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span>charming little wilding, the ivy-leaved toad-flax;
+it has a highly intelligent method of protecting
+its seeds. When the flower is fertilised its stalk
+bends its point round to the wall, and places the
+tiny ovary in a cranny of the brickwork to
+mature and ripen its seeds. These are but two
+instances, out of hundreds, of plants whose fruits
+are protected by what we call instinctive movements.</p>
+
+<p>It is of essential importance to young seedlings
+that they should have sufficient soil, light, and air,
+to ensure their healthy growth. To begin life
+directly under the leaves of the parent plant is
+to court failure and starvation, and so we find
+in the fruit that wonderful provisions are made
+to ensure the dispersion of the seed when it leaves
+the parent plant, and so endless are the contrivances
+for the dispersion of fruits and seeds,
+that it will be needful to devote the next chapter
+entirely to that subject.</p>
+
+<p>Objects to collect and examine:—Compare
+various fruits, fir-cone, banana, acorn, seeds, and
+berries, &amp;c. Examine a peach and pea-pod.
+Collect seed-vessels, horse-chestnut, sweet-chestnut,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span>daisy-flower, orange, hazel-nut, date-fruit, strawberry,
+pineapple.</p>
+
+<p>Observe seed coverings, pine-cones, cyclamen
+stems after flowering, seed capsules of ivy-leaved
+toad-flax in wall crevices.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a><a id="Page_227"></a>[Pg 227]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">
+    CHAPTER X
+    <br>
+    <i>DISPERSION OF FRUITS AND SEEDS</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Who gave the thistle’s feather’d seed its plumes,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">That wing-like waft it on each gentle breeze</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">To sterile yet to it congenial soils,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Investing them with purple beauty, rife</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">With fragrant treasures for the wild bees’ store?”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">T. L. Meritt.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_X_1">
+    CHAPTER X
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">DISPERSION OF FRUITS AND SEEDS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_229.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="I">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">I purpose</span>
+in this chapter to explain
+some of the many remarkable ways in
+which plants are enabled to scatter
+their fruits and seeds. The chief agencies
+which assist in carrying out this purpose
+are wind, animals, birds, running water, and
+moisture in the atmosphere. We shall find that
+many seeds are furnished with certain outgrowths
+and peculiarities which are specially adapted to
+the action of these agencies, with the result that
+such seeds are distributed far and wide. We will
+first examine some of those fruits which are scattered
+by animals; this end is generally attained
+by means of hooks and curved spines on the outside
+of the fruit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps one of the most remarkable instances of
+this class is the seed-pod (or capsule) of the Martynias.
+During the visit of the Prince of Wales to
+India, a panther killed in one of the shooting
+excursions was found to have quantities of long-hooked
+seeds attached to his skin: these must have
+been brushed from a plant of <i>Martynia proboscidea</i>,
+which has sharp curved horns three or four inches
+long.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="i_230" style="max-width: 52.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_230.jpg" alt="The seed is of an oval shape,
+with 2 pronounced ribs running in the length and is is covered by numerous
+little thorns. At the front end, the seed has a hook. At the rear end, 2 large
+outgrows appear, about twice the size of the seed. These point upwards and at the
+end are bent forward, to give them the appearance of antlers.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SEED-POD OF MARTYNIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Another species called by the Italians <i>Testa di
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span>Quaglia</i>, or quail’s head, sows itself in a similar
+manner by clinging to moving objects.</p>
+
+<p>Many common hedgerow plants have their fruits
+armed with quite formidable hooks, so that creeping
+or flying creatures may be made unwittingly the
+means of distributing the fruits. The burdock
+is a most persistent plant in this respect, each
+of its numerous fruits being covered with long
+hooks which successfully retain their hold of our
+clothing if we happen to brush past the plant when
+covered with its troublesome burrs. Other examples
+are the rough seeds of the forget-me-not,
+agrimony, enchanter’s nightshade—a great pest in
+gardens—and all the bedstraw tribe.</p>
+
+<p>These plants, we may observe, are low-growing
+and herbaceous, quite distinct in the matter of
+position from the tall trees and shrubs which depend
+upon the wind to scatter their seeds.</p>
+
+<p>We are all familiar with the winged fruits of the
+sycamore; they are to be seen in early autumn.
+The clusters are first of a pale green, and then the
+seeds&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> often attain a flush of pale crimson which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span>adds much to the picturesque beauty of the tree.
+The equinoctial gales separate the seeds from
+their stalks, and away they go far and wide, borne
+up by the delicate membrane attached to the seed
+which catches the wind, and is carried by it to a
+great distance from the parent tree. In the same
+way the winged keys of the ash, being very light,
+are borne by the autumn gales to strange habitats,
+so that the tree may often be found growing on
+church towers, in ruins, and on crags inaccessible
+to man.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_232" style="max-width: 55.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_232.jpg" alt="Two pictures of a seed, one
+natural size, one magnified. The magnification shows a grain in the centre
+with two wings at the sides. The grain is elliptic, with pointed ends. The
+wings are rounded.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    BIRCH SEED.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The pinus tribe of trees have seeds with wings
+slightly<a id="tn-008"></a> twisted so that, if we hold up a dry fir-cone,
+the seeds descend from it with a whirling
+motion like small shuttlecocks.</p>
+
+<p>The winds which blow strongly in mountainous
+places carry these seeds before them, and are thus
+ever renewing the pine-forests by sowing the products
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span>of their cones on bare tracts of land. The
+lightest of all tree seeds is that of the birch; it is
+gifted with two wings or membranes, so that it
+floats in the air before the lightest breeze, and this
+may account for the wide distribution of the tree
+which has been found growing from Mount Etna
+to Iceland and Greenland. I may give an instance
+of a common which, twenty years ago, was covered
+only by furze, broom, and brake-fern; about fourteen
+years since, a shower of birch seed must have
+been strewn over the ground, and now it has become
+a wood, shutting out the distant views and
+quite altering the character of the landscape.</p>
+
+<p>The wind again is the agency for the dispersion
+of the seeds of such plants as the common groundsel;
+here it may not be uninteresting to note the
+beautiful provision made in regard to the buoyancy
+of the seeds. These winged structures which the
+wind so lightly blows into the air must attain a
+certain altitude from which they can be successfully
+launched, and therefore we find that a large
+class of low-growing plants have their seeds furnished
+with accessories in the form of light silky
+down or hairs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp59" id="i_234" style="max-width: 48.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_234.jpg" alt="A sail, in the shape of the
+upper part of a globe. From the edge, many lines, at equal distances, hang down,
+and are connected to a much smaller ring. From this ring hangs a basket, again
+connected by lines and in the basket a person is sketchily drawn.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PARACHUTE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="i_235" style="max-width: 47.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_235.jpg" alt="A seed in the shape of an ellipse,
+elongated and somewhat bent, with several fine ribs running in the length. It
+stands with its longs axis vertically. At the top end it has some small spikes.
+At the top is is connected to a thin stalk, about twice the length of the seed.
+This stalk has at its top an array of hairs, almost as long as the stalk, growing
+more or less horizontally, in all directions around a circle.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>DANDELION SEED.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Most of the plants known as <i>compositæ</i> have
+their seeds thus feathered, and amongst them are
+those plagues of the farmer, the thistle, dandelion,
+goat’s-beard and others. The dandelion may serve
+as our example, and I would advise my readers to
+watch carefully the variations of position in the
+flowering stems. Whilst the flower is still fully
+expanded the stalk remains in an upright position
+so that it is conspicuous and likely to attract
+the notice of insect visitors. After the florets
+are fertilised it gradually lowers itself until it
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span>lies on the ground under the leaves for a period
+of ten or twelve days. During this time the
+seed-vessel matures and ripens, then the stalk
+rises to the erect position once more, and the
+beautiful downy globe expands into a soft fluffy
+ball of seeds hanging so loosely that the first
+breeze carries them away, and their descent into
+the ground is curiously provided for. Persons have
+sometimes alighted on the earth from a balloon by
+means of a parachute, a machine which closely
+resembles an open umbrella with a car at the lower
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span>end. Now the dandelion seed descends in a similar
+manner, touching the ground first with its lower
+end, the weight of the seed enabling it to drop into
+some hole in the soil, and the spiny projections at
+the upper end preventing the feathery part of the
+seed from dragging it out again. The common
+goat’s-beard is perhaps the most beautiful English
+example of fruit with a downy pappus. A single
+flower will produce a sphere as large as a cricketball,
+and each seed is furnished with a starlike
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span>crown of branched feathers which the wind can
+bear away to a considerable distance.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="i_236" style="max-width: 53.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_236.jpg" alt="Part of a stem, that end in a
+ball. The ball is formed of some 20 little, opened up umbrellas, that through
+their shafts are connected to the end of the stem. At the connection point,
+each of the shafts has a thickening.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>GOAT’S BEARD.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The handsome willow-herb, which adds so much
+colour and beauty to our river banks, bears its seed
+in long, narrow pods, and these, when ripe, split
+up into five segments which, curling back as they
+open, leave the downy seeds free to be carried off
+by the passing breeze.</p>
+
+<p>Bird agency in seed dispersion is a most interesting
+subject, and one can but admire the wonderful
+way in which the services of winged creatures
+are made available.</p>
+
+<p>Succulent berries and sticky fruits are highly
+attractive to many kinds of birds, and whilst they
+revel upon the sweet, soft flesh of the berry, the
+seeds which they swallow with it are enabled to
+resist the action of digestion by a hard covering
+which protects the kernel until the shell shall
+decay and allow the seed to germinate. In this
+way I find my garden in early spring quite thickly
+strewn with the seeds of the Irish ivy, always a
+favourite food of the common wood-pigeon which
+is so frequently to be heard cooing in my woods.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds of aquatic plants often cling to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span>feathers of birds that visit pieces of inland water,
+and are widely distributed by them in their flight
+from one lake to another.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_238" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_238.jpg" alt="2 ellipses of equal size, a bit
+flattened lengthwise at one side and connected at this flattened side. Their
+surface is striped along the length axis.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>COCOS-DE-MER<a id="tn-009"></a>.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Darwin has shown by careful experiment that
+the mud clinging to the feet of various birds almost
+always contains seeds. A wounded partridge had
+a ball of earth weighing six and a half ounces
+adhering to its legs. From this earth Darwin
+reared no less than eighty-two separate plants of
+five distinct species. Seas and rivers also do their
+part in dispersing seeds. The huge nuts of the
+<i>Cocos-de-mer</i> palm, which grows only upon the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span>Seychelles Islands, are often thrown upon very
+distant shores. This nut is said to take ten
+years to come to perfection; it is exceedingly
+hard, and sometimes weighs as much as forty
+pounds. The common cocoa-nut is often found
+growing on the shores of coral and other islands
+in the Pacific Ocean, and owes its position there to
+the buoyant nature of the nut, which floats uninjured
+in the sea until it finds a resting-place and
+a home on some atoll or island. In this way the
+cocoa-palm has spread to such an extent that it is
+now perhaps the only palm common to the western
+and eastern hemispheres. West Indian seeds
+and fruits have even been thrown upon the Norwegian
+coasts, and, but for the unsuitability of the
+climate, there is little doubt that tropical trees and
+plants might sometimes be found growing even so
+far north. It is obvious that the seeds of all
+vegetation on the banks of rivers, small running
+streams and lakes, must be liable to very wide
+distribution. Darwin made many interesting experiments
+as to the length of time seeds could
+retain their vitality when floating in fresh or salt
+water. Ripe hazel nuts germinated after being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span>ninety days in water. An asparagus plant with
+mature berries, when dried, floated for eighty-five
+days, and the seeds afterwards grew vigorously.
+Out of ninety-four plants experimented upon,
+eighteen floated for more than a month and some
+for three months, their germinating power not
+being destroyed. In quite a large number of
+species the plants themselves possess the means
+necessary to distribute the seed. It is true the
+distance traversed by each seed may not be great,
+but it is sufficient to give the seed a new field of
+growth. This power varies in different species. It
+is perhaps best defined as elastic force, and in the
+majority of cases the seed is actually thrown away
+from the parent plant by the expenditure of this
+force. The seed-pod is generally in a state of
+tension, due to the gradual drying up of the
+tissues. Then a puff of wind, a slight blow, or
+even a change in the atmospheric condition of the
+air, gives the final impetus, causing the pod to
+burst with such force that seeds are thrown out in
+all directions. The fibro-vascular cords are often
+found crossing the pod in an oblique direction, or
+even in a spiral manner, so that finally, as they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span>shorten through dryness, they act upon the walls
+of the legume and we see the result in such dried
+pods as those of the sweet pea, broom, and
+laburnum.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_242" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_242.jpg" alt="A drawing of two pods. At
+the bottom there is one that consists of two halves that are very elongated and
+bent somewhat. One halve bends to the left, the other to the right. The one
+bending to the left shows the outside of the pod, that is rather smooth and
+covered with file lines. The other hale shows the pod's inside, where the seeds
+are lying, 8 of them, evenly distributed along the axis of the pod. One of the
+seed is beside the pod. The seeds are round, with circular lines within. The upper
+drawing shows 2 pods, connected to a stem. Both pods are open showing their
+two halves separated. Each of the halves is coiled up, almost like a
+corkscrew. In one of the pods some seeds are shown, again rounded, with circular
+lines within.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BROOM AND SWEET-PEA PODS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The pansy has a three-valved seed-pod, and as
+it dries the edges of the valves press upon the
+polished, hard-shelled seeds and they are squirted
+out with a jerk to a distance of several feet. I
+was once greatly puzzled by a strange, crackling
+sound in my room, and after a few minutes’ search
+I discovered it was caused by a fusillade of pansy
+seeds striking against the sides of a small box in
+which I had placed the capsules to ripen. It is
+worthy of notice that the capsule hangs down to
+protect the seed-valves from rain; but when the
+seeds are matured the capsule rises to an upright
+position so that they may be projected far and
+wide. A conspicuous example of the elastic force
+of which I have spoken is seen in the British
+balsam, <i>Impatiens Noli-me-tangere</i> (touch-me-not).
+When its seeds are mature, the valves of the
+capsule curl up in a spiral form with such force as
+to project both themselves and the seeds through
+the air many feet from the plant dropping the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span>seeds by the way. On a hot summer’s day one
+may hear the dispersion of seeds! The furze and
+broom pods, the sweet peas, and especially fir tree
+cones, make quite a loud report as they split and
+scatter their contents. The tension causing these
+explosions is in some cases brought about by the
+fluids inside the fruit. This is the case with the
+squirting cucumber, which, when fully ripe, is so
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span>distended with fluids that the slightest touch or
+movement is sufficient to cause it to break away
+from its stalk, and then the whole contents are
+ejected with great force, so that the seed is thrown
+some distance. The extent of dispersion is very
+limited in those plants that are dependent upon
+the varying moisture of the air. Such plants are
+usually furnished with special awn-like&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> appendages;
+these are hygroscopic&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> in their nature, and
+the difference in the amount of moisture in the air
+lengthens and contracts these apparently moving
+organs. When the seeds fall from an ear of barley
+they lie thickly strewn around the bottom of the
+stem, and, were they to take root there, they must
+inevitably choke each other; but each awn is
+thickly set with bristles, and as the morning sun
+shortens and the evening dew lengthens the hair-like
+awn, the prickles only allow the awn to move
+in one direction, and the seed which is attached to
+it is slowly but surely drawn many inches away.
