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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78921 ***
+
+
+
+
+ Transcriber’s Note
+ Italic text displayed as: _italic_
+ Bold text displayed as: =bold=
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ THE MADONNA DEL CARDELLINO.—RAPHAEL
+ (Uffizi, Florence.)
+]
+
+
+
+
+ SACRED SYMBOLS
+ IN ART
+
+ BY
+ ELIZABETH E. GOLDSMITH
+
+ _With Fifty-three Illustrations_
+
+ _SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
+ FOURTH IMPRESSION_
+
+ G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
+ NEW YORK AND LONDON
+ The Knickerbocker Press
+
+
+
+
+ COPYRIGHT, 1911
+ BY
+ ELIZABETH E. GOLDSMITH
+
+ COPYRIGHT, 1912
+ BY
+ ELIZABETH E. GOLDSMITH
+ (For Second Edition)
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ Made in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+“Let him [the traveller] not trust to his impressions from his general
+reading; there is nothing so treacherous; he may have general reading
+enough to sink a ship, but unless he has a cargo taken newly on board
+he will find himself tossing without ballast on those billowy slopes of
+the Palatine, where he will vainly try for definite anchorage.”
+
+W. D. HOWELLS’s _Roman Holidays and Others_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
+
+
+In preparing the first edition the author was strongly influenced by
+the belief _qui trop embrasse, mal étreint_. She had in mind primarily
+the traveller, who wants his information in a nutshell, is bored by
+an explanation of something that explains itself, and bewildered and
+confused by long and learned dissertations for which he has not the
+time. Thus with a subject so overwhelmingly broad, and a book that to
+be useful must necessarily be small, it seemed best to keep rigorously
+to that which, in the writer’s opinion, would add the most essentially
+to the intelligent enjoyment and appreciation of the more famous works
+of Christian art—excluding the too obvious as well as the too remote.
+
+The book has been so cordially received by students and those other
+than the traveller, that in this second edition a little additional
+matter of more general interest has been added in an appendix, whereby
+it is hoped that its value and usefulness will be increased. Certain
+suggestions courteously and helpfully extended by some of the reviewers
+have been included in this, and to them for their interest, the author
+wishes to express her warmest appreciation and thanks.
+
+ E. E. G.
+
+ NEW YORK, February, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The visitor who frequents the art galleries and churches of Europe soon
+learns to distinguish certain saints in a picture by certain symbols;
+but unless he has a knowledge also of the meaning or story that is
+conveyed by these symbols, the real beauty and significance of the
+early works of art are lost. To arrive at this knowledge, however,
+it is necessary to consult so many books that these become a serious
+encumbrance to one, going from place to place. It is hoped, therefore,
+that this handbook, designed for the use of the student and the
+traveller, may supply a genuine need.
+
+A closer study into the meaning of the early works of Christian art
+is only another outcome of the keen revival of interest in biblical
+history that is everywhere manifesting itself to-day; and indeed one
+cannot view those pictured stories of the past, those naïve and lovely
+examples of an earlier faith, without a broadening sympathy that
+finally deepens into tender reverence the more one comprehends.
+
+Believing that a clearer idea of the whole religious series of pictures
+will be obtained, the subjects here considered are treated generically
+rather than alphabetically. Thus, the symbols of the Godhead are given
+first; then the symbols of the Archangels, the symbols and legends of
+the Madonna, of John the Baptist, the Four Evangelists, the Apostles,
+and the Four Latin Fathers, and after that follow the legends of
+certain saints.
+
+The general symbols and what they expressed in religious art are given;
+also when symbols were used as _emblems_, and when they were merely
+_attributes_, and what characteristics or incidents in the life of a
+saint they expressed.
+
+A considerable portion of the book is devoted to the symbols and
+legends of the Madonna and what these were supposed to express in the
+Church and in the life of Christ. The subjects of the historical and
+devotional pictures in which she appears, with or without her divine
+Son, are given as they come in their natural order.
+
+The book includes a brief description of the significance of colours as
+employed in the early religious pictures, as well as an account of the
+general plan of dress and arrangement that was followed, more or less
+arbitrarily, by the artists of a given period. The monastic orders are
+given and the habits worn by the members of the different orders are
+described, who thus (by their dress) may be readily distinguished in
+pictures.
+
+For use and reference in the galleries, an alphabetical list of symbols
+is placed in the fore part of the book, followed by an alphabetical
+list of all but the more obscure saints, with their distinguishing
+emblems. Only the legends of the best known saints, who are constantly
+found in art, have been touched upon, the aim being to bring together
+in compact form only those facts and legends pertinent to Christian
+art. No attempt has been made to locate or describe any of the famous
+works of art, except as they are indicated under the illustrations, as
+this has been well and ably done in the guide books of Baedeker, Hare,
+and Grant Allen.
+
+In preparing this book the works of Mrs. Jameson, Didron’s _Christian
+Iconography_, Lord Lindsay’s _Sketches of Christian Art_, and the
+_Golden Legend_ in French and English have been largely drawn upon.
+
+ E. E. G.
+
+ NEW YORK, January, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ I
+
+ SYMBOLS OF THE SAINTS 1
+
+
+ II
+
+ SAINTS AND SYMBOLS 30
+
+
+ III
+
+ HISTORICAL AND DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS 64
+
+ How these may be distinguished in art.
+
+
+ IV
+
+ GENERAL SYMBOLS 67
+
+
+ V
+
+ COLOURS AS EMBLEMS 76
+
+ What colours signified in early art, and how they were
+ associated with certain personages.
+
+
+ VI
+
+ SYMBOLS OF GOD THE FATHER, THE SON, THE
+ HOLY GHOST, THE TRINITY 78
+
+
+ VII
+
+ THE SEVEN ARCHANGELS. THE THREE ARCHANGELS:
+ ST. MICHAEL, ST. GABRIEL, AND
+ ST. RAPHAEL 81
+
+
+ VIII
+
+ SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN 86
+
+ Also the Seven Joys and the Seven Sorrows of the
+ Virgin, and the Fifteen Mysteries of the Rosary.
+
+
+ IX
+
+ LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA AS REPRESENTED
+ IN THE HISTORICAL SERIES 91
+
+ These follow in regular sequence, beginning with the
+ Legend of Joachim and Anna; then the Nativity,
+ the Presentation, and the Marriage of the Virgin;
+ the Annunciation; the Visitation; the Sibyl Prophesying
+ to Augustus Cæsar the Coming of Christ;
+ the Nativity of Christ; the Adoration of the Shepherds;
+ the Adoration of the Magi; the Purification
+ of the Virgin; the Presentation and the Circumcision
+ of Christ; the Flight into Egypt; the Repose
+ of the Holy Family; the Dispute in the Temple;
+ the Death of Joseph; the Marriage at Cana;
+ the Procession to Calvary; the Crucifixion; the
+ Descent from the Cross; the Deposition; the Entombment;
+ the Apparition of Christ to His Mother
+ and to Mary Magdalene; the Ascension; the Descent
+ of the Holy Ghost; the Death and Assumption
+ of the Virgin; the Coronation of the Virgin. (How
+ the Coronation may be distinguished from the
+ Incoronata.)
+
+
+ X
+
+ DEVOTIONAL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE VIRGIN
+ MARY 122
+
+ In these she appears as the Enthroned Virgin without
+ the child, as type of heavenly wisdom; L’Incoronata,
+ the type of the Church Triumphant; the Virgin of
+ Mercy, as represented in the Last Judgment; the
+ Mater Dolorosa, the Stabat Mater, La Pietà; the
+ Lady of the Immaculate Conception; the Virgin,
+ and Child Enthroned; the Mater Amabilis.
+
+
+ XI
+
+ ST. JOHN BAPTIST 134
+
+
+ XII
+
+ THE FOUR EVANGELISTS 137
+
+ Giving their legends and attributes from the earliest
+ times. ST. MATTHEW, ST. MARK, ST. LUKE, ST.
+ JOHN.
+
+
+ XIII
+
+ THE TWELVE APOSTLES 146
+
+ Their legends and attributes. ST. PETER and ST.
+ PAUL, ST. ANDREW, ST. JAMES MAJOR, ST. PHILIP,
+ ST. BARTHOLOMEW, ST. THOMAS, ST. JAMES MINOR,
+ ST. SIMON ZELOTES, ST. JUDE (THADDEUS or LEBBEUS),
+ ST. MATTHIAS, JUDAS ISCARIOT, ST. BARNABAS.
+
+
+ XIV
+
+ ST. MARY MAGDALENE 169
+
+
+ XV
+
+ THE LAST SUPPER 175
+
+
+ XVI
+
+ THE FOUR LATIN FATHERS 177
+
+ Their legends and attributes. ST. JEROME, ST. AMBROSE,
+ ST. AUGUSTINE, ST. GREGORY.
+
+
+ XVII
+
+ THE PATRON SAINTS OF CHRISTENDOM 191
+
+ Their legends and attributes. ST. GEORGE, ST. SEBASTIAN,
+ ST. CHRISTOPHER, SS. COSMO and DAMIAN,
+ ST. ROCH, ST. NICHOLAS OF MYRA, ST. CATHERINE,
+ ST. BARBARA, ST. URSULA, ST. MARGARET.
+
+
+ XVIII
+
+ THE FOUR GREAT VIRGINS OF THE LATIN
+ CHURCH 223
+
+ Their legends and attributes. ST. CECILIA, ST. AGNES,
+ ST. AGATHA, ST. LUCY.
+
+
+ XIX
+
+ LEGENDS OF THE SAINTS MOST FREQUENTLY
+ FOUND IN ART 234
+
+ ST. STEPHEN PROTOMARTYR, ST. LAURENCE, ST.
+ VINCENT, ST. ANTHONY HERMIT, ST. BENEDICT,
+ ST. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ST. FRANCIS OF
+ ASSISI, ST. CLARA, ST. ANTHONY OF PADUA, ST.
+ BONAVENTURA, ST. LOUIS OF FRANCE, ST. LOUIS
+ OF TOULOUSE, ST. BERNARDINO OF SIENA, ST. DOMINICK,
+ ST. PETER MARTYR, ST. THOMAS AQUINAS,
+ ST. CATHERINE OF SIENA.
+
+
+ XX
+
+ THE MONASTIC ORDERS, AND THE HABITS BY
+ WHICH THEY MAY BE DISTINGUISHED 275
+
+ APPENDIX 281
+
+ INDEX 293
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ The Madonna del Cardellino (Raphael). _Uffizi,
+ Florence_ _Frontispiece_
+
+ The Baptism of Christ by St. John (Verrocchio). _Academy,
+ Florence_ 79
+
+ The Three Archangels and Tobias (Botticelli). _Academy,
+ Florence_ 82
+
+ The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple (Titian).
+ _Academy, Venice_ 93
+
+ The Annunciation (Botticelli). _Uffizi, Florence_ 97
+
+ The Visitation (Albertinelli). _Uffizi, Florence_ 99
+
+ Sibyl Prophesying to Augustus Cæsar the Coming of
+ Christ (B. Peruzzi). _Church of the Fontegiusta, Siena_ 101
+
+ The Adoration of the Shepherds (Ghirlandajo). _Academy,
+ Florence_ 104
+
+ The Adoration of the Magi (Botticelli). _Uffizi, Florence_ 106
+
+ Repose of the Holy Family—“Madonna del Sacco”
+ (Andrea del Sarto). _Church of the Annunziata,
+ Florence_ 111
+
+ The Crucifixion (Perugino). _Convent of Santa Maria
+ Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence_ 115
+
+ The Saviour Appears to Mary Magdalene—“Noli me
+ tangere” (Lorenzo di Credi). _Uffizi, Florence_ 117
+
+ Coronation of the Virgin (Fra Filippo Lippi). _Academy,
+ Florence_ 123
+
+ The Madonna Crowned (Botticelli). _Uffizi, Florence_ 124
+
+ The Madonna Enthroned (Filippino Lippi). _Uffizi,
+ Florence_ 127
+
+ The Virgin and Child (Fra Filippo Lippi). _Pitti, Florence_ 129
+
+ The Madonna del Granduca (Raphael). _Pitti, Florence_ 131
+
+ The Adoration of the Child (Perugino). _Pitti, Florence_ 133
+
+ John the Baptist in the Desert (Titian). _Academy,
+ Venice_ 135
+
+ Christ and the Four Evangelists (Fra Bartolommeo).
+ _Pitti, Florence_ 139
+
+ Madonna of the Harpies with St. Francis and St. John,
+ Evangelist (Andrea del Sarto). _Uffizi, Florence_ 143
+
+ St. Peter Baptising (Masaccio). _Brancacci Chapel, Santa
+ Maria del Carmine, Florence_ 149
+
+ St. James Major (Titian). _Church of S. Lio, Venice_ 155
+
+ La Disputa della Trinità (Andrea del Sarto). _Pitti,
+ Florence_ 171
+
+ The Last Supper (Ghirlandajo). _Ognissanti, Florence_ 175
+
+ St. Augustine and St. Jerome (Crivelli). _Academy, Venice_ 179
+
+ St. Ambrose (Borgognone). _Certosa, Pavia_ 181
+
+ St. Augustine at School (Benozzo Gozzoli). _Church of San
+ Agostino, San Gimignano_ 185
+
+ Miracle of the Brandeum (Andrea Sacchi). _Vatican,
+ Rome_ 189
+
+ St. George (Donatello). _The Bargello, Florence_ 192
+
+ St. Sebastian (Sodoma). _Uffizi, Florence_ 195
+
+ St. Christopher (Giovanni Bellini). _Church of SS. Giovanni
+ e Paolo, Venice_ 197
+
+ An Episode in the Life of St. Cosmo and St. Damian (Fra
+ Angelico). _Academy, Florence_ 201
+
+ Four Saints.—St. Roch, St. Sebastian, St. Augustine (?),
+ St. Bernardino of Siena (Carlo Crivelli). _Academy,
+ Venice_ 202-203
+
+ St. Nicholas (Titian). _Church of San Sebastiano, Venice_ 207
+
+ St. Catherine (Lucas Cranach). _Dresden Gallery_ 209
+
+ St. Barbara (Lucas Cranach). _Dresden Gallery_ 212
+
+ Detail from the Martyrdom of St. Ursula (V. Carpaccio).
+ _Academy, Venice_ 215
+
+ St. Margaret (School of Correggio). _Dresden Gallery_ 221
+
+ St. Cecilia (Carlo Dolci). _Dresden Gallery_ 224
+
+ St. Agnes (Spagnoletto). _Dresden Gallery_ 227
+
+ Santa Lucia (Carlo Dolci). _Uffizi, Florence_ 231
+
+ St. Anthony with the Fire (Palma Vecchio). _Church of
+ S. Maria Formosa, Venice_ 239
+
+ St. Benedict (Hans Memling.) _Uffizi, Florence_ 245
+
+ The Madonna Appearing to St. Bernard (Filippino Lippi).
+ _Church of the Badia, Florence_ 249
+
+ St. Francis (Simone Martini). _Church of S. Francesco,
+ Assisi_ 251
+
+ St. Clara (Simone Martini). _Church of S. Francesco,
+ Assisi_ 255
+
+ St. Anthony (School of Giotto). _Basilica of S. Antonio,
+ Padua_ 257
+
+ St. Bonaventura (A. Bronzino). _Academy, Florence_ 261
+
+ St. Dominick. Detail from the Crucifixion (Fra Angelico),
+ _San Marco, Florence_ 267
+
+ St. Peter Martyr (Fra Angelico). _San Marco, Florence_ 269
+
+ St. Thomas Aquinas (Fra Angelico). _San Marco, Florence_ 271
+
+ St. Catherine of Siena (Vanni). _Church of San Domenico,
+ Siena_ 273
+
+ A Vallombrosan Monk (Perugino). _Academy, Florence_ 276
+
+
+
+
+SACRED SYMBOLS IN ART
+
+
+
+
+Sacred Symbols in Art
+
+
+
+
+I.—SYMBOLS OF THE SAINTS
+
+
+ ANCHOR in his hand, or at his St. Clement, Martyr, A. D.
+ side, or suspended around 100. Third Bishop of
+ his neck. Pope’s or Bishop’s Rome.
+ robes.
+
+ ANCHOR. Three balls, or three St. Nicholas of Myra, A. D.
+ purses. Three children in a 326. Patron saint of Russia,
+ tub. Bishop’s robes. Ship. Venice, and Freiberg, of
+ children, sailors, travellers,
+ etc.
+
+ ANGEL or man. Purse, or bag St. Matthew, Apostle and
+ of money. Book. Pen and Evangelist, Martyr.
+ ink-horn.
+
+ ANGEL. Organ. Musical instruments. St. Cecilia, Virgin Martyr,
+ Crown of red A. D. 280. Patron saint of
+ and white roses. Palm. music and musicians.
+ Scroll of music.
+
+ ANGEL holding a book. Benedictine St. Francesca Romana, A. D.
+ habit. 1440.
+
+ ANGEL holding basket with St. Dorothea of Cappadocia,
+ apples and roses. Crown. Virgin Martyr, A. D. 303.
+ Palm. Sometimes roses in
+ her hand or crowned with
+ roses.
+
+ ANGEL with flame-tipped arrow. St. Theresa, A. D. 1582. Patron
+ Dove. Carmelite saint of Spain. Founder
+ habit. Heart with I. H. S. of the Scalzi, reformed
+ Lily. Crucifix. Carmelites.
+
+ ANGEL with two captives. St. John de Matha, A. D.
+ Fetters in his hand, or at 1213. Founder of the
+ his feet. White habit. Trinitarian Order for the
+ Blue and red cross upon redemption of captives.
+ his breast.
+
+ ANGEL with pyx. Franciscan St. Bonaventura, A. D. 1274.
+ habit. Cardinal’s hat at
+ his feet, or on a tree.
+
+ ANGEL holding a shield on St. Clotilda of Burgundy,
+ which are three fleur-de-lys. A. D. 534.
+
+ ANGEL ploughing in the St. Isidore the ploughman,
+ background. Spade. Found in A. D. 1170.
+ Spanish art.
+
+ ANGELS crowning her with St. Rosalia of Palermo,
+ roses. Crucifix. A. D. 1160.
+
+ ANVIL in hands, or at feet. St. Adrian, Martyr, A. D. 290.
+ Sometimes lion, sometimes Patron saint of Flanders
+ sword or axe lying beside and Germany, of soldiers,
+ anvil. and against the plague.
+
+ ANVIL. Blacksmith’s tools. St. Eloy, Lo, or Sant’ Eligio,
+ Blacksmith’s or Bishop’s A. D. 659. Patron saint of
+ dress. Crozier. Book. Bologna, blacksmiths,
+ goldsmiths, and of horses.
+
+ ARROW. Crown. Banner with St. Ursula, Virgin Martyr,
+ a red cross. Dove. Mantle 237 or 383 or 451. Patron
+ sheltering virgins. saint of young girls, and
+ teachers.
+
+ ARROW, hind pierced by, in St. Giles, Hermit, A. D. 725.
+ his arms or at his feet. Old. Patron saint of Edinburgh,
+ Benedictine habit. of woods, cripples, beggars,
+ and lepers.
+
+ ARROW in his hand. Royal St. Edmund, King and Martyr,
+ robes. Wolf. A. D. 870. Patron
+ saint of Bury St. Edmunds.
+
+ ARROWS, pierced by. Bound St. Sebastian, Martyr, A. D.
+ to a column. Angel with 288. Patron saint against
+ crown and palm. pestilence.
+
+ ARROWS. Palm. Crown. St. Christina, Virgin Martyr,
+ Millstone. A. D. 295. Patron saint of
+ Bolsena, and Venice.
+
+ AWL or shoemaker’s knife. St. Crispin and St. Crispianus,
+ Palms. Two saints together. Martyrs, A. D. 300. Patron
+ saints of Soissons.
+
+ AXE, lictor’s. Two-pronged St. Martina, Virgin Martyr,
+ fork. Young. A. D. 230.
+
+ AXE in his hand. Sometimes St. Proculus, Martyr, A. D.
+ an angel holds the axe. 303. Patron saint of
+ Sword. Carrying a head in Bologna.
+ both hands.
+
+ BALLS (three). Bishop’s St. Nicholas of Myra, A. D.
+ robes. Sometimes three 326. Patron saint of Russia,
+ purses, or three children in Venice, Freiberg, of children,
+ a tub. Sometimes ship in school-boys, sailors,
+ the background. travellers, merchants,
+ and against thieves.
+
+ BANNER, with red cross. St. Ursula, Virgin Martyr.
+ Crown. Dove. Arrow. Dates uncertain, 237, 383,
+ Mantle sheltering virgins, or 451. Patron saint of
+ or surrounded by virgins. young girls, and women
+ teachers.
+
+ BANNER with black Imperial St. Wenceslaus of Bohemia,
+ eagle. Palm. Royal robes. Martyr, A. D. 938.
+
+ BANNER. Young. Richly St. Julian of Cilicia, Martyr.
+ dressed. Sword. Palm. Patron saint of Rimini.
+
+ BANNER, white with a red St. Torpé, Martyr, A. D. 70.
+ cross. Roman armour. Patron saint of Pisa.
+ Found only in churches of
+ Pisa.
+
+ BANNER, white with a red St. Reparata, Virgin Martyr,
+ cross. Crown. Palm. third century. Formerly
+ Sometimes wears a red patron saint of Florence.
+ and white mantle.
+
+ BEASTS, surrounded by. St. Thecla, Virgin Martyr,
+ Young. Dark brown or first century. Patron saint
+ grey mantle. Palm. of Tarragona.
+
+ BEEHIVE at his feet. Books. St. Ambrose, A. D. 397. One
+ Knotted scourge with three of the Four Latin Fathers
+ thongs. Two human bones. of the Church. Patron
+ Bishop’s robes. Mitre. saint of Milan.
+ Crozier.
+
+ BEEHIVE. Demon bound. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, A. D.
+ Three mitres on a book or 1153. Founder of the
+ at his feet. Pen, papers, Cistercian Order of Reformed
+ ink-horn. White habit. Benedictines.
+
+ BEGGAR, kneeling at his feet. St. Juan de Dios, A. D. 1550.
+ In his hands a pomegranate Founder of the Hospitallers,
+ surmounted by a cross. or Brothers of Charity.
+ Long beard. Capuchin
+ habit.
+
+ BEGGAR at feet, or dividing St. Martin of Tours, A. D.
+ his cloak with a beggar. 397. Patron saint of
+ Goose. Bishop’s robes, or Tours, Lucca, and penitent
+ as a soldier. drunkards.
+
+ BEGGAR, or cripple, at her feet. St. Elizabeth of Hungary,
+ Sometimes three crowns. A A. D. 1231.
+ lapful of roses. Robes of royalty,
+ or Franciscan habit.
+
+ BEGGAR’S dish. Pilgrim’s St. Alexis, A. D. 400. Patron
+ habit, worn and ragged. saint of beggars and pilgrims.
+ Palm. Cross.
+
+ BEGGARS, giving alms to. St. Elizabeth of Portugal,
+ Widow’s veil. Crown. A. D. 1336.
+ Old. Franciscan habit.
+
+ BELL. Sometimes cruse and St. Pol-de-Léon, A. D. 573.
+ loaf. Driving dragon into
+ the sea.
+
+ BELL. Crutch. Asperges. St. Anthony, Hermit, A. D. 357.
+ Hog. Skull. Crucifix.
+ Flames of fire. Monk’s habit.
+
+ BLACKSMITH with anvil, hammer, St. Eloy, Lo, or Sant’ Eligio,
+ tongs and bellows. A. D. 659. Patron saint
+ Sometimes Bishop’s robes of Bologna, of goldsmiths,
+ and blacksmith’s tools. locksmiths, blacksmiths,
+ and horses.
+
+ BLOOD flowing from his head. St. Thomas à Becket, A. D. 1170.
+ Benedictine habit or Bishop’s robes.
+
+ BLOOD trickling from his head. St. Peter Martyr, A. D. 1252.
+ Sometimes with sword or
+ axe in his head. Palm.
+ Dominican habit.
+
+ BONES, two human. Beehive. St. Ambrose, A. D. 397. One
+ Knotted scourge. Books. of the Four Latin Fathers.
+ Bishop’s robes. Mitre. Crozier. Patron saint of Milan.
+
+ BOOK stained with blood, or St. Boniface, A. D. 755.
+ transfixed by a sword. Bishop’s Archbishop of Mayence, and
+ robes over the Benedictine habit. Apostle of Germany.
+
+ BOOKS at his feet. Infant by St. Augustine, A. D. 430. One
+ seashore. Heart flaming or of the Four Latin Fathers of
+ transfixed by an arrow. the Church.
+ Bishop’s robes. Mitre. Crozier.
+
+ BOOKS, his magical, trampling St. Cyprian of Antioch, Martyr,
+ under his feet. Sword. A. D. 304.
+ Palm. Bishop’s robes
+ (without the mitre).
+
+ BOTTLE on the end of a staff. St. James the Great, Apostle
+ Cloak. Wallet. Scallop-shell. and Martyr. Patron saint
+ of Spain.
+
+ BOTTLES or Flasks. Loose St. Omobuono. Patron saint
+ tunic and cap, trimmed with of Cremona, and of tailors.
+ fur. Giving alms to the (Sometimes difficult to
+ poor. distinguish from St. Roch.)
+
+ BOX or vase of alabaster. St. Mary Magdalene, A. D.
+ Long fair hair. Skull. 68. Patron saint of
+ Crucifix. Marseilles, Provence, and of
+ frail, and penitent women.
+
+ BOX of ointment. Surgical St. Cosmo and St. Damian,
+ instruments. Two men Martyrs, A. D. 301. Patron
+ together in red robes. saints of medicine,
+ and of the Medici family.
+
+ BRANCH of olive in his hand. St. Bernard of Tolomei, A. D.
+ White habit. 1319. Founder of the
+ Order of Olivetani, reformed
+ Benedictines.
+
+ BRANCH, encircling his loins. St. Onofrio, Hermit of Thebes,
+ Old, wasted, half-naked, fourth or fifth century.
+ long hair and beard.
+
+ BUILDINGS in his hand. Bishop’s St. Petronius, A. D. 430.
+ robes. Patron saint of Bologna.
+
+ CALDRON of oil. Cock. Lion. St. Vitus, Martyr, A. D. 303.
+ Wolf. Palm. Young and Patron saint of Sicily,
+ beautiful. Bohemia, Saxony, of actors
+ and dancers, and against
+ nervous diseases and late
+ rising.
+
+ CANDLE, lighted. Demon St. Geneviève, A. D. 509.
+ trying to extinguish it with Patron saint of Paris.
+ bellows. Book. Basket
+ of provisions and holding
+ loaf of bread. Sheep.
+ Distaff. Spindle.
+
+ CANDLE on his head, or in St. Erasmus, or Elmo, Martyr,
+ his hand. Small wheel. A. D. 296.
+ Old. Bishop’s robes.
+
+ CAPTIVE kneeling at her feet. St. Radegunda, A. D. 587.
+ Broken fetters in her hands. Protectress of the Order of
+ Royal crown. Long veil. Trinitarians for the
+ redemption of captives.
+
+ CARDINAL’S HAT, near him St. Jerome, A. D. 420. One
+ or at his feet. Cardinal’s of the Four Latin Fathers.
+ robes, or old, ragged, long Founder of Monachism in
+ beard. Skull. Books. the West. Patron saint of
+ Lion. Church in his hand. learning, theology,
+ scholars.
+
+ CARDINAL’S HAT on the bough St. Bonaventura, A. D. 1274.
+ of a tree or at his feet.
+ Franciscan habit. Pyx.
+
+ CARDINAL’S robes (only found St. Bernard degli Uberti, Abbot
+ with other Vallombrosan of Vallombrosa.
+ saints).
+
+ CARPENTER’S or builder’s St. Thomas, Apostle and Martyr.
+ square. Patron saint of architects
+ and builders.
+
+ CENSER. Book. Benedictine St. Maurus, A. D. 584.
+ habit or dressed as a deacon.
+ Usually with St. Benedict
+ and St. Placidus.
+
+ CHALICE or sacramental cup. St. Thomas Aquinas,
+ Sun on his breast. Books. A. D. 1274.
+ Pen. Dove. Dominican habit.
+
+ CHECKERED HABIT, Cord of St. Margaret of Cortona,
+ St. Francis. Dog at her feet. A. D. 297.
+
+ CHILD in his arms or at his St. Vincent de Paule, A. D.
+ feet. Franciscan habit. 1660. Founder of the
+ Nun kneeling at feet. Sisters of Charity.
+
+ CHILD on his shoulders, walking St. Christopher, A. D. 364.
+ through water. Huge
+ staff. Monk in background.
+
+ CHILD-CHRIST in his arms St. Anthony of Padua,
+ or on a book. Book. Lily. A. D. 1231.
+ Crucifix. Flame in his
+ hand or on his breast.
+ Mule kneeling.
+
+ CHILDREN, three, in a tub. St. Nicholas of Myra, A. D.
+ Three balls, or three purses. 326. Patron saint of Russia,
+ Anchor. Bishop’s robes. Venice, Freiberg, school-boys,
+ Sometimes ship in the background. sailors, travellers,
+ merchants, and against
+ thieves.
+
+ CHURCH in her hand. Royal St. Cunegunda of Bavaria,
+ robes. Walking over A. D. 1040.
+ ploughshares.
+
+ CHURCH in his hand. In St. Henry of Bavaria,
+ armour. Crown. Sword. A. D. 1024.
+ Orb of sovereignty.
+
+ CHURCH with two towers in St. Sebald, A. D. 770.
+ his hand. Pilgrim’s dress.
+ Staff. Wallet. Shell.
+
+ CLOAK, dividing with a beggar. St. Martin of Tours, A. D.
+ Beggar at his feet. Goose. 397. Patron saint of
+ Bishop’s robes, or as a soldier. Tours, Lucca, and of
+ penitent drunkards.
+
+ CLUB. St. James Minor, Apostle and
+ Martyr.
+
+ COMB, iron, Bishop’s robes. St. Blaise, Martyr, A. D. 289.
+ Patron saint of
+ wool-combers, wild animals,
+ and against diseases of the
+ throat.
+
+ CROSS, transversed, shaped St. Andrew, Apostle and Martyr.
+ thus—❌. Gospel. White Patron saint of Scotland
+ hair and beard. and Russia.
+
+ CROSS. Crutch. Beardless. St. John Gualberto, A. D.
+ Light grey habit. 1073. Founder of the
+ Vallombrosan Order of
+ Reformed Benedictines.
+
+ CROSS at the end of a staff or St. Philip, Apostle and Martyr.
+ crozier, or small cross in his
+ hand or T-shaped.
+
+ CROSS, blue and red, on his St. John de Matha, A. D.
+ breast. White habit. 1213. Founder of the Order
+ Angel leading captives. of Trinitarians.
+
+ CROSS. Lily. Javelins. Palm. St. Miniato, Martyr, A. D. 254.
+ Crown. Cross T-shaped. Scarlet robe.
+
+ CROSS. Pyx. Lily. Franciscan St. Clara, A. D. 1253. Founder
+ habit. Black veil. of the Order of Poor
+ Clares, Franciscan nuns.
+
+ CROSS. Dragon under her feet. St. Margaret, Virgin Martyr,
+ Crown. Palm. A. D. 306.
+
+ CROSS, red, on his breast. In St. Maurice, Martyr, A. D.
+ armour. Sometimes as a 286. Patron saint of Austria,
+ Moor, or with eagle on Savoy, and Mantua,
+ banner or shield. and of foot soldiers.
+
+ CROSS, large. Robes of royalty. St. Oswald, A. D. 642.
+
+
+ CROSS, large. Royal robes. St. Helena, A. D. 328. Mother
+ of Constantine the Great.
+
+ CROWN and sceptre at his St. Procopius, A. D. 1053.
+ feet. Doe by his side.
+ Hermit’s garb.
+
+ CROWN and sceptre at his feet. St. Louis of Toulouse,
+ Young. Beardless. Fleur-de-lys A. D. 1297.
+ embroidered on
+ Bishop’s robes. Mitre.
+ Sometimes Franciscan habit.
+
+ CROWN and sceptre at his St. Casimir of Poland,
+ feet, or by his side. Lily. A. D. 1483.
+ Royal robes. Young.
+
+ CROWN. Palm. In the Benedictine St. Flavia, Martyr, A. D. 540.
+ groups.
+
+ CROWN OF THORNS. Stigmata. St. Catherine of Siena,
+ Lily. Dominican habit. A. D. 1380.
+
+ CROWN OF THORNS in his St. Louis IX., King of France,
+ hand. Sword. Sceptre. A. D. 1270.
+ Crown. Franciscan habit
+ or royal robes.
+
+ CROWNS, three, embroidered St. Charlemagne, A. D. 814.
+ on his robe. Globe. Cross.
+ In armour. Ermine mantle.
+
+ CRUCIFIX wreathed with a St. Nicholas of Tolentino,
+ lily. Star on his breast. A. D. 1309.
+ Gospel. Augustine habit.
+
+ CRUCIFIX. Sometimes wings. St. Vincent Ferraris,
+ Dominican habit. A. D. 1419.
+
+ CRUCIFIX. Lily. Surplice St. Francis Xavier, A. D. 1552.
+ over black habit. Patron saint of India.
+
+ CRUCIFIX. Pyx. Dominican habit. St. Hyacinth, A. D. 1257.
+
+
+ CRUTCH, sometimes with a St. Anthony, Hermit, A. D. 357.
+ bell suspended from it.
+ Hog. Asperges. Flames
+ of fire in the background.
+ Skull. Crucifix. Monk’s
+ habit.
+
+ CRUTCH. Long white beard. St. Romualdo, A. D. 1027.
+ White habit. Founder of the Order of
+ Camaldolesi, reformed
+ Benedictines.
+
+ CUP, with serpent. Eagle. St. John, Apostle and
+ Pen. Book. Evangelist.
+
+ CUP, or pitcher broken. Thorn St. Benedict, A. D. 543.
+ bush. Broken sieve. Raven Founder of the Benedictine
+ with a loaf in its beak. Order.
+ Asperges. Mitre. Staff.
+ Black habit.
+
+ CUP, broken. Palm. St. Donato of Arezzo, Martyr.
+
+ CUP, and sponge with drops St. Pudentiana, A. D. 148.
+ of blood.
+
+ CUP and wafer. Tower with St. Barbara, Virgin Martyr,
+ three windows. Book. A. D. 303. Patron saint
+ Sword. Palm. Feather. of Ferrara, and Mantua,
+ armourers, fortifications,
+ and against thunder and
+ lightning.
+
+ DATES, cluster of, on palm. St. Ansano, Martyr. Patron
+ Cross. Young. Richly saint of Siena.
+ dressed.
+
+ DEMON, bound. Beehive. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, A. D.
+ Pen, papers, ink-horn. 1153. Founder of the
+ White habit. Three mitres Cistercian Order of Reformed
+ on a book, or at his feet. Benedictines.
+
+ DEMON trying to blow out a St. Gudula, A. D. 712. Patron
+ lantern. saint of Brussels.
+
+ DEMON, holding bellows, and St. Geneviève, A. D. 509.
+ trying to blow out lighted Patron saint of Paris.
+ taper. Distaff. Sheep.
+ Spindle. Book. Sometimes
+ basket of provisions.
+
+ DISH. Pilgrim’s habit, old St. Alexis, A. D. 400. Patron
+ and worn. Cross. Palm. saint of pilgrims and beggars.
+
+ DISH, eyes on. Lamp. Awl. St. Lucy, Virgin Martyr,
+ Sword or wound in her A. D. 303. Patron saint of
+ neck from which stream Syracuse and against
+ rays of light. Palm. diseases of the eye.
+
+ DOG, with a torch in its St. Dominick, A. D. 1221.
+ mouth. Lily. Book. Founder of the Dominican
+ Star on his forehead. Rosary. Order.
+ Dominican habit.
+
+ DOG. Pilgrim’s habit. Staff. St. Roch, A. D. 1327. Patron
+ Wallet and cockle-shell. saint of prisoners, and those
+ Pointing to wound in his stricken with plague.
+ leg.
+
+ DOG at her feet. Checkered habit. St. Margaret of Cortona,
+ A. D. 1297.
+
+ DOVE. Lily. Benedictine habit. St. Scholastica, sister of St.
+ Benedict, A. D. 543.
+
+ DOVE on his shoulder or St. Gregory, A. D. 604. One
+ close to his ear. Pope’s of the Four Latin Fathers
+ robes. Tiara. Crozier of the Church.
+ with double cross. Book.
+
+ DRAGON at his feet. In armour. St. George, Martyr, A. D. 303.
+ Standard. Lance. Palm. Patron saint of England,
+ Germany, Venice,
+ soldiers and armourers.
+
+ DRAGON, small, its mouth St. Sylvester, Pope, A. D. 335.
+ bound with threads. Bull.
+ Holding or pointing to the
+ portraits of St. Peter and
+ St. Paul. Pope’s robes.
+ Mitre. Sometimes triple
+ tiara.
+
+ DRAGON under his feet. In St. Theodore, Martyr,
+ armour. A. D. 319. Patron saint of
+ Venice.
+
+ DRAGON at his feet. Bishop’s St. Mercuriale, second century.
+ robes. Bishop of Forli.
+
+ DRAGON under her feet. St. Margaret, Virgin Martyr,
+ Crown. Cross. Palm. A. D. 306.
+
+ DRAGON, bound at her feet. St. Martha of Bethany,
+ Asperges. Pot of holy A. D. 84. Patron saint of
+ water. Bunch of keys. cooks and housewives.
+ Skimmer or ladle.
+
+ DRAGON, driving into the sea. St. Pol-de-Léon, A. D. 573.
+ Bell. Sometimes loaf and
+ cruse.
+
+ EAGLE by her side. Lion. St. Prisca, Virgin Martyr,
+ Palm. A. D. 275.
+
+ EAGLE. Sometimes cup with St. John the Evangelist.
+ serpent. Pen. Book.
+
+ EYES, on a dish. Sword or St. Lucy, Virgin Martyr,
+ wound in her neck. Lamp. A. D. 303. Patron saint of
+ Palm. Syracuse, and against
+ diseases of the eye.
+
+ EYES, two, on a book. Crozier, St. Ottilia, Martyr, A. D. 720.
+ or palm. Benedictine habit. Patron saint of Alsace, and
+ Strasburg, and against
+ diseases of the eye.
+
+ FACE of Christ on a napkin. St. Veronica, Martyr.
+
+ FALCON. In armour, or as a St. Bavon, A. D. 657. Patron
+ hermit praying in a hollow saint of Ghent, and Haarlem.
+ tree. Huge stone.
+
+ FETTERS and chains. Crozier. St. Leonard, A. D. 559. Patron
+ Book. Deacon’s dress, or saint of prisoners, and
+ Benedictine habit. captives.
+
+ FETTERS and chains in her St. Balbina, A. D. 130. She
+ hand. Found only in Rome. was the daughter of the
+ Prefect Quirinus, and
+ discovered the lost chains
+ of St. Peter.
+
+ FINGER on his lip. Sometimes St. John Nepomuck, A. D. 1393.
+ with mouth padlocked. Patron saint of
+ Five stars over his head. bridges, and running water,
+ of silence, and against
+ slander.
+
+ FIRE near him or in the background. St. Anthony, Hermit, A. D. 357.
+ Crutch with bell.
+ Hog. Asperges. Skull.
+ Crucifix. Monk’s habit.
+
+ FIRE, throwing water on a St. Florian, Martyr. Patron
+ burning house. Millstone. saint of Austria.
+
+ FISH. Keys. Cross. Cock. St. Peter, Apostle and Martyr.
+
+ FISH with a key in its mouth. St. Benno, A. D. 1100.
+ Bishop’s robes.
+
+ FISH. Bishop’s robes. St. Ulrich, A. D. 973. Patron
+ saint of Augsburg.
+
+ FISH suspended from his crozier. St. Zeno, A. D. 380. Patron
+ Bishop’s robes. saint of Verona.
+
+ FISH at his feet. Bishop’s robes. St. Corentin of Brittany,
+ A. D. 495.
+
+ FLAME OF FIRE in his hand St. Anthony of Padua,
+ or on his breast. Infant A. D. 1231.
+ Christ in his arms or on
+ his book. Lily. Crucifix.
+ Mule kneeling. Franciscan
+ habit.
+
+ FLEUR-DE-LYS embroidered St. Louis of Toulouse,
+ on Bishop’s robes. Mitre. A. D. 1297.
+ Crown and sceptre at his
+ feet. Young and beardless.
+ Sometimes Franciscan habit.
+
+ FLEUR-DE-LYS embroidered on St. Louis IX., King of France,
+ royal robes. Crown and A. D. 1270.
+ sceptre at his feet. Holding
+ crown of thorns. Sometimes
+ Franciscan habit.
+
+ FLOWERS, three. Swan. Carthusian St. Hugh of Lincoln,
+ habit. A. D. 1126.
+
+ FORK, two-pronged. Lictor’s St. Martina, Virgin Martyr,
+ axe. A. D. 230.
+
+ FOUNTAIN. Sometimes head St. Alban, A. D. 305.
+ in his hand. Sword. England’s protomartyr.
+
+ GLOBE and cross. Three St. Charlemagne, A. D. 814.
+ crowns embroidered on his
+ robe. In armour. Ermine mantle.
+
+ GOOSE. Dividing his cloak St. Martin of Tours,
+ with a beggar. Beggar at A. D. 397. Patron saint of
+ his feet. Sometimes as Tours, and Lucca, and of
+ soldier, or in Bishop’s robes. penitent drunkards.
+
+ GRIDIRON. Deacon’s robes. St. Laurence, A. D. 258.
+ Sometimes gridiron embroidered Patron saint of Nuremberg,
+ on his robe. Palm. and Genoa.
+
+ HAIR and beard long. Half-naked. St. Paul, the Hermit of
+ Very old. Sometimes Thebes, A. D. 344.
+ a raven near.
+
+ HALBERD (in Germany). St. Jude or Thaddeus, Apostle
+ and Martyr.
+
+ HARROW. Bishop’s robes. St. Frediano of Lucca,
+ A. D. 560.
+
+ HAT, Cardinal’s, near. Sometimes St. Jerome, A. D. 420. One
+ Cardinal’s robes. of the Four Latin Fathers
+ Old. Wasted. Long beard. of the Church.
+ Books. Skull. Crucifix.
+ Lion. Church in his hand.
+
+ HAT, Cardinal’s, hanging on St. Bonaventura, A. D. 1274.
+ a tree or at his feet. Angel
+ with pyx. Book. Cardinal’s
+ robes, or Franciscan habit.
+
+ HAWK. Shield with nine balls. St. Quirinus the Tribune,
+ A. D. 130.
+
+ HEAD, blood flowing from, St. Peter Martyr, A. D. 1252.
+ or pierced by an axe or
+ sword. Palm. Crucifix.
+ Dominican habit.
+
+ HEAD, blood flowing from, or St. Thomas à Becket,
+ pierced by a sword. Benedictine A. D. 1170.
+ habit or Bishop’s robes.
+
+ HEAD of a man under her St. Catherine of Alexandria,
+ feet. Wheel. Crown. Virgin Martyr, A. D. 307.
+ Palm. Book. Receiving Patron saint of Venice,
+ ring from the Christ-Child. philosophy, science,
+ students, and against
+ diseases of the tongue.
+
+ HEAD, carrying his own. St. Clair, Martyr, third
+ Found only in Rouen. century.
+
+ HEAD, carrying in both hands, St. Proculus, Martyr,
+ or axe in his hand, or angel A. D. 303. Patron saint of
+ holding an axe. In armour. Bologna.
+ Sword.
+
+ HEAD in his hand. Sword. St. Alban, A. D. 305. England’s
+ Fountain. protomartyr.
+
+ HEAD, carrying his own. Bishop’s St. Denis, Martyr,
+ robes. first century.
+
+ HEAD, carrying her own. Palm. St. Valerie, Martyr.
+
+ HEAD, carrying St. Alexander’s, St. Grata, A. D. 300.
+ accompanied by St. Adelaide
+ as Queen with a veil,
+ St. Lupo with crown, and
+ St. Alexander in armour. Palm.
+
+ HEART, flaming or transfixed St. Augustine, A. D. 430. One
+ by an arrow. Infant by the of the Four Latin Fathers of
+ seashore. Book in his hand the Church.
+ or at his feet. Bishop’s
+ robes. Mitre. Crozier.
+
+ HEART with I. H. S. Angel St. Theresa, A. D. 1582.
+ with flame-tipped arrow. Patron saint of Spain.
+ Dove. Lily. Crucifix. Founder of the Scalzi,
+ Carmelite habit. reformed Carmelites.
+
+ HEART, crowned by thorns. St. Ignatius Loyola, A. D.
+ I. H. S. in the skies, or on 1556. Founder of the
+ a tablet borne by angels. Jesuit Order.
+
+ HERMIT praying in a hollow St. Bavon, A. D. 657. Patron
+ tree, or as a prince in saint of Ghent and Haarlem.
+ armour, with falcon in his
+ hand. Huge stone.
+
+ HIND, pierced by an arrow, St. Giles, Hermit, A. D. 725.
+ in his arms or at his feet. Patron saint of Edinburgh,
+ Old. Benedictine habit. of woods, cripples, beggars,
+ lepers.
+
+ HOG. Bell and crutch. Asperges. St. Anthony, Hermit, A. D. 357.
+ Flames of fire in Patron saint against
+ the background. Skull. fire, here and hereafter.
+ Crucifix. Monk’s habit.
+
+ HORSES, tied to wild. Bunch St. Hippolytus, Martyr,
+ of keys. Sometimes iron A. D. 258. The jailer of
+ comb. In armour. St. Laurence.
+
+ I. H. S. on a tablet surrounded St. Bernardino of Siena,
+ by rays. Sometimes three A. D. 1444. Founder of the
+ mitres, or three mounds Order of Observants,
+ surmounted by a standard reformed Franciscans.
+ or cross. Franciscan habit.
+
+ I. H. S. on heart. Angel with St. Theresa, A. D. 1582.
+ flame-tipped arrow. Dove. Patron saint of Spain.
+ Lily. Crucifix. Carmelite Founder of the Scalzi,
+ habit. reformed Carmelites.
+
+ I. H. S. in the sky, or on a St. Ignatius Loyola,
+ tablet borne by angels. A. D. 1556. Founder of the
+ Heart crowned by thorns. Jesuits.
+
+ INSTRUMENTS, surgical. Box St. Cosmo and St. Damian,
+ of ointment. Two men in Martyrs, A. D. 301. Patron
+ red robes. Palms. saints of medicine, and the
+ Medici family.
+
+ JAVELIN, with the point reversed. St. Filomena, Martyr,
+ Lily. Palm. A. D. 303.
+
+ JAVELIN or lance at his feet. St. Lambert, Martyr,
+ Palm. Bishop’s robes. A. D. 709.
+
+ JAVELINS. Lily. Crown. St. Miniato, Martyr,
+ T-shaped cross. Palm. A. D. 254.
+ Scarlet robe.
