Initial commit of ebook 78733 filesHEAD main

author: www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> 2026-05-23 02:05:17 -0700
committer: www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> 2026-05-23 02:05:17 -0700
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+      The master of destiny | Project Gutenberg
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+
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78733 ***</div>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_cover" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_cover.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center ep4" style="font-size: x-large;">
+THE MASTER OF DESTINY
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center ep4"><span style="font-size: small;">BOOKS BY</span><br>
+FREDERICK TILNEY</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE BRAIN FROM APE TO MAN</p>
+
+<p class="center p1"><span style="font-size: small;">IN COLLABORATION WITH</span><br>
+HENRY ALSOP RILEY</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: small;">THE FORM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE<br>
+CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p>
+
+
+<h1 style="font-family: sans-serif;">THE MASTER OF DESTINY</h1>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; letter-spacing: 0.05em;">A BIOGRAPHY<br>
+OF THE BRAIN</p>
+
+<p class="center p1" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; letter-spacing: 0.05em;">BY FREDERICK<br>
+TILNEY, M.D.</p>
+
+<p class="center p1" style="font-family: sans-serif; letter-spacing: 0.05em; margin-bottom: 2em;">WITH A FOREWORD<br>
+BY AUSTEN FOX<br>
+RIGGS, M.D.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_titlepage" style="max-width: 32em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_titlepage.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-family: sans-serif; letter-spacing: 0.1em;">DOUBLEDAY, DORAN &amp; COMPANY, INC.<br>
+GARDEN CITY&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;MCMXXX&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;NEW YORK</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span></p>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp20 ep6" id="colophon" style="max-width: 3em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/colophon.png" alt="" data-role="presentation">
+</figure>
+
+
+<p class="center p2" style="font-size: x-small;">COPYRIGHT, 1929, 1930<br>
+BY FREDERICK TILNEY<br>
+ALL RIGHTS RESERVED<br>
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES AT<br>
+THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS<br>
+GARDEN CITY, N. Y.</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: x-small;">FIRST EDITION</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="FOREWORD">
+    FOREWORD
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Race after race of man has appeared on this earth,
+lasted but a short span of time, and then met disaster
+and extinction. Our modern race is of this series. We
+have reason to believe that it differs in quality from
+its forerunners chiefly in its cerebral endowment.
+That its progress from animalhood to civilization is
+due to this endowment, is not questioned, for its victory
+over environment, its ascendency over all other
+animals is plainly due to its superior brain power.</p>
+
+<p>How did this race originate? Like all the other
+races preceding it? Or by some aberrant, instantaneous
+freak of creation? How did it acquire its characteristic
+brain? As the bird its wings, as the elephant
+its trunk, as the camel its hump, or by a divine
+act of separate and special creation? Those who maintain
+the quarrel over man’s origin are not those who
+have familiarized themselves with the history of the
+world and its creatures; they are not the astronomers,
+the geologists, the biologists, the anthropologists or
+the archeologists. They are clearly those who prefer
+believing to thinking, the traditionalists, good men
+mayhap but not necessarily wise. In the earlier days
+of science (it is only four or five hundred years old),
+its devoted labourers were persecuted by Church and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span>State. They had to give respectful attention to criticism
+or else perish by fire and sword. But, as we have
+advanced slowly from religious persecution and the
+auto-da-fé to mere intolerant and wordy remonstrance,
+the scientist has paid but scant attention to
+these quarrels. He feels that as they are not of his
+making, neither are they his concern. Perhaps he is
+not quite right there. To be sure, he is criticized, not
+wisely but too well, and for the most part not quite
+fairly. We have criticized him for an assumed lack of
+reverence, but even more for his obvious indifference
+to our criticism. This has justice in it for, though his
+indifference to criticism may be excused, the ignorance
+upon which this criticism is founded should be his
+first concern, for the man of science is the teacher
+and ignorance is his very opportunity. Heretofore,
+however, he has seen his opportunity too narrowly,
+for he has been content to teach only the few embryo
+scientists apprenticed to his own particular field.
+He has not, until very lately, realized that his hard-won
+knowledge is far more needed and therefore far
+more owed to those who are most ignorant of it, in
+short, to the great mass of men and women outside
+the scientific world.</p>
+
+<p>“You are irreligious,” said his critics. “You have
+been weighed and found wanting in that devotional
+attitude we find essential to humanity. You do not
+even listen to our reproaches. You are irreverent!”</p>
+
+<p>For the most part, there has been no answer. The
+men of science have been strangely preoccupied with
+their own business of finding out all they can of their
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span>fellow man, of his nature, his origin, his difficulties,
+his dangers, and of his predictable future, all in the
+faith that such knowledge will ultimately benefit
+mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Now at length one of them has made rejoinder to
+these protests. He admits that he has been preoccupied,
+especially so in the past twenty years, with
+laborious but fascinating research into just these
+questions so vitally concerning his fellow man. He
+admits that he had not thought his scientific gleanings
+would interest any but scientists, but he denies irreverence
+and insists that neither he nor any other
+who spends his life in studying man and his place in
+nature could lack reverence. He cannot find himself
+entirely in accord with any of the eleven surviving
+religions which guide the lives of many men to-day.
+The twelve extinct religions of the past also leave him
+unsatisfied. Nevertheless he worships devoutly,
+though in a temple transcending in significance and
+beauty any wrought by the hand of man. His devotion
+is no mere lip service expressive of the self-protective
+instinct, but one that takes form in labour.
+In spite of disappointment and hardship, he has persevered
+through years in that labour, with the single
+object of gaining a deeper understanding of man and
+his place in nature.</p>
+
+<p>It is now our turn to admit error and ask if we may
+not share in the fruits of his research—even though
+our understanding has thus far been alien to his field
+of labour, even though our path has not led us to his
+temple, even though we have not been aware of his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span>devotion. We urge him to speak to us, not as to scientists,
+but as to his fellow creatures, fellow citizens and
+fellow sufferers. We urge him to speak to us plainly,
+believing that whatsoever has value in human knowledge
+may be simply told.</p>
+
+<p>With some hesitation he has consented. He has
+chosen to speak to us of the brain, as the most direct
+approach to the comprehension of the nature of man.
+He points out that this master organ of life holds the
+secret of human success, that its function is human
+progress, its neglect human disaster.</p>
+
+<p>The immensity of the retrospect of his story will
+create in us the wholesome effect called humility.
+The prospect he pictures is fraught with the terror
+of what may happen, but it also holds forth inspiration
+to courage and is golden with hope. No man can
+follow this account without being inspired by a vision
+of the dawning of a new era of progress, not an era of
+greater possessions but of better use of those already
+possessed; of better relations between peoples and
+races; and being sobered by a realization that this
+hope lies in developing still further the efficiency
+of the master organ of destiny, through training
+and education.</p>
+
+<p>The scientist speaks. He tells what he has seen and
+heard and read through the long pilgrimage of years,
+searching for the truth, and he gives us the fruit of
+these labours, simply and accurately. But scientific
+accuracy and matters of fact are only his raw material.
+They are woven into the fabric of a true story, vibrant
+with adventure, warmed by the love and reverence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span>of the humanitarian, and illumined by the prophetic
+imagination of a poet.</p>
+
+<p>This tale of man’s emergence is fascinating, inspiring,
+stimulating, but when it brings us to the
+climax of the present it becomes a challenge. We are
+faced by an awful question. Shall the glorious race
+of modern man sink into oblivion, as all the preceding
+races have sunk, or may he save himself from chaotic
+ruin? If he is to be spared for further progress to
+greater heights of happiness, he must take heed of
+his own history, he must value his forebrain as his
+master organ and set himself diligently to develop
+its powers more fully than ever before. To this end
+he must discard the last bit of fundamentalism, and
+the false security of all superstition; he must learn
+to depend courageously on his own power to understand
+and control himself; he must give up superhuman
+sanctions for evils that his intelligence has
+long since discarded. Knowledge must replace superstition—else
+the embattled hosts of the world will
+again be at their bloody work of extinction, praying
+to the same god, using the same old prayers. It is
+only by increasing the scope of his forebrain through
+self-knowledge, training, and education that man
+can save himself from the old pitfalls from which
+neither the old nor the new religions have heretofore
+saved him. It is only thus, through understanding,
+that he can ever hope to make full use of the forces
+of growth and change which we call evolution. But
+our scientist gives us reason to hope that through
+intelligence, itself a product of evolution, man may
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span>yet not only escape destruction by these forces but
+may even go far toward gaining a mastery over them
+which will insure the progress of his race toward planes
+of usefulness and happiness as yet undreamed of.</p>
+
+<p>It is indeed time that we think of ourselves as men
+in the making and cease to consider ourselves as gods
+and the lords of a finished creation.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap">Austen Fox Riggs.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+  Stockbridge, Massachusetts,<br>
+  October, 1929.
+</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">
+    CONTENTS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="font-size: x-small;">
+PAGE
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+FOREWORD
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#FOREWORD">v</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" style="font-size: x-small;">
+CHAPTER
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+I.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+PRIMITIVE ANCESTORS<br>
+Origin and Early Days of the Brain
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+II.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ANCESTORS BEFORE THE APES<br>
+The Brain from Fish to Man
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_II">24</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+III.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+MAN IN THE MAKING<br>
+Human Progress from Prehistoric to Modern Times
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_III">51</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+IV.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+EDEN OR EVOLUTION<br>
+Genesis and the Origin of Species
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">85</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+V.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+BIRTHPLACE AND EARLY BEGINNINGS
+OF MAN<br>
+Influences of Forest and Plain on Brain Development
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_V">107</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+VI.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+DAWN OF THE PRIMATE BRAIN<br>
+The Lowest of the Monkey Kind
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">129</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+VII.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ON THE WAY UPWARD<br>
+Brains of the Old World Monkeys
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">152</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+VIII.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+MANLIKE TENDENCIES<br>
+Brains of Gibbon and Orang-Outang
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">168</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+IX.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+HUMAN IN MINIATURE<br>
+The Brain of the Chimpanzee
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">186</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span></p>X.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ALMOST HUMAN<br>
+The Brain of the Gorilla
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_X">212</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+XI.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+HUMAN AT LAST<br>
+The Brain of Prehistoric Man
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XI">239</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+XII.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+IMPLEMENTS OF HUMAN SUCCESS<br>
+How the Hand, Foot, and Brain Led the Way
+to Humanity
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XII">267</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+XIII.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ESTIMATES AND VALUES<br>
+Assets and Liabilities of the Human Brain
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">301</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+XIV.
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+THE FINAL TEST OF THE BRAIN<br>
+World Coöperation and Recivilization
+</td>
+<td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">330</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+  <p class="ph2 ep4">
+    THE MASTER OF DESTINY
+  </p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p>
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">
+    CHAPTER I
+    <br>
+    PRIMITIVE ANCESTORS
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">ORIGIN AND EARLY DAYS OF THE BRAIN</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Since every well-arranged biography should start
+at the beginning, we may first inquire into the origin
+of the brain. The early history of such an important
+organ must be closely interwoven with the genesis of
+man. If man were the result of a separate creative
+miracle, so also was his brain.</p>
+
+<p>But we are not obliged to accept this view which
+attributes the universe and all living things to creative
+miracles. There is another and equally reasonable
+possibility. We may, for example, assume that man
+and all else came into existence by that process of
+continuous change and progressive development
+called evolution. We have excellent grounds for accepting
+such an assumption. Astronomy, geology,
+biology, chemistry, and all of the sciences relating to
+mankind have revealed the essential facts. Any other
+interpretation must disregard or repudiate this convincing
+record. With such a record as this to guide us
+we may turn our attention to the origin of the brain.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Earliest_Forms_of_Animal_Life">
+  <i>Earliest Forms of Animal Life</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The inception of life on our planet was simple in
+the extreme. The earliest animals, although well
+organized, possessed no special organs in the strict
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span>sense. In the beginning there was nothing which
+could be specifically called a stomach or a heart, a
+lung or a kidney. Certainly there was nothing even
+remotely resembling a brain. The business of living
+was transacted within a single cell. This cell was so
+small that it could not be seen by the naked eye.
+Each of these cells was sufficient unto itself. Each
+played its own separate part with a simple programme
+of existence. Each was required to get its own food,
+to carry on its own chemical activities of digestion
+and elimination. Finally, after it had been successful
+in this remarkable process, it was called upon to
+produce offspring, to perpetuate its species. This last
+act was the crown and climax of its life, for in this
+way it conferred a material immortality upon its kind.</p>
+
+<p>The amœba, among living animals, is a good example
+of this simple life. It is wholly intent upon
+carrying on within itself the earliest traditions of
+existence. All of its life is conducted within a single
+microscopic cell, which is at once its office and workshop.
+It has nothing in its make-up that could in the
+ordinary sense be called an organ. In such amœban
+animals as these there seems to be nothing progressive,
+nothing to suggest the possibilities of further advancement.
+Each amœba might, if such a thing were
+possible, look back over a long line of ancestors exactly
+like itself. In looking forward it might see no
+great possibility of progress. Perhaps it might reach
+the more specialized conditions of its present-day
+relatives with contractile threads in their substance
+and vibrating hairs by which to move themselves
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span>about. At best the outlook of the amœba for progress
+was restricted within very narrow limits.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Familiar_Animals_of_Earliest_Type">
+  <i>Familiar Animals of Earliest Type</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Certain events in the long history of these little
+animals have acquired much human interest. At
+times some of these simple lives become strikingly
+dramatic. Their monotonous existence is changed
+and they pass through certain exciting phases. Such
+a drama is often enacted when certain amœbæ gain
+entrance into the body of another animal and there
+become parasites. The other animal may be some
+huge beast or even man himself. One unpretentious
+amœba (<i>Amœba histolytica</i>), if it gains entrance into
+the intestinal tract of man, may cause amœbic dysentery
+and abscess of the liver. Another single cell
+animal (<i>Trypanosome Gambiense</i>) living in the blood
+of certain cattle is often conveyed by the tsetse fly
+to human blood where it produces the fatal disease
+known as “African sleeping sickness.” This small animal
+claims hundreds of thousands of victims a year.
+In tropical Africa its devastations go on unchecked
+over an area of more than a million square miles.
+In this region sleeping sickness kills as many persons
+as all other diseases combined. From five to seventy
+per cent. of the inhabitants in different localities are
+stricken. Cattle, horses, and other domestic animals
+cannot be kept because of this disease. On this account,
+and also because the area in which the sickness
+rages is extremely fertile, it has been said that the
+conquering of this malignant protozoan would be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span>equivalent to the discovery of a new continent.</p>
+
+<p>Even better known are the several acts in the cycle
+of the <i>plasmodium malaria</i>. This protozoan animal
+is often borne by the Anopheles mosquito and injected
+into the blood of man. Then follows the familiar
+series of pathological events consisting of chill, fever,
+and sweat, called malaria. In certain respects it seems
+like retributive justice when this animal is injected
+into the body of man to cure the effects produced by
+another microörganism. The other organism is the
+spirochæte which causes syphilis. It often produces
+changes which destroy the human brain in consequence
+of a disease known as paresis. Many other
+protozoan animals are parasites, but in the main they
+live and have lived simple, unobtrusive lives.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding their apparent simplicity of structure
+and action, these minute animals, like all other
+things, have been subject to the influence of continuous
+change. They have responded to this influence
+in different ways. In many instances, through generations
+of reproduction, they have effected combinations
+and recombinations of their essential constituents
+out of which have emerged modifications of their
+original structure. Often these changes have proved
+progressive and contributed to more complex modes
+of living. Often they have been regressive or non-progressive.
+It was the progressive modifications in
+these earliest animals that were of utmost importance
+to the origin of the brain. This organ was not yet in
+sight, but adaptations working toward it were soon
+to appear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Critical_Changes_in_Animal_Existence">
+  <i>Critical Changes in Animal Existence</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the course of time certain critical changes took
+place in the lowly scheme of animal existence. These
+were distinctly progressive changes. Some of the single-cell
+animals began to live in colonies. Circumstances
+thus conferred upon them a community life. They
+began to exist in close contact with others like themselves
+and were compelled to forego their simple, independent
+habits. They were, in fact, actually joined
+to each other by rather slender bonds of their own
+vital substance—protoplasm. This was an epochal
+stride forward. It was the first step which led to
+progress. In some instances it brought about entirely
+new relations between these animals and the world
+in which they lived. Now, since these small cells
+were grouped together as colonies, each individual
+cell lost much of its own independence. Its interests
+became, in some degree at least, the interests of the
+group. If, as a single cell by itself, it had been thoroughly
+self-contained, now it was necessary for it to
+follow the needs and inclinations of its neighbours.
+It was forced to observe the conventions and habits
+of its colony. This condition of affairs exists in what
+are known as the colonized protozoans. In addition
+to the advantages of community life there was another
+and far more important reason why this new
+kind of existence was a critical step. It introduced
+for the first time the principle of differentiation or
+class distinction. A division of labour was thus
+made possible. Some of the cells in each group were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span>forced to take up positions on the outer surface of
+the colony. Others occupied places inside of the
+group. This arrangement immediately created a distinction
+between “outer cells” and “inner cells.”
+It was destined to have far-reaching consequences
+because it established a difference in the responsibilities
+of two great classes. The outer cells made an
+immediate and direct contact with the world. They
+were nearest to the water, to the light, and to all of
+the outer chemical substances necessary for living.
+They were like guards and outposts about a camp,
+defending the colony from adverse influences. They
+might be likened to the first line of battle in the aggressive
+struggles for life, acting as foragers and procurers
+of food. The rôle of the inner cells was different.
+Their contacts with the world were more indirect
+and established largely through the outer cells. Their
+offices were especially confined to the inner workings
+of the colony. They became the germ cells whose
+function it was to insure the immortality of the species.
+This arrangement was a momentous advance in
+the direction of progress. It was particularly momentous
+because it laid the foundations upon which all of
+the great developments in the animal world were to be
+built. In a certain way, it was also a prophecy, for it
+foretold the coming of animals that were to follow
+the protozoans. These newcomers, the metazoans
+(animals which came after the first forms of animal
+life), were to possess a body with outer cells engaged
+chiefly in the efforts of life, while the inner cells
+would be particularly concerned with the essence of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span>living, such, for example, as digestion, assimilation,
+and circulation.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable process of class distinction among
+cells developed new and useful methods in living. It
+brought about a division of labour in the business of
+life. Different parts of the animal now had different
+obligations to fulfil. Some parts served to move the
+body about, some were employed in digesting food,
+some in eliminating waste, some in breathing and
+circulation, some in reproduction. In the end, this
+division of labour resulted in the formation of a body
+made up of many different organs, each having its
+own particular responsibilities. We may find an
+excellent example of the very earliest stages of this
+division of labour in Volvox, one of the colony-forming
+protozoans. Most of the colonized cells of
+this minute animal are on the outside, forming a hollow
+sphere. These cells are equipped with minute
+hairs or flagellæ which, by their constant motion,
+keep the animal rolling around in the water like a
+hollow rubber ball. In this manner it seeks and finds
+its food, and thus also it may escape when threatened.
+But all of the cells of Volvox are not on the outside.
+A number of them are tucked away from the actual
+surface of the animal. These are the sex cells to which
+is entrusted the important duty of reproduction.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Early_Influences_at_Work_to_Form_the_Brain">
+  <i>Early Influences at Work to Form the Brain</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Even by this time in the history of the earth, although
+animal life had been developing for millions
+of years, there was no sign of anything like a brain.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span>The forces, however, which would eventually bring
+such an organ into existence were already at work.
+Perhaps from this great distance it may be difficult
+to recognize the exact nature of these forces as they
+began to act at this particular stage of life. They
+were present nevertheless, faintly discernible like
+the first streaks of dawn which precede the sunrise.
+This figure of speech may seem to imply that in the
+end the brain was the actual sun destined to rise
+above the horizon of animal life and ultimately to
+dominate all progressive achievement. The rest of
+this biography must prove whether this is an extravagant
+figure or not. One important influence
+behind those forces that eventually produced the
+brain stands out clearly. It seems to have been the
+direct result of that class distinction among cells
+which caused such effectual division of labour. With
+this subtle influence at work it required one further
+critical step to set in motion the events which were to
+end in the formation of a brain. This step was taken
+when the sponges (<i>Poriphara</i>), the simplest of metazoan
+animals, came into existence. They differed
+from the protozoans, even the colonized protozoans,
+because their bodies were more complexly organized.
+The individual cells forming them had lost most of
+their separate independence. All of these cells were
+now incorporated in a single living individual, and
+each cell was subordinate to the interests of the whole.</p>
+
+<p>Cell distinction had become still more important
+because of the increase in size of these animals. The
+outer cells now formed a covering or skin called the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span>“ectoderm.” The inner cells constituted the wall
+of a cavity, which might be likened to the lining of
+the stomach. The lining is called the “entoderm.”
+Many minute openings or pores in the outer covering
+established communication by means of small canals
+with the inner cavity of the animal. Through these
+pores water is inhaled and carries with it particles
+of food into the inner chambers. These particles are
+absorbed, and the water is then exhaled through a
+larger opening called the “osculum.”</p>
+
+<p>It was at this critical point that a decisive factor
+leading to the formation of the brain made its appearance.
+Some of the deep cells around the pores
+and outlets of the sponge formed “muscles.” In
+many respects this was a new device, and the sponges
+become especially interesting because of this innovation
+in animal life. The innovation itself resulted in a
+special machine for producing motion; namely, the
+muscle cell. Such muscle cells in the sponge are extremely
+simple. They form rings around the pores
+and the outlets which, by contracting, regulate the
+flow of water through the animal. But such muscle
+action as this is extremely important because if the
+water in the sponge contains an abundance of food
+particles, muscular contraction prevents too rapid
+outflow. This slowing of the ex-current stream, among
+other things, allows more time for absorption and
+digestion. The muscles in different parts of the sponge
+act independently. Each one is, so to speak, a free
+agent, occupying its position at its own particular
+pore or outlet. If, however, it became necessary for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span>all of these muscles to contract at the same instant in
+a concerted effort, let us say, to make the sponge
+move, there would be no mechanism to assure harmony
+of action. The muscle cells at each outlet would
+react according to their own inclinations—some relaxing,
+others contracting. Confusion of action could
+scarcely fail to result. The sponge, however, does not
+need to move about in order to get its food. Being
+stationary, it obtains its nourishment by sucking the
+water through its pores, and by regulating the flow
+the muscle cells do all that is required of them.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="A_New_Motor_Device">
+  <i>A New Motor Device</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Simple as is this muscular equipment, it possesses
+great possibilities for further development. It clearly
+indicates how such mechanisms for producing motion
+might be expanded to create all of the surprising
+varieties of motors which in time enabled animals
+to move about over the earth, in the water, and
+through the air. It is true that the simple strands
+of muscle in the sponge are far from powerful; but
+when a number of muscular strands are collected
+together they may take form in such muscles as the
+biceps of the arm, the great extensors of the leg, or
+those covering the entire body.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of the muscle cells created the need
+for a nervous system to control and regulate their
+activities. In order to act together muscles require a
+supervisor. The first important step in this direction
+was taken when certain simple animals like hydras
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>and sea anemones (<i>Metridium</i>) made their appearance.
+These animals are equipped with muscles in
+several parts of their bodies. Some of them, unlike
+the sponges, have the power to move about a little,
+crawling slowly like snails. They are also capable of
+moving their many tentacles, and thus are able to
+reach out and grasp food. All of these movements
+call for the action of the many different muscles.
+The sea anemone has thirteen different sets of such
+muscles, the exact coöperation of which requires the
+closest harmony of action. Each part must be mutually
+adjusted to the others. It must act in the right
+rhythm and with the proper force. Such delicate adjustment
+as this could not be left to chance. It needed
+an adjuster and regulator. It required also a system
+of communication between the cells in order that each
+might sense how the others were acting during any
+given interval of time. In consequence of these requirements
+many cells were specialized as timers,
+signallers, and dispatchers. They acted like independent
+telephone stations, each serving separate districts;
+such, for example, as the individual tentacles
+of hydra or of sea anemones. These separate stations
+were known as nerve cells. <i>In them the first elements
+needed for the origin of the brain made their appearance.</i>
+At first they were scattered and had limited communication
+by means of slender strands, the nerve fibres.