+What is popularly called the dancing oat is another
+curious example of this hygrometric property. If
+a dry seed (or oat) is placed for a moment in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span>water, and then laid on a smooth table, it will be
+seen to wave its long horns as if they were the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span>antennæ of an insect, and to turn over and over
+until it has progressed some inches from the point
+where it was first placed. In <i>Avena elator</i> (the tall
+oat grass) and <i>Stipa pinnata</i> the awns are bent
+sharply just as they emerge from the flowers, the
+part below the bend being like a corkscrew and
+highly sensitive to moisture, relaxing and contracting
+according to the amount of moisture in
+the air, with the result that the seed travels along
+the ground. By the help of the long awn it can
+pass over small obstacles, such as stones or clods,
+the movement resembling that of a lever.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_244" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_244.jpg" alt="A seed, in the shape of an
+elongated ellipse, covered with hairs that all point to one end. At that end
+a very long thread, about 20 times the length of the seed, is attached. The
+first quarter of the thread, connected to the seed, is slightly coiled, giving
+it the appearance of a corkscrew. This part is bare, while the rest of the
+thread is covered in hairs, that grow perpendicular to the thread itself.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>STIPA PINNATA (FEATHER GRASS).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I must here guard my readers against those
+movements that are caused by some insect larva.
+The so-called jumping bean imported from Mexico
+is now so well known that it may be taken as a
+type of these curious movements due, not to the
+seed itself, but to the efforts of an imprisoned
+insect, the grub of a small moth which passes its
+larval stage inside the hard-shelled seed of a kind
+of euphorbia.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, we may glance at a small group
+of plants that develop sticky glands for the purposes
+of dispersion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span></p>
+
+<p>That charming Alpine plant <i>Linnæa borealis</i>
+has a pair of bracts closely adherent to the fruit
+and these bracts are covered with stalked glands
+of a sticky nature, so that when an animal, bird,
+or even a passing moth brushes against the little
+fruits they stick to the intruder and are thus borne
+away. Now it may perhaps occur to the thoughtful
+reader that the Linnæa seed-vessel, being part
+of a growing plant, would not readily break off
+with a slight touch, but it is another instance of
+that consummate skill and arrangement that is so
+apparent to the close observer. In the stalk of the
+little fruit there is a special separating layer&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+(analogous to that of the falling leaf which we
+noted in a previous chapter), and at this point the
+fruit readily separates if the slightest pressure is
+brought to bear upon it. This example is typical
+of what takes place in such plants as <i>Salvia
+glutinosa</i> and <i>Plumbago capensis</i> and <i>Rosea</i>. As a
+contrast to these various modes of dispersion I
+may mention those seed-vessels which are actually
+buried by the plants themselves, such as the
+ground-nut, ivy-leaved toad-flax<a id="tn-023"></a>, and others. We
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span>must bear in mind that these plants usually have
+aerial flowers in addition to those matured underground,
+and that these aerial flowers produce fruits
+which are subject to dispersion. We may therefore
+conclude that the underground seeds are to ensure
+the continuance of the plant when the ordinary
+methods have perhaps partially failed. My
+readers may each autumn find an endless source
+of wonder and interest in the thousands of differing
+fruits and seed-vessels which may be obtained
+in any hedgerow and field; and by careful observation
+they may yet learn many new facts and be
+ever adding to their store of knowledge by gathering
+and comparing the fruits and their dispersion,
+as shown in the types sketched in this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Objects to collect and examine:—Fruits and
+seed-vessels of martynia, burdock, forget-me-not,
+agrimony, enchanter’s nightshade, bedstraw, samara
+of sycamore, ash-keys, pinus seeds, birch seeds,
+dandelion and goat’s-beard seeds, pods of sweet-pea,
+broom, laburnum, and pansy. Seed-vessels of
+balsam, wild oat, feather-grass, <i>Linnæa borealis</i>,
+salvia, plumbago, ground-nut, and ivy-leaved
+toad-flax.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a><a id="Page_249"></a>[Pg 249]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">
+    CHAPTER XI
+    <br>
+    <i>GERMINATION</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“O Source unseen of life and light,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Thy secrecy of silent might</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">If we in bondage know,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Our hearts, like seeds beneath the ground,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">By silent force of life unbound,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">Move upward from below.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">T. T. Lynch</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_XI_1">
+    CHAPTER XI
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">GERMINATION</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_251.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="H">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">Having</span>
+considered the processes which
+lead up to the formation of seed, we
+may now investigate the life-history of
+a seed and its various forms.</p>
+
+<p>Like fruits, seeds differ much in their
+outward shape. In size alone we find a great
+contrast between the dust-like seeds of the orchids
+and the huge seeds of the cocoa-nut-palm, while
+between those two extremes we may note every
+gradation of size. In other respects, also, the seed
+offers no less variety of form and covering than
+the fruit, such variations having relation to the
+particular mode of dispersion and germination.
+The outer skin or coat of a seed, called the <i>testa</i>,
+offers a very interesting field of study, and such
+seeds as the poppy and <i>silene</i> with beautiful network,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span>the <i>bignonia</i> and <i>pinus</i> with membraneous
+wings, the cotton-plant seed with long hairs, and
+the <i>collomia</i> with hairs that are resolved into
+mucilage when wetted, are all worth special study.
+When a small portion of <i>collomia</i> seed is moistened
+and placed in a microscope one may see the rapid
+change being effected; that which had been a hard
+dry atom suddenly throws out coils of gum, like
+watch springs, and a novice is led to ask, “Is the
+thing alive?” so full of motion does the object
+appear.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_252" style="max-width: 51.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_252.jpg" alt="A shape, an almost circular
+ellipse with edges that aren't completely smooth. This ellipse is lying with
+it's long axis horizontally. In the middle of this ellipse, below the centre, is
+a shape that consists of two ellipses joined at their long side.That shape is
+surrounded by a roughly circular shape. And that shape again is surrounded
+by a shape that has many rays emanating from it, thus resembling a star.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BIGNONIA SEED.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We may regard a seed under various aspects.
+As a special means of continuing the life of a
+plant, one of its modes of reproduction, as a special
+means of tiding a plant over a season that would
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span>be fatal to its life in its ordinary condition of
+leafage, in the seed we have the germ of the future
+plant, a reproduction of its parent. This germ or
+embryo is lethargic or hibernating like many
+animals which exist throughout the winter in a
+dormant condition, yet still continue to be living
+vital bodies waiting for some special influence to
+come into play, and ready to resume all the activity
+of a growing organism. The construction of a
+seed is simple; inside the coat or <i>testa</i> we find
+the embryo with or without a special supply of
+albumen; if the seed is ex-albuminous, then we
+may expect to meet with thick, fleshy seed-leaves
+especially stored with this substance. The embryo
+contains all the essential parts of the plant, the
+root, stem, and leaves; the root in the seed state
+is called the radicle, and is that part of the embryo
+which usually points towards the micropyle; this
+radicle forms one end of the first shoot which
+comes out of a seed, the other end terminating in
+the stem or plumule. This first shoot is known by
+three names—axis, <i>tigellum</i>, or hypocotyle. The
+<i>tigellum</i> in many plants gives rise to a special
+structure; thus in the cyclamen it forms the tuber,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span>and the greater part of the “roots” of radishes
+and turnips is due to it. In other instances it is
+a mere collar forming a slightly thickened surface
+between the base of the cotyledon and the radicle.
+The <i>tigellum</i> is in reality a centre of growth, as
+may easily be shown by cutting off an inch of the
+upper part of a well-grown carrot and placing the
+slice in a saucer of water; before long a crown of
+young leaves will spring up and will continue to
+grow and flourish as long as the plant food
+contained in the slice is sufficient to maintain the
+leafage. In botanical language we have thus been
+growing carrot leaves from this <i>tigellum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The embryo varies very much in the relative
+position of its parts. Thus the embryo of the
+reed-mace is straight in the <i>tigellum</i> of the embedding
+albumen. In contrast to this is the curved
+embryo of the deadly nightshade and the spiral
+embryo of the hop.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w40" id="i_255" style="max-width: 39.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_255.jpg" alt="A germinating seed from which
+two roots grow downward and two stems upward. The stems each have two or three
+oval-shaped leaves near the top.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>DOUBLE EMBRYO OF ORANGE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The seeds of the orange often contain two embryos,
+which is rather a rare occurrence in the vegetable
+world. Before we can trace the future of these
+parts we must attain a clear idea of the change
+the seed undergoes when it germinates. In the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span>whole of our studies our attention has been drawn
+to no process so deeply interesting and yet so
+mysterious as that of the breaking into life of the
+seed. There are three conditions that promote the
+process of germination: warmth, moisture, and
+air. When these three
+conditions are present and
+the seed is healthy, growth
+begins, and its first stage
+is the absorption by the
+seed of moisture; this,
+combined with warmth
+and the oxygen of the air,
+sets up a change in the
+contents of the seed. We
+have already seen that
+seeds are of a dry and
+starchy nature, and in this
+condition they are insoluble
+and unfit to be active plant food. The
+change that ensues results in this starchy matter
+being converted into sugar which is soluble; then
+the parts of the embryo begin to unfold, first the
+radicle and finally the plumule are developed.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span>In this early stage these parts live entirely upon
+the contents of the seed, just as a young chick is
+developed and nourished upon the albumen of the
+egg.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature requisite for germination varies
+according to the species; those of us who possess
+gardens know to our cost at what a low temperature
+such plants as chickweed, bittercress, groundsel,
+and some of the speedwells grow; as long as
+the thermometer is above freezing-point these
+troublesome weeds will make their appearance in
+our flower borders. Sach’s experiments on germination
+tend to show that wheat and barley begin
+to grow below five degrees centigrade, whilst
+French beans and maize germinate at nine degrees
+centigrade.</p>
+
+<p>Some plants start into growth very quickly.
+Garden cress, vegetable marrows, and some grasses
+appear above ground a few days after they are
+sown, whilst other seeds, enclosed in a hard, woody
+seed-case, will require twelve months to germinate.
+This was the case with a seed taken out of a cedar
+cone brought from Mount Lebanon; I vainly
+watched for the young plant, and when a year had
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span>passed by the pot was thrown aside on a rubbish
+heap. Shortly after I was passing by and observed
+a fir-cotyledon growing on the heap, and this
+proved to be the long-desired young cedar-plant.</p>
+
+<p>Seeds have the power to retain their vitality for
+years, especially those of the <i>Leguminosæ</i>, but I
+believe the stories of Egyptian mummy wheat
+germinating are scarcely to be believed. A good
+object-lesson upon this subject is furnished by a
+newly-made railway cutting; here we may always
+find growing upon the freshly-turned soil quite a
+crop of plants which have sprung from seeds that
+in the course of years have become embedded in
+the earth, it may be at so great a depth as to
+preclude the admission of air or prevent one of
+the necessary conditions of germination. When,
+however, the underlayer of soil is brought to the
+surface and exposed to light, air, and moisture, the
+seeds are able to grow.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_258" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_258.jpg" alt="Two drawings of seedlings.
+In both drawings a dotted line indicates the soil level. Both seedlings
+have a root and a small stem with at their left and right sides a round
+lobe. In the left drawing, the stem reaches above the soil level and has
+some tiny leaves. In the right drawing the stem is bent at the soil level
+and no leaves are visible.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BROAD BEANS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To this we owe the richness of our railway-bank
+flora, and many a rare plant may be discovered
+there which cannot be found elsewhere in the
+neighbourhood. We will now in imagination
+conduct a few simple experiments that we may
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span>learn something of the behaviour of seeds during
+their early stages of growth. Each seed that we
+thus study may be regarded by us as a type of
+many others. First, then, we will sow, in a few
+pots, about a dozen broad beans; before doing so
+we may notice on the seed the black stripe or
+ridge known as the <i>hilum</i>; this is the scar showing
+where the seed was attached to the pod, and at
+one end of it is the micropyle (<i>small gate</i>). If we
+remove the skin of the seed we shall observe the
+two fleshy cotyledons or seed leaves, a tiny point
+which is the rudimentary root, and, lying close to
+the inner face of the cotyledon, the slightly curved
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span>plumule. After the beans had been sown a few
+days and carefully watered, we may take up two
+or three for examination. At first we may only
+see the radicle just emerging from the little hole
+at the end of the <i>hilum</i>, but if we wait, say, eight
+or nine days, we shall get a further development.</p>
+
+<p>Before digging up our seed we will see if any
+others are peeping through the soil. Yes, here is
+one, just an arched kind of shoot, no leaves, only
+the bow of the arch pushing up the particles of
+the soil, so that the point of the shoot is clearly
+still below the ground. Now, taking up a seed we
+notice that the radicle has penetrated some way
+down into the soil, and with a pocket lens we are
+able to see a little higher than the tip of the root
+quite a crop of delicate little root-hairs. The
+cotyledons are still enclosed in the tough skin, but
+the upward growth of the <i>tigellum</i> is acting on
+them like a lever, and we can now plainly see that
+it is this <i>tigellum</i> that, by its upward growth, is
+penetrating the soil, and in so doing is drawing
+the cotyledons from the seed coat. All this time
+the delicate plumule is kept out of danger by the
+arched shape of the <i>tigellum</i> and the folding of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span>cotyledons. Leaving our seeds for a day or two
+longer we find a further change. The plumule
+has been carried up beyond the soil-level and has
+begun to expand into leafage. It is interesting to
+note how the curved <i>tigellum</i>, pushing through the
+soil first, effectually guards the plumule from
+injury arising from contact with rough particles
+of earth; the cotyledons remain just below the
+soil-level and we see that the <i>tigellum</i> is thickening
+and forming a distinct connecting branch
+between the new shoots and the fleshy seed leaves;
+these latter are full of plant food, and the plumule
+is supplied from this storehouse of nutriment until
+the first leaves are formed and are able to decompose
+carbon-dioxide for the nourishment of
+the plantlet. The seed-leaves in this case do not
+perform this function, but act simply as storehouses.</p>
+
+<p>Our next seed example will be the familiar
+mustard plant. These we may sow in two lots,
+the first we only need to sprinkle upon some fine
+soil and the second may be sown in a shallow drill
+and covered with fine earth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_261" style="max-width: 55.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_261.jpg" alt="Three drawings of germinating
+seeds, arranged from left to right. Each seed is depicted as a circle lying on
+the soil. From the left one a thin root extends to the right, which bends downward
+and reaches the soil. The middle one also has a root extending into the soil
+and is lifted upward a bit. The right one is resting on the soil again and has a
+root that extends deeper into the soil and has developed secondary roots.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>GROWING MUSTARD SEEDS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The first sowing will quickly germinate, and the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span>movement of the radicle which pushes out of the
+micropyle may be understood by reference to the
+appended diagram. In it we see the white thread-like
+radicle emerging from the seed coat; it turns
+very quickly towards the ground and pushes
+directly into the soil. Here I must direct my
+readers’ attention to one of those minute arrangements
+which, though apparently insignificant
+enough if we fail to study the context, is really
+an evidence of the infinite perfection, care, and
+wisdom of the Creator in even such a tiny detail
+as the springing up of a mustard seed. As the
+seed lies upon the ground, the lengthening radicle,
+while it penetrates the ground, has a tendency to
+force the seed into the air (as shown in the illustration),
+and were it allowed to do so the seedling
+would soon shrivel up and die. This catastrophe
+is, however, averted by the development upon the
+radicle of quite a crop of fine white root-hairs;
+these adhere closely to the minute particles of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span>soil, and are thus enabled to counteract the force
+exerted by the tip of the radicle; the latter pushes
+through the ground without uplifting the seed.
