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diff --git a/78919-0.txt b/78919-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..679b89f --- /dev/null +++ b/78919-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2728 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78919 *** + + + + + Transcriber’s Note + Italic text displayed as: _italic_ + + + + +IN CAMP AND KITCHEN + + + + +_Uniform with “In Camp and Kitchen.”_ + +SOYER’S PAPER BAG COOKERY, + +By NICOLAS SOYER. + +F’cap. 8vo cloth, 1/-net. Third large edition. + + +Paper Bag Cookery is handy, easy and economical, and hundreds of +thousands of people have adopted it permanently. + + +LONDON: ANDREW MELROSE. + + + + + IN CAMP AND + KITCHEN + + A Handy Guide for Emigrants + and Settlers + + BY THE AUTHOR OF + “THE SUCCESSFUL HOME COOK,” ETC. + + + LONDON: ANDREW MELROSE + 3, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W.C. + + 1912 + + He must go—go—go away from here, + On the other side the world he’s overdue; + Send your road is clear before you + When the old + Spring-fret comes o’er you, + And the Red Gods call for you! + + _The Feet of the Young Men._—KIPLING. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +One who has had much to do with outgoing colonists and knows a great +deal about their wants and difficulties, has summed up in a couple of +terse sentences their primary needs. These are, he says— + +Things to Take: Time, Patience, Money. + +Things to Leave: Hurry, Worry, Doubt. + +The summary is an excellent one. It covers all the necessary ground; +it is capable of infinite enlargement as to meaning, and at the same +time it packs away into the smallest possible compass all that the +traveller, the pioneer or future citizen can require. It is, in fact, +a complete manual in itself, and all that we do here is to interpret +it in fuller detail, and we do this in order to save the time, the +patience and the money of those who perhaps have little of either to +spare. + +Much has been written about the romance of colonization, and stories +of pioneering experiences are of thrilling interest—when read at home. +It is difficult to see the romance, as it is difficult to experience +the thrills when actually undergoing the hardships and battling with +the difficulties on the spot. What really helps, then, is not the +ability to see the romance or the picturesqueness of the situation, +but the ability to see the humorous side of things. A sense of humour +saves many a situation, and to be able to laugh in the face of hunger +and hardship, because it brings goodwill to bear on the subject, does +wonders in the way of smoothing down the rough side both of men and +things. + +One of the daily trials will be the imperative need of getting meals +ready. Those three meals a day are perpetually hindering other work, +taking up much time and thought, and involving much carrying about of +tools and materials. Yet they cannot be done without, and are not to be +despised or treated with indifference. In fact, from the health point +of view they are of more consequence than making progress in other +ways, for without health and strength the colonist is of no good at all. + +Those who set out with the idea of “roughing it” are very apt, in their +early enthusiasm, to think lightly about the food question, but when +they find themselves thrown on their own resources, obliged to use +their own initiative in everything, it is wonderful how important a +matter cookery becomes, and how much is made of a little knowledge or +skill in this direction. + +“Can you tell me of a simple cookery-book to send out to my boy in +Canada?” a lady asked us one day. “He says he finds meals are so much +more important than he ever imagined they were, and he wants to know +how to do so many things.” + +It is the simple book we have tried to write, one that the average +young man—or young woman—will have the time and patience to read and +the money to buy. It may not tell all that they will want to know, but +at least it will tell them enough to make for comfort, economy and +health, and we trust that all useless and needless technicalities have +been avoided. The great Food question comes first, and has received +the bulk of attention, as it should do, but there are a few useful +suggestions further on which may help to make the difficult way easier. +It is not possible to meet the wants of all types of settlers, for some +go to pioneer work and others go to live under advanced conditions—more +advanced, in fact, than they leave behind them in the old country; +nevertheless, all must take with them a certain amount of time, +patience and money, and all must leave behind hurry, worry and doubt, +while all, wherever they are, will find, we think, some use for our +Handy Guide. + + L. H. Y. + +LONDON, 1912 + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 7 + + I COOKING IN THE OPEN: ELEMENTARY COOKING APPARATUS 13 + + II THE LOG-HUT OR CAMP KITCHEN 24 + + III DEALING WITH THE STORES: WATER, REFUSE, WASTE, ETC. 34 + + IV THE STAFF OF LIFE: BREAD; YEASTS, QUICK BREAD, ETC. 50 + + V THE DAY’S FOOD AND WORK: FOOD REQUIRED, INITIAL + PREPARATIONS 61 + + VI COOKING OF FISH, MEAT, AND VEGETABLES, THE “REASON WHY,” + ETC. 78 + + VII SIMPLIFIED COOKERY RECIPES 90 + + VIII PRACTICAL HINTS FOR THE HANDY MAN 118 + + + + +I + +COOKING IN THE OPEN: AND ELEMENTARY COOKING APPARATUS + + +The ideal colonist is he who is able to turn his hand to anything and +to supply a table although having practically nothing in the way of +cooking utensils. Necessity will teach him how to use his ingenuity in +building and manufacturing contrivances of his own, and it is to such a +handy man that we offer the following suggestions. + +A kettle, a “billy” and a frying-pan may seem a quite sufficient +kitchen equipment at first, but some means of baking will soon seem +necessary. Bread, for instance, or whatever takes the place of bread, +is so much more satisfactory when baked. Hence it is worth while to +spend a little time in building up a fireplace in which heat can +be retained for some considerable time. Much must depend upon the +kind of fuel that can be obtained, but mostly this will be wood, or +charcoal made from wood, or the dried droppings of cattle, when coal is +unprocurable. + +The most elementary type of fireplace for boiling purposes is made by +gathering together large stones of even size, and to form a square with +them, opening at one side, and of course open at the top. The size of +this top opening is regulated by the size of the kettle or pan that is +set over it. Place the stones with as much regularity as possible, and +fill in the spaces between with clay or earth. If the soil is clay and +stones are not to be had, form a fireplace with the clay itself in such +a way as to have four walls with opening at the side and at top. Make a +small fire first in the firehole with the driest grass and twigs, then +feed it with small pieces of wood, and when it is burning well fill up +with wood and dried grass and any fuel you have, packing it lightly but +closely. It is possible to build a fire that will be bright and quick +for boiling, or one that will burn steadily for hours, for stewing or +baking purposes. With practice a good deal of skill is acquired, and +the more the fireplace is used, the better will it serve its purpose. +When new it is slower in getting to work on account of damp, but will +burn quite quickly when hard and dry through. To dry the fuel that is +going to be used is a great economy of time, and can be done when the +fire itself has gone out. Keep the firehole clear and free from ashes. + +An oven can be made to stand on top of this fireplace by coating a +large biscuit-tin with clay and baking it. A little ingenuity will +devise a door for this oven, and it will be found to answer quite well +for baking bread and cooking a pudding or for making a slow stew. + +In building a fire in the open take notice as to the way the wind blows +and take advantage of it as much as possible, as it will help or hinder +the fire from burning. Sometimes a screen of stones built up on the +windward side will help matters considerably. + +A small pair of bellows should be included in the colonist’s outfit, +as well as a small pair of tongs, for any fire will burn the better +for a little coaxing with the bellows first, and pieces of wood can be +more skilfully arranged with the help of tongs than without them. Then +whenever any sawdust is met with it should be carefully collected and +mixed with oil or paraffin into little cakes, to make quick and easy +firelighters. + +An open bonfire, with tripod of three sticks or iron supports, may +be all that it is possible to get together for the quick boiling of +saucepan or kettle, but the results can never be so good as when a +built up fireplace is made. On the other hand, a good bonfire leaving a +thick bed of burnt ashes and embers is sometimes the best contrivance +for roasting large pieces of meat, birds, and so on. Suppose it is +desired to cook a whole large fish, a rabbit, fowl or other troublesome +creature (troublesome because of the plucking and drawing, skinning, +etc., that it seems to require), all trouble is saved by making a +covering of wet clay well pressed down as a thick coating over the +fish, bird or animal, after having let out the blood, making it into +a sort of ball of clay. Bury this ball in the hot ashes and embers, +heaping them over it. In about an hour or rather more, the ball can be +broken open and feathers, fur or scales will be found to have stuck to +the clay, leaving the flesh perfectly baked and juicy, and the entrails +will have dried up inside. + +Suppose a big roast of meat is wanted—a half-side of a sheep or pig. +The outer skin has, of course, been taken from the meat in this case +and all internals too. Make a rather deep circle on the ground, paving +it with flat stones, or beat the clay very flat and hard. Build a +big fire on this and let it burn right through, then sweep aside all +embers and ashes, brushing the stones or clay clean, lay down the meat +and cover it first with a thick layer of leaves, then pile over it +the embers, some brushwood, and finally more clay until it is closely +covered and none of the heat can escape. Leave for two or three hours; +uncover, and clear off all ashes, and the meat should be found well +baked through. In a similar way bread can be cooked on hot stones, +using only a thick layer of leaves and ashes for covering. + +A little experience will make any one quite skilful in the use of +the most unpromising materials, and if compelled to do it a man can +generally produce a quite appetising meal with nothing but a clay +fireplace and a few old meat tins. The total absence of what Americans +call “fixings”—the little additions which the ordinary cook at home +considers indispensable—need not, and will not deter the camp cook +from making savoury meals, but as circumstances alter cases very +considerably, it is possible only to make suggestions here, which each +one must adapt or improve upon to suit himself. When hungry men are +craving to be fed the absence of seasoning or condiments is not missed, +but good baking, frying or boiling has to be accomplished somehow. + +Where the camp is a more or less permanent one or the preliminary +to a settlement and house-building, there may be a number of people +to cook for, and hence it is worth while making some form of Trench +Kitchen. For this, dig a trench about three feet deep and four or five +feet wide, and at right angles form a series of narrow trenches close +together. Arch over these with stones and turf and make hollows in the +top of the ridges to hold saucepans and kettles. A hole for the firing +is made at the end of each ridge, the smoke from which passes along the +side trenches that are arched over and is drawn up a “chimney” that +is set up in the middle of the cross trough at the further end which +connects all the trenches. To create a good draught a long tin funnel +helps to make this chimney. If there is any likelihood of the trench +kitchen becoming flooded out by rains it can be tented over. A series +of “ranges” is created by forming ridges in this way so that boiling +and stewing, frying and grilling can all be going on at the same time. +All the same, the need of an oven for baking will be felt, and while +small ovens for placing over a firehole can be made out of biscuit +tins as before mentioned, a large one can be built out of stones and +clay, or with the help of an iron-hooped barrel, in this wise: cover +the barrel with clay or turf and stones, well wetted and beaten down +over it, and give it time to solidify, then build a fire inside the +barrel. The wood will burn away, leaving the iron hoops as supports. If +the covering is sufficiently thick, such an oven is quickly heated and +retains its heat quite a long time, the fire being built inside it and +swept out when burnt through. Insert a piece of piping in the middle +of the top of this barrel-oven to act as a vent for the smoke. Arrange +a door with a piece of sheet iron sufficiently large to cover up the +opening; it need not, of course, be put on hinges, as stones will help +to keep it in position. Food that is put into this oven to cook, after +the oven has been heated and swept out, should be enclosed in a bag of +paper if not already in a dish. A little practice will enable any one +to judge how long the heat may be relied upon to last, and how long +time must be allowed for the cooking in paper or in a dish. + +Food that is already cooked can be kept hot for hours by following +the Thermos principle. This is the principle of storing up heat, but +not of generating it. Anything that is already hot can be kept hot, +and anything already cold can be kept cold. In a Thermos flask there +is a vacuum between two surfaces which is a non-conductor preventing +the escape of heat, likewise in the Thermos jar, and whatever is put +in at a certain temperature retains that temperature for a very long +time without alteration. While it is hardly possible for the pioneering +colonist to make a good Thermos flask or jar, he can carry out the +same principle of storing heat in other ways. The Hay-box Oven is a +primitive construction, perhaps, but it answers extremely well and +costs very little to make. What is wanted is a strong wooden box with +well-fitting lid—a thick box and one that is large enough to take a +thick layer of hay or sawdust at the bottom as well as all round the +jar put inside the box. Cook over the fire the soup, stew, pudding or +whatever it may be, and when sufficiently cooked and whilst boiling +hot, lift the jar or pan off the fire and set it in the middle of the +Hay-box Oven. Pack hay and sawdust closely round it, filling up all +spaces, then over the top as well and put on the box cover, then a +piece of blanket folded, or a rug. You may go away for hours, all the +day or night, if you like, and come back to find your soup or stew +perfectly cooked and thoroughly hot. + +A hole in the ground, lined with hay and sawdust, will answer the same +purpose, if care is taken to cover the place very thickly to allow no +escape of heat. The advantage of the box is that it is portable and can +be used anywhere. + +The Biscuit-tin Oven has the advantage over the Hay-box Oven in that +it can be used for actual cooking by placing it over the firehole and +keeping a fire burning underneath it. But unless the biscuit-tin is +covered with clay made hard the solder is very apt to melt and cause +the oven to give way when exposed to great heat. The same objection +arises with regard to the use of empty fruit and meat cans as cooking +pots. On the other hand, stone jam jars are valuable, and make +excellent stew-jars; especially useful are they for holding anything +that is to go into the Hay-box Oven to be kept hot for hours. + +Where there are no saucepans and no jars to use, nothing but the open +fire and a billy, it is an improvement to have two of these billies +and to set one inside the other with water between. The “billy,” be it +understood, is nothing more than a tin can with handle slung across it, +but there are improved forms of it, such, for instance, as the cans +which navvies use to carry their coffee or soup when going to work, +and some of these are made in enamelled ware, with close-fitting lid. +If one of these better cans were to be placed inside a rougher one of +tin, the outer one would get all the smoking and hard usage, while the +better one would be clean enough to set on the table when required. +If a little hook is made in the wire of the handle it will prevent +slipping when the billy is suspended over the fire. + +The principle of this kind of cookery—what a colonist would doubtless +dub “glue-pot cookery”—is sound, and it is copied by many inventors of +more elaborate things which, in spite of their elaboration, however, +cook none the better in reality than two cans one inside the other. +The Warrener, for instance, which is much liked by camp cooks and +travellers, is in principle but a glorified glue-pot. What is really +better than the Warrener is the Hutchings steamer, which is a kind +of conjuror’s cabinet, having a tier of compartments or pans one +fitting above the other, each one being a sort of steamer, the bottom +one holding the water. This is guaranteed by its maker to cook as +perfectly on the “top floor as in the basement,” and one or more of the +compartments can be used without the other, while a whole dinner may be +cooked at the same time with nothing but the one pan. These Hutchings +steamers are likewise fairly cheap, and can be procured at the large +ironmongery stores anywhere in London. + +Still another of these “glorified glue-pots,” if we may be pardoned +for using the term, is the Welbank Boilerette, the Cooker that Looks +After Itself, as its advertisement declares. This is much less +expensive than the Warrener, and can be had in several sizes. It +cooks everything—whether porridge, soups, stews, joints, fowls or +vegetables—in their own juices, and so preserves the fullest flavours +and makes tenderness certain. Like the Warrener, it must be used in +conjunction with some sort of stove or fireplace, not on the