+There was as yet no central operator for receiving
+and routing their messages which were transmitted
+rather diffusely by a loose nerve net.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Foundation_Stones_of_the_Brain">
+  <i>Foundation Stones of the Brain</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In spite of this apparent simplicity, these nerve
+cells were the foundation stones of the brain. Scattered
+as they were, they lacked that unity of action
+which is the real secret of nerve power. A more
+constructive plan for utilizing their capacity was
+requisite at this stage. Such a plan was eventually
+forthcoming. It was exactly what might have been
+expected in the progressive development of any good
+business concern; namely, consolidation. In effect, it
+was a merger uniting the separate nerve units into
+one centralized system. How this merger was brought
+about may be recognized in such animals as the jellyfish
+(<i>Cœlenterates</i>). In them the body equipment consists
+of an outside layer called the “exumbrella,” and
+an inner layer, the “subumbrella.” In the latter
+the older arrangement of the nerve cells as scattered,
+more or less independent stations still persists. These
+stations form a net of communication on the under
+surface of the animal. But where the subumbrella
+joins the exumbrella, making the rim of the jellyfish,
+the nerve fibres and the nerve cells form a nervous
+ring entirely surrounding the animal. This is the first
+time in the history of animal life that an actual central
+nervous system makes its appearance. This ring of
+nerve fibres and cells acts as a central receiving and
+dispatching station. It is a central office for receiving
+information from the outside world and a dispatcher
+for sending orders to different portions of the animal
+so that all parts may coöperate harmoniously. Certain
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span>special organs develop along the rim of the jellyfish,
+whose functions have some bearing upon the
+sense of direction. These structures are known as the
+marginal sense organs or “lithocysts.” They are in
+direct communication with the central nervous
+system. Certain other sense organs are also present
+in the form of red or black specks of pigment at
+the bases of the tentacles; they are the “ocelli,”
+which are sensitive to light and are, in fact, the simplest
+form of eyes. Thus, in such low forms of animal
+life as the jellyfish, the first signs of special sense
+organs made their appearance, and the nervous elements
+were for the first time organized to form a
+central governing mechanism for the animal.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Nerve_Concentration_in_Forming_the_Head">
+  <i>Nerve Concentration in Forming the Head</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Following the merger of the scattered nerve cells to
+form a central system, the process of developing a
+brain had opportunity to advance along another new
+line. The circular nervous system of the jellyfish
+passed through many modifications as it adapted
+itself to the form of different types of lowly animals.
+The great impulse thus imparted toward the formation
+of the brain veered off in numerous directions
+until a new and decisive change occurred in the arrangement
+of the muscles. At this juncture certain
+animals appeared whose bodies were much elongated
+and slender. Their muscles were arranged in straight
+rows, one behind the other. Such an arrangement had
+definite advantages for transportation, and these
+advantages were utilized by such animals as the flat
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span>worms (<i>Platyhelminthes</i>). Many of the nerve cells
+and fibres became concentrated in the head end of
+these animals. This head region in a general way took
+the lead in directing the activities of motion and
+transportation. It also had centralized in and about
+it many of the most important structures of life.
+The animal at this critical stage now possessed a head
+and a body. In the broadest sense the development
+of such a head may be likened to the creation of a
+definite executive office within which was established
+a supreme organ to preside over the rest of the
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Further concentration of nerve cells in the head of
+the animal was the next step in this constructive
+process. This advance added materially to the centralization
+of nerve power, which was the keynote
+in the formation and growth of the brain.</p>
+
+<p>If this process of successive upbuilding seems mysterious
+and almost miraculous, especially from its
+feeble beginnings in a single cell, it is scarcely more
+remarkable than the commonplace miracle that has
+resulted in the development and birth of every newly
+created animal since the dawn of time. The offspring
+of each species—fish or fowl, beast or man—has its
+beginning in a single cell. It passes through stages of
+cell colonization, of class distinction among cells, and
+of specialization of organs for the various functions of
+life.</p>
+
+<p>In the main, these two processes have run parallel
+in their programmes of construction—the beginning
+and development of life on our planet, the beginning
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>and growth of every new life created. Summarized
+thus briefly, these successive stages necessary to bring
+the brain into existence may appear unimpressive.
+But when we consider that each forward step required
+ages for its achievement, we may appreciate that this
+was indeed a marvel of progress. From nerve cell to
+brain is a few short words in print; but it required
+millions of years for the slow advances to attain
+even the humble level of the flat worms.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Development_of_Better_Brains">
+  <i>Development of Better Brains</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>With the head at length in its proper place and the
+most simple kind of brain installed within it, vast
+horizons of life still lay ahead. Better mechanisms
+were needed for a more successful struggle with
+existence. More capable motors were required for
+more efficient locomotion. These improvements came
+after the passage of long intervals of time. By degrees
+more highly developed animals, such as bees, ants,
+beetles, or other insects, lobsters, crayfish, and shrimp,
+began to appear. Their brains were much better organized
+than those of the lowly worms. The special
+senses of sight, smell, and taste became highly important,
+while the central organ which presided over
+all activities acquired a remarkable complexity in its
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>How much these animals gained from their better
+brain power is clearly seen in their behaviour. The
+achievements of ants and bees and beetles, as well
+as many other insects, have long been a matter of
+wonder, a theme of interest and fascination. If we
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span>credit these animals with highly capable brains, it is
+their just due. One detail in their organization, however,
+became a serious handicap to them in their
+further development. The passageway from the
+mouth to the stomach ran directly through the centre
+of the brain. If the brain grew extensively it would
+encroach upon the gullet, ultimately shutting off the
+only channel for food. This embarrassment actually
+overtook many insects like the mosquito. Here the
+brain became large. The tube connecting the mouth
+and the stomach was thus reduced to a fine calibre,
+and the animal was forced to depend upon the highly
+concentrated fluid diet obtained by sucking blood.
+Coarser forms of food could not pass the œsophageal
+ring which the brain forms about the gullet. Thus
+the stomach and the brain came into serious competition
+with each other. If the brain grew larger the
+stomach would be deprived of food. In consequence,
+this situation created a dangerous hazard to life.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Advent_of_Backboned_Animals">
+  <i>Advent of Backboned Animals</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In addition to this stomach-brain dilemma, animals
+such as the insects suffered from another handicap
+because of the outer skeleton which protected their
+bodies. This skeleton was in the form of a more or less
+rigid shell, as in the lobster, crab, or crayfish. It was
+to overcome the effects of such handicaps, according
+to some authorities, that the great race of backboned
+animals came into existence. In any event, such animals
+seem to have circumvented the difficulty of
+having a brain which surrounded the gullet. They also
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>overcame the necessity of carrying a heavy shell about
+on the outside of their bodies. An inner skeleton did
+away with this embarrassment. It is not altogether
+clear how or when this transition took place. Many
+students of this matter believe that the basis for this
+change is to be found in the starfish group of lower
+animals (<i>Echinoderms</i>). Others maintain that the
+change began with some creature not unlike the horseshoe
+crab (<i>Limulus</i>). It is also believed that the
+animals which served as the intermediate forms for
+this advance were the ostracoderms, a group which
+has long since become extinct. They are known
+to us only through fossil preservations. They
+possessed, however, so many fishlike features that
+they may well have served as the forerunners of the
+earliest animals with backbones. Whatever else is in
+doubt, one detail of this transition is definite. The
+brain, already well developed in certain lower creatures,
+now received a fuller opportunity to advance
+along more advantageous lines. The first gains of this
+kind are seen in the fish. Judged by outward appearances
+the object of such new brain development was
+to provide a more efficient regulator for a new and
+more efficient kind of animal. The fish, in one particular
+at least, showed higher specialization. It was built
+for speed in locomotion. The shape of its body, the
+arrangement of its muscles, the position of its fins,
+the design of its head, and the form of its tail gave
+it many advantages over lower animals. Equally
+important were the special organs by which it sensed
+the world. The fish possessed powerful and remarkably
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span>constructed eyes. It had most delicate organs
+for smell, and an effective apparatus for taste. In
+fact, all of the senses of the body were now so thoroughly
+organized that each one of them had its own
+special department in the brain. According to this
+new type of administrative organization, an endbrain,
+an interbrain, a midbrain, and a hindbrain
+were established for distinct departmental purposes.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this better arrangement, there were still
+decided limitations in the brain. The most serious
+of these deficiencies lay in the mechanism regulating
+the energy turnover. The fish had little power to withhold
+its reactions. Its impressions from the outside
+world produced almost immediate responses. Such
+rapid reactions precluded the wide range of acts which
+characterizes more deliberate behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>The brain machinery for the most ample kind of
+living was not yet present at this stage of animal
+development. It did begin to make its appearance,
+however, when certain of the fish assumed partial
+adjustment to life on land. These adventurous pioneers
+managed to crawl out of the muddy waters at
+times when there was a lack of oxygen or when the
+supply of food was insufficient. They set on foot those
+progressive changes that gave rise to fore and hind
+limbs in such amphibians as the frogs. When these
+latter animals made their appearance nearly all of
+the fundamental problems of the vertebrate brain
+had been solved. Nevertheless, there was still the
+need of certain expansions in brain power and these,
+in some part, were supplied during the age of reptiles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p>
+
+<p>As yet, however, that handicap of almost instantaneous
+reaction which seriously limited the life of
+fish had not been entirely overcome by the amphibian
+or by the reptile. These animals still lacked the brain
+mechanisms needed for the deliberate and varied actions
+of the most efficient life. They had not yet altogether
+escaped from the ancient tyranny of automatic
+or reflex reaction.</p>
+
+<p>At length the mammals, throughout the different
+periods of their long progressive age, introduced the
+final detail of brain perfection. The secret of this perfecting
+detail was the addition of a new mechanism
+to the brain never possessed by animals before
+this time. The great and new areas of the cerebral
+hemispheres now came slowly into existence. With
+them developed new and greater capacities for action
+together with far more effective adjustments to
+life.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Vast_Ages_of_Animal_Life">
+  <i>Vast Ages of Animal Life</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>All of these developments reach back a great distance
+in time, so great that it is difficult to calculate
+its exact duration. According to modern estimates the
+first animals came into existence about 1,000,000,000
+years ago in the Proterozoic period. This period
+was followed by the Palæozoic, which began approximately
+300,000,000 years ago, and is known as
+the Age of Fish. Then came the remarkable Age of
+Reptiles, beginning about 200,000,000 years ago,
+followed by the Age of Mammals, which commenced
+in the neighbourhood of 65,000,000 years ago. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span>present Age of Man has had a short duration, extending
+back only about 1,000,000 years.</p>
+
+<p>Two methods have been depended upon in determining
+these figures and the age of the earth.
+The first is based upon the rate of deposit and upbuilding
+of sedimentary rocks. The estimated period
+required for the development of each rock layer has
+provided a time-table for the age of the different
+strata of the earth’s crust. The second method calculates
+the rate at which common salt is extracted
+from the land and deposited in the oceans. Imprints
+of fossil animals upon the several rock layers also
+reveal the age of different strata. The discovery of
+radium afforded the latest gauge for estimating
+geologic time. The physicists now tell us that former
+calculations have been far too modest and that we
+must go back still further to reach the actual beginnings
+of our earth. Their “radioactive clock” indicates
+that the earth is 1,600,000,000 years old.</p>
+
+<p>During all this vast interval there has been a succession
+of great changes in the earth and its waters.
+Continents have risen above sea level, to be submerged
+again. Great inundations of continental
+oceans have swept inward and made vastly different
+land divisions from those which exist to-day. North
+America has been more or less widely flooded by
+great oceans at least fifteen times. Other continents
+have been similarly inundated. Mountain ranges have
+risen and crumbled away by erosion. In point of
+geologic time most of the present mountains are relatively
+young. The oldest of these is the Appalachian
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span>range which was formed during the Permian period
+approximately 230,000,000 years ago. The Rocky
+Mountains appeared at the close of the Cretaceous,
+100,000,000 years ago, while the Swiss Alps are of
+much later development, having been formed at the
+close of the Miocene about 15,000,000 years ago.
+Even the Himalayas are relatively young when compared
+with the earth’s antiquity. They had not taken
+on their full gigantic proportions until the close of
+the Eocene about 45,000,000 years ago.</p>
+
+<p>According to many authorities, great continental
+land connections once existed between Africa and
+what is now part of South America. This connecting
+continent disappeared beneath the ocean long ago.
+So also did the land connection between Asia and
+North America in the region of the Bering Sea. An
+important land connection existed between England
+and the Continent, across what is now the English
+Channel, in Pliocene times. It was present, therefore,
+at some time within the last 6,000,000 years. Immense
+inland seas have drained off or evaporated and left
+in their places great desert spaces, like the Bad Lands
+of the West.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Long_Upward_March_Toward_Humanity">
+  <i>The Long Upward March Toward Humanity</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>While these changes were in process marked alterations
+in climate affected the surface of the earth.
+Glacial ice caps descended from the poles, later to
+recede and leave the earth invested in tropical warmth.
+Time and again these changes recurred. The crust of
+the earth, chilled by intense refrigeration for protracted
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>ages, grew warm again for equally long periods
+when tropical vegetation crept up toward the poles.
+These changes in vegetation have been accompanied
+by many changes in the animal inhabitants of the
+globe. Species of animals in profusion have come into
+existence only to follow the path which led to extinction.
+In many cases the forms of life began simply
+and progressed by graded stages to greater structural
+complexity. Man is an outstanding example of this
+rule. He began in much simpler form than that in
+which he now exists. This relative simplicity is particularly
+true of his brain.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, as if descending a long stairway, we may
+pass by the successive terraces of the earth’s history
+toward the beginnings of geologic time. The expanse
+of this time is difficult to conceive. From the inception
+of animal life in the long Proterozoic Age,
+throughout the ages of Fish, Reptiles, and Mammals,
+man’s brain was in the making. Irresistible
+forces molded the various stages of its progress.
+Species, genera, families, and even entire orders of
+animals came into existence and disappeared as
+wastage in a great experiment. Yet, through all vicissitudes
+of time and change, the long upward march
+toward humanity held its place. Ultimately it became
+the dominant feature in creation. The advent of man
+introduced a new era. It remains to be seen whither
+the forces moving in this Age of Man will take us.
+They may be leading to extinction. The way to such
+a termination is clearly open to our race. On the
+other hand, the brain has made man what he is and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span>may save him for better things. Its interesting pioneer
+ancestry, although extremely remote, has left a well-established
+record. The history of its development
+through the process of evolution in the backboned
+animals is still more interesting.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">
+    CHAPTER II
+    <br>
+    ANCESTORS BEFORE THE APES
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">THE BRAIN FROM FISH TO MAN</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3 id="Practical_Significance_of_Evolution"><i>Practical Significance of Evolution</i></h3>
+
+<p>There are many who still harbour resentment against
+the ape, especially in explaining man’s origin. As a
+result, hostilities often flare up against evolution.
+It cannot be denied that the unattractive ape is at
+the root of these reactions. He is the bar sinister and
+the real stumbling block in the evolutionary theory.
+He is also, to many people at least, the entire gist of it.
+That we are descended from monkeys is rather generally
+accepted as the meaning of evolution. This view,
+at best, is a superficial explanation of what evolution
+really means. No scientist to-day believes that any
+one of the living apes is ancestral to man. These animals
+belong to families totally divergent from the
+human family. They have ascended well up into the
+trees. Here doubtless they will remain, quite as unconcerned
+in human origin as they are innocent of
+participation in it. Our interest in evolution should
+not centre upon the ape kind. The line of our ancestry
+reaches far back of them through millions of years.
+We were in the making long before there were any
+apes on earth. They, in their tree life, merely afforded
+the last finishing touches which shaped our
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span>course toward humanity. If we wish to acknowledge
+our hereditary indebtedness properly, we would be
+compelled to recognize in our family tree that highly
+important line of mammals which first introduced the
+custom of arboreal living. Back of them are still older
+lines which deserve equal ancestral credit. Here are
+found those animals without the existence of which
+we should never have arrived. Among these is the
+vast assortment of reptiles, together with mammal-like
+reptilians which appeared in the Age of Reptiles.
+All of these reptilian forms were in their turn indebted
+for existence to earlier amphibians and fish,
+their progenitors during the long Age of Fish. Thus
+the true line of evolutionary descent leads us from
+fish to man. Not until we appreciate the meaning of
+this long vertebrate lineage through all its various
+phases does the vital significance of evolution become
+clear. If we view it in this way it is possible to sense
+the irresistible force that has carried animal life onward
+and upward through the ages from the earliest
+times. This force may still carry us onward. In its
+broader applications such a viewpoint should make an
+urgent appeal for thoughtful consideration. It offers
+many suggestions concerning further advances and
+readjustments in human behaviour.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Evidence_of_Evolution_in_Our_Bodies">
+  <i>Evidence of Evolution in Our Bodies</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The brain is one of the best witnesses testifying to
+this long evolutionary development of man. It contains
+convincing evidence of this process in three
+striking particulars. First, it gives numerous signs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span>indicating its primitive origin from the lowest of the
+vertebrates, the fish. Second, it bears identifying
+marks of intimate association with animals of its own
+class, the mammals. Third, it has a large number of
+details in its special mechanisms possessed in common
+with all of the primate order, to which man belongs
+together with the lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, and
+apes. This evidence is not circumstantial. It is direct
+and unimpeachable. It leaves no point in the line of
+man’s long descent to be decided by inference. It
+embodies factors which led, step by step, to the upbuilding
+of the human brain.</p>
+
+<p>Other tissues and organs of the body tell the same
+story of slow, steady progress upward, from some low
+and simple phase of life, through many graded stages
+of improvement until the human form at length
+came in sight.</p>
+
+<p>The blood has been an especially positive witness
+concerning this progressive development. Tests with
+many different kinds of animals show that the blood
+of man is much nearer to that of the great apes than
+to the lower Old World monkeys. The relation between
+the human blood and that of the New World
+monkeys is still more remote. In general, these blood
+tests are among the most convincing proofs of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The bony system of the body is another decisive
+witness. The skeleton of the fore and hind limbs sheds
+much light on the changing adjustments which have
+been made in the motor apparatus. The use of the
+limbs as fins, paddles, wings, hoofs, paws, claws,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>hands, or feet, indicates the broad family relations
+and kinship of various animals. The size and shape
+of the skull and the character of the teeth reveal the
+manner in which this evolutionary process has passed
+through its several stages. The muscular system,
+the system for eliminating waste products of the
+body, the heart and the lungs, all afford important
+evidence of vertebrate kinship and evolution. The
+increase in the complexity of the breathing apparatus,
+from the early gill stages of the fish to the lung of
+the mammal, through all its many intermediate
+phases, discloses with astonishing clearness the course
+of this progress.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Embryo_as_a_Witness">
+  <i>The Embryo as a Witness</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Testimony from another source also stands undisputed.
+This corroboration comes from the manner
+in which all vertebrates are conceived and formed.
+The witness in this case is the embryo, which in all
+animals begins in the same way. Embryonic existence
+starts from a single cell. It holds true to the
+earliest beginnings of animal life that first appeared
+in a single cell such as the amœba. In the higher animals
+this cell is called the ovum. From it, after fertilization,
+two cells are derived, then four, then eight,
+then sixteen, until it has an appearance closely resembling
+some of the colonized protozoan animals. Here
+again, even in man, is seen that decisive stage in
+which a critical cellular distinction is made between
+outside and inside cells. From this time specializing
+progress in the growing individual goes forward. Each
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span>new phase repeats in a general way a stage of development
+previously attained in the evolution of life. All
+embryos of vertebrate animals pass through such
+phases. The fish embryo carries the process up to
+the stage characterized by those improvements which
+developed during the Age of Fish. The amphibian
+embryo takes the process one step farther. It adds
+new features essential to living on land. Embryos
+of reptiles and of birds introduce the progressive
+advancements peculiar to their kinds. The mammal
+embryo takes the final step, prior to which it passes
+successively through the several phases of the lower
+grades of life. The human embryo follows the mammalian
+plan and puts the finishing touches of development
+upon what the mammal has gained from all the
+stages below it. Fish, amphibians, reptiles—all have
+their beginning in a single cell. Regardless of the
+differences in body form, in mode of life, and in
+behaviour, all are cast in a mold of development
+based on a common design. Thus, while the blood, the
+bony system, the muscles, the teeth, the eliminating
+system, the heart, and the lungs tell the story of
+progressive development, the embryo gives a summary
+of this process by disclosing the general plan
+which underlies the manner in which every backboned
+animal is formed.</p>
+
+<p>The brain contains a comprehensive record of this
+progress. There are reasons why this is the case. Brain
+influences pervade and dominate all other systems.
+This organ is the great transformer of energy, which
+so assembles other parts in operation that the body
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span>as a whole becomes a smoothly acting machine. It
+receives sensory impressions from its environment.
+It controls the reactions incited by these impressions.
+In this dual capacity the brain has been especially
+sensitive to those influences of change and adjustment,
+of action, reaction, and interaction that have
+affected animal life during its long existence. It has
+responded to these changes and has retained the impression
+of such responses. In many cases it has been
+structurally improved. Gradually it became capable
+of sensing the world more effectively. It acquired the
+capacity to react on a broader scale. Developing along
+certain progressive lines it has served to transform
+impressions received from the senses in such a way
+as to produce an increasingly more effective turnover
+of nervous energy. For this reason it is necessary
+for us to estimate the value of such senses as were
+utilized in this way. Without going too extensively
+into detail, it may be said that, with extremely few
+exceptions, vertebrate animals possess four chief
+varieties of sense. Each of these supplies the brain
+with stimuli necessary to its proper reaction.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Value_of_Our_Senses">
+  <i>Value of Our Senses</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>First, chemical sense, through special organs for
+smell and taste, conveys information concerning
+certain chemical conditions in the surroundings. The
+sense of smell derives its impressions from gaseous or
+volatile substances which, among other things, may
+create a pleasant or a disagreeable odour important in
+selecting food. The sense of taste gathers its information
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span>from substances in solution. It depends upon acid,
+sweet, bitter, salty, or other similar stimuli. The
+primitive headquarters for taste are in the hindbrain,
+while the endbrain serves in this capacity for the
+sense of smell.</p>
+
+<p>Second, body sense furnishes information concerning
+what transpires within the body, as in the heart
+and lungs, in the stomach and intestines, and in other
+special organs. It also supplies equally important
+information concerning what contraction is occurring
+in the muscles, how the bones are being moved, what
+postures the different parts are assuming, and how
+the body as a whole is being balanced.</p>
+
+<p>Third, contact sense makes known what is going
+on immediately outside the body. It depends upon
+many things which touch the body surfaces, such as
+the touch and pressure of a handclasp, the temperature
+of water upon the hand, the vibration of a heavy
+vehicle running over the ground. Body and contact
+senses had their original headquarters in the midbrain
+and interbrain.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth, distance sense supplies information concerning
+objects in the world outside of the body more
+or less remote from it. The information which this
+sense brings is news from abroad. It is gathered by
+the sense of sight and the sense of hearing. Sight, in
+a way, is touch at a distance. When an animal sees its
+enemy a long way off it, so to speak, touches this
+enemy with its eyes and thus gives the brain the
+needed information while there is yet time for escape.
+Sight depends upon light waves, and hearing upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>sound waves. By such means these two highly specialized
+agents of distance sense gather their information.
+The central offices of sight and hearing were at
+first situated in the midbrain.</p>
+
+<p>All impressions obtained from these senses were
+and still are the raw materials utilized in the energy
+turnover produced by the brain.</p>
+
+<p>Improvement was not always the result of the
+great struggle for adjustment. There were many
+ups and downs, many trials, many failures. Yet a
+certain insistent tendency toward progress was constantly
+in evidence. By means not entirely clear, this
+tendency ultimately succeeded in finding some way
+to become effective. It appears to have exerted its
+influence by selecting definite parts of the animal
+machinery for emphasis or repression.</p>
+
+<p>Often some highly selective improvement was developed
+in the brain to meet special conditions. Such
+is the expansion in the bird’s brain by which the sense
+of sight is greatly amplified. This special increase
+makes it possible for the bird to see its prey from
+great distances in the air, as the hawk sees the fish
+in the water, or the vulture detects the presence of
+carrion by its keen eyesight. The sense of smell in
+birds is much less developed than vision.</p>
+
+<p>In scenting animals, like the dog, the fox, and the
+cat, selective improvement has affected the sense of
+smell. In a few instances the addition of a relatively
+new sense was the means by which improvement
+manifested itself. Such an addition is seen in that
+transition when fish life first began to assume the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span>characters of living upon land. At that juncture the
+sense of hearing was added in some amphibious
+animals belonging to the same class as the frog.
+These and other methods for getting a better supply
+of raw materials through the senses contributed to
+progressive development in the brain.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Sense_Combiner">
+  <i>The Sense Combiner</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Still more effective was the improvement which
+came as a new mechanism. It provided a special
+apparatus that may for convenience be called the
+“sense combiner.” The office of this mechanism was
+to assemble sense impressions in the brain, to make
+composite pictures of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and
+all other senses. This sense combiner served also as
+an effective depository for impressions already received.