+This action can be watched and the growth of the
+root-hairs observed by means of a pocket lens and
+by the exercise of that virtue, most necessary for
+all young naturalists—patience.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the seeds that were sown under
+the soil, we find they have germinated; the radicle
+is pushing downwards, and just above the soil-level
+we may see the short curved <i>tigellum</i>. This
+very quickly straightens itself, and then we observe
+that the cotyledons have been drawn out
+of the seed-coats and are displayed as two green
+leaves, which in a few days will be an inch or two
+above the ground, owing to the growth of the
+<i>tigellum</i>. Here we get quite a departure from the
+bean seed, whose cotyledons were <i>hypogean</i> (under
+the earth), those of the mustard being <i>epigean</i>
+(upon the earth). There is also another point of
+difference; the mustard cotyledons are green, they
+contain chlorophyll corpuscles, have stomates, and
+so can perform all the functions of the normal
+green leaf; thus they help at once to feed the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span>young plantlet by decomposing the carbon-dioxide<a id="tn-012"></a>
+of the air and forming starch, whilst in contrast to
+this we learnt that the seed-leaves of the bean
+were storehouses only. We are now sufficiently
+acquainted with the functions of the seed to be
+able to appreciate the variations of the <i>testa</i>, or
+seed-coat. In numerous instances the spines,
+prickles, hairs, and other growths on the surface
+have, in addition to their use in dispersing the
+seed, an essential purpose in holding the seed in
+its rightful position. We will take cress as our
+next example, since it may be regarded as a type
+of all smooth seeds. Cress seed remains intact
+until water comes in contact with it; then it
+becomes slimy by the liberation of a mucilaginous
+cement from the outer coat layer; this is, of
+course, highly adhesive, and thus the seeds are
+fixed firmly into the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Another example is that of the little epiphyte
+(mentioned in our first chapter), <i>Tillandsia usneoides</i><a id="tn-010"></a>,
+or old man’s beard. When the seeds leave the
+capsule they are furnished with silky hairs, which
+enable the tiny little structures to float through the
+air; they soon come in contact with the bark of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</span>trees, and then the little hairs cling to the rough
+surface. In this position the seeds germinate, and
+are held firmly in their place by the tightly-clasping
+silken strands.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_264" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_264.jpg" alt="Three drawings of seedlings,
+two at the top and one below. The upper left one shows a short stem growing
+from the soil with two leaves of a roughly rounded, triangular shape. The leaves
+are squeezed together and covered by a small cap. The upper right one shows
+the same situation, now without the cap and the leaves are more expanded,
+however still squeezed together. The one below shows a stem with three
+pairs of leaves. The lowest pair is spread out horizontally and has a rounded
+shape. The middle pair is spread out horizontally too, but their shape is more
+oval with a sharp tip. They have pronounced veins in a feather-like structure.
+The top pair are much smaller and are of the same shape as the middle one,
+but they are growing more upward. The stem ends in a bud.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BEECH COTYLEDONS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Hardly any pursuit is more delightful than the
+collecting and drying of seedling trees; a ramble
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</span>through the woods in early summer will reveal
+many specimens under or near the outskirts of the
+foliage. Under the beeches we shall soon light
+upon the nuts of last year coming up through the
+moist, rotting soil, in the form of two broad, green
+seed-leaves. As they often retain the dry, three-cornered
+seed-husk upon them, we can easily see
+that they are young beeches; otherwise, the
+cotyledon leaves being so unlike the perfect form,
+it might be rather difficult to distinguish the
+species. These seedlings have germinated somewhat
+like the bean seed, the radicle has grown
+downward, and the curved <i>tigellum</i>, pushing upwards,
+has drawn the cotyledons out of the seed-coat.
+We may notice with surprise through how
+small an aperture the cotyledons have been
+pushed, and still they are uninjured, a fact that is
+due to their being folded up like a fan in the seed-husk.
+As soon as the <i>tigellum</i> reaches light and
+air it straightens out, and the flat seed leaves, which
+are at first of the palest green, soon deepen in
+colour, and are working away preparing food for
+the growth of the young plumule which springs up
+from between the cotyledons, crowned with two
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</span>perfect young beech-leaves. This is all the baby-tree
+can do the first year. We can distinguish the
+second-year seedlings by their woody stem, brown
+leaf-scales, and silken-fringed young beech-leaves.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w30" id="i_266" style="max-width: 32.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_266.jpg" alt="A seed in the shape of an ellipse.
+From the left-pointing end grows a root that has developed several secondary
+roots. The connection between root and seed is twofold. From between these two
+connections a small stem grows upward, bearing very small leaf-like structures
+near its tip.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>ACORN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We shall not find cotyledons on the young oak,
+horse-chestnut, or sweet-chestnut
+seedlings, because
+these remain normally below
+the ground (hypogean),
+forming a storehouse of
+nutriment for the young
+tree. It is interesting to
+watch the growth of an
+acorn when placed in damp
+moss in a saucer. After a
+few weeks the acorn will
+have absorbed water, and
+the leathery seed-coat will
+burst at the pointed end;
+through this rent the radicle will protrude, fibres
+will be found growing upon the root, the
+<i>tigellum</i> is thick, and just where the stalks of
+the cotyledons are joined to it the plumule
+emerges as from a sheath. The plumule is in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span>no hurry to develop leaves; its first growth is
+provided for by the rich supply of food within the
+acorn. If, however, we look carefully at its little
+stem, we shall observe upon its surface a few
+scattered scales, each with a rudimentary bud in
+its axil. When the shoot has attained a height of
+three or four inches it develops its first green leaf,
+and by the end of its first summer about six will
+have been formed. A collection of these seedling
+trees, carefully dried&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> and neatly arranged in a
+blank book, with the English and Latin names
+to each, a note of the age of the seedling, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span>spot where it was obtained, and the date, will in
+time form a pleasant memento of forest rambles,
+and, probably, may lead to further studies of a
+similar kind.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="i_267" style="max-width: 59.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_267.jpg" alt="A large, almost round seed.
+From the bottom grows a root, undulating horizontally. It's a but longer
+than the size of the seed and has developed many secondary roots, growing
+in all directions. A bit below the point where the root starts from the seed,
+a stems originates. This stem is about half the length of the root, grows
+horizontally in the other direction and is bent upward toward its tip. At the tip
+it bears a bud.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>HORSE-CHESTNUT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To make the collection complete there should
+be some seedlings of the other great division of
+plants, namely, the plants with one seed-leaf
+(monocotyledons). A few date-stones will supply
+these specimens; they should be sown in moist
+earth and placed either in a greenhouse or on a
+sunny window-ledge, where their growth can be
+watched.</p>
+
+<p>Their germination is quite different from that of
+the other seeds we have described, and if a number
+of seeds are sown the different stages can be seen
+as in the accompanying figure.</p>
+
+<p>One long cotyledon is pushed out from the seed,
+the free end is like a sheath. The part nearest the
+seed forms a structure resembling a rolled-up
+stalk; from the former roots are developed, whilst
+from the rolled-up stalk or sheath grows the next
+formed leaf, and each successive leaf is sheathed
+like its predecessor. This arrangement can be
+well seen in young growing grasses which can be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span>taken to pieces and examined. I shall conclude
+this chapter with a brief reference
+to the spores or so-called seeds of
+ferns and mosses.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w20" id="i_269" style="max-width: 22.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_269.jpg" alt="A young leaf growing
+from a sheath. The leaf is very elongated and has longitudinal veins.
+The sheath comes out of a small rosette that is connected via a thin
+stalk to a seed. The seed is ellipse shaped with pointed ends and has a
+longitudinal groove. From the rosette extends a thin root downward.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>YOUNG DATE-PALM.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These are essentially different
+from the seeds that have formed
+our study in the earlier part of
+this chapter, they do not contain
+an embryo. Let us first notice
+fern-spores, which we shall find in
+abundance at the back of maiden-hair
+and other fern fronds; they
+are contained in little brown
+patches known as spore cases
+(<i>sporangium</i>, from <i>spora</i>, a spore,
+and <i>aggeion</i>, a vessel). If we collect
+some of these and sow them on
+some very fine damp earth, keeping
+it at the same time shaded
+and warm, the spores will soon
+germinate. We shall not find a
+radicle this time as the result of
+growth, but in its stead a flat
+expansion of green tissue (prothallium,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span>Gr. <i>protos</i>, first, <i>thallos</i>, a branch)
+growing upon the earth like an exceedingly
+delicate leaf. From the underside of this green
+film a few very fine root-like hairs (rhizoids, Gr.
+<i>rhiza</i>, a root) are developed; very soon with a
+microscope we shall be able to discern upon the
+surface of this structure a few little projections.
+In one of these is developed a flask-shaped mass
+of cells (archegonium, Gr. <i>archegonos</i>, first of a
+race), in the other (antheridium, diminutive of Gr.
+<i>anthera</i>, an anther) some minute bodies (antherozoides,
+Gr. <i>anthera</i> and <i>zooid</i>, a minute life) with
+tails; these escape from the covering and wriggle
+about very much like tiny animalcules until finally
+they come into contact with the flask-shaped opening
+before mentioned. These tailed structures are
+something like pollen grains in their function, only
+they differ from pollen grains, which are passive,
+by being endowed with the power of motion; the
+result of their fusion with the flask-like body is to
+fertilise the germ cell (oospore, Gr. <i>oon</i>, an egg) in
+that structure, and from the germ cell so fertilised
+is developed an embryo from which at once springs
+the young fern plant. The first leaf grows from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</span>the upper part of the embryo and from the lower
+part is developed the “foot,” a little connecting-link
+between the green prothallus and the baby
+fern which serves to nurse the little plant until two
+or more leaves have been produced; the roots also
+grow from the same part of the embryo. I
+imagine that fern spores could be grown and
+watched through all their various stages even by
+those of my readers who dwell in towns, as a bell
+glass would maintain the requisite dampness and
+shelter the young ferns from smoky air.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly I will describe an even simpler form of
+spore development. At any season of the year we
+may find the capsule fruit of mosses (Calyptra, Gr.
+<i>Kaluptra</i>, a veil), a very common one being the
+hair moss (Polytrichum, Gr. <i>Polutrichos</i>, having
+much hair), borne upon long wiry stalks. Inside
+the capsule we shall find a large quantity of small
+greenish bodies; these are the spores, which of
+course fall out when the spore-case is blown by the
+wind, and being light are easily carried away and
+at length find a resting-place in some damp nook
+or shady bank. In such a place they find the
+conditions necessary for their germination, which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span>is not unlike the same process in other seeds and
+spores we have studied. The result is very simple.
+A fine, silky, thread-like body (protonema, Gr.
+<i>protos</i>, first, and <i>nema</i>, a thread) is developed;
+when this has attained a fair size, a little moss
+plant begins to grow upon its surface exactly as
+we see a bud grow upon a tree-branch, and it is
+upon this moss plant that the organs of reproduction
+are produced. We have now come to the end
+of our study of seeds.</p>
+
+<p>An endless source of interest to the student of
+nature is opened up to view by carefully observing
+the beginning of all vegetable life, and the seed or
+spore of the commonest weed or fern will teach us
+lessons that should ever make us mindful of the
+wonderful mystery of life and its genesis.</p>
+
+<p>Objects to collect and examine:—Poppy, silene,
+and collomia seeds. Examine <i>tigellum</i> of cyclamen,
+radish, and carrot. Sow broad beans, mustard, and
+cress seed. Collect seedling trees. Sow date-stones.
+Examine fern and moss spores.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">
+    CHAPTER XII
+    <br>
+    <i>THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Lo! on each seed, within its tender rind,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Life’s golden threads in endless circles wind;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Maze within maze the lucid webs are roll’d,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">And, as they burst, the living flames unfold.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="author">
+  <span class="smcap">Erasmus Darwin</span>, <i>The Botanic Garden</i>.
+  </span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_XII_1">
+    CHAPTER XII
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_275.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="I">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">In</span>
+this chapter I will endeavour to
+present to my readers a concise view
+of the nature and method of the various
+processes that go on continually in the
+growing plant.</p>
+
+<p>These processes were incidentally referred to in
+our examination of the character of the various
+organs of the plant. Thus, in dealing with the
+root, we spoke of its physiology so far as
+concerned the absorption of water by its root-hairs.
+In the leaf, we touched upon the correlation
+between the shape and arrangement of the
+leaf tissues and the part the leaf plays in the
+economy of the plant. The physiology of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span>reproductive organs, again, we briefly explained
+in connection with their natural history.</p>
+
+<p>In order to arrange our studies systematically,
+we may divide the physiology or function of plants
+into groups, and, taking each group separately
+study their effect on the plant.</p>
+
+<p>We may then divide the functions of plants into</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10.0em; text-indent: 0.0em;">
+  Nutrition,<br>
+  Assimilation, and<br>
+  Reproduction.
+</p>
+
+<p>The first teaches us how a plant feeds and what
+it feeds upon; the second, how the food is
+prepared by the plant so as to enable it to use
+this food for growth and to store some of it away
+for future use. The third group deals with the
+various means adopted by plants for multiplying
+and increasing the species.</p>
+
+<p>Plants, like animals, must <i>feed</i> and <i>breathe</i> in
+order to live; the food of plants, however, differs
+from that of animals in being more simple and
+elementary.</p>
+
+<p>Plant food is of two kinds, water and gas.
+Water is an actual necessity to the plant, both as
+a direct food and as a medium to convey inorganic
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span>food. If we burn some wood to a white ash and
+then analyse it, six inorganic elements will always
+be found—potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron,
+phosphorus, and sulphur. These substances have
+been proved by experimental water-culture&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> to
+be indispensable to plant-life; others are found in
+larger or smaller quantities, but they are not,
+judging by experimental tests, essential to plant
+life. These inorganic elements do not enter the
+plant as such, but in the form of salts dissolved in
+water; the phosphorus and sulphur as phosphates
+and sulphates. Exactly how these salts and other
+elements are absorbed will be best learnt from a
+simple experiment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span></p>
+
+<p>We must first provide a large glass jar three parts
+full of clear water. Then a lamp chimney, to the
+bottom of which a piece of membrane (which any
+butcher will supply) has been affixed, should be
+partly filled with water
+coloured by sulphate of copper,
+and then suspended in
+the glass jar. Through a cork
+fitted to the top of the lamp
+chimney a long tube should
+be inserted. The fluid in the
+lamp-glass will be seen to rise
+in the tube shortly after the
+experiment is made, and the
+clean water in the large jar
+will become slightly coloured.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w30" id="i_278" style="max-width: 30.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_278.jpg" alt="A cylinder standing
+vertically, covered with a lid. Through the lid a cork protrudes.
+Through the cork extends a thin tube. At the bottom side this tube ends
+in a small flask that is hanging in the cylinder. The bottom of the flask
+is made of foil, fastened by a thin ring. The cylinder is filled with a
+liquid up to a level reaching the neck of the flask. The flask contains
+a darker liquid the extends upward through the tube, up to a level above
+the lid. The upper border of that liquid is shown.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>TRANSFUSION DIAGRAM.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This experiment teaches us
+that liquids have the power of
+passing through a membrane;
+this power is known as diffusion, or <i>osmosis</i>. Further,
+we notice that the clear fluid passes into the
+coloured water more rapidly than the heavy
+coloured water passes out.</p>
+
+<p>Now the fine <i>root hairs</i> of a growing plant are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span><i>membranes</i>, having the same property as the
+membrane we placed on the lamp shade; inside
+the root hairs there exists heavy dense cell sap,
+outside are the films of hygroscopic water containing
+(dissolved) inorganic salts, and this water
+passes in through the membrane of the root, whilst
+a very little of the cell sap passes out into the soil,
+the quantity passing in being greatly in excess of
+that which escapes.</p>
+
+<p>When once the crude water of the soil is inside,
+it is soon passed along to the stem and leaves by
+the pressure of more water coming in, and by what
+is called <i>capillary power</i>, this power we may easily
+see if we dip a fine tube into water, when at once
+the water will rise up some distance into the tube.