+
+ JUDGE or Doctor of Laws. St. Ives of Bretagne,
+ Sometimes surrounded by A. D. 1303. Patron saint of
+ widows and orphans. Sometimes lawyers.
+ wears the Franciscan
+ cord around his furred robe.
+
+ KEYS. Fish. Cross. Cock. St. Peter, Apostle and Martyr.
+
+ KEYS at her girdle. Dragon St. Martha of Bethany,
+ bound at her feet. Pot of A. D. 84. Patron saint of
+ holy water. Asperges. cooks and housewives.
+ Skimmer or ladle.
+
+ KNIFE. Sometimes carrying St. Bartholomew, Apostle and
+ his own skin. Martyr.
+
+ KNIFE, shoemaker’s, or awl. St. Crispin and St. Crispianus,
+ Palm. Two saints together. Martyrs, A. D. 300. Patron
+ saints of Soissons.
+
+ LABARUM or Standard of the St. Constantine, A. D. 335.
+ Cross. As Roman Emperor
+ or warrior.
+
+ LAMB. Reed cross. Scroll. St. John the Baptist. Patron
+ Camel’s hair garment. saint of Florence, and all
+ who are baptised.
+
+ LAMB. Hair as a cloak. St. Agnes, Virgin Martyr,
+ Olive branch. Crown. Palm. A. D. 304.
+
+ LAMB. Stigmata. Lily. St. Francis of Assisi,
+ Skull. Crucifix. Franciscan habit. A. D. 1226. Founder of the
+ Franciscan Order.
+
+ LAMP. Eyes on a dish. Sword St. Lucy, Virgin Martyr,
+ or wound in her neck. Palm. A. D. 303. Patron saint of
+ Syracuse, and against
+ diseases of the eye.
+
+ LILY. Crutch or stick. St. Joseph, husband of the
+ Blessed Virgin.
+
+ LILY. Lamb. Stigmata. St. Francis of Assisi,
+ Skull. Crucifix. Franciscan habit. A. D. 1226. Founder of the
+ Franciscan Order.
+
+ LILY. Flame of fire in his St. Anthony of Padua,
+ hand or on his breast. A. D. 1231.
+ Infant Christ in his arms
+ or on his book. Mule kneeling.
+ Crucifix. Franciscan
+ habit.
+
+ LILY. Star on his forehead. St. Dominick, A. D. 1221.
+ Dog with torch in its mouth. Founder of the Dominican
+ Rosary. Book. Dominican habit. Order.
+
+ LILY. Crown and sceptre St. Casimir of Poland,
+ at his feet. Royal robes. Young. A. D. 1483.
+
+ LILY. Crucifix. Surplice over St. Francis Xavier,
+ black habit. A. D. 1552. Patron saint of
+ India.
+
+ LILY. Pyx. Cross. Franciscan St. Clara, A. D. 1253. Founder
+ habit. Black veil. of the Order of Poor Clares,
+ Franciscan nuns.
+
+ LILY. Crown of thorns. St. Catherine of Siena,
+ Stigmata. Dominican habit. A. D. 1380.
+
+ LILY. Sword. Palm. Lion St. Euphemia, Virgin Martyr,
+ at her side. A. D. 307.
+
+ LION, generally winged. St. Mark, Evangelist and
+ Bishop’s robes. Book. Martyr.
+
+ LION. Old, ragged, wasted. St. Jerome, A. D. 420. One
+ Long beard. Skull. Crucifix. of the Four Latin Fathers
+ Book, or Cardinal’s of the Church. Founder of
+ robes. Church in his hand. Monachism in the West.
+ Cardinal’s hat near. Patron saint of scholars.
+
+ MILLSTONE. In armour. St. Victor of Marseilles,
+ Martyr, A. D. 303.
+
+ MILLSTONE. Throwing water St. Florian. A patron saint
+ on a burning house. of Austria.
+
+ MILLSTONE. Crown. Arrows. Palm. St. Christina, Martyr,
+ A. D. 295. Patron saint of
+ Bolsena and Venice.
+
+ MITRES, three, on a book St. Bernard of Clairvaux,
+ or at his feet. Beehive. A. D. 1153. Founder of the
+ Ink-horn, pen, and papers. Cistercians, reformed
+ Demon bound. White habit. Benedictines.
+
+ MITRES, three. I. H. S. on St. Bernardino of Siena,
+ a tablet surrounded by A. D. 1444. Founder of the
+ rays. Three mounds surmounted Order of Observants,
+ by the Standard reformed Franciscans.
+ or Cross. Franciscan habit.
+
+ MOOR, in armour, or with St. Maurice, Martyr, A. D. 286.
+ eagle on banner and shield. Patron saint of
+ Large red cross on his breast. Austria, Mantua, Savoy,
+ and of foot-soldiers.
+
+ MOOR, in armour. St. Victor of Milan, Martyr,
+ A. D. 303.
+
+ MULE KNEELING. Flame in his St. Anthony of Padua,
+ hand or on his breast. A. D. 1231.
+ Infant Christ in his arms
+ or on his book. Crucifix.
+ Lily. Franciscan habit.
+
+ MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. Crown St. Cecilia, Virgin Martyr,
+ of red and white roses. A. D. 280. Patron saint
+ Angel. Palm. Scroll of music. of music and musicians.
+
+ NUN. Crozier. Pilgrim’s St. Bridget of Sweden, A. D.
+ staff. Dove. Black and 1373. Founder of the
+ white habit. White veil Order of Brigittines.
+ with red band across the
+ forehead.
+
+ OTTER by his side. Bishop’s St. Cuthbert of Durham,
+ robes. Crowned head of A. D. 687.
+ King Oswald in his arms.
+
+ OX (winged). Book. Portrait St. Luke, Evangelist, Martyr.
+ of the Virgin.
+
+ OX at his feet. Small dragon St. Sylvester, Pope,
+ in his hand. Sometimes A. D. 335.
+ portraits of St. Peter and
+ St. Paul. Pope’s or Bishop’s
+ robes.
+
+ PINCERS, holding a tooth. St. Apollonia of Alexandria,
+ Palm. Virgin Martyr, A. D. 250.
+ Patron saint against
+ toothache.
+
+ PINCERS, holding tongue in. St. Lieven, Martyr, A. D. 656.
+ Bishop’s robes.
+
+ PLOUGHSHARES, walking over. St. Cunegunda of Bavaria,
+ Church in her hand. Royal A. D. 1040.
+ robes.
+
+ POTS, earthenware. Sometimes St. Justa and St. Rufina,
+ the Giralda (tower) Martyrs, A. D. 304.
+ of Seville between them.
+ Two young girls with
+ palms.
+
+ PRIESTS, two. Palms. St. Peter Exorcista and St.
+ Marcellinus, Martyrs,
+ A. D. 304.
+
+ PYX. Cross. Lily. Franciscan St. Clara, A. D. 1253. Founder
+ habit. Black veil. of the Poor Clares,
+ Franciscan nuns.
+
+ RAVEN with a loaf in its beak. St. Benedict, A. D. 543.
+ Broken pitcher or cup. Founder of the Benedictine
+ Broken sieve. Thorn bush. Order.
+ Asperges. Mitre and staff.
+ Black habit, sometimes white.
+
+ RAVEN. Very old. Half St. Paul the Hermit of Thebes,
+ naked. Long hair and beard. A. D. 344.
+
+ RAVEN or crow sometimes on St. Vincent, Martyr, A. D. 304.
+ a millstone. Palm. Young. Patron saint of
+ Deacon’s dress. Valencia, Saragossa, Lisbon,
+ Milan, and Chalons.
+
+ RING. Royal robes. Sceptre St. Edward the Confessor,
+ surmounted by a dove. A. D. 1066.
+
+ ROPE around his neck. Barefooted. St. Charles Borromeo,
+ Cardinal’s robes. A. D. 1584. Archbishop of
+ Milan.
+
+ ROSES, red and white, in her St. Elizabeth of Hungary,
+ lap. Cripple or beggar at A. D. 1231.
+ her feet. Sometimes three
+ crowns. Royal robes or
+ Franciscan habit.
+
+ ROSES, crown of red and white. St. Cecilia, Virgin Martyr,
+ Angel. Palm. Musical A. D. 280. Patron saint
+ instruments. Organ. of music and musicians.
+
+ ROSES, crown of, or in her St. Dorothea of Cappadocia,
+ hand. Angel holding basket Virgin Martyr, A. D. 303.
+ with three apples and three
+ roses. Palm.
+
+ ROSES falling from his mouth. St. Angelus the Carmelite,
+ White over brown habit. A. D. 1220.
+
+ ROSES, chaplet of. Franciscan habit. St. Rosa di Viterbo,
+ A. D. 1261.
+
+ RULE, builder’s or carpenter’s. St. Thomas, Apostle and Martyr.
+ Patron saint of builders
+ and architects.
+
+ SAW. St. Simon Zelotes, Apostle.,
+ Martyr.
+
+ SCOURGE with three knotted St. Ambrose, A. D. 397. One
+ thongs. Beehive. Two of the Four Latin Fathers
+ human bones. Books. of the Church. Patron
+ Bishop’s robes. Mitre. Crozier. saint of Milan.
+
+ SEA, walking over, or in the St. Raymond of Peñaforte,
+ background. Dominican habit. A. D. 1275.
+
+ SERPENTS at her side or St. Verdiana, A. D. 242.
+ feeding from a basket.
+
+ SEVEN youths surrounding St. Felicitas and her seven
+ her. Palm. Veil. sons, Martyrs, A. D. 173.
+ Patron saint of male heirs.
+
+ SHEARS. Dish with female St. Agatha, Virgin Martyr,
+ breast. Palm. Veil. A. D. 251. Patron saint
+ of Malta and Catania, and
+ against fire and diseases of
+ the breast.
+
+ SKIN, carrying his own. Knife. St. Bartholomew, Apostle.
+ Martyr.
+
+ SKULL. Stigmata. Lily. St. Francis of Assisi,
+ Crucifix. Lamb. Franciscan habit. A. D. 1226. Founder of the
+ Franciscan Order.
+
+ SPADE. Old. St. Phocas of Sinope, Martyr,
+ A. D. 303. Patron saint
+ of gardens and gardeners.
+
+ SPEAR or lance. Roman soldier. St. Longinus, A. D. 45. The
+ centurion at the crucifixion.
+ Patron saint of Mantua.
+
+ SPIDER over a cup. Sometimes St. Norbert, A. D. 1134.
+ demon bound. White Founder of the Order of
+ over black habit. Premonstratensians.
+
+ STAG. Hunting horn. Richly St. Julian Hospitator,
+ attired. River and boat A. D. 313. Patron saint of
+ in the background. boatmen, travellers, and
+ wandering minstrels.
+
+ STAG with crucifix between St. Eustace, Martyr, A. D. 118.
+ its horns. In armour.
+
+ STAG with crucifix between St. Hubert, A. D. 727. Bishop
+ its horns. Hunting horn. of Liège. Patron saint of
+ Book. Huntsman’s dress, the chase and of dogs.
+ or Bishop’s robes. (Seldom
+ found in Italy.)
+
+ STAR on his forehead. Dog St. Dominick, A. D. 1221.
+ with torch in its mouth. Founder of the Dominican
+ Lily. Rosary. Book. Order.
+ Dominican habit.
+
+ STAR. Five around his head. St. John Nepomuck, A. D. 1393.
+ Finger or padlock on his lip. Patron saint of bridges
+ and running water, of
+ silence, and against slander.
+
+ STAR on his breast. Crucifix St. Nicholas of Tolentino,
+ wreathed with a lily. Gospel. A. D. 1309.
+ Augustine habit.
+
+ STIGMATA. Lily. Lamb. St. Francis of Assisi,
+ Crucifix. Franciscan habit. A. D. 1226. Founder of the
+ Franciscan Order.
+
+ STONES. Palm. Deacon’s St. Stephen, Protomartyr.
+ robes.
+
+ STONES, chasuble full of. St. Alphege, Archbishop of
+ Canterbury.
+
+ SUN on his breast. Books. St. Thomas Aquinas, A. D. 1274.
+ Sacramental cup. Dove.
+
+ SWORD, sometimes two swords. St. Paul, Apostle, Martyr.
+ Book. Scroll.
+
+ SWORD. Shield. Spear. St. Michael the Archangel.
+ Scales. Winged. In armour.
+ Dragon under his foot.
+
+ SWORD at his feet. Palm or St. Pantaleon of Nicomedia,
+ olive. As martyr bound or Martyr, fourth century.
+ hands nailed over his head Patron saint of physicians.
+ to a tree. Young. Beardless.
+
+ SWORD or axe in his head, or St. Peter, Martyr, A. D. 1252.
+ gash in his head, blood
+ trickling from it. Palm.
+ Dominican habit.
+
+ SWORD. Tower with three St. Barbara, Virgin Martyr,
+ windows. Feather. Cup A. D. 303. Patron saint of
+ and wafer. Crown. Palm. Mantua and Ferrara, arms,
+ armourers, and
+ fortifications, and against
+ thunder and lightning.
+
+ SWORD through her breast. St. Justina of Padua, Virgin
+ Crown. Palm. Martyr, A. D. 303. Patron
+ saint of Padua and Venice.
+
+ T, blue, on his shoulder. St. Anthony the Hermit,
+ Crutch and bell. Asperges. A. D. 357.
+ Hog. Flames of fire. Skull.
+ Crucifix. Monk’s habit.
+
+ TOWER with three windows. St. Barbara, Virgin Martyr,
+ Crown. Sword. Feather. A. D. 303. Patron saint
+ Cup and wafer. Palm. of Mantua and Ferrara,
+ armourers, and
+ fortifications, and against
+ thunder and lightning.
+
+ TREE coming into leaf. Bishop’s robes. St. Zenobio of Florence,
+ A. D. 417.
+
+ TWO men in red robes and St. Cosmo and St. Damian,
+ caps. Surgical instruments. Martyrs, A. D. 301. Patron
+ Box of ointment. saints of medicine, and the
+ Medici family.
+
+ TWO men, one old, the other St. Nazarius and St. Celsus,
+ young. Sword. Palm. Martyrs, A. D. 69. Patron
+ saints of Milan.
+
+ TWO men in armour. Palms. St. John and St. Paul, brothers
+ (SS. Giovanni e Paolo),
+ Martyrs. A. D. 362.
+
+ UNICORN at her feet. Palm. St. Justina of Antioch, Virgin
+ (See St. Cyprian.) Martyr, A. D. 304.
+
+ VASE or box of ointment. St. Mary Magdalene, A. D. 68.
+ Long fair hair. Skull. Patron saint of Marseilles,
+ Crucifix. Provence, and of
+ frail and penitent women.
+
+ WHEEL. Crown. Palm. St. Catherine of Alexandria,
+ Sometimes trampling on Virgin Martyr, A. D. 307.
+ a pagan. Book. Sword. Patron saint of Venice,
+ Receiving ring from the colleges, philosophy,
+ Christ-Child. science, eloquence, and
+ against diseases of the
+ tongue.
+
+ WHEEL, small. Candle in his St. Erasmus or Elmo, A. D. 296.
+ hands or on his head.
+ Bishop’s robes.
+
+ WINGS. Crucifix. Dominican habit. St. Vincent Ferraris,
+ A. D. 1419.
+
+ WOLF. A boy with a palm. St. Vitus, Martyr, A. D. 303.
+ Sometimes a lion, or caldron Patron saint of Saxony,
+ of oil. Cock. Bohemia, and Sicily, of
+ actors and dancers, against
+ nervous diseases, and late
+ rising.
+
+ WOUND, pointing to, in his leg. St. Roch, A. D. 1327. Patron
+ Dog. Pilgrim’s habit. saint of prisoners and the
+ Wallet. Cockleshell. Staff. sick, especially the
+ plague-stricken.
+
+ WOUND in her neck, rays St. Lucy, Virgin Martyr,
+ streaming from it. Lamp. A. D. 303. Patron saint of
+ Sword. Palm. Sometimes Syracuse, and against
+ eyes on a dish. diseases of the eye.
+
+
+
+
+II.—SAINTS AND SYMBOLS
+
+
+ ST. ADRIAN, A. D. 290. Sept. Armed. Anvil in hands or
+ 8. Patron saint of Germany at feet. Sometimes lion,
+ and Flanders, of soldiers, emblem of fortitude, sometimes
+ and against the plague, also sword or axe lying
+ patron of Flemish brewers. beside anvil.
+
+ ST. AGATHA, A. D. 251. Feb. Palm. Salver with female
+ 5. Patron saint of Malta breast. Shears. Veil.
+ and Catania and against fire
+ and diseases of the breast.
+
+ ST. AGNES, Virgin and Martyr, Hair as cloak. Lamb. Palm.
+ A. D. 304. Jan. 21. Olive branch. Crown.
+
+ ST. ALBAN, A. D. 305. June Fountain. Sword. Sometimes
+ 22. England’s protomartyr. head in his hand.
+
+ ST. ALBERT the Carmelite, Episcopal robes. Palm.
+ A. D. 1214. April 8.
+ Founder of the Carmelite
+ Order, Bishop of Vercelli,
+ Patriarch of Jerusalem.
+
+ ST. ALEXIS, A. D. 400. July Pilgrim’s habit, ragged and
+ 17. Patron saint of pilgrims worn. Beggar’s dish.
+ and beggars. Palm. Cross.
+
+ ST. ALPHEGE, A. D. 1012. Stones, chasuble full of.
+ April 19. Archbishop of
+ Canterbury.
+
+ ST. AMBROSE, A. D. 397. Mitre. Crozier. Beehive.
+ April 4. Patron saint of Two human bones. Scourge
+ Milan and one of the Four with three knotted thongs.
+ Latin Fathers. Books. Bishop’s robes.
+
+ ST. ANDREA CORSINI, A. D. Bishop’s robes.
+ 1373. Feb. 4. Bishop of Fiesole.
+
+ ST. ANDREW the Apostle, White hair and beard. Gospel.
+ A. D. 70. Nov. 30. Patron Transverse cross shaped
+ saint of Scotland and thus—❌.
+ Russia. Order of the
+ Golden Fleece.
+
+ ST. ANGELUS the Carmelite, Red and white roses falling
+ A. D. 1220. May 5. from his mouth, symbols of
+ eloquence. White over
+ brown habit.
+
+ ST. ANIANUS, A. D. 86. April
+ 5. A shoemaker of Alexandria
+ converted by St. Mark,
+ later he became Bishop of
+ Alexandria.
+
+ ST. ANNE. July 26. Mother Elderly woman. Veil.
+ of the Blessed Virgin. Patron
+ saint of mothers.
+
+ ST. ANSANO of Siena. Was Young. Richly dressed.
+ persecuted and beheaded Palm, sometimes with a
+ at the time of Diocletian. cluster of dates depending
+ He was the great patron from it. Cross.
+ saint of Siena until the
+ end of the thirteenth century.
+
+ ST. ANTHONY the Hermit, Monk’s habit. Crutch. Bell.
+ A. D. 357. Jan. 17. Patron Asperges. Hog. Flames of
+ saint against fire, here and fire. Skull. Crucifix.
+ hereafter.
+
+ ST. ANTHONY of Padua, A. D. Habit grey or dark brown with
+ 1231. June 13. Belonged hood and cord. Flame of
+ to the Franciscan Order. fire in his hand or on
+ his breast. Book. Lily.
+ Crucifix. Infant Christ in
+ his arms or on his book.
+ Mule kneeling.
+
+ ST. ANTONINO, A. D. 1459. Episcopal robes.
+ May 10. Archbishop of Florence.
+
+ ST. APOLLINARIS, A. D. 79. Habit of a Greek bishop,
+ July 23. Was the first white and without mitre.
+ Bishop of Ravenna, where Cross, black, embroidered
+ his fame is chiefly confined. on white robe.
+ Martyred in the reign of
+ Vespasian, the basilica of
+ St. Apollinaris-in-Classe
+ was built some five hundred
+ years later on the site of
+ his martyrdom, three miles
+ from Ravenna.
+
+ ST. APOLLONIA, Virgin and Palm. Pincers holding tooth
+ Martyr, A. D. 250. Feb. in allusion to the torture
+ 9. Patron saint against inflicted upon her.
+ toothache.
+
+ ST. ATHANASIUS, A. D. 373. Unpopular in art.
+ May 2. One of the Four
+ Greek Fathers of the Church,
+ from whom the Athanasian
+ Creed is named.
+
+ ST. AUGUSTINE, A. D. 430. Bishop’s robes. Mitre.
+ Aug. 28. One of the Four Crozier. Book at his feet or
+ Latin Fathers of the Church. in his hands. Heart flaming
+ or transfixed with an arrow.
+ Infant by seashore.
+
+ ST. AUGUSTINE or AUSTIN of Benedictine habit. Staff.
+ Canterbury, A. D. 604. Gospel in his hand. Cope,
+ May 26. Was sent to pallium and mitre as Bishop
+ England by Pope Gregory of Canterbury.
+ the Great, where he introduced
+ the Benedictine Order.
+
+ ST. BARBARA, A. D. 303. Tower with three windows.
+ Dec. 4. Patron saint of Palm. Book. Sword.
+ Ferrara and Mantua, armourers, Crown. Cup and wafer.
+ fortifications, firearms, Feather.
+ and against thunder
+ and lightning.
+
+ ST. BARNABAS the Apostle. Rarely appears except in
+ June 11. Venetian pictures. Holds in
+ his hand the Gospel of St.
+ Matthew.
+
+ ST. BARTHOLOMEW the Apostle. Knife. Carrying his own
+ Aug. 24. skin.
+
+ ST. BASIL the Great, A. D. The Greek Fathers have no
+ 380. June 14. One of the distinguishing attributes.
+ Four Greek Fathers.
+
+ ST. BAVON, A. D. 657. Oct. 1. Sometimes represented as a
+ Patron saint of Ghent hermit seated and praying
+ and Haarlem. in a hollow tree, or as a
+ prince in armour with a
+ falcon in his hand. A huge
+ stone which he carried as a
+ penance is sometimes
+ introduced.
+
+ ST. BENEDICT, A. D. 543. Black habit, sometimes white.
+ Mar. 2. Founder of the Raven with loaf in its beak.
+ Benedictine Order. Mitre and staff. Asperges.
+ Pitcher. Thorn bush.
+ Broken sieve.
+
+ ST. BENNO, A. D. 1100. Bishop’s robes. Fish with key
+ June 16. Bishop of Meissen, in its mouth.
+ Saxony.
+
+ ST. BERNARD of Clairvaux, White habit. Ink-horn, pen,
+ A. D. 1153. Aug. 20. and papers. Beehive.
+ Demon bound. Three mitres
+ on a book or at his feet.
+
+ ST. BERNARD of Menthon,
+ A. D. 1008. June 15. Was
+ a Savoyard of noble birth,
+ who became Archdeacon of
+ Aosta and founded the two
+ hospitals of the Great and
+ Little St. Bernard, where the
+ monks with the assistance of
+ dogs rescue travellers who
+ are lost in the snow.
+
+ ST. BERNARD DEI TOLOMEI, White habit. Olive branch
+ A. D. 1319. Founder of the in his hand.
+ Olivetani.
+
+ ST. BERNARD DEGLI UBERTI. Represented in Cardinal’s
+ Cardinal and Abbot of robes in pictures with other
+ Vallombrosa. Vallombrosan saints.
+
+ ST. BERNARDINO of Siena, Franciscan habit. I. H. S. on
+ A. D. 1444. May 20. a tablet surrounded by rays.
+ Founder of the Order of Sometimes three mitres, or
+ Observants. three mounds surmounted
+ by a cross or standard.
+
+ ST. BLAISE, A. D. 289. Feb. 3. Bishop’s robes. Mitre.
+ Popular in France and England. Crozier. Old, with white
+ Patron saint of wool-combers, beard. Iron comb, instrument
+ of wild animals, and of his torture. Not
+ against diseases of the throat. often represented in art.
+
+ ST. BONAVENTURA, A. D. Franciscan habit. Cardinal’s
+ 1274. July 14. hat at his feet or hanging
+ on a tree. Cardinal’s
+ robes. Book. Pyx.
+
+ ST. BONIFACE, A. D. 755. Bishop’s robes over the black
+ June 5. Archbishop of Benedictine habit. Holding
+ Mayence and first apostle book stained with blood
+ of Germany. or transfixed by a sword.
+ Crozier.
+
+ ST. BRIDGET or BRIGIDA of
+ Ireland, A. D. 500. Feb.
+ 1. Baptised by St. Patrick.
+
+ ST. BRIDGET of Sweden, A. D. Of mature age. Nun with
+ 1373. Oct. 8. Founder of white veil, which has red
+ the Order of the Brigittines. band. Crozier as first
+ abbess of the order. Sometimes
+ pilgrim’s staff and
+ wallet. Sometimes dove,
+ denoting inspiration.
+
+ ST. BRUNO, A. D. 1100. July White habit. Shaven head.
+ 18. Founder of the Carthusian
+ Order of Reformed
+ Benedictines.
+
+ ST. CASIMIR of Poland, A. D. Young. Royal robes. Lily.
+ 1483. Patron saint of Crown and sceptre at feet.
+ Poland. Sometimes he holds his
+ hymn to the Virgin, and the
+ lily and crown are on a
+ table beside him.
+
+ ST. CATHERINE of Alexandria, Wheel. Palm. Book. Sword.
+ A. D. 307. Nov. 25. Patron Crown. Trampling on
+ saint of Venice, philosophy, pagan. Receiving ring from
+ science, colleges, students, the Christ-Child.
+ and against diseases of the
+ tongue.
+
+ ST. CATHERINE of Bologna, Franciscan habit, veiled.
+ A. D. 1463. Mar. 9.
+ Called also _Santa Caterina
+ de’ Vigri_, a maid of honour
+ to Margaret d’Este, who
+ joined the Poor Clares and
+ became an abbess.
+
+ ST. CATHERINE of Siena, A. D. Dominican habit. Stigmata.
+ 1380. April 30. Lily. Crown of thorns.
+
+ ST. CECILIA, A. D. 280. Nov. Crown of red and white roses.
+ 22. Patron saint of music Organ. Musical instruments.
+ and musicians. Angel. Palm.
+ Scroll of music.
+
+ ST. CHARLEMAGNE, A. D. 814. Globe and cross. Three
+ Jan. 28. crowns embroidered on his
+ robe. In armour. Ermine
+ mantle.
+
+ ST. CHARLES BORROMEO, A. D. Cardinal’s robes. Barefooted.
+ 1584. Nov. 4. Cardinal Rope around his neck.
+ and Archbishop of Milan.
+
+ ST. CHRISTINA, A. D. 295. Millstone. Arrows. Palm.
+ July 24. Patron saint of Crown. It is difficult to
+ Bolsena and Venice. distinguish this saint from
+ St. Ursula when she bears
+ the arrow only.
+
+ ST. CHRISTOPHER, A. D. 364. Huge staff. Christ-Child on
+ July 25. Patron saint his shoulders. Ankle deep
+ against fire, earthquake, in water. Lantern. Monk
+ tempests, floods, and accidents. in background.
+
+ ST. CLARA, A. D. 1253. Aug. Lily. Cross. Pyx. Franciscan
+ 12. Founder of the Poor habit and black veil.
+ Clares, Franciscan nuns.
+
+ ST. CLEMENT, A. D. 100. Pope’s or Bishop’s robes. Anchor
+ Nov. 23. Third Bishop of in hand or suspended
+ Rome. around his neck.
+
+ ST. CLOTILDA, A. D. 534. Royal robes, long white veil
+ June 3. Princess of Burgundy and jewelled crown. Angel
+ and wife of Clovis, holding shield bearing three
+ King of France. In a vision _fleur-de-lys_.
+ an angel brought her three
+ lilies, and from this the arms
+ of France were changed from
+ three toads (_crapauds_) to the
+ _fleur-de-lys_. She is said to
+ have christianised France.
+
+ ST. CLOUD, A. D. 560. Sept. Benedictine habit. Crown at
+ 7. Grandson of St. Clotilda. feet.
+
+ ST. CONSTANTINE, Emperor, Dressed as Roman emperor
+ A. D. 335. or warrior, holding _labarum_
+ or standard of the cross.
+
+ SS. COSMO and DAMIAN, A. D. Two men in red robes. Box
+ 301. Sept. 27. Patron saints of ointment. Surgical
+ of the Medici, and the medical instruments.
+ profession.
+
+ ST. COSTANZO, second century. He is found with SANT’ ERCOLANO
+ Bishop of Perugia, in pictures of the
+ suffered martyrdom under Umbrian school.
+ Marcus Aurelius.
+
+ SS. CRISPIN and CRISPIANUS, Awl, or shoemaker’s knife.
+ A. D. 300. Oct. 25. Patron Palm. Two saints together.
+ saints of Soissons. Shoemakers
+ who made shoes
+ for the poor without reward,
+ angels supplying them with
+ leather. They went from
+ Rome with St. Denis to
+ preach the Gospel in France.
+
+ ST. CUNEGUNDA, A. D. 1040. Walking over ploughshares.
+ Mar. 3. Wife of St. Henry Church in her hand. Royal
+ of Bavaria, her story is robes.
+ popular in German poetry
+ and art.
+
+ ST. CUTHBERT, A. D. 687. Bishop’s robes. Otter.
+ March 20. Crowned head of King
+ Oswald in his arms.
+
+ ST. CYPRIAN, A. D. 258. Palm. Mitre at his feet.
+ Sept. 16. Bishop of Carthage.
+ Suffered martyrdom
+ under Valerian.
+
+ ST. CYPRIAN and ST. JUSTINA When represented together he
+ of Antioch, A. D. 304. wears the habit of a Greek
+ Sept. 26. St. Cyprian, a bishop (without mitre).
+ great magician, became Palm. Sword. Trampling
+ converted through his love his magical books under
+ for St. Justina and they his feet. She holds the
+ suffered martyrdom together palm, and the unicorn, symbol
+ in the reign of of chastity, crouches at
+ Diocletian. her feet.
+
+ ST. CYRIL of Alexandria, A. D. The only Greek bishop
+ 444. Jan. 28. Patriarch of represented with his head
+ Alexandria and sometimes covered.
+ a fifth in pictures of the
+ Four Greek Fathers. His
+ name has been connected
+ with the murder of Hypatia,
+ which was committed by
+ his followers in a church.
+
+ ST. DENIS of France (ST. Bishop’s robes. Carrying his
+ DIONYSIUS the Areopagite). head in his hand.
+ Bishop of Paris in the third
+ century and patron saint
+ of France. The legends
+ confuse this saint with
+ Dionysius, the convert of St.
+ Paul, and he is thus universally
+ represented in art. St.
+ Denis was beheaded in
+ Paris, and taking his head
+ in his hand, he walked
+ two miles with it to a
+ place now called Montmartre.
+
+ ST. DOMINICK, A. D. 1221. Dominican habit. Dog with
+ Aug. 4. Founder of the torch in its mouth. Lily.
+ Order of Dominicans, or Star on forehead. Book.
+ Preaching Friars. Rosary.
+
+ ST. DOROTHEA of Cappadocia, Roses in her hand or crowned
+ A. D. 303. Feb. 6. Was with roses. Angel with
+ noted for her beauty and basket containing three apples
+ piety. At the time of the and three roses. Palm.
+ persecution she refused to Sometimes crown as martyr.
+ sacrifice to idols and was
+ imprisoned and condemned
+ to be beheaded. As she
+ went to execution, a young
+ man named Theophilus,
+ mocking her, asked for
+ flowers and fruit from the
+ garden to which she was
+ going. After her death,
+ a heavenly messenger appeared
+ to Theophilus bearing
+ three roses and three
+ apples, and telling him Dorothea
+ awaited him in the
+ garden. Theophilus then
+ was converted, and also
+ suffered martyrdom.
+
+ ST. DUNSTAN, A. D. 988.
+ May 19. A monk of Glastonbury
+ who became a favourite
+ of King Athelstan and was
+ made Archbishop of Canterbury
+ in the reign of Edgar.
+
+ ST. EDMUND, King and Martyr, Royal robes. Wolf. Arrow
+ A. D. 870. Nov. 20. in his hand.
+ King of East Anglia and
+ patron saint of Bury St.
+ Edmunds.
+
+ ST. EDWARD the Confessor, Royal robes. Ring. Sceptre
+ A. D. 1066. Jan. 5. surmounted by a dove.
+
+ ST. ELIZABETH, mother of St.
+ John the Baptist.
+
+ ST. ELIZABETH of Hungary, A lapful of red and white
+ A. D. 1231. Nov. 19. roses, symbols of love and
+ Famed for her beauty, sweetness, purity. Royal attire or
+ and charity. Franciscan habit. Cripple
+ or beggar at her feet.
+ Sometimes three crowns.
+
+ ST. ELOY (_Ital._ SANT’ ALÒ, Bishop’s robes. Crozier.
+ or LÒ, SANT’ ELIGIO), A. D. Book. Blacksmith’s tools.
+ 659. Dec. 1. Patron saint Blacksmith with anvil,
+ of Bologna and Noyon; of hammer, tongs, and bellows.
+ goldsmiths, locksmiths,
+ blacksmiths, and all workers
+ in metals; of horses and
+ farriers.
+
+ ST. ERASMUS or ELMO, A. D. Aged. Bishop’s robes. Small
+ 296. June 3. Invoked by wheel in his hand. Candle
+ the sailors of the Mediterranean on his head or in his hand.
+ against storms and
+ tempests. Suffered martyrdom
+ under Diocletian.
+
+ ST. ERCOLANA, A. D. 546. Found with St. Costanzo in
+ Bishop of Perugia. He was Umbrian pictures.
+ beheaded by the Goths.
+
+ ST. ETHELDREDA, A. D. 679.
+ June 23. Founded the
+ Cathedral and Monastery
+ of Ely.
+
+ ST. EUPHEMIA, A. D. 307. Lily. Sword. Palm. Lion
+ Sept. 16. One of the early at her side.
+ Greek martyrs.
+
+ ST. EUSTACE, A. D. 118. In armour. Stag with crucifix
+ Sept. 20. An officer under between its horns.
+ the Emperor Trajan to
+ whom Christ appeared in
+ the form of a white stag.
+
+ SAN FAUSTINO and SAN GIOVITA Pictures of these two saints
+ (Faustinus et Jovita), with St. Apollonius represent
+ A. D. 119. Feb. 15. Two the latter in bishop’s
+ brothers who were converts robes, the two brothers
+ of St. Apollonius and were dressed as deacons.
+ beheaded at Brescia.
+
+ ST. FELICITAS, A. D. 173. Palm. Veiled. Accompanied
+ Nov. 23. A Roman matron by her seven sons.
+ of great wealth, who with
+ her seven sons suffered
+ martyrdom in the reign of
+ Marcus Aurelius.
+
+ ST. FELIX DE CANTALICIO, Dark brown habit, peaked
+ A. D. 1587. May 8. The hood and girdle. Beggar’s
+ first saint of the Order of wallet with two ends like
+ the Capuccini. He spent a purse slung over his
+ forty-five years in begging shoulder.
+ for his convent.
+
+ ST. FERDINAND of Castile, In complete armour. Crown.
+ A. D. 1152. May 30. Sword. Sometimes holding
+ the orb of sovereignty.
+
+ ST. FILOMENA, A. D. 303. Lily. Javelin with the point
+ Aug. 10. reversed. Palm.
+
+ ST. FINA, A. D. 1253. Mar.
+ 12. Patron saint of San
+ Gimignano.
+
+ ST. FLORIAN, May 4. One of Rarely seen in Italian art,
+ the eight tutelar saints of but is frequently found in
+ Austria. old German prints and
+ pictures. In armour. Sometimes
+ painted on the outside
+ of houses in Bohemia
+ throwing water from a
+ pitcher or bucket on a house
+ in flames. Millstone.
+
+ ST. FRANCESCA ROMANA, A. D. Benedictine habit. Angel
+ 1440. Mar. 9. The great holding book.
+ female saint of the Order
+ of the Olivetani.
+
+ ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI, A. D. Franciscan habit. Stigmata.
+ 1226. Oct. 4. Lamb. Lily. Skull.
+ Crucifix.
+
+ ST. FRANCIS BORGIA, A. D.
+ 1572. Oct. 11. Third great
+ saint of the Jesuit Order.
+
+ ST. FRANCIS DE PAULE, A. D. Old, grey beard. Staff.
+ 1508. April 2. Founder Franciscan habit, with short
+ of the Minimes, a reformed scapulary.
+ order of Franciscans.
+
+ ST. FRANCIS DE SALES, A. D. Episcopal cope. Bareheaded.
+ 1622. Jan. 29. Joint A heart pierced.
+ founder with St. Jeanne de
+ Chantal of the Order of
+ Visitation of St. Mary.
+
+ ST. FRANCIS XAVIER, A. D. Surplice over black habit.
+ 1552. Dec. 3. Patron Crucifix. Lily.
+ saint and apostle of India.
+ Friend and associate of
+ Ignatius Loyola.
+
+ ST. FREDIANO of Lucca, A. D. Bishop’s robes. Harrow.
+ 560. Patron saint of Lucca.
+
+ ST. GABRIEL. The second of Lily. Sceptre. Scroll.
+ the archangels.
+
+ ST. GAUDENZIO, A. D. 359.
+ Oct. 14. Bishop and patron
+ saint of Rimini. He was
+ scourged, then stoned to
+ death by the Arians.
+
+ ST. GEMINIANUS, A. D. 450. Bishop’s robes. Model of
+ Bishop and patron saint of city or cathedral in his
+ Modena. hand.
+
+ ST. GENEVIÈVE of Paris, A. D. Veiled. Lighted taper. Demon
+ 509. Jan. 3. holding pair of bellows.
+ Sheep. Distaff. Spindle.
+ Book. Basket of provisions
+ or holding loaf of bread.
+
+ ST. GEORGE, A. D. 303. April In armour. Dragon at his
+ 23. Patron saint of England, feet. Lance. Standard.
+ Germany, Venice, soldiers Palm.
+ and armourers.
+
+ ST. GERVASIUS and ST. PROTASIUS,
+ A. D. 69. June 19.
+ (_See St. Ambrose._)
+
+ ST. GILES (_Lat._ Sanctus Egidius, Old. Benedictine habit.
+ _Ital._ Sant’ Egidio, Fr. Hind pierced by an arrow
+ St. Gilles or Gil), A. D. in his arms or at his feet.
+ 725. Sept. 1. Patron saint
+ of Edinburgh, of woods,
+ lepers, beggars, and cripples.
+ A hermit who lived in a
+ cave near Nismes. A hind,
+ that had fled to his cave
+ from the hunters and their
+ dogs, was pierced by an
+ arrow in his arms.
+
+ ST. GRATA, A. D. 300. These saints are constantly
+ Sept. 4. Daughter of St. represented in pictures
+ Lupo, Duke of Bergamo, painted by the Bergamo
+ and St. Adelaide his wife, artists, ST. ALEXANDER as
+ both of whom she converted. a Roman soldier bearing
+ When St. Alexander, one the palm, ST. GRATA carrying
+ of the Theban Legion, was the head of St. Alexander,
+ beheaded, she wrapped the ST. LUPO wearing a
+ head in fine linen and crown, ST. ADELAIDE a
+ reverently buried his remains. crown and long veil.
+
+ ST. GREGORY the Great, A. D. Dove on his shoulder or close
+ 604. March 12. One of to his ear. Papal tiara.
+ the Four Latin Fathers. Crozier with double cross.
+ Book.
+ ST. GREGORY NANZIANZEN,
+ A. D. 390. May 9. One
+ of the Four Greek Fathers
+ of the Church.
+
+ ST. GUDULA, A. D. 712. Jan. Demon trying to blow out a
+ 8. Patron saint of Brussels. lantern. Often confounded
+ with St. Geneviève of Paris.
+
+ ST. HELENA, A. D. 328. Aug. Royal robes. Crowned. Very
+ 18. Is generally admitted large cross.
+ to have been a British
+ princess, who married Constantius
+ Chlorus and became
+ the mother of Constantine
+ the Great. It was she who
+ discovered the true cross.
+
+ ST. HENRY of Bavaria, A. D. In armour. Crowned. Sword.
+ 1024. July 14. Emperor Orb of sovereignty. Holding
+ of Germany and husband in hand Cathedral of
+ of St. Cunegunda. Bamberg.
+
+ ST. HILARY (_Ital._ Sant’ Bishop’s robes. Reading the
+ Ilario), A. D. 363. Jan. Gospel.
+ 13. Patron saint of Parma.
+
+ ST. HILDA, A. D. 680. Nov.
+ 17. Abbess of Whitby.
+
+ ST. HIPPOLYTUS, A. D. 258. Often represented as jailer of
+ Aug. 13. Patron saint of St. Laurence, with bunch
+ horses. He was the jailer of keys. In armour. Sometimes
+ of St. Laurence, who became iron comb, or bound
+ converted and suffered martyrdom to horses.
+ by being tied to the
+ tails of wild horses and
+ dashed to pieces.
+
+ ST. HUBERT of Liège, A. D. Stag with crucifix between
+ 727. Nov. 3. Patron saint its horns. Bishop’s robes.
+ of the chase and of dogs. Hunting horn. Book.
+ Sometimes in hunter’s
+ dress.
+
+ ST. HUGH of Grenoble, A. D.
+ 1132. April 1. Bishop of
+ Grenoble. He gave to
+ St. Bruno the land on which
+ was built the “Grande
+ Chartreuse.”
+
+ ST. HUMILITY or UMILTÀ,
+ A. D. 1310. Founder of the
+ Order of Vallombrosan nuns.
+
+ ST. HYACINTH, A. D. 1257. Dominican habit. Crucifix.
+ Aug. 15. Pyx.
+
+ ST. IGNATIUS of Antioch, A. D.
+ 107. Feb. 1. Thought to
+ have been the little child
+ whom Jesus “set in the
+ midst” and said “of such is
+ the Kingdom of Heaven.”
+ He and his friend St.
+ Polycarp were disciples of
+ St. John the Evangelist.
+
+ ST. IGNATIUS LOYOLA, A. D. I. H. S. in the skies. Sometimes
+ 1556. July 31. Founder on a tablet borne by
+ of the Order of Jesuits. angels. Heart crowned
+ with thorns.
+
+ ST. ILDEFONSO or ALPHONSO, Famous in Spanish art. Kneeling
+ A. D. 667. Jan. 23. A before the Virgin, while
+ Benedictine monk who two angels arrange the
+ became Archbishop of Toledo. sacred vestment.
+ He wrote a book
+ defending the perpetual
+ virginity of the Blessed
+ Virgin, and the Virgin appeared
+ to him in a vision
+ and with two angels invested
+ him in a wonderful chasuble.
+
+ ST. ISABELLA of France, A. D. Franciscan habit. Distributing
+ 1270. Aug. 31. Sister of alms or food to the poor.
+ St. Louis and founder of
+ the great convent of Longchamps,
+ a community of
+ Poor Clares.
+
+ ST. ISIDORE the Ploughman, Labourer’s dress. Spade.
+ A. D. 1170. May 10. Patron Angel ploughing in background.
+ saint of Madrid and of
+ agriculture.
+
+ ST. IVES or YVO of Bretagne Judge. Franciscan cord.
+ (_Ital._ Sant’ IVO), A. D. 1303. Furred robe. Sometimes
+ May 19. Patron saint of all surrounded by widows and
+ lawyers in Europe. orphans.
+
+ ST. JAMES the Great. Apostle Cloak. Pilgrim’s staff.
+ and Martyr, A. D. 44. Wallet and shell.
+ July 25. Patron saint of
+ Spain.
+
+ ST. JAMES MINOR. Apostle Fuller’s club.
+ and Martyr. May 1.
+
+ ST. JANUARIUS, A. D. 303. Bishop’s robes. Palm. Mt.
+ Sept. 19. Patron saint of Vesuvius in background.
+ Naples. Protector against
+ eruptions of Mt. Vesuvius.
+
+ ST. JEROME, A. D. 420. Lion. Cardinal’s hat. Books.
+ Sept. 30. One of the Four Skull. Church in hand.
+ Latin Fathers, patron saint
+ of scholars and theologians.
+
+ ST. JOACHIM. March 20.
+ Husband of St. Anne and
+ father of the Virgin Mary.
+
+ ST. JOHN the Baptist. June Reed cross. Scroll. Lamb.
+ 24. Patron saint of Florence Camel’s hair garment.
+ and all who are baptised.
+
+ ST. JOHN the Evangelist, A. D. Eagle. Pen. Book. Cup
+ 99. Dec. 27. with serpent.
+
+ ST. JOHN CAPISTRANO, A. D. Turk under his feet. In one
+ 1465. Oct. 23. A Franciscan hand a standard, in the other
+ monk sent by the pope to a cross.
+ preach a crusade against
+ the Turks. Canonised in
+ 1690 to commemorate
+ Vienna’s deliverance from
+ the Turks.
+
+ ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM (of the Habit of Greek bishop.
+ golden mouth), A. D. 407. Sacramental cup. Gospel.
+ Jan. 27. One of the Four Dove hovering near.
+ Greek Fathers of the
+ Church.
+
+ ST. JOHN GUALBERTO, A. D. Crucifix. Sometimes crutch.
+ 1073. July 12. Founder of Light grey habit. Beardless.
+ the Vallombrosan Order of Cross.
+ Reformed Benedictines.
+
+ ST. JOHN DE MATHA, A. D. White habit. Blue and red
+ 1213. Feb. 8. Founder cross on breast. Fetters
+ of the Trinitarian Order for in his hand or at his feet.
+ the redemption of captives. Angel with two captives in
+ background.
+
+ ST. JOHN NEPOMUCK, A. D. Augustine habit. Cross. Five
+ 1393. May 16. Canon stars about his head.
+ Regular of St. Augustine. Sometimes finger on his lip
+ Protector of the Order of or mouth padlocked.
+ Jesuits. In Bohemia and
+ Austria the patron saint
+ of bridges and running
+ water, of silence and against
+ slander.
+
+ ST. JOSEPH. March 19. Husband Crutch or stick. Lily.
+ of the Blessed Virgin.
+
+ ST. JUAN DE LA CRUZ, A. D. Represented with St. Theresa
+ 1591. First barefooted kneeling before the throne
+ Carmelite. Friend and of the Virgin.
+ coadjutor of St. Theresa.
+
+ ST. JUAN DE DIOS, A. D. 1550. Capuchin habit. Long beard.
+ March 8. Founder of the Holding a pomegranate
+ Hospitallers or Brothers of surmounted by a cross. Beggar
+ Charity. kneeling at his feet.
+
+ ST. JUDE. See ST. SIMON.
+
+ ST. JULIA and ST. AFRA. Frequently represented in
+ Virgin Martyrs and patron pictures of the Brescian
+ saints of Brescia. school with San Faustino, San
+ Giovita, and St. Apollonius.
+
+ ST. JULIAN of Cilicia. March Young. Flowing hair. Secular
+ 16. Patron saint of Rimini. dress. Palm. Standard
+ of victory. Sword.
+
+ ST. JULIAN HOSPITATOR, A. D. Young. Courtier’s dress.
+ 313. Jan. 9. Patron saint Hunting horn. Stag.