+It held them in readiness for use as a background
+of experience that would be needed for new or
+subsequent situations. At a glance it is evident that
+the brain having the best sense combiner would outstrip
+all others in its efficiency and output. In the
+earliest vertebrates this new mechanism did not acquire
+a centralized headquarters. Its operations were
+controlled from several scattered stations in the
+brain. Obviously such division of responsibility could
+not be considered an efficient method of control.
+Centralization was needed, and certain stages in the
+development of the brain from fish to man illustrate
+how this improvement was gradually brought about.</p>
+
+<p>The first or fish stage, as might be expected, expresses
+the beginning of this process of improvement
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>in simplest terms. There are many who do not credit
+the fish with such a thing as a brain. These animals,
+however, are equipped with an effective organ of this
+kind. Its efficiency is not high according to human
+standards, yet, as we shall presently see, it has many
+characteristics of the human organ and reacts to
+similar stimuli.</p>
+
+<p>In the fish brain there are nearly all of the working
+departments found in man. Much variation exists
+even among fish. Some of them have very simple
+brains. This is true of the earliest forms, but the more
+advanced types acquired brains thoroughly efficient
+for the special complexities of existence in which they
+had to live. The several departments in these brains
+are adjusted to their requirements. The sense of smell
+in the fish is particularly well developed. It has certain
+limitations, however, due to the fact that it
+must depend upon substances borne by the water.
+The department of this sense, nevertheless, occupies
+the major portion of what in these descriptions will
+be called the endbrain. The sense of taste is also well
+organized in fish. In certain of them, like the catfish,
+it has received special emphasis, because in addition
+to taste organs in the mouth there are organs of this
+kind scattered over the entire body from head to tail.
+The primitive central office of the sense of taste in
+fish is located in the hindbrain. Body sense is highly
+developed because most of the fishes are able to
+control their muscles and joints in an amazing way
+as they dart about in the water. Balancing of the body
+in swimming is another important problem in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span>locomotion of the fish. It is solved by means of certain
+highly specialized water levels (semicircular canals).
+The body sense department occupies the interbrain.
+The sense of sight in most fish is fairly well advanced,
+although it has distinct limitations. Being placed on
+the side of the head, each eye acts more or less independently
+of the other, and the fish, so to speak, gets
+a two-eyed picture of its surroundings. It will subsequently
+become clear that one of the most important
+events in the progress of the brain has been the development
+of that kind of vision in which both eyes
+receive the impression of an object at the same time.
+Then again, the medium in which the fish lives is in
+many respects less favourable for the passage of light
+rays than the air. The retina of the fish’s eye which
+first receives the light rays also indicates a relative
+simplicity in the organization of vision. For these and
+other reasons the fish’s sense of sight cannot be as
+effective as in the higher forms of life. This sense department
+is located in the midbrain.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Starting_with_the_Fish">
+  <i>Starting with the Fish</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The fish stage in the development of the brain
+shows a striking deficiency in its lack of provision
+for a sense of hearing. Strictly speaking, fish have no
+ears. It is believed that the ability to hear which the
+human being possesses is denied to them. In still
+another respect, however, a more obvious deficiency
+makes itself apparent. The brain is poorly equipped
+in mechanisms that could specifically be called sense
+combiners. Some slight degree of combination between
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>the senses does take place, but this at best is
+meagre and simple. Consequently the brain’s output,
+that is to say, its productive turnover, is limited.
+It confines itself to those reaction patterns with
+which we are familiar in the habits and behaviour of
+fish. The limitations by which these patterns are restricted
+are evident in the fact that the animal’s entire
+life programme is carried on largely under water.
+If an attempt were made to estimate the capabilities
+of the fish as a machine compared with other animals,
+it would almost certainly receive a low rating. The
+justification of this low estimate is obvious. The
+reasons for it are twofold: first, the relatively low
+degree of development in each of the sense departments
+including the lack in one department (sense of
+hearing); second, the poorly developed sense combiner.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Gregory has devoted much time in the
+American Museum of Natural History to the study
+of the progressive stages from fish to man, and especially
+to those changes which appear in the head.
+He has shown that in this fish stage the animal at
+first had no lower jaw and no teeth. Its mouth served
+as a sucking organ, which thus obtained food in the
+form of minute organisms and small particles of organic
+matter. Certain new patterns were introduced
+with the appearance of primitive sharks. These animals
+had a lower jaw impregnated with lime salts,
+thus made effective for supporting many successive
+rows of formidable teeth. Such sharks also had well-developed
+gills. Certain lobe-finned fishes of a somewhat
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span>later period (<i>Crossopterygian</i>) began to live in
+streams and swamps. By means of their peculiar fins
+they were able to crawl over the surface of the land,
+and thus they were the forerunners of the next more
+completely air-breathing stage determined by the
+appearance of the amphibians.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Beginning_of_Life_on_Land">
+  <i>The Beginning of Life on Land</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The second or amphibian stage came after those
+steps had been taken which led certain modified
+forms of fish life to attempt a partial adjustment to
+living on land and to breathing air. True amphibians
+then made their appearance. Animals called tetrapods,
+or four-footed creatures, were the result of this change.
+They were the forerunners of all higher animals. By
+the slow conversion of their fins and paddles into
+legs they acquired a new kind of transportation
+machinery. With the aid of these four legs the animal
+could now hop about on land and also swim in the
+water much as do the frogs. Such a transformation
+had a profound effect upon the entire body, which
+became greatly shortened and in many instances
+no longer possessed a tail (except in the polliwog
+stage). The head also changed. New devices were
+necessary for the purposes of air-breathing, which replaced
+the old method of getting oxygen out of the
+water. One of the most important changes, however,
+was the addition of the new sense of hearing. The
+amphibians, living partly on land, were now able to
+receive useful information by means of air waves.
+The advent of this new sense was destined to have
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span>momentous effects upon the further development of
+the brain. Each of the several sense departments is
+well represented in the frog. The sense of smell is
+highly organized. It contains some improvements
+over the fish for the reason that the animal is now
+able to scent odours borne by the air. The sense of
+taste shows little if any improvement. Compared with
+many of the fish it has actually receded. Body sense
+is well provided for and shows certain refinements
+due to the fact that it has taken on the new responsibility
+of sensing four legs. It also has the duty of
+supervising what is going on in the muscular machine
+when the animal performs its new kind of motion,
+hopping about over the ground, leaping into the
+water, or using the new frog-method of swimming.
+The department of the sense of sight shows some
+improvements when contrasted with that of the fish.
+The frog is able to adjust its vision both to air and
+water. While on land it is able to see many things that
+never come into the range of the fish’s field of vision.
+Some of the frogs even go so far as to have what is
+called a third eye in the middle of the forehead. This
+organ, however, is but poorly developed and serves
+more for light perception than for actual seeing. The
+introduction of the sense of hearing, by establishing
+certain innovations in the frog brain, provides an
+advantage over the fish. It is, however, in furthering
+the development of the sense combiner that the frog’s
+brain shows its most distinctive advance. The two
+great hemispheres are now clearly outlined. The endbrain,
+in consequence of land-living and air-breathing,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span>has taken an important step forward. In all further
+advances this part will bear the chief burdens of
+progress and improvement.</p>
+
+<p>The frog and his kind represent a machine that in
+many respects is not much better organized than the
+fish. But amphibians did serve to introduce advantages
+that were utilized in new adjustments to life;
+such, for example, as living on land, breathing air,
+getting about on four legs, and being able to hear.
+Besides this, the way was now opened for a better
+type of sense combiner. There was promise, if not
+actual profit, in these new amphibian endowments.
+Professor Gregory has shown that among the most
+important changes in the amphibian head were those
+which ultimately led to the formation of the ear.
+The skin in this region was already beginning to act
+as a tympanic member or eardrum.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Epoch_of_Giant_Reptiles">
+  <i>Epoch of Giant Reptiles</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The third or reptile stage witnessed that critical
+advance that came with the fully established habit
+of living on land. The amphibians, both those which
+retained and those which lost the tail, took the first
+somewhat hesitating steps in this direction. They
+were, however, essential predecessors to the next
+higher order, the reptiles, which upon their arrival
+stepped out boldly. During the remarkable Mesozoic
+period these reptiles covered the earth with their
+dominating and often hideous presence. No period
+compares with this one for the awe-inspiring inhabitants
+that peopled the world. It was then that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>the gigantic dinosaurs were the overlords of creation.
+Some of these monstrous creatures were composed
+of many tons of flesh and bone. They became the most
+terrific fighting machines ever produced by nature.
+Even the tail, which had disappeared in many of the
+amphibians, became prominent as part of the offensive
+equipment in these reptile monsters. Gigantic
+size was an outstanding structural feature. But these
+huge dimensions carried their own penalties. They
+were extremely hazardous and destined to bring
+catastrophe. Even if some of the great reptiles might
+have been thoroughly efficient fighting machines,
+they lacked the essential advantages of progressive
+brains and brain power. In this respect they had
+improved but little. That tremendous monster <i>Tyrannosaurus
+rex</i>, the most destructive engine ever
+created, had a body weighing many tons, with a brain
+of less than a pound.</p>
+
+<p>The prolific Mesozoic reptiles inhabited the land
+and infested the waters of the earth, its oceans and
+inland seas, its lakes and rivers. They also for the
+first time attempted to realize the advantages of
+another mode of life. Having adjusted their weird
+bodies to the water and to the land, they next took
+to the air. Late in the Permian or Triassic times
+(150,000,000 years ago) some lizard-like reptiles,
+partially biped in habit and distantly related to the
+great two-legged dinosaurs, assumed habits of life
+adapted in part to the trees. Specialization of their
+fore limbs led to wing-like structures for purposes of
+volplaning to the ground. Such modified fore limbs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span>eventually acquired the character of wings, and thus,
+according to some authorities, the most ancient of
+known birds had their origin in the Age of Reptiles.
+Many students of this subject believe that bird life
+may have begun at an even earlier period.</p>
+
+<p>More conservative and also far less conspicuous
+was another tendency which developed in this reptilian
+age. For a long time it remained most unpretentious.
+The spectacular development of huge
+animals for land and sea held the centre of the stage.
+Mere size, however, is not always sufficient for success
+and progress. In any event, a certain number of
+relatively small reptiles began to show changes along
+entirely different lines. At first it was difficult to discern
+the signs of progress in them. Slowly, however,
+significant modifications came about in two important
+details: First, in the readjustment of the fore
+and hind legs, so that acting together they began to
+lift the body of the animal clear off the ground. The
+second great change was an alteration in the teeth,
+which were gradually specialized until they assumed
+the characters recognized in those later animals
+known as mammals. These two new traits, developed
+by relatively inconspicuous reptiles, led in time to
+animals that became the actual forerunners of the
+mammals. They are known as the pro-mammalian
+reptiles (<i>Cynodont</i>, <i>Theriodont</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Reptile_Forerunners_of_the_Mammals">
+  <i>Reptile Forerunners of the Mammals</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is probable that while these momentous changes
+were in process an equally important modification
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span>had begun. This change affected the blood. It caused
+the blood cells to become smaller and at the same time
+better conveyers of oxygen. These cells also began to
+lose their nuclei. As a result, certain animals passed
+from a cold-blooded, scaly reptilian condition to that
+of the warm-blooded, hair-covered mammal. The
+constant warm temperature of the blood in these
+mammalian forerunners must have been a decisive
+influence favouring the further development of the
+brain.</p>
+
+<p>In many respects the reptilian brain is inferior to
+that of the mammals. All of its sense departments are
+fairly well represented. The senses of smell and taste
+have made slight advances over the amphibian
+stage. Body and contact senses have perhaps gained
+some slight advantage over the previous period. In
+sight and hearing there were some improvements.
+Collectively the reptilian mechanisms for managing
+impressions obtained through the senses are considerably
+better than those of such animals as the
+amphibious frog. At least one of the reptiles (<i>Sphenodon</i>)
+developed a third eye in the middle of the forehead.
+This is not, however, a highly efficient visual
+organ. The sense combiner in the reptile also shows
+some advantage, although in the main the reptilians
+appear to have acquired little more of practical value,
+except greater speed and more power, than their predecessors,
+the amphibians.</p>
+
+<p>Even when reptile development took that bent
+which led to the appearance of birds, the brain received
+but a slight benefit from this adjustment to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>the air. Selective progress in the bird’s brain is unquestionably
+found in that marked expansion involving
+the department of sight. Body sense also expanded
+to meet the requirements of sensing and balancing
+the body in flight. But to offset these advances both
+the sense of smell and the sense of taste have undergone
+considerable recession. Adaptive progress here,
+as in many other instances, emphasized one department
+with some apparent loss of advantage in other
+parts. Consequently the sense combiner, which ultimately
+produces the most effective combinations of
+sense impressions, has shown no conspicuous advantage
+among the birds.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Disappearance_of_the_Great_Reptiles">
+  <i>Disappearance of the Great Reptiles</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The reptile stage of life, especially in its most imposing
+phases, witnessed but little advance in the
+progressive development of the brain. During this
+period all of the great departments of brain structure,
+such as the endbrain, the interbrain, the midbrain,
+and the hindbrain, were retained and somewhat expanded.
+But that highly important mechanism that
+was finally to act as the superbrain, technically
+known as the neopallium (new outer coating of the
+brain, the cortex), had not yet been acquired. It may
+be in part for this reason that, as the Mesozoic period
+advanced, catastrophe was rapidly overtaking
+many of the great reptilian groups. Of the eighteen
+orders of reptiles that once filled the world, all but
+five were mysteriously swept into oblivion. Why
+they passed is not yet clear. It may have been due to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span>great changes in the surface and climate of the earth
+at different times. It may have been that the gigantic
+size of these reptiles made the struggle for existence
+too severe or the food supply too precarious. Whatever
+the cause, they all seem to have paid the penalty
+of excessive specialization. The five orders which have
+survived these destructive catastrophes include the
+snakes, the crocodiles, the lizards, the turtles, and the
+lizard-like tuateras of New Zealand.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this wholesale destruction, there
+was a priceless heritage handed down from the Age
+of Reptiles. This heirloom was the beginning of the
+warm-blooded mammal, which slowly developed
+from the humble pro-mammalian reptiles. It endowed
+the animals that were to rule the next great
+period of the earth’s history with power to get about
+on four feet, with increased ability to withstand
+great changes of climate, with added capacities in
+preparing their food for digestion. This last advantage
+depended upon a new kind of teeth which the
+mammals inherited from their immediate reptilian
+ancestors. All of the teeth possessed by primitive
+reptiles were fang-like (laniary), used for seizing their
+prey or tearing their food. These reptiles had no
+grinding teeth, and this condition left the responsibility
+of digestion to the stomach and other organs. In
+most of the mammals digestion begins in the mouth
+with actual mastication. The early pro-mammalian
+reptiles (<i>Cynodonts</i>) were equipped with grinding
+teeth, and their dental apparatus, as in all mammals,
+included incisors, canines, pre-molars, and molars.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>Teeth such as these were important items in the
+legacy received by the mammals from their ancestors,
+the pro-mammalian reptiles.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="When_the_Warm-blooded_Mammal_Appeared">
+  <i>When the Warm-blooded Mammal Appeared</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the fourth or mammalian stage, life entered upon
+the Age of Mammals with all of these new endowments.
+Almost at once it began to show signs of
+progress. It was in the brain that this progress became
+most apparent. A new mechanism long in the
+making now came into existence. This new structure
+may be rightly called the superbrain (neopallium),
+since it soon proved to be the most decisive step
+yet taken in the development of the sense combiner
+and in the further expansion of all the senses. At
+first it did not make its appearance in any preëminent
+manner. It came as an outer covering over the ancient
+parts of the endbrain. Within it, however, were possibilities
+of expansion such as were possessed by no
+other part of the brain. Ultimately it added about
+twelve billion cells to be used in many different kinds
+of brain activity. This addition was especially characterized
+by the orderly arrangement of the cells,
+layer upon layer, almost as if each successive layer
+imparted some new capacity for the management of
+life. In its fully developed form this structure constitutes
+the cortex of the hemispheres, and with its
+fibre connections makes up as much as eighty per
+cent. of the entire brain.</p>
+
+<p>It could hardly be expected, even after the first
+arrival of the mammals, that this new brain addition
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span>would at once attain its fullest development. In fact,
+the first attempts along this line were feeble. A new
+and great production of weird mammals was in
+process. It might almost seem as if the imposing
+shadows of the previous Age of Reptiles still hung
+over these early mammalian experiments. Huge,
+ungainly proportions were still the fashion. In many
+instances the primitive mammals themselves developed
+gigantic and awkward bodies. They were
+strange, unsightly beasts as we know them now from
+their fossilized skeletons and from reconstructions of
+them. Were it possible to reassemble them, what a
+sensation they would create in our modern world.
+Even the best efforts of our foremost showmen would
+be ineffective to describe those strange monsters of
+most unfamiliar appearance, with their peculiar
+armours, their long unsightly horns and tusks, their
+strange hoofs and claws. The mammoth, the mastodon,
+the amblypod, the titanothere, the creodont,
+the sabre-toothed tiger, and many others would be
+among them to excite wonder.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Paths_to_Extinction_and_Progress">
+  <i>The Paths to Extinction and Progress</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>But all of these have passed, in part at least, because,
+like the dinosaurs, they possessed inferior or
+unprogressive brains. Indeed, many of the earliest
+mammals had brains that in some particulars resembled
+those of the reptiles. They grew in size and
+power until they became repulsive brutes, although
+their brains improved but little. In many of them
+the superbrain developed only in a small way. It
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>was notable not for its size but for the position it occupied
+above more ancient structures. In their
+struggle for life these huge beasts seemed to be unable
+to adjust themselves to changing environment; so
+probably when the conditions became too severe,
+not having the capacity to adapt themselves, they
+failed to survive. Many orders of these animals became
+extinct in the early part of the Age of Mammals
+(Oligocene and Eocene, thirty million to sixty-five
+million years ago). Others, showing more progressive
+tendencies, continued to advance, and their descendants
+have come down into modern times. One striking
+difference between these progressive and unprogressive
+mammals was certainly in the brain. Wherever
+this organ remained primitive, wherever the
+superbrain was only feebly developed, the fate of
+extinction seems to have been a foregone conclusion.
+Such animals soon reached the end of their line. But
+wherever the superbrain expanded, there the signs
+of progress were unmistakable. One extremely important
+factor in the survival of most of the mammals
+alive to-day was the progressive development in the
+most recently acquired portion of the brain. Great
+practical results were brought about by its expansion
+in the administration of brain power. It produced,
+so to speak, the final consolidation of all the sense
+departments under one roof. Reactions connected
+with the sense of smell and of taste, which had so
+long depended upon the primitive endbrain, marked
+this structure as the most advantageous location
+for centralization. Whatever may have been the influences
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span>that established this preference, here the
+departments of body and contact senses, of sight and
+hearing, were finally organized. The effects of this
+consolidation were immediately felt by the endbrain.
+It at once became a superbrain in the truest sense.
+Rapid expansions in the actual size of the hemispheres
+were the first signs of this new development. Then
+came the process of convolution and folding to obtain
+more brain room, and this for the same reason was
+followed by still more complex convoluting. These
+advantages especially favoured contact sense, the
+expansion of which was largely due to the fact that
+the mammal body was now covered with a highly
+sensitive skin equipped with hair. Such a skin was a
+new sensory device by which finer impressions of
+touch might be conveyed to the brain. In this manner
+the animal was able to form more complete judgments
+concerning objects with which it came in
+contact. Little by little, these judgments of touch
+became more critical and discriminating. A great
+range of understanding of the world through touch
+sense was made available. One critical impression of
+touch was added to another until complex judgments
+in this sense were constructed. Similar expansions
+in the powers of vision, hearing, and body sense led
+to their localization in this new part of the brain.
+Their most effective activity soon required still further
+extension, which ultimately, by the development
+of the frontal lobe, made provision for the highest
+faculties. The mammals have thus shown their
+progressive tendency in the acquisition of an efficient
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>sense combiner. Through their better sense capacities
+they have been able to understand their surroundings
+more thoroughly than lower animals. Consequently
+their energy turnover in the brain has resulted in a
+better output by means of which they have made
+more ample adjustments to life. All of this they have
+been able to accomplish because they possessed a
+mechanism of incalculable value, the superbrain.
+Yet the mammals have not in all cases utilized this
+mechanism to its full extent. Its advantages have been
+applied in different ways and for different purposes. In
+some instances they have been utilized for the special
+adjustments of the hoofed animals, or in the hunting
+craft of the great meat-eaters, or in that furtiveness
+of the moles, which seek their protection by burrowing
+in the ground. The advantages of the superbrain were
+applied to many other diverse specializations, such
+as the adjustments of bats for flying, or of beavers,
+seals, whales, and porpoises for living in the water.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Superior_Brain_of_Mammals">
+  <i>The Superior Brain of Mammals</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The mammalian brain has made possible a wide
+range of behaviour and adjustment. This range exceeds
+that of the fish, amphibian, reptile, or bird.
+Concerning the increased capacity of the mammals
+as a class there seems to be no doubt. But this greater
+power of adaptability is also true of every mammal.
+The differences in this respect between the lower
+mammals, like the rat, the opossum, or the sloth,
+when compared with the bird, the snake, the frog, or
+even the fish, may not be striking. But when we contrast
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span>the actions and capabilities of such mammals as
+dogs, horses, elephants, or any of the cat family with
+those of the bird or snake the vast differences speak
+for themselves. A dog, for example, has by comparison
+with lower vertebrates a greatly increased capacity
+for getting on in life. He is capable of adapting himself
+to many complications incident to his associations
+with man. He has a much more ample repertoire of
+performances. He is capable of learning many intricate
+accomplishments. In general, such learning is
+also true of most of the higher mammals; it is particularly
+true of those having a highly developed superbrain.
+Even aquatic mammals like the seals show a
+remarkable degree of adaptability. They are among
+the most interesting of trained performers. A casual
+glance is sufficient to reveal what an excellent superbrain
+they possess. Elephants, in spite of their huge
+proportions and awkwardness, are capable of remarkable
+adjustments. Their brains are also highly
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, however decisive the mammalian superiority
+in brain power may be over the lower vertebrates,
+most of the mammals are held down by many handicaps,
+restrictions, and limitations. They all possess
+a capacity for broad adjustments to strictly limited
+conditions. For life in the water, in the air, upon the
+plains, underground, or in the forest, they may be
+well adapted. But the specializations of their own
+bodies hold them to their specifically restricted adjustments.
+With trunk and head, with hoof and paw,
+with wing and flipper, they may do the things which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span>these implements make possible. Here their opportunities
+cease. In this way even the progressive mammals
+are confronted by serious obstacles. These mammalian
+obstacles were difficult to overcome. Some of the
+mammals, however, became specialized for a more
+varied kind of life. They manifested a strong tendency
+to live chiefly in the trees. This fact influenced
+their further adjustments profoundly. It opened the
+way for new specializations in their limbs. It gave a
+new direction to progress, which finally called upon
+the brain for its supreme development. These important
+tree-living animals are the monkey kind and
+the manlike apes. All of the events in adjustment
+preceding this great epoch might be likened diagrammatically
+to a succession of plateaus. Each plateau,
+beginning with that of the fish, then rising to the
+level of the amphibians, of the reptiles, and finally of
+the mammals, contributed some important elements
+to progress. From these at length came the upper
+level of the apes, that plateau destined to give rise to
+many varieties of primates, and also to afford those
+footholds essential to the further upward climb of
+man.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">
+    CHAPTER III
+    <br>
+    MAN IN THE MAKING
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">HUMAN PROGRESS FROM PREHISTORIC TO
+    MODERN TIMES</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3 id="Arrival_of_Man"><i>Arrival of Man</i></h3>
+
+<p>Long before man appeared upon the scene the brain
+had passed through certain preliminary grades. Its
+basic patterns had been perfected. Its most important
+mechanisms had been improved. All manner of animals
+inhabited the earth in those preparatory days—fishes,
+amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals of
+many varieties. They were the stepping stones of
+progress. When at length the first members of our
+family arrived their brains were barely human, and
+they themselves were crude human beings. There
+was a certain triumph in their advent, however, for at
+last there were men. The Age of Man which they
+inaugurated was to differ from all preceding ages in
+the products of human achievement. This great inaugural
+event, however, made no particular stir in
+nature. Its beginnings were insignificant and humble,
+just as the brain of these earliest men was a far less
+imposing organ than that possessed by modern people.