+I have pointed out that plant food is gaseous as
+well as aqueous.</p>
+
+<p>Oxygen is absorbed by the root very freely from
+the soil, and, therefore, farmers and gardeners
+frequently plough and stir the soil of fields and
+gardens so that the roots may obtain a supply of
+this needful gas.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now endeavour to see how the gaseous
+food is taken into the plant. In order to do so
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span>we must remember that the gases necessary for
+plant food form part of the air we breathe; this
+air is made up of two-thirds nitrogen, one-third
+oxygen, with a small and varying, but always
+present, quantity of carbon-dioxide, and of these
+the latter is the most essential to the life of
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>We have learnt in our study of the leaf how it,
+by the aid of the green chlorophyll granules, and
+under the influence of sunlight, absorbs this carbon-dioxide<a id="tn-011"></a>
+and effects certain changes in it. One of
+the most essential elements in the growth of plants
+is <i>nitrogen</i>; this we have just seen constitutes two-thirds
+of the air we breathe, but the plant is unable
+to make use of it in this free form; that is to say,
+although the leaf can freely absorb carbon-dioxide
+it cannot absorb nitrogen; it has to be taken in
+by the roots of ordinary plants in the form of
+nitrates, that is, in conjunction with some other
+element. There is, however, an important exception
+to this rule; for what are called the
+insectivorous plants have the power to absorb
+nitrogen under certain conditions. These will be
+explained in the succeeding chapter. We can
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span>now summarise the processes of nutrition. The
+roots absorb water containing earthy salts as well
+as oxygen gas. The leaves absorb gaseous food
+in the form of carbon-dioxide, and I may add
+sometimes water vapour. There are two simple
+experiments that my readers can make which
+will prove these statements, and will give them
+a greater interest in the somewhat dry details of
+vegetable physiology. Our first experiment to
+show the absorptive power of roots is taken from
+Sir Joseph Hooker’s Primer on Botany.</p>
+
+<p>“Take up three plants of the buttercup carefully
+by the roots; leave one (No. 1) on the table; place
+another (No. 2) with its roots in water; hang the
+third (No. 3) upside down over a tumbler of water
+with a few of the leaves in the water, but the root
+exposed. In due time No. 1 will have faded;
+No. 2 will be quite fresh; No. 3 will have the
+parts not in the water faded. No. 1 shows that
+water contained in the plant has evaporated from
+its surface; No. 2 that the water has been absorbed
+by the root and conveyed to the leaves; No. 3
+that the immersed leaves have not supplied the
+other portions of the plant with water.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span></p>
+
+<p>The second function, assimilation, depends upon
+several processes that together go to make up the
+work of digestion and preparing plant food. These
+processes are transpiration, respiration, and evolution
+of oxygen; the latter process is associated
+with the feeding of the leaf—that is, the absorption
+of carbon-dioxide. This compound gas is under
+the influence of sunlight, and by the agency of
+the green colouring granules, decomposed into
+carbon-monoxide and oxygen; the latter is
+eliminated, whilst the carbon and a part of the
+oxygen is retained, and with the absorbed water
+is converted into material that the plant can use
+for the purpose of increasing its structure.</p>
+
+<p>By a very simple experiment we can prove the
+escape of oxygen from the foliage of plants. A few
+sprays of such leaves as laurustinus, bay, arbor
+vitæ, and maiden-hair fern should be tied firmly
+to a piece of stone. We should have ready a
+soup-plate, a glass shade, and a tub full of fresh
+spring water (one large enough to allow the shade
+to be held upright under the water). When all is
+ready, place the bunch of leaves and stone in the
+glass shade held horizontally, and gradually sink
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span>it under the water till the shade is quite full;
+place the soup-plate at the open end where the
+shade is, and slowly raise the glass until it is
+upright, and then it can be lifted out and placed
+on a table in a window where the sun or bright
+light can reach it. The bubbles of oxygen will
+soon begin to form along all the edges of the
+leaves and the jewelled effect of the bouquet will
+be very curious and beautiful. It is hardly needful
+to say the stone is simply required to keep the
+group in an upright position. By the following
+day there will be a large bubble of oxygen collected
+in the upper part of the shade, eliminated
+from the leaves by the aid of chlorophyll and
+sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>These changes resulting in assimilation are
+always in correlation with the process known as
+<i>transpiration</i>. The root is continually taking in
+fluids charged with inorganic salts; these are
+by the water conveyed to the leaves by means
+of the network of veins, which we know by the
+term fibro-vascular bundles. These, as we may
+see in skeleton leaves, traverse the entire substance
+of the leaves where the salts are used up in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a><a id="Page_285"></a>[Pg 285]</span>constructive work of the plant. The water is not
+all wanted; part of it passes off in the form of
+vapour. Transpiration, then, is the passing off
+of this water.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_284" style="max-width: 54.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_284.jpg" alt="A picture showing in great
+detail the netted structure of the veins of a leaf. The leaf's shape is an
+elongated ellipse with pointed ends. Its edges are a bit serrated. The main
+vein grows from the bottom end of the leaf to the top. Secondary veins grow
+at regular distances outward to the edges. This is filled up with a mesh
+of smaller veins.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SKELETON LEAF.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We can easily see this process going on if we
+place a few tropæolum leaves in a cool tumbler,
+and then expose the tumbler to sunlight. In a
+short time the sides of the glass will show a film
+of moisture due to the transpiration of the leaves.
+This process takes place more freely in a warm
+temperature than in cool conditions; consequently,
+in hot weather there is rapid transpiration, and as
+the water is parted with more cell sap passes into
+the leaves and stems, and so the plant is kept cool.
+We can now see the great use of the little pores
+known as <i>Stomates</i>; these are found mainly on
+the under surface, and it is principally through
+these pores that the leaf transpires.</p>
+
+<p>We must now carefully note the fact that all
+growing parts of the plant take up oxygen and
+give off carbon-dioxide. This power which is
+common to all life is known as <i>respiration</i>. It
+is a process that cannot be observed in daylight
+in green plants because this respiration is feeble,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</span>and also because the opposite power of assimilation
+is so strong that the action of breathing is
+obscured. In the absence of sunlight, however,
+it can be observed, as also it may be traced in
+connection with parts of the plant other than the
+green leaves. Seeds, for example, during their
+earlier growth (germination) give off carbon-dioxide
+freely by respiration. This we can prove
+for ourselves by taking a large glass jar holding
+about two or three quarts; fill this about half full
+of beans that have been well soaked in water so as
+to swell them and induce them to commence
+germination. Close the jar with a tight fitting
+cork; after six or seven hours the presence of
+carbon-dioxide may be easily seen. Have ready
+a small phial of clear lime water, and with a piece
+of twine let this down into the jar without spilling
+its contents; allow it to remain there some
+minutes, keeping at the same time the top closed
+with a handkerchief. We shall see that the
+clear lime water will after a short time become
+cloudy or milky; this is due to the carbon-dioxide,
+liberated by the seeds, forming chalk
+with the calcium of the lime water, the chalk being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span>insoluble and easily seen. Now take out the
+phial and let it stand, well covered, when the
+chalk in the form of a fine precipitate will be
+seen at the bottom of the phial. If desired, a
+second experiment can be made with the same
+jar by lowering into it a lighted taper; we shall
+find it will go out owing to the presence of the
+carbon-dioxide; as this gas does not support
+combustion our lighted taper is quickly extinguished.</p>
+
+<p>We can see from these experiments that respiration
+goes on in the growing plant and that this
+process is independent of chlorophyll. It is an
+essential part of the life of all plants, and my
+readers who may perhaps wonder why it is
+that two such opposite processes as I have
+described are both carried on in the plant must
+remember that in the main the feeding process
+which depends on sunlight and the presence
+of chlorophyll is carried on in the <i>daytime</i>,
+whilst respiration is practically counteracted
+in the daytime by the vigorous intake of carbon-dioxide.
+At night when the rays of light cease
+and no longer enable the plant to feed, the respiration
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span>is evident. Briefly, we learn that <i>in light</i> the
+plant gains in weight, whilst <i>in darkness</i> (by respiration)
+it loses. The green plant can only construct
+growing material out of simple substances in light,
+having no power to do so in the dark.</p>
+
+<p>Heat is just as needful to plant-life; it must
+be above freezing point, and a somewhat high
+temperature is necessary to set in motion all
+those chemical processes that I have briefly
+described.</p>
+
+<p>At a low temperature the work of assimilation
+and other processes are arrested; on the other
+hand, a rise in temperature increases the activity
+of these processes.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the third function called
+reproduction. We have seen in connection with
+the food of plants how they convert inorganic
+material into organic. This one fact is significant
+of the great office of plant-life in nature; animal-life
+could not exist without its help. Plant-life
+may be said to prepare the food of animal-life, and
+retain that balance of gases in the atmosphere
+necessary to healthy respiration. How important
+then it is that all kinds of herbs, trees and plants
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span>should multiply and be fruitful, life of any sort is
+of limited duration, and subject to all the vicissitudes
+of accident, constitution, and climate, and
+so we find that plants have been endowed with
+wonderful powers of reproduction in order that the
+earth may be constantly clothed with vegetation,
+necessary for the life of man and all animal
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>By reproduction I want my readers to clearly
+understand the power possessed by the individual
+plant to multiply its kind or species; and this
+power is carried into effect in a variety of ways
+in different species. These various methods of
+reproduction then will occupy the concluding
+pages of this chapter. The protoplasm (or life
+principle) of any individual plant is endowed
+with the power of giving rise to an entirely new
+individual. This is accomplished in one of two
+ways. In the first by cells forming a part of the
+plant, but yet not specially modified for the purpose
+of reproduction. This mode of increase is
+known as vegetative reproduction. We will illustrate
+it by two examples widely apart. Many
+lowly plants like protococcus (the bright green
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span>substance which so beautifully colours tree trunks
+in moist situations) and yeast, are formed of one
+cell only, and when such cells attain their full size
+they simply divide into two or more cells which
+grow, and finally attain maturity when the process
+is repeated.</p>
+
+<p>The other example is that known as the strawberry
+“runner,” this, as we know, is only an
+elongated stem bearing at the end a bunch of
+leaves, and from the base of the leaves a few roots,
+the whole being a new plant which may be
+removed from the parent and grown in some other
+place.</p>
+
+<p>These, then, are examples of vegetative reproduction,
+and my readers can discover for themselves
+many other instances in the garden.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of propagation by “cuttings” is simply
+the gardener’s practical application of vegetative
+reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>The second mode of increase is by special
+reproductive cells, which are set free by the parent
+plants and become new individuals. The second
+mode is common to all plant-life, and in it two
+distinct processes can be observed. We often see
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span>on a decayed pear or apple a patch of brown
+mould (mucor). If we examine it with a lens we
+see a little forest of tiny erect stalks, and upon the
+apex of each is a round ball containing reproductive
+cells, each of these, which are called spores (the
+spore-case being called the sporangium), contains
+protoplasm, which is endowed with the power of
+giving rise to a new individual mould.</p>
+
+<p>This process is typical of what is common to
+ferns, and many other cryptogamic plants, and is
+called <i>asexual reproduction</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The second form is that in which two such
+spore-like organs as we have noticed in the mould,
+fuse together and form a spore capable of giving
+rise to a new plant.</p>
+
+<p>This is known as <i>sexual reproduction</i>, and is
+dependent upon the fact that the protoplasm of
+either of the two organs is incapable of
+giving rise to a new individual plant, and that
+they must come in contact and fuse organically
+before a new plant can be formed. This process
+of fusion I have in an earlier chapter described as
+fertilisation. The pollen grain, the fertilising
+agent, is one of the reproductive cells, and the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span>other, the ovule, is the cell that has to be fertilised.
+After this there is the subsequent development of
+the ovule into the seed, and in this seed we may
+recognise a plant in embryo endowed with powers
+not possessed by its parent, that enables it to
+resist extremes of heat and cold which would
+result in many cases in death to the parent
+plant. By way of experiment some seeds have
+been subjected to 40 degrees of cold, and yet
+have not lost their germinating power, whilst, on
+the other hand, it is known that seeds of some
+plants growing in sandy deserts lie baking in the
+sun for many months in a temperature of over 70
+degrees, and yet begin to grow as soon as moisture
+reaches them.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>Things to be observed or collected:—Experiments
+to be made in order to show diffusion,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span>transpiration, and respiration, collection of
+oxygen from water bouquet. Carbon-dioxide
+from germinating beans. Observe—</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left:3.0em; text-indent: 0.0em;">
+  Blue mould on fruit.<br>
+  Strawberry runner.<br>
+  Rooted cuttings.<br>
+  Stamens and pistil of any flowering plant.
+</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a><a id="Page_295"></a>[Pg 295]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">
+    CHAPTER XIII
+    <br>
+    <i>INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Beyond, the moorland has its wealth</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">Of pink and purple, blue and gold;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Heather and gorse, whose breath gives health,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">And ling, a hive of bees that hold:—</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">And when there’s moisture in the brake,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">The clammy sundew’s glistening glands</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">’Mid carmine foliage boldly make</div>
+      <div class="verse indent2">Slaves of invading insect bands.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_XIII_1">
+    CHAPTER XIII
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_297.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="T">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">The</span>
+statement in our previous chapter
+that the leaf has no power to absorb
+nitrogen, has to be received with
+a certain exceptions. These exceptions
+are discovered in a large group of plants,
+having little or no botanical relationship,
+and widely separated as regards their geographical
+distribution and habit of growth. The term
+insectivorous (insect-eating) has been applied to
+these by eminent botanists who have studied their
+habits and mode of growth. We may, as a
+preliminary to our study, summarise the main
+features of these interesting plants, because I wish
+my readers to see in them an extension and
+elaboration of the various processes we have tried
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</span>to investigate in plant-life, and not a mere description
+of a few vegetable wonders. Rather would I
+point out that in studying these deviations from
+the ordinary type, as elsewhere, the young botanist
+should try to arrive at some explanation of these
+peculiarities, bearing always in mind that every
+part of the plant is created for some special purpose.