+ of travellers, boatmen, River and boat sometimes
+ ferrymen, and wandering seen in background.
+ minstrels.
+
+ SS. JUSTA and RUFINA, A. D. Palm. Earthenware pots.
+ 304. July 19. Patron Sometimes the _Giralda_
+ saints of Seville. (tower) of Seville between
+ them, which they are supposed
+ to have saved by a
+ miracle in a thunder-storm
+ in 1504.
+
+ ST. JUSTINA of Antioch. _See_
+ ST. CYPRIAN.
+
+ ST. JUSTINA of Padua (_Ital._ Richly dressed as princess.
+ Santa Giustina di Padova), Crowned. Palm. Sword
+ A. D. 303. Oct. 7. Patron through her breast, emblem
+ saint of Padua and Venice. of her martyrdom. Sometimes
+ given the unicorn
+ which properly belongs to
+ St. Justina of Antioch.
+
+ ST. LAMBERT, A. D. 709. Sept. Bishop’s robes. Palm. Lance
+ 17. Bishop of Maestricht. or javelin at his feet.
+
+ ST. LAURENCE, A. D. 258. Deacon’s dress. Palm. Gridiron.
+ Aug. 10. Patron saint of
+ Nuremberg, Genoa, and the
+ Escurial.
+
+ ST. LAZARUS, Sept. 2. Brother Bishop’s robes. Bier in
+ of Martha and Mary and background. Usually grouped
+ patron saint of Marseilles. with Mary, Martha, and
+ sometimes St. Marcella.
+
+ SS. LEANDER and ISIDORE, In pictures by Murillo they
+ sixth century. Two brothers are represented enthroned,
+ who were successively robed in white, wearing
+ Bishops of Seville and patron their mitres.
+ saints of the city.
+
+ ST. LEONARD, A. D. 559. Deacon’s dress, or Benedictine
+ Nov. 6. Patron saint of habit. Crozier. Book.
+ prisoners and slaves. Fetters.
+
+ ST. LONGINUS, A. D. 45. Roman soldier. Lance or
+ March 15. Patron saint of spear.
+ Mantua. Was the centurion
+ who pierced the side
+ of Christ at the crucifixion.
+ He became a Christian and
+ suffered martyrdom.
+
+ ST. LORENZO GIUSTINIANI,
+ A. D. 1455. Sept. 5. Bishop
+ of Castello and Patriarch
+ of Venice.
+
+ ST. LOUIS BELTRAN, A. D.
+ 1581. Oct. 9. A celebrated
+ Dominican preacher and
+ friend of St. Theresa.
+
+ ST. LOUIS, King of France, Crown of thorns. Sword.
+ A. D. 1270. Aug. 25. Sceptre. Royal crown.
+
+ ST. LOUIS of Toulouse (_Ital._ Young. Beardless. _Fleur-de-lys_
+ San Ludovico), A. D. 1297. embroidered on
+ Aug. 19. bishop’s robes. Sometimes
+ Franciscan habit. Mitre.
+ Crown and sceptre at his
+ feet.
+
+ ST. LUCY, A. D. 303. Dec. Lamp. Eyes on salver.
+ 13. Patron saint of Syracuse Sword in her neck or wound
+ and against diseases in neck from which stream
+ of the eye. rays of light. Palm. Awl.
+
+ ST. LUKE, Evangelist. Oct. 18. Ox (winged). Book. Portrait
+ Patron saint of painters. of the Virgin.
+
+ ST. MARCELLA or MARTILLA,
+ A. D. 68. The handmaid
+ of Mary and Martha.
+
+ ST. MARCELLINUS and ST. Represented together in art,
+ PETER EXORCISTA, A. D. bearing their palms.
+ 304. June 2. Two priests
+ who were persecuted and
+ suffered martyrdom together.
+
+ ST. MARGARET of Antioch, Dragon under her feet. Cross.
+ A. D. 306. July 20. Crown. Palm.
+
+ ST. MARGARET of Cortona, Checkered habit. Cord as
+ A. D. 1297. girdle. Dog at her feet.
+
+ ST. MARK the Evangelist, Lion, generally winged. Bishop’s
+ A. D. 68. April 25. Patron robes. Book.
+ saint of Venice.
+
+ ST. MARTHA of Bethany, A. D. Pot of holy water. Asperges.
+ 84. July 29. Patron saint Dragon bound at her feet.
+ of cooks and housewives. Bunch of keys. Skimmer
+ or ladle in her hand. When
+ with the Magdalene plainly
+ dressed in blue, dark brown,
+ or grey.
+
+ ST. MARTIN of Tours, A. D. Bishop’s robes. Beggar at
+ 397. Nov. 11. Patron feet or as soldier dividing
+ saint of Tours, Lucca, and his cloak with beggar.
+ penitent drunkards. Goose at his side. (This
+ attribute alludes to the
+ season of his festival, called
+ Martinmastide, when geese
+ are killed and eaten.)
+
+ ST. MARY of Egypt, A. D. Old, wasted, with long hair,
+ 433. April 2. grey or black. Three small
+ loaves.
+
+ ST. MARY MAGDALENE, A. D. Long, fair hair. Box of
+ 68. July 22. Patron saint ointment. Skull. Crucifix.
+ of Provence, Marseilles, and
+ of penitent women.
+
+ ST. MATTHEW, Apostle and Angel or man. Book or pen.
+ Evangelist, A. D. 90. Sept. Purse or money-bag.
+ 21.
+
+ ST. MATTHIAS, Apostle. Feb. Lance or axe.
+ 24.
+
+ ST. MAURICE (_Ital._ San St. Maurice is represented in
+ Maurizio), A. D. 286. armour, palm in one hand,
+ Sept. 22. Patron saint of the standard in the other.
+ Savoy, Mantua, and Austria. Sometimes as a Moor, his
+ This saint was commander name signifying “a Moor.”
+ of the Theban Legion of the In Italian art he bears a
+ Roman Army, numbering large red cross—badge of the
+ 6666 soldiers, all Christians. Sardinian Order of St.
+ These were slain to a man Maurice—on his breast. St.
+ by order of Emperor Maximin Gereon is in armour, and
+ for refusing to enter bears the standard and palm.
+ into battle against other Sometimes the Emperor
+ Christians. The place Maximin is portrayed prostrate
+ where the martyrdom occurred under his foot, expressing
+ has since been called spiritual victory
+ St. Maurice. St. Gereon over tyranny.
+ was another of the Theban
+ Legion, who, with his comrades,
+ suffered martyrdom
+ in Cologne. St. Gereon
+ and St. Maurice are most
+ honoured in Germany.
+
+ ST. MAURUS, A. D. 584.
+ Jan. 15. _See_ ST. BENEDICT.
+
+ ST. MICHAEL the Archangel. Winged. In armour. Sword.
+ Sept. 29. Spear. Shield. Dragon
+ under his foot. As Lord of
+ souls, holding the balance.
+
+ ST. MINIATO, A. D. 254. Scarlet robe. Crown. Palm.
+ Javelins. T-shaped cross.
+
+ ST. MONICA, A. D. 387. May
+ 4. Mother of St. Augustine.
+
+ ST. NATALIA, wife of ST.
+ ADRIAN and one of the great
+ martyrs of the Greek Church.
+
+ ST. NAZARIUS and ST. CELSUS, Always represented together,
+ A. D. 69. July 28. Two St. Nazarius old, St. Celsus
+ martyrs of Milan. young. Each bears the
+ palm and sword.
+
+ ST. NICHOLAS of Myra or Bishop’s robes. Three balls.
+ Bari, A. D. 326. Dec. 6. Anchor. Three children in
+ Patron saint of Russia, a tub. Ship.
+ Freiberg, Venice, of children,
+ sailors, merchants, and
+ against robbers.
+
+ ST. NICHOLAS of Tolentino, Augustine habit. Star on his
+ A. D. 1309. Sept. 10. breast. Gospel. Crucifix
+ wreathed with a lily.
+
+ ST. NORBERT, A. D. 1134. Bishop’s robes. Sacramental
+ May 6. Founder of the Order cup with spider over it.
+ of Premonstratensians. Sometimes demon bound.
+
+ ST. OMOBUONO. Patron saint Loose tunic trimmed with
+ of Cremona, of tailors, and fur. Fur cap. Is seen
+ all good citizens. Noted distributing food and alms
+ for his charity. to the poor. Sometimes
+ wine flasks stand near him
+ in allusion to the legend
+ that after giving his own
+ provisions to some starving
+ pilgrims, he filled the empty
+ wine flasks with water which
+ poured out wine, and angels
+ filled his wallet with bread.
+
+ ST. ONOFRIO, fourth or fifth Old, wasted, long grey hair
+ century. June 12. A and beard. A leafy branch
+ hermit of Thebes who dwelt encircles his loins. Stick
+ alone in a cave for sixty in his hand.
+ years and never spoke except
+ to pray.
+
+ ST. OTTILIA, A. D. 720. Dec. Abbess of the Benedictine
+ 13. Patron saint of Alsace Order. Crozier or Palm.
+ and Strasburg and against Book upon which rest two
+ diseases of the eye. She eyes.
+ was the blind daughter of the
+ Duke of Alsace and built the
+ convent of Hohenburg.
+
+ ST. PANTALEON, fourth century. Young. Beardless. Wears
+ July 27. Patron loose robe. Palm. Olive.
+ saint of physicians. Was As martyr bound to an olive
+ the favourite physician of tree. Sword at his feet.
+ Emperor Galerius Maximian.
+ Martyred for his faith.
+
+ ST. PATRICK, A. D. 464.
+ March 17. Apostle and
+ patron saint of Ireland.
+
+ ST. PAUL the Apostle, A. D. Sword. Sometimes two swords.
+ 65. June 29. Book. Scroll. Next to
+ Virgin or Saviour enthroned.
+
+ ST. PAUL the Hermit of Thebes, Very old, half naked. Long
+ A. D. 344. hair and beard. Raven.
+
+ ST. PETER the Apostle, A. D. Keys. Fish. Cross. Cock.
+ 65. June 29.
+
+ ST. PETER of Alcantara, A. D. Often represented thus, or
+ 1562. A Franciscan monk with dove hovering over his
+ who through faith was able head.
+ to walk on the water.
+
+ ST. PETER EXORCISTA. _See_
+ ST. MARCELLINUS.
+
+ ST. PETER MARTYR, A. D. Dominican habit. Gash in
+ 1252. April 28. his head or blood flowing
+ from it. Sometimes sword
+ or axe. Palm.
+
+ ST. PETER NOLASCO, A. D. Old. White habit; on his
+ 1258. Jan. 13. Founder of breast the arms of King
+ the Order of Our Lady of James of Aragon, the badge
+ Mercy, for the redemption of the Order.
+ of captives.
+
+ ST. PETRONILLA, first century.
+ May 31. The daughter of
+ St. Peter.
+
+ ST. PETRONIUS, A. D. 430. Bishop’s robes. City of Bologna
+ Oct. 4. Bishop and patron in his hand.
+ saint of Bologna.
+
+ ST. PHILIP, Apostle. May 1. Staff or crozier surmounted
+ Patron saint of Luxembourg by a cross, or small cross
+ and Brabant. in his hand.
+
+ ST. PHILIP BENOZZI, A. D.
+ 1285. Aug. 23. Chief
+ saint of the Order of the
+ Servi.
+
+ ST. PHILIP NERI, A. D. 1595.
+ May 26. Founder of the
+ Order of the Oratorians.
+
+ ST. PHOCAS of Sinope. Martyr. Found in Byzantine art. As
+ Greek patron saint of gardens gardener. Spade.
+ and gardeners.
+
+ ST. PLACIDUS, A. D. 584. Jan.
+ 15. _See_ ST. BENEDICT.
+
+ ST. POL or PAUL DE LÉON, Bell. Sometimes loaf and
+ A. D. 573. March 12. First cruse. Driving dragon into
+ Bishop and patron saint of the sea.
+ Léon and founder of the
+ cathedral at St. Pol-de-Léon,
+ Brittany.
+
+ SS. PRAXEDES and PUDENTIANA,
+ A. D. 148. July 21
+ and May 19. The daughters
+ of a Roman patrician named
+ Pudens, with whom St.
+ Peter lodged. They were
+ Christians, and during the
+ first persecution they ministered
+ to the tortured ones,
+ sheltering them in their
+ own home. They themselves
+ escaped martyrdom.
+
+ ST. PRISCA, A. D. 275. Jan. Lion. Palm. Eagle.
+ 18. A Roman virgin who
+ was denounced as a Christian
+ when but thirteen and
+ thrown to the lions. These,
+ instead of attacking her,
+ humbly licked her feet. She
+ was then taken and beheaded.
+ An eagle guarded
+ her body until it was buried.
+
+ ST. PROCOPIUS, A. D. 1053.
+ July 4. A King of Bohemia
+ who gave up his crown and
+ became a hermit. His story
+ is similar to St. Giles’s.
+
+ ST. PROCULUS, A. D. 303. Soldier, axe in his hand.
+ Military patron saint of Sometimes an angel holds
+ Bologna. One of the warrior the axe. Sword. Carrying
+ saints who slew with a head in both hands.
+ an axe an officer sent to
+ enforce the imperial edict
+ against the Christians and
+ was then himself immediately
+ beheaded.
+
+ ST. RANIERI, A. D. 1161.
+ July 17. Patron saint of
+ Pisa.
+
+ ST. RAPHAEL the Archangel. Winged. Wallet. Staff.
+ Guardian angel of travellers. Sword. Casket (with fishy
+ charm). Pilgrim’s garb.
+
+ ST. RAYMOND DE PEÑAFORTE, Dominican habit. Gliding
+ A. D. 1275. Jan. 23. A over the sea on his mantle.
+ Spanish nobleman who entered
+ the Order of St.
+ Dominick. He is said to
+ have safely crossed the sea
+ on his mantle, setting his
+ staff in the middle with the
+ corner of the cloak for a sail.
+
+ ST. REPARATA, third century. Crown. Palm. Sometimes a
+ Patron saint of Florence banner with red cross on a
+ before 1298. white ground. Difficult
+ to distinguish from St. Ursula
+ unless latter has arrow.
+
+ ST. ROCH, A. D. 1327. Aug. Pilgrim’s habit. Wallet.
+ 16. Patron saint of prisoners Cockleshell. Staff. Dog.
+ and the sick, especially Often pointing to wound
+ the plague-stricken. in his leg.
+
+ ST. ROMAIN, A. D. 639. Oct.
+ 23. Bishop of Rouen under
+ Clovis I. Considered the
+ Apostle of Normandy. The
+ dragon legend is related of
+ him also.
+
+ ST. ROMUALDO, A. D. 1027. White habit. Long white
+ Feb. 7. Founder of the beard. Crutch.
+ Order of the Camaldolesi,
+ reformed Benedictines.
+
+ ST. ROMULO, first century.
+ July 23. Convert of St.
+ Peter and first Bishop of
+ Fiesole. Martyred under
+ Nero.
+
+ ST. ROSA DI VITERBO, A. D. Franciscan habit. Chaplet of
+ 1261. May 8. roses.
+
+ ST. ROSALIA of Palermo, A. D. Brown tunic. Hair loose.
+ 1160. Crucifix. Angels crowning
+ her with roses.
+
+ ST. SABINA, second century. Palm. Crown. Richly
+ Aug. 29. A Roman matron dressed.
+ martyred in the time of the
+ Emperor Hadrian.
+
+ ST. SCHOLASTICA. _See_ ST.
+ BENEDICT.
+
+ ST. SEBALD or SIWARD, A. D. Pilgrim’s dress. Shell in his
+ 770. One of the early hat. Rosary. Staff.
+ German saints, especially Wallet. In one hand his
+ venerated in Nuremberg. church with its two towers.
+
+ ST. SEBASTIAN, A. D. 288. Pierced by arrows. Bound
+ Jan. 20. Patron saint against to a tree or column. Angel
+ plague and pestilence. with palm and crown.
+
+ ST. SIMON and JUDE or St. Simon the saw. Thaddeus
+ THADDEUS. Oct. 28. the halberd.
+
+ ST. STEPHEN. Protomartyr. Stones. Deacon’s robes.
+ Dec. 26. Palm.
+
+ ST. SWITHIN, A. D. 862. July
+ 2. Bishop of Winchester
+ and preceptor of Alfred the
+ Great. He desired to be
+ buried among the poor outside
+ the church. When his
+ clergy, however, on July
+ 15th, wishing to do him
+ honour, attempted to remove
+ his body to a magnificent
+ tomb inside the church, the
+ rain fell in such torrents
+ they were unable to proceed.
+ The storm continued forty
+ days. Then, the clergy
+ saw it was a sign, and left
+ the saint’s body undisturbed.
+
+ ST. SYLVESTER, A. D. 335. Pontifical robes. Mitre.
+ Dec. 31. Bishop and Patriarch Sometimes triple tiara.
+ of Rome. Always Small dragon, its mouth
+ associated with the conversion bound with threads. Bull
+ of Constantine. crouching at his feet.
+ Sometimes holding or pointing
+ at the portraits of St. Peter
+ and St. Paul.
+
+ ST. THECLA, first century. Young. Palm. Wild beasts.
+ Sept. 23. Patron saint of
+ Tarragona. A Greek virgin
+ and martyr who was a convert
+ of St. Paul.
+
+ ST. THEODORE, A. D. 306. In armour. Dragon under
+ Nov. 9. Formerly patron his feet.
+ saint of Venice.
+
+ ST. THERESA, A. D. 1582. Corpulent. Infirm. Flame-tipped
+ Oct. 17. Patron saint of arrow in her breast.
+ Spain and founder of the Dove. Angel.
+ Scalzi, a reformed order of
+ the Carmelites.
+
+ ST. THOMAS, Apostle. Dec. Builder’s rule or square.
+ 21. Patron saint of Parma Lance.
+ and Portugal, and of
+ builders and architects.
+
+ ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, A. D. Dominican habit. Books.
+ 1274. March 7. Pen. Sacramental cup.
+ Sun on his breast within
+ which is sometimes a human
+ eye. Dove.
+
+ ST. THOMAS À BECKET of Blood flowing from his head.
+ Canterbury, A. D. 1170. Bishop’s robes or Benedictine
+ Dec. 29. habit.
+
+ ST. THOMAS of Villaneuva, At his canonisation it was
+ A. D. 1555. Sept. 17. ordained that he should be
+ Archbishop of Valencia, represented with an open
+ called the Almoner because purse in his hand instead
+ of his charities. of a crozier.
+
+ ST. TORPÈ or TROPÈS, A. D. Roman soldier. White banner
+ 70. May 17. with a red cross.
+
+ ST. URSULA, A. D. 237 or Crown. Arrow. Pilgrim’s
+ 383, or 451. Oct. 21. Patron staff surmounted by a white
+ saint of teachers and banner with the red cross.
+ young girls. Dove. Mantle sheltering
+ virgins.
+
+ ST. VERONICA. There is an Always represented in art
+ old tradition that when displaying the sacred napkin.
+ Jesus was on his way to
+ Calvary, staggering under
+ the weight of his cross,
+ he met a woman who,
+ filled with compassion,
+ wiped the drops of agony
+ from his face with a napkin,
+ or as some say with her
+ veil. And the face of Christ
+ was miraculously printed on
+ the cloth. The name of
+ _Vera Icon_, the true image,
+ was given to this, and the
+ cloth was called the _Sudarium_
+ (_Fr._ Le Sainte Sudaire;
+ _Ital._ Il Sudario).
+ In time the name of the
+ cloth was given to the
+ woman of whom the legend
+ is related. The festival of
+ St. Veronica occurs on
+ Shrove Tuesday.
+
+ ST. VICTOR of Marseilles, A. D. In armour. Millstone.
+ 303. July 21. A Roman
+ soldier who suffered martyrdom
+ under Diocletian, being
+ crushed by a millstone and
+ then beheaded.
+
+ ST. VINCENT. Deacon and Young. Deacon’s dress
+ Martyr, A. D. 304. Jan. Palm. His peculiar attributes
+ 22. Patron saint of Lisbon, a crow or raven
+ Valencia, Saragossa, Milan, sometimes perched upon a
+ and Chalons. millstone. Difficult to
+ distinguish from St. Laurence
+ and St. Stephen.
+
+ ST. VINCENT FERRARIS, A. D. Dominican habit. Crucifix.
+ 1419. April 5. Sometimes represented with
+ wings, symbolising
+ inspiration.
+
+ ST. VINCENT DE PAULE, A. D. Franciscan habit. Infant in
+ 1660. July 19. Founder his arms. Sister of Charity
+ of hospitals for deserted kneeling at his feet.
+ children and of the Order
+ of Sisters of Charity.
+
+ ST. VITUS, A. D. 303. June Palm. Lion. Cock. Wolf.
+ 15. Patron saint of Bohemia, Caldron of oil. Young
+ Saxony, and Sicily, and beautiful.
+ of dancers and actors,
+ against nervous diseases and
+ late rising (hence the _cock_
+ as an attribute).
+
+ ST. WALBURGA, A. D. 728. Benedictine habit. Crozier
+ May 1. Niece of St. Boniface as abbess. Vial or flask
+ and accompanied him to in her hand.
+ Germany and became abbess
+ of a Benedictine convent
+ at Heidenheim. The night
+ of her festival is the famous
+ _Walpurgisnacht_ referred to
+ in _Faust_.
+
+ ST. ZENO, A. D. 380. April Bishop’s robes. Fish suspended
+ 12. Patron saint of Verona. from his crozier.
+
+ ST. ZENOBIO, A. D. 417. May Scenes from his life are
+ 25. Bishop of Florence. frequently represented in
+ Florentine art. He has no
+ particular attribute.
+
+
+
+
+III.—HISTORICAL AND DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS
+
+
+The sacred subjects as represented in art become _historical_
+when they record any event or story of the Bible, or express the
+actions, miracles, or martyrdoms of saints. Yet a story may become a
+_symbol_—thus the Last Supper may be treated as an event, or it may
+express the symbol of our redemption.
+
+Devotional pictures are those in which no action or event takes place,
+and where the sainted personages are represented solely in their sacred
+character, whether standing singly or grouped with others. Such a group
+is called in Italian a _sacra conversazione_—meaning a society in which
+there is communion. The most important of these devotional subjects are
+those in which the whole celestial hierarchy are represented, such as
+the _Paradiso_ so often met with in ecclesiastical decoration, where
+Christ sits enthroned in glory; the Coronation of the Virgin, the old
+and accepted symbol of the triumph of the Church; the Last Judgment,
+from the Apocalypse, and the Adoration of the Lamb. The order of
+arrangement in these pictures was fixed and absolute, having been early
+decided by the Church authorities. The Virgin Mary and John the Baptist
+come first after the Trinity; then in their order the evangelists,
+patriarchs, prophets, the apostles, the fathers, the bishops, martyrs,
+monks, and nuns.
+
+This order might sometimes be varied in order to exalt a favourite
+saint, as when sometimes St. Augustine is enthroned, with St. Peter
+and St. Paul on each side; or St. Barbara is represented enthroned,
+attended by Mary Magdalene and St. Catherine. Frequently the patron
+saint of the votary or the locality is represented enthroned, and other
+saints (of a superior rank under other circumstances) are here placed
+on each side or lower down in the picture, and become accessories. In
+these pictures the donor is frequently introduced kneeling before his
+patron saint, sometimes accompanied by his wife and family. And to show
+his lowliness and self-abasement, he is often so small as to be out of
+all proportion with the other figures in the picture.
+
+A bishop kneeling among a group of saints is usually the donor of
+the picture. When he stands with other saints, he is one of the
+bishop-martyrs or patrons. There are some hundreds of these, and they
+are the most difficult to distinguish of all the pictured saints.
+
+The _anachronisms_ found in many of the devotional pictures where those
+saints and sacred personages who lived at widely different times are
+found grouped together, is explained by the spiritual conception that
+there is no such thing as time in heaven. So that that which at first
+seems so incongruous, as to excite derision and pity for the mistakes
+and ignorances of an earlier age, was instead in the highest degree
+significant of the immortal life and eternal youth of those blessed
+ones, who “belong no more to our earth, but to heaven and eternity.”
+
+In the sacred subjects that come under the head of _historical_, some
+are scriptural, portraying scenes from the Old or New Testament, while
+others are purely legendary in character.
+
+The historical subjects from the lives of the saints represent usually
+some miracle they have performed or some scene from their martyrdom.
+
+The martyrdoms found everywhere in all countries are those of St. Peter
+and St. Paul, St. Stephen Protomartyr, St. Laurence, St. Catherine, and
+St. Sebastian.
+
+
+
+
+IV.—GENERAL SYMBOLS
+
+
+“A symbol is an exterior formula, the representation of some dogma
+or belief. The _lamb_ is the symbol of Christ, for the sacred texts
+relating to the Divine lamb oblige us to receive it as the necessary
+and dogmatical representation of Christ. A _figure_, on the other hand,
+is an arbitrary representation of any idea. The figure is not imposed
+by sacred dogma, but results simply from the free use of the human
+mind.... We are required to receive a symbol, but may be persuaded to
+admit a figure; the first demands our faith, the second fascinates
+the mind. The _lion_, _cross_, and _lamb_ are the sole symbols of
+Christ, but he has been figured by the pelican and the fish.”—Didron’s
+_Christian Iconography_.
+
+The =Nimbus=, =Aureole=, or =Glory= that is used in Christian art
+to distinguish holy personages was used by the pagans, who not only
+employed it as an attribute of divinity, but often gave it to the
+Emperors of Rome and the Kings of Eastern Europe and Asia. It expressed
+the radiance believed to emanate from the Divine Essence.
+
+The glory around the head is the nimbus or aureole. The _oblong
+glory_ surrounding the whole person (called in Italian the
+_Mandorla_—almond—from its form) is used only in connection with
+figures of Christ and the Virgin, or with saints as they are seen
+ascending into heaven.
+
+When used to represent one of the three divine persons of the Trinity,
+the glory is often cruciform or triangular. A _cruciform nimbus_ is a
+nimbus stamped with a cross, and although appropriate to the Deity,
+belongs peculiarly to Christ.
+
+The =Triangle=, the emblem of the Divine Trinity, denotes three of the
+inseparable attributes of the Deity: to be; to think; to speak.
+
+The =Square= was a geometrical symbolic figure used to indicate the
+earth; the circle was the symbol of heaven. Thus eternity was shown by
+a circle, life by a square, and the eternity of life by a square within
+a circle.
+
+The _Square Nimbus_ indicates that the person was living at the time
+the picture was painted.
+
+From the fifth to the twelfth century the nimbus was shaped like a disc
+or plate over the head. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
+it was a broad golden band behind the head, consisting of circle within
+circle, frequently ornamented with jewels. The custom prevailed at this
+time (especially in Germany) of inscribing the saint’s name within the
+edge of the nimbus above his head. From the fifteenth century, the
+nimbus became a bright fillet over the head, and its use was abandoned
+in the seventeenth century.
+
+In pictures, the nimbus or aureole is always golden, the colour of
+light.
+
+The =Fish=[1] (usually a dolphin, which had also a sacred significance
+among the pagans,) was the earliest of the Christian emblems. It was
+used, partly because the Greek word for fish forms the anagram of the
+name of Jesus Christ; and as a symbol of water and the rite of baptism;
+also in reference to the passage in the Gospel: “Follow me, and I will
+make you fishers of men.” When given to St. Peter the fish signifies
+his occupation as a fisherman, his conversion to Christianity, and
+his vocation as an apostle—a fisher of men. It is also given as an
+attribute to bishops who were celebrated for the number of their
+conversions and baptisms.
+
+[Illustration: _a_ _b_ _c_ _d_]
+
+The =Cross=. About the tenth century the fish was superseded by the
+cross, which became the universal symbol of the Christian faith.
+The Latin cross (_a_), that upon which Christ was believed to have
+suffered, is the form usually given to a saint. But other crosses are
+used, having the same signification; as the Greek cross (_b_), in which
+the arms are all the same length; the transverse cross (_c_), on which
+St. Andrew is supposed to have died; the Egyptian cross (_d_), often
+given to St. Philip the Apostle, was the form also of the crutch of St.
+Anthony and was embroidered on his cope or robe, hence it is called St.
+Anthony’s cross.
+
+The double cross on the top of a staff instead of a crozier belongs
+only to a pope. The staff with a single cross is borne by the Greek
+bishops. Often the cross was made of gold or silver, the five wounds of
+Christ being indicated by a ruby or carbuncle at each end and in the
+centre. Not until the sixth century did the cross become a crucifix,
+no longer a symbol, but an image.
+
+The =Lamb= has been the peculiar symbol of the Saviour, as the
+“sacrifice without blemish,” from the earliest times. The lamb is also
+the general symbol of modesty, innocence, and meekness, and is thus
+given to St. Agnes.
+
+The =Pelican=, who tears open her breast to feed her young with her
+own blood, was one of the early symbols of our redemption through the
+sufferings of Christ.
+
+The =Dragon= is the symbol of Satan and of sin. The scriptural phrase,
+“the jaws of hell,” was rendered literally in early art by depicting
+the dragon’s jaws as open, emitting flames. The =Serpent= also typified
+sin and is sometimes placed under the feet of the Madonna with an apple
+in its mouth, or winding around a globe, signifying the power of sin
+over the whole world.
+
+The =Lion=[2] is an ancient Christian symbol that frequently occurs,
+especially in architectural decoration. Antiquaries differ as to the
+exact meaning of the mystical lions placed in the porches of so many
+old Lombard churches; sometimes with an animal, sometimes with a man
+in their paws. The lion was an ancient symbol of the Redeemer, “the
+lion of the tribe of Judah,” also of the resurrection of the Redeemer,
+because according to an Oriental tradition the lion’s cub is born dead,
+and in three days its sire licks it into life. The lion, as a creature
+of the wilderness, is also an emblem of solitude, and is given to St.
+Jerome and other saints who did penance, or lived as hermits in the
+desert. The lion as an attribute indicated death in the amphitheatre,
+and thus is given to St. Ignatius and St. Euphemia. As the type of
+fortitude and resolution, the lion is placed at the feet of those
+martyrs of unfaltering courage, as St. Adrian and St. Natalia.
+
+The =Hart= or =Hind= is an emblem of solitude and purity of life, and
+also of religious aspiration. “Like as the hart panteth after the
+water-brooks, so panteth my soul for Thee, O God!” When the original
+meaning of the lion, the hart, and other emblems had faded from the
+popular mind, legends were invented to explain them and _that which
+had been a symbol_ became an _incident_ or an _historical attribute_;
+as the legend of the lion healed by St. Jerome, or two lions digging
+the grave of St. Paul, the stag that appeared to St. Eustace and St.
+Hubert, and the hind that spoke to St. Julian.
+
+The =Peacock=, the bird of Juno, was an old pagan symbol signifying
+the apotheosis of an empress. The early Christians, with this
+interpretation in mind, used it as a general symbol of immortality.
+It was not until modern times that the peacock became the emblem of
+earthly pride.
+
+The =Crown= in Christian art is either an emblem or an attribute. In
+all ages it has been the emblem of victory and reward due to surpassing
+power or virtue. “Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of
+righteousness”; and in this sense the crown became the especial symbol
+of the glory of martyrdom. Among the Jews, the crown was worn by a
+bride, and usually only the female martyrs wear the symbolical crown
+of glory, signifying in a double sense the bride of Christ, and the
+martyr. Martyrs of the other sex hold the crown in their hands or it
+is borne by an angel. The crown is also the symbol of sovereignty.
+The Virgin wears it as Queen of Heaven and _Regina Angelorum_. It is
+important to distinguish between the _symbol_ and the _attribute_. When
+the crown is given to St. Cecilia and St. Barbara it is the emblem of
+their glorious martyrdom. When given to St. Catherine and St. Ursula
+it is not only the _symbol_ of martyrdom but the _attribute_ of their
+royal rank as princesses.
+
+As an attribute it is frequently worn by a saint or placed at his feet,
+indicating that he was of royal birth, as in pictures of Louis of
+France, St. Helena, and many others.
+
+The =Sword= is also a symbol or an attribute. In general it signifies
+martyrdom by a violent death and thus is given to many saints who did
+not perish by the sword. As an attribute, it shows that the martyr was
+beheaded. Thus it is given to St. Paul, St. Catherine, and many others.
+It is also given to the warrior martyrs typifying their military
+profession.
+
+Other symbols of martyrdom are:
+
+The =Lance=, the =Axe=, the =Club=.
+
+The =Arrow=, the attribute of St. Ursula, St. Christian, and St.
+Sebastian.
+
+The =Anvil= is an attribute of St. Adrian only, signifying his
+martyrdom.
+
+The =Poniard=, of St. Lucia.
+
+The =Caldron=, given to St. Cecilia and St. John the Evangelist.
+
+The =Pincers= and =Shears=, St. Apollonia and St. Agatha.
+
+The =Wheels=, St. Catherine.
+
+=Fire= and =Flames= sometimes indicate martyrdom, sometimes religious
+fervour.
+
+The =Palm= is the universal symbol of martyrdom, for which the
+Christians found scriptural authority in Rev. vii., 9, 14: “And after
+this I beheld, and lo, a great multitude ... stood before the throne
+... clothed with white robes, and with palms in their hands.” ... “And
+he said to me, These are they which came out of great tribulation.”
+Thus in pictures of martyrdoms an angel is introduced with the palm.
+
+The =Standard= or =Banner= is the symbol of victory. It is carried by
+our Saviour after His resurrection, and is given to St. George, St.
+Maurice, and other military saints; to some victorious martyrs, as St.
+Julian and St. Ansano, also to St. Ursula and St. Reparata, the only
+female saints.
+
+The =Ship=. The Ark of Noah was in early times a symbol of the Church
+of Christ. Later the Ark became a Ship.
+
+The =Anchor= symbolises immovable firmness, patience, and hope.
+
+The =Lamp=, =Lantern=, or =Taper= is the emblem of piety: “Let your
+light so shine before men,” etc. Thus it is given to St. Gudula, St.
+Geneviève of Paris, and St. Bridget. It also signifies wisdom, and when
+given to St. Lucia typifies celestial light or wisdom.
+
+A =Church= in the hands of a saint shows that he was the founder of
+some particular church. But in the hands of St. Jerome it signifies the
+whole Catholic Church, and to make the symbol more impressive rays of
+light stream out from the portal.
+
+The =Chalice=, or Sacramental Cup with the Host, signifies faith, and
+is thus given to St. Barbara.
+
+The =Scourge= in the hand of a saint or at his feet indicates the
+penance he inflicted upon himself; in the hand of St. Ambrose, however,
+it shows the punishment he inflicted upon others.
+
+The =Olive=, emblem of peace and reconciliation, is found on the tombs
+of the early martyrs; sometimes with, and again without, the dove. It
+is carried as the attribute of peace by the Angel Gabriel, sometimes
+also by the angels in a Nativity who announce “peace on earth.”
+
+The =Dove= in sacred art is the symbol of the Holy Ghost, and is given
+to certain saints who are considered to have been divinely inspired,
+as St. Gregory, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Hilarius, and others. It is
+also introduced into various subjects from the New Testament, as the
+Annunciation, the Baptism, and the Pentecost. It also symbolises
+simplicity and purity of heart, and is the emblem of the soul, and in
+this sense is seen coming forth from the lips of dying martyrs.
+
+The =Lily= is another emblem of purity and appears in pictures of the
+Virgin, particularly those of the Annunciation. It belongs also to St.
+Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary, whose staff, according to the
+legend, put forth lilies. It is given as an emblem only to St. Francis,
+St. Anthony of Padua, St. Dominick, and St. Catherine of Siena, to
+emphasise the great purity of their lives.
+
+The =Unicorn= is another “ancient symbol of purity, in allusion to the
+fable that it could never be captured except by a virgin stainless in
+mind and life.” It is the emblem of female chastity, and is given only
+to the Virgin Mary and St. Justina.
+
+The =Flaming Heart= symbolises fervent piety and love.
+
+The =Book=, in the hands of the evangelists and the apostles,
+represents the Gospel, and is an attribute. In the hand of St. Stephen
+it is the Old Testament; with any other saint it may be the Gospel, but
+it may also be a symbol signifying that the saint was famous for his
+learning. It is thus given to St. Catherine, the Doctors of the Church,
+St. Thomas Aquinas, and St. Bonaventura.
+
+=Flowers= and =Fruit= may be simply ornamental in ecclesiastical works
+of art, but in many instances they have a definite meaning. Roses are
+symbolical in pictures of the Madonna, who is the “Rose of Sharon.”
+
+The =Apple= was the accepted emblem of the fall of man and original
+sin. In pictures of the Madonna and Child, in the hand of the Infant
+Christ, or presented by an angel, it symbolised redemption.
+
+The =Pomegranate= bursting open, showing the seeds, was a symbol of the
+future and hope of immortality.
+
+An _Apple_, _Pear_, or _Pomegranate_ placed in the hand of St.
+Catherine as the mystical bride of Christ, alludes to the scriptural
+text, “The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace.”
+
+A =Bell= was supposed to exorcise demons, and thus it is given to the
+haunted St. Anthony.
+
+The =Shell= signifies pilgrimage.
+
+The =Skull=, penance.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See Appendix.
+
+[2] See Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+V.—COLOURS AS EMBLEMS
+
+
+In early art colours were always used symbolically, and until the old
+traditions were cast aside by later painters, certain colours were
+always associated with certain subjects and certain personages. In all
+the old stained glass these rules were scrupulously followed.
+
+=White= was the symbol of light, faith, joy, life, and of religious
+purity, virginity, and innocence. It signified honour and integrity in
+the judge, humility in the rich man, and chastity in a woman. Christ
+appears in white after His resurrection and the Virgin wears it in
+pictures of the assumption.
+
+=Red=, the ruby, denoted fire, divine love, the Holy Spirit; royalty,
+creative power, and heat. Red and white roses are symbols of love and
+innocence, or love and wisdom. Thus the angel crowns St. Cecilia.
+Used in the bad sense, red typified blood, hatred, war. Red and white
+together were the colours of the devil and of purgatory.
+
+=Blue=, that of the sapphire, signified heaven, fidelity, constancy,
+truth. Christ and the Virgin wear the blue mantle typifying heavenly
+love and heavenly truth. St. John the Evangelist was given the _blue
+tunic_ and the red mantle.
+
+=Yellow= or =Gold= was the symbol of the sun, of the goodness of
+God, of marriage and fruitfulness. St. Joseph wears yellow, and St.
+Peter, in pictures of the apostles, wears a yellow mantle over a blue
+tunic. Used in the reverse sense, yellow denoted jealousy, deceit, and
+inconstancy. The traitor Judas wears a dirty, dingy yellow.
+
+=Green=, the emerald, the colour of spring, symbolised victory and
+hope—particularly hope of immortality.
+
+=Violet=, the amethyst, signified passion and suffering, or love and
+truth. It is the colour worn by the martyrs, by the Virgin after the
+crucifixion, by Mary Magdalene as the penitent, and sometimes by Christ
+after the resurrection.
+
+=Grey= is the colour of humility, mourning, penance, and accused
+innocence.
+
+=Black= indicated darkness, wickedness, death, and mourning, and was
+given to Satan. Black and white signified humiliation or mourning, and
+purity of life, and for this reason was adopted by the Dominicans and
+Carmelites.
+
+
+
+
+VI.—THE TRINITY
+
+
+=Symbols of God the Father.= Until the twelfth century the only symbol
+used to indicate God the Father was a hand issuing from the clouds.
+It was generally represented in the act of benediction, sometimes
+encircled by a cruciform nimbus, sometimes entirely open with rays
+proceeding from each finger. It was then supposed to be in the act of
+bestowing. This symbol was followed by a face in the clouds, then a
+bust, and by the end of the fourteenth century the entire figure was
+represented. Then a sentiment grew into being that, as no mortal had
+seen nor could see him, any attempt to represent him in human form was
+profane; and since the sixteenth century the Supreme Being has been
+symbolised by a triangle, the geometrical emblem of the Divine Trinity,
+or by a radiating circle, itself the symbol of eternity.
+
+=Symbols of God the Son.=[3] The symbols of Christ are the glory,
+aureole, or nimbus, the cross, lamb, and lion. However, from the
+beginning of Christian art, Christ has been represented by portraits
+rather than symbols, and these portraits are always unmistakable.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST BY ST. JOHN.—VERROCCHIO
+
+(Academy, Florence.)]
+
+=Symbols of the Holy Ghost.= From the sixth century the dove has
+been the universal symbol of the Holy Ghost. The representation of
+the Saviour surrounded by seven doves is highly symbolical. They
+are emblems of the seven gifts of the spirit with which He was
+endowed—wisdom, understanding, counsel, strength, knowledge, piety, and
+fear (Is. xi). During the Middle Ages seven was considered a mystic
+number. There were seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; seven planets; seven
+days of the week; seven branches on the candlestick of Moses; seven
+sacraments; seven stars; seven liberal arts; seven symbolic trumpets;
+seven churches of Asia; seven mysterious seals; seven heads of the
+Dragon; seven penitential psalms; seven joys and seven sorrows of the
+Virgin; seven deadly sins; seven canonical hours.
+
+=Symbols of the Trinity.= In early art the Divine Three in One was
+symbolised by the combination of three triangles, three circles, three
+fishes, and in later art by three human figures, each with its peculiar
+attribute. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the dove was
+often represented hovering between the first and second persons of the
+Trinity with the tips of the wings touching the lips of each.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] See Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+VII.—ARCHANGELS[4]
+
+
+The seven archangels who stood in the presence of God are frequently
+referred to in Scripture. These are: _Michael_, _Gabriel_, _Raphael_,
+_Uriel_, _Chamuel_, _Jophiel_, _Zadkiel_.
+
+From the standpoint of art, however, it is necessary to consider only
+the characteristics of the first three, who are venerated as saints
+in the Catholic Church. These, by their majestic and gracious beauty,
+and their accredited mission as counsellor, messenger, and healer to
+mankind, have inspired some of the most poetical and beautiful works of
+art.
+
+=St. Michael.= _Lat._ Sanctus Michael Angelus. _Ital._ San Michele,
+Sanmichele. _Fr._ Monseigneur Saint Michel.
+
+Poetry and art have united in giving St. Michael pre-eminence over
+all created spirits. All the glory of princedoms, powers, virtues,
+dominations, and thrones radiate from him, and God manifested His glory
+in him when He made him victor over the power of sin and over the
+“great dragon that deceived the world.”
+
+The worship of St. Michael became general in France from the ninth
+century, and he was made the patron saint of France, and of the
+military order instituted in his honour by Louis XI., in 1469. This
+worship extended to England after the Norman Conquest, and churches
+dedicated to St. Michael are found in all the towns and cities along
+the southern and eastern shores.
+
+St. Michael is also the angel of good counsel.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE THREE ARCHANGELS.—BOTTICELLI
+
+(Academy, Florence.)]
+
+He is represented in three characters in art: as patron saint and
+prince of the Church Militant; as captain of the hosts of heaven and
+conqueror of the powers below; as lord of souls,—the conductor and
+guardian angel of the spirits of the departed.
+
+In all representations of St. Michael in art the leading _motif_ is
+the same. He is young and beautiful, with a severe, imperious beauty.
+In early art he is represented in white, with large many-coloured
+wings, and carries only the sceptre, or the lance surmounted by a
+cross, as one who conquered sin by spiritual power alone. In later
+representations—those imbued with the spirit of chivalry, he becomes
+the idealised expression of knighthood, and is attired in a magnificent
+coat of mail, with shield and spear and sword. Sometimes he wears a
+helmet; more often his long, fair hair is confined by a jewelled tiara,
+or floats loose upon his shoulders, the only angelic attribute being
+the wings that spring resplendent from his shoulders.
+
+In devotional pictures of St. Michael, he is represented as captain of
+the heavenly host and conqueror of the Evil One. He is armed and stands
+with his foot on the half-human, half-dragon form of Lucifer, whom he
+is about to pierce with his lance or to hurl down into the infernal
+regions. This representation is the universal symbol of the ultimate
+victory of good over evil.
+
+When St. Michael is portrayed as lord of souls he is unarmed. He holds
+a balance and upon each scale sits a little naked figure representing
+two human souls. The _beato_—the blessed one—has his hands joined in
+gratitude, while the other, the rejected one, is in an attitude of
+hopeless misery. Frequently a demon is seen grasping the descending
+scale with his talons or a long two-pronged hook.
+
+Whether with or without the balance, St. Michael appears as lord of
+souls in the death and assumption of the Virgin. The legends assert
+that he received her spirit and guarded it during the interim of her
+death and assumption.
+
+=St. Gabriel.= _Ital._ San Gabriele, San Gabriello, L’Angelo
+Annunziatore.
+
+Where the Angel Gabriel’s name occurs in Scripture it is in the
+character of a messenger only. It is he who is sent to Daniel to
+interpret the vision which shows the destinies of mighty nations, and
+to announce the return of the Jews from captivity. In the New Testament
+he foretells the birth of John the Baptist to the high-priest Zacharias
+and six months later he is sent to the Virgin to proclaim the coming of
+the Redeemer of the world. In the Apocryphal New Testament he foretells
+to Joachim the birth of the Virgin and is thought to have foretold the
+birth of Samson. He is more important in the New Testament than Michael
+and as the angel who announced the birth of Christ he is reverenced as
+the angel who presides over childbirth.
+
+In devotional pictures he is represented as the second of the three
+archangels. In his character of _l’angelo annunziatore_, he usually
+carries a lily or a sceptre in one hand and in the other a scroll
+inscribed “Ave Maria, Gratia Plena!”
+
+=St. Raphael.= _Ital._ San Raffaello. _Ger._ Der Heilige Rafael.
+
+Raphael is the prince of guardian spirits, the guardian angel of all
+humanity and thus, according to the early traditions, he appeared to
+the shepherds by night, “with good tidings of great joy, which shall
+be for all people.”
+
+Raphael in his character of guardian angel is generally represented
+leading the youthful Tobias. When in order to show the difference
+between the heavenly and the mortal being, Tobit is made to look like a
+child, and the angel appears with wings and is not disguised, it is no
+longer historical, but devotional, and Tobias with his fish represents
+the Christian protected and guided by his guardian spirit.
+
+All the pictured subjects of Raphael belong to the history of Tobit,
+and incidents from this beautiful apocryphal legend have been favourite
+subjects of art. Tobias dragging the fish ashore and the angel standing
+by has been often painted. In such pictures the angel should be without
+wings and disguised as the friendly traveller; the dog, which should
+not appear in the devotional pictures, is here an attribute and belongs
+to the story.
+
+Devotional pictures represent him attired as a pilgrim or traveller,
+with sandalled feet and hair confined by a fillet or diadem. He has
+the pilgrim’s staff and a wallet or panetière suspended from his belt.
+Often as guardian spirit he has a sword; usually, however, he bears a
+small vase or casket containing the “fishy charm” against evil spirits
+(Tobit, vi., 6-7).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] See Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.—SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN
+
+
+The =Star= often embroidered on the right shoulder of the Virgin’s
+mantle or in front of her veil refers to the most expressive of her
+many titles, _Stella Maris_, “Star of the Sea,” an interpretation of
+her Jewish name Miriam. Several pictures are called _La Madonna della
+Stella_. She is also _Stella Matutina_, the “Morning Star”; _Stella non
+Erratica_, the “Fixed Star”; and _Stella Jacobi_, the “Star of Jacob.”