+It was still a crude brain, unrefined in many of its
+structural details and small in its capacity. Hundreds
+of thousands of years were still necessary for such a
+brain to attain its highest efficiency.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p>
+
+<p>To most of us who are accustomed to count time
+as the hours between breakfast and dinner, or, at the
+most, as the proverbial threescore years and ten,
+these long periods sound fabulous and fantastic. In
+contemplating the past our vision usually stops short
+at the beginning of history, about five or six thousand
+years ago. Such a focus is unfortunately nearsighted.
+It leaves us insensitive to the much longer prehistoric
+period. Through all this unrecorded time man
+struggled upward to achieve those successes which
+at length established the Age of the Frontal Lobe.</p>
+
+<p>Much evidence of this great prehistoric period is now
+available. Examined carefully and without prejudice
+it reveals what man must have been when his human
+journey first started. It tells us much of how he lived
+and acted; also by what means he succeeded in lifting
+himself up step by step from his lowly beginnings.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Duration_of_Human_Existence">
+  <i>The Duration of Human Existence</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is natural that our first inquiry should be concerning
+the length of time during which the human
+race has inhabited the earth. The exact figures, as
+might be expected, are a matter of much dispute
+and difference of opinion. All authorities, however,
+agree that the several stages of human progress must
+have required a remarkably long period. None of
+the modern estimations of this period is less than
+five hundred thousand years. Many calculations,
+such as those of Sir Arthur Keith, far exceed this
+figure and place the origin of man as far back as a
+million years or more. The beginnings of the human
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>species are usually attributed to the early part of
+the Pleistocene, or the late part of the Pliocene.
+Keith, however, believes this does not permit of
+sufficient time for that development which produced
+all of the effects evidenced in the known features
+of modern man, as well as those of certain extinct
+varieties that have long since passed from the human
+stage. Concluding his famous work, the <i>Antiquity
+of Man</i>, Keith expresses the opinion that “There is
+not a single fact known to me which makes the existence
+of the human form in the Miocene period an
+impossibility.” This view would set the origin of man
+back to an astonishingly remote period in the neighbourhood
+of twelve or fifteen million years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Osborn has recently revised his original
+estimations concerning the beginning of the human
+race. He now attributes the rise of man to a time one
+and a half million years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In all his races, both living and extinct, man constitutes
+the sixth family in the primate suborder,
+<i>Anthropoidea</i> (manlike). This family is known as the
+<i>Hominidæ</i> (men of all types). The progenitors of the
+human family split off from a common primate stock
+at some time early in the Oligocene. At this critical
+juncture, probably twenty-five million years ago, two
+great branches of the suborder parted company.
+Thenceforth they developed independently of each
+other. The first branch from this common stem gave
+rise to human races. From the second branch arose
+the great modern anthropoid apes, including the
+orang-outang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>vast difference that exists between man and all other
+living creatures is evident in the complexity of human
+affairs. In size and form of body there are many notable
+resemblances between man and the apes, particularly
+the great apes. But here the similarity ends
+abruptly. Man has created a new world, which he
+strives to control both by laws of his own making
+and by subjugating more or less completely all other
+creatures to his will. His races to-day throughout the
+world are collectively known as the species <i>Homo
+sapiens</i> (man of wisdom). This species comprises the
+African, the Australian, the Mongolian, and the
+European varieties of mankind.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Four_Extinct_Races_of_Men">
+  <i>Four Extinct Races of Men</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Study of human fossils and ancient implements has
+revealed the former existence of at least four prehistoric
+races of man. These races took their parts in the
+human drama and then, in consequence of factors not
+altogether clear, became extinct. It is not surprising
+that man’s obscure prehistoric beginnings are all but
+lost in the great geological ages which lie behind his
+recorded history. There can be small wonder that
+such insignificant traces of his remains have yet been
+brought to light. The search for these remains has
+been in progress for little more than a century.
+Doubtless when this exploration becomes more extensive,
+also when more people are engaged in its
+organization, a considerable collection of relics revealing
+man’s primitive stages will be discovered.
+Nothing more than a meagre record could be expected
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>because so little effort was originally made to
+preserve the remains of the earliest prehistoric men.
+In those long-distant days the bodies of the dead
+were either disposed of by burning, or merely cast
+out to be devoured by beasts and birds of prey.</p>
+
+<p>The principal criteria for estimating the antiquity
+of human remains are four in number. First, the age
+in geological time of the strata within which the remains
+are found. Second, the fossil remains of the
+animals associated with the fossil remains of man,
+whether these be of still living forms, or entirely extinct
+species. Third, the human artifacts, that is, implements,
+ornaments, and other objects produced by
+human hands, found with the remains. Fourth, the
+structural characteristics as to skull and other parts
+of the skeleton, which distinguish these fossil men
+from living races.</p>
+
+<p>Quite as important as the fossilized bodily remains
+of prehistoric man are those ancient works of human
+hands that have been slowly collected as a result of
+untiring search and scientific industry. It is now possible
+to classify this great body of evidence. Besides
+revealing the actual presence on earth of prehistoric
+man, this classification clearly demonstrates the occurrence
+of certain cultural stages prior to the historic
+period. The extinct races of men already brought
+to light appear to vary considerably from the modern
+man; so much so, in fact, that a question has been
+raised concerning the wisdom of creating for each of
+them a new genus within the human family. One
+reason for this distinction is that no one of the extinct
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>races may properly be called the ancestor of living
+man. Some arrangement in the chronological order of
+man’s appearance on earth is desirable. The exact
+period of each extinct race cannot be given. But
+within certain broad limits we are able to assign each
+prehistoric man to his proper time and place.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Javan_Ape_Man">
+  <i>Javan Ape Man</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Probably the oldest, most primitive of extinct
+races is the ape man of Java (<i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i>).
+This ape man belonged to what is called the Trinil
+race, which, according to Keith, originated more
+than one million years ago. The ape man, although
+definitely human in type, had many simian qualities.
+He was also so similar to man as to justify the view
+that he represents some transitional stage in human
+evolution. He possessed a head and a face not unlike
+those of an ape, but his brain was nearly twice the
+size of the brain of any simian including the largest
+of the great apes, the gorilla. It was this transcendent
+advantage that lifted him above all of the anthropoids
+and assured him an unassailable place as a
+member of the human family.</p>
+
+<p>The fossil remains of the ape man were discovered
+in 1891 by a Dutch army surgeon. Dr. Eugen Du
+Bois made the discovery on the Bengawan River in
+central Java where he had been excavating in the
+hope of finding pre-human fossils. He actually did
+find a number of mammalian bones, including a single
+upper molar tooth, which he regarded as those of a
+new species of ape. On carefully clearing away the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>rock and gravel at this site on the bank of the river,
+the top of a skull came to view about a yard from the
+spot where the tooth had been found. Further excavation
+brought to light a second molar tooth and a left
+thigh bone. Both of these were about fifteen yards
+from the place where the skull had been discovered.
+These scattered parts were carefully studied by Du
+Bois, who, in 1894, published a description of a new
+animal—<i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i> (<i>Pithecus</i>, ape; <i>Anthropus</i>,
+man). The entire term was meant to signify
+an upright standing ape man. The word “<i>erectus</i>”
+refers to the thigh bone concerning which Du Bois
+observes:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>We must therefore conclude that the femur [thigh bone]
+of <i>pithecanthropus</i> was designed for the same mechanical functions
+as that of man; the two articulations [upper and lower joint
+surfaces] and the mechanical axis correspond so exactly to the
+same parts in man that the law of perfect harmony between
+form and function of a bone will necessitate the conclusion that
+this fossil creature had the same upright posture as man, and
+likewise walked on two legs.... From this it necessarily follows
+that the creature had the free use of the upper extremities—now
+superfluous for walking—and that these last [the arms and
+hands] were no doubt already far advanced in the line of differentiation,
+which developed them in mankind into tools and
+organs of touch.... From a study of the femur and the skull,
+it follows with certainty that this fossil cannot be classified as a
+simian ... and as with the skull so with the femur the differences
+that separate <i>pithecanthropus</i> from man are less than those distinguishing
+it from the highest anthropoid [great ape]....
+Although far advanced in the course of differentiation this
+Pleistocene [Age of Man] form had not yet attained to the human
+type. <i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i> is the transition form between
+man and the anthropoids which the laws of evolution teach
+us must have existed; he is the ancestor of man.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p>
+
+<p>More extended study of the brain of this ancient
+fossil creature shows that he was in reality human.
+This man did, however, retain so much that was ape-like
+in his make-up that it is difficult to agree with
+Du Bois in his view that <i>pithecanthropus</i> was a direct
+human ancestor. He was, of course, able to walk
+upon both feet much like his modern successors.
+It also seems probable that in stature this primitive
+man was not greatly inferior to the human races of the
+present. It is likely that he employed his hands in the
+use of weapons and certain crude implements. It
+also seems probable that he depended upon very
+primitive means for protecting himself against the
+numerous enemies that beset his path and lay in wait
+about his camping places. His time doubtless was
+fully taken up by the arduous task of gaining sustenance
+for himself. So busy was he in these obligatory
+pursuits that he had little opportunity for developing
+industries or cultural activities. This human creature
+with his ape-like appearance was closely related to
+many beast-like contemporaries in the animal kingdom.
+He managed to hold his position among them
+only by a narrow margin of superiority. His ascendancy
+was derived from a dawning ingenuity, which
+enabled him to equalize the struggle by the cunning
+of his hand. He took advantage of primitive shrewdness
+and contrivance to outwit his natural antagonists
+that far excelled him in power and speed.</p>
+
+<p>However manlike <i>pithecanthropus</i> may have been
+in respect to the posture of his body and the general
+character of his locomotion, it is certain that he was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>much below any of the known races of man in his
+brain power. His face and head each bore a closer
+resemblance to the ape than to man. His brain indicates
+that he had probably acquired some mode of
+speech, primitive no doubt, yet sufficient for the
+purposes of simple human communication. It is likewise
+probable that he lived in tribes and, being gregarious,
+had learned some of the advantages accruing
+from community life. He may have had some crude
+notion at least of the division of labour and its compensations
+in sharing the results.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Dawn_Man_of_England">
+  <i>Dawn Man of England</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>From certain flints, which seem to have many
+features indicating their use as instruments, Professor
+Osborn believes that there were primitive men living
+in England at a time earlier even than that assigned
+to the ape man of Java. These prehistoric people are
+called “Subcrag Dawn men.” It is his opinion that
+they made use of certain flint instruments called
+“rostro-carinates.” Dr. Osborn, believing that these
+primitive people are close to the beginning of the
+human race, places their origin in the Pliocene,
+1,300,000 years ago. In consequence of the discovery
+of certain somewhat different flint instruments, he is of
+the opinion also that the Subcrag men were followed
+at a little later period by the Foxhall Dawn men
+(antiquity about 1,200,000 years). Disputes about
+these early prehistoric Englishmen arise from the
+fact that no actual human remains of them have
+yet been found. This, fortunately, is not the case
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span>with the now famous English Dawn man of Piltdown,
+attributed by Professor Osborn and other authorities
+to the last part of the Pliocene (a little over a million
+years ago). Piltdown is a town in the weald of Sussex
+not many miles from the English Channel, between
+two branches of the Ouse River. To the east of it is
+the plateau of Kent upon which have been found
+many flints of earliest prehistoric times. It was at
+Piltdown that the most famous of English Dawn men
+was discovered by Mr. Charles Dawson. The fossilized
+remnants consisted of a number of fragments of this
+extinct man’s skull. Because of the fragmentary condition
+of this fossil, it was necessary to give each piece
+its proper relation to the head in order to reconstruct
+the skull. A reconstruction of the Piltdown skull was
+first presented to the Geological Society of London,
+in December, 1912, by Sir A. Smith-Woodward of
+the British Museum, and its discoverer, Mr. Charles
+Dawson. The announcement of this remarkable discovery
+deeply stirred the interest of scientific circles.
+An unknown phase of the early human existence was
+about to be revealed. The reconstructed skull as pieced
+together impressed all who saw it as a strange blend
+of ape and man. It seemed that the missing link for
+which the early followers of Darwin had ardently
+searched was at length forthcoming. But whether this
+was the long sought-for missing link or not, the
+Piltdown strata in Sussex told of a race of human
+beings who inhabited England long before history
+had made its feeblest beginnings. Dr. Smith-Woodward
+believed that the Piltdown fossil dated back to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>the early part of the Pleistocene period, but Sir
+Arthur Keith and Professor Osborn now advocate
+an antiquity far more remote going back to some
+portion of the Pliocene. Although it is impossible to
+be more exact in these estimations of prehistoric
+time, it is clear that a very primitive race of men
+lived in England long before Cæsar’s invasions; in
+fact, ages before the ancient Britons claimed the
+land that was to produce many of the most brilliant
+lights of history. By some the Piltdown man is regarded
+as the direct ancestor of modern races; by
+others he is held to be an independent branch of the
+human family of quite unknown affiliations.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Neanderthal_Man">
+  <i>Neanderthal Man</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Some time early in the Pleistocene, variously estimated
+from 800,000 to 900,000 years ago, another
+race of man made its appearance in Europe. This was
+the Heidelberg race (<i>Homo Heidelbergensis</i>). These
+people manifested many traits distinctly more human
+than the ape man. It is believed from the implements
+found in the neighbourhood of his fossil remains
+that the Heidelberg man made use of crude implements
+both of wood and stone. This man, although he
+became extinct before human progress had made
+great advances, appears to have been the ancestor
+of the Neanderthal race (<i>Homo Neanderthalensis</i>).
+This latter is the third race of prehistoric men recognized
+up to the present time. Much more than all
+others who had gone before him, Neanderthal man
+has left traces of himself. Many of these relics are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>the stone implements that he employed. From these
+implements it is evident that the organization of his
+life had made long strides in the direction of his more
+modern successors. His advances in industry and in
+cultural development laid the foundation for all the
+stages that progressively evolved as the human race
+rose through the Old Stone Age. Yet the fate of
+Neanderthal man was not unlike that of other prehistoric
+men. In time he also became extinct. His
+disappearance occurred about fifty thousand years
+ago, when a fourth and even greater race of primitive
+men came into Europe. These were the Cromagnons.
+After they had completely replaced the Neanderthals
+they flourished for a long time, in the end to be replaced
+by the races of Neolithic men which continued
+dominant up to the time when man gained mastery
+over the metals.</p>
+
+<p>It seems clear, then, that the earliest human beings
+began as simple, nomadic hunters. After the
+passage of great intervals of time and an actual succession
+of races, men acquired the crude essentials
+of manufacture and then gradually, as in the Cromagnon
+period, developed the dexterity and æsthetic
+sense of the artist. Finally, in the New Stone Age,
+they learned the practices of agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>The past of prehistoric man has been subdivided
+into periods characterized by the presence of implements
+employed in his several activities. In general,
+these periods bear the name of French stations or
+towns near which the discoveries of the implements
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span>have been made. French archæologists have so successfully
+devoted themselves to the efforts of classifying
+the flint implements that they have established
+a chronological order in the development of human
+progress during the long periods of man’s prehistoric
+existence.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Old_Stone_Age">
+  <i>The Old Stone Age</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Man’s first great epoch on earth was the Old Stone
+Age (Paleolithic, 900,000 years ago). In this era,
+which began at some time in the first interglacial
+period, the only implements were devised from flint
+or stones of other kind, from wood, carved ivory, and
+bone. The Old Stone Age was followed by the Neolithic
+(New Stone Age), which began in postglacial
+times and rapidly led up to the thresholds of history,
+through the Bronze and Iron ages.</p>
+
+<p>Long before the Old Stone Age it is probable that
+man was at work in the slow development of industries
+that later were to assume great importance.
+Hunting was the great incentive out of which all of
+his early industries were evolved. Little is known of
+his cultural development, although it seems fairly
+clear that the Subcrag Dawn men used certain implements
+called rostro-carinates, while the Dawn
+men of Foxhall and Piltdown employed very primitive
+implements known as eoliths. These were so
+crude in appearance that they are looked upon by
+many as merely accidental forms. With such simple
+and limited instruments, man’s struggle for existence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>in these earliest days must have been most severe.
+Even at the time when the Old Stone Age began,
+the primitive flint implements manifested considerable
+development. For example, in the Pre-Chellean
+cultural stage (beginning 700,000 years ago), the
+chase is represented almost exclusively by a simple
+flint knife. This knife, although extremely crude, in
+conjunction with other equally crude combinations
+of stone and stick, gave man a slight balance of power
+over other animals inhabiting the field and forest as
+his competitors. His simple equipment furnished
+the means to gain his daily food, and to establish that
+footing by which he rose step by step.</p>
+
+<p>War in this period was not among man’s highly
+organized pastimes. He appears to have had no implements
+for warlike pursuits. He had, however, invented
+certain instruments for industrial and domestic
+purposes, such as a flint scraper, a planing tool,
+a drill, and a stone hammer. Nothing among his
+primitive equipments appears to have answered the
+purposes of art or artistic production.</p>
+
+<p>In this early Pre-Chellean period, man was a vagrant
+hunter. He lived without the protection of
+habitation and was thus exposed to the devastations
+of the great meat-eating animals that followed his
+wanderings. He had not acquired sufficient constructive
+ingenuity to protect himself against these dreaded
+marauders. They stalked him in his marches by day
+and lay in wait on the outer edges of his camps to
+find him an easy prey when he slept at night. The
+less fortunate members of his tribes were within easy
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span>reach of these night prowlers that waited only for
+darkness to help them in the capture of their human
+quarry. Man’s slow imagination required ages to
+show him that he held in his own hands the power to
+subjugate the beasts of prey. For a long time he
+struggled on this low level of intelligence. He lived a
+hand-to-mouth existence, passing his days like other
+animals, getting his food supply as he dared, and protecting
+himself as best he could. Doubtless some
+critical occurrence like the discovery of fire and its
+uses may have furnished a new incentive for his advance.
+Some great change in climate with increasing
+cold may have stimulated him to more vigorous
+exertion, may have forced him to become a more persistent
+hunter of animals, both for their meat and the
+warmth to be had from their protecting skins. Long
+winter seasons when game was scarce may also have
+taught the wisdom of storing his supply of provisions
+and thus aroused in his imagination some conception
+of the advantages in thought for the future. Living
+along with him was an imposing host of other mammals.
+Among them were the lion, the wolf, the cave
+bear, the deer, and the wild boar. Over the plains
+roamed the Etruscan rhinoceros, the Mosbach horse,
+and the ancient elephant. Following this game he
+wandered from station to station, always living near
+the course of the great rivers, but showing little
+tendency to establish a permanent abode. A restless
+migrant, he was moved by the dictates of the seasons
+almost as instinctively as the migratory birds and
+beasts. He had not learned the secrets which later
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span>enabled him to stand against the severe vicissitudes
+of climate. The idea which gave him that self-assurance
+to stake out his own claim, to assert his right
+to his own angle of earth, was still in embryonic
+state.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Neanderthal_Progress">
+  <i>Neanderthal Progress</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The foundations of that possessive sense destined
+to become the chief characteristic of the human race
+and at length the ruling passion of humanity had as
+yet been laid down only in their simplest form. It was
+Neanderthal man who introduced the first real advances
+over this primitive level of life. In the Chellean
+cultural period (500,000 years ago), even more in
+the Acheulean period (400,000 years ago), his race
+developed rapidly. His progress is shown by a great
+increase and considerable refinement in all of the small
+implements which he employed.</p>
+
+<p>He now developed a chisel or adze-like tool for
+shaping his wooden implements. He made flint points
+to form darts and spear heads to aid him in the chase.
+But for all these advances, it was not until Neanderthal
+man passed into his wonderful Mousterian stage
+of culture, about 300,000 years ago, that the human
+race took a most decisive step forward. This step was
+in every sense critical and epoch-making. It may also
+be looked upon as a highly profitable step. The effects
+of it have made themselves felt with increasing force
+upon all the subsequent development of the human
+race. It was a new departure that, taken so long ago,
+actually led the Neanderthal man to the threshold of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>an idea in many ways quite original. Ultimately the
+expansion of this idea was to become one of the keystones
+of all social organization. It may indeed be regarded
+as the fundamental principle in the upbuilding
+of human society. This notable step forward gave
+the Mousterian man the first real conception of
+property holding. It implanted in his mind that germ
+out of which grew the rights of possession. This was
+an idea which was handed down by him as an heirloom
+to all the remainder of his race, and to all other
+races of mankind. The conception of property holding
+developed from the fact that the Neanderthal man
+in Mousterian times became a cave dweller. He sought
+shelter from the elements in these rude dwellings
+fashioned by nature. Why he had not availed himself
+of these shelters long before is not difficult to understand.
+The caves which he might have found to his
+liking were already inhabited by dangerous tenants,
+such as the cave lion, the leopard, the hyena, the
+wolf, the great cave bear, and perhaps even the dread
+Machærodus or sabre-toothed tiger. All of these were
+his natural enemies. For the most part they had been
+successful enemies. Man had scarcely dared to dispute
+the right of way with them, far less the right of possession.
+Through all his long periods of upward progress,
+he had not yet learned the means by which he
+could contend with these beasts of prey on anything
+like an equal footing. They took from him at will and
+his retaliation at best was feeble. They, rather than
+he, were the real masters of the situation. This state
+of affairs was bound to continue until some critical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>discovery revealed a new instrument whose deadliness
+placed in human hands a supremacy over these
+creatures. Some strategy, some modification of the
+old flint instruments, perhaps some new combination
+of them with fire, at length gave Neanderthal man
+the needed advantage and then he drove the hostile
+beasts out of the caves. In time he established there
+his own dwelling places, and there proclaimed his inalienable
+right of possession. Such a hazardous undertaking
+undoubtedly required a hardy courage and an
+unwavering persistency. Yet a hard-fought contest
+of this kind could not fail to have a marked influence
+on the final outcome. Once man had gained the right
+of ownership, all of the struggles incident to it served
+to emphasize his final sense of possession. This triumph
+did much to stimulate human desire for gain.
+It seems fairly clear that from it arose the incentives
+of conquest. Since Mousterian times man has expended
+much of his energy in exploiting this new advantage.
+He has made laws to justify and regulate it.
+The rights of possession have had a dominating influence
+over all of his economic and political organizations.
+Most of his moral code has been built up
+around these rights. States and empires have been
+founded upon them, while the governing principle
+in the life of the individual has been the right to have
+and to hold. In a word, this newly expanded sense of
+possession started by Neanderthal man has become
+an essential element in all the achievements of mankind.
+It has no less been the cause of much woe and
+maladjustment in the race.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Mousterian_Success_and_Character">
+  <i>Mousterian Success and Character</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is difficult to estimate the importance of this
+contribution to the development of human progress.
+We may at least give Mousterian man due credit for
+establishing this new assertiveness. He likewise deserves
+recognition because this achievement was an
+outstanding milestone on the road toward higher
+humanity. For this reason it is worthy of a special
+commemorative date. As chronicled by Professor
+Osborn, this memorable occurrence, the beginning of
+cave dwelling, took place about 300,000 years ago.
+In more senses than one it was a red-letter day for
+humanity. It was especially a red-letter day because
+of the recurring bloodshed of innumerable wars destined
+to arise out of the lust and greed inspired by
+this expanded sense of possession. This, however, is
+the most unfavourable aspect of the Mousterian’s new
+idea. He himself should not be made to appear too
+black on this score. He was actually a considerable
+personage and introduced many other new ways of
+looking at life that have been highly advantageous to
+us all.</p>
+
+<p>Living in dark caves as he did, especially in the
+long bleak winters, as the glacial periods crept down
+upon him, he must have found much of mystery in
+those dim recesses to stimulate his imagination. It is
+probable that he became a believer in occult forces
+of nature, and perhaps even developed a system of
+magic. These suppositions become more probable from
+the fact that he, for the first time in human experience,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>established the custom of burying the dead.