+This train of thought, if brought to bear
+upon our botanical study will prevent our regarding
+the contrivances of these insectivorous plants
+as mere freaks of nature, which appears to me
+to be a low and unworthy view to take of such
+delicate and wonderful structures.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally, it is true, we meet with monstrosities,
+in the formation of which we fail to see any
+hidden purpose; but even here by careful observation
+we shall probably be able to perceive that it
+is the result of some injury or the accompaniment
+of disease from which plant-life is no more free
+than animal-life is.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now trace the features that are common
+to the plants which form the subject of this
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps their most interesting function is that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</span>of catching and retaining insects. This is accomplished
+in various ways, by viscid fluids which
+imprison small flies, as in the leaves of the sundew
+and other plants; by movements in the leaves,
+as in the Venus fly-trap; by a combination of
+both, as in the butterwort; or by special pitfalls
+and traps, as in the pitcher plants, sarracenias,
+bladderwort, and cephalotus. Having caught their
+prey, these plants dissolve it by means of an acid
+secretion; the dissolved animal-life is then
+absorbed and appropriated for the purposes of
+vegetable growth. Not all these processes are
+carried on by insect-eating plants. In some, for
+example, the secretion of dissolving acid is not
+very apparent, in others the absorbing glands are
+not fully developed; but, briefly, the above
+features are those possessed by this singular class
+of plants, and there is every reason to believe that
+powers of this kind are more widely spread than
+is usually supposed.</p>
+
+<p>We will now notice a few types in detail.</p>
+
+<p>The sundew (<i>Drosera rotundifolia</i>) is the pretty
+and poetic name of a plant which may often be
+found on boggy moors. It is barely an inch in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</span>height, a mere rosette of leaves shaped like a
+battledore, radiating from a very short root stock,
+and bearing, in early summer, a central flower-stalk
+from four to six inches high, furnished with
+a few tiny white flowers. The whole plant lies
+close to the ground, and is
+often embedded in bogmoss,
+and, were it not for
+the bright colour of the
+leaves&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and their sparkling
+dewy effect, it would be
+a difficult plant to find.
+With the naked eye we
+can see that the leaves
+are covered with hairs, and
+a lens will show still more
+plainly that these hairs
+have each a club-like
+end bearing a gummy
+fluid, in appearance not unlike glycerine. These
+globules of fluid sparkle in the sun; hence the
+name of sundew and the botanical name of
+<i>drosera</i>, from the Greek “<i>aroseros</i>,” or dewy.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft w40" id="i_300" style="max-width: 37.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_300.jpg" alt="A plant that has a rosette
+of round leaves. Each leaf is covered with long hairs. From the rosette
+a short, strongly branched root grows downward en two shoots grow upward.
+The shoots bear at the end a row of buds, the lowest ones have opened into
+flowers on short stalks. A leaf is shown in detail. It is round with smooth edges
+and has a very short stalk. The hairs are long, and have little dots at their
+tips.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SUNDEW.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</span></p>
+
+<p>Leaves with glandular hairs are not rare
+amongst our wild plants, and if this was the
+only character that the sundew possessed it would
+not be specially noticeable. It is, however, the
+unusual structure and behaviour of these hairs
+that claims our notice. The term tentacle is a
+not inappropriate one to apply to these “hairs.”
+A leaf of sundew, with all its tentacles standing
+out at different angles from the surface of the leaf,
+and each point armed with a drop of viscid fluid,
+is an effective arrangement for catching insects.
+The bright glistening drops are a fatal attraction
+to flies, gnats, and other small insects. When they
+alight upon the points of the tentacles they soon
+find that they are held prisoners. In their efforts
+to get free they entangle themselves more and
+more on the slimy points of the treacherous hairs.
+If we watch the tentacles after a fly has been
+caught, it will soon be seen that the hairs are
+bending over and closely pressing down the
+wretched captive. This folding over occupies
+four or five hours from the time the capture
+is made. The glands also begin to give out an
+increased amount of gummy secretion, and this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</span>flow kills the insect by stopping up its breathing
+pores, so that literally it dies of suffocation. The
+fluid not only increases in quantity, but becomes
+acid, and its effect is to dissolve the insect and
+render it soluble; the dissolved parts are then
+absorbed by the glands and digested. This
+interesting process can be watched quite easily
+by carefully taking up a few plants of sundew
+with some of the bog-soil and moss in which they
+were growing and placing them in a glass dish,
+where they will continue for months in perfect
+health if kept very wet and covered with a bell
+glass.</p>
+
+<p>I once lighted on some magnificent sundew
+growing on boggy land near Woolmer Forest.
+Whilst taking up some roots of it I was persistently
+attacked by a stinging fly, and, my hands
+being occupied, I could not well defend myself.
+Happily the sundew acted a friendly part! I was
+carrying a tuft of it in my hand when, looking
+down, I saw my tormenting fly was securely caught
+upon its leaves. Somehow one always feels compassion
+for the unfortunate, and I confess I tried
+to rescue the captive, but the creature’s wings and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</span>legs were already so glued together by the viscid
+dew that it was impossible to release it, and I
+realised more than ever how effective the sundew
+is as a fly-trap.</p>
+
+<p>In transplanting specimens of drosera great care
+should be taken that the leaves are untouched,
+else, being sticky, they will cling together and lose
+their delicate beauty. Every few days the plants
+may be fed, and happily they are quite willing to
+accept very minute pieces of raw beef, so that flies
+need not be sacrificed in the cause of science.
+The little “beafeater” must not be fed a second
+time until the hairs have uncurled and the leaf has
+fully expanded, showing that the last meal has
+been digested. I have kept a large pan of sundew
+in great beauty for about four months in summer,
+and when the glass was taken off and bright sunshine
+lit up the jewelled leaves the effect was
+lovely, and a magnifying glass showed the structure
+of the leaves and the prismatic colouring of
+the dew-tipped hairs.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp49" id="i_304" style="max-width: 48.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_304.jpg" alt="A plant that has a rosette of
+leaves. The leaves are elongated. At their end they have a special structure
+built of consisting of two rounded shapes on the main vein of the leaf. These
+shapes have many long spikes along the edges and e few in the central part. In
+some of the leaves these shapes are folded together along the vein, whereby
+the spikes along the edges intertwine. From between these folds, insects
+can be seen to protrude. From the rosette grows one stalk, carrying several
+flowers. Each flower has 5 separate petals and a multitude of anthers.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>VENUS FLY-TRAP.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Venus fly-trap is an exotic member of the
+insectivorous family. Its leaves are remarkably
+like an ordinary spring rat-trap. A glance at the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</span>drawing will show its formation. On the two lobes
+of the leaf are a row of stiff bristles occupying the
+precise position of the teeth of a rat-trap. The
+inner surface of the leaves is of a reddish colour,
+due to its being thickly covered with minute red
+glands; on each lobe there are three stiff hairs. If
+a fly alighted on the leaf and walked across its
+surface, it would touch one of these hairs, and no
+matter how light the touch might be, the hairs are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</span>so sensitive they would convey the signal to the
+hinge of the lobes, and they would instantly rise
+up and clasp the fly, eventually crushing it to
+death. Then would follow, as in the case of the
+sundew, the emission of acrid secretion and the
+absorption and digestion of the insect.</p>
+
+<p>Insect-destroying plants are numerous in the
+vegetable world. They may be roughly divided
+into three groups, although there is no strict line
+of demarcation between them. First, those like
+the red lychnis and others, which, by means of
+sticky hairs, catch and kill small insects, an
+operation that, so far as we know, results in no
+special good to the plant. Then there are those,
+like the sundew, which catch, kill, and digest the
+insect for food; whilst the third group consists of
+plants which catch and kill insects, but have no
+digestive process. Decomposition of the captured
+insects takes place, but the absorption which goes
+on is simply that of the liquid products of
+decomposition, the latter process resulting from
+the insects being immersed in fluid. To this
+latter group belong the pitcher plants (<i>Nepenthes</i>)
+and sarracenias. These last are North American
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</span>plants of peculiar structure and appearance. The
+leaf is folded and modified into a tunnel-shaped
+tube differing in form in the various species. In
+all there is a kind of cap or lid to the tube, so
+that rain is kept out. In one or two species the
+lid is so arranged that the mouth is exposed. In
+the bottom of these tubes there is usually a
+quantity of somewhat slimy fluid. The inner
+face of the lid and surface just inside the rim of
+the tube is smooth, usually of a bright shining
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</span>colour and covered with minute honey-secreting
+glands, a most attractive lure for insects. Below
+this honeyed surface the character of the sides of
+the tube changes completely; for, down to the
+fluid, it is covered with stiff hairs all pointing
+downwards. Now we see how the trap is set.
+The honey just inside the tube is attractive, and
+the insect feeding finds it very easy to descend the
+tube; the smooth surface offers no foothold, and
+the downward pointed hairs prevent it from returning,
+until at last the insect becomes engulfed in the
+pool of water at the bottom of the tube. In this
+fluid insects generally accumulate, decompose, and
+become liquid manure.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="i_306" style="max-width: 44.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_306.jpg" alt="From the soil emerge six
+elongated beaker shaped structures with a large lip at the end. From the
+midst of these beakers grows one flower on a stem of about the same height.
+The stem is bent at the end, so the flower hangs downward. It has 5 hanging
+petals that emerge from a calyx.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>SARRACENIA FLAVA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In Georgia and North Florida these sarracenias
+are found in the swamps in large quantities attaining
+one to two feet in height, their great tubes half-filled
+with insects showing their value in tending
+to reduce the swarms of flies which abound in
+such localities. We can see from these characteristics
+of the sarracenia a link between the
+insect-eating plants which have a true digestive
+process and ordinary plants that obtain their
+food in part direct from the soil. The sarracenia
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</span>is simply making an attempt to collect nitrogenous
+food by the aid of its form and sweet
+secretions; thus it lures on flies and other insects
+to their doom, which to the plant means an
+increased supply of liquid manure for its nourishment.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp42" id="i_308" style="max-width: 43.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="The drawing shows two parts
+of a plant, not connected. In the background is an upright stem carrying 9
+buds and flowers; to the top there are buds, more downward are the op en flowers.
+The flowers grow on small stalks, that emerge from a tiny leaflet. Flowers are
+asymmetrical: from sideways the petals at the bottom are largest and covered by
+the petal on top. The second part of the plant, in the foreground, is a stem that
+starts vertically but then bends horizontal. From this point on it has many
+side-branches. Every side-branch is branched as well and from these hang small
+bulbs.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BLADDERWORT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Between the two types of insectivorous plants
+and ordinary plants there are endless varieties.
+The largest known species of “fly-catcher” is the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</span><i>Roridula dentata</i> of South Africa, which attains
+a height of six feet, with leaves similar to the
+sundew in character. So efficient are these leaves
+in catching flies that the Boers hang up branches
+in their rooms as fly-traps.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest insect-eating plant is probably
+the bladderwort (<i>Utricularia vulgaris</i>),
+a rootless water plant with
+minute bladders on small thread-like
+leaves. The bladders only
+open inwards, so that when an
+insect pushes against the opening
+or valve it easily enters, and cannot
+get out again. The bladder
+contains water, but the insect
+quickly consumes the oxygen in
+it, and consequently dies, and
+when decayed its substance is
+absorbed by glands on the inner
+surface of the bladder.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_309" style="max-width: 25.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_309.jpg" alt="A vertical stalk from which,
+at the bottom end, grows a beaker-like structure. This beaker ends in a large
+lip that at some distance hangs over the opening of the beaker. The surface
+of the beaker and the lip is covered in dark, irregular spots. There are two
+wing-like structures on the beaker, starting at the end point of the stalk
+and stretching up to the opening. These wings have many hairs along their edges.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <blockquote>
+    PITCHER OF NEPENTHES
+    RAFFLESIANA.
+    </blockquote>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most attractive of the group of
+plants we are considering is the pitcher plant
+or Nepenthes. It grows commonly in Borneo
+and Ceylon. The pitcher is a direct development
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</span>of the midrib of the leaf. It varies in
+size from the little thimble-like pitcher of
+<i>Nepenthes gracilis</i> to the large jug-like receptacles
+of <i>Nepenthes Rafflesiana</i>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and others, each capable
+of holding nearly a pint of fluid. The pitchers
+are furnished with a lid overhanging the mouth
+of the receptacle, this is kept open by a thick
+rim. This rim and the under-surface of the lid
+both secrete a sweet fluid which is attractive to
+insects, and from the rim and opening of the
+mouth a smooth surface directs the ill-fated flies
+to the sweet sticky fluid always found at the bottom
+of the pitcher, out of which they rarely come alive.</p>
+
+<p>Another of our native plants exhibiting these
+insectivorous habits is the butterwort (<i>Pinguicula</i>).
+Like the sundew it is a mere rosette of radical
+leaves, having upturned margins and a very
+succulent pellucid appearance. These leaves are
+covered with glands which exude a viscid kind
+of fluid like that on the tentacles of the sundew.
+This natural birdlime catches and holds small flies,
+midges, and other tiny flying creatures, as well as
+crawling insects. The presence of these insects
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</span>on the leaf appears to stimulate it to further
+secretion which must, of course, lessen the chances
+of the insect’s escape, and as a further barrier to
+prevent its creeping away, the edges of the leaf
+begin slowly to curve inwards,
+so that the caught
+insect is imprisoned in the
+folds of the leaf. The acid
+secretion which now exudes
+from the glands soon dissolves
+all the nitrogenous
+and soft parts of the insect,
+which are taken up by the
+absorptive glands of the
+leaf. There are many
+other plants, of which I
+have not space to make
+mention, although they are
+full of interest, as owing to
+their curious structure, it is probable that insectivorous
+habits might also be ascribed to them.
+The field of study is a wide one, and throws
+much light upon the physiology of plants as
+well as the relationship between the plant and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</span>animal world. I would suggest to my young
+readers, as a practical means of knowing more
+of this subject, to try and grow for themselves
+the sundew, pinguicula, and sarracenia.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright w30" id="i_311" style="max-width: 38.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_311.jpg" alt="A rosette of leaves, elongated
+with curly edges. From the bottom of the rosette grows a short, branched root.
+From the top grow three stalks, each bearing one flower or bud. With open
+flowers, the tips of the stalks are bent, so the flowers hang down. The three
+petals at the bottom are larger than the two on top.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BUTTERWORT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The two first can be found, as I have already
+said, on boggy moors in England, and the latter
+plant can be obtained from any florist. All can
+be successfully grown in a greenhouse or garden
+frame, and studying their growth and habits in
+this way will teach the young botanist far more
+agreeably than learning only from books.</p>
+
+<p>At Kew there is always a fine collection of these
+insectivorous plants to be seen in vigorous growth,
+whilst at the South Kensington Natural History
+Museum (Botanical Department) there are some
+highly interesting cases illustrating the life history
+of these remarkable plants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">
+    CHAPTER XIV
+    <br>
+    <i>HABIT OF GROWTH IN PLANTS</i>
+
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</span></p>
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Some clothe the soil that feeds them, far diffused</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">And lowly creeping, modest and yet fair,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Like virtue, thriving most where little seen;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Some, more aspiring, catch the neighbour shrub</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">With clasping tendrils, and invest his branch,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Else unadorn’d, with many a gay festoon</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">And fragrant chaplet, recompensing well</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">The strength they borrow with the grace they lend.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap author">Cowper.</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</span></p>
+
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="CHAPTER_XIV_1">
+    CHAPTER XIV
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: 70%;">HABIT OF GROWTH IN PLANTS</span>
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap"
+     src="images/i_315.jpg"
+     style="width: 12%; height: auto;"
+     alt="M">
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">My</span>
+readers have possibly noticed that in
+the previous chapters my aim has been
+to describe the various organs of a
+plant, and that I have tried to show
+not merely the botanical meaning of
+the many differences in the organs of allied
+species, but to point out also how these structures
+are adapted to help the plant to multiply itself.