hearth or +open fire. + +The frying-pan is another article which must be classed among +elementary cooking appliances, for it is almost indispensable for the +quick preparation of a meal. It is well to take two frying-pans, one of +black iron for quick frying of fish or meat, the other of enamelled +iron for cooking eggs and making damper. The iron one will not often +need washing if it is well rubbed with paper after each time of using, +but the other one will want washing with soap and perhaps a little sand +or ashes to keep it white and smooth. + +Some travellers argue that bread as well as meat can be roasted on a +spit—no doubt meaning that the spit can be run through the middle of +a piece of dough, and by careful watching and turning the bread cooks +all over. But a spit is not difficult to make, only in cutting them +from wood care must be taken not to use poison woods; take the straight +branches of trees that are well known and familiar. Wild shrubs +and wild vegetables should be looked upon with distrust; a few are +harmless, but many are not. It would be better to make the spit with +an iron or wire rod, setting it in supports at either end, if at all +possible to do so. The fire must have burnt clear red before attempting +to roast anything on a spit, otherwise smoke will spoil the flavour of +the food. + + + + +II + +THE LOG-HUT OR CAMP KITCHEN + + +Some men possess considerable natural aptitude in cooking, and any +skill of this kind will serve them in good stead when they become +colonists, and where there is not natural aptitude it is well worth +while acquiring a little knowledge by dint of study. Supposing all +other kinds of employment fail, a cook’s job is generally to be got and +no one grudges his wages. A little story may be cited which bears out +the truth of this. The son of an army chaplain and a public school-boy, +decided to go out to the Colonies, and before doing so took a course +of lessons in land surveying. He went out to a large farm and at +first did fairly well, but then he fell on evil times, and having no +capital was soon on his beam ends. A chum of his who came across him +remembered certain school study feasts, and as he was himself a kind of +sub-contractor in a lumber camp, offered his friend the post of camp +cook for a hundred or more men, at good wages. The offer was promptly +accepted. The new cook, who was a smart lad, soon had everything well +organized and in apple-pie order. He pleased the men mightily and could +always rely on their help for the harder tasks of chopping firewood, +washing-up, and so on. Soon he acquired a real liking for his job +and got through his work quickly and easily. When the second season +came round he again enlisted as camp cook, but this time, having some +capital, he went into partnership with his friend the sub-contractor. +The two prospered. They sub-contracted for the woodwork to be done on +one of the railways then being built, and the “cook’s” knowledge of +mathematics and surveying then came in useful. In a few years’ time he +blossomed out as a railway engineer with an important post, big salary, +house, servants and horses. Of course he had his mathematics and his +land surveying to help him. Still it was his wage-commanding knowledge +of cookery that had set him on his feet, and on the road to fortune. + +Most open-air cooks have to make the best they can out of the +situation, for the site of a camp is not usually settled with much +regard for their convenience. If there is good water within reasonable +distance that is much to be thankful for. The planning out of the +kitchen will depend chiefly upon circumstances; where there are only +two or three to be catered for it is not a difficult matter, but where +a dozen or more men want at least two meals a day, it is a matter +requiring some contrivance and organization. + +Choose a position as much protected from wind as possible for the camp +kitchen, and have it separate from the rest of the camp. Where rocks +or boulders can be made use of take them into service, but build a +furnace, (one or more), with stones, of a size convenient to hold pans +and cauldrons, and make a table also. + +If a circular form is taken for the furnace it can be partly domed +over, which enables more draught and a greater degree of heat to be +obtained. Where a good deal has to be turned out of the kitchen it is +a good plan to have a row of furnaces and build a chimney to connect +with them, making the walls thick at bottom and narrow at the top. The +chimney should come immediately behind the furnaces with a hollow base +three feet square, gradually narrowing up to a height of six feet or +more. A hole or flue of stones welded together with clay should connect +each furnace with the chimney. If the whole battery is built in one +block flues are easy to shape, and a splendid heat should be obtained +from the stoves. + +Where a log cabin or stone hut is being built the greatest care should +be given to the erection of the fireplaces for cooking purposes, as the +comfort and likewise the safety of the whole construction will depend +on this part being secure and sound. The more good masonry work is put +into the fireplaces the greater and more economical will be the amount +of heat obtained from the fuel that is consumed. Thick, well-made walls +prevent the escape of heat. + +For the hearth and base of furnaces and chimney use as large stones +as can possibly be found, the flatter the better. If the large stones +require much levelling take smaller ones in preference and fit them +together as evenly as can be with sand and clay. Excellent fireplaces +can be built with stones and mud, but a little cement is of course much +better for binding together the stones. Build the fireplace in the +middle of the wall at the end of the hut, or across one corner. Make +the hearth a little higher than the floor level. Sacrifice a little +space, if need be, to have the fireplace inside the hut, and not, as +is too often done, outside as a separate projection. Level the hearth, +cover with a thin bed of cement or mortar or wet clay, and place +thereon the largest and flattest stones, making the level as straight +as you can. Now build round this hearth thick walls, starting them in a +trench dug at least eighteen inches below the level of the ground. The +walls should surround the hearth on three sides, leaving a part of the +side facing into the hut open. Carry them up to about two or three feet +high and gradually narrow them to bring the top nearer towards a dome +shape. A good builder will then carry his furnace up in chimney shape +right out through the roof of the hut, but if stones fail then the rest +of the chimney can be a zinc or tin pipe. Experts, who are able to use +mortar, will give the chimney a bend to right or left which prevents +too strong a downward draught, or the fire from being put out by rain. + +With a hearth such as this it is well to place upstanding supports +about the middle, such as a pan or kettle could be rested upon; this +helps in the cooking very much, and prevents any spilling when the fire +burns down. With an open hearth with thick-walled sides, such as this, +much can be done, but it is well worth while going to the trouble of +building a furnace oven, as before described, in addition. + + +Additional Portable Appliances + +Only in very remote districts indeed would any one be limited to such +rough fireplaces as these. Fuel of some other kind, such as oil, would +assuredly be procurable to some extent, and a portable oil stove would +take the place of the gas ring and gas appliances in town houses. The +outgoing colonist would not be ill-advised to take with him a portable +oil stove of some make, and when doing so he might as well choose one +that will do more than merely boil a kettle. A small-sized Rippingill, +with one tank can, when required, cook a full-sized dinner and will +burn no more oil than a simple boiling stove. When buying such a +stove buy a can for holding oil, a filler, and an extra wick or two, +and carry something wherewith to clean the stove and keep it in good +condition, then wherever oil is procurable the little stove can be +brought into use and prove of endless comfort. There may be occasions +when the stove must be packed away and resort be had to the rougher and +more primitive methods of the clay fireplace or the tripod in the open, +but the stove would in that case take no harm and come out smiling when +opportunity favours it again. + +The same remark applies to the spirit lamp or traveller’s Etna; though +methylated spirit is more difficult to procure than is kerosene or +paraffin oil. Still there are occasions when travelling or when camping +in a tent, or making a journey by boat, when a portable spirit stove or +lamp is of great service, or in sickness. + + +Electric Cooking Apparatus + +One must bear in mind that all Colonists are not going out as pioneers, +but that many will be setting up new homes in districts where in +certain matters conditions of living will be even more advanced than +they are in the old country. For instance, in parts of South Africa, +the Transvaal, and the Cape, electric power is fast coming into common +use, while gas is not used at all and coal is scarce and expensive. +In such cases, electric lighting will be found general in quite small +townships and in quite small houses, and therefore the electric cooking +stove will become, not a luxury such as we in England would deem it, +but a necessity. + +Having ascertained how far electric power is in use in the district +to which the colonist is going, and also how it is supplied and how +available, it is possible then to consider the advisability of taking +out a portable electric stove, such, for instance, as can be connected +up with an ordinary light in any room. A portable stove of this kind, +about twelve inches square, which is a combined Grill and Water Boiler, +can be had for 35_s._ complete, with flexible wiring for connecting +up. Its consumption is about 750 watts of electric energy per hour or +about three-fourths of a unit—the cost of course depending on the price +charged per unit in the district. In any case, this is a little stove +that at a cost of approximately a penny will produce a full meal with +tea, coffee or soup, a grilled steak or chop and toast in something +less than half an hour. It is so small and so capable, that, whether +sure of finding electric power or not, the outgoing colonist would add +little to his expenses and less to his luggage by taking one on the +chance of finding it useful. + +But when certain of electric power and when going out to establish +a home forthwith, in a district where electricity is in common use, +certain fittings and assuredly a cooking stove, should be taken +without hesitation. There are some to be got out there no doubt, but +they are cheaper here, and also there is more variety to choose from. +Several types of electric ovens are now on the market; the price of +them varies according to size and capacity. One that is strongly to be +recommended for wear and capability, for family use in a small kitchen, +is the “X.L.” It stands 36 inches high; it is 24 inches in width, +and weighs 130 pounds. It is a thoroughly good and strong stove and +can be installed wherever electric current is obtainable. One of its +commendable points is its perfect freedom from dust or smoke, another +is that each of its compartments can be used independently of the +others, being controlled by separate switches. There is also a minimum +and a medium switch, and when both are put on together the maximum +degree of heat is obtained. The oven is large enough to hold a joint +and pastry or bread, while the grill, the hot-plate and plate-warmer +can be used or shut off, as desired. The price of this complete is £18 +10_s._ f.o.b. at any English port. These “X.L.” stoves are manufactured +by O. G. Hawkes, Ltd., at Globe Works, Bromsgrove Street, Birmingham. + +Smaller and less expensive is the “Tricity” range and outfit supplied +by the Berry Construction Company, 29a, Charing Cross Road, whose +wholesale agents are Messrs. Gillespie & Beales, Amberley House, +Norfolk Street, Strand, W.C. The Tricity Cookers are listed for +Direct or Alternating Current Circuits of not less than 100 voltage. +In addition to the oven and hot-plate, either of which can be used +independently of the other, the outfit comprises an extension cooker +which gives another boiling ring, and the whole equipment of utensils +consists of thirteen articles, comprising a complete apparatus. The +full list with stove and extension cooker costs £12 10_s._, but the +oven and hot-plate alone is four guineas. Ordinary tin kettles and +saucepans will answer, but the outfit is purchasable in parts and may +consist of as few articles as any one wishes to take. + +That fine explorer, Boyd Alexander Smith, and in fact all experienced +travellers, speak of the value of having a mincing machine at hand. It +comes in useful for so many purposes, making tender and digestible +meat that is often too tough to use in any other way. It assists in +making savoury dishes out of remnants, will grind down the stale +crusts, and save much trouble in many ways. A good mincing machine can +be got for 12_s._ 6_d._, but one that has adjustable parts, making it +useful for cutting up vegetables and beans, is a little more in price. + + + + +III + +DEALING WITH STORES, ETC. + + Purification of Water—Storage of Water—Disposal of Refuse and + Waste—Keeping Food Stores—A Curing House—An Ice House, etc. + + +The importance of having a supply of water can hardly be +over-estimated. A township depends upon it, and a log-hut or cabin must +be pitched as near to a water supply as is possible, while no journey +of any length can be undertaken unless water is carried or obtained at +fairly frequent intervals, and this whether the climate is hot or cold. +Some ready means of purifying water that is abundant yet of doubtful +quality is likewise essential, also some means of catching the rainfall +as it occurs. Then we must consider the storage of water in camps and +locations not intended to be permanent ones. On all these points it is +desirable to be ready with knowledge and resourcefulness. + +Experienced travellers like the late Sir Francis Galton, W. B. Lord +and Thos. Baines all speak of ways of filtering water and of making it +fit for human consumption, writing at a time when the portable filter +was almost unknown. Still if a portable filter saves much trouble it +is also heavy to carry about, and rougher and readier forms must +sometimes be resorted to. An excellent filter for camp use is described +by the two writers last named. They say— + +Take a wooden box or barrel, long and deep. Bore a number of holes in +the bottom and then fasten inside it a bag made with a folded piece +of blanket. At the bottom place a layer of grass, moss or twigs, then +a layer of sand, then fresh layer of moss, and so on until the barrel +is half-filled. Make a cover which will fit well inside the barrel +like a second bottom; press it down and weight it to keep it from +rising. Half-sink this barrel in a pond or stream, and the water which +will gradually filter up to the upper compartment can then be baled +out clean and clear. If it needs purifying still further after this +clearing, boil it with a pinch of alum, and then expose it again to the +air. Alum has a chemical effect on organic matter, and a small handful +of it will purify a whole hogshead of water. + +This arrangement of cask or barrel can be carried out by fitting a +smaller cask inside a larger one, the smaller being perforated with +holes, and the space between it and the larger one filled with stones +and sand, then the double cask can be sunk in the pond. These rough and +ready filters are very useful where a collection of water is found +in hollow places, the drainage from streams and after a rainfall, the +quality of which may be doubtful or too muddy for drinking purposes. If +water is merely thick, not putrid, it can be filtered through a cloth. +But where it is putrid, and is yet the only water available, it should +be first boiled, then mixed up with crushed charcoal and allowed to +settle again exposed to sun and air. Alum is a purifier and charcoal +is a disinfectant. There is no other way of using salt water than by +distilling it. + +How to store water, in places where it is difficult to keep any supply, +is another matter. Every drop of rain water is of value, and should +be caught, as far as possible by means of piping from the roofs of +sheds, ending in barrels, but this source of supply can be increased by +suspending blankets or canvas sails by the four corners between trees, +weighting them with stones in the middle to make the water run towards +the centre, and placing underneath this a barrel or bucket. Dew water +brushed off leaves and grass into basins in the early morning will +yield a great deal more than might be imagined, and in dry climates +there is often a heavy fall of dew before sunrise. + +A precaution which old travellers take to prevent thirst is to keep +the outer clothing damp and a wet cloth folded round the throat. Where +water is not fit for drinking it still can be used to moisten clothing, +and this little precaution prevents evaporation from the skin. + +As an indication where water may be found in strange districts, Galton +advises watching the flight of birds. Converging flights of birds +are usually safe guides, especially towards evening. Dogs also have +an instinct for discovering water, but cattle are less trustworthy, +as their tracks may often lead from rather than towards water. When +digging for water, in default of spades, a hole can be made with a +sharp-pointed stick, holding it upright and stirring it round, scraping +out the loosened earth with the hands. Where soil or sand is found +moist lower down, water will generally collect when a hollow is made +for it. The native bushmen keep their holes open by a rough contrivance +of twigs tied together and converging to a point. + +When carrying water in pails from a spring or well, place a thick +wreath of grass or leaves round the edge of the pail to prevent +spilling. Leaves floating on the