+
+The =Sun= and the =Moon=. “Who is she that looketh forth as the
+morning, fair as the morn, clear as the sun” (Solomon’s Song, vi., 10).
+This text is applied to the Virgin and she is also the woman of the
+Apocalypse, “_A woman clothed with the sun, having the moon under her
+feet_, and on her head a crown of twelve stars.” Hence she is portrayed
+with the glory of the sun about her, and the crescent moon beneath her
+feet.
+
+The =Enclosed Garden= is a symbol borrowed from the Song of Solomon
+(Cant. iv., 12) as well as a =Fountain Sealed=, a =Well of Living
+Waters=, the =Tower of David=, the =Temple of Solomon=, and the =City
+of David=.
+
+The =Porta Clausa= or Closed Gate is taken from Ezekiel (xliv., 2).
+
+The =Lily=, the =Rose=. “I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the
+valleys” (Cant. ii., 1).
+
+The =Palm=, the =Cypress=, and the =Olive= are all emblems of the
+Virgin. The first signifies victory, the second points to heaven, and
+the third denotes peace, abundance, and hope.
+
+The =Cedar of Lebanon= (“exalted as a cedar in Lebanon”), because of
+its imperishable nature, its perfume, its healing qualities, and its
+great height, denotes also the virtue, greatness, and beauty of the
+Virgin.
+
+The =Sealed Book=, as a symbol in the hands of the Virgin, refers to
+the text: “In that book were all my members written”; also to the “book
+that is sealed which men deliver to one that is learned, saying, Read
+this, I pray thee: and he saith, I cannot, for it is sealed: And the
+book is delivered to him that is not learned, saying, Read this, I pray
+thee: and he saith, I am not learned” (Is. xxix., 11-12).
+
+Besides these symbols, which are mystical and sacred and belong only to
+the Virgin, there are others of a more general nature that appear in
+pictures of the Madonna and Child.
+
+The =Globe=, as the symbol of sovereignty, was early placed in the
+hands of the divine Infant. When it is under the feet of the Madonna
+with a serpent twining about it, it is the symbol of redemption.
+
+The =Apple=, in the hands of the Infant Christ, symbolises the fall of
+man; in the hands of the Virgin it indicates that she is the second Eve.
+
+The =Serpent= is the general emblem of Satan and sin, but it is used
+in reference to the prophecy, “She shall bruise thy head,” when placed
+under the feet of the Madonna.
+
+The =Pomegranate=, the ancient symbol of hope, is often placed in the
+hands of the Child, who is seen presenting it to His mother.
+
+The =Book=, when the Madonna holds it open, or has a finger between
+the leaves, or when the Child is turning the pages, is the Book of
+Wisdom, and is supposed to be open at the seventh chapter. When clasped
+or sealed, as before explained, it is a mystical emblem of the Virgin
+herself.
+
+=Birds= represent the soul. The =Dove= is the Holy Spirit hovering
+about the Virgin. The =Seven Doves=, typifying the gifts of the Spirit,
+when they surround the Virgin, characterise her as _Mater Sapientiæ_,
+“Mother of Wisdom.” Doves near her when she is working or reading in
+the Temple express the meekness and tenderness of her nature.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Certain women of the Old Testament are regarded as especial types of
+the Virgin, viz.: =Eve=, =Rachel=, =Ruth=, =Abishag=, =Bathsheba=,
+=Judith=, and =Esther=, and it is because of this that these Jewish
+heroines so often appear in religious pictures.
+
+The correct and traditional dress of the Virgin is a blue robe or
+mantle worn over a close red tunic with long sleeves. In early pictures
+her head is veiled and the colours are pale and delicate. The enthroned
+Madonna unveiled was introduced about the end of the fifteenth century.
+
+In the historical pictures she is simply dressed, but in the devotional
+pictures wherein she is portrayed as the Queen of Heaven, she wears a
+magnificent crown wrought with jewels interwoven with roses and lilies;
+her blue robe is richly embroidered with gold and gems, and lined with
+ermine or stuff of gorgeous colours, carrying out the text: “The king’s
+daughter is all glorious within; her clothing is of wrought gold. She
+shall be brought unto the king in raiment of needlework” (Ps. xlv.,
+13-14).
+
+In the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption, the Virgin wears a
+white tunic, or white strewn with gold stars. In all subjects that
+relate to the passion and those that follow the crucifixion she should
+wear violet or grey. This rule is not always followed, however.
+
+ The =Seven Joys= and the =Seven Sorrows of the Virgin= are often
+ painted as a series.
+
+ The =Seven Joys= are: the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity,
+ the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, Christ
+ found by His mother, the Assumption and the Coronation.
+
+ The =Seven Sorrows= are: the Prophecy of Simeon, the Flight into
+ Egypt, Christ lost by His mother, the Betrayal of Christ, the
+ Crucifixion (with St. John and the Virgin only present), the
+ Deposition from the Cross, and the Ascension when the Virgin is left
+ without her Son.
+
+The fifteen Mysteries of the Rosary are also given as a series.
+
+ The =Five Joyful Mysteries= are: the Annunciation, the Visitation,
+ the Nativity, the Purification, and Christ found in the Temple.
+
+ The =Five Sorrowful Mysteries= are: Christ in the Garden of Olives,
+ the Flagellation, Christ Crowned with Thorns, the Procession to
+ Calvary, and the Crucifixion.
+
+ The =Five Glorious Mysteries= are: the Resurrection, the Ascension,
+ the Descent of the Holy Ghost, the Assumption, and the Coronation.
+
+ These series are treated mystically rather than in the limited
+ historical sense, the object being to induce devout religious
+ contemplation.
+
+
+
+
+IX.—LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA
+
+
+Anna, the mother of the Virgin, was early venerated as a saint in the
+East, but the parents of the Virgin were never represented in early
+art except in a series of the life of the Virgin. It was not until the
+beginning of the sixteenth century that the increased reverence for
+the Virgin Mary gave to her parents Joachim and Anna a more prominent
+position as patron saints, and from that time on they were frequent
+subjects in sacred groups.
+
+A complete series of the history of the Blessed Virgin, as imaged forth
+by the early artists, always begins with the =Legend of Joachim and
+Anna= as it is related in the Apocryphal New Testament.
+
+Joachim, a man of Nazareth, was of the royal race of David, and had for
+his wife Anna whose family were of Bethlehem. “Their lives were plain
+and right in the sight of the Lord and pious and faultless before men.”
+Thus they lived for twenty years without children. Now at a certain
+great feast of the Lord, when Joachim was about to offer his gifts, the
+high-priest opposed him saying, “It is not lawful seeing thou hast not
+begot issue in Israel.” Joachim, much concerned, found upon inquiry,
+that all the righteous except himself had raised up seed in Israel. He
+remembered Abraham, how that God in the end of his life had given him
+his son Isaac, and he would not be seen of his wife but retired into
+the wilderness where he fasted forty days and nights and vowed neither
+to eat nor drink until the Lord should look down upon him. And his
+wife Anna was sore distressed and mourned for her widowhood and her
+barrenness.
+
+Then an angel of the Lord appeared to her saying, “Behold Joachim thy
+husband is coming with his shepherds; an angel of the Lord hath also
+told him that his prayer is heard.” And Anna stood by the golden gate
+and saw Joachim coming with the shepherds, and she ran to him and
+hanging about his neck, said: “Now I know that the Lord hath greatly
+blessed me.” And they returned home together. And when her time was
+come, Anna brought forth a daughter, and she said: “The Lord hath this
+day magnified my soul,” and she called the child Mary.
+
+The =Nativity of the Blessed Virgin=. _Ital._ La Nascità della B.
+Vergine. _Fr._ La Naissance de la S. Vierge. _Ger._ Die Geburt Mariä.
+(Sept. 8.)
+
+This is the next historical picture, and as Joachim and Anna were
+“exceedingly rich,” the scene is usually a chamber richly decorated. A
+glory sometimes surrounds the head of the child. Neighbours and friends
+are sometimes introduced who have come to tender their congratulations.
+
+The =Presentation of the Virgin=. _Ital._ La Presentazione ove nostra
+Signora piccioletta sale i gradi del Tempio. _Ger._ Joachim und Anna
+weihen ihre Tochter Maria im Tempel; Die Vorstellung der Jungfrau im
+Tempel. (Nov. 21.)
+
+“And when the child was three years old, Joachim said: ‘Let us invite
+the daughters of the Hebrews, who are undefiled, and let them take
+each a lamp, and let them be lighted, that the child may not turn back
+again, and her mind be set against the temple of the Lord.’
+
+“And they did thus till they ascended into the temple of the Lord. And
+the high-priest received her, and blessed her, and said, ‘Mary, the
+Lord God hath magnified thy name to all generations, and to the very
+end of time by thee will the Lord shew His redemption to the children
+of Israel.’”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN IN THE TEMPLE.—TITIAN
+
+(Academy, Venice.)]
+
+“And he placed her upon the third step of the altar, and the Lord gave
+unto her grace, and she danced with her feet, and all the house of
+Israel loved her.” (_Protevangelion_, vii., 3-5.)
+
+The theme does not vary. Mary, who should be portrayed as an infant
+of three years, is often represented as a child of ten or twelve.
+Sometimes she wears a blue, but more generally a white garment; her
+hair is long and golden, and she is seen ascending the steps which lead
+to the porch of the temple. These steps are always fifteen in number.
+In the account given in the Gospel of the Birth of Mary it says, “And
+there were about the temple, according to the fifteen Psalms of degrees
+[those Psalms are, from the 120th to the 134th, including both],
+fifteen stairs to ascend. For the temple being built in a mountain, the
+altar of burnt-offering, which was without, could not be come near but
+by stairs.” (Chap. iv., 32.)
+
+The life of Mary in the temple is represented in various ways. She is
+seen instructing her companions, sometimes spinning or embroidering on
+tapestry. Often she is attended by angels, and it was believed that
+angels supplied her with celestial food. It has also been asserted that
+she had the privilege which was granted to no other woman, of going
+into the Holy of Holies to pray before the Ark of the Covenant.
+
+The =Marriage of the Virgin=. _Ital._ Il sposalizio. _Fr._ Le Mariage
+de la Vierge. _Ger._ Die Trauung Mariä. (January 23.)
+
+The legend of the Marriage of Joseph and Mary is founded upon the
+account given in the _Protevangelion_, which relates that “when Mary
+was twelve years of age the priests met in council to know what should
+be done with her, and the high-priest Zacharias entered into the Holy
+of Holies, and taking away with him the breastplate of judgment made
+prayers concerning her. And behold the angel of the Lord came to him
+and commanded him to go forth and call together all the widowers among
+the people, and let every one of them bring his rod, and he by whom
+the Lord should shew a sign should be the husband of Mary. And the
+criers went out through all Judæa, and the trumpet of the Lord sounded,
+and all the people ran and met together. Joseph also, throwing away
+his hatchet, went out to meet them; and when they were met they went
+to the high-priest taking every man his rod. The high-priest received
+their rods and went into the temple to pray. When he came forth and
+distributed them, there was no miracle until the last rod was taken by
+Joseph, and behold a dove proceeded out of the rod and flew upon the
+head of Joseph. And the high-priest said to him, ‘Thou art the person
+chosen to take the Virgin of the Lord to keep her for him.’ But Joseph
+at first refused, saying, ‘I am an old man’; then, fearing the wrath of
+the high-priest and the displeasure of the Lord, he took her unto his
+house, and said unto her, ‘Behold, I have taken thee from the Temple of
+the Lord, and now I will leave thee in my house; I must go to mind my
+trade of building. The Lord be with thee!’”
+
+The painters have used for their text an old legend which relates
+that the suitors for the hand of Mary, among whom was the son of
+the high-priest, deposited their wands overnight in the temple, and
+the next morning the rod of Joseph was found to have budded forth
+in flower. The disappointed suitors broke their wands in a frenzy
+of wrath, and one of them, whose name was Agabus (a youth of noble
+family), fled to Mount Carmel and became an anchorite.
+
+Marriage among the Jews being a civil contract instead of a religious
+rite, nearly all the early painters represent the ceremony as taking
+place in the open air in a garden or landscape, or in front of the
+Temple. Mary, a beautiful maiden attended by a train of virgins, stands
+on the right, and Joseph is on the left; behind him are gathered the
+disappointed suitors. This is the traditional treatment from Giotto
+down to Raphael.
+
+In ancient art Joseph has been sometimes represented as very old, and
+again as not more than thirty. But in the best pictures of the Italian
+and Spanish schools he is middle-aged, with brown hair and short, curly
+beard, his face expressing infinite mildness and kindliness. The crutch
+or stick became his conventional attribute from earlier times, when he
+was depicted as very old, leaning upon a crutch.
+
+The =Annunciation=. _Ital._ L’Annunciazione. _Fr._ L’Annonciation, La
+Salutation Angélique. _Ger._ Die Verkündigung, Der englische Gruss.
+(March 25.)
+
+From the thirteenth century onward, the Annunciation became the
+expression of a theological dogma, and formed part of every
+altar-piece, whatever its subject,—whether a Nativity or Coronation, or
+the Last Supper—appearing in the predella below or the spandrils of the
+arches above; and was frequently painted or carved on the doors of a
+triptychon or tabernacle.
+
+It is related in the _Protevangelion_ (chap. ix., 7) that “Mary went
+out to draw water and heard a voice saying unto her ‘Hail thou who art
+full of grace, the Lord is with thee; thou art blessed among women.’
+And she looked round to the right and to the left to see whence that
+voice came, and then trembling went into her house, and laying down
+the water-pot, she took the purple and sat down in her seat to work it.
+And behold the angel of the Lord stood by her, and said, ‘Fear not,
+Mary, for thou hast found favour in the sight of God.’”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE ANNUNCIATION.—BOTTICELLI
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+St. Bernard gives the following version of the legend. Mary was
+studying the book of Isaiah and as she came to the verse, “Behold, a
+virgin shall conceive, and bear a son” she thought within herself,
+“How blessed the woman of whom these words are written! Would I might
+be but her handmaid to serve her, and allowed to kiss her feet!” And at
+that moment the angel appeared and revealed to her that the prophecy
+was fulfilled in herself.
+
+In early art the annunciation is treated as a religious mystery. The
+scene is usually a porch or portico with arcades. The Virgin stands, or
+if she is seated, it is on a sort of raised throne; the angel stands
+before her at a little distance; sometimes she is within the portico
+and he is without. Gabriel is the commanding figure, while the Virgin’s
+attitude—she is usually represented shrinking back with drooping eyes
+and hands folded on her breast—is always expressive of the utmost
+submission and humility. Gabriel is usually represented clothed in
+white, with large many-coloured wings, his flowing hair bound by a
+jewelled tiara. He holds the sceptre in his left hand, while the right
+is extended in benediction as well as salutation, “Hail! thou that art
+highly favoured! Blessed art thou among women!”
+
+Sometimes the two figures were not in the same picture, but were placed
+each side of the altar, that of the Virgin being usually placed to the
+right. In some of the old pictures the figure of the angel is seen
+flying down from heaven.
+
+From the beginning of the fourteenth century the increased reverence
+paid to the Virgin demanded that she be represented as the superior
+being, the _Regina angelorum_, and the angel is depicted bowing before
+her or kneeling as to a queen.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE VISITATION.—ALBERTINELLI
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+When the annunciation is an event given in the series of the Life of
+the Virgin, the place is usually in the house. The fountain is rarely
+introduced. Gabriel either bears the lily or it is in some other
+part of the picture. Sometimes he has the olive, typical of peace,
+or a sceptre with a scroll inscribed _Ave Maria! Gratia plena!_ The
+work basket, expressing the industry of Mary, is rarely omitted, and
+to typify her temperance a dish of fruit and a pitcher of water are
+frequently introduced.
+
+The lily in the hand of the angel is not merely the emblem of purity
+but the symbol of the Virgin—“I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of
+the valley.” A lily is often introduced in a vase near the Virgin or in
+the foreground of the picture. Sometimes the dove as the Holy Spirit
+hovers over the head of the Virgin or enters by the open window.
+
+The =Visitation=. _Ital._ La Visitazione di Maria. _Fr._ La Visitation
+de la Vierge. _Ger._ Die Heimsuchung Mariä. (July 2.)
+
+After the annunciation of the angel, we are told that “Mary arose and
+went up into the hill country with haste, to the house of her cousin
+Elizabeth, and saluted her.” This meeting of the two kinswomen is
+usually styled in art, the _Visitation_ and, sometimes, the _Salutation
+of Elizabeth_. It is important in its religious significance as being
+the first recognition of the character of the Messiah. “Whence is this
+to me,” exclaims Elizabeth, “that the mother of my Lord should come to
+me?” (Luke i., 43.)
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+SIBYL PROPHESYING TO AUGUSTUS CÆSAR THE COMING OF CHRIST.—B. PERUZZI
+
+(Church of the Fontegiusta, Siena.)]
+
+In the representations of this scene the number of the figures, the
+locality and circumstance vary greatly. Sometimes only the two women
+are represented, without accessories of any kind. The scene is often
+a garden or open porch in front of a house, and this garden is noted
+in the traditions of the East. The legends relate that the Virgin, as
+she walked in the garden of Zacharias during her stay with her cousin
+Elizabeth, meditating deeply and reverently upon the holy destiny that
+was hers, happened to touch a certain flower that bloomed there with
+her most blessed hand—which, from being without odour before, became
+from that moment of a delicious fragrance.
+
+The =Nativity=. _Ital._ Il Presepio, Il Nascimento del Nostro Signore.
+_Fr._ La Nativité. _Ger._ Die Geburt Christi. (Dec. 25.)
+
+In the early Christian traditions this great event is preceded and
+accompanied by several circumstances which have often been rendered in
+art.
+
+According to an old legend, the Emperor Augustus Cæsar betook himself
+to the sibyl Tiburtina, to ask whether he should accept the divine
+honours the Senate had decreed to him. The sibyl, after meditating
+some days, took the emperor aside and showed him an altar; and above
+the altar, in the opening heavens, he saw a beautiful Virgin holding
+an infant in her arms, and at the same time a voice was heard saying,
+“This is the altar of the Son of the living God.” Then Augustus caused
+an altar to be erected on the Capitoline Hill, with this inscription,
+“Ara primogeniti Dei”; and in later times the church called the
+Ara-Cœli, with its flight of one hundred and twenty-four marble steps,
+was built on this spot.
+
+The sibylline prophecy is believed to have occurred a short time
+before the Nativity, about the time that there went forth from the
+Emperor Augustus a decree that all the Jews should be taxed who were of
+Bethlehem in Judæa.
+
+It is related that Joseph therefore saddled his ass and took his
+wife to Bethlehem, the city from whence he came. As they were near
+there (within three miles), Joseph, turning about, saw that Mary was
+sorrowful, but when he looked again she smiled. And before they were
+come there Mary said: “Take me down, for I suffer.”
+
+The Nativity, when treated historically, is represented in a stable
+or cavern, at midnight and in winter. The earlier pictures give Mary
+the appearance of suffering, but from the fourteenth century, this
+treatment was abandoned. “To her alone,” said St. Bernard, “did not the
+punishment of Eve extend.”
+
+The attendants and Mary are represented in the “posture and guise
+of worshippers,” kneeling or bending over the Child, or pointing to
+the manger in which he lies. The Virgin is bathed in the light which
+surrounds the Child like a glory. Joseph is sitting or stands leaning
+on his staff and often holds a taper or light to show that it is night.
+
+The angels who sing the _Gloria in excelsis_ are never omitted. At
+first these were three in number, but in later pictures the mystic
+three became a band of angels.
+
+The ox and the ass are always introduced as accessories,—according
+to the prophecy: “The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master’s
+crib” (Is. i., 3). The ox typified the Jews and the ass the Gentiles.
+The Jews were likened unto the ox because they bore the yoke of the
+law, whereas the ass represented the Gentiles because it bore Christ
+willingly, when He rode into Jerusalem.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS.—D. GHIRLANDAJO
+
+(Academy, Florence.)]
+
+The shepherds are frequently in the background.
+
+When other figures are introduced, they are saints or votaries for whom
+the picture was painted.
+
+The =Adoration of the Shepherds=. _Ital._ L’Adorazione dei Pastori.
+_Fr._ L’Adoration des Bergers. _Ger._ Die Anbetung der Hirten.
+
+“And it came to pass, as the angels were gone away from them into
+heaven, the shepherds said one to another, Let us now go even unto
+Bethlehem, and see this thing which has come to pass, which the Lord
+has made known unto us. And they came with haste, and found Mary, and
+Joseph, and the babe lying in a manger.” (St. Luke ii., 15-16.)
+
+Being come, they tender their offerings of fruits, lambs, or doves, and
+with heads uncovered they acknowledge and worship the divine Child. In
+some pictures their women, sheep, and even their dogs accompany them.
+There is an old legend that Simon and Jude, afterwards apostles, were
+with the shepherds.
+
+Sometimes the Infant sleeps and Joseph or Mary raises the veil from His
+face to show Him to the shepherds.
+
+The flowers sometimes scattered by angels are supposed to have been
+gathered in heaven.
+
+The =Adoration of the Magi=.[5] _Ital._ L’Adorazione de’ Magi,
+L’Epifania. _Fr._ L’Adoration des Rois Mages. _Ger._ Die Anbetung der
+Weisen aus dem Morgenland, Die heiligen drei Könige. (Jan. 6.)
+
+This subject, the most extraordinary incident in the early life of our
+Saviour, has been set before us in every style and form of art, from
+the third century to the present time.
+
+Magi, in the Persian tongue, signifies “wise men”; and they were in
+their own country kings or princes, from what country is not said. The
+prophecy of Balaam had been held in remembrance by their people. “I
+shall see him, but not now; I shall behold him, but not nigh; there
+shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel.”
+
+When the Eastern sages beheld this wondrous and long-expected star,
+they rejoiced greatly; and taking leave of their relations and friends
+set forth on their long and perilous journey, the star going before
+them, until it stood over the place where the young Child was—He who
+was born King of Kings.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI.—BOTTICELLI
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+The artists made good use of the picturesque possibilities of the
+story, and in their hands it grew from a symbol to a scene of dramatic
+splendour. It is the oldest subject in Christian art, and taken in the
+early religious sense, it signified the calling of the Gentiles.
+
+In the earlier representations the Virgin-mother is seated and holds
+the Child upright on her knee. The Wise Men, always three in number and
+all alike, approach in attitudes of adoration, and behind them are seen
+their camels’ heads, showing the land whence they came—the land of the
+East.
+
+But in the fourteenth century legends the Three Wise Men or Kings
+became distinct characters, each with a name, and in the pictures they
+represent the three ages of man. Jasper or Caspar is very old, Melchior
+in the prime of life, and Balthazar young. Sometimes the latter or his
+servant is black, to indicate that Christ came to save all races of
+men. These pictures of the Magi reflect all the pomp and circumstance
+that was the custom of the times in which the artists lived, and the
+details vary with the nationality of the artist.
+
+It is related that when they returned to the East they abandoned all
+their possessions and went about preaching the new gospel; that they
+were baptised by Thomas and put to death by the heathen. Their remains
+were discovered and removed to Constantinople by the Empress Helena,
+and after being carried to Milan during the first crusade were finally
+placed in the cathedral at Cologne by the Emperor Barbarossa, and
+repose there in a magnificent shrine. Wherever one sees the sign _Drei
+Könige_, or _Trois Rois_, in front of Continental hotels, or _Three
+Kings_ above the doors of English inns, it refers to the Magi.
+
+The =Purification of the Virgin=, the =Presentation=, and the
+=Circumcision of Christ=. _Ital._ La Purificazione della B. Vergine.
+_Ger._ Die Darbringung im Tempel, Die Beschneidung Christi.
+
+The Virgin, after the birth of her Son, complied with all the
+requirements of the Mosaic law. The circumcision and the naming of
+Christ have often been painted to express the first of the sorrows of
+the Virgin. But the Presentation in the Temple has been selected with
+better taste for the same purpose, and the prophecy of Simeon, “Yea, a
+sword shall pierce through thy own soul also,” becomes the first of the
+Seven Sorrows.
+
+It is related that, about 260 years before Christ, Ptolemy
+Philadelphus, desiring to have the Hebrew Scriptures translated into
+Greek for his famous library, asked the high-priest of the Jews to
+send him scribes and interpreters. In response to his demand, six of
+the most learned rabbis of the twelve tribes of Israel, seventy-two
+persons in all, were sent into Egypt, among them Simeon, a man full of
+learning. To him fell the book of Isaiah to translate. When he came
+to the verse, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son,” he
+doubted in his own mind how such a thing could be, and, fearing to give
+offence to the Greeks, he used the Greek word “a young woman” for the
+Hebrew word “virgin.” He had no sooner written it, however, than an
+angel leaned over the page and blotted it out, setting down the right
+word in its place. Completely dumfounded Simeon essayed again and
+again to substitute the word “young woman,” as seemed to him fitting
+and proper, and each time the angel effaced the word substituting the
+Greek word for “virgin” in its place.
+
+Then it was disclosed to Simeon that the miracle that he had dared to
+doubt was not only possible, but that he “should not see death until he
+had seen the Lord’s Christ.” So for nearly three centuries he remained
+on earth, until all had come to pass. He was brought to the Temple on
+the very day that Mary came there to present her Son, and taking the
+Child in his arms, he exclaimed, “Lord, now lettest thou thy servant
+depart in peace, according to thy word.”
+
+Anna, the prophetess, is often introduced. She also testifies unto
+Christ, but does not take Him in her arms as did Simeon, hence she was
+considered to typify the Synagogue, which prophesied the Messiah, but
+did not embrace Him when he came.
+
+When represented in Greek art, this picture is often called the _Nunc
+Dimittis_.
+
+The =Flight into Egypt=. _Ital._ La Fuga in Egitto. _Fr._ La Fuite de
+la Sainte Famille en Egypte. _Ger._ Die Flucht nach Aegypten.
+
+There are many legends in connection with this journey that have been
+illustrated by the artists. One is that when it became known that the
+Holy Family had fled from Bethlehem, Herod sent his officers in pursuit
+of them. The Holy Family, knowing they were pursued, after travelling
+some distance, came to a field where a man was sowing wheat. And the
+Virgin said to the husbandman: “If any shall ask you whether we have
+passed this way, ye shall answer, ‘Such persons passed this way when
+I was sowing this wheat.’” And lo! in the space of a single night the
+seed had grown ready for the harvest! And next morning the officers of
+Herod came by, and inquired of the husbandman, saying, “Have you seen
+an old man with a woman and child travelling this way?” And the man,
+who was reaping his wheat in great wonder and joy, replied: “Yes.” And
+they asked him again, “How long is it since?” And he answered: “When I
+was sowing this wheat.” And at this the officers of Herod turned back.
+
+Another very old tradition, taken from the First Gospel of Infancy
+(chap. viii.), relates that on their way they met two robbers who
+protected them from their confederates, and that they were the two
+thieves who were later crucified with Christ.
+
+Another tradition is that both the ox and the ass went with the Holy
+Family into Egypt, and they are occasionally introduced in some
+pictures of this event, but generally the group is confined to Joseph,
+Mary, and the Child.
+
+The =Repose of the Holy Family=. _Ital._ Il Riposo. _Fr._ Le Repos de
+la Sainte Famille. _Ger._ Die Ruhe in Aegypten.
+
+This subject has been considered one of the most graceful and
+attractive in the whole range of sacred art.
+
+The _Riposo_, so called is either the rest on the journey, or at
+the close of the journey, called the Flight into Egypt. Some of the
+features stamp the intention at once; as, the ass grazing in the
+distance; a wallet and pilgrim’s staff near Joseph; the date tree; the
+fallen idols; the Virgin taking water from a fountain—the fountain
+refers to a tradition that when the Holy Family came to Matarea they
+rested in a grove of sycamores, and here a fountain miraculously gushed
+forth for their refreshment.
+
+In pictures of the _Riposo_ angels often minister to the comfort of
+the Holy Family, and there is a legend that each night angels pitched
+a tent for their protection and shelter, and watched over and guarded
+them until morning.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY—“MADONNA DEL SACCO”—ANDREA DEL SARTO
+
+(Church of the Annunziata, Florence.)]
+
+When other figures than the Holy Family and attendant angels are
+introduced, it is not a _Riposo_, but merely a Holy Family.
+
+When the Holy Family are seen as on a journey and the Saviour is
+represented as a child, walking, it is the return from Egypt that is
+pictured.
+
+The =Holy Family=. _Ital._ La Sacra Famiglia, La Sacra Conversazione.
+_Fr._ La Sainte Famille.
+
+After the return to Nazareth, until Jesus is twelve years old no event
+is recorded of the life of the Virgin or her Son. But under the title
+of Holy Family there are an endless variety of pictures representing
+the imaginary life of these exalted ones.
+
+The simplest form is that of two figures, the Virgin and Child;
+frequently she is nursing the babe, sometimes she fondles him, pressing
+his cheek to hers, or they sport with a rose, an apple, or a bird,
+these mystic symbols being lightly used as mere playthings by the
+artists. Sometimes one or more attendant angels appear or the Infant
+slumbers on His mother’s knee. Sometimes Mary is represented watching
+over him, “pondering in her heart” the great destiny of her Child.
+
+Where there are three figures, the third is generally St. John,
+although sometimes it is St. Joseph. Sometimes St. John and his mother,
+St. Elizabeth—the two mothers and the two sons—are represented. More
+rarely, four figures include St. Joseph and St. John. Five figures
+include all who have been named, and sometimes Zacharias makes the
+sixth.
+
+Many of these pictures bear such names as _La Vierge aux Cerises_, _La
+Vierge à la Diadème_, _La Vierge à l’Oreiller Verd_, _Le Ménage du
+Menuisier_, _Le Raboteur_, etc.
+
+The introduction of persons who could not have been contemporary, such
+as St. Francis or St. Catherine, makes the group ideal and devotional.
+
+The =Dispute in the Temple=. _Ital._ La Disputa del Tempio. _Fr._ Jésus
+au milieu des Docteurs.
+
+This subject is a scene of great importance in the life of the
+Redeemer, but it is quite as often made one of the series from the life
+of the Virgin.
+
+The =Death of Joseph=. _Ital._ La Morte di San Giuseppe. _Fr._ La Mort
+de St. Joseph. _Ger._ Josefs Tod.
+
+Some chronologers place the death of Joseph in the eighteenth year of
+the life of our Saviour, and others in his twenty-seventh year, when,
+as they assert, Joseph was one hundred and eleven years old.
+
+Joseph’s popularity as a patron saint of power dates from the fifteenth
+century. A custom had come about of invoking him as mediator to obtain
+a blessed and peaceful end, and he became in a certain way the patron
+saint of death-beds.
+
+Late in the sixteenth century the death of St. Joseph is represented as
+a separate subject in art, and became a popular subject in the churches
+and convents of Augustine canons and Carmelite friars whose patron
+saint he was, and also in family chapels consecrated to the memory of
+the dead.
+
+The =Marriage at Cana, in Galilee=. _Ital._ La Nozze di Cana. _Fr._ Les
+Noces de Cana. _Ger._ Die Hochzeit zu Cana.
+
+There is an old Greek tradition that the Marriage at Cana, which has
+often been represented in art, was that of John the Evangelist and
+Mary Magdalene, and that immediately after the wedding feast St. John
+and Mary separated and devoted themselves to an austere and chaste
+religious life, spent solely in the service of Christ.
+
+In the =Passion of our Lord=, certain women who attended upon Christ
+during His ministry are represented as always near the Virgin, and
+sustaining her with their tenderness and sympathy. The Gospels mention
+three by name: Mary Magdalene; Mary, the wife of Cleophas; and Mary,
+the mother of James and John. Martha, the sister of Mary Magdalene, is
+also included. These women, with the Virgin, form the group of five
+female figures that is usually introduced in the scriptural scenes from
+the Life of Christ.
+
+The =Procession to Calvary= (_Ital. Il Portamento della Croce_), and
+the =Crucifixion= are included in the Rosary as two of the mystical
+Sorrows. It was in the Via Dolorosa near the summit of the hill that
+the Virgin-mother and her women companions are said to have placed
+themselves, and where Mary in her anguish, seeing her divine Son,
+bleeding from the scourge, and sinking under His cross, fell fainting
+to the earth. This incident is called in French _Notre Dame du Spasme_,
+or _du Pâmoison_; in Italian _La Madonna dello Spasimo_, or _Il Pianto
+di Maria_ and becomes one of the mournful festivals of Passion Week.
+
+In the many celebrated representations of this scene, she is sometimes
+portrayed sinking to the earth, upheld by the women or St. John;
+sometimes she stands with clasped hands in dumb and motionless agony;
+sometimes she stretches out her arms to her Son who goes on His
+sorrowful way.
+
+In the =Crucifixion= treated as a _mystery_ Mary stands alone on
+the right of the Cross and St. John on the left. She looks up with
+an expression of mingled sorrow and faith or bows her head in sad
+submissiveness.
+
+When the Crucifixion is treated as an _historical event_ the Virgin
+is represented in a fainting attitude, sustained in the arms of the
+two Marys, assisted sometimes but not always by St. John; while Mary
+Magdalene is seen kneeling at the foot of the cross or with arms
+clasped around it.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE CRUCIFIXION.—PERUGINO
+
+(Convent of Santa Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence.)]
+
+The =Descent from the Cross= and the =Deposition= are two separate
+subjects in art. In the first the Virgin should stand. In the old
+legend it is said, that when Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus drew out
+the nails that fastened the hands of our Saviour to the cross, St. John
+concealed them from His mother. Then Nicodemus took out those which
+fastened His feet, and Joseph of Arimathea supported the body, and the
+head and arms of our Lord hung over his shoulder. The sorrowing mother
+took the bleeding hands in hers and kissed them tenderly, and then,
+borne down by the weight of her woe, she sank to the ground, mourning
+her Son.
+
+The =Deposition= is that moment which succeeds the Descent from the
+Cross, when the dead form of Christ is deposed or laid upon the ground,
+resting on the lap of His mother, and lamented by St. John, Mary
+Magdalene, and others.
+
+The =Entombment= follows and when treated historically the
+Virgin-mother is always introduced, although less conspicuously;
+either she faints, or stands by with streaming eyes and clasped hands,
+while the beloved Son is laid in the tomb. Then in fulfilment of the
+last command of his dying Master, John the Evangelist brought to his
+own house the Mother to whom he was in future to be as a son. This
+beautiful subject appears first in art in the seventeenth century.
+
+The =Apparition of Christ to His Mother=. There is a very ancient
+tradition (mentioned by St. Ambrose in the fourth century, as being
+then generally accepted by Christians) that Christ, after His return
+from Hades, visited His mother before appearing to Mary Magdalene in
+the garden.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE SAVIOUR APPEARS TO MARY MAGDALENE—“NOLI ME TANGERE.”—LORENZO DI
+CREDI
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+The story is thus related in Mrs. Jameson’s _Legends of the Madonna_:
+“Mary, when all was ‘finished,’ retired to her chamber, and remained
+alone with her grief—not wailing, not repining, not hopeless, but
+waiting for the fulfilment of the promise. Open before her lay the
+volume of the prophecies; and she prayed earnestly, and she said, ‘Thou
+didst promise, O my most dear Son! that thou wouldst rise again on the
+third day. Before yesterday was the day of darkness and bitterness,
+and, behold, this is the third day. Return then to me thy Mother: O
+my Son, tarry not, but come!’ And while thus she prayed, lo! a bright
+company of angels, who entered waving their palms and radiant with joy;
+and they surrounded her, kneeling and singing the triumphant Easter
+hymn, _Regina Cœli lætare, Alleluia_. And then came Christ, partly
+clothed in a white garment, having in His left hand the standard with
+the cross, as one just returned from the nether world, and victorious
+over the powers of sin and death. And with Him came the patriarchs and
+prophets, whose long-imprisoned spirits He had released from Hades. All
+these knelt before the Virgin, and saluted her, and blessed her, and
+thanked her, because through her had come their deliverance. But, for
+all this, the Mother was not comforted till she had heard the voice of
+her Son. Then He, raising His hand in benediction, spoke, and said, ‘I
+salute thee, O my Mother!’ and she, weeping tears of joy, responded,
+‘Is it thou indeed, my most dear Son?’ and she fell upon His neck, and
+He embraced her tenderly, and showed her the wounds He had received
+for sinful men. Then He bid her be comforted and weep no more, for the
+pain of death had passed away, and the gates of hell had not prevailed
+against Him. And she thanked Him meekly on her knees, for that He had
+been pleased to bring redemption to man, and to make her the humble
+instrument of His great mercy. And they sat and talked together, until
+He took leave of her to return to the garden, and to show Himself to
+Mary Magdalene, who, next to His glorious Mother, had most need of
+consolation!”
+
+This beautiful myth of the early ages has only been pictured as a
+matter-of-fact scene in art. The Virgin kneels; the Saviour, with His
+standard, stands before her; and generally Adam and Eve, the authors
+of the fall, or Abraham and David, the progenitors of Christ and the
+Virgin, are introduced, as the delivered patriarchs.
+
+The =Ascension=, though one of the “Glorious Mysteries,” was also the
+seventh and last of the sorrows of the Virgin, who was then left alone
+on earth. All the old legends record her being present at this time
+and saying, as she followed with uplifted eyes the soaring figure of
+Christ, “My son, remember me when Thou comest to Thy kingdom! leave me
+not long after Thee, my Son!”
+
+The =Descent of the Holy Ghost= is a strictly scriptural subject. It
+has been said that Mary, in her character of the divine Mother of
+Wisdom, did not need any accession of intellectual light, but that the
+Holy Spirit was sent to her as the Comforter.
+
+When Mary is present she is usually placed either in front or in
+the centre on a raised seat and often holds a book (as the _Mater
+Sapientiæ_).
+
+The =Death and Assumption of the Virgin=. _Lat._ Dormitio, Pausatio,
+Transitus, Assumptio, B. Virginis. _Ital._ L’Assunzione, Il sonno della
+Beata Vergine, Il transito di Maria. _Fr._ L’Assomption, La Mort de la
+Vierge. _Ger._ Das Absterben der Mariä, Mariä Himmelfahrt.
+
+No subject has been more popular, nor more frequently represented in
+art than the Death and Assumption of the Virgin. The assumption was
+indeed the manifest expression of a dogma of faith—the glorification of
+the Virgin in the body as well as in the spirit, and as such it appears
+in all the edifices dedicated to her.
+
+The two subjects are often combined. The death scene is portrayed below
+(_Il transito di Maria_), and the taking up into heaven of the body and
+soul of the Virgin Mary—the assumption—is given above.
+
+It is related in the legend that when the time came for Mary to die,
+the apostles (who were scattered in various parts of the world) were
+all assembled by a miraculous power and brought to the door of Mary’s
+dwelling. When Mary saw them she blessed them and thanked the Lord,
+then kneeling down they prayed together, and after that she laid
+herself down in her bed prepared to die. About the third hour of the
+night a great sound smote on their ears, the chamber became filled with
+a heavenly fragrance, and Christ Himself appeared, followed by angels,
+patriarchs, and prophets, who surrounded the bed of the Virgin singing
+hymns of joy. And Jesus said to His mother, “Arise, my beloved, mine
+elect! come with me from Lebanon, mine espoused! receive the crown that
+is destined for thee!” And Mary replying, said: “My heart is ready; for
+it was written of me that I should do Thy will.” Then all the angels
+and blessed spirits who were with Jesus began to sing and rejoice. And
+the soul of Mary departed from her body and in the arms of her Son
+together they arose into heaven. The apostles gazing after her, said:
+“O most prudent Virgin, remember us when thou comest to thy glory,” and
+the angels who received her into heaven sang, “Who is this that cometh
+up from the wilderness leaning upon her Beloved? She is fairer than all
+the daughters of Jerusalem.”
+
+There was but one absent among the apostles and when he came in haste
+soon after, he could not believe in the resurrection of the Virgin. It
+was this same Thomas who had doubted the resurrection of Christ. At
+his desire the tomb was opened before him and in it he saw lilies and
+roses. Then looking up in astonishment to heaven, he beheld the body of
+the Virgin, radiant in a glory of light ascending slowly towards the
+celestial regions.
+
+It is related that in pity for his lack of faith she flung down to him
+her girdle—the same _sacratissima cintola_ which is still preserved in
+the Cathedral of Prato.
+
+The “angel of death,” usually supposed to be Gabriel, but more
+correctly Michael, sometimes offers her a taper—it being customary to
+place a taper in the hands of one who is dying.
+
+The mystic =Incoronata= or =Coronation=, which represents the triumph
+of the Church, is distinguished by the presence not only of angels
+and patriarchs, but by fathers and doctors of the Church and martyrs
+and saints. It is a dramatic and historical event when it comes last
+in a series of the Life of the Virgin, where her death-bed or tomb is
+portrayed or the apostles and sorrowing women are introduced.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] See Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+X.—DEVOTIONAL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE VIRGIN MARY
+
+
+In the most ancient examples, the maternity—the motherhood of the
+Virgin is not the paramount idea. She is represented without symbols,
+and veiled, occupying an inferior position on one side of her divine
+Son, with St. John the Baptist or St. Peter on the other.
+
+Later, when the worship of the Virgin spread from the East and she
+was represented alone, without her Son, the apostles and saints who
+surrounded her taking secondary positions, she symbolised not only the
+divine Mother of Christ, but the second Eve, the mother of all the
+world, the Virgin of Virgins.
+
+When she wears a crown over her veil or holds a sceptre in her hand she
+is the Queen of Heaven (_Regina Cœli_).
+
+Attended by adoring angels, she is the Queen of Angels (_Regina
+Angelorum_).
+
+Weeping or holding the crown of thorns she is Our Lady of Sorrow
+(_Mater Dolorosa_).
+
+When she is merely veiled, with folded hands and a face of glorious
+beauty and sweetness, she is the Madonna, the Blessed Virgin, the
+_Santa Maria Vergine_.
+
+It was in the days of chivalry that the title of Our Lady—_Notre Dame,
+La Madonna, Unsere Liebe Frau_—was first given to the Virgin.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN.—FILIPPO LIPPI
+
+(Academy, Florence.)]
+
+The =Coronation of the Virgin=. (_Lat._ Coronatio Beatæ Mariæ Virginis.
+_Ital._ L’Incoronata, Maria Coronata dal divin suo Figlio. _Fr._
+La Couronnement de la Sainte Vierge. _Ger._ Die Krönung Maria). In
+the earliest examples, Christ, with His mother seated on the same
+throne, and on His right hand, places the crown upon her head. Only
+the two figures are shown. Sometimes the Father looks down, and the
+Holy Ghost (as a dove) hovers between them. Later examples place the
+Virgin between the Father and Son, both in human form; each holds the
+crown in one hand, and places it on her head, while the Holy Spirit
+hovers above. Again, the Virgin is portrayed kneeling at the feet of
+Christ, who places the crown on her head; rejoicing angels are seen
+and paradise is disclosed beyond. Sometimes the whole army of blessed
+spirits, patriarchs, and martyrs are witnesses to this solemn and
+glorious ceremony.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE MADONNA CROWNED—BOTTICELLI
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+When not more than five or six saints are introduced, they are usually
+the patron saints of the locality or community.
+
+Those pictures where the Madonna is holding her Child, while angels
+place a crown upon her head, are not Coronations in the accepted sense,
+but an acknowledgment of and tribute to the Virgin-mother of Christ,
+and Queen of Heaven (_Mater Christi_, _Regina Cœli_).
+
+The =Virgin of Mercy=.[6] Our Lady of Succour. _Ital._ La Madonna di
+Misericordia. _Fr._ Notre Dame de Miséricorde. _Ger._ Mariä Mutter des
+Erbarmens.
+
+Here she appears as intercessor, and in old pictures of the Day of
+Judgment she is seated by the side of Christ, or sometimes a little
+lower, but always on His right hand. She is usually seated, while the
+Baptist, who is generally placed opposite to her on the left of Christ,
+always stands or kneels.
+
+As the Madonna of Mercy she rarely appears without the Child in her
+arms, her motherhood typifying her sympathy with all suffering humanity.
+
+The =Mater Dolorosa=. _Ital._ La Madre di Dolore, L’Addolorata. _Fr._
+Notre Dame de Pitié, La Vierge de Douleur. _Ger._ Die Schmerzhafte
+Mutter.
+
+There are three distinct representations of the Madonna in this
+character. As =Mater Dolorosa= she is represented alone, either seated
+or standing, and sometimes only the head or a half-length figure of her
+is given. She is overcome with sorrow, her features are stricken with
+grief, and tears gush from her mournful eyes. Often a sword pierces her
+bosom—sometimes _seven_ swords, in allusion to the _seven sorrows_.
+
+In the =Stabat Mater= the position of the Virgin is invariably on the
+right of the crucifix—that of St. John on the left, the crucifix here
+being the mystical emblem of our belief in a crucified Christ. In this
+subject the Virgin is a wholly ideal figure, personifying the Church
+as well as the mother of Christ. Her head is bowed in resignation,
+her figure is shrouded in a violet or dark blue mantle. Sometimes she
+stands with outstretched arms and upward gaze, her faith struggling
+with her anguish.
+
+=La Pietà= is the third, and consists only of the Virgin with her dead
+Son in her arms or at her feet; sometimes sorrowing angels are about,
+but otherwise the Mother is alone with her dead.
+
+Another version, less poetically touching, represents the dead form
+half-emerging from the tomb, held in the arms of the sorrowing Mother,
+with St. John the Evangelist on the other side.
+
+=Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception.= _Lat._ Regina sine labe
+originale concepta. _Ital._ La Madonna Purissima. _Fr._ La Conception
+de la Vierge Marie. _Ger._ Der Geheimniss der Unbefleckten Empfängniss
+Mariä.
+
+This picture is not found in the early schools of art, but became one
+of the most popular subjects in the seventeenth century, after Paul
+V. had instituted the office for the commemoration of the Immaculate
+Conception in 1615 and in 1617 forbade any one teaching or preaching
+the opposite belief.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE MADONNA ENTHRONED.—FILIPPINO LIPPI
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+This doctrine had been gaining ground from the eleventh century and had
+been agitated for several centuries before that, but there was always
+strong opposition to making it an article of belief. Even St. Bernard,
+in spite of his devotion to the Virgin, disapproved of incorporating
+it as a church office. It was a question of theological dispute for
+hundreds of years. In Spain it was the “darling dogma of the Spanish
+Church,” and forms the subject of some of the most beautiful pictures
+of the Spanish artists.
+
+It was not until 1854 that the Immaculate Conception of the Mother of
+God was made an article of faith in the Catholic Church by Pope Pius IX.
+
+In pictures of the Immaculate Conception, the Virgin is usually
+represented as the woman in the Apocalypse, “clothed with the sun,
+having the moon under her feet,” and on her head a crown of twelve
+stars. She is a maiden of twelve or thirteen years, with eyes reverent
+and sweet; her hair is golden, and her features beautiful. The sun is
+a glory of light around her, the moon with the horns pointing downward
+lies under her feet, and the twelve stars form a crown over her head.