+The object of this final chapter is to take a
+more general view of plant-life, and to give some
+idea of the different habits of plants; how in their
+struggle to grow and reproduce themselves they
+form such habits as tend to assist them in this
+effort, and also how entirely, in some cases, they
+differ from our ordinary conception of plant-growth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</span></p>
+
+<p>We have already seen how beautifully plants are
+adapted to the life they have to lead, how they are
+specially fitted to grow in some particular place
+and climate, and now I will ask my readers to
+study with me certain of the varying habits of
+plant-life. A typical plant of an ordinary kind
+grows, of course, in the earth, produces root,
+stem, and leaves, and finally flowers, which are
+the origin of fruits and seed; by the latter the
+plant is again produced, and by this circular
+action the continuity of that particular plant is
+maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now, in imagination, peep into a tropical
+forest. On its outskirts we shall see the prototypes
+of our typical plant; but inside there are also others
+of quite a different aspect, and the first to attract
+our attention would probably be the curious orchids
+perched upon the tree-branches. Their mode of
+growth differs greatly from that of a normal plant,
+for they are merely attached to the branches by
+means of clasping rootlets, which do not in any
+way extract sap from the tree to which they are
+clinging.</p>
+
+<p>The moisture they need is collected by the leaves
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</span>and hanging rootlets from the humid atmosphere
+of the forest. These plants that have acquired a
+perching habit sometimes grow to an immense size,
+and where they do so vegetable <i>débris</i> accumulates
+about their lower leaves and roots to such an
+extent that it serves to supply them with needful
+food.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_317" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_317.jpg" alt="A rosette of leaves, irregularly
+shaped, somewhat oval, that clings to a stick by a bunch of roots. From the
+rosette grow 2 stalks that carry a multitude of flowers and buds. The flowers
+have an intricate shape: there are five petals arranged starlike. In the centre
+of that star there are two crescents in between which are pistils and anthers.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PERCHING ORCHID.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This habit of growth is not confined to the lovely
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</span>orchids; mosses, lichens, ferns, and many other
+plants have acquired a similar mode of growth,
+and the various ways by which they attach themselves
+to the bearer plants would form an interesting
+subject of investigation. It is a not uncommon
+error to regard these perching plants as parasites,
+but this term is properly used for plants which
+actually feed upon the branches of the trees
+where they grow, and of course seriously injure
+the trees by so doing. The orchids, on the other
+hand, do not in any way injure the branch upon
+which they rest. Robert Louis Stevenson in one
+of his later poems has, with a poet’s license, which
+in this case is contrary to fact, described the perching
+orchid thus—</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“For in the groins of branches, lo!</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">The cancers of the orchid grow.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This inaccurate observation is, however, more
+than atoned for by the wonderful impression
+Stevenson has given us of the character of woodland
+strife, the ceaseless struggle for light and air
+which goes on in tropical forests.</p>
+
+<p>In studying the parasites as a group of plants
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</span>associated by the same habit of growth, we are led
+to the conclusion that there is some difference after
+all in the morality of plants! Here, for example,
+we are confronted with a group of plants that differ
+entirely from those we have hitherto examined.
+The mistletoe, which is the commonest type, is
+certainly lower in the social plant-scale than the
+perching orchid, the latter with its leaves and
+rootlets being enabled to earn its own living,
+while the mistletoe sends its roots down into the
+soft sap of the branch upon which it is growing
+and—there is no other name for it—steals its
+means of living and growing from the substance
+of the poor tree upon which it preys. It is true
+it does, in a half-hearted kind of way, assimilate a
+little gaseous food for itself, but the sickly metallic
+hue of its leaves is evidence that even in this respect
+it is shirking its proper duties of nutrition.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_320" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_320.jpg" alt="The base of a tree, around
+which some climbing plants grow. Parts of these plants are on the soil as well.
+From these parts buds and flowers grow. One flower is open. It's size is
+about the same as the circumference of the tree trunk. The 5 petals are round
+and of equal size. They lie flat on the soil. They are attached to a ring
+in the centre. Within the ring are a multitude of small buds. The petals
+are covered by small cross-like lightly coloured spots.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>RAFFLESIA ARNOLDII.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>If we desire to study the curious habits of
+parasitic plants, the two examples referred to in
+a previous chapter, the clover-dodder and the
+yellow rattle, will afford good examples, the
+latter plant being easily obtainable in fields
+where the pasture is poor and scanty. Very
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a><a id="Page_321"></a>[Pg 321]</span>curious are the modifications and contrivances
+developed by plants which have acquired this
+habit of parasitism, especially amongst such weird
+tropical species as <i>Rafflesia</i>, a huge parasite growing
+on the <i>Cissus</i> in Sumatra. When the leaves and
+flowers of the cissus have withered, then here and
+there a huge knob protrudes from the stem or root,
+and this grows in time to an immense stemless
+flower, measuring more than three feet across, its
+cup frequently containing as much as twelve pints
+of liquid, and the weight of the whole flower being
+said to be about fifteen pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Differing a little in habit from the parasites are
+the <i>saprophyte</i> plants, which live on decaying vegetation.
+The little brown leafless orchid called the
+bird’s-nest orchis is of this character, as well as the
+equally curious coral-root orchis. These plants,
+as well as many other parasites, are destitute of
+chlorophyll, and are therefore dependent on organic
+material for food; this they obtain either as we
+have seen from living plants or from decaying
+organic matter. In their efforts to obtain a
+needful supply of light and air, some plants
+assume climbing habits, using as supports other
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</span>trees and plants, to the very obvious disadvantage
+of the latter. We can well understand how, in a
+tropical forest, the weak-climbing plants strive to
+pass out of the shaded recesses and force their way
+to the tops of the slower growing trees, in order to
+obtain the share of light, moisture, and air which
+are essential to their existence. Very vividly has
+the late Mr. Louis Stevenson described such a scene
+in a tropical forest—</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“The hooked liana in his gin</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Noosed his reluctant neighbours in;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">There the green murderer throve and spread,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Upon his smothering victims fed,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">And wantoned on his climbing coil.</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Contending roots fought for the soil</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Like frighted demons; with despair</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Competing branches pushed for air.”</div>
+    </div>
+<hr class="poem">
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“So hushed the woodland warfare goes</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Unceasing; and the silent foes</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Grapple and smother, strain and clasp</div>
+      <div class="verse indent1">Without a cry, without a gasp.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I may explain that the “murderer” alluded to
+is a species of fig-tree which, in its early youth
+climbs up the trunks of other trees, and by means
+of its clasping roots so constricts their stems that
+they ultimately perish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</span></p>
+
+<p>In pleasing contrast to this phase of vegetable
+growth is the habit which indicates to us something
+of mutual help and co-operation. In the <i>Compositæ</i>
+we find many instances of a habit of growth that
+bears distinctly upon this “help-one-another” mode
+of life. A common daisy will serve as a type-flower
+of this kind. The little head is a colony of
+flowers, but so close is the association of its individual
+florets that it is usual to regard it as one
+flower rather than a distinct inflorescence composed
+of numerous separate and distinct flowers.</p>
+
+<p>In order to understand the mutualism displayed
+by this little flower, we must remember that it is
+an insect-fertilised blossom, and, therefore, insects
+must be attracted to it. If we carefully dissect a
+flower-head we shall find first a ring of strap-shaped
+flowers on the outside, constituting the ray florets—these
+are imperfect;&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> but placed side by side on
+the outer edge they become conspicuous; then we
+find in the centre of the flower-head a number of
+tiny yellow flowers, each one containing stamens
+and pistils. What wee things they are, and if they
+were developed singly how inconspicuous they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</span>would be! When, however, they are grouped side
+by side in the centre, and further, when the outer
+florets are of a different colour and shape, what a
+beautiful and symmetrical whole they make! Truly
+this is another rendering of the maxim, Union is
+strength. From a different point of view the
+arrangement is equally interesting. The white and
+pink tipped florets of the ray are not capable of
+bearing seed, and yet we see how they help those
+florets that are perfect by their attractive appearance;
+then at night or on a cold rainy day these
+same ray florets bend over and completely cover up
+the florets in the centre which are busy producing
+seed. My readers will find a rich field of investigation
+open before them in studying the flowers of the
+daisy family, and finding out for themselves how
+the florets are grouped together, and to what extent
+this principle of co-operation can be traced.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_325" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_325.jpg" alt="Part of a garden in
+which many flowers of different kinds, before a wall of shrubs and trees, grow.
+In the centre is a group of high plants with large flowering umbrellas
+and deeply cut leaves.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="allsmcap">GIANT COW-PARSNIP</span> (<i>Heracleum Giganteum</i>).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Students will find the corn blue-bottle especially
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a><a id="Page_326"></a>[Pg 326]</span>interesting; the large outer florets contain no
+organs of reproduction, but still they are brightly
+coloured and highly attractive to bees; the inner
+florets with their protruding stigmas and anthers,
+are much smaller; they are the seed-bearers, and
+cannot fail to receive pollination when the bee
+alights on the flower-head, allured by the showy
+outer florets, which apparently exist solely that
+they may draw insects to visit the unattractive
+flowers of the disc.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="i_326" style="max-width: 41.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_326.jpg" alt="A bud and a flower. The
+bud is oval and covered in scales. From the top a group of small petals
+emerges. The flower shows this group of petals further developed. They
+form a bunch of little flowers of their own. Each of these has six petals
+that are arranged in a star shape. These flowers are arranged in a circle.
+In the centre of this circle is a group of small pistils and anthers.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>CORN BLUE-BOTTLE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The direct influence of the separate parts of a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</span>plant upon one another, and the very distinct habit
+of associating together that they may attain some
+end such as the visits of insects, leads us to consider
+two other aspects of plant-life, both of which
+are so full of interest that no botanical work can
+now be considered complete without some reference
+to the matter. If we carefully dig up a clover
+plant or a broad bean and examine the little rootlets
+we shall observe some small knobs or swellings
+upon them. These swellings are only found here
+and there on some of the roots, so that their
+presence is not a normal condition. Placing one of
+these knobs under a powerful microscope, we shall
+find it to be not ordinary root tissue but a substance
+teeming with countless numbers of rod-like or
+rounded atoms which botanists who have investigated
+the subject tell us are bacteria, <i>i.e.</i>, inconceivably
+small one-celled plants which are often
+the cause of terrible diseases. But some of these
+mysterious organisms, on the other hand, are
+capable of beneficial results. It has of late been
+clearly proved that leguminous plants having these
+colonies of bacteria on their roots possess the
+power of assimilating the free nitrogen that forms
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</span>such a large proportion of atmospheric air. When
+therefore a farmer sows his wheat in a field previously
+occupied by clover he finds the clover roots
+left in the soil contribute the best possible supply
+of nitrogen to the wheat crop. This seems a
+remarkable fact, since vegetable physiologists have
+hitherto insisted upon the fact that plant-life is
+unable to make use of the free nitrogen of the air.
+The other instance of strange habit is that of a
+symbiosis,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> which exists between certain trees on
+the one hand and the threads of spawn of some
+fungi on the other. If the roots of the white
+poplar are examined minutely, quite a mantle of
+whitish threads will be found covering the growing
+point. It is said by that eminent botanist, Professor
+Kerner, and by others that, as the roots are
+developed from the young seedling-tree, they are
+enclosed in the meshes of the fungus, and that this
+particular fungus is always a close associate of the
+roots as they grow in all directions. This fact we
+can see when we dig up the roots, but the most
+striking part of the story is this, that between this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</span>fungus root and the roots of the tree there is an
+organic connection, a division of labour which
+results in the tree receiving from the thread-like
+filaments of the fungus (<i>hyphæ</i>) both moisture and
+certain food stuffs from the ground, whilst the
+fungus gets in return such organic food as the tree
+has produced by means of its green leaves. Such
+cases as these present to us a manner of growth
+that is akin to social habit, and, strange as the
+union may appear, the circumstance is by no means
+uncommon in the vegetable kingdom. Stranger
+still perhaps is the union that is sometimes to be
+found between plants and some member of the
+animal world, of which union I shall give an
+example. On one of the larger species of sea-anemones
+(<i>Anthea cereus</i>) are small yellowish spots,
+which at one time were supposed to form part of
+the animal itself. But now the spots turn out to
+be vegetable cells, which can be isolated and
+induced to continue growing after the death of
+the anemone. The yellow spots are small algæ,
+and are furnished with chlorophyll. We must not
+regard the algæ as parasites on the sea-anemone,
+because they split up the carbon-dioxide under the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</span>influence of sunlight, and by so doing supply the
+anemone with oxygen for respiration, whilst the
+starch formed in the protoplasm of the algæ passes
+by diffusion into the anatomy of the animal. The
+transaction does not end here; the algæ in all
+probability receives nitrogenous substances in
+return, so that there is a mutual interchange.</p>
+
+<p>These are but one or two of the many wonderful
+phases of vegetable life, and I hope by thus briefly
+sketching a few of them my readers will be
+stimulated into a greater desire to explore God’s
+marvellous works in nature. There is an endless
+succession of such wonders to be investigated, but
+in order to find them we need a careful spirit of
+observation, passing nothing by without trying to
+learn something of its life history. Every hedgerow
+is full of delightful problems which will reward the
+interested student. A single field has been found
+to contain as many as fifty different species of
+plants, and every month of the year will present
+a new aspect of life. In the early spring we have
+the germinating seed and the tiny growing moss.
+A little later the opening buds with their wealth of
+interesting points to study, then the unfolding of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</span>the leaves and the gradual development of the
+flower. Here and there a climbing plant will
+engage our attention, its mode of climbing, its
+modification of part or parts to enable it successfully
+to overcome difficulties, its acceptance of help
+by the way—as in the case of a bryony tendril I
+once came across which cleverly attached itself to
+a minute hole in a laurel leaf—these and many
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</span>other items will interest us in our walks if we keep
+our eyes open.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="i_331" style="max-width: 45.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_331.jpg" alt="A small piece of a branch
+from which grows a stalk sideways ending in the remains of a flower. In the
+axil of this stalk sits a small bud. From the same point on the branch emerges
+a thin thread, heavily coiled. This thread has grown through a hole in a leaf,
+also shown in the drawing. The leaf is elongated, somewhat oval, with lightly
+serrated edges.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>BRYONY TENDRIL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Then, as summer slowly passes away and autumn
+approaches, the fruits will engage our attention;
+their forms and shapes and modes of dispersion
+will afford ample subjects for study.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="i_332" style="max-width: 49.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_332.jpg" alt="On a stick sits a group of
+about 10 shapes in the form of calyxes. From the central shape emerges
+a bundle of bent hairs and several small dots.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>TRICHIA THROWING OUT SPORES.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Winter, too, still brings its store of pleasure for
+the young botanist. Nature is not dead—she only
+sleeps. Nay, unless there is hard frost and deep
+snow the field for observation is just as wide and
+the harvest as plentiful as at any other season.
+Look on the old apple-trees and see what a host
+of tiny plantlets there is there to glean. Here are
+pale-green bearded moss and lichens, there a branch,
+perhaps, lies on the ground dead and decaying,
+under whose mouldering bark, if we have keen
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</span>eyes, we may discover tiny tufts of the <i>Mycetozoa</i>,
+whose capsules, under the microscope (and in some
+cases even with the naked eye) are seen to give off
+clouds of spores, actually thrown out by the active
+movements of fine waving threads, a sight never
+to be forgotten when it has been watched under
+favourable circumstances. Winter is also rich in
+its harvest of mushroom-like fungi; these will well
+repay a little study. We shall be led to note their
+form, colour, mode, and habit of growth, how they
+affect certain trees and soils, and the important
+difference of some kinds being eatable and others
+virulently poisonous; the mere book student can
+know very little of the keen pleasure enjoyed by
+those who thus think about what they see, and are
+ever adding to their stock of knowledge by personal
+observation. I may close with some true
+and beautiful thoughts by one&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> who is herself a
+reverent student of the book of nature.</p>
+
+<p>“No pleasure is more sure and none less costly
+than that of watching day by day the signs of the
+coming spring; than the delight of seeing unexpectedly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</span>the first primrose, and of finding that the
+anemones and hyacinths are pushing their way to
+the sunshine. Year by year the miracle of springtime,
+when the green leaves are shaken forth from
+the hard bud is more miraculous. Summer after
+summer the lilies are fairer, the wild roses more
+exquisite, and on through the seasons the varying
+pleasures succeed one another. These things never
+pall; and if the time should come when we can no
+longer go out to the hills and woods to welcome
+the spring and revel in the bounty of summer we
+know that the past is not lost. The fair remembrance
+of the flowers of the field is safe in our
+hearts, and will ‘flash upon that inward eye which
+is the bliss of solitude.’”</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="GLOSSARY_OF_SCIENTIFIC_WORDS">
+    <i>GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC WORDS
+    USED IN THIS VOLUME</i>
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a><a id="Page_337"></a>[Pg 337]</span></p>
+
+  <p class="nobreak ph2" id="GLOSSARY">
+    GLOSSARY.