top will also help to keep the water +in. Where water has to be carried for a journey, over the shoulder or +from a saddle, nothing is better than leather bags, or skin bags answer +the purpose well. Stone jars are heavy and unsatisfactory. + +The water supply for a district of isolated homesteads or camps is +sometimes a difficult matter to arrange where there is no spring +or river near enough. Some form of co-operation in the matter of +well-sinking is very desirable, and the wells should be concreted and +protected in the common interest. Well boring is beyond our scope and +cannot be gone into here, as it requires some engineering knowledge and +skill, but it may doubtless come into the day’s work at some time or +other. Making a cistern for rain water is, however, another matter, one +for the individual camper or hut-dweller to attend to, and therefore +we may here give Dr. George Vivian Poore’s clever adaptation of the +old Venetian system, as cited by the editor of an admirable work on +_Small Estate Management_, by A. C. Freeman, a useful book published by +Rebman & Co., 129, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C., which will give +invaluable help to those laying out homesteads. + +“His cistern, which received rain from the roof of a four-roomed +bungalow cottage (giving about 1,100 feet square of surface), was +circular, partly sunk in the ground, and built of concrete. The +dimensions were: internal diameter 7 feet, depth 10 feet. It was +divided into two compartments by a cement diaphragm, perforated at the +bottom by agricultural drain-pipes. Both sections contained a filter +bed, consisting of 1 foot of sand, 1 foot of fine gravel, and a top +layer of coarse gravel, also one foot thick. The water on draining off +the roofs into the gutters passed through a double strainer and then +entered at the top of the first section of the cistern, being filtered +downwards, and then filtered upwards as it rose in the second half, +which was provided with a pump having a copper suction pipe (lead and +ironing being of course inadvisable where soft, solvent rain water is +concerned). A good cover protected the top. The storage capacity of +this cistern was 1,600 gallons, or forty gallons a day for a drought of +six weeks. Although the cottage was near a small town the water proved +of excellent quality, pure, chemically and bacteriologically, and used +for all purposes, and appreciated by a family in spite of its having +a slightly yellow caste and a faint smell. An undoubted improvement +would be to use as a substitute for the strainer an automatic tilting +separator, which divests the first few gallons (the washing shower) +from the reservoir. Such water is perfectly fitted for all domestic +purposes, but the supply from an ordinary cottage roof may not be +adequate for a household. In such a case a surface well may be sunk +to provide water for washing, bathing, live stock watering, etc. Such +wells should be sunk about 10 to 12 feet deep, the upper 8 or 10 feet +being lined with impervious material (concrete with smooth cement +surface) covered over. In this way the water can only rise from the +bottom, and if the land is being well cultivated the ground water is +sure to be pure. Dr. Poore had a shallow well, only 5 feet 6 inches +deep, in his highly cultivated garden, the sides lined with concrete +pipes protected by 4 inches of concrete right to the bottom. This well +generally contained 3 feet 6 inches of water (about ninety gallons), +yet it was chemically and bacteriologically pure and quite potable.” + +It may be useful to those who are making a dwelling within a township +if we quote further the author’s words about water carried from main +pipes. He says— + +“Where water is obtained through mains it is well to make some +provision against the effects of frost. In Canada the general practice +is to carry the supply pipe into the house below the frost level, into +a sunken earthenware box, open at the bottom and resting on a drainage +pit filled with sand or breeze. The tap proper is placed within this +box, and rising from this to the sink level are two pipes, one within +the other, the outer one being a tap spindle, the inner the actual +water pipe. At the base of this pipe is a vent-hole. When the tap +spindle is turned on the water rises and flows out; when turned off the +vent-hole is opened and at once drains the standpipe, so that freezing +is impossible. A somewhat easier method is to bring the pipe through a +small closed copper vessel placed just at the entrance of the pipe into +the house. When there is any sign of hard frost it is merely necessary +to place a small flamed lamp beneath the copper vessel to prevent any +possibility of freezing. It is inexpensive, saves much inconvenience, +and also loss arising from damage done by bursts.” + +Having made what suggestions we can to help the colonist in the matter +of securing and storing a water supply, we must now consider that other +important item, the disposal of waste water and other refuse. It is +amazing what an amount of refuse matter and waste water accumulates +from day to day in a camp or quite small settlement. The ground is +the one safe and sure receptacle for all waste matter, even kitchen +waste where there are no fowls or pigs to consume the scraps. But all +vegetable refuse and bones should be burned before returning it to the +soil, hence a scrap heap can be made and set fire to once a week, the +whole of it when raked out being dug into the soil again. Ashes from +fires should be put into a box and kept for use in the earth closet, +the waste matter from the latter being dug into a field or garden, not +into a pit, and it should not be too far below the surface. Dry soil +does quite as well as ashes for sprinkling into the closet pail, and +this dug into the earth again at short intervals is the most sanitary +and easy way of disposing of this waste. If the precaution of using +plenty of dry earth is used no flies will gather about the organic +matter, nor will any smells be noticeable. + +Waste water from baths and from kitchen washing-up is valuable wherever +bush fruit is grown, and can always be poured round trees, or round +young plants in a garden plot. The main point in disposing of all +refuse is to restore as much as possible to the land. Where this is +done carefully and with discrimination the ground benefits and nothing +offensive is left to annoy by sight or smell. The secret of successful +French and Dutch gardening is this careful digging in of all refuse +matter, vegetable and other, and not in the applying of expensive +guanos and manures. The authority quoted above has a good deal to say +on this matter of returning refuse matter to the soil. To quote him +again— + +“The splendid productive soils of the Dutch, French and Italian gardens +are the result of many years of careful cultivation, a system whereby +the soil is continually being enriched with what we are pleased to call +‘Waste’ material. Therefore for both hygienic and practical gardening +reasons, the earth closet system is to be advocated. While on the +question of soil enrichment we would point out that those who cultivate +small holdings, allotments and gardens should be taught to return as +much to the soil as possible. All greenstuff, trimmings, leaves and +so on, should either be dug in or placed to ripen in a compost pit +and used as fertilizer when digging over the land. Sticks and wood +should be burned and the ashes added to the pit because rotting wood +in the soil attracts insects and so must be avoided. Such enrichment +is valuable in any situation, but will be found to work marvels in +lightening heavy clays and in bringing fertility to poor, porous soils. +In our experience the most productive gardens have been those with +‘made soils’ which have been enriched for generations. Dr. Poore’s +experimental garden, dressed regularly with dry closet-soil, brought +in over £56 per acre, the crops being ordinary orchard and bush fruit, +asparagus, potatoes, green stuff and flower all grown in the open, no +glass being used and very little labour available.” + +And now we must pass on to the keeping of stores—of stores of +vegetables and dry goods and things in constant requisition for the +kitchen. + +It is easy to make a series of store closets with deep boxes that are +lined with zinc, turning the tops to face outwards, fitting in shelves +if required, and then making a door to fit. These boxes can be piled +one over the other, all facing the same way, and a curtain can cover +them all if they are in any way unsightly. Dry goods and groceries +generally require keeping in a temperate place, therefore these and +linen and clothing can fill this series of damp-proof boxes. But when +it is a question of storing fresh vegetables and fruit, potatoes, +dried meat, dairy stuff, liquors and so on, an outside storehouse is +imperative, also in hot weather all food must go into some cool place +to keep it from insects and the atmosphere. + +It is a comparatively easy matter to dig out a pit some feet away +from any tent or building, to dig it out of the earth in a shaded and +protected spot, and then to brick the sides and build them up to a +sufficient height above so as to make the whole depth of the sunk pit +some eight or ten feet. Roof over the top of the pit with corrugated +iron, and if there is heat or frost to fear make a thatch over this. +Make one or two steps down into the pit and arrange also some shelves +as seems convenient. If such a storeroom rises but a little way above +ground and is protected at the top, it will be found to be of even +temperature all the year round, admitting neither frost nor heat. It +should be ventilated by perforating holes round the roof, but need not +have light admitted except by the door. Failing the possibility of +digging out and building such a storeroom, remember that pits in the +ground lined with a collection of leaves or dry twigs and well covered +over with earth and more branches, make excellent keeping places for +stores of roots and fruit. There is no better preservative than Mother +Earth. + +A good deal of meat, especially pork and beef, will have to be salted +and dried for use at different times, and while salting and pickling +are comparatively easy processes, needing only watching and frequent +rubbing and turning, the later processes of curing and drying by smoke +are more difficult, and for this purpose it is well to build a curing +house. + +A smoke-curing house for hams and bacon may be made with two +large-sized packing cases. Remove the top and bottom of one of the +cases. From the other case remove one board at the top, the middle +board; also cut a fairly large square hole on one side, large enough +for any one to put head and shoulders through. With the boards that +are cut away form a door by nailing batten on the inside or outside, +and fasten to the box by means of hinges at bottom and catches at +the top. If no hinges are at hand use stout pieces of leather, even +the uppers of old boots will do. The catches are merely small, flat +wedges of wood about the length of the middle finger, and as broad as +two fingers. Nail or screw them in the middle on the box just above +the flap door. By turning to left or right they will fasten the door +firmly. Inside the top box fasten a series of rods, say six inches +apart and six inches below the top. Over the long slit formed by +removing one board as directed form a slanting roof with two boards +kept in position by fastenings at each end. Nail pieces of netting from +the edges of the slanting roof to the box. You thus provide ventilation +and prevent insects from creeping in. Pierce the bottom of this case +with a number of holes. Now choose for the site of the curing house +sloping ground, dig a trench 18 inches deep and 6 or 7 feet long. Cover +over the trench with flattened stones or bricks well packed together +with earth. Over the top opening of this trench place the first case +that had the top and bottom knocked out, and on this fix the second +case. Suspend the hams and bacon inside the top case and then fasten +the door tightly. At the lower end of the trench light a fire with wood +refuse and sawdust, but avoid using pine or any resinous wood. The fire +must be kept smouldering and the smoke will find its way up the trench, +through the lower box into the curing chamber above, escaping very +gradually by the ventilation outlets. Peats are best of all for keeping +in a smoke fire. The smoking should be kept up for from three to five +days, according to the amount of meat inside the curing chamber. + +Before placing the meat in this chamber it should be wiped dry after +curing it with rubbings of dry salt, or by a mixture of saltpetre, +black pepper, sugar and common salt. This may have been rubbed in for a +week or ten days before the smoke cure was begun. If hams are intended +for long keeping sew them up in cloths after curing with salt and +before smoking them. Pieces of beef lightly salted and dried by smoke +can be kept almost indefinitely, but they should be soaked and scraped +before using for food. + +Biltong, or Jerked Beef as it is called in the United States, is a +handy way of keeping meat for a length of time and is easily prepared. +It is made by cutting the raw beef into slices, sousing the slices in +sea water, then drying them hard in the sun. It can be kept threaded on +spikes of wood, and when required the slices are taken off, soaked and +washed, and laid in a frying-pan, with a little oil or other fat, and +covered with plate, cooking over the fire for about an hour. A spoonful +of vinegar put in the pan would tender the meat and improve the flavour. + +The converse to a smoke house would be an ice house, but wherever there +is any dairying done this little place will prove a great boon, and it +can be provided all the year round in most Colonies by taking a little +forethought. In many places ice can be carried from lakes and ponds +in the winter and stored for use in summer, and failing ice a fall of +snow may be utilized, for snow that is packed into blocks and sluiced +over with water will soon harden into ice. For storing it dig a deep +hole, 4 to 8 feet deep, and build into this a house with walls of +double thickness; the outer one may be of logs, the inner one of rough +boards. Pack the space between the boards with sawdust, shavings or tan +bark. The flooring should be of rafters placed close together about a +foot above the ground. See that this open space is well drained. This +can be done by digging a sloping trench a foot or two at the bottom +and filling up with loose stones. The door of the house should also +be double and packed with sawdust. The roof, which should come well +above the hole, should slope and be composed of rafters well boarded +over and covered with thick thatch of straw or fern. The thatch should +project well beyond the walls but leave a ventilating space all round. +Ice in blocks covered with sawdust can be kept in a quantity in this +house, or blocks of ice at the bottom will make a cool storeroom of it +for milk and butter in the summertime. Its main object, however, is to +keep a store of ice for the dairy itself. + + + + +IV + +THE STAFF OF LIFE + + Making Bread—Oven and Hearth-baked Bread—Patent Yeasts for + Travellers’ Use—Quick Bread; the Damper, Pancake, Flapjack, Chupatty, + etc.—Dumplings and Pie-crusts—Uses for Dry Bread, etc. + + +Bread is one of those things for which civilized man craves, and even +in the most out-of-the-way places he is loth to exist without it. The +many substitutes for bread rarely satisfy an Englishman, and he is +driven to find some way of making a solid loaf. Nevertheless to bake +bread presents a difficulty which can only be overcome by building an +oven such as before described, or by using hot flat stones; the latter +way of baking is as good as any when a little practice has shown how +to do it skilfully. But the baking is only one difficulty; another +and more serious one is to find a yeast wherewith to make a dough. +German and other dried yeasts are usually to be bought in towns or from +stores, and wherever there is a brewery barm can be got, but there are +also dried and compressed yeasts that are put up in cakes for the use +of travellers, which the outgoing colonist might procure, probably, +at a ship chandler’s stores. Yeatman’s Yeast Powder is one of these. +But failing any way of procuring dried yeasts there is another way of +making a liquid yeast that is sure of producing a sweet and wholesome +bread. For this the dried Bavarian hops are required, which are to be +bought in packets from the chief English stores (they are known as +the Phœnix brand), a packet of which will last a considerable time. +A handful of these hops is boiled in water in a saucepan until the +goodness has been extracted, then strained off, the hops thrown away, +and the liquid returned to the pan with a spoonful of sugar, salt, and +one or two tablespoonfuls of flour. These are stirred together and +boiled up—never mind if it is a little lumpy—and then left to ferment. +The mixture is ready for use the following day and will keep good for +about ten days or a fortnight. In using, mix enough of this liquid +with sufficient flour to make a small soft ball—technically called a +“sponge,” setting this in the middle of the panful of flour which is +intended for the bread. When this sponge has risen a little make the +dough by adding to it warm water slightly salted, and working in the +rest of the flour gradually until it can be kneaded with the hand and +forms a large ball of dough, not too stiff and yet not too soft. This +is then set to rise again in a warm place, and will take some five or +six hours. Some people mix up the yeast and flour and water straight +away and let one rising suffice. Either way should produce a light +and wholesome dough. About four tablespoonfuls of the liquid yeast (or +an ounce of dried compressed yeast of another kind, stirred to smooth +paste with water), a large tablespoonful of salt and four pounds of +flour, will make a nice quantity of bread. The amount of water depends +a good deal on the kind of flour, but the result must be a rather firm +dough; if