+The men who lived before him belonged to what may
+be called the pre-burial period. This fact unquestionably
+accounts in part for the scanty human remains
+before Mousterian times. The Neanderthal Mousterian
+not only buried his dead but he developed an
+elaborate burial ceremony. The general nature of this
+ceremony is shown by the position of the body and
+of the limbs as they were found folded and flexed in
+the fossilized remains of these men of the Old Stone
+Age. With certain primitive people this is still the
+custom. Even in the case of some of the ancient Egyptian
+kings many personal belongings were buried with
+the dead. Favourite weapons of the chase, useful
+implements of one kind or another, ornaments and
+other trinkets presumably dear to the departed ones,
+have been found with the skeletons in these Neanderthal
+sepulchres. Special attention was given to
+prevent pressure upon or crushing of the head by
+means of placing large flat stones upon either side of
+it. There are some indications that even as far back
+as the Old Stone Age man, as part of his burial
+service, deposited certain articles of food beside the
+body of the departed. All of these facts clearly reveal
+that as long ago as 300,000 years man had acquired
+his first religious ideas. There is every suggestion
+about these burial ceremonies that the Mousterian
+cave man believed in another life after death. He
+appears to have had a strong conviction that the
+body was but a temporary container of some intangible
+spirit that in its time passed on into another
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>world. It seems probable that he also believed in the
+return of the departed spirit to its earthly habitations,
+else why did he place food in the sepulchres? In his
+crude way of thinking he seems to have had certain
+well-fixed ideas of the pursuits and occupations in the
+life hereafter. For this reason he left a useful collection
+of weapons and other implements close at hand, ready
+for the spirit that had left the body. The Mousterian
+idea of immortality may have been simple, but there
+is no doubt that it existed. Whether there was a belief
+in God or not is difficult to discern. It is probable,
+however, that the Mousterian, like all other primitive
+people, did have some conception of a supreme being,
+and that he had thus laid the foundations of religion.</p>
+
+<p>It is for these reasons that the cave-dwelling Mousterian
+man especially deserves our attention. The
+features of his face and the character of his body as
+reconstructed by scientists make him appear to be a
+particularly formidable human being. Everything
+about him indicates that he was powerful and aggressive.
+In a word, he was a splendid fighting machine
+with heavy, protruding lower jaw, low beetling brow,
+thick and short neck, long and heavy-muscled arms,
+short, powerful legs slightly bent at the knees. He was
+a fierce and dangerous antagonist; one, from all we
+know of his history, as courageous as he was powerful.
+It is probable that in consequence of his cave dwelling
+he had begun to live in fairly large organized communities.
+Such life as this had many influences upon
+his social activities. It developed his use of language.
+It stimulated his interest in industries other than
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>those of the chase. It caused expansion in his imagination,
+leading to the establishment of racial tradition.
+It produced the spirit of individual competition as
+well as the pursuits of tribal rivalry. War up to this
+time seems to have been limited very largely to individual
+encounters. Now for the first time differences
+of opinion and controversies between one community
+and another were most likely settled by group combat.
+Here, therefore, were laid the foundations of war
+that was to prove one of the most irresistible and
+costly of all human indulgences. The self-assertiveness,
+which must have resulted from the cave man’s
+realization that he had finally gained the upper hand
+in many details over the natural world, caused him to
+change his attitude. Instead of being a fugitive, he
+now became a conqueror. It was this positive self-feeling
+that gave rise to most of his more expansive
+ideas. The multiplication of these ideas easily led him
+on into the realm of fancy and brought him many
+illusory interpretations concerning the workings of
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>During the Mousterian period Neanderthal man
+did not make many material changes in the implements
+used before his time. In some instances there
+was a distinct improvement of the old ideas; in others
+there was a distinct decline or even suppression of
+some of the most effective instruments. The cave
+man’s aims, however, were considerably modified by
+his new mode of life. His sheltered existence lessened
+his physical powers to resist disease. The making
+of clothing from the skins of animals also grew out of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span>this more sheltered type of life. In the end it produced
+a people less accustomed to the elements than
+those earlier and hardier races that had lived in the
+open. The effects of this need for clothing made themselves
+felt not only in the industry of producing
+garments but quite as much in the production of implements
+necessary for such work. Cave dwelling
+permitted disease and imperfect hygiene to go their
+full length in producing inroads upon this great Mousterian
+race. The ravages of infection and contagion
+had better opportunity to exert their baneful influences.
+These and other insidious factors were secretly
+at work. In course of time the Mousterian culture
+began to show signs of a steady deterioration. For
+some mysterious reason these men of the Old Stone
+Age slowly began to lose ground. The prominence
+held by the Neanderthal race during lower Palæolithic
+times was distinctly on the wane as this period
+approached its end.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Cromagnon_Ascendancy">
+  <i>Cromagnon Ascendancy</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Finally a profound change came over the inhabitants
+of western Europe. For some as yet unknown
+reason the Neanderthal race entirely disappeared
+from the earth. Its place, however, was taken by
+another and a greater people, the Cromagnons. Without
+question this was a replacement of a lower race
+by one of much higher development. The Neanderthal
+was on a distinctly lower plane than any now
+existing human type. The Cromagnon ranks high
+among the races of mankind in intellectual attainment
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span>and in known capacities for production. He
+belongs to the species <i>Homo sapiens</i>, that same species
+of man which has made modern history. He held
+sway during the last part of the Old Stone Age, appearing
+in Europe about fifty thousand years ago.
+Like those races which had gone before him, he passed
+through many interesting phases of culture and
+growth. All of these were characterized by the development
+of stone implements, thus making him still a
+man of the Old Stone Age. He added many new attainments
+as a result of new human capacities. He
+stands out particularly as the first artist of mankind,
+and sets a mark as one of the most splendid examples
+of humanity both for his superb physical appearance
+and for his remarkable mental qualities. But he, too,
+like all others who preceded him, was destined to decline
+and then to disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The Cromagnon is interesting to us because he was
+the probable conqueror of the great Neanderthal race.
+What secret power he had to achieve this conquest,
+to subdue and destroy these fierce cave dwellers, is
+still unknown. It may have been that he brought with
+him some new implements for warfare, such as the
+bow and arrow, and that he had many other advantages
+of this kind. In any event, he showed no
+quarter to the Neanderthals, whom he seems to have
+destroyed completely. He did not even follow the
+custom of many conquerors, of intermarrying with
+the women of the conquered race. No generally admitted
+sign of Neanderthal features or characters
+persists among the race of men after the last Mousterian
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span>days. Beyond question it was the increased
+brain power of the Cromagnons which gave them
+their real advantages. This opinion is based on the
+appearance of the large brain case of this race and the
+development of the almost modern forehead and forebrain.
+In the main, our admiration for the ancient
+Cromagnon people depends upon something entirely
+different from their powers of conquest. They may
+have been great as warriors, but they were far greater
+as artists. This is the aspect of their lives that interests
+and influences us most.</p>
+
+<p>The Cromagnons were a race that developed somewhere
+in Asia and migrated westward into Europe.
+They came in contact with the Neanderthals and
+probably destroyed them. They had no ancestral
+connections of any kind with this other race. They
+possessed a brain capable of more complex ideas,
+greater comprehension, more reasoning powers, a
+wider, more facile imagination. Still more they were
+endowed with a highly artistic sense and were capable
+of advanced education. Their society was differentiated
+along the line of capacity and talent for work.
+Their artistic productions as shown in the mural
+decorations of their caves were so excellent as to
+place them among the truly great achievements of
+mankind. In the pursuits of industry and domestic
+life, the Cromagnons added little in the way of innovation.
+They adapted and perfected what the
+Mousterians had previously used. They did introduce,
+however, what no other people had ever employed;
+namely, tools and implements for sculpture
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>and engraving. These tools in the main were small
+and delicate instruments made of flint. Among these
+was a fine drill, an engraver, an etcher, a carving
+chisel, a mortar, a hammer stone, and a polisher.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Cromagnon_Cultural_Periods">
+  <i>Cromagnon Cultural Periods</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The Cromagnon, like the Neanderthal, passed
+through certain cultural phases. Each of these periods
+lasted many thousands of years and each of them
+was much longer than the Christian Era. The first
+of these cultural steps was the Aurignacian period, in
+which the great awakening of artistic enthusiasm
+occurred. The peak of artistic devotion, however,
+came in the Solutrean period, which was the acme of
+achievement in the flint industry. Decline set in
+during the next, the Magdalenian period, which
+brought the closing stage of Cromagnon culture. And
+then in the Azilian period the last survivors of the
+greatest race in the Old Stone Age, grown old in their
+industries and feeble in their art, saw the setting of the
+Cromagnon sun and the passing of their kind into the
+darkness. Many changes came about in Cromagnon
+industries, due to the influences of trade invasions
+and new inventions, but in their art these people
+showed one continuous and sustained development.</p>
+
+<p>The impressive feature about Cromagnon art,
+especially in the Aurignacian period, is the absence
+of that period of infantilism and crudity almost always
+observed in the artistic development of primitive
+races. The Cromagnon first reveals his artistic
+effort in a state of sturdy youth. His art passed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span>directly into a relatively mature stage. Its treasures
+preserved in the art galleries of the ancient caves,
+comprising remarkable drawings, sculptures, and
+paintings, fully warrant the title of “Palæolithic
+Greeks” conferred upon the Cromagnon. Indeed, they
+resemble the Greek and Egyptian artists in many
+ways. Like them, the Cromagnon resorted to painting
+his reliefs whether they were of the bison, the horse,
+the deer, or the great mammoths. The relative simplicity
+of his technical skill depended upon the employment
+of fewest possible lines and boldest of
+strokes. To his accuracy of reproduction and his simplicity
+of style he imparted a third great quality.
+This added artistic element, which has made his art
+live in a class well up to the standards of later periods,
+was a feeling of motion, particularly of locomotion.
+With this he vividly endowed the animals carved
+upon the walls of his cavern, upon bone or ivory.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Motives_of_Cromagnon_Art">
+  <i>Motives of Cromagnon Art</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is clear that the Cromagnons were cave dwellers
+like the Neanderthals, but they also depended largely
+upon the chase for their living. Why, then, did they
+in the dark recesses of their caverns resort to these
+remarkable artistic activities? These efforts could
+scarcely be meaningless diversions. They must have
+been more than pastimes, for hours not devoted to the
+hunt or combat. Such arduous pursuits as these
+surely had some serious and pertinent object in their
+lives. Many explanations have been offered for the
+remarkable outburst of artistic enthusiasm in Cromagnon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span>times. The one most generally accepted is
+that the art of these people was a part of their hunting
+magic. In the history of primitive races it has repeatedly
+occurred that drawing and design have a special
+significance in the actual maintenance of life. For example,
+the Australians draw pictures of animals they
+use for food. Sitting on the ground about these pictures,
+they perform certain ceremonies which they
+believe will insure a plentiful supply of the food they
+need. The American Indians are in the habit of carving
+images of animals. They also draw the signs
+representing rain. In the presence of these emblems
+they make incantations and believe that by this
+means they will secure abundant harvest and complete
+success in their hunting expeditions. Images
+and pictures act as a sort of magic talisman by means
+of which to exercise an influence over those animals
+which serve for food.</p>
+
+<p>But we do not need to go back into the pre-history
+of the Old Stone Age, or to the superstitions of people
+still in a primitive stage. Not so long ago the picture
+of a man was supposed to represent his spirit, and the
+possessor of such a picture could exert a magic power
+over his person. Only a few centuries ago learned
+judges condemned to death men and women on the
+evidence that they possessed images or pictures of
+people they were accused of bewitching. Until quite
+recently there were certain sorcerers and magicians
+in Sicily who for a price would destroy a hated enemy
+by the simple executionary method of sticking pins
+into a wax image of this undesirable person.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span></p>
+
+<p>It seems to require no further explanation to understand
+the pictorial efforts of the Australian natives
+and American Indians. Like them, the Cromagnons
+drew for the most part the animals which they employed
+for food. This may not in all respects be a satisfactory
+answer to the question: Why did man of the
+Old Stone Age resort to art? It is, however, a good
+working theory. It shows a real motive for his efforts
+in this direction. To his mind, all of his works of art
+assured him some peculiar magical control over the
+animal life that was necessary for his living and well-being.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Men_of_the_New_Stone_Age">
+  <i>Men of the New Stone Age</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The fate of the Cromagnon race was no exception
+to what had gone before or what would follow many
+times thereafter. Race after race, nation after nation,
+rose and became master, declined and passed into
+final extinction. As the day of Cromagnon ascendancy
+waned a new race invaded western Europe. The Old
+Stone Age came to its end approximately ten thousand
+years ago with the advent of the more vigorous
+Neolithic (New Stone Age) man. He developed a
+great innovation in manufacturing his implements,
+making his instruments better and more useful by
+polishing the stone. Neolithic man was far more practical
+and thoroughly utilitarian than his predecessors
+in the Old Stone Age. He introduced many
+economic advantages and substituted the benefits
+of applied science for the delusions of magic and sorcery.
+The man of the New Stone Age, unlike his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>Cromagnon predecessor, did not alone pray for his
+crops. He tilled the soil and planted seed. Perhaps he
+believed in a magic ritual for his hunting expeditions,
+but to make his food supply as secure as possible, he
+domesticated many animals that he liked to eat.
+He was unwilling to depend solely upon hunting
+magic and art sorcery. He had discovered the true
+magic of agriculture and sought to control nature by
+the toil of his hands rather than by mysterious incantations
+and pictorial art. As a farmer and a cattle
+raiser he required a permanent home, and in consequence
+the New Stone Age gave a fresh impulse to
+the upbuilding of man’s possessive sense. Neolithic
+man became a land holder, and this advance was a
+long, provocative step in the direction of modern
+humanity. Because of it man had to learn new ways
+and means of defending his claim and of asserting his
+right. Very quickly this new assertiveness led to the
+more sanguinary ages of Bronze and Iron with their
+effective equipments for offense and defense. Its
+influences finally reached historical times. Ultimately
+these more aggressive tendencies created all of the
+armed camps that we are pleased to call civilization,
+ancient, mediæval, and modern.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the New Stone Age all of the direct
+ancestors of modern European races were established
+in Europe. During the Bronze Age man rapidly
+learned those new capacities which enabled him to
+make a permanent record of himself, and thus he
+entered upon his real historic period. Some authorities
+set the beginning of this period only so far back as
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span>the beginning of the Egyptian calendar. In round
+numbers this is five or six thousand years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The dawn of history was followed by a procession
+of great events which began in the early Egyptian
+dynasties. The development of Pharaonic art and
+culture, the regal splendours of Babylonia and Chaldea,
+the incomparable achievements of Greece and
+Rome, followed in rapid succession. Each of these
+civilizations in its turn contributed to the development
+of the race. Then came the long eclipse of the
+Dark Ages in mediæval times, and at length the
+brilliant light of the Renaissance, the illuminating
+influences of which have been carried forward in that
+steady progress of material accomplishments characteristic
+of modern times.</p>
+
+<p>A brief review of man’s progress in his prehistoric
+existence shows the following races in his advancement,
+known by fossil remains:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<ol>
+<li>Ape man of Java (<i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i>). Professor Osborn
+prefers to consider him the Dawn man of Trinil.
+Probable antiquity about one million years. Probably
+employed crude stone implements and was a nomadic
+hunter. Had a poorly developed human brain; nothing
+known of his cultural development. Chief contributions
+to human progress: human frontal lobe, human speech,
+and a complete erect posture.</li>
+
+<li>Dawn man of Piltdown, England (<i>Eoanthropus dawsoni</i>).
+Antiquity over a million years, probably employed crude
+instruments known as eoliths and thus belonged to the
+Dawn Stone Age. Had a fairly well-developed human
+brain. Was a migrant hunter. Nothing known concerning
+his cultural development. Chief contribution to human
+progress: further development of the brain.</li>
+
+<li>Heidelberg man of Germany (<i>Paleoanthropus</i>). Antiquity
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>about 800,000 years. Fairly well-developed human brain
+and frontal lobe. Probably employed crude stone implements.
+Little known of his cultural phases. Chief contribution
+to human progress: first man of the Old Stone Age
+and probable progenitor of the Neanderthal race.</li>
+
+<li>Neanderthal man (<i>Homo primogenius</i>). Probable antiquity
+600,000 years. A well-developed human brain and frontal
+lobe. Made and improved many flint implements. Hunter
+and cave dweller. Had definite cultural periods known as
+the Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian. Chief contributions
+to human progress: established idea of permanent
+abode, became dominant over other animals of the earth,
+introduced human burial, laid the foundations of religion.
+Founder of human assertiveness and supremacy.</li>
+
+<li>Cromagnon man (<i>Homo sapiens</i>). Probable antiquity 50,000
+years. Well-developed human brain and frontal lobe of
+modern type. Hunter and artist, employed somewhat
+refined flint implements of the Old Stone Age. Had definite
+cultural periods known as the Aurignacian, Solutrean,
+Magdalenian, and Azilian. Chief contribution to human
+progress: the conqueror of Neanderthal man; the world’s
+first great artist. The founder and introducer of art.</li>
+
+<li>Neolithic man (<i>Homo sapiens</i>). Probable antiquity 10,000
+years. Human brain and frontal lobe of modern type.
+Employed polished flint implements of a highly developed
+kind. Was a hunter, herdsman, and farmer. Chief contributions
+to human progress: introduction of agriculture,
+culinary art, domestication of animals; also establishment
+of more permanent abode.</li>
+
+<li>Bronze and Iron Age men (<i>Homo sapiens</i>). Probable antiquity
+7,000 years. Human brain and frontal lobe of modern
+type. Used implements made of bronze and iron. Chief
+contribution to human progress: introduction of the metals
+for human utility.</li>
+</ol>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In addition to these prehistoric races of men, certain
+other early members of our family have been
+recognized in the latter part of the Pliocene and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span>early part of the Pleistocene. These races include the
+Subcrag and the Foxhall Dawn men who appear to
+have employed the rostro-carinate flints. Still another
+race was the Cromerians, who made and used the
+giant flints found embedded in the cliffs of Cromer.</p>
+
+<p>Prehistoric man is thus gradually emerging from
+his long obscurity. His skeletal form is known from
+more than 350 specimens of his fossil remains. In
+Java, in central Asia, in Rhodesia, central Africa, in
+Gibraltar, in the Island of Jersey, in France, in
+Germany, in England, in Austria, and in Galilee,
+Palestine, these remains have been found.</p>
+
+<p>All phases of man’s early existence are important
+to our modern thought and development. As the
+curtain of the past is lifted to reveal the long, prehistoric
+vista of human existence, it is possible to sense
+the vast distance that man has come since his journey
+began. It is also possible to see how he has made his
+way and why he has progressed. From its earliest appearance
+on earth the race has grown in humanity
+as the brain expanded. In man’s first struggles brain
+power endowed him with a capacity to develop and
+to hand down certain cultural activities. The earliest
+instruments that he fashioned gave rise to an uninterrupted
+stream of human achievements which has
+passed on as the main current of culture and knowledge.
+It was this capacity for progressive and racial
+learning that distinguished the human brain. Estimated
+by his accomplishments, it seems necessary to
+assume the existence in man of some special power
+different from all other living creatures. This distinguishing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span>endowment is variously called the soul, the
+psyche, the spirit of man, or human genius. Its name
+may be immaterial, but its source is the secret of our
+supremacy. If we acquired this power as the divine
+gift of a creative miracle, that is one thing. If we
+earned it through a long and tedious process of evolution,
+that is even a more promising and an altogether
+different thing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">
+    CHAPTER IV
+    <br>
+    EDEN OR EVOLUTION
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">GENESIS AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3 id="Early_Beliefs_in_Creation"><i>Early Beliefs in Creation</i></h3>
+
+<p>Although we may entirely reject the evidence of
+man’s presence on earth long before the dawn of history,
+even so there still remains a perplexing question
+that must be answered. What was man’s origin?
+It is surprising how many people have attempted to
+solve this troublesome problem. It seems to be one
+of the first questions that primitive man tried to
+answer for himself when he began his earliest speculations.
+He was naturally anxious to know who made
+the land and the water and the sky and all that is in
+them. He was especially interested, when he thought
+about such things, in deciding how he came to be
+what he was himself. And so, from earliest times, beliefs
+concerning the beginning of things have sprung
+up all over the world. They constitute a mass of
+speculation, which is called cosmogony (beliefs or
+theories about the creation of the universe). Only a
+few races or tribes of mankind have failed to indulge
+in speculations leading to such beliefs. Appearing as
+they do in the infancy or early life of a race, these
+beliefs must be the fruit of the primitive human mind.
+In peoples who have failed to progress and have always
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span>remained primitive, such beliefs, like many
+other traits and customs, continue for generations
+almost unchanged. Sometimes they become an important
+part of the religion of the race. If they are
+looked upon less seriously they form themes for folklore.</p>
+
+<p>This searching question about man’s origin has
+always been present and is, in fact, still with us. In
+times gone by, when man was primitive, or at least
+more primitive than he is to-day, he tried to answer
+the question as best he could. He was hampered by
+lack of facts because his knowledge and understanding
+of his own surroundings were limited. His racial
+experience in the world had yet been too brief for
+him to do more than see the great generalities of
+nature. At best he could merely surmise the truth
+of the universe. He had neither the training, the
+methods, nor the instruments necessary to disclose
+the intimate details upon which reasonable theories
+might be based. Being so largely destitute of facts, he
+relied upon intuition or drew heavily upon his imagination.
+It is a matter of wonder that his beliefs often
+took such noble form.</p>
+
+<p>Not infrequently a common central theme runs
+through the beliefs of primitive people, even though
+they may belong to different races and are separated
+from each other by long distances. Such, for example,
+is the belief in the manlike appearance of the Supreme
+Being held by the Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and
+many other ancient civilizations. Early ideas concerning
+<i>creation</i> illustrate this common or central theme
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span>still more vividly. Doubtless the conception of creation
+has its supreme expression in the opening chapters
+of Genesis in the Hebrew Testament. But other
+primitive people had exactly the same ideas about
+creation and the origin of man. This way of solving
+the problem must have been one of the inherent
+tendencies of the human mind in its earliest beginnings.
+Isolated peoples in far-distant parts of the
+earth could not have shared such similar ideas as a
+result of racial contacts or propinquity. Time and
+distance set them widely apart. The similarity might
+be ascribed to traditions handed down from a common
+stock. In any event, an identical theme runs
+through the creation story of many different peoples.
+The most effective record of this theme is given in
+Genesis, especially in the first chapter, the King
+James version of which is accepted by many as the
+highest literary mark ever set by the English language.
+It is of particular interest for us to follow the
+sequence of events in this incomparable chapter which
+depicts creation with such grandeur that it may well
+be called inspired.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Early_Accounts_of_Creation">
+  <i>Early Accounts of Creation</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>According to this record, creation proceeded as a
+succession of separate miracles. First came the miracle
+creating heaven and earth, then the creation of
+light, of the firmament, of the earth set apart from
+the waters, of vegetation upon the earth, of the sun,
+moon, and stars, of fish and fowl, of beasts and cattle
+and all creeping things, of man and woman together
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>in the image and likeness of the Creator. The second
+chapter of Genesis repeats the story of creation, but
+this time in a minor key, with certain striking differences
+and discrepancies. The grandeur of the original
+description and its sublime intuition are missing. The
+master mind which conceived it has obviously been
+replaced by one at once much more naïve and manifesting
+a thoroughly parochial interest in the affairs
+and frailties of humankind. This second narration
+largely reverses the original order given to creation.
+By it man is created before all other animals and
+woman last of all. This account produces man from the
+dust of the ground, into which the Creator breathes
+the breath of life and gives him a living soul, while
+the rib taken from man is used to create woman. The
+discrepancies in the two accounts are obvious at
+once. To explain them the second chapter is attributed
+to a very early writer (Jehovistic document). The
+first chapter is ascribed to a much later writing
+(Priestly document) made during the Hebrew captivity
+in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Earlier than this Biblical record was the Babylonian
+idea of creation. These people also conceived that
+man was molded out of clay. According to the Babylonian
+version of creation, the god Bel cut off his own
+head, and the other gods, catching the flowing blood,
+mixed it with the dust of the earth, and from this
+bloody paste molded the forms of men. The Babylonians
+believed that men were wise because their
+mortal clay was thus tempered with divine blood.
+According to the Egyptians, the father of the gods
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span>molded men out of clay on his potter’s wheel. A Greek
+explanation of man’s origin contains the same idea,
+in that Prometheus is said to have molded the first
+men out of clay at Panopeus in Phocis. These naïve
+conceptions about the origin of mankind, common to
+the Hebrew, the Babylonian, the Egyptian, and the
+Greek, were doubtless handed down to these ancient
+civilized people by their savage or barbarous forefathers.
+Legends of creation of exactly this kind are
+current among savages and barbarians of the present
+day. It is particularly interesting to note the different
+forms in which this story has made its appearance in
+many distant places of the earth.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Creation_Beliefs_of_Barbarous_People">
+  <i>Creation Beliefs of Barbarous People</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The Australian blacks, near Melbourne, held that
+the Creator cut large sheets of bark with his big knife.
+He placed on one of these a mass of clay and prepared
+it with his knife until it had the proper consistency.