+
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A clear</span> definition of scientific terms involves an
+exact knowledge of several languages, and when
+translated into technical phraseology these definitions<a id="tn-013"></a>
+often appear to me to be as difficult to a
+simple comprehension as the original words they
+purport to explain.</p>
+
+<p>I have endeavoured therefore, in this glossary,
+to put scientific terms into plain words as clearly
+as was consistent with the facts, and not by any
+means to attempt a really exhaustive scientific
+definition.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Absciss</i>—A term applied to a layer of separating cells.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Absorption</i>—Taking in food by diffusion.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Accessory</i>—Anything additional.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Acetic</i>—Applied to an acid, sour.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Achene</i>—A small dry indehiscent fruit with a leathery coat.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Adaptation</i>—As applied to plant-life meaning the structure
+of the plant becoming most fitted to its environment.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Adventitious</i>—Not developed in regular order.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Aerial</i>—Inhabiting or existing in the air.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Æstivation</i>—The arrangement of the parts of the flower in
+the bud.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Albumen</i>—Reserve material contained in the seed, analogous
+to the white of an egg.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Alchemilla</i>—A genus of rosaceous plants with small green
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Allium</i>—The onion genus.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Altitude</i>—Height.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Ampelopsis</i>—A genus of climbing plants allied to the vine
+whose leaves are brilliantly coloured in autumn.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Anemophilous</i>—Pollinated by the wind.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Animalcule</i>—Microscopic insect life.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Annual</i>—A plant whose duration of life is one season:
+<i>Ex.</i> mignonette.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Anthea</i>—A genus of sea-anemones.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Anther</i>—The dilated end of the stamen in which the pollen
+grains are developed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Antheridium</i>—The case containing the antherozoids in
+cryptogamic plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Antherozoides</i>—The male cell, or active member in fertilisation
+of cryptogams.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Antirrhinum</i>—The snap-dragon genus.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Antiseptic</i>—Counteracting decay or putrefaction.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Apocarpous</i>—Applied to the pistil when the carpels are
+distinct or when the pistil consists of one carpel.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Appendages</i>—Something hanging or appended, extra.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Aquatic</i>—Relating to water.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Araucaria</i>—The generic name of the monkey-puzzle tree.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Archegonium</i>—The flask-shaped organ containing the female
+cell in the cryptogams.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Arid</i>—Dry and waterless.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Arillus</i>—An out-growth from the funicle (or seed-coat).</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Aristolochia</i>—A genus of climbing plants with curious
+“prison” flowers which attract and retain insects.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Arum</i>—A genus of poisonous plants with an inflorescence
+consisting of spadix and spathe.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Asexual</i>—Not sexual.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Asparagus</i>—A genus of edible vegetables and climbing
+plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Assimilation</i>—The conversion of crude food into protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Aster</i>—The generic name of the Michaelmas daisies.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Avena</i>—The generic name of the oat.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Awn</i>—The beard of barley and other corn.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Axillary</i>—Growing in the axil of the leaf.</p>
+
+
+<h3>B</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bacteria</i>—Minute one-celled living atoms, the cause of most
+contagious diseases.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bamboo</i>—A giant grass.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Banana</i>—The fruit of the genus Musa.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bark</i>—The rough external part of a stem.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Barm</i>—Same as yeast.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bast</i>—The fibrous tissue between the bark and the wood of
+a dicotyledonous stem.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Begonia</i>—A genus of plants with bright flowers and oblique
+or one-sided leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Betula</i>—Generic name of the birch-tree.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Biennial</i>—A plant whose duration of life is two seasons:
+<i>Ex.</i> Beetroot.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bifacial</i>—With upper and lower sides structurally different:
+<i>Ex.</i> laurel leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bignonia</i>—A genus of flowering climbing plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Blade</i>—The broad part of the leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bougainvillia</i>—A genus of climbing tropical plants with
+bright pink bracts and small yellowish flowers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bulb</i>—A dormant bud surrounded with fleshy scales.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bulbils</i>—Small bulbs.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Bunium</i>—A genus of tuberous Umbelliferæ, earthnut.<a id="tn-014"></a></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Buoyant</i>—Light, able to float in air or water.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Button-wood</i>—A term applied in America to the plane
+tree.</p>
+
+
+<h3>C</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cacti</i>—A family of succulent plants usually devoid of leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Caducous</i>—Quickly dropping off.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Calceolaria</i>—A genus of herbaceous garden plants with
+pouched flowers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Calcium</i>—An element present in all calcareous rocks.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Calyptra</i>—The hood of a moss-fruit.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Calyx</i>—The outer whorl of the flower or floral envelope,
+cup-shaped.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cambium-layer</i>—A layer of active growing tissue.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Campanula</i>—A genus of Alpine and herbaceous plants with
+bell-shaped flowers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Camphor</i>—A drug obtained by dry distillation of the leaves
+and stems of Camphora officinarum.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Capillary</i>—Fine and minute, hair-like.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Carbon-dioxide</i>—Symbol CO<sub>2</sub>. A gas existing in small quantities
+in the air, otherwise called carbonic-acid gas.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Carbon-monoxide</i>—A poisonous gas whose molecule is composed
+of one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Carex</i>—A genus of sedge-like plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Carpel</i>—A pistillate leaf, one of the component parts of the
+pistil.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Caterpillar</i>—The form of an insect after it is hatched, first
+stage.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Catkin</i>—A spike of staminate or pistillate flowers usually
+pendulous.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Checkered</i>—Outlined into a square-like pattern.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Chevaux de frise</i>—An obstacle consisting of iron spikes set
+in a framework of iron.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Chlorophyll</i>—The green colouring matter of leaves and stems.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cholera</i>—A contagious disease.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Chrysalis</i>—<i>pl.</i> Chrysalides. The form assumed by some
+insects before they reach the winged state.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Chrysanthemum</i>—A genus of showy flowering plants belonging
+to the Compositæ.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cinchona</i>—A genus of trees yielding quinine.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Circumnutation</i>—The rotating motion made by the growing
+point of the stem and leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cissus</i>—A genus of vine-like plants often with brilliant
+coloured leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Climatic</i>—Influenced by a climate.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Coalesce</i>—To fuse, cohering of parts not usually joined.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cocos-de-mer</i>—The large double cocoa-nut tree of the
+Seychelles Isles.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Collomia</i>—A genus of plants whose seeds are remarkable
+for the spiral fibres which expand elastically when
+wetted.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Compositæ</i>—A group of plants having an inflorescence
+of florets arranged upon a common receptacle or
+head.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Concentric</i>—A number of rings having a common centre.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cone</i>—The hard woody fruits of the fir-tree.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Coniferous</i>—Fir-like, or cone-like; belonging to the cone-bearing
+family.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Continuity</i>—Unbroken succession.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Corolla</i>—The second whorl of the floral envelope usually
+brightly coloured.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Corpuscles</i>—Grains or granular.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Correlation</i>—<i>i.e.</i>, connection, interdependence.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cortex</i>—The bark or outer covering of stems.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cotyledon</i>—A seed leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cruciferæ</i>—A group of plants having their petals arranged
+crosswise, with six stamens two of which are longer
+than the others.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cryptogamic</i>—Relating to flowerless plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Culm</i>—The straw-like stems of the grasses.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cuscuta</i>—The dodder genus, parasitic upon flax and
+clovers, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cuticle</i>—The exterior and thickened part of the epidermis.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Cyclamen</i>—Dwarf primulaceous plants with shortened stems
+(corms).</p>
+
+
+<h3>D</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Dahlia</i>—A genus of tuberous-rooted plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Darlingtonia</i>—A genus of Californian plants related to the
+side-saddle plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Datura</i>—The generic name of the thorn-apple.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Débris</i>—Remains, rubbish.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Deciduous</i>—Applied to plants, the leaves of which fall off in
+autumn.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Dehiscent</i>—Splitting open when ripe.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Deodar</i>—A tree allied to the cedar of Lebanon.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Dentaria</i>—A cruciferous plant bearing bulbils in the axils
+of the leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Diagrammatic</i>—Drawn to illustrate a statement.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Dicotyledon</i>—A plant whose embryo has two primary seed-leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Diffusion</i>—The intermingling of fluids (gases or liquids).</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Diœcious</i>—When the pistillate flowers and staminate flowers
+are borne upon separate plants of the same species.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Dispersion</i>—Scattering.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Drosera</i>—The generic name of the sundews.</p>
+
+
+<h3>E</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Elastic</i>—Springy.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Embryo</i>—The future plant contained in the substance of
+the seed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Embryo-sac</i>—The cavity in the substance of the nucellus,
+containing the egg-cell, which after fertilisation
+becomes the embryo.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Endocarp</i>—The inside layer of the pericarp.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Entomophilous</i>—Pollinated by insects.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Epicarp</i>—The outside layer of the pericarp.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Epidermis</i>—A layer of generally flattened cells forming the
+skin of the plant.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Epigean</i>—Developed like the cotyledons of mustard, above
+ground.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Epipetalous</i>—Growing upon the petals.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Erysipelas</i>—A disease of the blood causing a red eruption.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Eucalyptus</i>—The generic name of the Australian blue gum
+tree.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Euonomin</i>—A dry extract made from the root-bark of
+Euonymus altro-purpureus, a North American shrub.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Euonymus</i>—A genus of shrubs and hedgerow trees.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Euphorbia</i>—The spurge genus.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Exogen</i>—Growing by addition to outside of wood and inside
+of bark, synonymous with dicotyledon.</p>
+
+
+<h3>F</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Fermentation</i>—Changes that take place in wort when barm
+or yeast is added, or when fluids are exposed to the
+air. <i>See</i> Yeast.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Fertilised</i>—Completion of the act of fertilisation, <i>i.e.</i>, fusion
+of the male element contained in the pollen tube with
+the egg cell of the ovule.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Fibrous</i>—Meaning a structure of fine loose filaments or
+hairs, <i>i.e.</i>, young rootlets.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Fibro-vascular</i>—A compound tissue of fibres and vessels.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Filament</i>—A thread-like fibre.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Flaccid</i>—Want of firmness, soft and lax.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Fructification</i>—The fruit system of a plant.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Fuchsia</i>—A genus of exotic flowering plants having a
+petaloid calyx.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Function</i>—As applied to plant-life, meaning the use and lifework
+of the members of a plant.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Fungoid</i>—Growth like a fungus.</p>
+
+
+<h3>G</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Gamopetalous</i>—Petals united.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Gamosepalous</i>—Sepals united.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Genesis</i>—Creation, production.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Germinate</i>—The change of the seed from the dormant state
+to the active growing stage.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Gloxinia</i>—A genus of popular hothouse plants with large
+handsome flowers.</p>
+
+
+<h3>H</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Habitat</i>—The natural abode of a plant.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Herbaceous</i>—Applied to plants which do not form a hard
+woody stem.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Herbarium</i>—A collection of dried plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hexagonal</i>—A six-sided and angled figure.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hibernating</i>—Sleeping, a dormant condition.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hilum</i>—The black scar on a bean seed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hippuris</i>—A genus of aquatic flowering plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Horizontal</i>—Parallel to the horizon level.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hoya</i>—A genus of tropical climbing plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hyacinths</i>—Bulbous plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hydrangea</i>—A genus of flowering shrubs.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hygienic</i>—Relating to the preservation of health.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hygrometric</i>—Moisture and its influence.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hygroscopic</i>—Applied to the film of water surrounding the
+particles of the soil.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hypericum</i>—The generic name of the St. John’s wort.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hyphæ</i>—Filaments or threads of the fungus spawn.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Hypogean</i>—Development of the cotyledons under ground.</p>
+
+
+<h3>I</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Impatiens</i>—The generic name of the balsam.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Impervious</i>—Not to be penetrated by water.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Insectivorous</i>—Catching and killing insects, plants that have
+this power and can absorb the decomposed insects.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Insoluble</i>—Substances that do not dissolve in water.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Intercellular</i>—Spaces between the cells.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Internode</i>—The space between two nodes.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Involucre</i>—A whorl of bracts.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Iodine</i>—A soluble substance extracted from kelp and used
+as a test for starch.</p>
+
+
+<h3>L</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Laburnum</i>—Yellow-flowered trees allied to the Pea
+family (Leguminosæ).</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Legume</i>—The dehiscent fruit of the pea family, a pod.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Leguminosæ</i>—A family of plants having for their fruit a
+legume or pod, <i>i.e.</i>, Pea, Laburnum.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Lenticels</i>—Minute pores in the bark.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Liane</i>—A hanging root or stem.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Liber</i>—The inner bark, same as phloëm.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Linnæa</i>—A genus of dwarf trailing plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Luscious</i>—Sweet and succulent.</p>
+
+
+<h3>M</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Magnesium</i>—The metallic base of magnesia.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Magnolia</i>—A genus of flowering shrubs and trees.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mahonia</i>—A genus of evergreen shrubs belonging to the
+barberry family.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Martynia</i>—A genus of plants having capsules with long
+curved hooks.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Melampyrum</i>—A genus of dwarf flowering plants partly
+parasitic.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Membranous</i>—Thin and destitute of green colour usually
+applied to bracts.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mesocarp</i>—The central layer of the pericarp.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mesophyll</i>—The ground tissue of the leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Metabolism</i>—Changes which take place in protoplasm and
+which it causes in other substances.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Microbes</i>—A term applied to one-celled plant atoms, like
+bacteria.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Micropyle</i>—A small pore in the coats of the ovule through
+which the pollen tube passes.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Modicum</i>—Moderate sized; a small quantity.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Monocotyledon</i>—A plant whose seed is furnished with one
+seed leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Monœcious</i>—Applied to a plant when the stamens and pistil
+are in distinct flowers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Monstera</i>—A genus of climbing aroids with edible fruit.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mucilaginous</i>—Sticky, gumlike, secreting mucilage.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mucuna</i>—A genus of Brazilian Leguminosæ, yielding the
+cowage (consisting of intensely irritating hairs), of the
+Materia Medica.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mutualism</i>—Interchange of some advantage, botanically
+applied to the union of two dissimilar plants which
+live in <i>close</i> contact with each other to their mutual
+benefit.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mycelium</i>—The root-like colourless filaments of fungi.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Mycetozoa</i>—A term applied to the slime-fungi.</p>
+
+
+<h3>N</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Nectary</i>—A honey secreting gland or spur.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Nemophila</i>—A genus of dwarf annual flowering plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Nepenthes</i>—A genus of plants having as a prolongation of
+the midrib of the leaves, ascidia or pitchers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Nocturnal</i>—Happening by night.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Node</i>—The exact point on the stem from which the leaf is