+Her robe is of spotless white and her mantle blue. Around her are
+cherubim bearing roses, lilies, and palms, and below at her feet is the
+head of the bruised and defeated dragon.
+
+Murillo, who achieved his greatest fame as painter of the Conception,
+sometimes makes the crescent moon a full moon, or, when a crescent, the
+horns point upward. He usually omits the starry crown, but is careful
+to follow the rules laid down as to the colours of the drapery.
+
+=The Virgin and Child Enthroned.= _Lat._ Sancta Dei Genitrix, Virgo
+Deipara. _Ital._ La Santissima Vergine, Madre di Dio. _Fr._ La Sainte
+Vierge, Mère de Dieu. _Ger._ Die Heilige Mutter Gottes.
+
+The many and beautiful pictures of this subject are purely devotional
+in character and in them Mary is exalted as the Mother of God.
+When she is represented with a book in her hand she is the _Virgo
+Sapientissima_, the Most Wise Virgin, or the _Mater Sapientiæ_, the
+Mother of Wisdom, and the book is the Book of Wisdom.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE VIRGIN AND CHILD.—FILIPPO LIPPI
+
+(Pitti Palace, Florence.)]
+
+The artists hardly ever varied from the established rule as to the
+colours in which the Virgin-mother should be arrayed, and she nearly
+always has the red tunic with the blue mantle—as said before, red the
+colour of love and religious fervour, blue the colour of constancy and
+truth. In pictures of the Venetian and German schools she is often
+represented magnificently attired, her robe thickly broidered with gold
+and pearls, and her crown studded with jewels.
+
+In the early pictures the divine Child is always clothed, and not until
+the beginning of the fifteenth century is he represented partially,
+then wholly, undraped.
+
+The _Madonna Enthroned_ is often attended by various saints, and
+the grouping of these saints has always some especial religious
+significance, as: _St. Peter_ and _St. Paul_ appear with the Virgin
+as chiefs of the apostles and founders of the Church; when _St. John
+the Baptist_ and _St. John the Evangelist_ attend the Virgin Enthroned
+the first expresses regeneration by the rite of baptism, the second
+regeneration by faith.
+
+_The Fathers of the Church_ appear as interpreters and defenders of the
+mystery of the Incarnation; _St. Jerome_ and _St. Catherine_ as patron
+saints of theological learning; _St. Catherine_ and _St. Barbara_
+signify active and contemplative life; _St. Nicholas_ and _St. George_
+with _St. Catherine_ are prominent in the Venetian pictures, and all
+three were venerated as especial protectors of Venice.
+
+_St. George_ and _St. Christopher_ stand by the throne of the Virgin of
+Succour as protectors and deliverers in danger.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE MADONNA DEL GRAN-DUCA.—RAPHAEL
+
+(Pitti Palace, Florence.)]
+
+Many of these Madonna pictures were votive offerings for public or
+private mercies, and frequently bear the name of those who offered
+them: as Raphael’s _Madonna di Foligno_ presented by Sigismund Conti
+of Foligno.
+
+Wherever the Virgin and Child appear attended by _St. Sebastian_ and
+_St. Roch_ the picture has been a votive offering against the plague.
+
+=Mater Amabilis.= _Ital._ La Madonna col Bambino, La Madonna col
+celeste suo Figlio. _Fr._ La Vierge et l’Enfant Jésus. _Ger._ Maria mit
+dem Kind.
+
+This treatment of the Virgin and Child makes the strongest appeal to
+the sympathies, for in it she is represented as the _Mother_ only. As
+Mrs. Jameson expresses it: “Here Raphael shone supreme: the simplicity;
+the tenderness, the halo of purity and virginal dignity which he threw
+around the _Mater Amabilis_, have never been surpassed—in his best
+pictures never equalled. The _Madonna del Gran-Duca_ [Pitti, Florence]
+and the _Madonna Tempi_ [Munich] are perhaps the most remarkable for
+simplicity.”
+
+A charming version of the _Mater Amabilis_ is the _Madre Pia_ where the
+Mother adores her Child. He lies extended upon her knee and she looks
+down upon Him with hands folded in prayer. Sometimes the Child looks up
+in His Mother’s face with His finger on His lip, expressing the _Verbum
+sum_—“I am the word.” One must distinguish this from a Nativity where
+the Mother adores her Child, but the presence of Joseph, the ruined
+shed or manger, the ox and ass, express the _event_. In the _Madre Pia_
+the locality and accessories are purely fanciful and ideal.
+
+The constant introduction of St. Joseph, St. Elizabeth, and other
+relations of the Virgin (always omitted in a Madonna _in trono_) would
+be called a Holy Family, except for the presence of other sainted
+personages whose existence and history belong to an entirely different
+period, such as St. Catherine, St. George, St. Francis, or St.
+Dominick. When this occurs it removes the picture from the historical,
+and puts it at once with the imaginary and devotional subjects. Such a
+group is not a _Sacra Famiglia_, but a _Sacra Conversazione_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE ADORATION OF THE CHILD.—PERUGINO
+
+(Pitti Palace, Florence.)]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] See Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+XI.—ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST
+
+
+=St. John the Baptist.= _Ital._ San Giovanni Battista. _Fr._ St. Jean
+Baptiste. _Ger._ Johann der Täufer. (June 24.) St. John shares with
+Christ and His mother the distinction of having his natural birthday
+kept by the Church.
+
+The history of this saint is given in St. Luke, and with the artists
+his life has frequently been the subject of a series including the
+_Angel Appearing to Zacharias_, _St. John Preaching_, _His Baptism of
+Christ_, _Reproval of Herod_, _Daughter of Herodias Asks for St. John’s
+Head_, _Beheading of St. John_, _Daughter of Herodias Carries St.
+John’s Head to her Mother_, etc.
+
+According to the legends, the Blessed Virgin remained with Elizabeth
+until the birth of John, and in the historical pictures Mary is seen
+with a glory around her head presenting the child to Zacharias. The
+Greek legends say that St. John’s death took place two years before
+that of Christ, and that he descended into Hades and brought unto the
+departed spirits the tidings of their approaching redemption, and
+remained there until released by the Saviour’s death.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+JOHN THE BAPTIST IN THE DESERT.—TITIAN
+
+(Academy, Venice.)]
+
+St. John forms a link between the Old Testament and the Gospel. In art
+he is usually represented as the Herald, the Forerunner of Christ, and
+as leaving his home while still very young to begin his life in the
+desert. In early art he is gaunt and wasted, with unshaven beard
+and hair, but often in later pictures he is smooth-faced, young, and
+beautiful, and wears a rich mantle over the garment of camel’s hair.
+
+As Messenger, he wears “his raiment of camel’s hair, and a leathern
+girdle about his loins,” and bears a reed cross and scroll with the
+inscription _Ecce Agnus Dei_, or _Vox clementis in deserto!_ The lamb
+is sometimes given, sometimes omitted.
+
+He is introduced into pictures of the Holy Family as a witness to the
+divine nature of Christ and as such is represented at all ages from
+infancy to manhood. He is patron saint of all who are baptised and is
+usually represented in sculpture in baptisteries.
+
+
+
+
+XII.—THE FOUR EVANGELISTS
+
+
+The earliest symbol used to typify the Four Evangelists was four
+scrolls placed in the four angles of a Greek cross, or four books,
+representing the Gospels. Next came the four rivers whose source was in
+paradise.
+
+Their conventional symbols, the angel or man for St. Matthew, the lion,
+winged, for St. Mark, the ox for St. Luke and the eagle for St. John
+are derived from the Apocalypse (Rev. iv., 7). The Four Beasts are also
+found in the prophecy of Ezekiel (chap. i., 10). How early these “four
+mysterious creatures” were adopted as symbols of the Four Evangelists
+is not known. They are found in the fifth century, and in the seventh
+century were universally recognised as fixed attributes.
+
+It was thought that the _cherub_ or _man_ was given to St. Matthew
+because he dwelt more upon the human side of Christ; the _lion_ to St.
+Mark because he was called the “Historian of the Resurrection,” and the
+revival of the lion’s cub symbolised the resurrection, also because he
+begins his Gospel with the mission of the Baptist—“the voice of one
+crying in the wilderness”—the lion typifying the wilderness; the _ox_
+to St. Luke because it was the emblem of sacrifice, and Luke in his
+Gospel dwelt more especially upon the priesthood of Christ; to St. John
+the _eagle_ because it was the emblem of the highest inspiration.
+
+“Rupertus considers the Four Beasts as typical of the Incarnation,
+the Passion, the Resurrection, and the Ascension; an idea previously
+dwelt upon by Durandus, who adds that the man and the lion are placed
+on the right because the incarnation and the resurrection are the joy
+of the whole earth; whilst the ox is on the left, because Christ’s
+sacrifice was a trouble to the apostles; and the eagle is above the ox
+as suggestive of our Lord’s upward flight into heaven. According to
+others, the proper order in the ascending scale is thus: at the lowest
+point on the left, the ox; to the right, the lion; above the ox, the
+eagle; and above all, the angel. So in Raphael’s Vision of Ezekiel
+[Pitti, Florence] the angel gazes into the face of the Holy One, the
+others form His throne” (Mrs. Jameson).
+
+Many ideas are conveyed in these apparently fanciful symbols. Sometimes
+in church decoration the Four Evangelists are grouped with the Four
+Greater Prophets, thus expressing the old and the new law. Sometimes,
+particularly in stained glass, they are represented with the Four
+Doctors, the evangelists appearing as witnesses and the doctors as
+interpreters of the faith. A curious painting of the Four Doctors is
+seen in the Louvre, in which the doctors are given not only their own
+symbols, but also the symbols of the Four Evangelists.
+
+=St. Matthew.= _Lat._ S. Mattheus. _Ital._ San Matteo. _Fr._ St.
+Mathieu. _Ger._ St. Matthäus.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+CHRIST AND THE FOUR EVANGELISTS.—FRA BARTOLOMMEO
+
+(Pitti Palace, Florence.)]
+
+St. Matthew ranks seventh or eighth among the apostles, but is first
+as evangelist, because his Gospel was supposed to be the first that was
+written. Scarcely anything is known of his history, except that he was
+a Hebrew who served the Romans as a publican or tax-gatherer and that
+his original name was Levi.
+
+After the ascension he is said to have gone to Egypt and Ethiopia,
+preaching the Gospel, and to have remained there twenty-three years.
+While there he overcame two terrible magicians, raised the son of the
+King of Egypt from the dead, and healed his daughter of leprosy. He
+is believed to have perished in the reign of Domitian, A. D. 90, but
+the manner of his death is in doubt. By some it is believed that he
+suffered martyrdom by the sword or spear, but, according to the Greek
+legends, his end came peacefully.
+
+St. Matthew is not a favourite in art and is seldom represented alone
+or in devotional pictures. As evangelist he holds a book or a pen,
+and the angel, his proper symbol, stands by dictating or pointing
+up to heaven. As apostle he frequently holds a purse, or money bag,
+signifying his former occupation.
+
+=St. Mark.= _Lat._ S. Marcus. _Fr._ St. Marc. _Ital._ San Marco
+Evangelista. _Ger._ Der Heilige Marcus.
+
+According to the traditions accepted in the Roman Church, St. Mark was
+not one of the twelve apostles, but was a convert of St. Peter’s and
+became his favourite disciple. While in Rome he wrote his Gospel for
+the use of the Roman converts—some say from the dictation of St. Peter.
+He founded the Church of Alexandria, the most renowned of all the early
+Christian churches, but the wrath of the heathen became so great,
+because of his miracles, that they seized him while he was worshipping
+one day and, binding him, dragged him up and down the streets and
+highways, and over the most stony and rocky places, until the breath
+left his suffering body. The legends relate that, as his soul departed,
+a terrific tempest of hail and lightning descended suddenly from the
+skies, by which his murderers were instantly scattered and destroyed.
+
+The Christians of Alexandria buried his mangled remains, and his tomb
+there was held in reverence for several centuries. But about 815 A.
+D. some Venetian merchants carried off the relics and brought them to
+Venice, and the magnificent Church of St. Mark was built over them.
+Since that time St. Mark has been honoured as the patron saint of
+Venice, and his legendary history has supplied the Venetian painters
+with many beautiful and picturesque subjects.
+
+When represented as one of the Four Evangelists, alone or grouped with
+others, his symbol is almost invariably the lion—winged or unwinged,
+but usually _winged_—distinguishing him from St. Jerome, who also has
+the lion as a symbol, but always unwinged. In devotional pictures
+St. Mark often wears the habit of bishop, as the first Bishop of
+Alexandria, holding his Gospel in his hand.
+
+=St. Luke.= _Lat._ Sanctus Luca. _Fr._ Saint Luc. _Ital._ San Luca.
+
+Little is known of the real history of St. Luke. He was not an apostle,
+and like St. Mark, is supposed to have been converted after the
+ascension. He was a beloved disciple of St. Paul, and accompanied him
+to Rome and remained with him until the last. After the martyrdom
+of St. Peter and St. Paul he preached the Gospel in Greece and
+Egypt, but whether he suffered martyrdom or died a natural death is
+merely conjecture. There is some occasion for the belief that Luke
+was a physician, and there is a legend that makes him a painter and
+represents him as painting the portrait of the Virgin Mary, but this is
+not confirmed by any of the earlier traditions. Because of this legend,
+however, he was made the patron saint of painters.
+
+St. Luke is usually represented with his Gospel, and his attendant ox,
+winged or unwinged; but in Greek art and the art which came under the
+Byzantine influence, he is represented as evangelist, young and without
+beard, holding the portrait of the Virgin as his symbol in one hand,
+and his Gospel in the other.
+
+=St. John.= _Lat._ Sanctus Johannes. _Ital._ San Giovanni Evangelista.
+_Fr._ Saint Jean, Messire Saint Jehan. _Ger._ Der Heilige Johann.
+
+St. John was the son of the fisherman Zebedee, and with his brother
+James was among the first followers of Christ.
+
+In the legends of St. John, after the death of the Blessed Virgin he
+went into Judæa preaching the Gospel, and then into Asia Minor, where
+he founded the Seven Churches. During the persecution under Domitian,
+he was sent in fetters to Rome and was cast into a caldron of boiling
+oil, but he came out of it unharmed. He had other miraculous escapes,
+and being accused of magic was exiled to the island of Patmos, where
+he wrote his Revelation. He was released after Domitian’s death and
+returned to his church at Ephesus. He died there a few years later,
+being nearly a century old.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+MADONNA OF THE HARPIES WITH ST. FRANCIS AND ST. JOHN,
+EVANGELIST.—ANDREA DEL SARTO
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+A legend that is often represented in art is, that when he returned to
+Ephesus he met a funeral procession and was told that it was that of
+Drusiana, at whose house he had formerly dwelt. Bidding them set down
+the bier, he prayed that she might be restored to life, and she arose
+and walked to her house, the apostle going with her.
+
+He is popular as a patron saint, and pictures of him are more
+numerous than of any of the other evangelists. These represent him—as
+evangelist, apostle, or prophet.
+
+In early art St. John is an aged man with white hair and long white
+beard, but with the later painters St. John as evangelist, although
+nearly a century old, is represented as beardless, with light curling
+hair, and has all the attributes of the youthful apostle. He is
+sometimes seated, with his pen and his book,—sometimes standing; the
+attendant eagle is always near him and frequently holds the pen or
+ink-horn in its beak.
+
+In his second character, or as one of the series of apostles, St. John
+is represented in Western art as young and beardless, with pale brown
+or golden flowing hair, and a face full of sweetness, candour, and
+gentleness. His mantle is red in colour and the tunic blue or sometimes
+green. He holds in his hand the sacramental cup from which a serpent is
+seen to appear. St. Isidore relates that at Rome an attempt was made to
+poison St. John in the cup of the sacrament; he drank of the same and
+administered it to the communicants without injury, the poison having
+by a miracle vanished from the chalice in the form of a serpent, but
+the hired assassin fell down at his feet dead. According to another
+account, the poisoned cup was given to him by order of the Emperor
+Domitian. Another legend relates that Aristodemus, the high-priest of
+Diana at Ephesus, dared him as a test of the truth of his mission to
+drink of the poisoned chalice. St. John drank unharmed, but the priest
+dropped dead. Yet another interpretation is that the cup in the hand
+of St. John alludes to Christ’s reply when the mother of James and
+John demanded for her sons that they be given a place of honour in
+heaven,—“Ye shall indeed drink of my cup.”
+
+In his third character of prophet and writer of the Revelation St.
+John is generally represented in art as very old with a white, flowing
+beard, seated in a rocky desert; the sea in the distance or around him,
+representing the island of Patmos; he has the eagle at his side.
+
+
+
+
+XIII.—THE TWELVE APOSTLES
+
+
+The earliest representations of the Twelve Apostles seem to have been,
+like those of the Four Evangelists, purely symbolical. They were
+represented as twelve sheep, and Christ, bearing a lamb in His arms,
+stood in their midst as the Good Shepherd; or Christ the Lamb of God
+was placed on an eminence and crowned with a cruciform nimbus, and the
+apostles were arranged on each side as sheep.
+
+A little later the apostles were represented as twelve men, all alike,
+each with a sheep, and Christ stood in the middle, also with a sheep,
+which was often larger than theirs.
+
+=The Apostles’ Creed.= “It is affirmed by Ambrose, ‘that the twelve
+Apostles, as skilful artificers, assembled together, and made a key
+by their common advice, that is, the Creed; by which the darkness of
+the devil is disclosed, that the light of Christ may appear.’ Others
+fable that every Apostle inserted an article, by which the Creed is
+divided into twelve articles; and a sermon, fathered upon St. Austin,
+and quoted by the Lord Chancellor King, fabricates that each particular
+article was thus inserted by each particular Apostle.
+
+Peter (1). I believe in God the Father Almighty;
+
+John (2). Maker of heaven and earth;
+
+James (3). And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord;
+
+Andrew (4). Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin
+Mary;
+
+Philip (5). Suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and
+buried;
+
+Thomas (6). He descended into hell, the third day he rose again from
+the dead;
+
+Bartholomew (7). He ascended into heaven, sitteth at the right hand of
+God the Father Almighty;
+
+Matthew (8). From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead;
+
+James, the son of Alpheus (9). I believe in the Holy Ghost, the holy
+Catholic Church;
+
+Simon Zelotes (10). The communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins;
+
+Jude, the brother of James (11). The resurrection of the body;
+
+Matthias (12). Life everlasting. Amen.” (_Apocryphal New Testament._)
+
+From the sixth century every one of the apostles had his especial
+attribute, which was taken from some circumstance of his life or death.
+According to the canon of the mass, they follow in order, thus:
+
+St. Peter, the keys or a fish.
+
+St. Paul, the sword; sometimes two swords.
+
+St. Andrew, the transverse cross.
+
+St. James Major, the pilgrim’s staff.
+
+St. John, the sacramental cup with the serpent; sometimes the eagle
+(the latter belongs to him only in his character of evangelist).
+
+St. Thomas, a builder’s rule, sometimes a spear.
+
+St. James Minor, a club.
+
+St. Philip, the staff or crozier, surmounted by a cross, or a small
+cross in his hand.
+
+St. Bartholomew, a large knife.
+
+St. Matthew, a purse.
+
+St. Simon, a saw.
+
+St. Thaddeus (or Jude), a halberd or lance.
+
+St. Matthias, a lance.
+
+Although in sacred art the apostles are always twelve in number, they
+are not always the same. St. Paul is often substituted for St. Jude and
+frequently the evangelists St. Mark and St. Luke appear instead of St.
+Simon and St. Matthias.
+
+=St. Peter and St. Paul.= _Lat._ SS. Petrus et Paulus. _Ital._ San
+Pietro or Piero, San Paolo. _Fr._ S. Pierre, S. Paul. _Spa._ San Pedro,
+San Pablo.
+
+Even during their lifetime, the power and the influence of St. Peter
+and St. Paul as apostles and preachers of the Gospel were recognised;
+and they were acknowledged then as now to be the heads and founders of
+the Christian Church.
+
+The precedence given to St. Peter, prince of the apostles and founder
+of the Church of Rome, has never been questioned, but still they are
+held to be “equal in faith, in merit, and in sanctity.”
+
+In works of art they are seldom separated. They are found on _each_
+side of the Saviour or of the Virgin enthroned; or on each side of the
+altar; or on each side of the arch over the choir. Wherever they are
+together, not only as apostles but founders, their rank is next after
+the evangelists and the prophets.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. PETER BAPTISING.—MASACCIO
+
+(Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence.)]
+
+Many legends are related of St. Peter. Among them that of Simon Magus
+is the most important, and it has been frequently illustrated in art
+(Acts viii., 9, 24).
+
+Simon Magus was a famous magician among the Jews, who performed
+marvellous feats of sorcery and claimed to be a god. Privately he tried
+to buy from the apostles the secret of their power to work miracles,
+but was rejected by them with scorn.
+
+The apostles vanquished him at every turn, and drove him out of
+Jerusalem; and he fled to Rome, where he became a favourite of the
+Emperor Claudius and afterwards of Nero. Simon claimed that he had the
+power to raise the dead, and when Peter and Paul came to Rome they
+challenged him to restore the life of a youth in the presence of the
+emperor. The magician failed utterly to make good his boast, but when
+Peter and Paul spoke to the boy he at once rose from the dead. Then the
+magician announced that he would fly to heaven, and jumping from a high
+tower he floated in the air for a time, sustained there by demons. At
+this, Peter fell on his knees and begged that the demons might loose
+their hold, which they did, and the magician, falling to the ground,
+was dashed to pieces.
+
+When the first persecution under Nero broke out, the Christians finally
+succeeded in persuading St. Peter to flee from Rome and thereby save a
+life that was so precious to the Church.
+
+As Peter was fleeing along the Appian Way, he suddenly encountered our
+Lord Himself going towards Rome, and bearing His cross. In wonder at
+such a vision, Peter exclaimed, “Lord, whither goest Thou?” (_Domine,
+quo vadis?_) and Jesus, bending His eyes sadly upon him, answered, “I
+go to Rome to be crucified again.” And thus saying, He vanished from
+sight. Peter felt this to be a sign that he was forsaking his duty
+and turned back at once to the city, where he continued to preach and
+baptise until he was taken with St. Paul and thrown into the Mamertine
+prison.
+
+Here they converted the two centurions, Processus and Martinian, who
+guarded them, also many other prisoners. There was no water with which
+to baptise them, but at the prayer of St. Peter that water might be
+forthcoming, a spring broke through the stone floor and remains a
+fountain there to this day.
+
+Tradition declares that St. Peter was crucified with his head downward
+at his own request, feeling himself unworthy to suffer the same death
+as his Lord.
+
+When in devotional pictures St. Peter is accompanied by another apostle
+with no distinctive attributes, it may be supposed that it is St. Mark,
+who was his companion, amanuensis, and interpreter at Rome.
+
+“St. Peter was generally represented blessing, St. Paul preaching,—the
+former with white hair and beard, the hair sometimes plaited in three
+distinct partitions; the latter with a lofty and partially bald brow,
+and long high nose,—as characteristic of the man of genius and the
+thorough gentleman, as the former is of the warm-hearted, frank,
+impetuous fisherman. The likenesses may be correct,—they were current,
+at least, in the days of Eusebius” (Lord Lindsay’s _Sketches of
+Christian Art_).
+
+The dress of St. Peter in the mosaics and Greek pictures is a blue
+tunic with a white mantle, but in later pictures he wears a blue or
+green tunic with yellow drapery. In the earliest representations, he
+bears a scroll or book, later a cross in one hand and book in the
+other. It is not until about the eighth century that the keys become
+his peculiar symbol. Sometimes he has one great key, but usually he
+carries two keys, one of gold and one of silver—to absolve and to
+bind—or according to another interpretation one is of gold for the
+gates of heaven, the other of iron for the gates of hell. The legend
+that makes St. Peter the keeper of the gate of Paradise, having power
+to grant or refuse admission, found its origin in the delivery of the
+keys to St. Peter.
+
+Although =St. Paul= was called to be an apostle after the ascension
+of Christ, yet he takes rank next to St. Peter as one of the “chief
+witnesses of the Christian faith.” The history of the “great apostle
+of the Gentiles” is given fully in the Acts, and the Epistles and the
+legends have not added much to it. It is related that he suffered
+martyrdom outside the Ostian Gate of Rome by being beheaded on the
+same day that St. Peter was crucified within the city. It is also
+said that a certain Roman matron, named Plautilla, a convert of St.
+Peter’s, wishing to see St. Paul for the last time, placed herself on
+the road where he passed to his martyrdom. As she beheld him, she wept
+and implored his blessing. The apostle gave it and then asked for her
+veil, that he might bind his eyes before being beheaded. He promised
+to return it to her after his death. Plautilla gave it readily, thus
+showing her faith, although her attendants refrained not from mocking
+at so ridiculous a promise. After his martyrdom, however, her veil,
+stained with his blood, was restored to her in person by St. Paul. The
+spot where he was beheaded is still venerated as the _Tre Fontane_,
+tradition saying that the severed head made three bounds on the ground,
+and at each place that it touched a fountain gushed forth.
+
+In art the dress of St. Paul is, like St. Peter’s, a blue tunic and
+white mantle. He has a book or scroll in one hand, occasionally _twelve
+rolls_, representing his Epistles. His peculiar symbol is the sword—his
+attribute in a double sense—first signifying the manner of his
+martyrdom, and second typifying the “good fight fought by the faithful
+Christian.” When St. Paul is leaning on his sword it then expresses his
+martyrdom. When he holds it aloft it proclaims his warfare in the cause
+of Christ; when _two swords_ are given to him, one is the attribute,
+the other the symbol.
+
+=St. Andrew= (_Lat._ S. Andreas. _Ital._ Sant’Andrea. _Fr._ St. André)
+was the brother of Simon Peter, and he was the first who was called to
+be an apostle. Nothing further is told of him in the New Testament.
+Tradition relates that after the ascension of Christ, St. Andrew
+travelled into Scythia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, converting multitudes
+to the faith. He returned to Jerusalem, and thence travelled into
+Greece and came at last to a city of Achaia, called Patras. Here, among
+many others, he converted Maximilia, wife of the proconsul Ægeus.
+He induced her to make a public profession of Christianity, and this
+so enraged the proconsul that he ordered St. Andrew to be seized and
+scourged and then crucified. There are many opinions as to the form of
+the cross upon which he suffered, but it is generally believed to have
+been a transverse cross, since called St. Andrew’s Cross, and it is
+said he was fastened with cords rather than with nails—a circumstance
+always adhered to in the representations of his death. Before suffering
+crucifixion, the legend relates that he saluted and adored the cross
+on his knees as something that had been consecrated by the sufferings
+of his Redeemer.[7] Some of his relics were brought from Patras to
+Scotland in the fourth century, and since then St. Andrew has been the
+patron saint of Scotland and of its chief order of Knighthood. He is
+also patron saint of the famous Burgundian Order, the Golden Fleece,
+and of Russia and its chief order, the Cross of St. Andrew.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. JAMES MAJOR.—TITIAN
+
+(Church of S. Lio, Venice.)]
+
+St. Andrew is recognised in art by the transverse cross, and the
+devotional pictures represent him as a very old man with a certain
+brotherly resemblance to St. Peter. He has long, white, flowing hair
+and beard, the beard usually being divided. He is generally represented
+leaning upon the cross, holding the Gospel in his right hand.
+
+=St. James the Great.= _Lat._ Sanctus Jacobus Major. _Ital._ San
+Giacomo, or Jacopo, Maggiore. _Fr._ St. Jacques Majeur. _Spa._ San
+Jago, or Santiago.
+
+St. James Major (the Great or the Elder) was a kinsman of Christ’s,
+and, with his brother John the Evangelist and Peter, went everywhere
+with the Lord and was present at most of the events related in the
+Gospels. He was one of the three who were permitted to witness the
+transfiguration of Christ, and one of those who slept during the agony
+in the garden. No mention is made of him after the ascension, except
+the fact that Herod slew him with the sword.
+
+The legends of the middle ages, however, have amply made up for this
+deficiency, and as military patron of Spain, he became one of the most
+famous saints in Christendom and a most popular subject in art.
+
+In the Spanish legend, although James (their Santiago) is still the
+son of Zebedee and a native of Galilee, this Zebedee, instead of
+being a poor fisherman, becomes through the florid imagination of the
+Spanish chroniclers a very rich nobleman, whose son, always pure and
+heavenly-minded, is converted by Jesus, and follows Him and shares His
+labours until the end.
+
+It is related that after the ascension James went first into Judæa,
+preaching, and then came at last to Spain.
+
+One day as he stood on the banks of the Ebro, he saw in a vision the
+Blessed Virgin, who appeared to him surrounded by angels and seated on
+a pillar of jasper. She commanded him to build on that spot a church
+in her honour and told him that belief in her and in her glorious Son
+would in time drive paganism out of the land. St. James rose up from
+the ground where he had prostrated himself before her, and with faith
+strengthened by these words of the Holy Virgin, began forthwith to
+erect the famous church in her honour, which has been known ever since
+as the Church of Our Lady of the Pillar (_Nuestra Señora del Pilar_).
+
+Many other curious legends are related of him—his encounter with the
+sorcerer Hermogenes, who sent his scholar Philetus to compete with him.
+James converted him, which so enraged Hermogenes that he bound Philetus
+by evil spells, so that he could not move hand or foot. Philetus sent
+his servant to St. James, praying for aid. The apostle sent his cloak
+by the servant, and no sooner had Philetus touched it, than he became
+free and hastened to his deliverer. Hermogenes sent his demons to take
+both the saint and his disciple; angels, however, intervened, and the
+sorcerer, now utterly vanquished by the power of the apostle, cast
+his magical books into the sea and declared himself also converted.
+Hermogenes having prayed for aid against the power of his own demons,
+St. James gave him his own staff to protect him, and thus armed,
+Hermogenes set forth to preach the Gospel, and became a faithful and
+worthy disciple from that time.
+
+Soon after this the Jews, being roused to anger by the miracles and
+good works of St. James, beheaded the saint, and his disciples, fearing
+to bury his body, placed it in a ship—some say of marble—and angels
+guided it to the coast of Spain. Here the disciples took out the body
+and laid it on a great stone, and the stone yielded to his form like
+wax and softly closed around it. Then they knew that they had found its
+chosen resting-place.
+
+But that country was governed at the time by a wicked queen named
+Lupa, who hated Christians, and who harnessed wild bulls to the stone,
+thinking they would dash it in pieces; but instead the bulls became as
+gentle as lambs (_aussitot doux comme des moutons_) and drew it slowly
+into the court of Lupa’s palace and there rested. At this marvel, she
+became converted and built a magnificent church to receive the body of
+James.
+
+In after years the body was lost until the year A. D. 800, when its
+place of concealment was revealed to a friar. His relics were then
+removed to Compostella, and so many miracles were wrought at his shrine
+that thousands upon thousands of pilgrims visited it from all parts of
+Europe, and the military Order of Saint Jago, enrolled by Don Alphonso
+for their protection, became one of the greatest and richest orders in
+Spain.
+
+The wonderful deeds enacted by Santiago in behalf of his chosen people
+would fill a volume. The Spanish historians chronicle thirty-eight
+instances in which Saint Jago descended from heaven and in person
+led their armies against the Moors. The first and most famous was
+in 939, when he visited the King of Castile in a dream the night
+before, assuring him of victory. As the army engaged in battle the
+next morning, the soldiers were thrilled by the sight of St. James at
+their head, mounted on a snow-white steed, and waving a white standard
+on high. Thus he led them on to victory, and from that day to this,
+“Santiago” has been the Spanish war-cry.
+
+St. James’s place among the apostles is fourth in the series, but third
+after St. Peter and St. Paul. Often in art he is represented bearing a
+family resemblance to Christ, his kinsman. He has the same thin beard
+and the hair parted, flowing down on each side.
+
+From the thirteenth century, he has been represented in the dress of
+a pilgrim of Compostella; he carries the peculiar long staff, from
+which is suspended a wallet or gourd of water; wears a cloak with a
+long cape; and has the scallop-shell on his shoulder or on his flapped
+hat. When the cape, hat, and scallop-shell are omitted, the staff
+remains his constant attribute, designating him as the first apostle
+who departed to spread the Gospel into other lands. He can always be
+recognised by the staff in Madonna pictures and when grouped with other
+saints.
+
+St. John, who is fifth in the series of the apostles, is found under
+the head of the Four Evangelists.
+
+=St. Philip.= _Ital._ San Filippo Apostolo. _Fr._ Saint Philippe.
+
+Little is related of St. Philip in the Gospels. After the ascension, he
+preached in Scythia for twenty years, and then travelled to Hieropolis
+in Phrygia, where he found the people worshipping a great serpent or
+dragon, whom they believed to personify the god Mars.
+
+St. Philip, filled with compassion for their ignorance, went into the
+temple, and holding up his cross commanded the serpent to disappear.
+Immediately it glided from beneath the altar, and as it moved it sent
+forth so dreadful an odour that many died, among them the son of the
+king; but Philip restored him and the others to life, and again, by
+the power of the cross which he always bore, he commanded the dragon
+to depart and from that time it was seen no more. This so infuriated
+the priests of the serpent that they crucified Philip, and when he was
+fastened to the cross they stoned him to death.
+
+The Scriptures state that Philip had four daughters, who were
+prophetesses (Acts i., 9). In the Greek calendar his sister, St.
+Mariamne, and St. Hermione, his daughter, are commemorated as martyrs.
+
+St. Philip, when he is represented alone or in the series of apostles,
+is a man of middle-age and kindly face, with scarcely any beard. His
+attribute, a cross, varies in form; sometimes it is small, and he
+carries it in his hand; again it is a high cross in the form of a “T”
+or a tall staff with a small Latin cross at the top of it. The cross of
+St. Philip has a threefold meaning: it may allude to his martyrdom; or
+to his conquest over the idols through the power of the cross; or when
+placed on top of the pilgrim’s staff it may refer to his sojourn among
+the barbarians, preaching the cross of salvation.
+
+=St. Bartholomew.= _Lat._ S. Bartholomeus. _Ital._ San Bartolomeo.
+_Fr._ St. Barthélemi.
+
+The origin of this saint is in doubt. According to some accounts, he
+was the son of a husbandman,—others say he was the son of a prince,
+Ptolomeus. He went into India after the ascension, carrying with him
+the Gospel of St. Matthew, and preached also in Armenia and Cilicia. He
+suffered a horrible death in Albanopolis, being first flayed alive and
+then crucified.
+
+In devotional pictures and single figures, St. Bartholomew sometimes
+bears in one hand a book, the Gospel of St. Matthew, but his peculiar
+attribute is a large knife, the instrument of his martyrdom, and he is
+sometimes represented with his own skin hanging over his arm, as in
+Michael Angelo’s _Last Judgment_ (Sistine Chapel, Rome).
+
+=St. Thomas.= _Ital._ San Tommaso. _Spa._ San Tomé.
+
+St. Thomas, called _Didymus_ (the twin), is seventh among the apostles.
+He was a fisherman of Galilee, and he is recorded in the Gospel on two
+occasions. As Jesus was going up to Bethany, being then in danger from
+the Jews, Thomas said, “Let us also go, that we may die with Him” (John
+xi., 16). And after the resurrection, it was Thomas who doubted the
+reappearance of the crucified Saviour (John xx., 24-29).
+
+After the ascension, St. Thomas travelled into the East, preaching the
+Gospel. A tradition has been accepted in the Church that he went as far
+as India; where he met the Three Wise Men of the East, and baptised
+them. He founded a church in India, and it was there that he suffered
+martyrdom.
+
+After the thirteenth century, St. Thomas bears as his attribute the
+builder’s rule, shaped thus:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As he was neither a carpenter nor a mason, the reason of this attribute
+is found in one of the legends.
+
+“When St. Thomas was at Cæsarea, our Lord appeared to him and said,
+‘The King of the Indies, Gondoforus, hath sent his provost Abanes to
+seek for workmen well versed in the science of architecture, who shall
+build for him a palace finer than that of the Emperor of Rome. Behold,
+now I will send thee to him.’ And Thomas went, and Gondoforus commanded
+him to build for him a magnificent palace, and gave him much gold and
+silver for the purpose. The King went into a distant country and was
+absent for two years, and St. Thomas meanwhile, instead of building a
+palace, distributed all the treasures intrusted to him among the poor
+and sick; and when the King returned he was full of wrath and commanded
+that St. Thomas should be seized and cast into prison, and he meditated
+for him a horrible death. Meantime the brother of the King died; and
+the King resolved to erect for him a most magnificent tomb; but the
+dead man, after that he had been dead four days, suddenly arose and
+sat upright and said to the King, ‘The man that thou wouldst torture
+is a servant of God; behold I have been in Paradise, and the angels
+showed to me a wondrous palace of gold and silver and precious stones,
+and they said, “This is the palace that Thomas, the architect, hath
+built for thy brother King Gondoforus.”’ And when the King heard those
+words he ran to the prison and delivered the apostle; and Thomas said
+to him, ‘Knowest thou not that those who would possess heavenly things
+have little care for the things of this earth? There are in heaven rich
+palaces without number, which were prepared from the beginning of the
+world for those who purchase the possessions through faith and charity.
+Thy riches, O King, may prepare the way for thee to such a palace, but
+they cannot follow thee thither’” (_Vos richesses pourront bien aller
+devant vous à ce palais, mais elles ne pourront vous y suivre_).
+
+The builder’s rule in the hand of St. Thomas represents him as the
+spiritual architect of King Gondoforus, and thus he has been chosen as
+patron saint of architects and builders.
+
+“The Incredulity of St. Thomas” appears in all the early series in the
+life of Christ, and it is of frequent occurrence in the later schools
+of Italy and in the Flemish schools. Either St. Thomas is seen placing
+his hand, with an expression of doubt and fear, on the wounds of the
+crucified Christ, or his doubts having vanished, his eyes are cast
+heavenward in joy and thankfulness.
+
+The legendary subject styled _La Madonna della Cintola_, where St.
+Thomas doubts the apotheosis of the Virgin, has been described in the
+Assumption of the Virgin.
+
+St. Matthew the Evangelist comes eighth in the order of the apostles.
+
+=St. James Minor.= _Lat._ S. Jacobus Frater Domini. _Ital._ San Jacopo
+or Giacomo Minore. _Gr._ Adelphotheos. _Fr._ St. Jacques Mineur.
+
+St. James Minor, or the Less, also called the Just, is ninth in the
+series. He was nearly related to Christ, being the son of Mary, the
+wife of Cleophas, who was the sister of the Virgin Mary; and although
+only a cousin he was often spoken of as the “Lord’s brother.” He became
+first Christian Bishop of Jerusalem, and was reverenced for his piety,
+and wisdom, and charity. The Scribes and Pharisees, however, became so
+enraged by his teachings that they flung him down from a parapet of the
+Temple to the infuriated mob below, where his brains were beaten out
+with a _fuller’s club_.
+
+St. James is generally represented leaning on this club, the instrument
+of his martyrdom. According to an early tradition, he so nearly
+resembled our Lord “in person, in features, and deportment,” that it
+was difficult to distinguish them, and this rendered necessary the kiss
+of Judas.
+
+=St. Simon Zelotes= (or _The Zealot_). =St. Jude= (_Thaddeus_, or
+_Lebbeus_). _Ital._ San Simone; San Taddeo. _Fr._ St. Simon; le Zelé;
+St. Thaddée. _Ger._ Judas Thaddäus.
+
+Very little is known of these saints. According to one tradition they
+were the same mentioned by Matthew as our Lord’s brethren or kinsmen.
+According to another tradition they were two brothers among the
+shepherds, who visited Christ at His birth. The painters who adhered to
+the first tradition represent Simon and Jude as young. Those who follow
+the latter represent them as very old. It seems generally agreed
+that they preached the Gospel together in Syria and Mesopotamia, and
+together suffered martyrdom in Persia. Tradition says that St. Simon
+was sawn asunder, and St. Thaddeus killed with a halberd.
+
+In a series of apostles, St. Simon bears the saw and St. Thaddeus
+the halberd. Greek art represents Jude and Thaddeus as two distinct
+persons, Jude being young and Thaddeus old; and St. Simon is extremely
+old, with a bald head, and long white beard.
+
+=St. Matthias.= _Ital._ San Mattia. _Fr._ St. Mathias.
+
+St. Matthias, who was chosen by lot to fill the place of the traitor
+Judas, is the last of the apostles (Acts i.). He preached the Gospel
+in Judæa, and was martyred there by the Jews, either by the lance or
+by the axe. In the Italian series of the apostles his attribute is the
+lance; in the German sets he usually has an axe.
+
+=Judas Iscariot.= _Ital._ Giuda Scariota. _Fr._ Judas Iscariote.
+
+The Gospels do not speak of the life of Judas before he became an
+apostle, but the legends of the middle ages fill up the omissions of
+Scripture after their own fancy. As recounted by Mrs. Jameson, they
+picture Judas as a “wretch foredoomed, and prepared by a long course of
+vice and crime for that crowning guilt which filled the measure full.
+According to this legend, he was of the tribe of Reuben. Before his
+mother brought him forth, she dreamed that the son who lay in her womb
+would be accursed, that he would murder his father, commit incest with
+his mother, and sell his God. Terrified at her dream, she took counsel
+with her husband and they agreed to avert the threatened calamity by
+exposing the child. As in the story of Œdipus, from which indeed this
+legend seems partly borrowed, the means taken to avoid the threatened
+curse caused its fulfilment. Judas, at his birth, is enclosed in a
+chest, and flung into the sea; the sea casts him up, and being found
+on the shore, he is fostered by a certain king and queen as their own
+son; they have another son, whom Judas, malignant from his birth, beats
+and oppresses, and at length kills in a quarrel over a game of chess.
+He then flies to Judæa, where he enters the service of Pontius Pilate
+as page. In due time he commits the other monstrous crimes to which he
+was predestined; and when he learns from his mother the secret of his
+birth, he is filled with a sudden contrition and terror; he hears of
+the prophet who has power on earth to forgive sins; and seeking Christ
+throws himself at His feet. Our Saviour, not deceived, but seeing in
+him the destined betrayer, and that all things may be accomplished,
+accepts him as His apostle; he becomes the seneschal or steward of
+Christ, bears the purse and provides for the common wants. In this
+position, avarice, the only vice to which he was not yet addicted,
+takes possession of his soul and makes the corruption complete. Through
+avarice, he grudges every penny given to the poor, and when Mary
+Magdalene anoints the feet of our Lord, he is full of wrath at what he
+considers the waste of the precious perfume: ‘Why was not this ointment
+sold for three hundred pence, and given to the poor?’ This he said
+not that he cared for the poor, but because he was a thief. Through
+avarice, he yields to the bribe offered by the Jews. Then follow the
+scenes of the betrayal of Christ, and the late repentance and terrible
+suicide of the traitor, as recorded in Scripture.”
+
+Separate representations of Judas Iscariot would have been regarded
+as “profane, ominous—worse than the evil-eye,” and the early artists,
+in the scenes from the Scriptures where Judas appears, give him a
+countenance as expressive of all the evil passions as their brushes
+were capable of. The legend says, however, that Judas was of comely
+appearance, and was recommended to the service of Pontius Pilate by his
+beauty of person.
+
+In art Judas always wears a dirty, dingy yellow, a colour that in Spain
+is so associated in the mind with pictures of Judas, that it is held in
+abhorrence. In Spain and in Italy malefactors and criminals are garbed
+in yellow. Formerly the Venetians made all Jews wear yellow hats.
+
+=St. Barnabas.= _Ital._ San Barnaba. _Fr._ Saint Barnabé.
+
+He is usually called the _Apostle_ Barnabas, because he was associated
+with the apostles in their calling, and is to be “considered as
+_Apostolical_, and next to them in sanctity.” St. Barnabas was
+a Levite, born in the island of Cyprus and a cousin of Mark the
+Evangelist. His life and character as recorded in the Acts are full of
+interest. After the conversion of Paul, he was the first to believe
+in his sincerity, and to present him to the other apostles, “who were
+afraid of him, and would not believe that he was a disciple.” Barnabas
+afterwards went with St. Paul to Antioch. There, however, they fell
+into a dispute concerning Mark and separated. Barnabas preached the
+Gospel in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, and it is said he was the
+first Bishop of Milan. It is related that “everywhere he carried the
+Gospel of St. Matthew, written by the hand of the evangelist, and when
+any were sick or possessed, he laid the sacred writing upon their bosom
+and they were healed.”
+
+As he was preaching in a synagogue of Judæa against the Jews, they
+seized him and put him to death. Mark and the other Christians buried
+him in much sorrow.
+
+In art he is represented as of lofty presence, holding in his hand the
+Gospel of St. Matthew, and he frequently appears in subjects taken from
+the Acts and the life of St. Paul.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7] “Salut, Croix, qui as été consacrée par le corps de Jésus Christ,
+et que ses membres ont ornée de tant de perles. Avant que le Seigneur
+eût été lié sur toi, tu étais un objet de terreur; maintenant, ceux qui
+sont enflammés de l’amour celeste t’appellent de tous leurs vœux. Je
+viens donc à toi, plein de sécurité et de joie, afin que tu reçoives
+le disciple de celui qui est mort sur toi; je t’ai toujours chérie,
+et j’ai constamment desire t’embrasser. O bonne croix! longtemps
+désirée, et que les membres du Seigneur out revêtue de tout de beauté
+et d’éclat, toi que j’ai recherchée sans cesse reçois-moi du milieu des
+hommes, et rends-moi a mon maître, afin que celui qui m’a racheté par
+toi me voie arriver à lui par toi.”—_Legende Dorée._
+
+
+
+
+XIV.—MARY MAGDALENE
+
+
+=St. Mary Magdalene.= _Lat._ Sancta Maria Magdalena. _Ital._ Santa
+Maria Maddalena. _Fr._ La Madeleine.
+
+It has always been a question in dispute among the theologians and
+expounders of the Gospels whether Mary Magdalene, “out of whom Jesus
+cast seven devils,” Mary of Bethany, and the “woman who was a sinner”
+are three distinct persons, or one and the same under different
+appellations. In Western art they are represented as identical.
+
+The legends relate that Mary Magdalene was rich and of noble race, and
+lived with her sister and brother, Martha and Lazarus, in their castle
+Magdalon on the Sea of Galilee. Lazarus became a soldier, Martha was a
+model of virtue and propriety, but Mary abandoned herself to pleasure
+and became so dissolute that she was known as “The Sinner.” Her
+sister, grieving, frequently rebuked her, and finally persuaded her to
+listen to Jesus, and hearing him her heart was touched, and she became
+converted.
+
+The legends follow closely the Gospel stories of the supper at the
+house of Simon the Pharisee, Christ’s entertainment at the house of
+Martha, Mary’s devotion to the Saviour, and those final scenes at His
+death and resurrection in which she takes so prominent a part. In all
+these she appears again and again in art.