+Then he set a portion of the clay on another piece of
+bark and fashioned it in human form, making first
+the legs and then the trunk and arms and finally the
+head. Having finished his molding, he took stringy
+bark from the eucalyptus tree, made hair of it, and
+attached it to the heads of his models. When all was
+finished he blew his breath into the mouths and noses
+and navels of these clay men until they rose and
+spoke as full-grown human beings.</p>
+
+<p>In New Zealand the Maoris believed that a certain
+god took red riverside clay, kneaded it with his own
+blood into a likeness of himself, with eyes, legs, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span>arms exactly similar to his own. When this model
+was finished he breathed into it the breath of life
+through its mouth and nostrils, with the result that
+the clay man at once came to life and sneezed.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Tahiti there is a tradition that the first
+man and woman were made by the chief god, who
+created them out of red earth. In Netherland Island,
+one of the Ellice Islands, a great deity is supposed
+to have made models of man and woman out of the
+earth and brought them to life by lifting them up.
+Similar in general conception is the tradition of creation
+among the Pelew Islanders who believe that
+certain of their deities made man and woman out of
+clay by kneading it with the blood of various animals.
+This feature is a new detail and somewhat of a
+departure from the general story. It shows, moreover,
+the interest which these primitive people had in explaining
+the different behaviour of their fellow men.
+Thus they believed that the characters of these first
+men as well as their descendants were due to the
+characteristic traits of the animal whose blood was
+mingled with the clay. Men, for instance, who had
+rats’ blood in their clay were thieves. Those who had
+serpents’ blood were sneaks and informers. Those
+who were vitalized by cocks’ blood were brave and
+daring.</p>
+
+<p>According to a Melanesian legend in one of the
+Banks Islands, the great hero Qat molded men from
+red clay taken from the marshy riverside. At first
+he made men and pigs to appear alike, but subsequently
+he forced the pigs to go upon all fours and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span>caused men to walk upright. This distinction indicates
+man’s early recognition of the subtle meanings
+of the erect posture. Qat also constructed a female out
+of flexible twigs. Finally she smiled at him, and by
+this unfailing sign of feminine allurement he immediately
+recognized her as the first woman.</p>
+
+<p>Inhabitants of the Kei Islands believe that their
+ancestors were fashioned out of clay by the supreme
+god who breathed the breath of life into the clay
+models. The Dyaks of British Borneo claim that the
+first man was made by two birds. After several failures
+in attempting to hew him out of rock they at
+length molded him out of damp clay and infused into
+his veins the red gum of the Kumpang tree. When
+they called him he answered, and they gave him a
+name which in the Dyak tongue means “molded
+earth.”</p>
+
+<p>In India also the same kind of legend explains
+man’s origin. The Kumis who inhabit the hill tracts
+in eastern India believe that a powerful god made the
+world and the trees and the creeping things first.
+After this he made a man and a woman, shaping
+their bodies from clay. When he had finished his work
+a great snake came while the god was sleeping and
+devoured the two images. This occurred several times,
+so that the deity was much perplexed. Feeling that
+after his day’s work he needed a good night’s sleep,
+it was impossible for him to sit up to protect his handiwork.
+At length he conceived the plan of making a
+dog out of clay before he created his next models of
+man and woman. This device solved the problem in a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span>satisfactory manner. The god was now able to sleep
+in peace after his hard work of modelling human
+beings, since the dog, watching over them, would
+bark and frighten away the destructive serpent. To
+this day the Kumis believe this is the reason why dogs
+howl when a man is dying.</p>
+
+<p>Africa has similar legends about the creation of
+mankind. Many of the natives on the White Nile
+believe that men were modelled out of clay. They
+even go so far as to explain the different complexions
+of various races by the differently coloured clay out of
+which they are molded. Their great creator, wandering
+about the world, found pure white earth or sand
+and from this he fashioned the white man. Returning
+to Egypt he molded red and brown men from the
+mud of the Nile. Finally, coming upon black earth
+far in the depths of Africa, he created black men.</p>
+
+<p>The story of man’s creation out of clay also occurs
+in America among the Eskimos and the Indians from
+Alaska to Paraguay. Many of the Eskimos have
+the belief that a certain spirit made a man of clay.
+Then having set him upon the shore to dry he
+breathed into him and gave him life. Certain Indians
+of California conceive of an all-powerful being who
+created man out of a deposit of clay which he found
+on the shores of a lake. From this clay he made both
+male and female, and the Indians of the present day
+are descended from this original clay man and woman.</p>
+
+<p>The Mayas in Central America believe that their
+gods first made men out of clay, but that these clay
+models lacked vitality because they were dissolved
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>by water. Then the gods created man out of the wood
+of one tree and the woman from the sap of another.
+Unfortunately these human beings could neither
+move nor propagate their kind, and for this reason
+the gods caused a shower of pitch to produce a flood,
+which destroyed this wooden race. A few of them
+survived, however, and from them are descended the
+small monkeys. The Maya gods at last created four
+perfect men out of yellow and white maize, and, wishing
+to confer the greatest boon, while these four perfect
+beings slept, four women were created for them.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Primitive_Ideas_Foreshadowing_Evolution">
+  <i>Primitive Ideas Foreshadowing Evolution</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is interesting also to find that all savage people
+did not believe in the legend that ascribed the origin
+of man to clay models or to effigies made by some
+supreme being. Many primitive races appear to have
+preferred the theory of evolution to this other idea
+of creation. In any event, even if they did not fully
+recognize the nature of their belief, their idea was
+that man evolved from some lower form of animal
+life. The particular form of animal from which this
+evolution started varied considerably with the local
+colour, with the character and with the opportunities
+of different people.</p>
+
+<p>Some California Indians believe that they are
+descended from coyotes. In their early stages of
+evolution all members of their tribe walked on all
+fours. Slowly they acquired some of the features of
+human beings, one toe or one finger at a time. Then
+came an eye or an ear, until at length these animals
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span>grew to be perfect human beings by losing their tails.
+This loss, which was regarded as deplorable, came
+from the habit of sitting upright.</p>
+
+<p>The Iroquois, belonging to one important clan,
+hold that they are the descendants of mud turtles
+that formerly inhabited a certain large pool in their
+territories. The Choctaw Indians believe that they
+were descended from crayfish, while throughout the
+Osage Indians it is generally understood that their
+ancestors were a male snail and a female beaver. A
+great flood carried the snail down the Missouri River,
+leaving him upon a bank, where the sun ripened him
+into a man. In time he met and married a beaver
+maid, and these two were the ancestors of the Osages.
+The Delaware Indians call the rattlesnake their
+grandfather and would on no account destroy one of
+these serpents.</p>
+
+<p>Certain Indians of Peru claim to be descended
+from the puma or American lion, and this animal is
+worshipped as their god. Some natives of East Africa
+look upon the hyena as one of their ancestors. The
+death of this animal is mourned by the whole people
+with great funereal ceremony. On the Gold Coast of
+West Africa certain tribes believe that they were
+descended from the horse mackerel.</p>
+
+<p>Natives of Borneo think that the first man and
+woman were born from a tree which had become
+fertilized by a creeping vine that waved to and fro
+in the wind. Some of the primitive inhabitants in the
+northeastern extremity of Celebes believe that they
+are descended from apes and that the parent stock
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span>of these animals still inhabits the woods. The aborigines
+of western Australia considered that their ancestors
+were swans, ducks, or various other kinds of
+water birds, which were later transformed into men.</p>
+
+<p>All of these illustrations of the creation idea among
+primitive people show that man has held at least two
+widely different views about his own origin. One of
+these is the idea of separate miraculous creation; the
+other corresponds to or foreshadows the theory of
+evolution. In accordance with the view of separate
+creation, a god or a tribal hero was the great creator
+who fashioned the first members of the race in their
+present form. According to the other view, man
+was evolved from lower forms of animals, or even
+from vegetable life. These two viewpoints of man’s
+origin still divide the peoples of the world. It is probably
+true, as Sir James Frazer has said, that “by
+weighing one consensus against the other, with
+Genesis in the one scale and the Origin of Species in
+the other, it might be found, when the scales were
+finally trimmed, that the balance hung even between
+creation and evolution.”</p>
+
+<p>The development of the evolutionary theory among
+civilized people has a long history. This theory has
+already passed through many interesting phases.
+Doubtless other equally interesting phases lie before
+it. At present there are many who still believe that
+Darwin was the originator of the evolutionary idea.
+This belief is in no sense true. The origin of the doctrine
+long antedates Darwin’s time. It may be traced
+back to the age when the human race first began to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span>think clearly. Like many other things of high cultural
+value, it had its earliest recognizable beginnings
+in the Greek period—in those days when man sought
+to gain an intelligent understanding of himself and
+the world in which he lived.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Growth_of_the_Evolutionary_Theory">
+  <i>Growth of the Evolutionary Theory</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The basic conception of evolution is as old as
+Empedocles (450 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>). Aristotle (384-322 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>)
+was the originator of the theory of animal descent,
+which he formulated with remarkable clearness. A
+strong inhibiting influence fell upon this conception
+of life as a result of mediæval scholasticism. This
+influence restrained further developments until the
+subject was again reopened in the Eighteenth Century.
+The works of Leibnitz and Buffon (1707-1788)
+reawakened interest in this problem. Modern constructive
+efforts to formulate the theory of evolution
+did not begin, however, until the early Nineteenth
+Century. By a strange coincidence, the real founding
+of this theory occurred in the year of Darwin’s birth,
+1809. Up to this time, with few exceptions, it was
+thought that man’s body was the result of special
+creation. Some savage people, as we have seen, have
+believed that man was derived from lower animals.
+But this belief was only a fantastic forerunner of the
+evolutionary concept. The birthplace of the theory
+was in Paris. It may appear strange that such a doctrine
+did not originate in the great schools of learning,
+and that it first saw the light in the quiet, out-of-the-way
+location of the Museum of Natural History. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span>names of three scientific immortals are associated
+with this revolutionary conception of the animal
+kingdom. All three of these distinguished men lived
+at the same time, worked together at the same place,
+and together profoundly influenced our modern
+views of man’s place in nature.</p>
+
+<p>The most noted of this famous trio in his own day
+was Cuvier (1769-1832). He was a professor of comparative
+anatomy and though only forty years of
+age was accumulating the material for his epoch-making
+work, <i>Ossements Fossiles</i>. This work was to
+show conclusively that the great ages of time, filled
+with multitudes of strange, extinct animals, had
+passed over the earth before the dawn of our modern
+era. Cuvier believed that each group of these extinct
+animals represented a series of separate creations. It
+was doubtless his energetic and brilliant insistence
+upon this point that denied to the French nation the
+first place of distinction in advancing the theory of
+evolution. Although he held vigorously to the old
+creative interpretation of life, Cuvier was in a sense
+an unconscious promoter of the evolutionary idea.
+His recognition of a succession of epochs in the earth’s
+history and in the animal inhabitants of the globe
+was an important step toward the modern theory.
+Besides this, his keen powers of observation had enabled
+him to discern one of the chief principles underlying
+evolution. This principle is known as the law
+of “correlation of parts.” In consequence of this law
+there is a definite relation of one part of the body to
+another, as well as a combination of these parts in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span>habits of the animal. Thus, horns belong with hoofs,
+and hoofs are associated with complicated grinding
+teeth, which latter in their turn are possessed by
+animals having complex stomachs and feeding on
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>The second great pioneer in the discovery of life’s
+true origin was somewhat younger than Cuvier. This
+was Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. He was intent upon seeking
+the common plan upon which all animals with
+backbones were built. In this way he was laying the
+foundations of that broad conception of life which
+holds that all living things have a common descent.</p>
+
+<p>The third of these great French contemporaries
+was more obscure than either of his associates in the
+Museum. In his own period the public heard and
+knew little of him. He was a retiring person, but an
+indefatigable student. As time passes it is he who
+stands as the towering figure of this famous trio. In
+1809, when he was already sixty-five years of age, he
+made his remarkable contribution to knowledge.
+His careful studies of nearly fifty years were then
+published in two small volumes entitled <i>Philosophie
+Zoologique</i>. This was a milestone in human progress.
+In consequence of this work alone the name of Jean
+Baptiste Pierre Lamarck will stand as one of the most
+eminent figures of science. From his long and laborious
+researches he had reached the conclusion that all
+living creatures were the outgrowth of a common
+tree of life. In this treatise of his there appears the
+first clear declaration that man has been evolved
+from some anthropoid ancestor like the chimpanzee,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span>and that man’s erect posture has been derived from
+one which was ape-like.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Lamarckian_and_Darwinian_Theories">
+  <i>The Lamarckian and Darwinian Theories</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The Lamarckian theory of evolution holds that
+progress takes place by the imperceptible transformation
+of one species into another through the efforts
+of the organism to adapt itself to new conditions. It
+also maintains that, by inheritance, the changes thus
+produced are handed on from one generation to the
+next. These changes may be slight, almost insensible
+variations produced by the use or disuse of certain
+parts and organs. Through their accumulated effects
+they are capable of transforming one species into
+another. The following quotation from Lamarck’s
+<i>Philosophie Zoologique</i> (Vol. 1, p. 349) furnishes some
+of the more important details in the concept by which
+he explains the evolution of man:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Indeed, if any race of primates (quadrumanes) whatsoever,
+particularly the more highly evolved of them, were to lose,
+either from force of circumstances or any other cause, the
+aptitude for tree climbing and of grasping the branches with
+their feet, as with their hands, for security of grip, and if the
+individuals of this race, for a series of generations, be obliged
+to use their feet only in walking, and cease using their hands as
+feet; then there is no doubt, from the evidence produced in the
+foregoing chapters, that these apes would finally be transformed
+into man (bimanes) and that the great toe would no longer be
+separated from the other toes like a thumb, the feet merely
+serving the purposes of progression.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Despite the fact that Lamarck was a pioneer he
+did not, in so far as the evolution of man is concerned,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span>induce a single anatomist of his own time or of a succeeding
+generation to follow in his footsteps. In this
+respect his great work remained strangely ineffective.
+The more persuasive introduction of the evolutionary
+theory was made by an illustrious English naturalist,
+Charles Darwin. After a somewhat mediocre university
+career, for which he received the degree of Bachelor
+of Arts, Darwin devoted himself to the natural
+sciences. In his early manhood he spent five years on
+the famous barque <i>Beagle</i> in which he made a trip
+around the globe. Twenty-three years later (1859) he
+published his renowned <i>Origin of Species</i>, which
+proved to be one of the most revolutionary books ever
+written. In an educational sense, Darwin was far
+more fortunate than Lamarck. Almost at once he
+obtained the ear of the public and started the theory
+of evolution on its strenuous course around the world.
+Twelve years later (1871) he published his second
+monumental book, <i>The Descent of Man</i>, which proved
+to be the most telling step in our modern knowledge
+of man’s evolution. These two great books set forth
+the Darwinian theory. Like Lamarck, Darwin believed
+that progress from lower to higher forms of
+animal life took place as a result of insensible variations.
+These variations were due to what Darwin and
+one of his contemporaries, Alfred Russell Wallace,
+called natural selection. This factor was the prime and
+sufficient cause of evolution. Through its operations
+new species arose by the selective action of external
+conditions upon individual variations. Natural selection,
+as a law, implies the effects of those forces which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span>separate living creatures into two groups—those
+which survive and those which, being ill equipped
+to make the struggle for existence, perish. The selective
+effects of external conditions on an organism
+or its parts operate in such a way that individual
+variations or peculiarities of advantage are perpetuated
+in the race and thus give rise to the survival of
+the fittest. Darwin in his <i>Descent of Man</i> makes clear
+his opinion of the manner in which natural selection
+has operated in human evolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>As soon as some ancient member (elsewhere defined as some
+species of anthropoid like the chimpanzee) in the great series
+of the primates came to be less arboreal, owing to a change in
+its manner of procuring subsistence, or to a change in the surrounding
+conditions, its habitual manner of progression would
+have been modified and thus it would be rendered more strictly
+quadrupedal or bipedal.... Man alone has become a biped and
+we can, I think, partly see how he has come to assume his erect
+attitude which forms one of his most conspicuous characters....
+As the progenitors of man became more and more erect and their
+hands and arms more and more modified for prehension and
+other purposes, with their feet and legs at the same time transformed
+for firm support and progression, endless other changes
+in structure would have become necessary. The pelvis would
+have to be broadened, the spine peculiarly curved, and the head
+fixed in an altered position, all which changes have been attained
+by man. It is very difficult to decide how far these modifications
+are the result of <i>natural selection</i> and how far of the
+<i>inherited effects</i> of the increased use of certain parts or of the
+action of one part on another. No doubt these means often
+coöperate.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Comparing the explanations given by Lamarck
+and by Darwin it is clear at once that they have much
+in common. Both suppose that man was evolved from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span>a chimpanzee-like anthropoid. Both agree that the
+transformation had been initiated by a change from
+an arboreal to a terrestrial mode of existence. Both
+believe that the results of habit or of function acquired
+by one generation may be inherited by the
+next generation. Darwin made certain important
+additions to this theory. He applied the law of natural
+selection—the tendency of successful individuals to
+survive and prosper. He also recognized the effects of
+sexual tendencies and perceived that there was a law
+of correlation of parts. By this latter mechanism a
+number of structures were modified at the same time
+to suit some particular function of the body.</p>
+
+<p>Since Darwin’s time, although the general principle
+involved in the theory of evolution has been accepted
+by scientists everywhere, there has been much discussion
+concerning specific details of the evolutionary
+process. Simultaneously with the conviction that
+evolution was a fact in the animal life there arose an
+eager desire to discover its underlying causes. Many
+students of the problem have arrived at independent
+explanations of their own. To some the theory of
+Lamarck has been considered satisfactory; to others
+Darwin’s interpretation is most convincing. Such
+differences of opinion as do exist among those who
+have seriously pursued this matter centre primarily
+upon the causes of evolution. For this reason a number
+of different theories are recognized to-day. It is
+probable that these theories do not represent all of the
+differing shades of opinion concerning this subject at
+present. They may be said, however, to express the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span>high points of difference. Their chief interest lies
+in the fact that they indicate the degree of energy and
+determination devoted to the solution of this problem.
+Recent students of the Darwinian theory have modified
+and extended it in such a way as to make the law
+of natural selection entirely sufficient to explain
+evolution. Such students, with Weismann the most
+prominent among them, deny the inheritance of
+acquired characters. This view is known as the neo-Darwinian
+theory.</p>
+
+<p>Lamarck’s original conception was also modified
+and became the basis of the neo-Lamarckian theory.
+This view recognized all of Lamarck’s ideas, including
+insensible variation, use and disuse of parts, and
+hereditary transmission. But it added to these causative
+factors certain influences of consciousness and
+the will, thus introducing an internal and psychological
+principle in the evolutionary process. In
+America this newer view of Lamarck’s conception
+has been vigorously upheld by many naturalists
+(Cope and Hyatt) who attempted to explain evolution
+according to the fundamental laws of growth
+plus the inherited effects of use and disuse.</p>
+
+<p>Explanations such as these seem to lose sight of
+many influences acting upon animal life from without
+and along certain determinate lines. These influences
+were highly specific in their character and embraced
+definite chemical and physical factors. Their effects
+were concentrated upon limited organic areas, such,
+for example, as the eye, but they spread to correlated
+organs like the brain, the muscles, and the bones, all
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span>of which are functionally continuous with the visual
+apparatus of vertebrates. Such a spread of modifying
+influences from a determinate focus like the eye
+throughout the entire body caused a widespread
+tendency to variation and thus afforded the opportunity
+for progressive development. This explanation
+is known as the Orthogenetic Theory (Eimer, 1897).</p>
+
+<p>Still more recently the pendulum has swung away
+from this extremely materialistic viewpoint in what is
+called the Creative Theory of Evolution (Henri
+Bergson, 1907). According to this explanation the
+variations that bring about evolution from lower to
+higher forms of life require some good genius to preserve
+and collect the effects in the interest of progress.
+This presiding genius working from within is the
+original impetus of life, the <i>élan vitale</i>, or vital impetus
+(entelechy), which like some internal perfecting
+agency passes from one generation of germs to the
+next and through the developed organism bridges
+the interval between generations.</p>
+
+<p>Philosophy, with its conception of an internal
+creative power common to all life and biology, pinning
+its faith to physicochemical factors, have vied with
+each other in bringing to light the causes of evolution.
+Among the latest explanations is the Energy Theory
+(Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1918). This interpretation
+holds that the life of every animal is due to the action,
+reaction, and interaction of four types of energy. The
+first type arises from chemical elements and compounds
+surrounding the animal (inorganic environment).
+The second is the energy derived from the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span>body substance of the developing organism (protoplasm
+and body chromatin, the chief substance in the
+nucleus of body cells). The third source of energy is
+from the sex cells, especially those parts of them
+which contain the hereditary elements (hereditary
+chromatin). The fourth type of energy comes from
+the living matter surrounding the animal (life environment).
+Selection and adaptation are constantly
+at work upon the reactions of these four types of
+energy. Divergence in the form of different animals
+depends upon adaptations to special conditions of
+life as seen, for example, in the whales and the meat-eaters.
+Altogether there are twelve major environments
+for living, like the plain, the forest, the air, the
+sea, which require special adaptations. All life has
+tended to radiate out into such habitat zones, and
+the four types of energy represented by each living
+creature have been adjusted to a particular environment.
+This spreading out of life into many different
+zones of existence is a recognized principle in natural
+selection (law of adaptive radiation. Osborn).</p>
+
+<p>The most recent interpretation is that offered by
+the Emergent Theory of Evolution (C. Lloyd Morgan,
+1928). Evolution, according to this explanation, is
+the name given to the plan of sequence in all natural
+events. Orderly sequence presents from time to time
+something genuinely new. In the physical world
+emergence is exemplified by the advent of each new
+kind of atom, each new kind of molecule, each new
+form of life. Emergence is not the mere addition to
+or subtraction from existing properties. It is the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span>appearance of something new and unpredictable from
+the combination of properties already in existence.
+A true emergence of this kind is produced by the
+combination of carbon and sulphur out of which the
+gaseous carbon bisulphide arises. This gas is totally
+different from either sulphur or carbon, its two combining
+ingredients. It is something genuinely new and
+hence an emergent. This principle affects all spheres
+of life in such a manner that it is possible for new characters,
+new structures, new activities to appear as
+emergents from preëxisting elements. Variations and
+progressive development may be thus explained as the
+result of orderly sequence.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the differences in opinion among scientists
+concerning the evolutionary process, there is an
+almost unanimous agreement with regard to the
+correctness of the general theory of evolution and the
+principle underlying it. To attempt a critical estimation
+of these several theories would be futile and
+far removed from our present purpose. Doubtless
+each one of them contains some portion of the truth.
+It is, however, their large number that is of striking
+significance, inasmuch as these theories indicate a
+widespread, profound, and growing interest concerning
+evolution among intelligent people. Whatever
+their minor differences, such theories demonstrate a
+determined effort in the search for truth and manifest
+tendencies in thinking which cannot fail eventually
+to reshape the intellectual outlook of mankind.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">
+    CHAPTER V
+    <br>
+    BIRTHPLACE AND EARLY BEGINNINGS OF MAN
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">INFLUENCES OF FOREST AND PLAIN ON
+    BRAIN DEVELOPMENT</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The place of man’s origin is a matter of little significance
+if he came into being by a creative miracle. Any
+one of a hundred natal sites, chosen for reasons of
+local pride or racial prestige, might have served the
+purpose. Eden undoubtedly was most colourful, but
+otherwise it had no exceptional advantages. Once
+created and upon his feet, man had the world before
+him to conquer and possess. Such was the beginning
+and end of his story.</p>
+
+<p>If, on the other hand, the human race came through
+evolution from lower forms of animals, then man’s
+homeland is of utmost significance. It must have
+exercised a strong influence not only upon his origin
+but also upon all his life and progressive development.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Africa_Europe_or_Asia">
+  <i>Africa, Europe, or Asia</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Some students of this subject have regarded Africa
+as the most likely birthplace of man. According to
+this view the human form first appeared as certain
+Nilotic negroes. From this homeland man spread
+throughout the world. On the other hand, the accumulating
+fossil evidence of man’s existence seems
+to be strongly in favour of western Europe as a centre
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span>of human dispersal. Professor Osborn points out that
+between the years 1823 and 1925 there were discovered
+in this part of the world alone no less than
+116 individuals belonging to the Old Stone Age or to
+the Dawn Stone Age. Two of these were members of
+the Piltdown race. Fossils of forty other individuals
+belong to the Neanderthal race. Seventy-four are
+accredited to the Cromagnon and other races that
+lived in late Stone Age times. Remains of 236 individuals
+belonging to races that lived between the end
+of the Old Stone Age and the beginning of the New
+Stone Age were also found. These fossil men, in all
+352 individuals, have been discovered within the last
+hundred years. During the same period, a little more
+than a century, only one human fossil has been found
+in the entire continent of Asia, one in the Holy Land,
+and two in Africa. Such a great preponderance in
+numbers clearly favours Europe as the home of primitive
+man. Africa, Asia, and those parts of Oceania
+formerly connected with the Asiatic continent, have
+borne no such abundant evidence of man’s early
+presence. Both the northern and southern continents
+of the New World have revealed nothing as yet that
+may be accepted as representing man in his early prehistoric
+period. This survey of the globe seems to
+limit the first appearance of man to European regions.