+developed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Normal</i>—Regular, unaffected by any modification.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Noxious</i>—Hurtful or poisonous.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Nucellus</i>—The internal tissue of the ovule within which the
+embryo-sac is embedded.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Nutrition</i>—The process and function of taking in food for
+the purpose of growth and to replace waste.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>O</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Orchis</i>—A genus of the orchid family growing in the soil.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Osmosis</i>—The passage of fluids through a membrane.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Ovary</i>—The ovule case, that part of the carpel that bears
+ovules.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Ovule</i>—The structure which after fertilisation forms the
+seed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Ovum</i>—The egg cell of the ovule.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Oxalis</i>—The generic name of the wood sorrel.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Oxygen</i>—A gas, one of the constituents of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h3>P</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Palisade-tissue</i>—A tissue of oblong cells placed side by side
+at right angles to the flat surface of the leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Papilionaceous</i>—Butterfly shaped.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pappus</i>—A light hairy development from the calyx of some
+plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Parasitic</i>—The habit of growing upon and deriving nourishment
+from another plant.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pellucid</i>—Shining and transparent.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Perennial</i>—Plants that live for an indefinite period.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Perianth</i>—A term used when there is no distinction between
+calyx and corolla.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pericarp</i>—The ripened walls of the ovary constituting the
+structure of the fruit.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Persistent</i>—Applied to the parts of the flower that remain
+on for some time.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Petunia</i>—A genus of Brazilian Solanaceæ.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Philodendron</i>—A genus of aroids usually climbers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Phleum</i>—A grass.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Phloëm</i>—The inner bark, containing sieve-tubes.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Phosphate</i>—A salt formed by the union of phosphoric acid
+with some base.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Phyllotaxis</i>—The law of leaf arrangement.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Physalis</i>—The generic name of the winter cherry.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Physiological</i>—Having reference to the function or life work
+of the plant.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Picea</i>—A genus of the Conifer family.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pinetum</i>—A garden devoted to the culture of pine-trees.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pinguicula</i>—The generic name of the butterworts.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pinus</i>—A genus of the Conifer family.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pistil</i>—The female part of the flower consisting of ovary,
+style, and stigma.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pistillate</i>—Applied to flowers having the pistil only.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pith</i>—The soft tissue in the centre of the stem.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Plumbago</i>—The generic name of the leadworts, small
+flowering plants and shrubs.<a id="tn-015"></a></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Plumule</i>—The first stem shoot of the germinating seed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Poa</i>—A grass.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Poinsettia</i>—A genus of Mexican plants having bright scarlet
+bracts and small flowers.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pollard</i>—A tree trunk with its branches cut short.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pollen</i>—The fertilising or male part of the flower.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pollination</i>—The act of conveying the pollen from the
+stamen to the stigma.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Polypetalous</i>—Separate or many petals.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Polysepalous</i>—Separate or many sepals.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Polytrichum</i>—The generic name of the hair moss.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Potassium</i>—The metallic base of potash.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Proboscis</i>—The feeling and feeding organ of an insect.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Prothallus</i>—The first growth when the spore of a fern
+germinates.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Protococcus</i>—A genus of unicellular plants forming a green
+stain upon trees, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Protonema</i>—The first growth of the moss-spore.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Protoplasm</i>—A highly complex substance forming the essential
+part of all living cells, and to which all life growth
+is due.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Prototypes</i>—First forms of plant-life.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Psamma</i>—A genus of the grass family.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pseudo-bulb</i>—A swollen stem common in the epiphytic
+orchids.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Pteris</i>—The generic name of the bracken fern.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Q</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Quiescent</i>—Inactive, dormant.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Quinine</i>—An alkaloid extracted from the cinchona trees.</p>
+
+
+<h3>R</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Radicle</i>—The first formed root when a seed germinates.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Rafflesia</i>—A genus of brown leafless parasites.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Receptacle</i>—That part of the stalk on which the flower is
+developed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Resin</i>—A secretion from certain trees which hardens on
+exposure.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Respiration</i>—The process of breathing.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Rhinanthus</i>—The generic name of the yellow-rattle (a root
+parasite).</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Rhododendron</i>—A genus of popular flowering shrubs and
+dwarf trees.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Root-cap</i>—A loose covering of tissue that protects the extreme
+point of the growing root.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Root-hairs</i>—The delicate unicellular hairs found on the
+young root.</p>
+
+
+<h3>S</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Salicine</i>—A substance obtained from the bark of willows,
+soluble in water and alcohol, and crystallising in bright
+white needles.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Salvia</i>—A genus of labiate plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Samara</i>—Winged fruit.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Saprophyte</i>—Plants that live upon decaying organic matter.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Sarracenia</i>—The generic name of the North American
+side-saddle plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Saxifraga</i>—A genus of dwarf Alpine plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Scales</i>—Rudimentary leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Secretion</i>—Applied to substances like resin and honey, the
+production of assimilation and metabolism.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Sedum</i>—A genus of succulent Alpine plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Soluble</i>—Any substance that dissolves in water.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Spadix</i>—The inflorescence of the Aroideæ.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Spathe</i>—The bract of the Aroideæ.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Sporangium</i>—The spore-case of some of the cryptogamia.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Spurious</i>—False.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Stapelia</i>—A genus of succulent plants, very poisonous and
+fœtid.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Starch</i>—Colourless grains, a product of assimilation in the
+leaf.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Stigma</i>—The receptive part of the pistil.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Stipa</i>—A genus of the grass family.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Stipules</i>—Small outgrowths at the base of the petiole.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Stomata</i>—Minute pores in the epidermis of the leaf or green
+stem.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Sulphate</i>—A salt formed by the combination of sulphuric
+acid with some base.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Sycamore</i>—The plane tree of Scotland, Acer pseudoplatanus.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Symbiosis</i>—Mutualism, a living for one another, interchange
+of benefits by united growth.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Syncarpous</i>—United carpels.</p>
+
+
+<h3>T</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tannin</i>—A substance widely diffused through the leaves
+and stems of plants, of an astringent character.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tap-root</i>—A root that forms an unbranched tapering axis:
+<i>Ex.</i>, carrot.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tendril</i>—A coiled or hooked filament modified to assist
+plants to climb.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tentacles</i>—The glandular and feeler-like hairs of the
+sundew.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Terminal</i>—At the apex or end.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</span></p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Testa</i>—The skin of seed.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tigellum</i>—The first stalk of the seed bearing the cotyledons.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tillandsia</i>—A New World genus of perching or epiphytic
+plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tissue</i>—A group of cells; having a common origin.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tormentilla</i>—A genus of small creeping rosaceous plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Transpiration</i>—The giving off of water vapour from the
+surface of leaves and stems.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tricyrtis</i>—The generic name of the toad-lily.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Tuber</i>—A fleshy root or succulent underground stem.</p>
+
+
+<h3>U</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Umbelliferæ</i>—A group of plants having an umbellate arrangement
+of the inflorescence or flower-head.</p>
+
+
+<h3>V</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Vallisneria</i>—A genus of aquatic flowering plants.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Valved</i>—Having valves, <i>e.g.</i>, anther of the barberry.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Vapour</i>—Gas into which most liquids and solids are converted
+by heat.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Vasculum</i>—A little vessel or box for collecting botanical
+and other specimens.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Venation</i>—The arrangement of veins in a leaf.</p>
+
+
+<h3>W</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Weigelia</i>—A genus of flowering shrubs allied to Honeysuckle.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Whorl</i>—An arrangement of leaves or parts of the flower
+in rings.</p>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Wort</i>—Sweet unfermented new beer.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Y</h3>
+
+<p class="glossary"><i>Yeast</i>—A unicellular plant that sets up fermentation under
+certain conditions.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">
+    FOOTNOTES.
+
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> See glossary at the end of the book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> <i>Protococcus.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> First form of fungoid growth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> Small living atoms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">[5]</a> It can generally be met with at naturalists’ shops where aquaria
+are sold.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">[6]</a> Author of “Vegetable Physiology.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">[7]</a> For instance, I have noticed some curious examples of trees
+growing together. A Turkey oak and Silver fir in my own grounds
+are closely united at the base. The fir-seed and the acorn must
+have germinated in such close proximity that the stems have almost
+grown into each other. The group of beeches shown in the plate
+gives another example of interlacing stems and roots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">[8]</a> The Maranta and a few other plants are exceptions to this rule.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">[9]</a> That is, a leaf like the beech or sycamore, having an upper and
+under surface; vertical leaves, like the iris, have palisade tissue on
+both sides.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">[10]</a> Greek: <i>proto</i>, “first”; <i>plasma</i>, “anything moulded.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">[11]</a> Carbon meaning charcoal, and dioxide meaning two parts
+oxygen. Sometimes called carbonic-acid gas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">[12]</a> “Sharp Eyes,” by Wm. Hamilton Gibson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">[13]</a> The uppermost bud of the central shoot.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">[14]</a> Venation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">[15]</a> One seed leaf plants.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">[16]</a> All cross-shaped flowers do not, however, belong to this order.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">[17]</a> <i>Dianthræcia albimacula.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">[18]</a> Thorn-apple.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">[19]</a> Strictly speaking, the endocarp of the orange is a thin membrane,
+and the pulp grows from it and fills up the ovary cavities.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">[20]</a> In botany the fruit of the sycamore, maple, ash, &amp;c., is called a
+<i>samara</i>, and is properly speaking a winged <i>achene</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">[21]</a> The beard of corn.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">[22]</a> Sensitive to moisture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">[23]</a> Called botanically an “absciss layer.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">[24]</a> They merely need to be placed between sheets of blotting
+paper, which should be dried daily and kept in a press
+or under a weight for a few days until the specimens are fit
+to be placed in a book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">[25]</a> Testing the effect of plant food by water-culture is carried out in
+the following manner. Six large jars are filled with distilled water.
+In No. 1 all the six elements above mentioned are placed in small
+quantities, so as to form a weak solution. In No. 2 only five of
+them are added to the water, and in each succeeding jar one
+element is left out. A seedling plant which has been germinated
+on damp sand is suspended in each jar in such a manner that the
+leaves are in the air and the roots in the water without the seed
+touching the liquid. The growth of the young plants is carefully
+observed, and the result is found to be that No. 1 will grow and
+flourish, finding all its needful food in the water, whilst the rest of
+the seedlings will show plainly by their feeble and starved condition
+that, the food elements being absent, they cannot build up their
+stems and leaves, and must eventually perish.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">[26]</a> From “Nat. Hist. of Plants,” p. 554: “It has been proved
+experimentally that seeds which have been deprived by calcium
+chloride of as much water as possible are not killed even at the
+boiling point of water.” Careful experiment has shown that there
+are three stages of activity in the life and work of a plant—(1) A
+<i>minimum or zero</i>, at which the processes are just possible; (2) a
+<i>medium stage</i> or <i>optimum point</i> where the activity is the greatest;
+and (3) a <i>maximum stage of heat</i> where <i>growth is arrested</i>. So
+that we learn that plant-life can suffer from too high a temperature
+as well as that which is too low.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">[27]</a> On sunny heaths they are often of a rich crimson tint.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28" class="label">[28]</a> See Frontispiece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29" class="label">[29]</a> Barren.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30" class="label">[30]</a> A single flower of the Heracleum giganteum would not be
+specially noticeable, but when hundreds of them are grouped together
+in a huge umbelliferous head they form a most striking object,
+as may be seen in the plate. I have often watched the swarms of
+flies, beetles, and bees visiting these attractive blossoms on sunny
+days, and the great umbels of seed in autumn showed how effectually
+the insects had carried out their work of fertilisation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31" class="label">[31]</a> A word meaning two plants living together and deriving mutual
+benefit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32" class="label">[32]</a> Miss Blanche Atkinson, member of the Barmouth Branch of
+the Selborne Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center blackletter">
+The Gresham Press,</p>
+<p class="center">UNWIN BROTHERS,</p>
+<p class="center"><span style="font-size: 90%;">WOKING AND LONDON.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="transnote chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak">Transcriber’s notes</h2>
+<p>
+The text contains some inconsistencies in the usage of hyphens. Only
+those have been corrected where the majority was spelled otherwise. All
+corrections made are listed below.
+</p>
+<p>
+The asterism (⁂) on page 8 should be inverted, but this was not
+possible to achieve since no such symbol exists.
+</p>
+<h3>Corrections</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-001">20</a> In the list of illustrations hyphens removed from “MONO-COTYLEDON” and “DI-COTYLEDON”, to match the captions of the illustrations;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-025">21</a> In the list of illustrations “WHITE LILY PISTIL” changed to “WHITE-LILY PISTIL” and “POLLEN-TUBE” changed to “POLLEN TUBE”, to match the captions of the illustrations;</li><li>Page <a href="#tn-002">22</a> In the list of illustrations “DIAGRAM OF TRANSFUSION” changed to “TRANSFUSION DIAGRAM”, to match the caption of the illustration;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-003">22</a> In the list of illustrations “FLAVA” added behind “SARRACENIA”, to match the caption of the illustration;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-017">42</a> “Another of these perching-plants is <i>Tillandsia Usnoides</i>” changed to “Another of these perching-plants is <i>Tillandsia Usneoides</i>”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-016">62</a> “aërial” in “send down slender aërial roots” changed to “aerial”, to match the spelling in the rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-019">69</a> In “We may look upon the earth as being a sort of store-house”, “store-house” changed to “storehouse” to match the spelling in the
+rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-020">100</a> In “in a skeleton leaf, the mid-rib”, “mid-rib” changed to “midrib”, to match the spelling in the rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-018">102</a> one occurrence of “called” removed from “belonging to this
+    great division are called called dicotyledons”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-004">136</a> “to render the bud waterpoof” changed to “to render the bud waterproof”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-021">138</a> In “wood-sorrel is rolled into a spiral”, “wood-sorrel” is changed to “woodsorrel”, to match the spelling in the rest of the     text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-022">159</a> In “resembling the pine-apple plant”, the hyphen is removed from “pine-apple”, to match the spelling in the rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-005">202</a> “so that at length the seed-coats” changed to “so that at length the seed-coat”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-006">223</a> “PINE CONES” in the caption of the illustration, change to “PINE-CONES” (in the list of illustrations too) to match the spelling in the rest of the text and “fir-cones”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-008">232</a> “have seeds with wings lightly twisted” changed to “have seeds with wings slightly twisted”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-009">238</a> “COCOS DE MER” in the caption of the illustration is hyphenated (in the list of illustrations too) to match the spelling in the rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-023">246</a> “ivy-leafed toadflax” changed to “ivy-leafed toad-flax” to match the spelling in the rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-010">263</a> “the little epiphyte (mentioned in our first chapter), <i>Tillandsia usnoides</i>” changed to “the little epiphyte (mentioned in our first chapter), <i>Tillandsia usneoides</i>”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-012">263</a> “by decomposing the carbon dioxide” changed to “by decomposing the carbon-dioxide” to match the spelling in the rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-011">280</a> “absorbs this carbon dioxide and effects” changed to “absorbs this carbon-dioxide and effects” to match the spelling in the rest of the text;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-013">337</a> “into technical phraseology these defininition” changed to “into technical phraseology these definitions”;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-014">340</a> comma after “tuberous Umbelliferæ, earthnut” changed to period;</li>
+<li>Page <a href="#tn-015">348</a> period added after “flowering plants and shrubs”.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79061 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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