+
+According to an old Provençal legend, after the ascension of Christ,
+Lazarus and his sisters, with their handmaid Marcella, Maximin, who had
+baptised them, and the blind man Cedron, to whom Jesus had given sight,
+were put in a boat by the heathen—a boat that was without rudder or
+sails or oars,—and set adrift. The winds and waves carried them safely
+to Marseilles, where the people at first refused to give them food
+or shelter. But Mary began to tell them of Christ, and both sisters
+performed such marvellous miracles, that many became converted and
+were baptised. Lazarus, after the death of Maximin, was made the first
+Bishop of Marseilles.
+
+Of the many miracles attributed to Mary Magdalene in the old legends,
+is that relating to a certain Provençal prince, who became partially
+converted by the preaching of Mary Magdalene, and wishing a proof, told
+her of his desire and his wife’s, to have a son, and asked if she could
+obtain this grace for them by prayers to her God. And Mary answered,
+“If thy prayer be granted, wilt thou believe?” The prince promised, but
+shortly after, still but half-convinced, he decided to visit St. Peter
+in Jerusalem and see if his preaching accorded with the words of Mary.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ LA DISPUTA DELLA TRINITÀ. ST. AUGUSTINE, ST. LAURENCE, ST.
+ PETER MARTYR, ST. FRANCIS; ST. SEBASTIAN, AND MARY MAGDALENE,
+ KNEELING.—ANDREA DEL SARTO
+
+(Pitti Palace, Florence.) ]
+
+So he and his wife departed in a vessel bound for Jerusalem. A fearful
+storm arose on the way, and his wife, who was with child, gave birth
+to a son, and then died. The sailors, in their superstition, wished to
+throw the dead body into the sea, believing the tempest would not cease
+as long as they had it on board, but the prince restrained them until
+they came to a barren, rocky island, where he laid his wife with the
+living child on her bosom, praying to Mary Magdalene to have pity on
+his grief and if her prayers availed, to save at least the life of his
+child.
+
+When the prince and his attendants reached Jerusalem, he found St.
+Peter, who instructed him and showed him where Christ performed His
+miracles, so that he became an ardent believer in the faith of the
+Christians. After two years, he set sail again for his own country, and
+passing the island where he had left his wife he landed there to pray.
+What was his joy to find that not only the prayers of the Magdalene had
+kept his son alive, but as he approached the body of his dead wife, she
+awoke as from a deep sleep and was miraculously restored to him. Then
+they returned joyfully to Marseilles, and falling at the feet of Mary
+Magdalene blessed her, and became baptised.
+
+After some years of active good works Mary retired to a barren
+wilderness not far from Marseilles, and here she lived in solitude for
+thirty years, fasting and doing penance and mourning for her past sins.
+If it had not been for angels, and the comfort bestowed upon her by
+celestial visions, she must have perished. A hermit who lived not far
+off in the desert once beheld angels bearing her in their arms towards
+heaven, and hurried to the city to tell of his vision. Some legends
+assert that St. Mary died in a church after receiving the sacrament
+from St. Maximin, but the more popular versions represent her as dying
+in her solitude, watched over to the last by angels.
+
+Devotional pictures represent her as patron saint and as the penitent.
+The historical pictures are those scenes from the Gospel in which she
+is conspicuous, and the scenes from her legendary life. In all these
+subjects the accompanying attribute is the alabaster box of ointment
+which has a twofold meaning; it may be the precious ointment which
+she poured over the feet of Christ, or the balm and spices that were
+brought to anoint his body. Sometimes she carries it in her hand, or
+it stands at her feet or near her; frequently, in later pictures, it
+is borne by an attendant angel. It may be a small vase, or a casket; a
+cup with a cover, or a box; the form varying according to the artist’s
+fancy—but it is always there, the symbol of her conversion and her
+love, and so unmistakable that there can be no doubt of her identity.
+
+In the ancient pictures she is usually represented in red, to express
+the fervour of her love. In modern pictures, and where she appears as
+the penitent, she wears blue or violet,—violet, the colour of mourning
+and penitence; blue, the colour of constancy. Where both love and
+sorrow are expressed, she wears a violet-coloured tunic and a red
+mantle. Her long, luxuriant hair is light or golden in colour.
+
+As patron saint she became idealised into a noble, imposing woman,
+retaining no trace of sin or sorrow on her beautiful face. If it were
+not for the nimbus she might be mistaken for Pandora. As in scenes
+before her conversion, she is richly attired.
+
+The Magdalene doing penance in the desert became a favourite subject
+with the artists in the sixteenth century. She was represented in two
+aspects; first as bemoaning her sins, where she appears lying prostrate
+upon the ground, or standing or kneeling at the entrance to her cave;
+her long yellow hair flows over her shoulders, her hands are clasped
+or raised towards heaven, and her eyes are streaming with tears. The
+crucifix, skull, and sometimes the scourge are seen symbolising faith,
+mortality, and penance. In the second she has made her atonement and
+is seen reading and meditating with a serene and uplifted countenance.
+Angels scatter flowers or present the palm; a book rests beside the
+skull, and the skies are bright with a vision of glory. In every
+instance the alabaster box appears.
+
+The _Noli me tangere_ is the subject of many pictures; the arrangement
+is arbitrary and fixed by tradition and only admits of the two figures
+of Christ and the Magdalene.
+
+Before leaving the subject of those who were intimately connected with
+our Lord in His lifetime, a few words upon the Last Supper in art may
+perhaps find a fitting place here.
+
+
+
+
+XV.—THE LAST SUPPER
+
+
+=The Last Supper.= _Ital._ Il Cenacolo, La Cena. _Fr._ La Cène. _Ger._
+Das Abendmahl Christi.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE LAST SUPPER.—D. GHIRLANDAJO
+
+(Convent of the Ognissanti, Florence.)]
+
+This event in the life of Christ has, next to the crucifixion, a
+most important place in art, where the subject has been treated
+dramatically, historically, and mystically. When the picture is painted
+for an altar or chapel of the Holy Sacrament, it is _mystical_ or
+_devotional_, and represents the institution of the Eucharist. In
+such representations Judas is either absent, or is seen stealing from
+the room. The subject has been a favourite one for the decoration
+of refectories of convents and hospitals, and it is then treated in
+the _historical_ sense—Christ’s celebration of the passover with His
+disciples; or dramatically, at the moment when Christ says, “Verily I
+say unto you that one of you shall betray me,” or when His disciples,
+“exceeding sorrowful,” say unto Him, “Lord, is it I?” and He replies,
+“He that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray
+me.” In this scene the usual arrangement places Christ in the middle of
+a long table with John leaning against Him and the apostles, seated or
+starting up in dismay, on either side. Judas sits alone on the opposite
+side of the table.
+
+These distinctions must be borne in mind in judging of the treatment of
+the various artists.
+
+
+
+
+XVI.—THE FOUR LATIN FATHERS
+
+
+“The Evangelists and Apostles represented in Art the Spiritual Church,
+and took their place among the heavenly influences. The great Fathers
+or Doctors were the representatives of the Church Militant on earth: as
+teachers and pastors, as logicians and advocates, they wrote, argued,
+contended, suffered, and at length, after a long and fierce struggle
+against opposing doctrines, they fixed the articles of faith thereafter
+received in Christendom. For ages, and down to the present time, the
+prevailing creed has been that which was founded on the interpretations
+of these venerable personages. They have become, in consequence,
+frequent and important subjects of Art, particularly from the tenth
+century—the period when, in their personal character, they began to be
+regarded not merely as gifted and venerable, but as divinely inspired;
+their writings appealed to as infallible, their arguments accepted as
+demonstration” (Jameson’s _Sacred and Legendary Art_).
+
+=St. Jerome.= _Lat._ Sanctus Hieronymus. _Ital._ San Geronimo, or
+Girolamo. _Fr._ St. Jérome, Hiérome, or Géroisme. _Ger._ Der Heilige
+Hieronimus.
+
+As a subject of painting, St. Jerome is by far the most popular of the
+four Latin doctors, not only because of the interesting character of
+the man and the varied and picturesque incidents of his life, but also
+as founder of Monachism in the West and as the translator of the Old
+and New Testaments into Latin.
+
+St. Jerome was born in 342 in Dalmatia, and was the son of a nobleman
+named Eusebius. While still very young he was sent to Rome to complete
+his studies. He became a finished scholar and was particularly fond
+of the classics. There for a time he abandoned himself to a life of
+pleasure, but his nature was so strong, and his love of learning so
+great, that he soon tired of dissipation and taking up the study of law
+he became famous for his eloquence.
+
+When over thirty he travelled into Gaul and visited the schools of
+learning there. About this time he was baptised and took the vows of
+celibacy.
+
+In the year 373 he travelled to the East to visit the scenes of the
+life of Christ. Here he encountered hermits and ascetics, and becoming
+enamoured of the idea of a life of solitude, he retired to a desert
+and there spent four years in study and seclusion, leading a life of
+penance and self-denial. As further penance he studied Hebrew, which he
+detested, and made his great translation of the Bible into Latin, which
+has ever since been celebrated as the “Vulgate.”
+
+After ten years in the East he returned to Rome, his fiery enthusiasm
+still unsubdued by the years of solitude and penance. He preached the
+doctrine of denial and abstinence, boldly attacking the self-indulgence
+of the clergy. His influence was enormous, and particularly so over
+the Roman women. His most celebrated convert was Paula, a noble Roman
+matron, descended from the Scipios and the Gracchi. Marcella was
+another, who founded a religious community and has been called the
+first nun.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE AND ST. JEROME—CRIVELLI
+
+(Academy, Venice.)]
+
+After three years in Rome he returned to Palestine and lived and died
+in a monastery he had founded at Bethlehem. Feeling the approach of
+death, he caused himself to be carried to the chapel, received the
+sacrament for the last time from the priest, and then expired, dying in
+420 A. D.
+
+In the legends of St. Jerome, as he sat within the gates of the
+monastery at Bethlehem, a lion entered, limping. The brothers fled
+in terror; but St. Jerome met him as if he were a guest. The lion
+lifted to him his paw and St. Jerome, taking it, found a thorn, which
+he extracted, and the grateful lion stayed with him ever after. The
+saint employed him to guard an ass, who brought them firewood from the
+forest. One day some merchants stole the ass from the pasture while the
+lion slept, and the latter, after looking for him in vain returned to
+his master much cast down and ashamed. Jerome, believing he had eaten
+the ass, compelled the lion to carry the wood. One day, having finished
+his task, the lion, who was always seeking his companion, saw a caravan
+of merchants passing by, with a string of camels led on a cord by an
+ass: recognising his old friend, he drove all the camels into the
+convent, so terrifying the merchants that they came to St. Jerome and
+confessed the theft, and were pardoned.
+
+The lion in pictures of St. Jerome is supposed to refer to this legend,
+but in reality, from earliest times, the lion was given to the saint as
+a symbol of his fiery nature, and to typify his life in the wilderness.
+And in later times the legend was invented to explain the symbol.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. AMBROSE.—BERGOGNONE
+
+(Certosa, Pavia.)]
+
+Devotional pictures represent him in one of his three great
+characters,—first as patron saint and Doctor of the Church. He usually
+stands full length, dressed in cardinal’s robes or with a cardinal’s
+hat at his feet (although there is no historical authority for making
+him cardinal, as cardinal-priests were not ordained until three
+centuries later). When his head is uncovered, his forehead is very high
+and bald, his beard long, reaching almost to his waist, his features
+fine and sharp, and his nose aquiline. In his hand he holds a book or
+scroll, frequently the emblematical church.
+
+In his second character of translator of the Scriptures, he is usually
+seated in a cave, or cell. He has a loose robe over his wasted form
+and his eyes are bent on his book or writing, or he glances up as if
+seeking heavenly inspiration. An angel is sometimes dictating to him.
+
+The penitent St. Jerome is the recognised symbol in the Christian
+Church of penitence, self-denial, and humiliation. The scene is usually
+a rocky solitude, St. Jerome, half-naked and almost a skeleton, with
+unkempt hair and beard, is kneeling before a crucifix, beating his
+breast with a stone. The lion is nearly always introduced, sometimes
+crouching at his feet.
+
+=St. Ambrose.= _Lat._ S. Ambrosius. _Ital._ Sant’ Ambrogio. _Fr._ St.
+Ambroise. _Ger._ Der Heilige Ambrosius.
+
+Ambrose was the son of a prefect of Gaul, and was born at Trèves in the
+year 340. The story that when still an infant a swarm of bees alighted
+on his mouth without injuring him is related by all his chroniclers.
+This was interpreted as a sign of future eloquence,[8] and for this
+reason the beehive becomes the symbol of St. Ambrose. The same story
+was related of Plato and Archilochus, and with the same interpretation.
+
+Ambrose studied at Rome, and after that was made prefect of Æmilia and
+Liguria (Piedmont and Genoa), and dwelt at Milan. About this time the
+Bishop of Milan died and a fierce dispute arose between the Catholics
+and Arians as to who should succeed him. Ambrose appeared, as prefect,
+to quell the disorder. He spoke so wisely, with an eloquence so
+persuasive, that the tumult ceased, and suddenly out of the hush that
+followed his speech a voice like a child’s was heard, saying, “Ambrose
+shall be bishop!” The multitude took up the cry with enthusiasm. In
+vain Ambrose pleaded that he was only a catechumen. The wishes of the
+people, confirmed by the approbation of the emperor, finally prevailed.
+
+Ambrose was baptised, and in eight days he was consecrated Bishop
+of Milan. He gave all his worldly goods to the poor, studied the
+Scriptures earnestly, introduced from the East the manner of chanting
+the service since called the _Ambrosian Chant_, and it was he who
+invested the services of the Church with that magnificence and grandeur
+of form that has ever since made its ceremonies so imposing.
+
+St. Ambrose advocated celibacy in both sexes, and held that
+ecclesiastical power was above that of sovereign or civil power. The
+most celebrated example of this was his humiliation of the Emperor
+Theodosius. The latter, angered by a sedition in Thessalonica, had
+ordered a general massacre. For this murderous act, by which seven
+thousand lives were sacrificed, Ambrose forbade him to enter the
+church. At length, after eight months of interdict, during which the
+emperor had stormed and pleaded, Ambrose relented, upon the emperor’s
+performing public penance for his sin. The emperor, completely cowed,
+submitted, and clad in sackcloth, with dust and ashes upon his head,
+prostrated himself before the altar of Christ.
+
+There are many legends of this saint. At the consecration of the
+Cathedral at Milan, the relics of St. Gervasius and St. Protasius were
+miraculously revealed to him in a dream. The remains were disinterred,
+conveyed in solemn procession to the cathedral, and deposited beneath
+the high altar.
+
+He performed many cures and had many visions, and died at Milan in the
+year 397.
+
+St. Ambrose is usually represented in bishop’s robes, with mitre and
+crozier; the beehive is sometimes placed at his feet, but his more
+frequent attribute is a knotted scourge with three thongs, the scourge
+symbolising the castigation of sin. In the hand of St. Ambrose it may
+also signify the penance inflicted on the Emperor Theodosius, or the
+expulsion of the Arians from Italy and the triumph of the Trinitarians.
+It has this meaning when the scourge has three knots or three thongs.
+When St. Ambrose holds two human bones in his hand, this attribute
+alludes to the discovery of the relics of St. Gervasius and St.
+Protasius. Devotional pictures of him alone are rare.
+
+=St. Augustine.= St. Austin. _Lat._ Sanctus Augustinus. _Ital._ Sant’
+Agostino. _Fr._ St. Augustin.
+
+St. Augustine, the third of the Doctors of the Church, was born at
+Tagaste, in Numidia, in 354. His father was a heathen; his mother,
+Monica, a Christian. With splendid talents, his youth was passed in
+every form of vice and dissipation, to the great sorrow of his mother,
+who never ceased praying for his conversion. She related her grief
+to the Bishop of Carthage, who after listening to her, said, “Go in
+peace; the son of so many tears will not perish!”
+
+St. Augustine practised law for a time in Rome. Here his eloquence
+soon brought him distinction and wealth, but driven by some chance,
+restless, unsettled and unhappy, Augustine went to Milan, and there,
+after many struggles, he was converted by St. Ambrose, and was baptised
+by him in the presence of his mother, Monica.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE AT SCHOOL.—BENOZZO GOZZOLI
+
+(Church of San Agostino, San Gimignano.)]
+
+On this occasion was composed the _Te Deum_ still used in the Church,
+St. Ambrose and St. Augustine reciting the verses alternately as they
+advanced to the altar.
+
+St. Augustine, after devoting some time to study, was ordained a priest
+and afterwards became the Bishop of Hippo, near Carthage, where he
+died thirty-five years later, at the time the city was besieged by the
+Vandals. His writings are very celebrated.
+
+St. Augustine is not often represented in art alone; and when grouped
+with others in devotional pictures it is often difficult to distinguish
+him from other bishops, for his proper attribute, the heart flaming
+or transpierced, to express the ardour of his piety or the intensity
+of his repentance, is rarely introduced. When a bishop stands with a
+book or a pen in his hand, accompanied by St. Jerome, St. Augustine is
+probably intended.
+
+His most frequent symbols are: books at his feet or in his hand;
+a heart flaming or transfixed by an arrow; bishop’s robes, mitre,
+crozier; infant by the seashore.
+
+The subject most often represented in art is the _Vision of St.
+Augustine_. While meditating on his “Discourse on the Trinity,” he
+strolled along the seashore, and saw a little child attempting to fill
+a hole in the sand with water he was bringing from the sea. Augustine
+inquired what he was doing, and the child replied he was going to
+empty all the waters of the sea into that hole. “That is impossible!”
+exclaimed St. Augustine. “Not more impossible,” returned the child,
+“than for a finite mind to contain the Infinite”—and he vanished.
+The version of the child’s reply more often given, is: “Not more
+impossible than for thee, O Augustine! to explain the mystery on which
+thou art now meditating.”
+
+=St. Gregory.= _Lat._ Sanctus Gregorius Magnus. _Ital._ San Gregorio
+Magno, or Papa. _Fr._ St. Grégoire. _Ger._ Der Heilige Gregor.
+
+St. Gregory, known as Gregory the Great, was born in Rome in the year
+540, and came of a patrician family. His mother had a vision when he
+was an infant that he would be pope. He was a lawyer until his father’s
+death, but after coming into his inheritance he gave all that he had
+to charities, converted his home on the Celian hill into a monastery
+and hospital, and dedicated it to St. Andrew. He lived there in a cell
+and, adopting the habit of the Benedictine Order, devoted himself to
+study. When a terrible plague broke out in Rome he gave himself up to
+nursing the sick. Pope Pelagius was one of the victims, and the people
+desired Gregory as his successor. Gregory believed himself unworthy and
+entreated the emperor not to heed the wishes of the people, but the
+emperor confirmed their choice. Then Gregory fled from Rome and hid
+himself in a cave. But those who sought for him were directed to him by
+a celestial light, and brought him back to Rome.
+
+As pope he showed himself in all respects worthy. Although exalting
+his high office, he himself was the most humble of men and was the
+first pope to call himself the “servant of the servants of God”—_Servus
+servorum Dei_. He abolished slavery throughout Christendom and was
+the first to send missionaries to England, his pity being excited by
+seeing some British captives for sale in the market-place. It was he
+who made the belief in purgatory an article of faith. He instituted
+the celibacy of the clergy, reformed the services of the Church,
+and introduced the style of chanting still called Gregorian. His
+charities were boundless. He died in 604, in the fourteenth year of his
+pontificate, and was the last pope who was canonised.
+
+His bed and the little scourge with which he was wont to keep the
+choristers in order are still preserved in the Church of the Lateran,
+Rome.
+
+Next to St. Jerome he was the most popular of the Four Fathers, and
+single pictures of him abound, variously treated, but generally he
+bears the tiara as pope, and the crozier with double cross. His
+peculiar attribute is the dove which, in the old pictures, was placed
+close to the ear. Frequently he is seated on a throne wearing the
+pontifical robes and tiara, one hand raised in benediction, and the
+other holding a book. The dove rests on his shoulder or hovers over his
+head.
+
+Legends of St. Gregory have furnished many picturesque themes for art.
+John the deacon, his secretary, declared that he beheld the Holy Ghost,
+in the form of a dove perched upon his shoulder while he was writing
+his famous homilies. This vision has been represented as a reality by
+the early painters.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+MIRACLE OF THE BRANDEUM.—ANDREA SACCHI
+
+(Vatican, Rome.)]
+
+A favourite legend is that while a monk in the monastery of St. Andrew
+a beggar asked for alms, and being helped, came again and again,
+receiving aid until there was nothing left but a silver porringer
+which his mother Sylvia had sent to St. Gregory. This, too, he gave
+to the beggar. Now it happened that it was his custom, after he became
+pope, to entertain every evening at supper twelve poor men, in memory
+of our Lord’s apostles. But one evening he counted thirteen; and
+calling his steward to him he asked how it was, but the latter, greatly
+mystified, could only count twelve. After the meal was finished,
+Gregory called forth the unbidden guest and asked him who he was. And
+he replied, “I am the poor man whom thou didst formerly relieve, but my
+name is ‘The Wonderful’ and through me thou shalt obtain whatever thou
+shalt ask of God.” Then Gregory knew that he had entertained an angel,
+or according to another version our Lord Himself. This legend has been
+frequently painted under the title of _The Supper of St. Gregory_.
+
+In the legend of the Brandeum the Empress Constantia sent to St.
+Gregory desiring some of the relics of St. Peter and St. Paul. He, not
+daring to disturb their sacred remains, sent her part of a consecrated
+cloth (_brandeum_) which had enfolded the body of St. John the
+Evangelist. The empress rejected the gift with scorn. Then Gregory, to
+show that miracles are not wrought so much by things as by the faith of
+believers, laid the _brandeum_ on the altar and, after praying, cut it
+with a knife and blood flowed from it as from a living body. This was
+called the _Miracle dei Brandei_.
+
+It was Pope Gregory who sent St. Augustine of Canterbury to England.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] “Son pere en fut epouvanté, et dit, Si cet enfant vit, il sera
+réservé à de grandes destinées” (_La Legende Dorée_).
+
+
+
+
+XVII.—THE PATRON SAINTS OF CHRISTENDOM
+
+
+All saints may be considered patron saints either of some trade
+or industry, or of some especial province or city. But there is a
+vast difference between those whose fame is confined to a certain
+locality—as St. Januarius, who is worshipped only in Naples, St.
+Corentin, who is little known out of Brittany, or St. Denis, whose name
+belongs almost exclusively to France—and those other _great saints_ who
+are reverenced in all the countries of the world alike.
+
+These are St. George, St. Sebastian, St. Christopher, SS. Cosmo and
+Damian, St. Roch and St. Nicholas, and the four virgin patronesses,
+St. Catherine, St. Barbara, St. Margaret, and St. Ursula. Although
+without the apostolic and scriptural sanction accorded to St. Peter
+of Rome, and the other great apostles, these saints have been from
+earliest times the object of universal faith and worship, and invested
+with a pre-eminent dignity and authority that puts them in a class by
+themselves.
+
+=St. George of Cappadocia.= _Lat._ Sanctus Georgius. _Ital._ San
+Giorgio. _Fr._ St. Georges. _Ger._ Der Heilige Georgius, or Jorg or
+Georg.
+
+St. George was born in Cappadocia of a noble family. His parents were
+Christians and he was a tribune in the Roman army. One time as he was
+on his way to join his legion, he came to a city in Libya called
+Selene, whose inhabitants were in terror of a fearful dragon, who lived
+in a marsh outside the walls, and devoured their flocks and herds.
+These being gone, the people, fearing the dragon might enter the city,
+sent out daily two sheep to appease his hunger, and when they had no
+more sheep left they were forced to sacrifice each day two children who
+were chosen by lot, and sent forth to be devoured.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. GEORGE.—DONATELLO
+
+(Bargello, Florence.)]
+
+The king had one daughter, Cleodolinda, who was very beautiful, and
+at last the lot fell to her. So she went forth to die for the people,
+weeping sadly as she walked toward the dwelling of the monster. At this
+moment St. George, who was riding by, saw her and wondered why so
+fair a maiden should be in tears. He asked her her sorrow and when she
+told him, he said: “Fear not, for I will deliver you.” She begged him
+to fly lest he, too, perish, but St. George refused, saying, “I will
+save thee through the power of Jesus Christ.” Just then the dragon came
+forth from his lair and rushed toward them. St. George made the sign
+of the cross, and calling on the name of our Saviour, spurred toward
+the monster, and after a terrible battle pinned him to earth with his
+lance. Then, binding him with the girdle of the princess, he told her
+to lead the conquered brute back to the city, and she did, the dragon
+following after them like a dog. Seeing this, the king and the people
+believed, and were baptised—twenty thousand in one day. St. George
+killed the dragon and cut off his head, and the king heaped treasures
+upon the knight, but he gave all to the poor, and went on his way to
+Palestine.
+
+Seeing there the edict of Diocletian against the Christians on the
+gates of the temples and in the market-place, he tore it down and
+trampled it under his feet. For this he was seized, and suffered most
+cruel tortures for eight days and was finally beheaded. The veneration
+paid him in England dates from the time of Richard I., who in the wars
+of Palestine put himself and his army under the protection of St.
+George. His feast was ordered to be kept as a holiday in England in
+1222, and the Order of the Garter was instituted in 1330.
+
+In single devotional pictures St. George is young or in the prime
+of life, dressed in armour. He bears in one hand the palm and in
+the other the lance, from which sometimes depends a red banner. His
+expression is uplifted and triumphant, the slain dragon is at his feet.
+This representation is allegorical, showing the victory of faith over
+the powers of evil. _St. George and the Dragon_ becomes _historical_
+when accessories are introduced, such as the princess, or the walls of
+the city and the combat still undecided. The dragon of St. George never
+has the human or satanic form, as in the legend of St. Michael.
+
+He is particularly honoured by the Greeks, who gave him the title of
+_The Great Martyr_.
+
+=St. Sebastian.= _Lat._ Sanctus Sebastianus. _Ital._ San Sebastiano; or
+San Bastiano. _Fr._ St. Sébastien.
+
+St. Sebastian was born at Narbonne in Gaul, of noble parents, and when
+very young was made commander of a company of the Prætorian Guards
+and was thus brought near the Emperor Diocletian, with whom he was a
+favourite. Secretly a Christian, his position as a soldier enabled
+him to protect many who were persecuted for Christ’s sake. He had two
+friends among the soldiers, who had endured torture bravely for being
+Christians; but upon being led forth to die, their families implored
+them to recant, and as they were moved by their supplications and
+about to weaken, St. Sebastian rushed forward and urged them to die
+rather than renounce our Saviour. All present were so influenced by his
+eloquence, that the families of the condemned, and even the judges,
+became converted and baptised, and Marcus and Marcellinus met their
+death gloriously.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. SEBASTIAN.—SODOMA
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+Sebastian was then denounced as a Christian, and the emperor, who
+loved him, reasoned with him privately, but Sebastian was firm, and
+Diocletian ordered him bound to the stake and shot to death with
+arrows, and that there should be inscribed on the stake that he was
+without fault except that of being a Christian. The archers pierced
+him with arrows and left him for dead, but Irene, widow of a martyred
+friend, coming to take his body away, found him still living and
+took him home and nursed him back to health. His friends urged him
+to flee from Rome, but instead he presented himself to Diocletian
+and reproached him for his intolerance and cruelty, and the emperor,
+enraged, had him seized and put to death with clubs.
+
+In pictures St. Sebastian is always young and beautiful, undraped,
+bound to a tree or column, and pierced by one or many arrows. Arrows
+from the most ancient times were the emblem of pestilence, so they
+_symbolise_ the shafts of pestilence, and are also the _attribute_ of
+the martyrdom and power of the saint, who has been considered from
+the earliest days of Christianity as patron saint against plague and
+pestilence—there being, according to the legends, hardly a city in
+Europe that has not been saved by his intercession.
+
+The pathos of his story, added to his courage, and youth, and
+beauty, has made St. Sebastian the favourite saint of Italian women,
+particularly the women of Rome.
+
+=St. Christopher.= _Lat._ St. Christophorus. _Ital._ San Cristofero, or
+Cristofano. _Fr._ St. Christophe, or St. Christofle. _Ger._ Der Heilige
+Christoph.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. CHRISTOPHER.—GIOVANNI BELLINI
+
+(Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice.)]
+
+There was a giant of the land of Canaan, whose name was originally
+Offero. Being very proud of his size and strength, he was determined
+to serve no other than the most powerful monarch in the world. So
+he travelled to the court of a king whose fame was greater than all
+others, and the king gladly accepted him as his servant. Before long
+Offero noticed that when the name of Satan was mentioned the king
+trembled, and he asked him, “Who is this Satan at the mention of whose
+name thou crossest thyself?” The king answered, “He is as wicked as he
+is mighty, and I fear lest he slay me.” Then Offero knew there was one
+greater than the king, and he sought and entered into the service of
+Satan.
+
+One day as they journeyed, they came to a cross by the wayside, and
+when the devil saw it he turned back and went a long distance out of
+his way to avoid it. Offero questioned him as to this, and the devil
+replied: “’T was on this cross that Jesus died, and He it is whom I
+fear.” Offero said: “Since thou fearest Him, He is greater than thou
+and Him will I serve.” So he left Satan and went in search of Christ;
+and he came to a hermit who taught him concerning Jesus, and desired
+him to fast and pray. Offero would not fast and knew not how to pray,
+saying, “Such service is for weak ones, not for me.” So the hermit
+said: “If thou wouldst use thy strength, go to a certain river that is
+swollen with the rains, and whose current is so swift that many perish,
+and help all who struggle with the waves. This is a service for Christ
+and He may accept thee.” Offero went joyfully, and built himself a hut
+by the side of the river, and rooting up a palm tree, he used it for a
+staff, and aided all who wished to cross the stream.
+
+One night he heard a child’s voice calling him. He arose and went out,
+but could find no one. Again the voice called and again he searched in
+vain. The third time that he heard it, he went forth with his lantern,
+and found a little child sitting by the water’s edge, who begged to
+be taken over, and Offero placed him upon his shoulders, took his
+staff, and began to cross the stream; but a storm arose and the current
+became swift as never before, and the weight of the child grew heavier
+and heavier, and Offero feared that they both would be lost, but he
+struggled on bravely until, exhausted, he reached the other shore,
+and putting the child safely down, he cried, “Whom have I borne! Had
+it been the whole world the burden had not been heavier!” The child
+replied, “Thou hast borne not only the whole world but Him who made
+it, upon thy shoulder. Thou wouldst serve Christ, and behold! I have
+accepted thee.” Then Offero confessed and worshipped Christ.
+
+From there he went to Samos, where he was taken as a Christian before
+the king, who said: “Who art thou?” and Offero replied: “My name was
+Offero the Bearer, but now I serve Christ, whom I have borne on my
+shoulders, and am called Christ Offero, the bearer of Christ.” St.
+Christopher was scourged and beheaded, and as he was about to die
+he prayed that all who beheld him, believing in our Saviour, should
+not suffer from fire, earthquake, or tempest. The sight of his image
+is thought to give strength to the weak, and prevent all evils from
+accident. The following inscription often accompanies his pictures:
+
+ “Christophori Sancti speciem quicumque tuetur,
+ Illo namque die nullo languore tenetur.”
+
+ “Whoever shall behold the image of St. Christopher
+ On that day shall not faint or fail.”
+
+In pictures St. Christopher stands above his ankles in water, his
+proportions those of a giant, the Infant Christ seated on his
+shoulders, usually bearing in his hand the globe, but sometimes
+the cross as the Redeemer. The saint looks up at the divine Child,
+supporting his steps with the staff, which is often the entire palm
+tree. When he is introduced near the Madonna the water is omitted, but
+he is never without this staff.
+
+=St. Cosmo and St. Damian.= _Lat._ SS. Cosmas et Damianus. _Ital._ SS.
+Cosimo e Damiano. _Fr._ SS. Côme et Damien.
+
+These brothers were Arabians, and lived in Ægae in Cilicia. They
+studied medicine and became the greatest and most holy of physicians,
+giving their services to the poor and suffering, without fee. They even
+cared for sick animals, doing everything for charity and the love of
+God. In the time of Diocletian, Lycias, proconsul of Arabia, seized
+them as Christians and cast them into prison. First they were thrown
+into the sea, but were saved by angels; then thrown into fire, but
+the fire would not burn them. Then they were bound and stoned, but
+the stones recoiled and fell on those who had sent them, and finally
+they were beheaded, “a punishment which no saint but St. Denis ever
+survives.”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+AN EPISODE IN THE LIFE OF ST. COSMO AND ST. DAMIAN.—FRA ANGELICO
+
+(Academy, Florence.)]
+
+In art they are always together, wearing loose dark red robes trimmed
+with fur, and usually red caps. Thus Chaucer describes a physician’s
+garb: “In scarlet gown, furred well.” They have a small box of ointment
+in one hand and lancet or surgical instrument in the other, sometimes a
+pestle and mortar. These saints appear frequently in the old Florentine
+pictures, especially of the time of Cosimo de’ Medici.
+
+=St. Roch.= _Lat._ Sanctus Rochus. _Ital._ San Rocco. _Fr._ St. Roch or
+Roque.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FOUR SAINTS—ST. ROCH AND ST. SEBASTIAN; (Academy, Venice.)]
+
+St. Roch was born in Montpellier in Languedoc of wealthy and noble
+parents. His parents dying before he was twenty, he gave all that he
+had to the poor and the hospitals, and spent his life in healing and
+caring for the sick. He went wherever he heard that the plague had
+broken out, and nursed those who were most miserable and abandoned.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE (?); ST. BERNARDINO, OF SIENA.—CARLO CRIVELLI]
+
+At last in Piacenza he himself became plague-stricken, and a fearful
+ulcer broke out on his thigh. The pain was so terrible that, fearing
+he might cry out and disturb those in the hospital, he crawled out to
+the street, and not being allowed to remain, dragged himself to the
+woods to die; but his faithful little dog, who had been his companion
+everywhere, trotted to the city each day, returning with a loaf of
+bread for his master, and an angel from heaven dressed his wound.
+
+When St. Roch had recovered he returned to his old home, but no one
+knew him, so wasted and haggard was he, and he was cast into prison and
+remained there five years. One morning, the jailer entered and found
+his cell filled with a dazzling light, and the prisoner dead. By his
+side there was writing telling his name, and these words: “All those
+who are stricken by the plague and who pray for aid through the merits
+and intercession of Roch, the servant of God, shall be healed.”
+
+In art St. Roch is represented in the prime of life, dressed as a
+pilgrim with the cockle-shell in his hat; wallet by his side, in one
+hand a staff, while with the other he lifts his robe to show the plague
+spot, or points to it. He is usually accompanied by his dog.
+
+St. Sebastian and St. Roch figure in numerous works of art as joint
+protectors against the plague. With St. Cosmo and St. Damian, the
+medical saints, the first two are patrons of the sick, and the last two
+patrons of those who heal the sick.
+
+An old French legend relates that when St. Roch died he wished to take
+his little dog in with him through the gates of heaven. But St. Peter
+refused, and St. Roch entered alone, feeling very sad. As he wandered
+around, heaven did not seem like heaven to him without his little dog.
+No one spoke to him. The saints and prophets were all assembled around
+a great white throne, and had no eyes for St. Roch. Still lonely, he
+went to the wall of heaven, to see if by looking over he might not
+discover his little dog. There he was! looking wistfully at the gate
+wherein had passed his master. St. Roch whistled softly, his dog caught
+sight of his face, and leaping over the wall, sprang into his master’s
+arms. Then St. Roch was happy in heaven.
+
+=St. Nicholas of Myra.= _Lat._ Sanctus Nicolaus. _Ital._ San Niccolò,
+or Nicola di Bari. _Ger._ Der Heilige Nicolaus or Niklas.
+
+Of all the saints in Christendom St. Nicholas is perhaps the most
+popular and the most universally beloved. While knighthood claims St.
+George, St. Nicholas belongs to the children, and to the common people.
+The mariner, the labourer, the poor, and the weak all implore the aid
+of St. Nicholas.
+
+He was born in Panthera, a city of Lycia in Asia Minor. His parents
+were Christians, wealthy, and of illustrious family. It is related that
+on the day he was born St. Nicholas stood up in his bath and praised
+God for having brought him into the world. His parents, impressed by
+the many instances of his early piety, dedicated him to God, and he
+became a priest and later Bishop of Myra. In 1084 his relics were
+carried to Bari, and thus he is often known as _St. Nicholas di Bari_.
+
+The legends of this saint are almost without number. His proper
+attribute, the three balls, is supposed to refer to the three bags of
+gold which he threw into the poor man’s window. A certain nobleman
+with three daughters, having lost all his money, had no resource except
+he sacrifice them to infamous lives. St. Nicholas, hearing this,
+considered how he could help them, and one night he threw in a bag of
+gold through a window which he found open, and with this the father
+portioned his eldest daughter. St. Nicholas did this a second time, and
+the father married off his second daughter. Greatly wishing to know
+his benefactor, the father watched, and when St. Nicholas came the
+third time he flung himself at his feet giving thanks, but St. Nicholas
+desired him to tell no man.
+
+Sometimes the attribute is three children in a tub, which refers to the
+legend of the wicked man who, during a famine, stole little children,
+whom he killed, and served their limbs as meat for his guests. St.
+Nicholas visited his house when he was bishop, and having this dish put
+before him divined the awful contents. He denounced his host and going
+to the tub where the bodies of the children were salted down, he made
+the sign of the cross and they rose up alive and whole.
+
+At Nice, St. Nicholas listened to the prayers of some mariners in
+danger of perishing; his spirit guided their ship and the tempest
+ceased. “And when they were come to his Church, they knew him without
+any man to show him to them, and yet they had never seen him” (_Golden
+Legend_).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. NICHOLAS.—TITIAN
+
+(Church of San Sebastiano, Venice.)]
+
+While the province of Myra suffered a great famine, certain ships laden
+with wheat arrived at the port, and Nicholas persuaded the mariners to
+give him a certain portion, promising they would bring as much to
+the emperor as had been measured to them in Alexandria, and this was
+indeed so. Yet by this miracle, “the holy man distributed the wheat to
+every man after that he had need, in such wise that it sufficed for two
+years, not only for to sell, but also to sow.”
+
+In art St. Nicholas is dressed as a bishop with mitre, cope, and
+crozier, his robes often gorgeously embroidered. Sometimes he is
+beardless, but usually has a short grey beard. The three balls are
+placed on his book, or at his feet, or sometimes in his lap. Some say
+they represent the loaves of bread, in allusion to his feeding the poor
+during the famine, but the more popular version is the three purses or
+bags of gold. Sometimes, instead of three balls, three purses are given.
+
+=The Four Virgin Patronesses=: ST. CATHERINE, ST. BARBARA, ST. URSULA,
+AND ST. MARGARET.
+
+Mrs. Jameson says, “We owe to these beautiful and glorious
+impersonations of feminine intellect, heroism, purity, fortitude, and
+faith, some of the most excelling works of art which have been handed
+down to us. Other female martyrs were merely women glorified in heaven,
+for virtues exercised on earth; but _these_ were absolutely, in all
+but the name, Divinities.... Their wholly ideal character, the tacit
+setting aside of all human testimony with reference to their real
+or unreal existence, instead of weakening their influence, invested
+them with a divine glory.... These allegories (which by simplicity
+and ignorance were long accepted as facts) should ever hereafter be
+received but as one form of poetry ... to which the world listened in
+its dreamy childhood, and which, like the ballad or the fairy tale
+which kept the sleep from our eyes and our breath suspended in infancy,
+have still a charm for our latest years.”
+
+=St. Catherine of Alexandria.= _Lat._ Santa Catharina. _Ital._ Santa
+Caterina. _Fr._ Madame Saincte Catherine. _Spa._ Santa Catalina. _Ger._
+Die Heilige Katharine von Alexandrien.
+
+St. Catherine represents the highest type of eloquence and intellect
+that is found in woman. She is an example of courage and piety; and all
+wisdom and good counsel are found in her. She is the Minerva of the
+pagan, to whom has been added all the virtues of the Christian martyr.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. CATHERINE.—LUCAS CRANACH
+
+(Dresden Gallery.)]
+
+St. Catherine was the daughter of Costis (half brother to Constantine
+the Great) and Sabinella, Queen of Egypt. A glory of light played
+around her head from the moment she came into the world, and from
+earliest childhood she was remarkable for beauty of person and of mind.
+Even while very young, Plato and Socrates were her favourite studies.
+She had seven learned masters, but was so marvellously endowed that
+she excelled each in his branch. At fourteen her father died, but as
+queen she cared not for worldly things and devoted herself to study.
+The nobles, discontented, wished her to marry, but she told them her
+husband must be as noble, as great, as beautiful, and as rich as she,
+and the nobles knew not what to say, for they realised well that no
+such man could be found.
+
+Now a holy hermit came to St. Catherine with a message from the Virgin
+Mary, telling her that the husband she desired was her Son, and he gave
+her a picture of Christ and His mother. And so filled was her soul with
+love, that she forgot her books and thought only of Him. One night she
+dreamed that she was brought before the King of Glory, but He turned
+away His head, saying, “She is not fair nor beautiful enough for me,”
+and she awoke weeping.
+
+Then she asked the hermit what she must do to become worthy of her
+celestial bridegroom, and he instructed her in the Christian faith
+and baptised her. That night as she slept, the Virgin Mary appeared
+with her divine Son and a heavenly host, and the Lord smiled upon her
+and plighted His troth, putting a ring on her finger, and when she
+awoke the ring was still there, and henceforth she considered herself
+betrothed of Christ, and thought only of heavenly things.
+
+At this time the tyrant Maximin came to Alexandria and persecuted all
+Christians, commanding them to worship heathen gods. St. Catherine
+confronted him and argued for the truth of Christianity, and so
+wonderful was she, that learned philosophers and scholars were
+confounded by her eloquence, and confessed themselves converted. This
+so infuriated the emperor, that he had them burned at the stake,
+Catherine comforting them to the end. Then she was thrown into prison
+and kept without food, but angels ministered unto her, and at the end
+of twelve days, the empress visited her and found her cell filled with
+fragrance and light; and she and two hundred attendants were instantly
+converted and baptised.
+
+Maximin ordered them all to be put to death, and then, sending for St.
+Catherine, because he was much inflamed with her beauty, he offered
+to marry her if she would give up Christ. Upon her refusal, he had
+her bound between four spiked wheels, which, turning in different
+directions, would tear her body in pieces. But fire fell from heaven
+and consumed the wheels, and three thousand persons were killed by the
+flying pieces. Then St. Catherine was cruelly scourged and beheaded,
+and angels carried her body to the top of Mt. Sinai. In the eighth
+century a monastery was built over her remains, which are revered to
+this day.
+
+As patron saint, St. Catherine has several attributes: the palm as
+martyr; the sword showing the manner of her death; the crown as a
+sovereign princess; the book, signifying her learning; or as trampling
+on the pagan tyrant: but her peculiar attribute is the wheel. When
+entire it is the _emblem_ of torture, when broken it is the _historical
+attribute_ showing the torture meditated, and the miracle by which she
+was saved. She is pictured leaning upon it, or it is at her feet or an
+angel bears it over her head. She is usually richly dressed, with all
+the attributes of royalty.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. BARBARA—LUCAS CRANACH
+
+(Dresden Gallery.)]
+
+The _Marriage of St. Catherine_ is a devotional subject and does not
+appear in Italian art until the middle of the fifteenth century.
+
+=St. Barbara.= _Ital._ Santa Barbara. _Fr._ Sainte Barbe.
+
+Dioscorus, who lived in Heliopolis, was noble and very rich, and he
+had a daughter Barbara whom he loved so much that, fearing her beauty
+(which was very great) would cause her to be desired in marriage and
+thus he would lose her, kept her shut up in a high tower away from the
+eyes of men. Here she gave herself up to the study of all things which
+concern the universe, and grew to believe that the gods of her fathers
+must be false gods. Hearing of the famous teacher Origen, she secretly
+wrote him for instruction, and he sent her one of his disciples
+disguised as a physician, who converted and baptised her. Some workmen
+were engaged in putting in two windows in her tower, and she commanded
+that they insert a third. When her father questioned her for doing this
+thing, she answered, “Know, my father, that through three windows doth
+the soul receive light—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; and the
+Three are One.”
+
+Then her father knew she was a Christian, and drew his sword to kill
+her, but she fled to the top of her tower, her father pursuing; there
+angels came to her assistance and bore her to a distance. A shepherd,
+however, told Dioscorus where she was concealed, and he dragged her
+forth by the hair, and beat her, and shut her up; but as she would not
+yield, he denounced her to the proconsul, who had her scourged and
+tortured. Still she would not deny her faith, and her father carried
+her up on a mountain and himself cut off her head. As he was descending
+the mountain, a tempest arose, and fire fell on him from heaven and
+consumed him utterly.
+
+In devotional pictures St. Barbara carries the sword and palm as
+martyr, and when she wears the crown, it is as martyr, and not as
+princess. She has also a book and is often reading, to show her life of
+meditation. But her peculiar attribute is the tower, usually with three
+windows in reference to the legend.
+
+St. Barbara as protectress against thunder and lightning, firearms
+and gunpowder, is invoked against sudden death, and those who implore
+her aid shall not die without receiving the holy sacraments. Thus she
+carries the sacramental cup and wafer, and is the only female saint
+with this attribute. She is pictured as dressed magnificently, usually
+with red drapery, the tower in the background, or sometimes holding a
+small tower in her hand.
+
+=St. Ursula.= _Lat._ S. Ursula. _Ital._ Santa Orsola. _Fr._ Sainte
+Ursule.
+
+The Cologne version of the quaint and charming legend of St. Ursula is
+the one usually followed by the artists. A portion of it follows.
+
+There reigned in Brittany a king named Theonotus, whose wife,
+Daria, was a Sicilian princess. They were both Christians, and had
+one daughter, whom they called Ursula, and whom they educated with
+exceeding care. She was beautiful, gifted, and accomplished in all the
+ways of wisdom and knowledge, so that many desired to marry her, but
+she refused them all.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+DETAIL FROM THE MARTYRDOM OF ST. URSULA.—V. CARPACCIO
+
+(Academy, Venice.)]
+
+Now the King of England had an only son named Conon, as celebrated for
+all manly qualities, as was Ursula for her beauty, piety, and wisdom.
+He became one of her suitors, and not wishing to offend so powerful
+a monarch, she sent answer that she would accept him if he would do
+three things: First, he must give her as companions ten virgins of
+the noblest blood in his kingdom, and to each of these a thousand
+attendants, and to her also a thousand maids in waiting; secondly, he
+must wait for her three years, while she and her companions visited the
+holy shrines of the saints; and third, that the prince and his court
+shall receive baptism, “for other than a perfect Christian I cannot
+wed.”
+
+The wise Princess Ursula felt that Prince Conon must refuse these
+demands, but if he did not, then eleven thousand virgins would be
+dedicated to the service of God.