too little water is put in the bread will be stiff and dry, +if too much it will be puffy and full of holes. + +The dough can be mixed in the evening and left to rise all night, +provided the pan containing it be set in a warm, sheltered place. The +next morning, as soon as the oven has been made hot, or as soon as the +hot stones of the hearth are ready, take up the dough, divide it and +shape lightly with floured hands into loaves and bake them. The point +to bear in mind is that while dough takes several hours to rise, it +takes little harm by waiting until the oven is ready for it; but as +yeast after it has been mixed with water ferments very quickly, the +dough itself should not be made till the whole process of making it can +be done right away. The science of the thing is that the introduction +of yeast into the moistened flour causes carbonic gas to form, and +the formation of these bubbles makes the dough swell out until the +fermentation being finished the gas would cease to form and the dough +would sink back, having lost its lightness. When the dough has about +doubled its proportions, we stop the formation of the gas by baking +the bread. Patent dried yeasts operate more quickly than do liquid +home-made yeasts, and six hours is quite long enough to allow for the +rising. Liquid yeasts might be given a little longer. + +If bread is made twice a week, the loaves should be made larger, and +for taking out on journeys round flat cakes, made not too thick, are a +convenient form; likewise for baking on the hearth these will be the +handiest and cook the best. A round and rather thick ball of dough, cut +across the top with a blunt knife, will give the Coburg loaf, which is +a good shape for baking in an oven. + +Combinations of flour and maize meal, or of rice and flour, oatmeal and +flour, and so on can be tried when a change is wanted. Where eggs and +milk are procurable, there is a delicious American bread which is made +by mixing two cupfuls of maize meal with every one of ordinary white +flour, adding a little salt, two eggs and a cupful of milk to every +three cups of the combined flours, with a spoonful of baking-powder +rubbed in before moisture is added. This mixture is shaped into loaves +and baked in tins—old biscuit tins floured inside will do quite well. +The same mixture could be transformed into a cake of quite excellent +quality by rubbing into the flour a little butter or lard, and a few +raisins and spice and sugar. + +Excellent light buns for supper are quickly made by rubbing a little +baking-powder into flour, adding salt, sugar and a few currants and +spice, mixing with milk to a stiff dough, rolling out on a board, +cutting into triangles and baking on flat hot stones, on both sides. Or +if the milk has soured, mix a little soda with it and make up into a +dough with flour alone and bake in the same way. + +The Australian Damper is really a thick, plain pancake, often merely a +handful of flour made into a stiffish batter with water and a little +salt and baked over the embers of a wood fire or on the hot stones. +But the correct way of making Damper is to take a flat board or a +dried sheepskin on which to knead. On this the flour is poured from +the sack and sprinkled with salt. A hole is made in the middle of the +heap of flour into which water is slowly poured, the right hand being +kept moving round and round working the flour and water together to a +thick, adhesive dough. This is then kneaded on the floured board until +a firm ball is the result, and then with the hands a flat pancake is +made about two inches thick. The embers are cleared away to leave a +flat, bare place and the damper is lightly dropped upon it and covered +with leaves, then the embers are raked back and it is left for about +an hour, when it will be baked crisp and brown. A frying-pan without +a handle might be inverted over the damper if the ashes were dirty. +Fresh eggs beaten up with milk and used instead of water would make a +richer and crisper and more nourishing damper. Scotch oatmeal added to +a little flour, or the oatmeal alone mixed as for dry oatcake and baked +on the hot stones, would be a more nourishing substitute for bread than +is damper alone. + +The Flapjack is a similar kind of thing to the damper, but it is fried +in a pan, with very little fat, that is to say, only enough to grease +the pan, and fried on both sides. If made with cornmeal or buckwheat +and mixed with milk and eggs, it becomes a very palatable thing, and +has the merit of being quickly prepared. These pan cakes are just the +thing for eating with sugar-cane syrup or molasses. + +A Cornmeal Pone is made with a quart of Indian meal, a teaspoonful of +salt, a little melted lard and enough tepid water to make a soft dough. +It is moulded lightly with the hands into an oblong mound, higher in +the middle than at the sides, is brushed over with melted lard and dry +flour, and is baked in hot oven rather crisply and broken into pieces, +not cut. A broad leaf is laid over and under the pone if it is baked in +the ashes. + +A Johnny Cake requires two cupfuls of buttermilk, a teaspoonful of +soda, and two of salt, a good bit of butter melted soft, and enough +Indian meal to make the cake so that it can be rolled out on a board +to an inch in thickness. It is baked on the stones or in the oven in a +shallow pan, and is then broken into pieces and eaten with butter. + +Buckwheat Cakes want the true Buckwheat flour, and to every four +cupfuls a little salt and enough milk to make a thin batter, also a +spoonful of yeast to every cupful of flour. The mixture is beaten well +and left to rise overnight, and is then fried in greased pans on both +sides, and eaten with syrup. + +The Chupatty is another form of thin or hastily made bread, and is +generally made with Indian meal. If made with ordinary white flour, +rub in a saltspoonful of salt to every half-pound, and mix to a light +dough with cold milk. Cut this dough into pieces about the size of an +egg, roll each piece into long, thin strips not more than an eighth of +an inch thick. This is best done with the help of a floured board and a +rolling-pin or smooth bottle, as the secret of making nice chupatties +lies in the rolling. It should be rolled out at least six times, then +the strips are placed on a baking tin and baked in a hot oven for +about ten minutes. This is as crisp as water biscuit, and is very +digestible. Where a dry biscuit or cake is wanted for a journey the +chupatty is very useful. + +Any bread that has become stale can be freshened by dipping it in water +and putting into a hot oven to steam through for a few minutes. + + +Dumplings and Pie-Crusts + +When baking bread and making a stew or boiling meat with vegetables, +small pieces of the dough can be broken off and dropped into the pan +to form dumplings. If yeast or baking-powder has been worked into the +dough the dumplings will be light though plain, but if they are wanted +a little richer they should be made with chopped suet mixed with flour +and water. + +The ordinary plain suet dumpling requires half as much chopped suet as +flour in weight, and a little salt. It is mixed with either water or +milk to make into a stiff dough—it is lightest when somewhat stiff—and +if tying it up in a cloth to boil in water allow room for the pudding +to swell. Boil a suet dumpling for two hours at least; it will not +harm by being boiled longer. These plain dumplings are wholesome and +excellent food especially in a cold climate, and should be eaten with +syrup or butter and sugar. Sugar is, indeed, one of the most necessary +items on the colonist’s bill of fare. The plain suet can be varied by +mixing with it stoned raisins or currants or by using syrup in place of +milk to mix the ingredients, adding a little ginger for flavour. Or the +suet paste may be rolled out and spread with jam or soaked dried fruits +and treacle, rolled up again, wrapped round with a cloth and boiled in +fast boiling water, or folded in a buttered paper and steamed, for a +couple of hours, making a light and appetising roll pudding. Or again, +the paste may be rolled out and used to line a basin, the interior +being filled with sliced apples and other fruits and sugar, covered +with a top crust, then tied over and boiled for as long again. Or the +centre may be filled with pieces of steak cut small and rolled in flour +and seasoned with salt and pepper, a little water put in to make gravy, +a top crust put on, and tied down, and this boiled for about four hours. + +If the colonist has built him a good oven and is ambitious of making +pastry, having a fond recollection of jam tarts and apple pies as made +at home, let him take a nice clean board, and put into a basin say a +couple of pounds of flour, two big spoonfuls of dry baking-powder, a +teaspoonful of salt, and into this flour rub lightly about a pound +of lard or good dripping, rubbing till the flour feels like dry +breadcrumbs in his hands. Mix this to a stiff paste with cold water, +then cut off portions and roll out on a floured board. If a proper +rolling-pin is not at hand a bottle will answer the purpose. + +If it is a fruit pie that is contemplated, fill a dish with pared and +sliced apples, or plums washed clean, or other fruit, cover well with +sugar, add a little water and then cover with a crust that has been +rolled out to about half an inch thick. Make a little hole in the top +for the steam to escape, and pinch the edges well and cut them round +even with the edges of the dish. Put into an oven that is very hot +and bake long enough to cook the fruit well, shielding the crust if +necessary with paper. Fruits like blackberries, bilberries, damsons, +etc., want well cooking, and should be partly done before the crust is +put on. Where no pie-dish is at hand, roll out a sheet of paste and +heap up the cut or picked fruit in the centre, with the sugar, and then +fold up the paste to make it like a valise and pinch the edges well. +Bake it on a greased tin. + +The good old-fashioned turnover or pasty is ever welcome, and needs +but to have a piece of paste rolled out to a convenient sized round, +and on half is spread the jam, mince, or fruit, and the other half is +turned over, the edges pinched together, and it is baked on a tin in +hot oven. The Cornish pasty has sliced potatoes, shred bacon, a trifle +of onion and pepper and salt, and is folded over and baked in the same +way. These are delicious to eat hot. When making a meat pie, cook the +meat well before putting on the pastry crust. + +This plain short pastry is all that any colonist will require, at +least until an elaborate kitchen equipment is at his service, but if +he objects to rubbing in the shortening with his hands, he may mix +the flour and water to a stiff paste, roll it out on a floured board, +spread the shortening on this with the blade of a knife, fold up and +roll out again at least twice. This way saves using the hands. + + + + +V + +THE DAY’S FOOD AND WORK + + Popular Ideas about Food Values—Kind of Food Required in + Health—Concentrated and Bulk Foods—Initial Preparations for Cooking, + etc. + + +There are a good many vague notions current about food which it is +well to set right before we come to the actual work of cooking for +making ready a meal. For instance, people are content, as a rule, to +take what comes handiest, or to choose what is most customary, rather +than have the trouble of thinking out or of choosing what might really +make a meal of better value. Reliance on what is customary may easily +lead to great monotony and to narrowness of ideas. In some cases, of +course, monotony is perhaps inevitable, that is to say the material is +perforce the same, and can only be varied by bringing the imagination +into play in order to make its manner of presentment more varied. A +man, for example, writes to us from Canada (he is pioneering in the +Far West, let it be understood), and says that his meals consist of +beef and potatoes, varied by potatoes and beef. Another writes from +the Australian bush and declares there is nothing to be had but tea, +damper and mutton, mutton, damper and tea. Both cases are doubtless +exaggerations, but they show the monotony that may exist when there +is little time to give to thought about meals. But on the other hand, +people who have almost limitless resources at command, as in England, +show little more imagination when it comes to planning a week’s meals +for a family, year in year out, and monotony is their complaint also. + +Then we speak of “nourishing food,” of dishes that are “rich,” +“indigestible” and so on, and of drinks that are “too strong” and “too +weak,” often without quite knowing what we wish to express. + +All food is “nourishing” when properly combined and proportioned; if +we get an excess of one thing, of fat, for example, or of sugar, it +is “too rich” because less easily assimilated. As it is only by what +is digested and assimilated that the body is nourished, it is easy to +understand that two foods which contain the same amount of nutriment +will not be equally nutritious unless both are equally digestible. + +What is wanted, speaking roughly, for proper nourishment and upkeep of +the bodily system, is a daily sufficient yet not excessive supply of +flesh-forming and heat-producing food, enough to repair the constant +slow wastage that goes on. This waste, it is easy to understand, +is increased when the body is actively engaged in hard labour and +lessened when it is resting or doing sedentary work. The whole science +of feeding lies in obtaining a right proportion of the two classes +of food in the diet. An excess of either class, unless excreted, is +stored up as fat. The reason we cook at all is that we may bring raw +materials into a state in which they can be digested easily, and +also that we may make those judicious mixtures which shall combine +flesh-forming and heat-producing substances ready to be assimilated +in the best possible way. There is no one perfect food that will do +this for adults, as there is for infants who find all they require in +milk. The adult body is only perfectly supplied by a mixed diet, and as +regards the selection of materials one of the best and safest guides +to take is the individual appetite under normal conditions. Appetite +will generally suggest the kind of food the body is needing and will +generally indicate when a sufficiency has been taken, also it will show +by “loss of appetite” when food is not required and what kind of food +is distasteful. + +Feeding the human body is very like feeding a fire; combustion is +slow but steady and is made more rapid when the draught of air is +increased—that is, when the lungs are inhaling and exhaling more +deeply as in hard labour. The energy expressed by movement, labour, +exercise or play corresponds to the burning of the fire, and is made +up for by adding more fuel, and what part of the fuel is not consumed +is thrown away as ashes are taken away from the grate. How thoroughly +the food taken in is consumed must therefore depend a great deal upon +its digestibility. That which is raw, hard, lumpy or tough will take +long to assimilate, or indeed may be finally excreted as unassimilable. +We assist assimilation when we mince or grind down the food to fine +proportions—hence mastication. After it is swallowed the digestive +juices set to work upon it and make it fit for absorption into the +system. In addition to cooking food to make it tender and in addition +to mastication, we further assist the work of digestion when we add +condiments and flavours to it, because these help to increase the flow +of the gastric juices and stimulate the activity of the digestive +organs. + +We cannot obtain more heat or more muscle by eating special foods for +the purpose. Flesh-forming and heat-producing foods must be taken +together for each to do their work properly, but we can and do increase +the proportions of one or the other according to the kind of work +we are doing and the kind of climate we are living under. An extra +cold atmosphere calls for more heat to make up for what is given off +by radiation from the surface of the body as well as by increased +respiration. Therefore fat and sugar must take a very prominent place +in the diet of those who live in cold countries, farinaceous foods +likewise. Meat and vegetables are needed where much muscular work +is being done and where a stimulating diet rather than a heating +one is wanted. A good deal of liquid food and water is needed when +perspiration is excessive and where outward heat dries the skin. + +Appetite is again the best guide to follow under these different +conditions, for Nature prompts and suggests what she is needing by +means of appetite and taste. Appetite is also the best individual guide +as to quantity, for it is rarely that two people will eat exactly the +same amount in the same circumstances. Some appear to eat too much, +and others too little, but if we judge results by weight, where that +remains fairly constant, the quantities consumed merely correspond +with their requirements. It is when an excess of fat is stored up in +the system that the supply may be taken to exceed the demand. Yet this +again is not altogether a reliable criterion to go by; it, in fact, +puzzles many as it puzzled Dr. Johnson and his faithful Boswell. + +Talking of a man who had grown very fat so as to be incommoded by his +corpulency, Dr. Johnson said, “He eats too much, sir.” Said Boswell, +“I don’t know, sir; you will see one man fat who eats moderately and +another lean who eats a great deal.” Johnson: “Nay, sir, whatever may +be the quantity a man eats, it is plain that if he is too fat he has +eaten more than he should have done. One may have a digestion that +consumes food better than common; but it is certain that solidity is +increased by putting something to it.” Boswell: “But may not solids +swell and be distended?” Johnson: “Yes, sir, they may swell and be +distended, but that is not fat!” + +As regards food materials, all fibrous and tough substances cannot +be separated from the rest, nor is it necessary to separate them. A +certain amount of bulk food is needful for the organs to work upon, +and even if it is eventually excreted it