+In this connection it should be borne in mind that the
+various countries of Europe have been carefully explored
+in the search for early human fossils, while in
+other parts of the world the search is little more than
+just begun.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span></p>
+
+<p>Northern Asia has also been regarded as likely to
+contain the site of man’s birthplace. This has been
+the view of certain French authorities who consider
+the Eskimos as the most ancient northerly race of
+mankind. From this homeland there was a progressive
+southward migration of primitive tribes under
+the influence of the severe conditions imposed by
+northern glaciation. More recently attention is being
+directed to central Asia as the birthplace of man. This
+locality was suggested long ago by the great American
+scientist, Joseph Leidy, and this viewpoint has been
+supported by Professor Osborn. Dr. Matthews in
+considering the matter of climate and evolution discussed
+the origin and migratory history of man. He
+believes that Asia was the centre of dispersal for
+human migrations, which were among the last of great
+migratory movements of animals in the history of the
+world. It is his opinion that most scientists to-day
+would place this centre in or about the Great Plateau
+of central Asia. In this region, now barren and very
+sparsely inhabited, are probably the remains of civilizations
+more ancient than any yet recorded. Immediately
+around this region and lying upon its
+borders are the territories of the earliest civilizations
+known to man. Chaldea, Asia Minor, and Egypt lie
+to the west, India to the south, China to the east.
+From this central region came successive migrations,
+which overflowed into Europe during prehistoric,
+classical, and mediæval times. The history of India
+shows that similar invasions poured down upon it
+from the north. Toward the east, invasions in successive
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span>waves entered the Chinese Empire and North
+America by way of Alaska, spreading southward over
+the two continents of the New World.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Top_of_the_World">
+  <i>The Top of the World</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Since his recent visit to Mongolia, Professor Osborn
+is strengthened in his conviction that central Asia will
+prove the homeland not only of man but of all the
+greater forms of mammal life. Here, he believes, in the
+Gobi Desert, were the ideal surroundings for the early
+development of Dawn men who were the direct ancestors
+of the human race. His belief in this part of
+the world as the birthplace of man depends upon
+certain characters in the terrain which are essential to
+racial development, concerning which he reasons as
+follows: Man’s earliest existence was mainly in the
+open either along river bottoms and river drifts or on
+uplands and plateaus. Such a life developed the finest
+physical qualities of the race. The earliest man could
+not have been a forest-living animal. Such parts of
+the human race as lived in forested lands have either
+been exceedingly slow in their development or have
+gone backward. Thus, the South American Indians,
+living in the forests, are much behind those who live
+in the open. Of the latter, those who live in the uplands
+are further advanced than those who lived in
+the river drifts. An alert, progressive race cannot
+develop in a forest, and it would be impossible for such
+country to serve as the centre of human radiation.
+Higher types of men do not develop in a lowland
+river bottom country, because food is plentiful and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span>vegetation luxurious. It is upon the plateaus and the
+high uplands that life is most exacting and calls for
+exertions which are most beneficial for development.
+Mongolia was probably a region forested only in part,
+certainly not a country of dense forests. It was a most
+favourable upland country throughout the entire Age
+of Mammals. Here the conditions of life were apparently
+ideal, and since all other indications point to
+Asia as the place of man’s origin, Professor Osborn
+looks to Mongolia and Tibet, which he calls the top
+of the world, as the most favourable centre offered by
+nature for the birthplace of man. Here he has hopes of
+finding our remote human ancestors. He is, however,
+guarded in this view, which he feels must be treated
+merely as an opinion. It is not yet a theory, but is,
+however, an opinion sufficiently sound to warrant
+further extensive investigation. In consequence,
+several great Asiatic expeditions have been sent out
+by the American Museum of Natural History into
+the Gobi Desert. Under the leadership of Dr. Roy
+Chapman Andrews this exploration was undertaken
+in the search for fossil men. One of the explorers, Dr.
+Nels C. Nelson, soon made the remarkable discovery
+that in the wide expanse of this ancient desert there
+had lived, ages ago, certain people whom he called
+“dune dwellers of the Gobi.” His discovery included a
+great collection of flint implements of the Mousterian
+type, closely resembling those found in the cavern of
+Le Moustier in France, and thus belonging to the Old
+Stone Age. These newly discovered implements reveal
+the existence of man at a much earlier period in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span>Gobi Desert than the Mousterian period in Europe.
+Indications of an earlier Stone industry were also
+found in Mongolia. Some of these ancient implements
+show that long ago there were probably men living
+in this part of the world who belonged to the Dawn
+Stone Age.</p>
+
+<p>The latest evidence in favour of Asia as the home
+of primitive man was supplied by a surprising fossil
+discovery made by Turville-Petre (August, 1925).
+This new find consists of a skull of Neanderthal type,
+discovered in Palestine and known as the “Galilee
+skull.” The rapidly accumulating discoveries of the
+past three years sustain Professor Osborn’s view that
+central Asia is the homeland of the human race. He
+concludes that “while the anthropoid apes were
+luxuriating in the forest and lowlands of Asia and
+Europe, the Dawn men were rising in the invigorating
+atmosphere of the relatively dry plateaus of
+central Asia.”</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Home_Surroundings_Necessary_to_Human_Evolution">
+  <i>Home Surroundings Necessary to Human Evolution</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>If, as a result of evolution, man took origin from
+lower animals, these must of necessity have been
+mammals nearly like himself. They must have borne
+and nursed their young as he did. Mammals other
+than the primates differ so much from man that they
+could scarcely stand in the direct line of his origin.
+How different from him are all of the great races of
+hoofed animals, including the great varieties of cattle,
+horses, deer, camels, giraffes, and elephants. All of
+these are highly specialized and seem at once to exclude
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span>themselves even as remote relatives of man.
+So it is also with the pawed animals, the great families
+of dogs, cats, rats, and hares. These are definitely
+quadrupeds, clearly designed to meet the issues of
+life upon four legs. They fail to disclose anything
+resembling a near approach to man, either in form of
+body or mental capacity. The winged animals like the
+bats, strange specializations of the mammal kind,
+bear little resemblance to the human form and offer
+a poor beginning from which such a form might start.
+The swimming mammals, like seals, whales, and porpoises,
+also exclude themselves from direct connection
+with the line of man’s ancestry. In fact, all mammals
+must be put to one side in considering this question,
+except a single remarkable group. The apes and their
+kind alone bear an undeniable semblance to men both
+in body and in behaviour. Many of their parts are
+similar to the human, such as their hands and feet,
+fingers and toes all equipped with nails, as well as their
+thumbs which may be held against each finger in
+turn. The apes have acquired a more or less erect
+posture. Some of them, called manlike apes (anthropoids),
+possess so many characteristics in common
+with man that they alone of all animals might be regarded
+as connected with the direct line of origin. If
+this relationship be true, then the nature and location
+of man’s original homeland is of profound significance.
+Wherever this place may be, it should bring into
+combination two distinctly different types of home
+surroundings. It should provide this combination in
+order that the apes might supply the last long step by
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span>means of which man has ascended into humanity.
+These two different but essential types of abode are:</p>
+
+<ol>
+  <li>Home surroundings favourable for ape life.</li>
+  <li>Home surroundings favourable to human life.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>A third condition must bring these two elements
+into final combination. These specialized surroundings
+must be relatively near together, so that transition
+from one to the other may readily take place.
+Does Mongolia and particularly the Gobi Desert fulfil
+all of these three conditions?</p>
+
+<p>According to Professor Osborn’s theory, the uplands
+and plateaus are the most favourable places for
+human development. Such being the case, we must
+also agree, then, that the forests are equally essential
+to the life of apes. Only a few of these animals have
+adjusted themselves to life outside of wooded country.
+Living in the trees, therefore, is the existence that
+favours the life of the subhuman primates (lemurs,
+monkeys, and apes). The forest provides the home
+surroundings favourable for ape life, just as the
+plains afford those conditions favourable to human
+life. Does such proximity of these two essentials exist
+in the region of the Gobi Desert? Mongolia is not a
+densely wooded country. It is a territory forested
+only in parts. In this light it does not seem to be an
+ideal locality for the final transition from ape to man.
+To explain this defect, Professor Osborn at present
+holds that man in evolving had but a brief and very
+distant phase of tree life. He believes that the quadrumanous
+arboreal stage was extremely remote in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span>geologic time. It was never a profound or exclusive
+mode of life. There are those, on the other hand, who
+firmly maintain that in this ape to man transition a
+long intermediate period of tree living was necessary
+in order to bring about those changes in the primate
+stock which laid the foundations for human existence.
+This life in the trees was essential to determine the
+erect posture of man, to free his hands ultimately for
+purposes other than locomotion; in fact, to free them
+so that they might become the chief incentives in the
+further development of the human brain. Even from
+this viewpoint, Mongolia may still be considered the
+homeland of mankind. The forested lands throughout
+its extent and upon its borders might well serve as
+adequate surroundings for the development of life
+during that critical intermediate phase when the first
+ancestors of men had parted company with the apes
+and had at length become humans.</p>
+
+<p>With many animals there has been a strong tendency
+to take refuge in the trees. The chief object of
+this tendency was to make life more secure either by
+escaping danger or by obtaining food. But with the
+coming of the ape kind this arboreal habit took a
+somewhat new turn. It furnished the early members
+of the monkey kind a permanent abode. Such a
+change to a more or less fixed dwelling in the trees
+produced marked modifications in the animals themselves.
+It created a new type of home and developed a
+new kind of thoroughfare over highways in the tree
+tops. In order to acquire a proper equipment for such
+transportation, both fore and hind paws became
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span>grasping organs. In consequence these animals developed
+four hands. They gradually gave up the older
+pattern of paw and claw, and by developing a new
+instrument connected with the arms and legs they
+acquired a supreme facility for grasping the branches
+of the trees. The tail also, in some cases, acquired
+similar grasping powers. Thus, as the trees became
+the home and the highways of these animals, their
+four grasping hands and their grasping tails gave
+them a mastery over the forest which they used to
+their own peculiar advantages.</p>
+
+<p>The forest background of their lives played an
+important rôle in the molding of their behaviour. The
+perpetual semidarkness of their home surroundings
+exerted a subtle influence upon them. It might be
+that the forest in which they lived stood on the edge
+of a wide plain with a clear opening from which to
+look into the farther distances outside. Undoubtedly
+there must have been an alluring temptation in the
+green plains and their inviting freedom. Yet for these
+tree-living animals to venture into this open space
+was a hazardous undertaking. There were many
+dangers lurking in the plain and over it. Fierce
+creatures of every kind were there. Reptiles, mammals,
+and birds, all of them beasts of prey, were lying
+in wait for just such an adventuresome excursion.
+So for the time at least, and until they were better
+prepared to cope with the enemies outside, the semidarkness
+was safer, even though the view were
+limited and many interesting things were left unexplored.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Effects_of_Tree_Life">
+  <i>Effects of Tree Life</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The lemurs were probably the first of these new
+tree-living animals. Their bodies were still slender
+and furry, their heads long and fox-like, their eyes
+widely separated, and their tails long and bushy. But
+in their hands and in their feet they showed the real
+beginning of fingers and toes. This stage marks the
+transition from some lower form of mammal to the
+primates (lemurs, monkeys, apes, and man). It was a
+profound change, and in it the new order of primates
+had its origin. The steps preceding this important one
+we shall consider subsequently. But with this advance
+there began a period of tree living which influenced
+all of these animals as they and their successors
+passed through their many stages upward. The little
+animal known as Tarsius, perhaps even more than
+the lemurs, shows the effects of these new influences
+caused by tree-living habits. The monkeys of South
+America reveal the manner in which the next step
+forward was taken. The effects of it appear in the
+shape of the head, in the almost human expression
+of the face, in the closer relation of the eyes to each
+other, and in the shape of the nose and the position
+of the mouth. All of these features prophesy the coming
+of the still more manlike apes. Above everything
+else, these South American monkeys are conspicuous
+in the history of development because of their almost
+human hands, and also because of their hand-like
+feet. Most of the members of this group acquired
+prehensile or grasping tails. With the appearance of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span>the Old World monkeys, this tail began to wane in
+importance. It lost all of its grasping power and was
+reduced to much the same condition as in other
+animals not of the monkey tribe. Some of the Old
+World apes, such as the gibbons, developed the ability
+to stand and walk upright. In addition to this erect
+posture these apes had passed through another phase
+that brought them nearer to man. They had lost their
+tails. This had come about, doubtless, from their
+habit of sitting upright. The erect posture of the
+gibbons, however, was most important as a forerunner
+of further developments in the great manlike
+apes, the orang-outang, the chimpanzee, and the
+gorilla. These animals had grown so large that for
+most of them living in the trees was a matter of some
+inconvenience. It was necessary for them to come to
+the ground at times, because they found it difficult
+to swing from tree to tree like the smaller monkeys.
+Of the great manlike apes, the orang-outang still
+adheres rather closely to the forest. The chimpanzee,
+which has developed even greater cleverness
+in climbing, seeks the ground oftener. He has learned
+to walk upon all fours, using the knuckles of his hands
+as a support in this act. Like the orang-outang, he
+can stand up quite erect and walk like a man. Finally
+the gorilla, the largest of the manlike apes, often
+attains the size of nearly four hundred pounds in adult
+life, and standing erect may reach the height of nearly
+six feet. He also is able to walk upright. But the influences
+of tree living are so strong even with the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span>gorilla that he has not yet made a good adjustment
+for life upon the ground. If it were not for the prodigious
+strength in his great arms it would be difficult
+for him to take to the trees, and he thus shows a betwixt
+and between specialization, not entirely suitable
+for the ground and too large for security among
+the trees.</p>
+
+<p>All of the manlike apes are capable of standing and
+walking in the upright posture, but in this posture
+they are awkward and inefficient. Their awkwardness
+is due to the fact that the foot in all three of them
+retains many characters of a hand. None of them has
+a good foot for effective heel and toe walking on the
+ground. Yet in spite of the handicaps in their poor feet,
+in spite also of their long, ungainly arms, these apes
+are able to venture beyond the limits of their forest
+home. Some of them live in the plains or on the mountain
+sides. By their great strength they are equipped
+to cope with many of the dreaded enemies outside of
+the forest. The orang-outang seems to have no natural
+enemies because of its own great offensive power.
+Only two of the larger reptiles presume even to attack
+it—the crocodile and the python. According to
+the natives of Borneo, the orang always succeeds in
+killing the crocodile through main strength by standing
+upon its back and opening its jaws until he is able
+to tear out its throat. It is reported that if attacked
+by the python, the orang seizes the reptile with both
+hands, squeezing it with such force and biting it so
+ferociously that the outcome of the combat is soon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span>decided in favour of the anthropoid. The gorilla also
+has conquered most of its antagonists in the animal
+world, and is regarded as the most powerful and the
+most dangerous brute enemy of man. All of these
+apes have acquired a certain freedom in using their
+hands, which are thus made available for acts of self-defense
+and even for a considerable degree of exploring
+their surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>Progress in the direction of mankind had its beginning
+when the tree-living tendency of the apes began
+to recede. The recession of such tree life paved the
+way for those first indecisive but promising steps
+which took the great apes out of their ancient forest
+homes into the inviting plain. Finally with the complete
+passing of tree life there began that long and
+adventurous journey which was to lead over every sea
+and into every land, until no region of the earth remained
+for further conquest, until the full development
+of the hand and the upright posture had more
+and more bent the forces of nature to the designs of
+the races of man.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Stages_in_Developing_the_Erect_Posture">
+  <i>Stages in Developing the Erect Posture</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The advances made toward mankind through the
+intermediate stepping stones of the great apes and
+smaller monkey kind may be traced through successive
+stages of tree life up to the time when the fully
+erect posture became an accomplished fact. These
+stages have been recognized as a result of exhaustive
+studies made by Professors Gregory and Morton.
+They consist of gradual changes which finally gave
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span>rise to the human foot. This structure permitted man
+at length to stand upright and thus gave him the free
+use of his hands for constructive purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The first stage came in the Eocene (beginning of
+the Age of Mammals, about 65,000,000 years ago). At
+this time certain four-footed land-living animals began
+to live in the trees. This arboreal life had profound
+effects upon the fore and hind paws. In order to climb
+among the branches a clinging grip was necessary.
+Long, sharp claws developed in consequence of this
+requirement. The digits of the paw were short and the
+palms well padded. The thumb also was short but not
+opposable. As yet there was no squatting or half-sitting
+posture. The toes were likewise short and
+clawed. The heel was lifted off the ground. The sole
+was well padded and the great toe large. These four-footed
+animals made only an imperfect adjustment to
+tree life. Their movements were slow and their range
+of action correspondingly limited. The tree shrew is a
+good living example of such animals, while certain
+fossils of the Eocene belonging to this type have been
+described by Professors Matthews and Gregory.</p>
+
+<p>The second stage in developing transportation
+came with certain light, lemur-like animals. They
+were still slow and cautious in getting about and depended
+upon a clutch-like grip. This new kind of
+grasping produced long digits like fingers. The toes
+were changed in the same manner, so that the feet
+began to look more like hands. (Living examples of
+this stage, <i>Loris</i> and <i>Lemur potto</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The third stage was a more decisive advance since
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span>transportation through the trees now combined the
+advantages of climbing and leaping. Locomotion was
+swifter and more effective. A tendency to a partially
+erect posture developed, and squatting or sitting up
+was tentatively established. All of the fingers became
+much longer. Most of them had finger nails, so that
+these animals at last possessed what might be called a
+hand. Changes of the same type took place in the
+toes. The thumb and the great toe became more
+powerful and both were opposable. They could be
+brought in contact with each of the other fingers or
+toes in turn. In these animals the hands were now
+well formed and the feet looked much like hands. It
+is for these reasons that such animals are called
+quadrumanous (four-handed). (Representative animals
+of this stage, <i>Lepidolemur</i> and <i>Notharctus</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The fourth stage was but a short step from leaping
+and climbing to swinging from branch to branch or
+running along the branches. This swinging by the
+hands is called brachiation. It had far-reaching influences
+upon all subsequent stages. Such swinging
+naturally lengthened and strengthened the arms. It
+produced a better grasping grip around the branches
+and caused the fingers to grow longer. The thumb did
+not participate in this increase of size. It actually was
+reduced in strength and prominence. This is true in
+most of the New World monkeys. In some of these,
+like the spider monkey, the thumb has disappeared
+altogether. It should be remembered that most of
+these animals had a prehensile tail which they used
+much like a fifth hand. The foot also developed a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span>grasping grip and looked if anything even more like a
+hand than before. All of the South American monkeys,
+besides their ability to swing from the limbs of
+trees, can run along on the top of the branches in
+what is known as “pronograde” locomotion. But
+their swinging propensity probably had the greatest
+influence upon the final developments of transportation.
+It tended to bring the body in a close approach
+to the upright position. Many of the Old World
+monkeys sat in a semi-erect sitting posture, and from
+their habit of squatting developed thick pads (ischial
+callosities) over their buttocks. The leg became
+lengthened but was yet too much flexed at the hip to
+permit of the most complete erect posture. This stage
+is represented both by the New World and Old World
+monkeys, with the exception of the baboons. These
+latter animals are an interesting variation. They more
+or less deserted the old custom of living in the trees.
+Their bodies and heads assumed many dog-like
+characters, and they returned to a four-footed ground-living
+type of locomotion. In consequence their limbs
+became shortened, as was also true of their fingers and
+toes. All of these important changes took place in the
+early part of the Oligocene (second period in the Age
+of Mammals, probably 30,000,000 years ago).</p>
+
+<p>The fifth stage occurred much later in this period
+when another decisive advance was introduced. For
+one thing, the tail entirely disappeared. The legs became
+more extended at the hip. Swinging from branch
+to branch was the chief means of getting about.
+This produced extremely long arms and hands, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span>because this swinging mode of transportation was
+predominant it kept the trunk more and more in the
+upright position. Such straightening up of the body
+introduced the most positive influence toward standing
+erect up to this time. The legs did not grow in proportion
+to the arms, and the feet retained a close
+resemblance to hands. On the ground such animals
+as these could make their way with considerable
+speed, standing upright and running much as man
+runs. The only difference between this kind of gait
+and that of the human was due to the great length of
+the arms and the poor feet.</p>
+
+<p>This stage in the development of the upright posture
+is often seen in motion pictures of those animals
+which portray this particular phase of locomotive
+advance. These are the remarkable apes known as
+gibbons. Those familiar with them in the zoölogical
+gardens, or in moving pictures, will remember the
+peculiar way in which they run upright, holding their
+long arms stretched out much like balancing poles.
+Thus erect, they speed about in getting their food or
+playing with other monkeys. Their upright gait is
+awkward but extremely interesting. Once, however,
+they get into the trees their locomotion has all the
+grace of a bird in flight. This gibbon stage of development
+was one of extreme importance, since it gave the
+primates preceding man their first chance to stand
+upon two feet and to run about in something like human
+fashion. It is this stage that many authorities
+consider indispensable in the final working out of the
+human erect posture and human locomotion. Many
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span>students of this question also believe that the upright
+posture could never have been attained unless animal
+life had passed through that particular phase in the
+development of transportation called brachiation. It
+seems certain that this stage itself was dependent
+upon a preceding and extremely long period of life in
+the trees.</p>
+
+<p>The sixth stage developed early in the Miocene
+(third period of the Age of Mammals, about 15,000,000
+years ago). One of its chief factors was a great
+increase in the body weight of the apes. This greater
+weight caused the animals to come nearer to the
+ground, as is the case of the chimpanzee and the
+gorilla. These animals actually spend much time
+upon the ground. In consequence, it was necessary
+for them to make certain transportation adjustments.
+Their locomotion in the trees was still of the brachiating
+type—that is, they depended largely upon their
+arms for swinging. The arms thus became long and
+powerful. When the gorilla stands erect his hands
+hang below his knees. The legs are relatively short,
+but the feet in consequence of living so much on the
+ground look less like hands than in the lower apes.
+They have well-recognized broad heels, but flat soles
+without much of an arch. The lesser toes are human
+in appearance. They are much shortened and have
+little resemblance to the fingers of a hand. The great
+toe is shorter and only in a slight degree opposable.
+This is especially so in the mountain gorilla, in which
+the great toe bears a striking likeness to the same part
+in man. The flexion of the leg at the hip is somewhat
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span>decreased and as a result the gorilla is able to stand
+upright in almost human fashion. All of these changes
+appear, to a less degree, in the chimpanzee also. Both
+gorilla and chimpanzee are able to stand erect, to
+walk, and even run in this posture. Their gait, however,
+is awkward. They are greatly hampered in their
+locomotion by the extreme length of their arms.
+Usually in getting about on the ground they run upon
+all fours, using their arms somewhat like crutches
+and coming down at each step on the knuckles of the
+flexed hand. When aroused or charging to the attack,
+the adult male gorilla usually stands upright and
+beats its fists upon its chest, at the same time emitting
+a terrifying growl. When it is necessary for the animal
+to make speed in flight or for other purpose, it usually
+comes down upon all fours. Arboreal locomotion in
+all of the three great apes still retains much of the
+brachiating type. It thus requires the retention of the
+hands as part of the locomotor apparatus. Tree life in
+the chimpanzee and the gorilla, combined with partial
+use of the ground, did much to develop the essentials
+of the erect posture. It did not, however, free the
+hands to that extent which permitted their exclusive
+use for purposes more constructive than transportation.
+However strong the inclination toward life
+upon the ground may have been in the manlike apes,
+they were committed long ago by their predecessors
+to a life in the trees. This commitment still kept them
+true to their kind and to their simian inheritance. If
+they were to be more than apes, it was necessary for
+them to shed the stigma that tree life stamped upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span>them. This the modern apes were never able to accomplish.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Parting_of_the_Ways">
+  <i>The Parting of the Ways</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>At length, however, in spite of many obstacles, the
+tendency toward the erect posture found a new opening.
+It was the foot that led the way to this great
+opportunity. It provided an efficient supporting
+structure with a well-developed heel, a non-opposable
+great toe, and a sole containing an effective longitudinal
+arch. Man could at last stand upright and be
+secure upon a capable pair of feet. At some period late
+in the Miocene two branches from the stock of those
+animals, which had managed to get into something
+approaching the upright posture, parted company.