+
+Now the ambassadors brought back such reports of her beauty and wisdom,
+that the king was willing to grant anything, and the prince only too
+eager to do all she asked. So he was baptised, and the king his father
+wrote to all the knights of his kingdom, asking that they send the
+required number of maidens, spotless, beautiful, and of noble birth, to
+attend on the Princess Ursula, who was to wed his son Prince Conon. And
+from all parts they came, fair and beautiful and clad in rich garments,
+and when they arrived in Brittany, Ursula received them with great
+gladness, praising God that so many of her sex had been redeemed from
+the world’s vanities.
+
+“Now when Ursula had collected all her virgins together on a fresh
+and fair morning in the springtime, she desired them to meet in a
+meadow near the city, which meadow was of the freshest green, all over
+enamelled with the brightest flowers; and she ascended a throne which
+was raised in the midst, and preached to all the assembled virgins
+of things concerning the glory of God, and of His Son, our Lord and
+Saviour, with wonderful eloquence; and of Christian charity and of a
+pure and holy life dedicated to Heaven. And all these virgins, being
+moved with a holy zeal, wept, and, lifting up their hands and their
+voices, promised to follow her whithersoever she should lead. And she
+blessed them and comforted them; and as there were many among them who
+had never received baptism, she ordered that they should be baptised in
+the clear stream which flowed through that flowery meadow.”
+
+Then they started on their pilgrimage, some say attended by the prince,
+but others that he remained to comfort her father. They embarked on
+ships, the virgins steering, but by some mistake they sailed to the
+north instead of the south, and were driven by the winds into the mouth
+of the Rhine as far as the port of Cologne. Here it was revealed to
+St. Ursula that upon her return she and her companions should suffer
+martyrdom on this spot. They continued their voyage, visited many
+places, and finally came to Rome.
+
+Now it happened that the prince, by a miracle, who had gone out in
+search of his bride, arrived in Rome that same day. Being happily
+reunited, he knelt with Ursula at the feet of Cyriacus, Bishop of Rome,
+and “he no longer aspired to the possession of Ursula, but fixed his
+hope on sharing with her the crown of martyrdom on earth, looking to a
+perpetual reunion in heaven, where neither sorrow nor separation should
+touch them more.
+
+“After this blessed company had duly performed their devotions at the
+shrine of St. Peter and St. Paul the good Cyriacus would fain have
+detained them longer, but Ursula showed him that it was necessary they
+should depart in order to receive the crown ‘already laid up for them
+in heaven.’ When the bishop heard this, he resolved to accompany her.
+In vain his clergy represented that it did not become a pope of Rome
+and a man of venerable years to run after a company of maidens, however
+immaculate they might be. Cyriacus had been counselled by an angel of
+God, and he made ready to set forth and embark with them on the river
+Rhine.
+
+“Now it happened that there were at Rome in those days two great Roman
+captains, cruel heathens, who commanded all the imperial troops in
+Germania. They, being astonished at this multitude of virgins, said
+one to the other, ‘Shall we suffer this? If we allow these Christian
+maidens to return to Germania, they will convert the whole nation; or
+if they marry husbands, then they will have so many children—no doubt
+all Christians—that our empire will cease; therefore, let us take
+counsel what is best to be done.’ So these wicked pagans consulted
+together, and wrote letters to a certain barbarian King of the Huns,
+who was then besieging Cologne, and instructed him what he should do.
+
+“Meantime St. Ursula and her virgins, with her husband and his faithful
+knights, prepared to embark; with them went Cyriacus, and in his
+train Vincenzio and Giacomo, cardinals, and Solfino, archbishop of
+Ravenna, and Folatino, bishop of Lucca, and the bishop of Faenza, and
+the patriarch of Grado, and many other prelates; and after a long and
+perilous journey they arrived in the port of Cologne.
+
+“There the pagans rushed upon their unresisting victims, and one of the
+first to perish was the prince, who fell pierced through by an arrow at
+the feet of his beloved princess. Then they drew swords and massacred
+them all so that the plain ran in rivers of blood. But the barbarians,
+awed by the majestic beauty of Ursula had no power to strike her, but
+carried her before their prince, who wished to marry her and make her
+the greatest queen in all Germany. But St. Ursula repelled him with
+scorn. Then, seized with fury and bending his bow, which he held in his
+hand, he, with three arrows, transfixed her pure breast, so that she
+fell dead and her spirit ascended into heaven, with all the glorious
+sisterhood of martyrs whom she had led to death, and with her betrothed
+husband and his companions.”
+
+In devotional pictures of St. Ursula she has the crown as princess; the
+arrow as martyr; and the pilgrim’s staff, surmounted by a white banner
+with the red cross, the Christian standard of victory. Sometimes she
+has a dove, because a dove revealed her burial place to St. Cunibert.
+
+As patron saint she appears alone; is crowned and richly dressed with
+regal ornaments and wears a green or scarlet mantle lined with ermine;
+she holds in one hand a book, in the other an arrow; or sometimes the
+arrow in one hand, and in the other the banner with the red cross.
+
+As martyr she kneels or stands, her golden hair unbound. Sometimes she
+is crowned, sometimes not; her hands are clasped, her bosom transfixed
+by an arrow; on the ground about her, her maidens lie dead.
+
+Sometimes she is painted standing, holding open with both hands her
+mantle, which shelters many maidens wearing crowns. She is here the
+patroness of young maidens. The date of the martyrdom of St. Ursula and
+her eleven thousand virgins has been variously given as A. D. 237, 383,
+or 451. The legend can be traced to the year 600.
+
+=St. Margaret.= _Ital._ Santa Margarita. _Fr._ Sainte Marguerite.
+_Ger._ Die Heilige Margaretha.
+
+St. Margaret was the daughter of a pagan priest of Antioch named
+Theodosius, and being a frail child, was sent to a nurse in the
+country, who was a Christian and who brought her up in the faith. Here
+she was seen by Olybrius, governor of Antioch, who was so enamoured of
+her beauty that he ordered her to be brought to his palace and, if she
+was free-born, he would marry her. St. Margaret refused his offers,
+and declared herself a Christian, to the horror of her father and
+relatives, who fled, leaving her in the power of the governor. Olybrius
+then sought to subdue her by torments so great that even he was forced
+to cover his face from the sight.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. MARGARET.—SCHOOL OF CORREGGIO
+
+(Dresden Gallery.)]
+
+She endured all without flinching. Then she was thrust into a dungeon,
+and there Satan in the form of a frightful dragon endeavoured to
+terrify her into subjection; but St. Margaret held up the cross of
+the Redeemer and he fled before it. A more popular version is, that
+he swallowed her alive and immediately burst asunder, and she came
+forth unhurt. Satan then came to her in the form of a man to tempt
+her, but she overcame him, and placing her foot on his head, she made
+him confess his vileness. Again she was brought before the tyrant,
+and refusing to deny her faith, was again tortured. Such constancy in
+one so young and beautiful induced many to be converted, so that five
+thousand were baptised in one day and wished to die with her. Alarmed
+at this, the governor ordered her to be beheaded forthwith.
+
+In art St. Margaret is usually represented trampling a dragon, her
+peculiar attribute, under her feet, holding the cross in her hand.
+Sometimes the dragon is bound with a cord, or his jaws are open as if
+to swallow her; or he is seen rent or burst, St. Margaret standing upon
+him unharmed.
+
+As martyr she bears the palm and crown. In some pictures she has a
+garland of pearls in allusion to her name. She is always the type of
+maiden innocence and the only one of the four great patronesses who is
+not represented as very learned.
+
+
+
+
+XVIII.—THE FOUR GREAT VIRGINS OF THE LATIN CHURCH
+
+ST. CECILIA, ST. AGNES, ST. AGATHA, AND ST. LUCY
+
+
+=St. Cecilia.= _Fr._ Sainte Cécile. The name is the same in Italian,
+German, and Spanish.
+
+St. Cecilia was of a noble Roman family, and brought up in the
+Christian faith. She early took a vow of chastity, shunning the
+pleasures of the world. She excelled in music and sang with such
+heavenly sweetness that angels came to listen to her. She played on all
+instruments, but as none sufficed to express the harmony which filled
+her soul, she invented the organ and consecrated it to the service of
+God.
+
+When about sixteen her parents desired her to marry Valerian, a young
+Roman, rich and of noble birth. Cecilia accepted him, but beneath her
+bridal robe she wore a coarse garment of penance and renewed her vow
+of chastity; and by her eloquence persuaded her husband Valerian not
+only to respect her vow, but also converted him to the true faith, and
+he was baptised by the aged St. Urban who, being persecuted by the
+heathen, had sought refuge in the catacombs.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. CECILIA.—CARLO DOLCI
+
+(Dresden Gallery.)]
+
+Cecilia had told Valerian that she had a guardian angel, and upon
+returning to her chamber, he heard the most enchanting music and beheld
+the angel standing near her, with two crowns of roses gathered in
+paradise; with these the angel crowned them as they knelt before him,
+and told Valerian that whatever he asked for should be granted him.
+And Valerian replied: “I have a brother named Tiburtius whom I love
+as my own soul; grant that his eyes also may be opened to the truth.”
+And the angel answered with a heavenly smile, “Thy request, O Valerian,
+is pleasing to God, and ye shall both ascend to His presence bearing
+the palm of martyrdom,” and the angel vanished. Soon after, Tiburtius
+entered the chamber and perceiving the fragrance of the celestial
+roses, Cecilia explained all to him and he, too, was converted, and
+went straightway to St. Urban and was baptised. And all three went
+about doing good.
+
+Soon after, they were denounced to the prefect as Christians, and
+the two brothers were cast into prison. They converted their jailer
+Maximus, who suffered martyrdom with them, and Cecilia buried them
+together in the cemetery of Calixtus. The prefect, coveting the wealth
+of St. Cecilia, commanded her to sacrifice to the gods, and when she
+refused, put her to many tortures; finally ordering her to be thrown
+into her own bath filled with boiling water. But she came out unharmed,
+as though “she had bathed in a fresh spring.” Then he ordered her to be
+beheaded, but the hand of the executioner trembled so that he inflicted
+three wounds in her neck, and fled. She lived three days, praying
+and distributing all she had to the poor, and died “singing with her
+sweet voice praises and hymns to the last moments.” She was buried by
+the side of her husband, and, according to her wish, her house was
+consecrated as a church. In the ninth century it was revealed to Pope
+Paschal where she lay buried, and he had her remains, also the remains
+of Valerian, Tiburtius, and Maximus, deposited in her church, now St.
+Cecilia in Trastevere. The little room containing her bath is now a
+chapel.
+
+Until the beginning of the fifteenth century St. Cecilia is seldom
+represented with her musical instruments. She has the palm, and the
+crown of red and white roses, and occasionally an attendant angel. It
+is thus sometimes difficult to distinguish her from St. Dorothea, who
+has also the palm, the crown of roses, and the angel. But Dorothea
+usually carries a book, while St. Cecilia when she has anything besides
+the palm, carries a scroll of music. Then St. Dorothea, besides roses
+on her head, frequently has them in her hand, or in a basket. The angel
+with St. Dorothea carries fruit and flowers in a basket. The angel with
+St. Cecilia bears a garland, or some musical instrument.
+
+When accompanied by musical attributes, St. Cecilia is readily
+distinguished. She is richly dressed, wearing jewels, with musical
+instruments near her or sometimes playing the organ.
+
+=St. Agnes.= _Lat._ Sancta Agnes. _Ital._ Sant’ Agnese. _Spa._ Santa
+Inez. _Fr._ Sainte Agnes.
+
+“The blessed virgin S. Agnes was much wise and well taught, as S.
+Ambrose witnesseth, and wrote her passion. She was fair of visage, but
+much fairer in the christian faith, she was young of age, and aged in
+wit, for in the thirteenth year of her age she lost the death that the
+world giveth, and found life in Jesus Christ” (_The Golden Legend_).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. AGNES.—SPAGNOLETTO
+
+(Dresden Gallery.)]
+
+The legend of St. Agnes is one of the oldest and most authentic in the
+Christian Church, and except for the evangelists and apostles there
+is no saint who is earlier depicted in art.
+
+St. Agnes lived in Rome, and it happened that the son of the prefect
+Sempronius fell violently in love with her and desired to marry her,
+but Agnes refused. He then brought her rich presents and promised her
+all the delights of the world if she would consent to be his wife. But
+again she rejected him, saying she was betrothed to One greater than
+any earthly suitor. On hearing these words the prefect’s son fell ill
+with jealousy and disappointment.
+
+Now the prefect loved his son, and went weeping to Agnes and to her
+parents and besought them to accept him. But Agnes made to him the
+same answer. Then the prefect found that she was a Christian, and
+enraged against her, subjected her to the most cruel tortures, but she
+remained firm. Then he ordered the soldiers to drag her to a place
+of infamy and “they stripped her of her garments; and when she saw
+herself thus exposed, she bent down her head in meek shame and prayed;
+and immediately her hair, which was long and abundant, became like
+a veil, covering her whole person from head to foot, and those who
+looked upon her were seized with awe and fear as of something sacred,
+and dared not lift their eyes. So they shut her up in a chamber, and
+she prayed that the limbs that had been consecrated to Jesus Christ
+should not be dishonoured. And suddenly she saw before her a white and
+shining garment, with which she clothed herself joyfully. And the whole
+place was filled with miraculous light.” Her lover entered, and as he
+approached her, was struck with blindness and fell lifeless. Agnes,
+melted to compassion, prayed that he might be restored to health, and
+her prayer was granted.
+
+Then Sempronius, moved to gratitude, would have saved her, but the
+people clamoured for her death as a sorceress. So fagots were heaped
+up and set on fire and St. Agnes thrown in their midst, but the flames
+were miraculously extinguished and she stood unharmed, while the
+executioners around her were slain by the fire. She was at length put
+to death by the sword, and thus, looking steadfastly up to heaven, she
+yielded up her pure spirit and fell bathed in her own blood.
+
+Her parents carried her body to a cemetery outside the city, and
+Christians assembled there day and night to pray. One day as her
+parents and others were praying by her sepulchre, “St. Agnes appeared
+before them all radiant of aspect; by her side was a lamb whiter than
+the driven snow.” She assured them of her perfect happiness and begged
+them to rejoice for her, and then vanished. Then the Christians ceased
+mourning for her and felt joy and thanksgiving instead.
+
+Her pictures abound in every form and every school of art. As martyr
+she is seated, partly veiled, holding her palm in the right hand, with
+the other embracing her lamb. The lamb in later times is her invariable
+attribute, as the patroness of maidens, and maidenly modesty.
+
+=St. Agatha.= _Ital._ Santa Agata. _Ger._ Die Heilige Agathe. _Fr._
+Sainte Agathe.
+
+A certain Christian maiden whose name was Agatha lived in the city
+of Catania, in Sicily. The Emperor Decius, who had strangled his
+predecessor Philip, reigned at that time, and sent his creatures
+throughout the empire to oppress and persecute the Christians. To
+Sicily he sent his emissary Quintianus, and made him king over the
+whole island.
+
+Quintianus had not reigned long in Sicily when he heard of the great
+beauty of the maiden Agatha, and sent to have her brought before him;
+and tried to tempt her with presents, and flatteries; but she rejected
+him with disdain. Then Quintianus sent for a courtesan named Frondisia,
+who had nine daughters more wicked and abandoned than herself, and he
+delivered Agatha into their hands, saying, “Subdue this damsel to my
+will, and I will give ye great riches.”
+
+Failing in this, because Agatha’s heart was fixed as firm as a rock in
+the faith of Jesus Christ, Quintianus sent for her again, and upon her
+refusal to abjure Christ, he ordered her to be most cruelly tortured,
+and then she was thrown into a dungeon and here St. Peter himself
+ministered unto her.
+
+She was again brought before Quintianus, and after suffering many
+further tortures, her prayers were heard, and her pure spirit ascended
+to heaven.
+
+When represented as patron saint either alone or grouped with others,
+St. Agatha bears in one hand the palm and in the other a dish or salver
+on which is a human breast, in allusion to the tortures inflicted upon
+her. The shears, as instrument of her martyrdom, are sometimes in her
+hand or beside her. When she wears the crown it is as the bride and
+martyr of Christ.
+
+=St. Lucy.= _Ital._ St. Lucia. _Fr._ Sainte Luce, or Lucie.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+SANTA LUCIA.—CARLO DOLCI
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+Lucia was born in Syracuse, and dwelt there in the time of the wicked
+Diocletian, who sent one of his creatures, Pascasius, to be governor
+of Sicily. She was a Christian and had made a secret vow of chastity,
+but was betrothed at fourteen, against her will, to a pagan youth of
+great wealth. Her mother, being afflicted with a grievous malady, was
+induced by Lucia to go on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Agatha,
+which accordingly they did, and while praying beside the tomb, Lucia
+beheld a vision of St. Agatha, who appeared to her surrounded by
+angels, and said: “Well art thou called Lucia, who art indeed a light
+and mirror to the faithful,” and assured her that her prayers were
+heard and her mother healed.
+
+Then Lucia persuaded her mother to permit her to remain unwed, and to
+give her dowry to the poor. When her lover heard this, in his rage he
+denounced her as a Christian. The governor ordered her to sacrifice to
+the gods, but she refused, and he then commanded that she be dragged
+to a place of shame, but when they tried to seize her she became
+immovable, and neither men, nor oxen with ropes, nor magicians could
+stir her from the spot.
+
+Then a great fire was kindled around her, but she prayed and it did not
+harm her. Then one of the servants of Pascasius, to do him pleasure,
+pierced her throat with a sword or poniard.
+
+The method employed by some of the early painters to express her name
+Lucia, _light_, by the emblem of an eye or eyes placed near her, seems
+to have occasioned the legend of the loss of her eyes, another instance
+of a symbol being converted into a fact, and a story invented to
+explain it.
+
+The later legend relates that one of her suitors protested that he
+pursued her because of her beautiful eyes, and Santa Lucia, recalling
+the words, “If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out,” cut out her eyes
+and sent them to her lover on a dish, and the youth, full of remorse,
+became a Christian and her eyes were miraculously restored to her.
+
+Devotional pictures of St. Lucia bearing her eyes on a dish are often
+met with. As her eyes were bored out with an awl, she often carries
+an awl in her hand. When she stands with her lamp, she is the type
+of celestial light and wisdom, the character given to her by Dante.
+Sometimes she has a sword or poniard in her neck—or a wound in her neck
+from which rays of _light_ proceed, in allusion to her name.
+
+
+
+
+XIX.—LEGENDS OF THE SAINTS MOST FREQUENTLY FOUND IN ART
+
+
+=St. Stephen.= Protomartyr. _Lat._ St. Stephanus. _Ital._ San Stefano.
+_Ger._ Der Heilige Stefan. _Fr._ St. Étienne.
+
+“And St. Stephen shone in beauty of body, in flower of age, in fair
+speech of reason, wisdom of holy thought, in works of divinity.”
+
+Little has been added to the brief account of St. Stephen given in the
+sixth and seventh chapters of the Acts of the Apostles. His name is
+held in the highest honour as the first one who died for his faith in
+Christ. He was made a deacon during the ministry of Peter and before
+the conversion of Paul. He was accused of speaking blasphemously of the
+Temple and the Jewish law, and for this was condemned to death, and
+stoned by a mob outside the city gates.
+
+In devotional pictures, the figure of St. Stephen occurs repeatedly. He
+is represented young, and of a mild and beautiful countenance wearing
+the rich dress of a deacon; the dalmatica, usually crimson in colour,
+and covered with embroidery. He bears the palm as protomartyr. His
+_peculiar_ attribute, the stones, are in his hand or in his drapery, or
+on his head and shoulders, or lying at his feet; or sometimes on the
+Scriptures, signifying that he suffered for the Gospel.
+
+=St. Laurence.= _Lat._ S. Laurentius. _Ital._ San Lorenzo. _Fr._ St.
+Laurent. _Ger._ Der Heilige Laurentius or Lorenz.
+
+Nothing authentic is known of the early life of this saint, who is
+honoured in Rome next to St. Peter and St. Paul. He was a Spaniard
+of Huesca, Aragon, and came to Rome while very young. “He walked so
+meekly and so blamelessly before God,” that Sixtus II., Bishop of Rome,
+made him his archdeacon, and put him in charge of the treasures of
+the Church. When Sixtus was denounced as a Christian and led away to
+death, Laurence wished to die with him, but the holy bishop told him
+that in three days he would follow him, and that his battle would be
+harder, his torments longer and more severe than his; and he bade him
+distribute all the treasures of the Church to the poor, that they might
+not fall into the hands of the tyrant. Thus comforted, St. Laurence
+sought the poor and the sick, the naked and the hungry, and he washed
+the feet of the Christians and gave them alms. “In this manner he went
+from one dwelling to another, consoling the persecuted, and dispensing
+alms, and performing works of charity and humility. Thus he prepared
+himself for his impending martyrdom.”
+
+The prefect, hearing that the treasures of the Church were in his care,
+demanded them, and St. Laurence brought all the poor and the sick whom
+he had helped, before the prefect, and said, “Behold the treasures of
+Christ’s Church!” The prefect, in fury, thinking that he mocked him,
+ordered him tortured and cast into a dungeon, in charge of Hippolytus,
+whom, with his whole family, he converted and who afterwards suffered
+martyrdom. When the prefect found he could not subdue him, “he ordered
+a torture more strange and cruel than ever entered into the heart of a
+tyrant to conceive.” He had him stretched on a sort of iron bed formed
+of iron bars in the manner of a gridiron, and a fire lighted beneath,
+and he was roasted alive. And all wondered at a cruelty that would
+“condemn to such torments a youth of such fair person, and courteous
+and gentle bearing, and all for lust of gold.” In the midst of these
+torments St. Laurence said to the tyrant, “Seest thou not that I am
+already roasted on one side and if thou wouldst have me well cooked it
+is time to turn me on the other?”
+
+Hippolytus buried his remains in the Via Tiburtina and Constantine
+built the church known as _San Lorenzo fuori le Mura_ on the spot. The
+common people of Rome gave him the title of _Il cortese Spagnolo_—“the
+courteous Spaniard”—because when they opened his sarcophagus two
+hundred years after his death and lowered into it the body of St.
+Stephen, St. Laurence moved on one side, giving the place of honour on
+the right to St. Stephen.
+
+St. Laurence is constantly represented in devotional pictures, and like
+St. Stephen and St. Vincent he wears the rich dress of the deacon and
+has the palm as martyr. He is unmistakable, when he bears his peculiar
+attribute, the gridiron (_la graticola_), which varies in form. When
+it is the common kitchen utensil, it is no longer an attribute, but
+simply an emblem of the death he suffered. Sometimes a small gridiron
+is suspended around his neck, or he holds it in his hand, or it is
+embroidered on his robe. Occasionally it is omitted and he carries a
+dish full of gold and silver, representing the treasures of the Church,
+or he swings a censer, or carries a cross. He is always pictured young.
+
+=St. Vincent.= _Lat._ S. Vincentius Levita. _Ital._ San Vincenzio
+Diacono, San Vincenzino.
+
+St. Vincent was born in Saragossa in the kingdom of Aragon. During
+the persecution under Diocletian, the proconsul Dacian caused all
+the Christians of Saragossa to be massacred. At this time lived St.
+Vincent. He had been early taught in the Christian faith, and although
+barely more than twenty, he was already a deacon. The dangers and
+sufferings of the Christians only aroused his sympathy and zeal; and he
+encouraged and sustained many of his brethren in the torments inflicted
+upon them. When he and his aged bishop were brought before the tribunal
+to answer the charge of being Christians, the latter spoke in so feeble
+a voice that St. Vincent took the words from his lips, proclaiming his
+faith loudly and defying his persecutors.
+
+Upon him, for this, were inflicted the most inhuman and barbarous
+tortures that cruelty could invent. The young saint endured them
+unflinchingly. His body was lacerated with iron forks, and when left
+torn and bleeding angels came to comfort him. The proconsul, after St.
+Vincent’s death, ordered his body to be thrown to the wild beasts,
+but God sent a raven to guard his sacred remains, and when a wolf
+approached to devour them the raven obliged it to retire.
+
+Furious at this, Dacian commanded his minions to sew up in an
+ox-hide——as was done to parricides——the body of the holy martyr, and
+to throw it into the sea. Placing it thus in a bark, they rowed far
+out to sea, and flung it, attached to a millstone, overboard. But, to
+their astonishment, upon returning immediately to land, they found that
+the body of St. Vincent had preceded them and was lying on the sand.
+They fled terrified, and the waves of the sea, by the command of God,
+hollowed a tomb for him in the sands, where he lay protected from all
+harm, hidden from all human knowledge, until after many years the spot
+was miraculously revealed to certain Christians, who brought his body
+to Valencia and buried it there.
+
+The Christians of Valencia, obliged to flee from the Moors in the
+eighth century, carried with them the remains of St. Vincent. Their
+vessel was driven by the winds onto a promontory, ever since called
+the Cape of St. Vincent. The body of St. Vincent remained there—again
+guarded by ravens—until it was removed to Lisbon by Alonzo I., about
+1147. On this journey two ravens piloted the ship, one at the prow
+and the other at the stern. “Thus after many wanderings the blessed
+St. Vincent rested in the Cathedral of Lisbon; and the crows which
+accompanied him, having multiplied greatly, rents were assigned to the
+chapter for their support.”
+
+This renowned saint is very popular in Spain, the scene of his legend,
+and has been since the sixth century one of the most venerated saints
+in France.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. ANTHONY.—PALMA VECCHIO
+
+(Church of S. Maria Formosa, Venice.)]
+
+In art, it is sometimes hard to distinguish St. Vincent from St.
+Stephen and St. Laurence. He, too, is young and beautiful, wears the
+deacon’s robes, and carries the palm. His peculiar attribute, however,
+is a crow or raven, sometimes perched upon a millstone. Occasionally
+the iron fork—instrument of his martyrdom—is introduced. In Italian
+pictures he rarely has any attribute except the palm, while St.
+Laurence and St. Stephen are rarely without their respective symbols,
+the gridiron and the stones.
+
+St. Vincent is often pictured in art with St. Laurence.
+
+=St. Anthony=, Hermit. _Ital._ Sant’ Antonio Abbate, or l’Erémita.
+_Fr._ St. Antoine l’Abbé. _Ger._ Der Heilige Anton, or Antonius.
+
+Anthony was born in Alexandria, Egypt. His parents died when he was
+eighteen and left him a noble name, great riches, and an only sister.
+He was imperfectly educated, knowing no language but his native
+Egyptian, and was a constant attendant on Christian worship. He had
+been of a melancholy disposition from childhood, and feared the
+temptations of the world and the responsibilities of his possessions.
+One day he heard the sentence, “Go, sell all thou hast, and give to
+the poor ... and come and follow me.” He took this as a message from
+heaven, and divided his wealth with his sister, gave his share to the
+poor, and withdrew to the desert, where dwelt a company of hermits.
+
+Here he lived a life of such sanctity and self-denial that he was the
+admiration and wonder of all; and Satan, displeased at such amazing
+virtue, sent his demons to tempt him.[9] They whispered to him of all
+that he had sacrificed for this weary life of perpetual rigour and
+self-denial, but the saint prayed till the demon ceased.
+
+Then Satan had recourse to stronger weapons, and clothed his demons in
+human forms: they plied him with delicious food, and hovered around
+him as beautiful women trying to allure him to sin. But St. Anthony
+resisted these temptations, and in anguish fled to a cave farther in
+the desert, where he lived alone and fasted more rigorously than ever.
+
+But Satan followed him even here and now tortured him with pain, and
+tried to “affright him with all the terrors that can overwhelm the soul
+of man,” but in the midst of all these appalling shapes and sounds,
+suddenly there shone from heaven a great light which fell upon Anthony,
+and all these terrors vanished at once, and he arose unharmed and
+strong to endure. And he said, looking up, “O Lord Jesus Christ, where
+wert thou in those moments of anguish?” And Christ answered, “Anthony,
+I was here beside thee, and rejoiced to see thee contend and overcome.
+Be of good heart; for I will make thy name famous through all the
+world.”
+
+When Anthony had lived in the desert seventy-five years, “his heart
+was lifted up by the thought that no one had lived so long in solitude
+and self-denial as he had done.” But in a vision a voice said to him,
+that there was one holier than he, for Paul the hermit had served God
+in solitude and penance for ninety years. Anthony resolved to seek
+Paul, and on the third day he came to a cavern overhung with rocks,
+with a palm tree, and a fountain flowing near, and there he found Paul.
+And while they talked there came a raven carrying in his beak a small
+loaf, which he let fall between them, and Paul blessed the goodness of
+God, and said: “For sixty years, every day hath this raven brought me
+half a loaf; but because thou art come, my brother, lo! the portion is
+doubled, and we are fed as Elijah was fed in the wilderness.”
+
+Then Paul told St. Anthony that God had sent him to receive his last
+breath, and to bury him; and bade him return to his dwelling for
+the cloak given him by the holy Bishop Athanasius, and to wrap him
+in it and to lay him in the earth. Weeping, St. Anthony went to his
+monastery, took down the cloak, and returned as fast as his aged limbs
+would permit, and found Paul dead in his cave. Wrapping him in the
+cloak, he thought how he might bury him, for he had no strength to dig
+a grave and behold, two lions came, and by their roaring expressed
+their sympathy, and began to dig in the sand with their paws, and in a
+short time had dug the grave in which Anthony reverently laid the body
+of Paul. After this, Anthony lived fourteen years, and died aged one
+hundred and five.
+
+Figures of St. Anthony occur frequently, and are easily recognised. He
+wears the monk’s habit and cowl, usually black or brown, and in Greek
+pictures the letter T, always blue, is on the left shoulder or on the
+cope. Anthony and his monks bear the T from the Greek word _Theos_,
+God, signifying, “These are they which follow the Lamb whithersoever he
+goeth. These were redeemed from among men, and in their mouth was found
+no guile, for they are without fault before the throne of God.”
+
+The crutch given St. Anthony indicates his age and feebleness. The bell
+is given him because he had the power to exorcise evil spirits. The
+devil, according to Durandus, cannot endure the sound of a consecrated
+bell. The asperges—the rod for sprinkling holy water—as an instrument
+of exorcism, was also given St. Anthony. The hog represents the demon
+of sensuality and gluttony which St. Anthony overcame. Flames of fire
+placed near him, or a city or house burning in the background, signify
+his spiritual aid as patron saint against fire in this world and in
+the next. He is found with one or more of these attributes alone or in
+Madonna pictures.
+
+In historical pictures the _Temptation of St. Anthony_ is the most
+common subject.
+
+The legend of St. Paul the hermit is interwoven with that of St.
+Anthony. He is represented in devotional pictures as extremely old
+and wasted; his legs and arms bare; beard and hair white and very
+long; garbed only in a mat of palm leaves. When a raven is introduced,
+bringing him food, it is only by his dress of plaited leaves and his
+attenuated and aged appearance that St. Paul can be distinguished from
+Elijah in the wilderness. He does not often appear in Madonna pictures
+or grouped with other saints, but is usually alone, seated upon a rock,
+in deep meditation.
+
+=St. Benedict.= _Ital._ San Benedetto. _Fr._ Saint Benoit. _Spa._ San
+Benito.
+
+St. Benedict was born about 480 in Norcia, a small town in the duchy
+of Spoleto. He came of noble family and was sent to Rome to study. But
+even as a boy, he became disgusted with the profligacy of the times,
+and this, added to the religious enthusiasm of the age, drove him into
+a hermitage at fifteen. His nurse, who had been with him from infancy,
+followed him, and insisted upon waiting upon him and cooking for him.
+Feeling that his penance was not severe enough while thus looked after,
+St. Benedict secretly fled from his nurse and took refuge in a cave in
+Subiaco, a wilderness about forty miles from Rome, where he lived three
+years, supplied with bread and water by a hermit named Romano.
+
+Here he experienced many temptations. Memories of a beautiful Roman
+woman haunted his imagination, and the desire to rush from his solitude
+and seek her was well nigh irresistible. But, believing that these
+thoughts came from Satan to try him, he flung himself naked into a
+thicket of briars and nettles, which so lacerated and stung the flesh
+that the temptation vanished, never to return.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. BENEDICT.—HANS MEMLING
+
+(Uffizi, Florence.)]
+
+His fame spread, and people came from all over and begged for his
+prayers and brought their sick to be healed. He yielded to persuasion
+and became head of a monastery near by, but the strictness of his life
+filled the monks, who had grown lax, with dismay, and one tried to
+poison him in a cup of wine. But St. Benedict blessed it as usual and
+made the sign of the cross, and the cup fell broken, with its contents
+spilled. He then left them and returned to his cave in Subiaco.
+There crowds gathered in huts and cells, attracted by the fame of his
+sanctity and miracles. At length he had built twelve monasteries, in
+each of which he placed twelve disciples with a superior over them.
+
+Two Roman senators brought him their sons, Maurus and Placidus, to
+be educated. St. Benedict devoted himself to their care and they
+became his most famous disciples. (St. Maurus founded a monastery in
+France, and St. Placidus was sent to Sicily, where he and his young
+sister Flavia were martyred.) His community became celebrated for
+brotherly love and charity, until jealousy crept in and one priest,
+named Florentius, tried to blacken the name of St. Benedict. He also
+tried to corrupt the monks by introducing seven young women into one
+of the monasteries. He then attempted to kill St. Benedict by means of
+a poisoned loaf, but Benedict suspected treachery and gave the loaf to
+a tame raven, who carried it away. Then St. Benedict left Subiaco, but
+had scarcely gone when a messenger came to him with word that his enemy
+had been crushed to death by the falling of a gallery in his house.
+
+Hearing of a temple on Monte Cassino, not far from Rome, where the
+people performed pagan rites to Apollo, Benedict repaired thither, and
+by his preaching converted the people and persuaded them to break the
+statue and throw down the altar. He built two chapels here, and higher
+up on the mountain established the first monastery of the Benedictine
+Order. He here gave the famous Rule that became the general law for
+monks in Western Europe, and consisted of the three vows of poverty,
+chastity, and obedience, to which St. Benedict added that of manual
+labour for seven hours a day, and vows perpetual after a novitiate of
+one year.
+
+His sister, St. Scholastica, followed her brother to Mt. Cassino with
+a small company of pious women, and he was wont to visit her once a
+year. On his last visit, refusing to listen to his sister’s pleadings
+that he remain longer with her, she prayed that heaven might interfere,
+and immediately there came a furious storm, which delayed his departure
+several hours. St. Scholastica died two days later, and as St. Benedict
+was praying in his cell, he beheld the soul of his sister ascending
+to heaven in the form of a dove. This scene is often represented in
+pictures for the Benedictine nuns.
+
+St. Benedict died March 21, 543, and it would take volumes to relate
+all the miracles attributed to him.
+
+He is difficult to distinguish in art, because he is often represented
+wearing the _white_ habit, whereas the habit of the order was _black_.
+In white it is easy to confuse him with St. Bernard, St. Bruno, or St.
+Romualdo, and in black, for St. Anthony, so one must look for more
+characteristic attributes.
+
+In pictures for Benedictine churches, which depend on Mt. Cassino and
+Subiaco, and in single devotional pictures, he wears the black habit
+with hood: as patriarch of the Reformed Benedictines of Clairvaux,
+Citeaux, Camaldoli, or Vallombrosa, the _white_ habit. Sometimes
+beardless, more often long white beard. As Abbot of Mt. Cassino he
+sometimes carries the staff and mitre; frequently holds an open
+book. Like other saints who have resisted temptation, he carries the
+asperges—the rod for sprinkling holy water—here an emblem of purity or
+holiness by which he conquered. The thorn bush is an attribute, showing
+the means whereby he conquered. A pitcher of wine or broken cup on a
+book expresses the attempt to poison him, also the raven with loaf
+of bread with serpent creeping from it. When a nun in black habit is
+introduced with St. Benedict, or stands alone with a lily in her hand
+and a dove at her feet or pressed to her bosom, it is St. Scholastica.
+When grouped with his two disciples, Maurus and Placidus, they all wear
+the black habit, or St. Benedict appears as abbot and the others as
+deacons, wearing the dalmatica over the black tunic. St. Maurus holds a
+book or a censer, and St. Placidus carries the palm as martyr.
+
+=St. Bernard of Clairvaux.= _Lat._ Sanctus Bernardus. _Ital._ San
+Bernardo di Chiaravalle, Abbate. _Ger._ Der Heilige Bernhard.
+
+Bernard was born at Fontaines, near Dijon, in 1091. Both parents were
+of noble family, and his mother, a highly gifted woman, superintended
+his early education. His personal beauty was very great, but his health
+was always delicate and he practised extreme self-denial from an early
+age. His thirst for knowledge was amazing, and after studying at the
+University of Paris, he entered the Reformed Benedictine monastery of
+Citeaux. The Abbot of Citeaux saw qualities in Bernard which convinced
+him that he would be the proper head of a new foundation, and in the
+year 1115 he sent him forth with twelve other monks to found another
+Cistercian monastery. Bernard led them to a wilderness called the
+“Valley of Wormwood,” and there built the famous abbey of Clairvaux.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+THE MADONNA APPEARING TO ST. BERNARD.—FILIPPINO LIPPI
+
+(Church of the Badia, Florence.)]
+
+Bernard became known throughout the Christian world, and was appealed
+to by feudal lords and ecclesiastics alike. He was an authority on
+all subjects, and his decisions were received with perfect submission.
+He was commissioned by Eugenius III. to preach a second crusade. Only
+a remnant returned from the ill-starred expedition, and the people
+turned on Bernard with sudden hatred. But he defended himself with such
+eloquence that their rage vanished. He affirmed boldly that they had
+been punished for their sins, and bade them go home and repent, which
+they did.
+
+His bitter religious controversies with Abelard will be recalled.
+
+He died in his sixty-third year at Clairvaux, where he had been abbot
+thirty-eight years, and was canonised twenty years later by Pope
+Alexander III. No man of his age had greater renown nor fills a larger
+place in the history of that age. His reputation rests on the integrity
+of his character, his eloquence as a preacher, his remarkable executive
+ability, and his skill as a writer.
+
+In devotional pictures St. Bernard is represented as a monk in the
+white habit of the Cistercian Order, with shaven crown, little or no
+beard, carrying a large book under his arm, or presenting books to
+the Madonna, or with writing implements before him. Other attributes
+are the demon—signifying heresy—fettered behind him; sometimes three
+mitres on his book or at his feet signifying the three bishoprics he
+refused—those of Chartres, Spires, and Milan; also the beehive as
+symbol of eloquence in common with Chrysostom and Ambrose.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI.—SIMONE MARTINI
+
+(Church of S. Francesco, Assisi.)]
+
+_The Vision of St. Bernard_ has been charmingly rendered in art.
+The subject is mystical and devotional. St. Bernard’s most celebrated
+writings were devoted to the honour and glory of the Blessed Virgin
+who, in consequence, regarded him with peculiar favour, and it is
+related that once when he was writing his homilies he was so ill
+he could hardly hold his pen, and behold! she appeared to him and
+comforted and restored him by her gracious presence.
+
+=St. Francis of Assisi.= _Lat._ Sanctus Franciscus, Pater Seraphicus.
+_Fr._ Saint François d’Assise. _Ital._ San Francesco di Assisi.
+
+St. Francis was the founder of the Franciscans, one of the three
+Mendicant Orders of Friars. He was born in Assisi in 1182. His father,
+Pietro Bernardone, was a wealthy merchant. The son was taught French,
+and spoke it with such ease that his companions changed his baptismal
+name of Giovanni to _Francesco_—the Frenchman—by which he was ever
+afterwards known. In his youth he was remarkable for his extravagance
+and excessive love of pleasure. But he was kind and generous, and
+beloved by all. In a quarrel between the inhabitants of Perugia and
+Assisi he was taken a prisoner, and detained for a year in the fortress
+of Perugia.
+
+After his return home, he was ill for many months, and his thoughts
+constantly turned from this world to God. Upon his recovery, he met a
+beggar in filthy rags, who asked him for alms. St. Francis recognised
+him as a former noble, who had commanded the expedition against
+Perugia, and exchanged his own rich apparel with him who was now a
+mendicant, putting on the other’s tattered garments. Going into a
+church that was falling into ruin, to pray, he heard in his soul a
+voice saying, “Francis, repair my church, which falleth into ruin.”
+Taking these words literally, he sold merchandise of his father’s,
+and brought the money to the priests of the church. This put his
+father in a rage, and thinking him mad, he first locked him up in his
+chamber, but as he still persisted in his ideas, he took him before
+the bishop. Here Francis tore off his garments and flung them to his
+father, saying, “Henceforth I recognise no father but him who is in
+heaven.” The bishop, touched and weeping with admiration, took a coarse
+cloak from a beggar who stood by and gave it to him. Francis received
+it gladly, as the first fruit of that poverty to which he had given
+himself. He was now twenty-five years old, and from this time forth he
+went about preaching charity, humility, and self-abnegation, existing
+only on alms.
+
+It was a period in the history of the world of great mental and moral
+excitement. St. Francis was the living expression of an awakening
+emotion in the minds and hearts of the people, and his example was
+imitated with passionate enthusiasm by an immense number of followers.
+He made the first condition of their joining him absolute poverty.
+Hence the allusion to his marriage with the Lady Poverty.
+
+He went to Rome to obtain the pope’s sanction for his order, and was
+at first repulsed as a visionary enthusiast. But the pope in a dream
+that night beheld the walls of the Lateran tottering and about to fall,
+then he saw the weight of the whole Church borne and sustained on
+the shoulders of him who had approached him in the morning. Greatly
+impressed by this, he sent for Francis, confirmed the rule of his
+order, and gave him power to preach. Returning then to his cell called
+the _Porzioncula_, Francis gathered his followers about him, gave to
+his order the name of _Frati Minori_, and established his Rule with its
+three vows of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience.
+
+Previous to this, at mass one day he heard the text from St. Luke (ix.,
+3): “Take nothing for your journey, neither staves nor scrip, neither
+bread, neither money, neither have two coats apiece”; and looking upon
+this as an ordinance it became the rule of his life. He was already
+barefoot and wretchedly clad, begging his food wherever he happened to
+be. There was nothing he could do without, except his leathern girdle.
+This he threw away, substituting one of hempen cord, which was adopted
+by his followers. These have thence been called the _Cordeliers_.
+
+St. Francis’s life was one of continual prayer and self-inflicted
+penance. So gentle and tender and compassionate was he that “when he
+found worms or insects in his road he was careful not to tread upon
+them.” He loved all animals and was accustomed to call all living
+things his brothers and sisters. He interpreted literally the text “Go
+ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature,” and
+Giotto has painted St. Francis preaching to the birds.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. CLARA.—SIMONE MARTINI
+
+(Church of S. Francesco, Assisi.)]
+
+We are told that he suffered from sickness, pain, and weakness and wept
+so much that he nearly became blind. It is also related that, having
+fasted in his cell on Mt. Alverna for forty days, passing the time in
+prayer and ecstatic contemplation, he beheld in a vision a seraph
+with six shining wings, and between his wings he bore the form of a man
+crucified. When the vision disappeared and he awoke, St. Francis found
+that he had received the _stigmata_, and ever after it was seen that he
+carried in his hands, his feet, and his side the wounds of our Saviour.
+He died in 1226 and was canonised by Pope Gregory IX. in 1228.
+
+St. Francis is more frequently represented in art than any other saint,
+and is nearly always unmistakable. He may be distinguished by his
+habit, which is grey or dark brown, girded by a hempen cord. He bears
+the stigmata in his hands and feet and is often portrayed in the act
+of opening his tunic to display the wound in his side. The stigmata
+distinguishes him from all other saints wearing the same habit.
+Sometimes he has the crucifix and the skull. The lamb and the lily are
+also given him as symbols of meekness and purity. When St. Francis and
+St. Dominick are pictured together the crucifix is given to the former
+and the lily to St. Dominick.
+
+=St. Clara.= _Ital._ Santa Chiara. _Fr._ Sainte Claire.
+
+St. Clara was born in Assisi of noble parents, who desired her to
+marry; but, inspired by the example of St. Francis, she fled to him
+for counsel, and he advised her to renounce the world. She took refuge
+in the convent of San Paolo, whither her kinsmen pursued her, and in
+vain tried to drag her away. Soon after, her younger sister, Agnes, and
+other ladies of high rank joined her, and finally her mother, and thus
+was formed the Order of “Poor Clares,” Franciscan nuns, who followed
+the Rule of St. Francis, in all its austerity. A lifelong friendship
+existed between St. Clara and St. Francis, and he invariably turned to
+her for consolation in those periods of despondency which afflicted his
+soul.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. ANTHONY OF PADUA.—SCHOOL OF GIOTTO
+
+(Basilica of S. Antonio, Padua.)]
+
+At one time, when the Saracens attacked the convent of San Damiano, and
+the nuns were filled with terror and despair, St. Clara, who had been
+bed-ridden, arose, took from the altar the pyx containing the Host,
+placed it on the threshold, and kneeling began to sing, “Thou hast
+rebuked the heathen,” etc., whereupon the barbarians, panic-stricken,
+fled. The fame of this miracle spread, so that people came from far and
+wide to obtain the prayers and intercession of Clara. The pope himself
+visited her, and solemnly confirmed the Rule of her order. At the age
+of sixty, she expired in a kind of trance in which she heard angels’
+voices calling her. She was canonised in 1256.
+
+When she carries the palm it is not as martyr, but is the palm of
+victory over suffering. She bears the lily, and is distinguished from
+other saints with the same emblem by her grey habit and the cord of St.
+Francis. In devotional pictures she is young and beautiful. She wears
+the habit of her order—the grey tunic, the knotted girdle, and the
+black veil. Her peculiar attribute is the pyx, containing the Host, in
+allusion to the miraculous deliverance from the Saracens.
+
+=St. Anthony of Padua.= _Lat._ Sanctus Antonius Thaumaturgus. _Spa._
+San Antonio de Padua. _Ital._ Sant’ Antonio di Padova, Il Santo.
+
+St. Anthony was completely imbued with the spirit of St. Francis, and
+his popularity in religious art is nearly as great. He was a Portuguese
+by birth, and having entered the Franciscan Order, went to Morocco as
+a missionary, but became very ill there, and was obliged to return to
+Europe. Contrary winds drove him to the coast of Italy, and he came to
+Assisi when St. Francis was holding the first General Chapter of his
+Order.
+
+St. Anthony’s learning and ability made him of great value to St.
+Francis as a coadjutor, and for some time he taught divinity in the
+universities of Paris, Toulouse, Bologna, and Padua, but finally gave
+up teaching altogether to become a preacher to the people. Owing to his
+persuasive eloquence and skill in argument, crowds came to hear him
+wherever he went, and his followers have ascribed many miracles to him,
+before and after his death. He died in his thirty-sixth year, and the
+next year was canonised by Pope Gregory IX., and the magnificent church
+at Padua was begun in his honour.
+
+In art he is a young man with a mild, melancholy countenance, without
+beard, and wearing the habit and cord of St. Francis. His usual
+attributes are the lily and the crucifix—the lily sometimes twined
+around the crucifix. In pictures of the Siena school he holds in his
+hand a flame of fire, symbol of his ardent piety. He is often pictured
+as caressing the Infant Christ, who is seen standing on his book, or
+he holds Him in his arms. It is related that at one time as he was
+explaining to his hearers the mystery of the Incarnation the form of
+the Infant Christ descended and stood upon his book. This is called the
+“Vision of St. Anthony of Padua,” and is often represented in art.