still cannot be done without. +Highly-concentrated foods, like extracts and essences and tabloids, +will not satisfy the ordinary healthy appetite, and even if they did +satisfy it they would end in weakening the organs of the body through +want of sufficient work and exercise. Tissues and fibres can, however, +be made soft and tender, and therefore much more easily digestible, by +proper cooking. It should be remembered that the tissues of animals +and vegetables toughen as they get older, while birds and meats that +are freshly-killed are not so tender as when well hung. Wild birds and +young animals are tougher than maturer and fattened ones. + +The initial processes of preparing food will present more difficulties +to the colonist, perhaps, than the actual cooking. The very first +process of all, that of catching and killing the animal or bird, is +less troublesome to contemplate than the process of skinning, cleaning +and cutting up; still, of course, it comes first. + +All animals and birds which are killed by shot must have the blood let +out as soon as possible; it is usual to suspend them to drain this +away. Then the skin is drawn off, the abdominal and thoracic viscera +are removed, likewise the head and tail, and the animal is laid open +by cutting down the breast line. In large animals like oxen and sheep +by cutting through the middle of the back bone the carcass is divided +into two equal parts, called sides, and the sides are again cut up +into joints after quartering. The anterior portion is known as the +fore-quarter, the posterior as the hind-quarter. In small animals like +lambs the whole of the quarter is considered as one joint. + +In cutting up a side of beef the usual method followed is according to +the following diagram: + +[Illustration: + + _A._ Rump. + _B._ Buttock. + _C._ Shin. + _D._ Buttock Steak. + _E._ Aitchbone. + _F._ Sirloin. + _G._ Ribs. + _H._ Chuck Ribs. + _I._ Clod. + _J._ Shin. + _K._ Shoulder or Bladebone. + _L._ Brisket. + _M._ Thin Flank. + _N._ Thick Flank. + _O._ Gravy Piece. +] + +A young ox gives the best beef, but bull beef is dark in colour with +a coarse grain. If beef is to be tender it should be hung as long as +weather and climate will permit of, but should be looked over every day +and moisture wiped off. Any part which is touched with flies should +be rubbed over with cloths wrung out of vinegar. If any part seems +slightly tainted rub powdered charcoal over it, or black pepper. + +The most suitable uses of the different parts for cooking are as +follows: + + Sirloin and Ribs, prime roasting joints. + + Rump, for cutting into steaks for grilling. + + Buttock, for stewing steak, or for boiling fresh. + + Round or Buttock, for salting and boiling. + + Thick and thin Flank, salting, boiling or baking. + + Shins and Gravy Piece, for soups. + + Chuck Ribs, for second quality steaks. + + Bladebone, for braising and stewing. + + Clod, boiled or stewed. + + Brisket, for salting and pressing, or for baking with potatoes. + + Tail, for stewing and soup-making. + + Tongue, for salting, boiling and pressing. + + The Skirt makes delicious stews and rich gravy. + + Beef Kidney is tough and too rich to use alone, but a little added to + other stews is excellent. + + Liver too coarse to use except for feeding animals. + + Knuckles and feet make stiff jelly. + +Mutton does not cut up into so many parts, but is simply divided into +leg and loin (or if the loin is undivided it makes a “saddle,”) and the +fore-quarter makes breast, shoulder and neck pieces. + +Veal is similarly jointed to beef but is much smaller, and the whole +round of the leg is called the fillet and is cut in thick portions or +slices; the loin includes the rump, and the neck is really included +with the ribs. The breast of veal is excellent as the gristly parts +easily soften, and the knuckles which correspond to the shin and leg of +beef are much more tender and gelatinous. + +As pigs are killed at different ages and the larger and fatter animals +are usually cured and dried for bacon, the smaller pigs are cut up very +similarly to mutton and lamb. The hind-quarter gives the leg and hind +loin, the fore-quarter the “hand” or shoulder, foreloin, spare ribs and +neck, while the head is split into two “chaps.” When made into bacon +the side is cured whole and the leg becomes the ham, the shoulder half +the gammon. The breast gives the part known as “streaky” bacon, and the +back and ribs, flank and collar are sold at varying prices. + +Certain portions of the interior organs of the carcass are useful for +food and quite digestible. The tongues, for instance, which when cut +away from the root part can be salted and pickled, then boiled or +dried, make an excellent dish. The sweetbreads in young animals are +very delicate, and after first boiling them in salted water for a few +minutes they can be fried or stewed to make a savoury dish. The kidneys +are removed from the fat in which they are embedded and split open and +lightly fried or grilled, or beef kidney is added to stews of other +parts of beef. Ox tails after skinning and jointing make an excellent +savoury stew or very nourishing soup. Sheep’s liver is edible when +properly cooked, but lamb’s and calf’s liver are better and not at all +tough when fried and stewed afterwards. Ox liver is not fit for human +food. The hearts of very young animals alone are edible, and even then +are somewhat tough. + +The best suet is that found round about the kidneys, and this fat can +be removed in large pieces, which if kept dry will remain sweet for +a week or two and is used for making puddings and crusts for pies. +The other interior fat of the animal (both of beef and mutton) can be +melted down and clarified by pouring into jars containing a little +boiling water, then it is useful for all frying purposes and many other +things. The interior fat of the pig is also melted down, but it yields +lard, a pure white and soft fat that is as edible as butter. This +should be run into tins whilst warm and covered with paper when cold to +keep it from the air. + +Rabbits are split open to let out the blood and the entrails removed +directly they are killed, and being thus paunched they can be slung on +a stick and kept for some time before skinning, although the fresher +they are the more easily will the skin be removed. To do this make an +incision down the length of the body, and draw the skin backwards, +bringing the legs up first and ending by pulling the skin over the +head. A rabbit can be turned round for boiling, or be cut into joints +for stewing. Hares are treated the same way except that hares are not +boiled, but they are often roasted. A better way is to cook a whole +hare in a casserole or braising-pan, as the meat is very dry, but the +best way of all is to cut it in joints and cook it in a deep stone jar, +with red wine and small vegetables and a little fat pork. + +Fowls are plucked most easily by first dipping them bodily into +boiling water, but this renders the feathers unusable for any other +purpose. Plucking is quickly accomplished if the feathers are pulled +the reverse way from that which they take naturally, and after cutting +off the head, splitting the neck to remove the gullet and windpipe, an +incision at the lower end makes it easy to empty the fowl by drawing +out the entrails and organs; wash out with clean water afterwards, then +bind together the legs and tie down the wings to the sides, and the +fowl is trussed quite sufficiently for ordinary purposes. The reason +for fastening wings and legs to the sides is to prevent these from +shrivelling and getting too dry by cooking. As the meat of fowls and +indeed of most birds is very lean it is an improvement to wrap them +in some thin leaf fat, or to cook a piece of fat bacon with them if +braising or roasting, or even if boiling them. + +The meat of wildfowl is drier and leaner than that of the domestic fowl +and wild ducks are a little fishy in flavour. Prairie hens are plump +as a rule but also lean, and most small wild birds are tastier and +more tender if they are wrapped in thin slices of fat before cooking. +Quick cooking is best for those that are small and young, but fowls of +uncertain age are better slowly stewed or boiled. + +The flesh of fish contains more water than that of meat or fowl, but it +is light and digestible and nourishing when fresh, and plump fish are +invariably of primer quality than thin ones. Most fish want scraping +as well as washing, and it is well to cut off the heads and remove the +entrails; in some kinds like mackerel and herrings they are split open +and scraped clean, while in flat fish cutting off the heads and fins +suffices. Large fish like salmon and cod have a good deal of interior +to be removed before they are cooked and the heads are left on if +preferred. + +Where a little curing house has been set up as before described, +herrings which have been cleaned and split open can be lightly salted +and smoke-dried, and thus the colonist can make his own kippers. Small +haddock can also be cured and smoke-dried, mackerel likewise. + +Surplus fish can be kept by first cleaning and then salting them +and packing down in a barrel, but smoke-curing is a better way of +preserving them, and in the log-hut kitchen they can hang in strings +from the rafters. + +Oysters, clams, mussels and shellfish that are eaten without cooking +should be very fresh indeed for it to be trustworthy. Oysters are +wholesome and easily digested and are rightly considered a delicacy, +and in some places they are plentiful enough. + +Lobsters, crabs and shrimps want boiling in salted water until they +turn a bright red colour, and when cold they are broken open and the +flesh picked out. An iron cauldron or saucepan is best to boil them +in. All these should be killed by cooking; that is they should be +alive up to the time they are boiled, as if not perfectly fresh they +so quickly decompose and may easily set up ptomaine poisoning. There +are circumstances and places where shellfish are a valuable article +of food, however, and in moderation they do much to vary a diet that +without them would be monotonous and unappetising. A liberal washing +in clean water should be given to all creatures that are taken from +salt water pools and shallow places. But the same careful cleansing is +necessary in the case of freshwater fish, too, especially that taken +from ponds, as they are apt to taste of mud unless well soaked and +scraped before cooking. + +The initial preparations for cooking which vegetables require make +many people forego their use altogether, yet although troublesome +enough there is nothing about them that is half so disagreeable as the +preparatory work of preparing meat and poultry for cooking. A liberal +washing, a scraping or paring, perhaps coring and dividing and cutting +up—and that is practically all there is to do except in the case of +peas which want shelling, or of beans which want stringing and slicing. + +Almost without exception, the edible roots want paring after washing +before cooking them in any way whatsoever. The rind is not intended +to be eaten and is tough in all except very young roots. While the +actual nutritive value of roots, tubers and green vegetables is low, +their health value is high, and they are both a welcome and valuable +addition to the diet, and whenever a garden patch has been secured the +colonist’s first thought will be to grow his own vegetables, and as +great a variety of them as he can. + +Potatoes are the most nutritive of all vegetables and rank next to +bread in value, but artichokes have a higher nutritive value than even +potatoes, and should be freely cultivated especially where there is a +pig to be fed, as pigs thrive rapidly and produce fine bacon when fed +upon these tubers. + +The next most important vegetable to the potato is the onion, and this +is one of the best of nature’s medicines, too. But after skinning an +onion the root bit should always be cut out before cooking in any form. +Cut away the hard fibres from cabbages before boiling them and boil +rapidly in salted water. Never cook outer leaves or woody parts and +fibres of anything; all such parts should be returned to the ground as +its share of the proceeds, for they make the most valuable manure. + +When gathering cabbages or lettuces, and things of like nature, if +not ready to make use of them for a few hours, leave the roots on as +they will keep fresh and crisp a much longer time. If on account of +frost these have to be dug up and brought under shelter, also leave +the roots on, but let them be kept covered with sand or soil and in +a dry place. Carrots and turnips keep well in a sand heap. Celery is +another excellent vegetable for the colonist to cultivate wherever it +will grow; it is good in all climates and will stand a good deal of +frost, and is most wholesome eaten either in a natural state or cooked. +Here again, eat only the best parts and let the rest be returned to the +ground. + +Dried fruits are extremely useful where fresh fruits are hard to +procure, and the nutritive value of dried fruits is relatively high +in proportion to their weight. They are a form of concentrated food, +easily portable and satisfying, but their value is increased when they +are soaked in water for some hours and then cooked. But dried raisins, +dates and figs are excellent for eating without other preparation, +while prunes and apples are better after soaking and stewing. + + + + +VI + +COOKING FISH, MEAT AND VEGETABLES + + The Reason Why in Roasting, Boiling, Baking and Stewing—How to Fry, + Braise, Grill, etc., and Use of Condiments and Seasoning. + + +Every one likes to know the “reason why” any particular method is +recommended or pursued, and if we cannot give the correct scientific +explanation of any process used in the kitchen we can at least give the +reason for its being followed. And once we know the reason for a method +we are independent of any necessity for slavish following of other +directions, because success or failure will be the result of right or +wrong in the method, not of a defect in the recipe. + +For instance: The principle of Roasting is that of cooking by radiated +heat; Baking is a combination of radiated with air-conducted heat. +Hence roasting is done before an open fire and baking is done in an +oven. + + +Roasting + +The joint should be hung not too near the fire to begin with, in order +that sufficient fat may exude to moisten the surface; after a few +minutes, however, it is brought closer that this moisture may become +encrusted so as to keep in the gravy. The joint is kept moving in order +that it may cook evenly on all sides, and when it is cooked through +steam will be seen rising from it. + +Now, in place of having a revolving spit and a roasting jack, a +substitute can be made by forming a sort of cradle for the joint out +of thin wire and suspending this from a nail or hook. It is well to +suspend the wire cradle with a piece of twine from the hook or nail as +twine will revolve with a twist of the fingers, but wire will not. The +fire, whether it is one built on the ground or in a fireplace, must +have burnt through clear red before the joint is placed in front of it. +In the old cottages in Scotland where a wide-throated chimney and open +hearth with flat stone constitutes all the cooking range there is, it +is common to see a big nail projecting from the chimneypiece, while the +joint is tied in a cradle of string and suspended from the nail, on a +level with the hottest part of the fire. Everybody passing by gives a +twist to the string and so the joint moves round and the result when +done is a perfect roast. The fat that drops is caught by a tin set on +the flat stone of the hearth, and a batter mixture poured into this +is baked by the time the meat is ready for eating. It would be quite +possible to manage something of this type in a log-hut kitchen, but in +tent or camp it would be better to bake rather than roast meat. + + +Baking + +In Baking meats—or in baking anything else for that matter—the greatest +heat is needed at first, in order to give the same shock of surprise +that frying gives to anything that is plunged in hot fat. The reason +for this is to form a crust as quickly as possible and prevent the +escape of the juices. An oven that is only just warm will dry the +surface without forming this crust, but one that is thoroughly hot +will bring the juices up to the surface and make a brown coating very +quickly. In the same way pastry or bread will rise when plunged into +good heat, but remain white and heavy if the oven is cool. To know +whether an oven is hot enough for baking it can be tested by spreading +a little dry flour on a piece of tin and putting it in the oven for a +few minutes. If it does not brown the oven is too slow; if it browns +readily it is hot enough for meat. Pieces of thick white paper will +prevent the surface of anything from scorching. + +It is usually reckoned that beef and mutton take from twenty to +twenty-five minutes per pound for both roasting and baking; veal and +pork want half an hour per pound, but a fowl or pheasant should not +require longer than fifteen minutes per pound weight. + + +Paper Coverings + +There is great advantage in using a paper wrapping when cooking meat or +fish on hot stones or in a furnace oven. If a paper bag is greased and +folded up tightly it will keep in all the steam and flavour, allowing +nothing to be wasted, and proves a very cleanly way of cooking, and +saves much washing-up and scouring of tins and pans. In true Paper bag +cookery, now much used in gas ovens and English ranges, the bag is made +of a special paper, grease-proof, nevertheless where the right kind of +bag is not available wrapping up in ordinary white paper is much better +than nothing, but always grease the paper first. Shape the paper, or +the bag, so that a hollow forms at the bottom, into which the fat and +gravy collects. This facilitates dishing up, as a cut with a knife will +let this through into a tin held underneath. + + +Boiling + +Now as to Boiling meat. Sometimes we boil it in order to extract all +the goodness as for soup, sometimes for the sake of cooking meat or +fish in this special way. In the first case it should be put over a +slow fire in cold water, and when it has reached the boiling-point be +withdrawn and allowed to cook without boiling again, and cooking a very +long time in this way much improves the flavour of broth or soup. But +when the meat is intended to be eaten, the water into which it is put +should nearly boil when it is first put in with its vegetables, and +then be brought rather quickly to the boiling-point, drawn away, and +kept boiling very gently indeed. Never on any account let it boil fast, +still it must _just_ boil or else the meat will not cook. Fast boiling +ruins the soup and toughens the meat. When rice is added to broth, it +is washed and put in about an hour before the soup is finished; when +barley is put in, it can be added as soon as the broth boils, as it +takes longer to soften. A fair-sized piece of meat with vegetables will +take from two to three hours to boil it well. For Scotch broth the +vegetables are chopped small and the barley and these boiled together +with the mutton. + +When boiling fish the water should be at the boiling-point when it is +put in, but only just reach that point, or rather not quite reach it +afterwards. The water should be salted, and a few drops of vinegar will +help to keep the flakes of fish firm. Fish should simmer till the skin +shows signs of cracking, then it is sufficiently done. Fish that is +boiled fast is flavourless and ragged. But a pudding or anything cooked +in a mould may boil as fast as you please. + +Some vegetables are better for putting to cook in cold water, others +must have boiling water. Dried vegetables and some potatoes want cold +water, and dried peas and beans want long previous soaking. Green +vegetables and green peas, on the other hand, want plunging into fast +boiling salted water and to be kept boiling fast. Potatoes and some of +the other root vegetables will steam better than they will boil. + + +Stewing + +There is no doubt that Stewing is the ideal way of cooking all tough +meats and old birds. Stews want slow cooking and close covering to keep +in the steam, and need several hours to do them well. A stew should be +mellow and have plenty of gravy. The best plan is to bring the contents +of the stewpan to boiling-point rather quickly, then to set the pan or +jar in a corner of the oven or hearth, where it will have gentle heat +for a long time. Unless it reaches the boiling-point once, however, it +will not start cooking. After it had reached the boil however it could +be set in the Hay-box Oven or in a hole in the ground, and would go on +cooking all right for many hours without harm. + +Recipes for different stews are given in the next chapter, but the +principle of making a stew savoury and nourishing and tender is grasped +when we understand that it is necessary to bring it to full heat, that +is boiling-point early, then to let it cook well below that point for +several hours. Tough meat should then become quite tender, and the +gristly pieces soft and glutinous. A little vinegar added to a stew +helps to make the meat tender, and seasoning makes it savoury. + +A little vinegar added to a stew of game draws out the flavour, and +likewise some pickle added to one of venison or dried meat greatly +improves it. So, too, does a little red wine. + +Fish stews are excellent, and this method of cooking makes very +palatable the coarser kinds of river or pond fish. After being scraped +to free it from scales, and after washing well in water, it should +be dried and cut into pieces of a convenient size, rolled in flour +and sprinkled with salt and pepper, packed into the stewpan with a +little vinegar or the juice of a lemon, and with several small pats of +butter, then covered down closely and stewed for an hour or so. Omit +the vinegar when cooking the more delicate kinds of white fish, adding +only salt and butter, and perhaps a little milk. If liked, a little +grated cheese can be sprinkled over a stew of white fish. + +A way of greatly improving a plain stew is to first fry the meat and +vegetables which compose it, frying them sufficiently to brown them, +but not enough to cook them properly; the cooking is done by the +stewing, but the frying gives a savouriness which nothing else can. +Onions and carrots and potatoes fried before they are added to a stew, +for instance, make it very much richer than if put in raw. Rinse out +the frying-pan with boiling water and add this to the stew. Such things +as liver and bacon, kidneys, giblets, etc., should always be fried +lightly before stewing them. + + +Frying + +The object in Frying is to form a savoury and brown crust on the +outside so as to keep in the juices within. Hence, as before said, +a shock of “surprise” is given by plunging the article to be fried +into boiling fat, and cooking it quickly so as to have it juicy and +succulent within. On this account we choose things that do not need +long cooking for cooking by frying methods. Small things like cutlets +and chops, slices of fish and bacon, made up rolls of minced meat, and +so on, and things that we can dip into batter and roll in flour or +breadcrumbs are fried. But we also fry fresh fish that has been split +down the back and laid flat, and small birds which want light and quick +cooking. The pan and the fat must be very hot, and when dry frying +(that is, frying with a pan that is only just rubbed with fat) is +chosen, as for a fried beefsteak, frequent turning over and great care +to do it quickly and yet without scorching, is needed. + +Pour off any fat used for frying into a jar containing a little boiling +water. This will clear it and leave it as a cake on the top which can +be lifted off and used several times over. + + +Braising + +Braising is a combination of baking and stewing. Really the +braising-pan should hold hot coals on the top as well as be surrounded +with them, and a tightly-covered vessel set within the ashes of a wood +fire, with embers covering the top, would furnish an ideal braise. It +is a capital way of cooking when there is only the hearth available, +for the piece of meat is put inside the deep pan, with a little fat +but no water, and the cover is put on and fastened down, the whole +thing being smothered in hot ashes or embers. It can be left for some +hours, and may be set aside to become cold before opening the pan. A +large piece of meat braised would take four or five hours to cook well. +A leg of pork, for instance, covered with a little fat taken from the +breast, cooked in this way is delicious; so, too, is a leg of mutton. +The braising-pan may be of iron that is enamelled or merely tinned +inside, or of glazed earthenware. The difference between a braise and +a stew is that for a stew the meat is cut up in pieces, vegetables are +usually added, with seasoning and a little water to make gravy, and +long cooking in a corner of the oven is necessary, while for a braise +the joint is left whole, vegetables are generally omitted and the pan +is buried among the ashes. + + +Grilling + +Grilling or Broiling is a method used for cooking small steaks or +chops; small fish split and laid open; small birds treated the same +way, and requires a very hot red fire, with a grill that is somewhat +like a magnified toaster. The thing that is grilled must be turned over +and over very frequently, to cook both sides quickly and lightly, and +it should be cooked through in a few minutes. + +Combinations of cooking methods like frying and stewing, as just +mentioned, give better results sometimes than one method alone. For +example, sausages that are first boiled and then fried are twice as +succulent and savoury as when only fried. A piece of bacon first boiled +then baked is likewise much improved. + + +Condiments + +Salt, which toughens meat if added at the beginning, can be put in just +before the cooking is finished, but meat that has been salted long +enough to preserve it is usually tender after it has been boiled. Salt +arrests decay, and while it toughens the fibres it helps to draw out +the juices, so that its action is helpful in certain conditions and a +hindrance in others. Pepper helps to keep game and poultry sweet, and +gives piquancy to any dish. Sauces and wines should never be added +except at the last moment or their effect is lost. The practice of +adding sauces and much seasoning is not to be commended. The object +of all cooking is to bring out the flavour of the thing cooked, not +to add another to it, except that other flavour is indispensable as a +complement. + +A Boiling-pan, a Braising-pan, a Frying-pan and a Stew-pan or +casserole, with a roasting spit, might be considered the full +complement of any kitchen. Less can be made to do, but more would not +really be necessary, unless the more meant, shall we say, a supply of +paper bags? + + + + +VII + +SIMPLIFIED COOKERY RECIPES + + +General directions have been given with regard to cooking of meat and +vegetables, making soups, and so on, in the previous chapters, but for +handy reference the colonist will like to refer to the recipe itself as +he wants it and when he wants it. + + +Soups and Broths + +GAMEKEEPER’S BROTH.—Strain off clear about a quart of stock obtained +by stewing the bones of game, poultry or rabbits with any meat bones +available. Brown scraps and trimmings of meat will have made this stock +richer and deeper in colour. Fry till brown a few small onions and +carrots, and in the same fat any scraps of game or meat that seem good. +Add these to the strained stock and mix with the rest of the fat in the +frying-pan a little flour, some pepper and salt, stir up well and thin +with a few spoonfuls of the stock, then add all to the remainder and +boil up once. A little red wine would, of course, make this richer, but +is not necessary. + +OX-TAIL SOUP.—Joint the tail and place the pieces in a deep stone jar +with peeled onions, say three or four, as many carrots, and some salt +and pepper. Fill up the jar with water. One tail should make three or +four pints of strong soup. Stew in a corner of the hearth or oven for +four or five hours, and serve a few pieces of meat with the liquor. It +is not necessary to thicken the soup, but if it is preferred so, it can +have a little flour and dissolved butter rolled together and stirred +into the hot liquor gradually, and boiled up once. + +SHEEP’S HEAD BROTH.—Wash the head well and put on in a pan with cold +water, a good spoonful of salt, a large cupful of well-washed barley, +some onions and turnips, carrots and leeks if to be had, and a piece +of celery likewise, and boil very gently for at least three hours. Add +cold water always, say two quarts to one head. A little fresh parsley +chopped small will give a very nice flavour to the broth, put in when +cooked. + +SCOTCH BROTH.—The neck and other lean parts of mutton make the best +broth, and should be cut small enough to serve a little meat in each +plate. Turnips and onions are cut into small pieces and put in with +the meat in liberal quantity. A little salt and pepper, and some fresh +green peas when in season are added when the rest of the broth has +boiled, and pearl barley, previously washed and soaked in cold water, +is put in with the first vegetables as it takes long to cook. Boil two +hours. + +GRAVY SOUP.—Parts of lean beef, such as the shin and tougher pieces of +the leg, with any large bones broken in pieces, make the best gravy +soup. The meat should be cut into pieces and put into a deep jar with +the bones, and just enough water to cover well. Put in a spoonful of +salt and a few peppercorns and leaves of any sweet herbs available, but +no vegetables save one or two onions. Cook very slowly indeed, never +allowing it to boil hard. After cooking about six hours, strain off, +let it get cold to enable any fat to be skimmed off, then warm up as +wanted. It should be a rather deep colour and very strong and clear. + +RABBIT OR HARE SOUP.—The bones and larger joints, heads, and so on, +without any blood, of course, are put on to cook in cold water, and +with them put onions and carrots. Cook a long time, then strain and +pick off any nice bits of meat to return to the stock. Mix a large +spoonful of flour with cold water, also a teaspoonful of salt and half +one of pepper, and same of sharp sauce if available. Stir into the hot +liquor and boil up for five minutes. + +BEEF BOUILLON.—Take a nice piece of fresh beef, say two or three pounds +weight; put it on in a pan with warm water rather more than enough to +cover it. Bring it up to the boil quickly, and as soon as it boils add +pared carrots and parsnips—no turnips—onions, leeks and celery, as many +as the pan will hold, then let all boil _very gently_ for three hours +or so. The beef and vegetables can be eaten as a dish after the soup +has been taken off clear. The latter is most reviving and appetising as +well as wholesome. The point is not to let it boil hard, and to keep +the broth clear and well-flavoured. + +FISH SOUP.—The water in which a large fish has been boiled will make +a foundation for good fish soup, straining it clear then returning to +it flakes of fish carefully picked from skin and bone, and a little +minced onion and parsley. Melt a small pat of butter and stir into +it some white flour till quite smooth, then a little cold milk, and +pour into the stock. Add pepper and salt at discretion, and bring to +boiling-point. Small fresh white fish are sometimes boiled in the +stock till quite soft and the whole strained through a colander, then +finished off as indicated. + +POTATO SOUP.—Boil three or four large potatoes after peeling, and when +done mash them down to a pulp; chop finely a large onion and fry it in +butter or lard, but do not let it brown. Dredge a little flour on to +this, then add a teaspoonful of salt and a little pepper and stir up +with the mashed potato, and thin down with milk to make it like cream, +stir well till it boils and serve. + +Soak white haricot beans for twelve hours, and then boil them until +they will mash down smoothly, and treat exactly as above, and an +excellent white soup will result. + +ONION BROTH.—Peel, slice thinly and boil, several white onions, using +a deep saucepan and enough water to cover them well. When quite tender +and soft stir in half as much milk, and a large spoonful of cornflour +or barley meal, with butter, pepper and salt enough to season well, let +it boil up a minute or two and serve. + +Or bone stock can be used instead of water, leaving out the milk. + +The water in which ham or bacon has been boiled will make excellent +foundation for peas or lentil soup. Pea flour is less trouble and quite +as satisfactory as using dried peas, but if the latter are preferred +let them soak at least twelve hours before boiling in this liquor. Boil +till soft, then crush through a colander with wooden spoon and season +the puree well, adding a little butter also. If too thick, thin down +with either milk or water, put in a spoonful of fresh mint chopped or +of dried and sifted herbs. + +Treat lentils in just the same way, except that they will not need the +previous soaking that dried peas do. + +If pea flour is used, mix it well with cold water first, boil the +stock and stir in the paste when it is hot and boil well, stirring +frequently; season and add the herbs or mint as before. + +If fresh green peas are used, they need no soaking, only boiling till +very soft, mashing and thinning down with stock. + +PUMPKIN OR VEGETABLE MARROW SOUP.—Pare, split down and take out the +seeds from large marrows or from portions of ripe pumpkin. Boil in +enough water to cover well until quite tender, then rub through a +colander. Melt some butter and mix with it a large spoonful of flour, +and stir this into the marrow, thinning down with a little boiling +milk, adding salt and pepper and a spoonful of sugar, a little spice if +liked, and boil till all is smooth as a custard. + +TOMATO SOUP.—Cook half a dozen large tomatoes in a little butter, after +cutting them in slices and some slices of peeled onion. Cook till +tender, and rub down with wooden spoon or pass through a colander. Add +enough clear bone stock to make the required quantity of soup, and salt +and pepper, with a teaspoonful of sugar also. Then finally stir in some +butter and flour mixed together to a smooth paste, boil well and serve. + +Mixtures of vegetables like turnips, parsnips, artichokes and potatoes, +with onion to make a savoury flavour, make an excellent white soup. +Carrots and tomatoes and onion go well together for a soup that is made +up with bone stock. + +It is an improvement in all these soups to use _baked_ flour where +flour is mentioned, as this gives the soup a richer flavour. To make +it, spread a little white flour on a sheet of paper and bake very +slowly in a cool oven, then keep in a tin. + + +Boiled, Baked and Fried Fish + +BOILED FISH (which is never really _boiled_ but is cooked just under +the boiling-point) is done after much the same method, no matter what +the kind of fish. It is better when boiling large fish to wrap them +in a piece of clean calico or muslin as the thinner parts get cooked +before the thicker are done, and with a wrapping it is easier to lift +the fish out without breaking it. Cook in water that is well salted, +and if the fish is a white one, like cod, add a little vinegar to the +water. + +Another way of boiling fish is to lay it in a dish with just sufficient +stock—fish stock by preference—to cover it, with a few small onions +round it and a little wine or vinegar added. + +After boiling, drain the fish well and serve plenty of nice sauce +separately, and boiled potatoes left whole. A large cod, boiled whole, +with plenty of mealy potatoes and a dishful of parsley or egg sauce +will make an excellent meal. + +In boiling portions of fish, like middle cuts, it is better after +draining to take away skin and all bones and then serve it in flakes +masked under a sauce. It is a neater and more appetising way than to +have each one leave a mess of skin and bones on their plate, and a very +pretty dish can be made by sprinkling a little grated cheese or parsley +on the top and browning the dish before serving. + +Watch fish carefully while it is boiling, and as soon as it shows signs +of parting from the bone it should be drained. If boiled too long all +its flavour is gone, and if boiled too fast it will be raggy and yet +tough. Small fish like fresh herrings and mackerel, likewise soles and +plaice, all of which are very nice when carefully boiled, should rather +be _poached_, much as one would poach an egg. + +BAKED FISH.