+
+The legend of the mule is one of the most popular miracles of St.
+Anthony and is a frequent subject for pictures painted for the
+Franciscan churches. Bovadilla, a heretic, doubting the real presence
+in the sacrament, demanded of St. Anthony a miracle in proof of this
+favourite dogma of the Church. St. Anthony saw Bovadilla’s mule, and
+commanded it to fall on its knees as he carried the Host in procession.
+The mule obeyed instantly, and in spite of its master’s efforts to
+tempt it aside by a sieve full of oats, remained kneeling until the
+Sacred Host had passed.
+
+=St. Bonaventura=, called the _Seraphic Doctor_, is regarded as one
+of the greatest lights of the Roman Catholic Church. He was born in
+Tuscany, and was so ill when an infant that his life was despaired
+of. His mother took him to St. Francis and begged him to intercede
+with his prayers for the life of her child. When St. Francis saw him
+he exclaimed, _O buona ventura!_ and the mother, in gratitude for his
+recovery, dedicated him to God by the name of Bonaventura.
+
+He entered the Franciscan Order and completed his theological studies
+in Paris. There he was greatly honoured by Louis IX. (Saint Louis) and
+in a few years became known as one of the greatest writers and teachers
+in the Church. He faithfully practised all the precepts of his order
+and his humility was such that he hardly dared present himself to
+receive the sacrament, feeling himself unworthy; so, in the legends,
+angels are represented bringing it to him.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. BONAVENTURA.—A. BRONZINO
+
+(Academy, Florence.)]
+
+In 1256 he was made General of the Franciscan Order and restored the
+harmony which had previously been threatened by factional dissensions.
+He declined the archbishopric of York, but later Gregory X. made
+him Cardinal and Bishop of Albano. When the two nuncios of the pope
+brought him the cardinal’s hat they found him in the garden of a little
+Franciscan convent near Florence, washing the plate from which he had
+just dined. He told them to hang the hat on the bough of a tree until
+he could take it in his hands. Hence in pictures of this saint the
+cardinal’s hat is often seen hanging on a branch of a tree. He died at
+the age of fifty-three and was buried in the Franciscan Church at
+Lyons, and was canonised by Sixtus IV. in 1462. During the wars of the
+League, the Huguenots broke into his shrine and threw his ashes into
+the river Saône.
+
+According to a Spanish legend, having left his _Life of St. Francis_
+unfinished when he died, he returned to earth for three days and
+completed it.
+
+In devotional pictures, sometimes he wears the cope over the grey habit
+of his order, with the mitre on his head, as Bishop of Albano, and the
+cardinal’s hat at his feet, or on the branch of a tree. Sometimes he
+wears only the Franciscan habit, and carries the sacramental cup in
+his hand, or it is borne by an angel. Occasionally he is attired in
+the crimson robes and hat of a cardinal, with a book in his hand, the
+symbol of his great learning.
+
+=St. Louis of France.= _Lat._ Sanctus Ludovicus Rex. _Ital._ San Luigi,
+Rè di Francia.
+
+Louis IX. was born at Poissy in 1215. He was the son of Louis VIII. and
+Blanche of Castile—the Louis and Blanche who figure in Shakespeare’s
+_King John_. Gibbon says of St. Louis that he united the virtues of a
+king, a hero, and a man. Voltaire said of him, _Il n’est guère donné
+a l’homme de pousser la vertu plus loin._ He had the most intense
+veneration for relics, and when Baldwin II. approached him for aid,
+he at once granted him “succors in men and money” in exchange for the
+“holy crown of thorns.” Louis, barefoot and bareheaded, brought this
+precious relic himself from Sens to Paris; and having obtained also a
+small piece of the true cross, he built for these treasures the chapel
+since called _La Sainte Chapelle_ (Paris).
+
+In 1247, after a dangerous illness, he sent for the Archbishop of Paris
+and asked for the cross of a crusader, and, in spite of the grief and
+remonstrances of friends, as soon as his health permitted he sailed
+for Egypt with an army of fifty thousand men, including the flower of
+the French nobility. Most of his followers perished, and Louis was
+taken prisoner. His belief in the goodness of his cause never wavered,
+however. When ransomed he spent three years in Palestine, and then
+returned to France, where he reigned sixteen years and then, never
+having laid aside the cross, he started on a second crusade, landing
+in Africa. His troops, affected by the climate, perished miserably;
+and Louis died in his tent, lying upon ashes, and wearing the garb of
+a penitent. He was canonised by Boniface VIII. in 1297, twenty-seven
+years after his death. Part of his body was carried by Charles of Anjou
+to Palermo, and placed in the church of Monreale; the rest was placed
+in a shrine at St. Denis, which was destroyed in the first French
+revolution.
+
+Pictures of St. Louis are found in Franciscan churches, the Franciscans
+claiming that he put on the habit of the “Third Order of Penitence”
+before starting on his first crusade, and that he died in the habit and
+cord of St. Francis.
+
+The proper attribute of St. Louis is the crown of thorns, which he
+holds in one hand, his sword in the other, and the royal crown and
+sceptre at his feet. When painted in the grey habit and cord of the
+Franciscans, he wears the crown of royalty.
+
+=St. Louis of Toulouse.= _Ital._ San Ludovico Vescovo.
+
+Louis of Anjou was the nephew of St. Louis, King of France, and son of
+Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily. When Louis was fourteen,
+his father was taken prisoner by the King of Aragon, and was obliged
+to deliver up his three sons as hostages. Louis spent several years in
+captivity, and the hardships he endured broke his gentle spirit, and,
+on regaining his freedom in 1294, he resigned all his rights to the
+kingdom of Naples to his brother Robert, and entered the Order of St.
+Francis. Soon afterwards he was made Bishop of Toulouse and set out for
+his new office barefooted, and dressed as a friar. Although his life
+there was short, he endeared himself to his people by his gentleness
+and charity. Two years later he died, in his twenty-fourth year, in
+his father’s castle in Provence, where he had gone on a charitable
+mission. He was canonised in 1317 by Pope John XXII., and his remains
+are enshrined at Valencia.
+
+In art he is represented as young, beardless, and of gentle face,
+wearing the episcopal robes over the Franciscan habit. The fleur-de-lys
+is embroidered on his cope, or on some part of his dress. The crown he
+resigned is at his feet. He wears the mitre as bishop, or carries it in
+his hand, or it is borne by an angel.
+
+=St. Bernardino of Siena.= This saint was born of a noble Sienese
+family, and from his youth upward was distinguished for his personal
+beauty and grace, united to such intelligence and purity of character,
+that his presence alone sufficed to restrain and hush the most vulgar
+of tongue. At seventeen, he entered a confraternity that cared for the
+poor and the sick, and when a pestilence broke out in Siena, he and
+twelve other young men took entire charge of the plague hospital for
+four months. He escaped the contagion, but his health was never strong
+afterwards.
+
+He entered the Franciscan Order at twenty-three, and became one of
+their most celebrated preachers. His influence for good was unbounded,
+and his hearers, even the hardest sinners, were melted to tears.
+Thieves made restitution; gamblers threw away their cards; enemies
+became reconciled, and women cast their jewels at his feet. Wherever
+he went he preached peace, and when preaching he held in his hand a
+tablet on which was the name of Jesus in a circle of golden rays.[10] A
+manufacturer of cards and dice complained to Bernardino that since his
+preaching his business had been ruined. The saint advised him to make
+these tablets instead, and sell them to the people; which he did, and
+the desire for them became so general that he realised a fortune. St.
+Bernardino is said to have founded the _Monte-di-Pietà_, for lending
+money on small pledges to the very poor. These institutions are still
+called in France _Monts-de-Piété_. He was founder of a reformed Order
+of Franciscans, called in Italy _Osservanti_ because they _observed_
+the Rule of St. Francis, went barefoot, and professed absolute poverty.
+He refused three bishoprics, and died at Aquila in the Abruzzi, where
+his remains are enshrined in the church of San Francesco. He was
+canonised by Pope Nicholas V. in 1450, and is venerated throughout all
+of Italy.
+
+In devotional figures his peculiar attribute is the tablet, with I. H.
+S. encircled with rays, which he holds in his hand. Another attribute
+is the _Monte-di-Pietà_, a little green hill of three mounds, and
+on the top a cross or standard, on which is the figure of the dead
+Saviour—usually called in Italy a _Pietà_. Sometimes three mitres, in
+allusion to the three bishoprics, he refused.
+
+=St. Dominick.= _Lat._ Sanctus Dominicus. _Ital._ San Domenico. _Spa._
+San Domingo. _Fr._ Saint Dominique.
+
+This saint was the founder of the Order of Dominicans or Preaching
+Friars, and was a Castilian of an illustrious family. Before he was
+born his mother dreamed that she had given birth to a black and white
+dog holding a lighted torch in its mouth. At his baptism a star
+descended from heaven and settled on his brow. These were interpreted
+as signs that he would be a light to the world and he early showed his
+ascetic and saintly nature.
+
+He studied theology at Valencia and became a canon of St. Augustine
+while still very young. When about thirty, he went to France on a
+political mission with the Bishop of Osma, and passed through the land
+of the Albigenses. Their heresies were so shocking to Dominick that he
+felt that his vocation lay in forming an order of preachers for the
+conversion of heretics. He went to Rome in 1207 and obtained permission
+from the pope to preach in the Vaudois to the Albigenses. Here miracles
+aided him. A writing of Dominick’s, defending the Catholic faith,
+thrice cast into the fire, is said to have thrice leaped out uninjured,
+while a writing of the heretics was instantly consumed. This converted
+many.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. DOMINICK. DETAIL FROM THE CRUCIFIXION.—FRA ANGELICO
+
+(San Marco, Florence.)]
+
+A fierce religious war broke out about this time against the
+Albigenses. How far Dominick took part in this is hotly disputed. For
+several centuries public opinion considered him the founder of the
+Inquisition, and it was believed that he directed the persecutions from
+the beginning. His defenders, however, assert that he was filled with
+horror at the barbarities committed in the name of Christ. St. Dominick
+instituted the rosary, which was received with enthusiasm and made
+more converts than all his orthodoxy. He founded many convents in the
+principal cities of Europe, preaching wherever he went. Bologna became
+the chief Dominican centre, and here St. Dominick died in 1221, worn
+out by his labours. He was canonised in 1233 by Gregory IX.
+
+The devotional figures of St. Dominick represent him in his habit—the
+white tunic, white scapulary, and long black cloak with a hood. In
+one hand a book, in the other a lily. A star is on his forehead, or
+just above his head. The dog with a flaming torch in its mouth is his
+peculiar attribute, but in pictures is often omitted.
+
+=St. Peter Martyr.= St. Peter the Dominican. _Fr._ Saint Pierre le
+Dominican, Martyr. _Ital._ San Pietro or San Pier Martire.
+
+He was born at Verona in 1205. His parents belonged to the heretical
+sect of the _Cathari_, but sent Peter to a Catholic school, and
+St. Dominick persuaded him to take the Dominican habit at the age
+of fifteen. He became an eminent preacher and was noted for his
+intolerance and cruelty to the heretics with whom he had formerly been
+associated. Pope Honorius III. made him Inquisitor General. He was
+not loved in his lifetime even by his own brotherhood, and his harsh
+persecutions made him universally detested. Finally two noblemen, who
+had suffered at his hands, hired assassins to waylay him in a wood
+through which he and a lay brother must pass on their way from Como to
+Milan. Peter was struck down by a blow from an axe. Then the ruffians
+pursued his attendant, and stabbed him. Returning, they found that
+Peter had risen to his knees and was reciting the Apostles’ Creed; or,
+as others say, was writing it on the ground with his blood. He had just
+finished the word _Credo_ when they rushed on him, and pierced him
+through with a sword. He was canonised in 1253 and is one of the most
+popular saints in Italy.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. PETER MARTYR.—FRA ANGELICO
+
+(San Marco, Florence.)]
+
+In devotional art, he wears the Dominican habit, carries the crucifix
+as preacher, and the palm as martyr, which, if not in his hand, is at
+his feet. His peculiar attribute is the gash in his head, with blood
+trickling from it, or the axe or sabre stuck into his head.
+
+=St. Thomas Aquinas.= _Ital._ San Tomaso di Aquino, Dottore Angelico.
+
+St. Thomas Aquinas, called the “Angelic Doctor,” ranks with the
+Four Great Doctors of the Western Church. He was born at Belcastro
+in 1226. He was of noble lineage, his father being Count of Aquino,
+and connected both by descent and marriage with several of the royal
+families of Europe. Thomas was sent to the Benedictines at Mt. Cassino,
+where he showed himself so precocious that when ten years of age his
+masters declared they could teach him no more. The splendour of his
+father’s home filled him with humility, rather than pride. He was
+gentle, thoughtful, and silent, and from childhood was remarkable for
+the sweetness of his temper.
+
+After a few years, he was sent to the new University of Naples, where
+he was noted for his devotion to study and the singular purity of his
+life. At seventeen he received the habit of the Dominican Order. His
+relatives were violently opposed to this, and seized and imprisoned
+him in a tower of his father’s castle, allowing no one to see him but
+his two sisters. After many months, aided by one of his sisters, whom
+he had converted, he made his escape and returned to the convent,
+where he took his final vows. The modesty with which he concealed his
+profound learning gave him the nickname of _Bos_, the ox. Later he
+studied in Cologne and his master exclaimed one day, when his brilliant
+answers had astonished them all, “This dumb ox shall give such a bellow
+in learning as all the world shall hear.” His reputation steadily
+increased until he was acknowledged the greatest theological writer and
+teacher of his age. His works are still held as authority and of great
+value. He died in his fiftieth year and was canonised in 1323.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. THOMAS AQUINAS.—FRA ANGELICO
+
+(San Marco, Florence.)]
+
+He is represented in the Dominican habit, often writing, with the
+dove, emblem of inspiration, hovering about him. His attributes are a
+book, or books; the pen, or ink-horn; the sacramental cup, on account
+of his having composed the Office of the Sacrament, still in use; on
+his breast a sun, and sometimes a human eye within it to express his
+far-seeing wisdom.
+
+=St. Catherine of Siena.= _Lat._ Sancta Catherina Senese. _Ital._ Santa
+Caterina di Siena.
+
+Volumes have been filled in chronicling the deeds and visions of this
+remarkable saint, known at Siena as “la Santa.” She was born in Siena
+in 1347. Her father, Giovanni Benincasa, was a dyer by trade. Catherine
+was the youngest and most beloved of all the children and was fair and
+gay and graceful, but (unlike other children), visionary, solitary, and
+strange. She had heard of Catherine of Alexandria and prayed that she
+also might become the bride of Christ, and at eight years of age she
+took secret vows of perpetual chastity.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+ST. CATHERINE OF SIENA.—VANNI
+
+(Church of San Domenico, Siena.)]
+
+As she grew up her vigils and penances and love of solitude seemed
+nonsensical to her parents, who desired her to marry. Angered by her
+refusal, they treated her harshly, putting all sorts of menial duties
+upon her, until her father, entering her chamber one day, found her
+kneeling in prayer, and resting on her head was a snow-white dove. He
+now saw that she was protected by the Holy Spirit, and believing in
+her vocation he allowed her to go her own way. She was received in the
+convent of St. Dominick as a penitent of the Third Order, but never
+became a professed nun. She vowed herself to silence for three years,
+practised all sorts of self-denials, going to the convent church every
+day, where she had wonderful visions. Her charity to the poor was
+boundless. She nursed the sick, no matter how repulsive the disease,
+and converted by her eloquence so many wicked persons and unbelievers
+that her fame spread through all of Italy.
+
+When the Florentines were excommunicated by Pope Gregory VI. they
+chose Catherine of Siena for their ambassador and mediator. She went
+to Avignon, where the pope then resided, and displayed such discretion
+and wisdom that the pope left it to her to decide the terms of peace.
+It was by her influence and persuasions that the pope was induced
+to return to Rome, and once more make the seat of government in the
+Lateran. After the death of Gregory, in the Great Schism that followed,
+she took the part of Urban VI., who appointed her his ambassador to
+the court of Joanna II. of Naples. But in the midst of this her health
+failed, and she died at thirty-three, worn out with fasting, labour,
+and suffering.
+
+It is related that while praying before a crucifix at Pisa she fell
+into a trance and received the stigmata, which miracle she tried to
+conceal, but it was known by many. Others assert it was not impressed
+visibly on her body, but on her soul.
+
+She would often pray for a new heart, and once, it is related, our
+Saviour appeared to her in a vision, took her heart from her bosom and
+replaced it with His own, and there remained a wound or scar on her
+left side from that time. Her letters and writings are principally upon
+devotional subjects, written in very pure Italian.
+
+In art St. Catherine is distinguished by the Dominican habit and the
+stigmata. She usually bears the lily. A book in her hand alludes to her
+writings.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] “Dæmonology in all its multiplied forms was now an established part
+of the Christian creed.” Milman’s _History of Christianity_, vol. iii.,
+p. 299.
+
+[10] See Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+XX.—THE MONASTIC ORDERS
+
+
+Mrs. Jameson says: “There is a Latin distich which well expressed the
+different localities and sites affected by the chief Monastic Orders:
+
+ Bernardus valles, colles Benedictus, amabat,
+ Oppida Franciscus, magnas Ignatius urbes;
+
+ (Bernard loved valleys, Benedict the hills,
+ Francis, towns; Ignatius, great cities);
+
+and we shall find almost uniformly the chief foundations of the
+Benedictines on hills or mountains, those of the Cistercians in fertile
+valleys by running streams, those of the Franciscans in provincial
+towns, and those of the Jesuits in capital cities” (_Legends of the
+Monastic Orders_).
+
+The =Benedictines=, founded by St. Benedict and distinguished by a
+habit entirely black. This order embraces the following branches of
+reformed Benedictines:
+
+The _Camaldolesi_, founded by St. Romualdo; habit, black.
+
+The _Vallombrosans_, founded by St. John Gualberto; habit, pale ash
+colour, or light grey.
+
+The _Carthusians_, founded by St. Bruno; habit, white, sandalled feet,
+and shaven heads.
+
+The _Cistercians_, white habit, a long loose robe with very wide
+sleeves, and a hood or cowl.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Photo. Alinari
+
+A VALLOMBROSAN MONK.—PERUGINO
+
+(Academy, Florence.)]
+
+The _Olivetani_, founded by St. Bernard dei Tolomei; habit, white.
+
+The _Oratorians_, founded by St. Philip Neri; habit, black.
+
+The word Abbey (_Ital._ Badia, Abbazia, _Fr._ Abbaye) belongs
+especially to the foundations of this order.
+
+In pictures painted for the Benedictine Orders, the saints most
+frequently represented are St. Benedict and his sister St. Scholastica,
+and his disciples St. Maurus, St. Placidus, and St. Flavia, who all
+wear the black habit; except, when St. Benedict appears as patriarch of
+any of the Reformed orders which adopted the white habit, he then wears
+white. The black habit is also given to:
+
+ St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany.
+ St. Bennet, Bishop of Durham.
+ St. Benedict of Anian.
+ St. Bavon of Ghent.
+ St. Ildefonso of Toledo.
+ St. Giles of Languedoc.
+ St. Dunstan of Canterbury.
+ St. Walpurgis of Eichstadt.
+
+St. Bernard is prominent in all the Cistercian abbeys and churches.
+St. John Gualberto figures principally in Florentine art, or pictures
+painted for the Vallombrosans.
+
+The =Augustines= claim St. Augustine, one of the Four Latin Fathers, as
+their founder, and wear the black habit. This order embraces:
+
+The _Premonstratensians_, founded by St. Norbert; habit, brown or
+black, with a white cloak.
+
+The _Servi_, founded by St. Philip Benozzi; habit, black.
+
+The _Trinitarians_,[11] founded by St. John de Matha; habit, white with
+a blue and red cross on the breast.
+
+The _Brigittines_, founded by St. Bridget of Sweden; habit, black.
+
+The _Order of Mercy_, founded by St. Peter Nolasco; habit, white, and
+the badge of the arms of the King of Aragon on the breast.
+
+In the churches of the Augustines, one finds St. Augustine and his
+mother Monica; St. Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary, whom the
+Augustines reverence as their patriarch and patron saint; Joachim and
+Anna; the apostles and saints of the earliest ages, and the hermits St.
+Anthony and St. Paul; but next to St. Augustine their great saint is
+St. Nicholas of Tolentino.
+
+The =Mendicant Orders=: the =Franciscans=, the =Dominicans=, the
+=Carmelites=. These monks were not called _Padri_, fathers, but
+_Frati_, brothers of men, and so great was the humility of St. Francis
+that he called his community _Frati Minori_, lesser brothers.
+
+The =Franciscan Order=, founded by St. Francis of Assisi; the habit,
+originally grey, was changed after the first two centuries to a dark
+brown. The knotted cord around the waist was used symbolically by
+St. Francis to represent the halter or bridle of a subdued beast, or
+the body in subjection to the spirit. The reformed branches of the
+Franciscans are:
+
+The _Capuchins_, habit dark brown with a long, pointed hood.
+
+The _Poor Clares_, Franciscan nuns, founded by St. Clara; grey or brown
+habit and cord, and black veil.
+
+The _Observants_, founded by St. Bernardino of Siena; grey habit and
+cord.
+
+The _Cordeliers_, brown habit.
+
+The _Minimes_, founded by St. Francis de Paula; brown habit, short
+scapulary with rounded ends, and the cord of St. Francis.
+
+In pictures painted for any of the Franciscan churches or convents are
+found, singly or in groups, their eight great saints, called in Italian
+_I Cardini dell’Ordine Serafico_,” “The Chiefs of the Seraphic Order.”
+
+_St. Francis, Padre Serafico_, patriarch and founder.
+
+_St. Clara, Madre Serafica._
+
+_St. Bonaventura, il Dottore Serafico_, the great prelate of the order.
+
+_St. Anthony of Padua_, second only to St. Francis as a worker of
+miracles.
+
+_St. Bernardino of Siena_, their great reformer and preacher, and the
+three royal saints, _St. Louis of France_; _St. Louis of Toulouse_; and
+_St. Elizabeth of Hungary_ (wearing her crown, and with her lap full of
+roses).
+
+The =Dominican Order=: founded by St. Dominick; distinguished by a
+white habit under a long black cloak with a hood. The Dominicans are
+always shod. The Franciscans are generally barefoot or wear a wooden
+sandal.
+
+The four celebrated saints who figure in Dominican pictures are:
+
+_St. Dominick_, founder and patriarch.
+
+_St. Peter Martyr_, distinguished by the wound in his head.
+
+_St. Thomas Aquinas_, who represents the learning of the order.
+
+_St. Catherine of Siena_, the great female saint of the Dominican Order.
+
+The =Carmelites= claim the prophet Elijah as patriarch and founder,
+with the Virgin Mary as protectress. They were first formed into an
+order by St. Albert of Vercelli. The habit is a dark brown, with a long
+scapulary and a white mantle. The reformed branch, the _Scalzi_, or
+barefooted Carmelites, was founded by St. Theresa.
+
+The =Jeronymites= claim St. Jerome as founder.
+
+The =Jesuits=, founded by St. Ignatius Loyola; habit, a straight black
+cassock and square black cap.
+
+The =Order of the Visitation of St. Mary= was founded by St. Francis de
+Sales and Ste. Jeanne Françoise de Chantal (grandmother of Madame de
+Sévigné).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] See Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+=Angels.= The Jewish belief in good and bad angels was probably
+borrowed from Zoroastrianism during their exile. St. Paul speaks of
+Thrones, or Dominions, or Principalities, or Powers (Col. i., 16),
+and from this and a few other scriptural texts the imagination of the
+early theologians arranged the angelic host into nine choirs—or three
+hierarchies of three choirs each. To each of these were given fanciful
+and mystical powers. The first hierarchy are the Councillors; to this
+belong the Seraphim, Cherubim, and Thrones. The Seraphim—love—stand
+nearest the throne of God, next come the Cherubim—knowledge,—and then
+the Thrones who support the seat of the Most High. These receive their
+glory direct from God and transmit it to the second who in turn shed
+the radiance of divine light upon the third and lowest hierarchy.
+
+The second hierarchy are governors, who reign over and control the
+stars and the elements.
+
+The third are the only ones that have concern with the earth. They are
+the messengers of God, and the protectors and guardians of the children
+of men.
+
+A fourth century Byzantine manual gives the following directions to
+painters according to the order laid down by Dionysius the Areopagite:
+
+ { =Seraphim.= } Six wings covered with eyes.
+ { }
+ { =Cherubim.= } Head only, two wings.
+ 1st { }
+ { =Thrones.= } Fiery wheels surrounded by wings
+ { } filled with eyes. The whole
+ { } symbolising a royal throne.
+
+ { =Dominations.= } These wear albs to feet, golden
+ { =Virtues.= } girdles, and green stoles. Hold
+ 2d { =Powers.= } a golden staff in right hand and
+ { } seal of God in left.
+
+ { =Principalities.= } In soldier’s garb, golden girdles,
+ 3d { =Archangels.= } and holding lance-headed javelins
+ { =Angels.= } in their hands.
+
+The early artists followed the description of the Seraphim given in
+Isa. vi., 2: “Each one had six wings; with twain he covered his face,
+and with twain he covered his feet, and with twain he did fly.”
+
+In very old pictures and illuminated manuscripts, the hierarchies of
+angels are represented by circles. The innermost circles, the Seraphim
+and Cherubim, are commonly depicted with heads only, and with two,
+four, or six wings. The Seraphim are the colour of red—fire, meaning
+love. The Cherubim blue, the colour of the firmament or light, that
+is, knowledge. In these representations of the celestial hierarchy the
+Seraphim have the highest rank of all, and angels the lowest. Then
+follow apostles, martyrs, confessors, and virgins.
+
+Didron says that “the hierarchy thus figured in rose windows and
+sculptured on vaulted roofs of cathedrals, exhibits in a palpable form
+... the system of ethics and cosmogony embodied in the Hindu doctrine
+of emanation.”
+
+The angels in the architectural decoration of old Christian churches
+have for their authority the Cherubim that adorned the temple of
+Solomon (1 Kings vi., 23-29).
+
+Angels are sometimes placed on winged and fiery wheels, to typify
+extreme swiftness and buoyancy.
+
+“The seven angels which stood before God” (Rev. viii., 2) are
+occasionally represented in pictures of the Last Judgment and of
+heaven, and can be recognised by their seven trumpets. These seven
+archangels are thus defined:
+
+1. =Michael= (“like unto God”), captain of the host of heaven and
+protector of the Hebrews.
+
+2. =Gabriel= (“whose strength is in God”), guardian of the heavenly
+treasury, and Joseph the patriarch’s preceptor.
+
+3. =Raphael= (the healing of God), chief guardian angel, and the leader
+of Tobias.
+
+4. =Uriel= (the light of God), who taught Esdras, explaining the
+prophecies.
+
+5. =Chamuel= (the wrath of God), who wrestled with Jacob.
+
+6. =Jophiel= (the beauty of God), guardian of the tree of knowledge and
+the same who drove Adam and Eve out of Paradise, and the preceptor of
+the sons of Noah.
+
+7. =Zadkiel= (the righteousness of God), who stayed the hand of Abraham
+when about to sacrifice Isaac.
+
+Only the names of the first four are given in the Bible, and these
+four are seldom represented together except in architectural decoration.
+
+=Badge of Trinitarians.= “His Holiness [Pope Innocent, III.] did
+forthwith ratify the Order, and, by his command, they assumed the
+white habit, having on the breast a Greek cross of red and blue; the
+three colours signifying the Three Persons of the Most Holy Trinity;
+the white, the Father Eternal; the blue, which was the traverse of
+the cross, the Son as Redeemer, and the red, the charity of the Holy
+Spirit.”
+
+=Basket.= Liberality to the poor.
+
+=Bear.= Solitary life and self-restraint.
+
+=Bee.= Originally a pagan symbol, the bee was adopted by the early
+monks as a symbol of chastity and industry. Peter of Capua alludes
+to the risen Saviour as _apis ætherea_. (In this connection it is
+interesting to note that Vishnu incarnate as Krishna is represented
+with a blue bee hovering about his head symbolising the ether.)
+Chrysostom, Isidore of Seville, Ambrose, and Bernard of Clairvaux were
+said to have lips flowing with honey (_mellifluus_) typifying their
+eloquence. The virgin queen of the hive became a favourite type of the
+Virgin Queen of Heaven. The bee is rarely found in art, however, but
+is occasionally seen carved on tombs in the catacombs as a symbol of
+immortality.
+
+=Beehive.= Eloquence.
+
+=St. Bernardino of Siena.= “So much was he affected by the mysteries of
+the incarnation and sufferings of the Son of God that he could never
+pronounce his sacred name without appearing in transports of love and
+adoration. Often at the end of his sermon he showed to the people
+the sacred name of Jesus curiously cut on a board with gold letters,
+inviting them to adore Christ with him on their knees, reciting a pious
+doxology.”[12]
+
+=Christ= in early art was typified by Orpheus seated among beasts and
+birds playing on a lyre.
+
+=Fish=, the eucharistic significance of. As the water turned into wine
+at the marriage of Cana was accepted by the early Church as symbolical
+of the Eucharist, so the fish as a symbol of Christ had also a
+eucharistic significance in commemoration of the miracle of the loaves
+and fishes. An early symbol of the Eucharist found in the catacombs is
+a cup containing three small loaves upon which are traced the cross.
+Speaking of the multitude who were fed with five loaves and two fishes,
+Paulinus of Nola says of Christ that “he himself is the true bread
+and the fish of living water”—_panis ipse verus et aquæ vivæ piscis
+Christus_. Eternal life and the Eucharist are inseparable ideas in the
+Church. “He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal
+life and I will raise him up at the last day.” Prosper of Aquitane
+speaks of Christ as “giving himself as food to the disciples by the
+seashore and offering himself to the whole world as _Ichthus_.”
+
+=Font.= According to Durandus the baptismal font in Christian churches
+was made octagonal because creation was complete in seven days; thus
+eight figured regeneration—the beginning anew.
+
+=Hands, two.= In some paintings by the early Italian artists of the
+Baptism of Christ _two_ hands are seen emerging from the clouds with
+the dove proceeding from them (see illustration, page 79). Thus when
+two hands crossed at the wrists are seen on certain houses and convents
+in Italy it should typify the blessing and protection of the Eternal
+Father.
+
+=Horns=, symbol of strength, intelligence, and power. See Moses.
+
+The =Lion= placed at the doors of churches as guardian of the sanctuary
+was symbolical of spiritual vigilance, as the lion was believed never
+to close its eyes in sleep. The lion, however, not only typified
+Christ triumphing over death and hell (Rev. v., 5), but was used also
+to typify the devil which “as a roaring lion walketh about, seeking
+whom he may devour” (1 Peter v., 8). Thus the lions used to support
+pulpits in churches, as in Siena, Pisa, Lucca, and elsewhere in Italy,
+represent Satan vanquished and subdued by the might of Christianity.
+The same idea of triumphing over the powers of evil was intended to be
+conveyed in the sculptured figures of deceased persons reclining on
+tombs with their feet resting on a dragon, a lion, or a dog—the dog
+being regarded by the Jew as the incarnation of the evil principle.
+The Hebrew misconception of the character of the dog is a very curious
+one and persists throughout the Bible, where he is rarely referred to
+except in terms of contempt. The substitution of the Aryan for the
+Semitic point of view, however, reversed the meaning of the symbolism
+at a later period, when a lion at the feet of a man typified courage
+and manly strength, and the dog at the feet of a woman indicated
+fidelity and undying love.
+
+The =Lizard= according to the _Physiologus_ when blind in old age
+creeps into the crevice of a wall facing east and stretches out its
+head to the rising sun whose beams restore its sight. Thus the lizard
+represented in ecclesiastical architecture is a symbol of the healing
+and illuminating effect of the gospel.
+
+The =Magi=. “In the early art of the catacombs the three children of
+Babylon refusing to worship the image of Nebuchadnezzar were often
+associated with the three Magi who refused to obey Herod. It is not
+improbable that the number of the Magi became fixed by this association
+rather than by the gifts they bore of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
+Previous to the fourth century they were represented as two, four, and
+in one case six. After that time they were invariably represented as
+three.”[13]
+
+=Majesty.= A term denoting pictures of Christ seated upon a throne and
+surrounded by angels with the symbols of the four Evangelists and the
+Greek letters Α and Ω, alpha and omega, signifying that Christ is the
+beginning and the end of all things.
+
+=Oran=, or =Orant=, designates the figures seen in the catacombs with
+hands uplifted in prayer.
+
+The =Ox= symbolises toil and patient renunciation.
+
+The =Phœnix= in Egyptian religion was the embodiment of Ra the Sun
+God. It was fabled to come out of Arabia every five hundred years to
+Heliopolis, where it burned itself on the high altar in the Temple of
+the Sun and rose again from its own ashes young and beautiful. This
+pagan emblem of the resurrection and of immortality was adopted by the
+Christians and is frequently found on early mosaics and sarcophagi and
+carved on church stalls, where it is often associated with the pelican.
+
+The =Sibyls=. There are numerous Sibyls but the Cumæan Sibyl of whom
+Ovid and Virgil wrote is the most famous. According to a Roman legend
+this Sibyl appeared to one of the Tarquins and offered him nine books
+for sale. The king refused to buy them. She burned three and returned
+with six, demanding the same price. Upon his second refusal she burned
+three more and returning to the king again demanded the same price for
+the three remaining. Puzzled, and curious at last, the king paid the
+price and found them to contain the destinies of the Roman state. These
+Sibylline books were for centuries the oracles of Rome.
+
+=Tetramorph=, a figure which combines the four heads with wings and
+fiery wheels described by Ezekiel (chap. x.). The same figure with six
+wings denotes extreme swiftness, the wheels also winged.
+
+=Three=, the number. According to Pythagoras three was the primal
+perfect number and symbol of completeness. The cube of three being nine
+was regarded by him as the extent to which numbers would go, all others
+being comprehended by and revolving within it. The decade ten was
+called by him “Heaven” as being the boundary of nine and forming as it
+were a monad with which recommences a fresh series capable of infinite
+expansion. The number three among Greeks and Romans had a mystic import
+and later when the meaning was lost it was considered exceptionally
+lucky, as were all uneven numbers.
+
+=Tobias.= See Tobit, Apocrypha.
+
+=Virgin of Pity.= The Madonna as “dispenser of mercy on earth” is
+sometimes represented crowned, standing with outstretched arms from
+which depends her mantle, the corners of which are upheld by angels,
+while underneath its shelter kneel worshipping votaries of all ranks
+and conditions—the rich, the poor, the lame and halt.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] Butler’s _Lives of the Saints_, vol. v., p. 369.
+
+[13] _Christian Art and Archæology_, by Walter Lowrie.
+
+
+
+
+SYMBOLS OF CERTAIN OLD TESTAMENT CHARACTERS
+
+
+THE PROPHETS
+
+AMOS. A shepherd’s crook.
+
+DANIEL. A lion. A ram with four horns. Sometimes naked with hands
+outstretched and a lion on each side.
+
+EZEKIEL. A turreted gateway, in his hand a plan of the New Jerusalem.
+
+ISAIAH. A saw. Clothed in a sack. St. Matthew on shoulder.
+
+JEREMIAH. A wand in his hand.
+
+JOEL. Lions around him.
+
+OBADIAH. Pitcher of water and loaves.
+
+ZECHARIAH. A temple building. A stone covered with eyes.
+
+
+THE PATRIARCHS
+
+ABRAHAM. A knife and brazier of fire.
+
+ADAM. A spade.
+
+DAVID. Harp. Sling of stones. Head of Goliath.
+
+ELIJAH. Scroll and red robes. Fiery chariot. Sword.
+
+ELISHA. Two-headed eagle on shoulder.
+
+GIDEON. Fleece of wool.
+
+JOSEPH. Purse.
+
+MELCHIZEDEK. Priest and king.
+
+MOSES. Tablets of the Law. A rod. Horns of light. Burning bush. A rock.
+Some modern writers claim that the horns given to Moses by artists
+and sculptors grew out of an error in the translation of the ancient
+Hebrew, the early translators describing Moses in his descent from
+Sinai as _facies cornuta_ (“his face was horned”) instead of “his face
+shone.” Other writers, however, assert that among all peoples, horns
+have symbolised power; that the Israelites, fresh from the land of
+bondage, familiar with horns upon the heads of Egyptian gods, would
+readily believe that Moses had miraculously received the mark of
+divinity and kingly power. That he really descended with solid horns
+upon his head was devoutly believed down to the middle ages.
+
+NOAH. Ark. Dove with olive branch. An oar.
+
+SAMSON. Gates of city. Jaw bone of an ass.
+
+SETH. Three seeds of the tree of life. A thread bound thrice around
+thumb.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ Abbey, 277.
+
+ Abraham, 290.
+
+ Adam, 290.
+
+ Adoration of Magi, 105.
+
+ Adoration of Shepherds, 104.
+
+ Agatha, St., her legend, 229.
+
+ Agnes, St., her legend, 226.
+
+ Ambrose, St., 182.
+
+ Amos, 290.
+
+ Anachronisms, 65.
+
+ Anchor, 73.
+
+ Andrew, St., Apostle, 153.
+
+ Angels, 281.
+
+ Anna, St., Legend of Joachim and Anna, 91.
+
+ Anna, prophetess, 109.
+
+ Anthony, St., Hermit, 240.
+
+ Anthony, St., of Padua, 258.
+
+ Apostles, the twelve, 146.
+
+ Apparition of Christ to His mother, 116.
+
+ Apple, symbol of, 75.
+
+ Archangels, 81.
+
+ Arrow, 72.
+
+ Ascension, 119.
+
+ Ass and Ox, Symbol of, 103.
+
+ Assumption of the Virgin, 119.
+
+ Augustine, St., 184.
+
+ Augustines, The, 277.
+
+ Aureole, 67.
+
+
+ Banner, or Standard, 73.
+
+ Barbara, St., 212.
+
+ Barnabas, St., 167.
+
+ Bartholomew, St., 161.
+
+ Basket, 284.
+
+ Bear, 284.
+
+ Bee, 284.
+
+ Beehive, 284.
+
+ Bell, 75.
+
+ Benedict, St., 244.
+
+ Benedictines, The, 275.
+
+ Bernard, St., of Clairvaux, 248.
+
+ Bernardino, St., of Siena, 264, 284.
+
+ Birds, as symbols, 88.
+
+ Bonaventura, St., 260.
+
+ Book, symbol of, 75, 87.
+
+ Brandeum, Legend of, 190.
+
+ Brigittines, 278.
+
+
+ Camaldolesi, 275.
+
+ Cana, Marriage at, 113.
+
+ Capuchins, 278.
+
+ Carmelites, 280.
+
+ Carthusians, 275.
+
+ Catherine, St., of Alexandria, 209.
+
+ Catherine, St., of Siena, 272.
+
+ Cecilia, St., 223.
+
+ Chalice, as emblem, 74.
+
+ Chamuel, 283.
+
+ Christ, Symbols of, 78, 285.
+
+ Christopher, St., 196.
+
+ Cistercians, 276.
+
+ Clara, St., 256.
+
+ Colours, Significance of, 76.
+
+ Cordeliers, 278.
+
+ Coronation of the Virgin, 121, 123.
+
+ Cosmo and Damian, Sts., 200.
+
+ Creed, Apostles’, 146.
+
+ Cross, Different forms of, 69.
+
+ Crown, as symbol, 71.
+
+ Crucifix, 76, 125-126.
+
+ Crucifixion, 114.
+
+
+ Daniel, 290.
+
+ David, 290.
+
+ Deposition, 116.
+
+ Descent from Cross, 115.
+
+ Devotional representations of the Virgin, 122.
+
+ Dispute in Temple, 111.
+
+ Doctors, Four, of the Church, 177.
+
+ Dominicans, 279.
+
+ Dominick, St., 266.
+
+ Dove, as emblem, 74, 88.
+
+ Dragon, symbol of, 70.
+
+ Dress, of Virgin, 76, 89.
+
+
+ Elijah, 290.
+
+ Elisha, 290.
+
+ Elizabeth, St., 100.
+
+ Entombment, 116.
+
+ Evangelists, Four, 137.
+
+ Ezekiel, 290.
+
+
+ Fathers, Four Latin, 177.
+
+ Fire and flames, 73.
+
+ Fish, emblem of Christ, 68, 285.
+
+ Flaming heart, 75.
+
+ Flight into Egypt, 109.
+
+ Flowers and fruit, 75.
+
+ Font, 285.
+
+ Francis, St., of Assisi, 252.
+
+ Franciscans, 278.
+
+
+ Gabriel, St., the Archangel, 84.
+
+ George, St., of Cappadocia, 191.
+
+ Gideon, 290.
+
+ Globe, 87.
+
+ Glory, 67.
+
+ God, the Father, Symbols of, 78.
+
+ Gregory, St., the Great, Legends of, 187.
+
+
+ Hands, two, 285.
+
+ Hart, 71.
+
+ Hind, 71.
+
+ Historical and devotional subjects, 64.
+
+ Holy Family, 112.
+
+ Holy Ghost, Symbols of, 78.
+
+ Horns, 286.
+
+
+ Immaculate Conception, 126.
+
+ Isaiah, 290.
+
+
+ James, St., the Great, 156.
+
+ James Minor, St., 163.
+
+ Jeremiah, 290.
+
+ Jerome, St., 177.
+
+ Jeronymites, 280.
+
+ Jesuits, 280.
+
+ Joachim, St., Legend of, 91.
+
+ Joel, 290.
+
+ John the Baptist, St., 134.
+
+ John the Evangelist, St., 142.
+
+ Jophiel, 283.
+
+ Joseph, 291.
+
+ Joseph, St., Marriage of, 94;
+ Death of, 113.
+
+ Judas Iscariot, 165.
+
+ Jude, St., 164.
+
+
+ Lamb, 70.
+
+ Lamp, 73.
+
+ Lance, 72.
+
+ Lantern, 73.
+
+ Last Supper, 175.
+
+ Latin Fathers, Four, 177.
+
+ Laurence, St., 235.
+
+ Lily, symbol of, 74.
+
+ Lion, as emblem, 70, 286.
+
+ Lizard, 287.
+
+ Louis, St., of France, 262.
+
+ Louis, St., of Toulouse, 263.
+
+ Lucy, St., 231.
+
+ Luke, St., the Evangelist, 141.
+
+
+ Madonna, Legends of, 91-121;
+ Symbols of, 86-88.
+
+ Magi, Adoration of, 105, 287.
+
+ Majesty, 287.
+
+ Margaret, St., 220.
+
+ Mark, St., the Evangelist, 140.
+
+ Marriage of Virgin, 94.
+
+ Mary Magdalene, St., 169.
+
+ Mater Amabilis, 132.
+
+ Mater Dolorosa, 125.
+
+ Matthew, St., 138.
+
+ Matthias, St., 165.
+
+ Melchizedek, 291.
+
+ Mendicant Orders, 278.
+
+ Michael, St., the Archangel, 81.
+
+ Minimes, 279.
+
+ Monastic Orders, 275.
+
+ Moses, 291.
+
+ Mysteries, Fifteen, of the rosary, 89.
+
+
+ Nativity, of the Virgin, 92;
+ of Christ, 102.
+
+ Nicholas, St., of Myra, 205.
+
+ Nimbus, 67.
+
+ Noah, 291.
+
+
+ Obadiah, 290.
+
+ Observants, 278.
+
+ Olive, as symbol, 74.
+
+ Olivetani, 276.
+
+ Oran or Orant, 287.
+
+ Oratorians, 276.
+
+ Order of Mercy, 278.
+
+ Orders, religious, 275.
+
+ Ox. _See_ Ass, symbol of, 287.
+
+
+ Palm, as emblem, 73.
+
+ Passion of our Lord, 114.
+
+ Paul, St., Apostle, 152.
+
+ Paul, St., Hermit, 241.
+
+ Peacock, 71.
+
+ Pelican, 70.
+
+ Peter, St., 148.
+
+ Peter Martyr, St., 268.
+
+ Philip, St., 159.
+
+ Phœnix, 287.
+
+ Pietà, 126.
+
+ Pomegranate, as emblem, 75, 88.
+
+ Poor Clares, 278.
+
+ Preaching Friars. _See_ Dominicans.
+
+ Precious stones, symbols of, in sacred art, 76.
+
+ Premonstratensians, 277.
+
+ Presentation of the Virgin, 92.
+
+ Procession to Calvary, 114.
+
+ Purification of the Virgin, 108.
+
+
+ Raphael, St., the Archangel, 84.
+
+ Repose of Holy Family, 110.
+
+ Roch, St., 202.
+
+ Rosary, Institution of. _See_ St. Dominick, 268.
+
+ Rosary. _See_ Mysteries.
+
+ Rose, symbol of Virgin, 87.
+
+
+ Saints frequently found in art, Legends of, 234.
+
+ Saints and Symbols, 30-63.
+
+ Samson, 291.
+
+ Scourge, as symbol, 74.
+
+ Sebastian, St., 194.
+
+ Serpent, 70, 88.
+
+ Servi, 277.
+
+ Seth, 291.
+
+ Seven joys. _See_ Sorrows.
+
+ Shell, 75.
+
+ Ship, emblem of, 73.
+
+ Sibyl, Tiburtina, Prophecy of, 102.
+
+ Sibyls, 288.
+
+ Simeon, Prophecy of, 108.
+
+ Simon Zelotes, St., 164.
+
+ Skull, 75.
+
+ Sorrows, Seven, of the Virgin, 89.
+
+ Spasimo, lo, 114.
+
+ Sposalizio, 94.
+
+ Square, 68.
+
+ Star, symbol of Virgin, 86.
+
+ Stephen, St., 234.
+
+ Sudarium, 62.
+
+ Sun, 86.
+
+ Sword, as emblem, 72.
+
+ Symbols, general, 67-75;
+ of saints, 1-29;
+ of the Virgin, 86-88.
+
+
+ Tetramorph, 288.
+
+ Thomas, St., 161.
+
+ Thomas Aquinas, St., 270.
+
+ Three, 288.
+
+ Triangle, emblem of, 68.
+
+ Trinitarians, 277;
+ badge of, 284.
+
+ Trinity, Holy, Symbols of, 80.
+
+
+ Unicorn, 75.
+
+ Uriel, 283.
+
+ Ursula, St., 214.
+
+
+ Vallombrosans, 275.
+
+ Vincent, St., 237.
+
+ Virgin Martyrs, Four, of the Latin Church, 223.
+
+ Virgin Mary, Legends of, 91-121;
+ Symbols of, 86-88.
+
+ Virgin Patronesses, 208.
+
+ Visitation, 100.
+
+ Visitation of St. Mary, Order of, 280.
+
+ Votive Pictures, 65, 130.
+
+
+ Zacharias, 134.
+
+ Zadkiel, 283.
+
+ Zechariah, 290.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78921 ***
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