—The best way of baking any fish is to do it in a paper +wrapping. If the right kind of paper bag is not to be had, wrap it in +white notepaper, having buttered this first and put a little pat of +butter inside with a sprinkle of pepper and salt. Close up tightly and +bake in a rather hot oven and serve in its paper case if possible. +If a large piece of fish is baked in a paper bag the wrapping can +be pulled away when it is safely landed on the dish. Small fish are +delicious when baked in a paper case, and all the flavour is kept in +and the natural juice of the fish as well. This is a clean way of +cooking when the oven is nothing but a flat hearthstone, only care must +be taken that the paper wrapping cannot catch alight. + +FRIED FISH.—A clear hot fire is the first consideration when frying +anything, then a clean hot pan, some good fat such as rendered suet +or lard, and not too much of it, and the fish must have been well +dried after cleaning, then rubbed with flour. If cleaned an hour or +two before they will be cooked, the fish should be dipped in milk and +coated with flour, then left to dry, in this way a crust forms on them +which browns quickly when fried, and is little if at all inferior to +the more troublesome method of frying what has been coated with beaten +egg and dipped in crumbs of bread. The rough and ready way of flouring +fish after drying and then frying in hot fat is quite satisfactory +when flavour counts for more than appearance, but you cannot fry fish +_without_ first coating them with dry flour. + +Another way is to make a batter with an egg, a little flour, salt and +milk, making it rather thick, and dipping the fish into this, then +putting them at once into hot fat. This, too, is an easy method and +a nice crust forms on the outside of the fish which keeps in all the +flavour. + +Flat fish, like soles, flounders and plaice, are the best for frying, +or slices cut across a large fish. + +The fat in the pan must be very hot indeed, which is told by a faint +blue smoke rising from it. + +GRILLED OR BROILED FISH.—This is the camp ready way of cooking +freshly-caught fish, and very good it is. After cleaning and emptying, +the fish is split down the back, rubbed lightly with oil and laid +on a grid and held over the coals. It wants a little skill to grill +well, and not to burn the fish, but if quickly cooked in this way, +turning frequently on both sides, the result is excellent. Herrings +and mackerel broil well, so do trout and some of the small river fish. +A pat of butter, a sprinkle of salt and pepper, and a few drops of +vinegar are all the sauce that is needed. + +Sufficient directions for roasting, boiling or braising meat have +already been given, so that we may pass on to savoury dishes, among the +best of which are— + + +Hotpots + +For a LANCASHIRE HOT-POT take about a couple of pounds of lean beef +and as many potatoes and several onions. Cut the beef into small pieces +about an inch square and roll these in flour that has been liberally +seasoned with salt and pepper. Pare the potatoes and cut them in very +thick slices; peel the onions and chop roughly. Make a layer of beef, +onions and potato alternately in a stewpan just large enough to hold +the whole quantity comfortably without leaving much space. Pour in +enough water to barely cover, then put on the lid and set in a moderate +oven for quite two hours, to simmer well but not boil. It should be +very tender and lightly browned on the top. Serve in the same pan. The +flouring of the meat keeps that more tender and makes the gravy richer. + +For a HUNTER’S HOT-POT take any game or rabbits, and after cleaning and +skinning, joint them and roll in seasoned flour, then form layers of +rabbit, onion, whole potatoes or pieces of turnip or other sweet roots, +and fill up with warm water, closing tightly and stewing for two to +three hours or even longer. Venison would be good stewed in this way. +Game birds are better stewed without vegetable additions, but with a +little pork or bacon cut in strips and put with them. Flour well all +the same. + +For IRISH STEW take the neck and breast of mutton and cut in +convenient sized pieces, flouring well in seasoned flour as before, and +lay in a deep stewpan with whole onions and potatoes, as many as the +stewpan will accommodate. Put in less water, only enough to cover the +bottom well, then lay a plate face downwards on the top before putting +on the cover of the pan, and cook in good oven for three hours. The +plate helps to keep in the steam and to keep the top of the stew from +browning. + +For making a Hot-Pot with breast of veal or lamb, as sometimes it is +possible to do in the spring or summer time, the meat is cut in strips +and across in short lengths, is floured and put in a deep jar with +a few very young onions, some herbs like mint and parsley, plenty +of seasoning and a spoonful of vinegar, as well as sufficient water +to just barely cover the whole. The vegetable additions are cooked +separately, although a few boiled green peas might be put into the pot +just before serving. + +A VEGETARIAN HOT-POT is very savoury when no meat is procurable, and a +mixture of vegetables, such as carrots, onions, potatoes, turnips and +so on, should be pared, cut into neat rounds and fried well in clear +fat till all are lightly browned, then sprinkle with pepper and salt +and dredge flour over very lightly, put the vegetables in the stew +pan, rinse out the frying-pan with hot water, add just a tablespoonful +of vinegar or sharp sauce, and pour over the rest. Cover down closely +and stew for an hour in the oven. A little American green corn taken +from the husk and put into a vegetable stew makes it very nice. + +A bottle of curry powder would be of great assistance to a camp +cook, as a spoonful of this stirred into a stew or a sauce would +make a wonderful difference to the savouriness of the dish, to stews +of mutton especially, and of vegetables without meat. After frying +the vegetables, let the curry powder be stirred into the fat in the +frying-pan and mixed with that and the flour, then a little hot water +or stock added, and just cooked a little before pouring it into +the stewpan. The addition of an apple or a ripe tomato, or failing +everything else a spoonful of vinegar, will give the desirable flavour +of acidity which a curry should have. + + +Fried Steak and Onions + +In making this very favourite dish it is well to remember that the best +results are gained by combining frying and stewing, that is, frying +first and stewing for a short time afterwards. Only so do you get the +mellow flavour and the full savour which frying should give. Thus, +cut the steak into small squares and flour well, then fry in a little, +not much, hot fat, on both sides, rather quickly, so as to brown well. +Then lay the pieces of steak as they are done at the bottom of the +stewpan. While these are being fried a quantity of onions can be peeled +and sliced up, and with a little more fat added they are put into the +frying-pan after the meat is finished. Toss them frequently to brown +lightly all over, and to make them thoroughly tender cover for five or +ten minutes with a plate large enough to fit the frying-pan, and so let +them steam through. Then add to the steak, rinse out the pan with warm +water, add pepper and salt to it, and pour over the onions, cover the +stewpan down closely and set in a corner of the fireplace to simmer +for an hour or so. Then the dish will be found both appetizing and +digestible. + + +Calf’s Liver, Pig’s Fry, etc. + +In frying liver follow the same method as just described for steak, +only cut the liver or the pig’s fry into slices, not too thick, and +flour very thoroughly, frying till just lightly browned. Fry some bacon +afterwards which has been cut into strips, and add to the liver; then +fry the onions as before, season them and add with a little stock to +rinse out the pan, and cover the stewpan and cook for an hour or more +in the corner of oven or fireplace. + +When frying Mutton Chops coat them with flour first, as this keeps the +outside from getting dry. Make a nice gravy to go with fried chops by +adding a very little flour to take up the fat in the frying-pan, some +spoonfuls of sharp sauce, salt and pepper and a little stock or water, +boiling this and serving it with them. It takes but a minute or two to +make gravy, and it makes a great deal of difference to the dish and its +value. + +After frying anything like bacon or ham it is an improvement just +before it is quite finished to cover it over in the pan with a plate +and let it steam through for five minutes, thus making it very tender. + + +Toad-in-the-Hole + +Beat four tablespoonfuls of flour and two eggs, and a saltspoonful +of salt, together with a little cold milk, adding more milk when the +batter is perfectly smooth, enough to make it like thick cream. Cut +about a pound of beefsteak and one or two kidneys into small pieces, +lay them at the bottom of a well buttered baking dish or pie-dish, +sprinkle with salt and pepper, and then pour over them the batter. +Set the dish in a hot oven, but shield the top to keep from scorching +before the meat is done through. Mutton chops or sausages can be +substituted for the beef and kidney, and mushrooms help to give a nice +flavour. Australian tinned mutton or American corned beef may be used +this way also and make a very savoury dish, though less savoury than +fresh meat, of course, and therefore where cooked meat is used a little +gravy should be made separately and poured over the portions as they +are served. Fresh meat can be lightly fried before covering it with the +batter, to make it more savoury. + + +Beefsteak, Kidney and Mushroom Pudding + +A plain suet crust made with half a pound of beef suet chopped, a pound +of flour and teaspoonful of salt, rubbed together and mixed rather dry +with cold water, then rolled out twice before lining the mould with +it, is the first step towards making this pudding. Grease the mould +well, line it with crust rolled to about half an inch thick, and cut +out a piece for the top to fit exactly. Then proceed to fill with steak +cut into small squares, each one rolled in flour mixed with salt and +pepper, and add a few pieces of ox kidney cut small, and mix with +the meat some peeled mushrooms if these are to be had, or oysters if +these are available, and failing either the pudding will be very good +without them. Fill level with the top, wet the edges of the crust and +pinch down the covering piece, after pouring in sufficient cold water +to nearly but not quite cover the meat. Then tie down with a cloth, +or screw on the cover of the mould, whichever kind of mould is used, +and plunge it into a deep pan of boiling water, and keep boiling very +fast for four hours—certainly not less than three. If making a larger +pudding give it still longer time to boil. The moulds with screw on +covers are much to be recommended, as when using a cloth, however +carefully this is tied over, some of the gravy and goodness of the +pudding is apt to ooze through into the water. Take off the cover, bind +a clean cloth round the mould, and serve, or turn it out into a deep +dish if preferred. + +Where mutton is more plentiful than beef, lean parts, chops trimmed +from all fat, and kidneys cut in half, with mushrooms, or without them, +would make another delicious pudding. + +Mushrooms alone, plenty of them, liberally sprinkled with pepper and +salt and floured, might be packed inside a mould lined with suet crust, +and a few strips of bacon or salt pork put with them, then boiled for +a couple of hours, and a very savoury pudding would result. + +When boiling beef or mutton with vegetables, as before directed, small +balls of this plain suet crust dropped into the broth when it boils +and cooked for an hour or so, are, in the opinion of many people, a +great addition to the dish and certainly help to make it a little more +substantial. + +The same crust lines the mould when sliced apples, plums, berries +and wild fruits are used for the filling, with sugar added, and when +boiled this turns out an excellent pudding. Boil always two hours. A +suet crust improves with long boiling, but is not at all good when too +little done. + +For a JAM ROLL make the crust in the same way, rolling it out to about +a quarter of an inch thick, in a long strip of ten or twelve inches +wide. Spread with jam, or treacle, with chopped fruits, soaked dried +fruits and syrup, or anything that is available, and then begin at +one end and roll up, not too tightly, pinching down the edges to keep +it compact. Take a cloth, wring it out of hot water, sprinkle lightly +with flour, and place your roll pudding across one corner, fold over +the sides towards the middle, then roll up neatly and securely, but +again not too tightly, as the pudding wants room to swell, fasten +securely, and plunge into fast boiling water, and keep boiling without +intermission for two hours. Unroll from the cloth and serve on hot dish. + +A plain boiled suet pudding may be boiled in a cloth, or in a greased +mould tied down, and served with hot treacle or cane syrup, or white +sauce in which some spoonfuls of jam have been boiled, sweet sauce with +wine, and so on, or with the gravy from meat. + +The plain pudding may be made richer by adding currants or a liberal +quantity of stoned raisins to it, or mixing with it treacle, marmalade +or jam, and then boiling and serving with sauce. + +Golden Pudding is of the same type, but may be called the Sunday +edition of the weekday variety. It is made by mixing the same plain +ingredients with eggs instead of milk or water, adding a little +baking-powder to the dry flour first, then a spoonful of orange +marmalade and two of clear sugar syrup, and after mixing and putting +into a buttered mould this is boiled for two hours and served with a +sweet sauce containing a suspicion of something spirituous—whatever +Sunday rations permit of! + +While on the subject of boiled puddings, it will not do to leave out a +recipe for Christmas Pudding, as there may be occasion for the colonist +to make his own some day. + +Equal quantities (whatever the weight, this depending upon the size +of pudding required), say, half a pound each of stale crumb of bread +grated finely, flour, suet minced, currants and stoned raisins and +sugar; mix these together first, then add two ounces of candied fruit +shred small, half a packet of mixed spice and teaspoonful of ginger, a +teaspoonful of salt, four eggs and quarter of a pint of brandy or rum. +Mix thoroughly and keep for two or three days before boiling, then put +into moulds and tie over closely, and boil five hours. + +To simplify this, leave out the candied fruits and spices, using only +the plainer ingredients and all raisins can be used instead of currants +if preferred. A pound of figs cut very small might take the place of +any other fruit, and the spirituous liquor can be omitted altogether, +using milk in place of it. + +Equal quantities, say half a pound, of stoned and chopped raisins, suet +and flour, mixed together with cold milk, and boiled for four or five +hours, make a very excellent substitute for a rich plum-pudding. + + +Baked Milk Puddings + +It is a mistake to put eggs in baked milk puddings, except it be when +a custard is required. A deep dish makes the best puddings of this +type, and the heat at which they are cooked must be only moderate; they +do exceedingly well on the flat stones in front of a fire or in the +hearth after a fire has been swept away, or at the bottom of a clay +oven as mentioned in the early chapters of this book. + +Wash whole rice and barley very thoroughly before using, then allow +three large tablespoonfuls of either to each pint of milk used. Roughly +speaking, it is sufficient to cover well the bottom of the dish that is +used. Add sugar and a little salt and spice if liked, then pour in the +milk—cold—and stir up well and set to cook. + +Tapioca is done the same way, but is not washed before using. Tapioca +is more nourishing than either rice or barley. Sago makes another +change, and is also very nourishing, and hominy is likewise good, +though it is improved by preparing as ground rice, namely, by boiling +in a saucepan with the milk first, till stiff, and when cool one or two +eggs and a little spice are beaten in and the mixture is poured into a +buttered dish and baked till just brown on the surface. + +Macaroni is broken into inch lengths and thrown into boiling salted +water and cooked till just tender, then drained, mixed with one or two +beaten eggs and a little milk, with grated cheese, pepper and salt, or +instead with a little sugar and spice, poured into a buttered dish and +cooked till firmly set. + +Or, after boiling till tender, and draining from water, it can be +returned to the saucepan with plenty of butter and grated cheese, +pepper and salt, with either a little cream or some tomato sauce, +and after tossing with a fork cover down and leave to simmer for ten +minutes, then turn out into a dish and eat with a fork. + + +Batter Puddings + +To make a light batter, good either for baking as a Yorkshire pudding, +for boiling to eat with sauce, or for frying as Pancakes, allow to +every egg two large tablespoonfuls of flour, half a saltspoonful of +salt and a breakfast-cupful of milk. + +When mixing, break the egg first into a basin, add the salt, then the +flour and a quarter of the milk, then beat well and briskly, so as to +work out all traces of lumps, and gradually beat in the rest of the +milk. A little water as well as the milk makes the batter lighter than +one made with all milk. Increase the proportions according to the size +of pudding or the number of pancakes required. + +This batter can be poured into a shallow baking tin containing some +hot fat—for a Yorkshire pudding—and baked rather quickly in hot oven, +or poured into a buttered mould which it will three-parts fill, tied +down and boiled or steamed for two hours, or taken by small cupfuls and +poured into a well-greased frying-pan and turned over as it sets and +browns. + + +Omelettes + +For an omelet the freshest of eggs will be needed, and they are broken +on to a plate, salt and pepper added and not more than a tablespoonful +of milk; this is lightly beaten with the blade of a knife until just +mixed, then poured into the pan, which contains butter that is on the +point of turning brown. Leave to set, then pass a knife round the edge +and underneath, fold one half over the other and slip on to a hot dish. + +If a cheese omelet is wanted, add some spoonfuls of grated cheese to +the mixture and cook as just directed. + +If minced herbs or mushrooms are added, put the herbs with the eggs, +but cook the mushrooms in a separate pan with some butter, and just +before folding the omelet over slip in the cooked mushrooms between. +Fried giblets and livers and strips of bacon are introduced in the same +way to make another variation. + + +Cheese and Stale Bread + +By grating the bread and cheese and mixing these with an egg, salt and +pepper and just a little milk, the mixture can make a kind of pancake +in the ordinary way, or be baked in a buttered pie-dish in the oven as +a savoury pudding. + +Supposing there are some stale crusts and a bit of dry cheese, but no +eggs or butter. Pour a little boiling water, or better still a little +boiling milk, over the crusts in a dish and leave to soften, then put a +little ale or cider into a frying-pan, slice up the cheese very thinly, +lay it in the hot liquor, and while it is getting hot through beat up +the soaked bread with a fork, add a sprinkle of salt and then put all +into the frying-pan and toss up till the whole is thoroughly light and +hot through. + +Another way is to pour milk over broken crusts and set these in a dish +inside the oven and when hot to cover thickly with grated or sliced +cheese, salt and pepper enough to season well, and return until just +browned on the surface. + +If very dry crusts of bread are dipped in milk and baked between two +plates, then spread with butter and toasted cheese, they make a very +relishable supper. + + +Using Tinned Provisions + +In place of fresh milk condensed milk makes excellent milk puddings, +batter puddings, bread, and so forth. If using the sweetened milk leave +out sugar mentioned in the recipes. Do not add too much water to the +milk. + +Corned Beef can be cut into small squares and lightly fried, then +served inside a wall of mashed potato, with a tomato gravy made and +poured over. Or served inside a batter baked in dish as mentioned in +Toad-in-the-Hole. + +Make a curry sauce by using some bone stock, or stock made by +dissolving a soup square, adding to it a good spoonful of curry powder +or paste, a little salt and pepper and tomato or Worcester sauce, and a +spoonful of baked flour mixed smooth with dissolved butter. Boil up and +allow to simmer. Fry till very brown some thinly sliced onions, dredge +with seasoning, and fry also slices of corned beef in same pan after +the onions are done. Place all in the curry sauce and leave to simmer +for half an hour, then serve with boiled rice or mashed potato. + +Tinned Australian mutton chops can be added to a stew of onions and +potatoes when these have partly cooked, and with plenty of seasoning +make a very palatable Irish Stew. + +Tinned Rabbit is improved by having a little curry added to the +gravy after it has been made hot and by cooking it gently to mix the +flavours. Some boiled onions and white sauce accompany tinned rabbit +excellently well. + +Tinned Fruits and Vegetables can be made hot and served with cooked +rice or custard sauce, according to what they are, and whether sweet or +savoury. Tinned peas, for instance, and tinned mushrooms, go well with +rice and a curry sauce; tinned tomatoes, cheese, pepper and salt, are +tossed together and fried for a few minutes. + + +Kitchen Wrinkles + +Fill all saucepans with cold water as soon as done with and set aside; +when ready to wash them heat the water and it will be easy to scour +them with soda and sand. Never leave a pan to be dry before washing, as +it will be ten times harder to clean and probably require scraping. + +Pour all fat that has been used for frying or baking into a jar +containing a few spoonfuls of boiling water; this clarifies the fat and +causes all crumbs and sediment to fall to the bottom. The fat can then +be lifted off in a cake and used over and over again. + +Soup that has been over-salted can be corrected to some extent by +putting in raw potatoes and bringing up to the boiling-point again—not +letting the potatoes break up and spoil the colour of the soup. + +Raw potatoes are one of the best preventives of scurvy, and can be +eaten if they are grated, while plain boiled potatoes, eaten hot or +cold, are the best corrective in a diet that contains too much salt +meat. + +Sliced raw onions placed about in saucers are excellent disinfectants +where there is infectious sickness about; change at least every day and +substitute fresh onions. Small-pox and other fevers have been kept away +by having onions hanging in the room. Saucers of slaked lime are also +good disinfectants, particularly where there is any damp or bad smell +about. + +To take the stains from steel knives clean first with damp earth, then +rub with a cork and some emery powder and methylated spirit, or with +powdered wood ash. + + +To Boil Rice + +Rice is so often badly-cooked that the Black Man’s way of boiling it +may be worth quoting. He says— + +“Wash him well; much wash in cold water; rice-flour make him stick. +Water boil all ready, very fast. Shove him in; rice not burn, water +shake him too much. Boil twenty minutes. Rub one rice in thumb and +finger; if all rub away him quite done. Put rice in colander, hot water +run away through; put cold water through him, then put back in pan, +cover him and keep hot, then soon rice all ready. Eat him up.” + + * * * * * + +Vegetables which have strong flavours, such as green cabbage, nettles, +turnip-tops, and so on, should be drained from the first water, then +returned to the pan with fresh boiling water. They will be much more +easily digested if this is done. + + + + +VIII + +PRACTICAL HINTS FOR THE HANDY MAN + + +Mosquitos, Gnats and Wasp Stings + +When camping out, these troublesome insects can inflict much torture, +and one way of keeping them out of a tent is to hang up a piece of raw +meat outside it for them to settle upon. To paint freely woodwork and +canvas with petroleum and ordinary oil mixed together is another way of +keeping insects at a distance. For the stings themselves, a mixture of +common soda and salad oil mixed together is a great means of allaying +the irritation. Pull out the sting if it is still visible and bathe +with warm water and common salt, then with oil and soda. Rubbing the +body freely with oil or fat is a preventive of insect bites, and it is +said that those who will eat spices freely, particularly cinnamon, will +never be bitten. + + +Screening Sun-Rays + +Where light is wanted yet the sun’s rays must be kept out, of cellar or +room, the best way is to mix whitewash and ordinary blue, coating the +window with this inside. When afraid of sun-rays on the head remember +not only to protect the head itself but also the nape of the neck and +the spine. A thick pleat of something in the lining of the coat or +shirt and high collar are very necessary in order to guard these nerve +centres both from excessive cold and heat. + + +Roof-Fire Risks + +Roofs, more especially those covered with shingles, boards, tarred felt +or any form of thatch, are a source of danger from fire. An excellent +and simple way of protecting them is to run a fairly large pipe, +with small perforations all along its course, along the ridge pole, +connecting it with the house water supply if in town or with the water +cistern in the country. By turning a tap, which should be controlled +from a place easily got at, the pipe is filled with water which escapes +through the perforations and covers the whole roof with a thin sheet of +water. This will extinguish sparks from passing locomotives or a forest +conflagration, and prevent fire from both internal or external heat. In +hot climates the system can be employed for cooling the roof. + + +Waterproof Putty + +A plastic waterproof paste is often useful. It can be prepared by +almost anyone anywhere by taking a piece of ordinary cheese, steeping +it in water until quite soft, then rubbing and kneading it well with +about half its weight of quicklime. With this you can put in panes of +glass, stop up cracks, and make wooden cases waterproof. + + +Cutting Glass + +When without a glazier’s diamond make a stout wire or thin iron rod red +hot and draw a line with it, very lightly, where you want the glass +cut; unless it is very thick glass it will snap off quite easily. And +for opening a bottle that is too tightly corked, instead of breaking +the neck and splintering the glass, take a piece of string and soak it +in turpentine, tie it tightly round the neck of the bottle where you +wish it broken off, then set fire to the string, and the glass will +snap off easily at the heated line. + + +Rust on Tools + +It is not an easy matter to remove rust from tools without damaging +them. Better by far is to preserve your tools from rust. Professor +Olmstead, of Yale College, gave the following recipe for keeping tools +from rusting, which deserves to be more widely known: Melt together six +to eight parts of lard to one of resin and stir till cool. It will +remain semi-liquid. Rub on tools or any polished surface in a very thin +film. It will protect the metal from damp and can easily be rubbed off +again when the article is wanted. The resin prevents the oil or lard +from becoming rancid. When too thick, thin down with benzine. + + +Re-sharpening Files + +Files that are constantly in use soon become clogged and will not work +properly. The material that clogs them should be washed or dissolved +out. Sawdust can be got out by steeping in hot soap-suds. For iron +filings use a very dilute solution of sulphate of copper. For copper +use dilute nitric acid. For zinc dilute sulphuric acid. Use all acids +very weak, then wash well and dry thoroughly. + + +Nailing Boards + +Many people in putting up boards will nail one after the other, making +a complete job of each board. But this is not the right way. First nail +the board down on one side, the starting side, let us say the left. +Next place the second board in position and nail down the left. This +done, nail down the right side of the first board. Now place board +three in position, nail down its left side, then the right side of +board number two, and so on right along. The object of this is to get +the boards close together and so make a compact job of it. They are +practically wedged in close to each other. To obtain the best results +do not drive the nails straight down but at a slight angle, right and +left. Boards nailed thus cannot be shaken loose. But in nailing up +cases that have to be opened again, drive the nails straight in as +that makes lifting up with a screwdriver much easier. To rub nails +and screws with vaseline, a tin of which should always be kept in the +tool-box, makes them much easier to drive in and prevents rusting. + + +Gates Without Hinges + +Hinges are one of the weak points in gates of all kinds, especially +heavy wooden ones that have to undergo much hard wear and tear; they +are apt to break and cannot always be replaced. Say you have a three +or four-barred gate, with vertical bars longer than the horizontal. +The top and lowest bars of the gate must project beyond the horizontal +and should be pierced with round holes. The gate is hung by having its +end post passed through the hole in the lower bar; the top bar is then +placed in position and the top of the gate post passed through its +hole. The intermediate bars are nailed to shorter posts which do not +come higher than the level of the top of the gate. A gate of this kind +will swing easily provided the holes are made large enough. + +Another gate is more like the swinging section of a fence, and is +intended to block watercourses which run dry, at certain seasons. On +the other hand if the fence is brought down too low or made too solid +it may be swept away when the water rises. The method is to construct a +string hurdle, planned so as to stop gaps, with a strong and long top +bar. This top bar just rests in bifurcated posts on each bank or side, +the posts forming a sort of V-shaped rest. If necessary, this top bar +can be rivetted to the posts and the bottom of the hurdle weighted with +stones. If not weighted, however, the result is that the watercourse is +fenced over but the hurdle swings when the water rushes through without +being carried away and falls back into position as the stream subsides. + + +Watches as Compasses + +All watches are compasses, and this fact may help any one out of a +difficulty when uncertain of their bearings. All that has to be done is +to point the hour hand to the sun. The south lies exactly between that +point and the hour twelve; thus at six o’clock the exact south will be +found at the point marked three on the dial. + +If the way has been lost and bearings cannot be taken either from an +elevation or by a compass or watch, and a watercourse can be found, +follow that downwards; it will at least prevent travelling in a circle, +and most likely lead to some habitation. + + +Substitute for Coffee + +The grains of corn, such as wheat or oats, make an excellent substitute +for coffee if dried and browned on tins over a fire and then bruised +or ground up. So do small beans of the haricot variety. They may be +crushed between stones and then roasted in a pan over the fire, and +boiled with water, the liquor being poured off clear. All raw fruits +and root vegetables like potatoes are preventives of scurvy, and dried +fruits like peaches and apples are excellent sustaining food on a +march, while dried raisins are better than all. + + +To Make Limewash + +Mix quicklime in a bucket with hot water and glue. If for disinfecting +purposes add a little carbolic solution. Care must be taken not to let +a splash get into the eyes, and if by accident it does so, bathe the +eyes at once with warm water and vinegar. The acid neutralises the lime. + + +To Make Whitewash + +Put some whiting into a pail and add powdered dry size. Pour on boiling +water till the mixture is as thick as cream, and to keep it white add +a little common washing blue. A tint of salmon pink or terra-cotta +is obtained by mixing some Venetian red with the whiting. Whiting is +easier and safer to apply than limewash, but is no use for disinfectant +purposes. + + +Suggestions + +Agates are sold for sixpence by tobacconists and can be kept with a +piece of tinder in a little tin box, to use instead of a flint for +procuring a spark from steel. + +The burning-glass taken from a telescope and held over tinder in hot +sunshine will cause it to ignite. + +Firewood should be looked for under bushes, as the driest and easiest +to light is always found there. Old tree roots make excellent firewood. +Large logs make the best fire when placed transversely and built in +with smaller wood. + +When obliged to sleep on the ground scrape a hollow for the hip bone to +rest in and another for the shoulder, then much better rest is obtained. + +A piece of mackintosh should always be taken with any rugs, but failing +mackintosh a piece of tarred or painted canvas is excellent for keeping +out damp. Brown paper is an excellent non-conductor of heat, and if +placed between rugs and blankets makes one worth two in warmth. A bag +filled with grass or dry earth makes a good pillow. Thick quilts or +rugs with sheets of wadding quilted in between them are better for +bed-coverings than blankets when camping out, and are lighter to carry. + +Take care to keep the extremities warm when in cold climate. Increase +the warmth of knitted woollens by lining them with thin flannel or +silk, and cut the legs from stockings that are worn out at the feet and +use these for covering the arms. Keep the mouth covered if you would +keep warm in keen frosty weather, as this prevents rapid evaporation of +the heat of the body. The Red Indians knew this, and one of them seeing +a white man suffering from cold once remarked to him, “You no keep your +breath warm and so, you cold.” + +Much sugar should be consumed in cold climates, and eating sweets +freely is much to be commended. Toffee can be made easily over a +camp fire at night, and is wholesome faring for anyone. Chocolate +is excellent food likewise, and peppermint candies are good for +stimulating digestion and warming the stomach. + +A thick dressing-gown is a great comfort in either hot or cold +climates; it can be worn while day clothes are airing or drying and is +a better sleeping dress than night clothes when travelling. + +During cold weather, after washing the body, rub well with oil to help +to keep the skin soft and free from sores. A horse-hair flesh glove to +use for a vigorous dry rub is better than too frequent washing in water. + +Grease the soles of shoes when much walking has to be done, and a layer +of grease between the foot and shoe is a great preventive of foot +sores. The harder the ground the thicker the socks or stockings should +be. + + +A Summary of Useful Things + +A mincing machine, a small sewing machine, English-made steel knives +(plated knives are in common use in Canada, but they are apt to be +very blunt). Kitchen tools, horn spoons and enamelled plates and cups. +Small pair of bellows. A leather roll containing chisel, gouge, files, +nippers, screwdrivers, gimlet and hand saw, with a few nails and +screws—this is as indispensable as a “Housewife,” although the latter +article must not be left behind. A can-opener and strong clasp-knife, +some strong glue, a shoemaker’s reel of thread and some cobbler’s wax, +and tin of vaseline, are all excellent if not absolutely indispensable. + + +_Printed by_ BUTLER & TANNER, _Frome and London_. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78919 *** |