+This was a critical juncture. Thenceforth one branch
+proceeded one way and the other followed an entirely
+different course. The apes accepted the trees
+as their lot. Man, because of his two human feet and
+what they supported above them, acquired the earth
+and all it contains. Thus with tree life a thing of the
+past, with a true ground-gripping foot, with longer
+legs, with an actual erect posture, the hands were
+finally liberated for the purposes of human success.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the human foot, which must
+have been in progress through vast periods of time,
+marks the decisive parting of the ways between the
+apes and the races of men. It is doubtless true that the
+specialization of the hand has been a potent influence
+affecting the expansion of the brain and of brain
+power. The hand itself, however, was ultimately
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span>dependent for its free and unhampered use upon the
+development of the foot. This great factor was the
+forerunner of all those elements in structural organization
+which finally brought about the erect posture,
+which set the head upon the shoulders so that the
+eyes might look forward and upward, and at length
+made it possible for the eyes to guide the actions of
+the hands.</p>
+
+<p>Step by step, the brain has kept pace with these
+progressive alterations. Old and new parts of it alike
+bear the imprint of adaptive change. The combinations
+determined by life in the trees and by the
+development of four hands have been worked out
+through graded stages, from the humblest of the
+monkey kind up to man. Beginning with the lowly
+tarsius and lemurs, this advance may be traced
+through intermediate phases to its ultimate goal in
+the human brain. Mongolia, as many authorities
+agree, may have been the land that saw man’s earliest
+beginnings. Whatever his homeland, a long period of
+tree life was necessary to develop in his predecessors
+those specializations by which he rose to his allotted
+position. It is in the tree-life part of man’s history
+that we see the dawn of the primate brain; for it was
+then there occurred the earliest exploits of that great
+order of mammals, the primates, to which all the
+monkeys, the great apes, and man belong.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">
+    CHAPTER VI
+    <br>
+    DAWN OF THE PRIMATE BRAIN
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">THE LOWEST OF THE MONKEY KIND</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We are now approaching a critical period in the
+history of the brain. It is a period that contains many
+incidents of the utmost importance. Particularly
+noteworthy are the episodes which favoured the production
+of human characteristics in the animal kingdom.
+These characteristics showed many manlike
+tendencies that much later were to appear full fledged
+in the human race. They were from the first limited to
+a single, highly interesting order of mammals. And
+this seems especially strange because from the beginning
+of the Age of Mammals (65,000,000 years ago)
+a great variety of new animals came into existence.
+The fact that a single group out of all this vast number
+was picked out to develop human resemblances
+must hold the secret of some potent selective influence.
+Such an influence was definitely at work. Its
+operations were slow but steady. Little by little it
+changed and reshaped the structure of the body until
+at length there appeared a race of animals so human
+in their organization that they might well have been
+the forerunners of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to conceive the kind of modification
+in structure that could produce the form of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span>man from a horse, from a whale, or even from a dog.
+But this difficulty becomes far less in the case of the
+animals usually referred to as the monkey kind. In
+many features of their structure these animals resemble
+men. Existing in a great variety of forms,
+they manifest numerous modifications in the different
+parts of their bodies and exhibit a wide range of behaviour
+in their habits. Only a superficial acquaintance
+with them is necessary to reveal their many
+progressive traits. But their progress, like all other
+progress, had its humble beginnings. At first the apes
+were very simple creatures. Their coming, however,
+marked the dawn of a new day in animal life. We shall
+be interested to follow the advances that occurred in
+their mental capacities as they slowly made their
+progressive strides forward. We shall be particularly
+struck by those changes which gradually led up to
+the development of a brain capable to control all of
+the complex activities of human behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally we may expect to find a simple controlling
+organ in the lowest of the monkey kind. As we
+pass upward, however, into the higher families of the
+apes, we shall not only observe a pronounced increase
+in manlike tendencies but, as the great anthropoids
+at length become human in miniature and then almost
+human, we shall recognize in these animals a
+brain which very closely resembles that of man.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Class_Distinctions_in_the_Monkey_World">
+  <i>Class Distinctions in the Monkey World</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the ape world there are animals of high and low
+degree. Some are so humble that it is hard to decide
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span>whether they actually belong to the monkeys or not.
+With few exceptions they all prefer to live in the
+jungles and tropical forests. We could not fail to be
+impressed by the striking resemblance that many of
+them bear to man. Yet there are such marked differences
+among them that they cannot all be regarded as
+members of the same family. If we grouped them as
+we do human races, we might most advantageously
+assign them to certain large classes according to their
+nearness to man.</p>
+
+<p>Monkeys of lowest degree include the lemurs, the
+tarsiers, and all of the New World monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>The intermediate monkeys in the next higher grade
+are those which live in the Old World, with the exception
+of the three great manlike apes.</p>
+
+<p>The higher anthropoids occupy the top rank and
+are the nearest to man both in their appearance and
+in their habits.</p>
+
+<p>These three ranks in apedom did not appear at the
+same time. One rank, so to speak, successively developed
+from another. By a process of selection and
+adjustment the higher forms arose from the lower.
+The ranking great apes owe their superiority to many
+traits and characters which they inherited from more
+humble forerunners and which they improved by the
+process of progressive development. The lowest
+monkeys likewise had their day of upward progress,
+during which they emerged from some mammal still
+lower in the animal scale. These forerunners of the
+earliest primates, the lemurs and tarsiers, had in all
+probability been gradually specializing during the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span>latter part of the Age of Reptiles. Their ancestors
+came from that stock of mammal-like reptiles which
+started from lowly beginnings and remained modestly
+in the background during the reptilian period.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Lemurs">
+  <i>The Lemurs</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the endeavour to get some conception of these
+distant predecessors of the monkeys and apes, it is
+believed that the tree shrews possess those simple
+characters necessary for the proper starting point.
+The shrew is an insect-eater and lives in the trees.
+It has many specializations in its legs, in its head, and
+in its trunk. These special adjustments might serve
+as the beginning of those important changes in the
+body which later distinguished the monkey kind. In
+the first place, the small size of the tree shrew was
+particularly favourable for this purpose. Then, in the
+second place, its habit of living in the trees foreshadowed
+advantages of great promise. Such an
+epoch-making adjustment made its appearance when
+paws were replaced by hands and when definite hand-like
+feet appeared. If an animal like the tree shrew
+were the forerunner of the monkeys, it is not difficult
+to appreciate how the lemurs arose from this stock.
+They and their kind may be looked upon as the first
+chapter in the history of the ape world and the ape
+brain. At present they live exclusively in Madagascar
+and its small adjacent islands. They are not known
+in any other part of the world, although fossils of
+them indicate that they were widespread throughout
+the globe in earlier times. The reasons for their present
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span>exclusiveness and their insular homes are not clear.
+Geologists claim that the parts in which they live
+originally had land connection with the continent thus
+permitting their wide dissemination. The later disappearance
+of this connection accounts for their
+present isolation.</p>
+
+<p>There is much in the appearance of the lemurs that
+distinguishes them from the monkeys and apes. Their
+most distinctive feature, the head, is much like that
+of a fox and is drawn out in a long pointed muzzle.
+Many characters appear in lemurs not seen in
+monkeys. They have no cheek pouches. Their tails,
+never prehensile, are usually furry. They develop
+no gluteal pads, which many apes possess in consequence
+of their squatting postures. It is in their
+hands that they resemble monkeys most strikingly.
+They have fingers and toes with finger nails and toe
+nails. The thumb and great toe are always well developed,
+but the second or third digit is often greatly
+modified. They also have mammary glands like the
+monkeys. In the female these glands assume certain
+definitely human characters. The lemur is a little
+smaller than the domestic cat. Its fur is thick and
+woolly. Its large and prominent eyes are more widely
+separated than in monkeys. The ears are long and
+have tufts of hair on their upper portions. The arms
+are not quite so long as the legs. The tail is long and
+often bushy. Fleshy pads appear on the palms of the
+hands and soles of the feet, as well as upon the palmar
+surface of the fingers. These enable the animal to
+grasp the branch of a tree with great tenacity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the lemur’s habits in the wild
+state. It is not strictly nocturnal, for some of these
+animals are known to seek their food during the day.
+Often they travel about in troupes consisting of many
+individuals. Most of them live in the forest. Their
+food consists of fruits, insects, birds’ eggs, and birds
+themselves, which latter they are most skillful in
+catching. During the heat of the day they sleep with
+the head beneath the arm and the tail curled about
+the neck. When walking they go upon the hands and
+feet, both when on the ground and in the trees. The
+tail is used in the manner of a balancing or steering
+organ. Sometimes they assume a semi-erect posture on
+the hind legs, or sit in a half-crouching position. Both
+hands and feet are employed primarily for climbing
+or running about on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The lemur has great ability in leaping from tree to
+tree. Its movements are so rapid that it can only with
+difficulty be followed by the eye. Hunters say that it
+is easier to kill a bird on the wing than a lemur when
+leaping. If pursued and shot at it has a habit of
+dropping suddenly from the topmost branches into
+the bushes, giving the hunter the impression that he
+has succeeded in killing the animal. This impression
+is soon dissipated upon seeing the lemur in another
+tree at a considerable distance from the spot where it
+fell. When wild the animals are said to subsist largely
+upon bananas. They also seem to be fond of the
+brains of birds. After fracturing the bird’s skull with
+their teeth, as they might puncture a nutshell, they
+suck the brain out of the brain case. The lemur, however,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span>does not eat the rest of the bird. We may see
+from this description that this is an animal of great
+agility. Not only does it possess much speed in its
+locomotion, but it also manifests the utmost nicety
+in balancing and remarkable precision in all movements.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Tarsius">
+  <i>Tarsius</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Another of these lowest monkeys is a strange little
+animal called tarsius, which has acquired a notable
+reputation. Several learned authorities have singled
+it out as the standard bearer of human origin from
+some lower mammal. The tarsius is about as large as
+a small squirrel. Its appearance is peculiar because of
+its closely set bulging eyes, its long tufted tail, its
+protruding ears, and the small circular pads on the
+end of each finger and toe. Tarsiers have two curious
+habits that attract attention at once. They can leap
+with astonishing swiftness from tree to tree, often in
+pursuit of insects, and when they turn their heads
+they seem at one instant to be looking forward and
+the next directly backward. Their eyes, though very
+large and prominent, do not seem to give them the
+best of eyesight. The animals can see well at night,
+but during the day they appear to be almost stupid
+because in the sunlight their vision is imperfect.
+Tarsius lives in the jungle, usually in the low countries
+of the Malay Islands. During the day it passes
+most of its time clinging in a vertical position to the
+trunks of the smaller trees and underbrush. The way
+in which it supports itself is interesting and peculiar.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span>With its fingers and toes it firmly grasps its slender
+support, at the same time pressing inward with its
+long tail, which acts like a spring against the tree.
+If its tail is pulled away from this support the tarsier
+at once tends to slip backward. The tail, which has
+no grasping power, is used like a rudder for balancing
+and steering when the animal is in motion.</p>
+
+<p>In some respects tarsiers are quite human. They go
+about in pairs and are not gregarious like most of the
+monkeys. Furthermore, they give birth to but a single
+offspring at a time. After the breeding season the
+female and her young find a home by themselves.
+There are no indications that these animals build
+nests or even live in holes of trees. The tarsier often
+falls asleep in its characteristic clinging position, and
+the head then sinks downward much as that of an old
+man asleep in his chair. Often the young tarsius will
+perch upon the mother’s head while she is asleep,
+and in this position fall asleep itself. The general
+behaviour of the animal is extremely stereotyped and
+limited. It learns but little under training. In captivity
+it is able to make but few new adjustments.
+During the day its enormous bulging eyes give it an
+almost ridiculous appearance as it gropes awkwardly
+for food. This no doubt is due to the fact that its eyes
+are constructed for hunting at night and do not contain
+the specialization essential to the sharpest kind
+of vision. On the ground tarsius leaps like a frog but
+is very awkward. In the trees, however, it is extremely
+agile, and is probably the quickest jumper of all
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span>mammals. While grasping a small branch it can turn
+its head so as to look directly backward and jump
+more quickly than the human eye can follow. It
+seems to be looking in one direction and jumping in
+another. This is due to the great rapidity with which
+it turns its head. In captivity it is pugnacious and
+cannot be tamed. It performs its toilet much as a
+cat does and thus keeps itself scrupulously clean. It
+is not known to make vocal sounds indicating fear
+or anger. On rare occasions, and particularly when
+young, it has been heard to squeak. The infant
+tarsius clings to the hair of the mother’s chest like
+other young monkeys. The eyes are open at birth,
+and many reactions appear at once that are long
+delayed in such animals as the rat, cat, dog, and
+higher apes.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Marmosets">
+  <i>The Marmosets</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Another lowly monkey is the marmoset. It has less
+renown than tarsius but is nevertheless an interesting
+animal. It is often carried around in the pocket of its
+owner and fits conveniently inside of the old-fashioned
+fur muff. The marmosets belong to the group of the
+New World monkeys. They inhabit South America
+and Central America. Their chief interest arises from
+the fact that they represent one of those moments of
+faltering experienced by the monkeys in their upward
+strivings. These little animals have an almost
+pathetic expression and features that are in many
+ways quite human. Yet in spite of this human-like
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span>appearance they indicate an actual backsliding in the
+attempts at progress. This backsliding is most apparent
+in their fingers and toes. In fact, the entire
+hand and foot have lost most of their human resemblance.
+The finger nails are now replaced by sharp,
+talon-like claws, and the toes are equipped in the
+same way. The marmosets, both because of their
+diminutive size and the imperfections in their hands
+and feet, are now looked upon as monkeys that show
+signs of retrogression.</p>
+
+<p>The marmoset is as large as a small squirrel and
+covered with a thick, silky fur. It is naturally very
+timid but soon becomes friendly to those with whom
+it is familiar in captivity. The female produces two
+or three young at a birth and in this respect is unlike
+most of the monkeys. The marmoset’s facial appearance
+and shape of head are certainly more ape-like
+than the lemur’s. The eyes are set much closer together,
+and are separated by a flat, narrow nose suggesting
+that vision now depends on the simultaneous
+operation of both eyes. The animal has a long, bushy
+tail. It lives in the tree tops or small underbrush and
+climbs the trees in a manner similar to the squirrel.
+Although it has a cat-like agility, it does not make
+the long and daring leaps characteristic both of lemur
+and tarsius. It often loses its grip on the branches
+and falls from a considerable height to the ground.
+In captivity it shows little inclination to develop new
+actions. It is not easily trained, and to teach it to
+do tricks of any kind is most difficult. It lives upon
+worms, insects, and fruit. It is known also to invade
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span>birds’ nests and suck the eggs. Very rarely does it
+prey upon bird life and then only when it is able to
+overpower one of the smaller birds or unprotected
+young.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="South_American_Howling_Monkeys">
+  <i>South American Howling Monkeys</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In this group of lower monkeys we encounter one
+with a highly interesting personality, known as the
+“red howling monkey of South America.” He is a real
+monkey, noisy and disagreeable, often attaining the
+size of a fox-terrier. He always seems to be in an unpleasant
+mood, showing his teeth and howling on the
+slightest provocation. In spite of all this ill temper,
+he belongs to the progressive party of the monkeys.
+There is not the slightest doubt that he has made
+definite advances along the lines of progress. If we
+should question this progress we would soon have our
+doubts set at rest when we saw the astonishing manner
+in which he uses his tail like a fifth hand. Even
+more convincing in this respect is the almost human
+appearance of his hands. Not long ago a young woman
+visiting the ape house in the zoölogical gardens was
+struck by these human similarities. She was still more
+impressed when a large howling monkey thrust his
+long tail through the bars and deftly tossed her hat
+into the air.</p>
+
+<p>The howling monkeys enjoy this gift of a capable,
+grasping tail in common with most of their fellows
+who live in South America. The prehensile tail is
+especially well developed in the spider monkeys and in
+the woolly monkeys. At its end this tail looks like a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span>long, tapering finger. It is a highly developed sense
+organ and gives the monkey a new instrument for
+locomotion and for exploring. These monkeys are
+able to swing themselves from the branches by their
+tails and thus leave the hands and feet free for other
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this highly efficient tail, the howlers
+have developed a larynx and vocal cords with which
+they produce awe-inspiring sounds. Their mournful
+howlings are often audible for miles around, and it is
+supposed that they employ their cries as a means of
+defense to intimidate their enemies. The howling
+monkeys possess a slightly opposable thumb and
+well-developed fingers. While they are described as
+being the most ferocious of the South American monkeys,
+they are also credited with a low degree of intelligence.
+The face of this monkey is naked with the
+exception of a heavy beard that hangs beneath the
+chin. In captivity they are practically untamable
+and soon die. Their fur is usually black, but in some
+cases is brown or reddish brown. They live largely
+upon fruit, although like other South American
+monkeys they feed upon caterpillars and insects.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Measuring_the_Mentality_of_New_World_Monkeys">
+  <i>Measuring the Mentality of New World Monkeys</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Professor Thorndike, of Columbia University, has
+made careful studies concerning the behaviour of
+several South American monkeys. He was chiefly
+interested in the manner in which monkeys differ
+from other animals in the mental capacities and
+methods of learning. In making his tests he devised
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span>certain experiments which utilized boxes with pegs,
+bolts, bars, and hooks. The object of these tests was
+to find out how the animal learned to release itself
+from confinement, or gain access to a goal containing
+food. Professor Thorndike concluded that these
+monkeys did not learn by reasoning. They do, however,
+form more and a greater variety of associations
+than other mammals. Their combinations of this
+kind are remarkably slow and ineffectual in providing
+any new behavioural accomplishment. Concerning
+the general mental development of the South American
+monkeys, Dr. Thorndike believes that they represent
+a certain advance from the generalized type
+of mammals toward man. This is particularly true of
+their sense equipment and their localized vision. All
+of this, he believes, is in reality an advance due to
+the brain acting with increased delicacy and bringing
+into line those activities which distinguish human
+mental faculty from that of all other animals. Here,
+at length, among the lower monkeys is well-attested
+proof of some progress toward the development of
+human capacity.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Monkey_Behaviour">
+  <i>Monkey Behaviour</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The way in which these lower members of the
+monkey kind behave deserves particular attention.
+It gives us the opportunity to observe certain striking
+resemblances to our own human behaviour. This
+question is one of primary importance. It acquires
+especial interest as we compare the brains of the
+monkeys and apes one with another. As the brain
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span>continues to improve from one stage to the next, we
+should be on the lookout for new developments in
+behaviour. It might perhaps be impossible to appreciate
+all of these minute changes among the monkey
+kind. It is even somewhat questionable whether such
+an exact comparison at the present time is necessary
+or possible. Yet there are certain outstanding traits
+of conduct that may be easily traced from stage to
+stage. One of the most important of these traits depends
+upon the development of the tail from the time
+when it first acted as a rudder-like organ for steering
+and balancing the animal until it acquired all of its
+great facilities as a fifth hand. After this it began to
+recede in importance and finally disappeared. The
+tail thus created a special cycle of behaviour which
+had important bearing upon the final outcome of
+man’s adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>Another group of reactions centre upon the manner
+in which the hand made its appearance, including the
+progressive changes in behaviour when the monkeys
+first became four-handed. All of these changes were
+dependent upon living in the trees and gradually
+found their culmination in an animal that could stand
+upon two feet and use its hands. Such usage as this
+foretold the beginning of human skill, of human right-handedness,
+and of human speech.</p>
+
+<p>Very important were the changes in behaviour that
+made their appearance as the eyes worked more in
+harmony with each other. They produced a kind of
+vision better able to guide the movements of the
+hand and give more complete information concerning
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span>distance, direction, and perspective. But far exceeding
+all other changes for getting a better control over
+the surroundings were those progressive advances
+introduced for making the fullest combinations of
+sense impressions. These advances favoured the development
+of better powers for learning and for profiting
+from experience. Progress in all of these particulars
+concerning the behaviour of the monkeys may be
+clearly traced in corresponding expansions in their
+brains.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brains_of_the_Lower_Monkeys">
+  <i>Brains of the Lower Monkeys</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the brains of these four very simple members of
+the monkey kind we may readily see the expansions
+that promoted development in the governing organ.
+It will be apparent at a glance that progress followed
+no direct or easy path. It met many rebuffs and obstacles.
+Often it faltered and even stumbled. But
+struggling on it finally reached solid ground and then
+went forward to real advances.</p>
+
+<p>Placing the brains of the lemur, tarsius, marmoset,
+and howling monkey side by side we may see how this
+progress began. To guide our way in following this
+advance, certain signposts and milestones will prove
+serviceable. Three of these landmarks are deep grooves
+or clefts. They appear in the superbrain and indicate
+the places in which progress has been particularly
+active. Around these grooves the outer covering of
+the superbrain has been folded to make room for more
+brain cells. This folding produces convolutions with
+the result that the more convoluted a brain is, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span>more cells it has for the development of brain power.
+Each of these three grooves has its own special meaning
+as a landmark:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>The “Sylvian groove” is a fissure that runs
+between the department for the sense of hearing,
+called the “temporal lobe,” and the department for
+body and contact sense, called the “parietal lobe.”</li>
+
+<li>The “central groove” is a fissure between the
+department for body and contact senses and the
+department of supreme brain activity, called the
+“frontal lobe.” This lobe of the brain is situated
+immediately above the eyes and behind the bone of
+the forehead (frontal bone). A small frontal lobe
+means a low brow with a correspondingly inferior
+mentality. As this lobe of the brain increases from
+ape to man, the forehead gradually becomes higher
+and more prominent.</li>
+
+<li>The “ape groove” separates the occipital lobe
+in the back of the head from the parietal lobe. In the
+occipital lobe is situated the department for sight.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>The three grooves form the boundary lines between
+the four chief departments of the superbrain, each
+of which is known as a lobe; namely, (1) the parietal
+lobe, department of body and contact senses; (2)
+the temporal lobe, department of hearing; (3) the
+occipital lobe, department of sight; and (4) the frontal
+lobe, department of the high mental faculties like
+judgment and reason.</p>
+
+<p>Further advances from this point will occupy our
+attention in tracing the brain of the monkey kind
+upward. Two other landmarks in the brain have
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span>special value. One of them is the bridge (pons) which
+connects the larger brain (cerebral hemispheres) with
+the lesser brain (cerebellum). This lesser brain acts as
+the chief muscle timer and adjuster. It balances one
+muscle’s action to that of another and adjusts the
+force of such action. All of our most exact movements,
+whether in walking or writing or speaking, depend
+upon the little brain. If it is injured or destroyed the
+movements of our hands and feet, head and trunk,
+become shaky, unsteady, and very irregular. For an
+animal to become highly skillful requires high development
+in the little brain. The animal having the highest
+intelligence also possesses the greatest capacity
+for skill in its actions. The size of the bridge reflecting
+the degree of this skill is a good index of the intelligence
+possessed by the animal.</p>
+
+<p>The pyramid is another important indicator of
+progress. Like the bridge, it is found on the base of
+the brain. It is called pyramid because of its somewhat
+pyramidal shape. It acts as the main trunk
+line for getting the orders of the superbrain out to the
+muscles. It transmits, so to speak, the highest commands
+of the brain in controlling the motor machinery.
+By means of it we act according to the dictates
+of our wills. If both of these great pyramidal trunk
+lines are interrupted, we become completely paralyzed.
+The pyramids conduct the highest output of the
+brain’s activity and increase in direct proportion as
+the animal’s behaviour becomes more and more
+complex.</p>
+
+<p>The brains of low monkeys are of small size: lemur,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span>18 grams; tarsius, 6 grams; marmoset, 6.2 grams;
+and howling monkey, 24.5 grams.</p>
+
+<p>Size and weight of brain, we must bear in mind,
+vary to a considerable degree with the size of the
+body, so that certain other signs of expansion in the
+brain are more impressive. These signs clearly indicate
+that progress is under way as follows: First, the
+large superbrain begins to cover over the lesser
+brain. In lemur this extension backward has only
+just begun. It is only slightly more marked than in
+many of the lower animals, like the cat and the dog.
+In tarsius the large brain has extended backward over
+the lesser brain to a considerably greater degree.
+This is an important change because the tarsier has
+transferred much of its business of sight to a new department
+in the occipital lobe of the superbrain. The
+marmoset shows this transfer carried a little farther,
+for the large brain now overhangs the lesser brain.
+The great advance shown in the howling monkey reveals
+the way in which the superbrain has taken complete
+control of the situation. It now covers over the
+lesser brain entirely. All of this change in the superbrain
+has been mainly in the interest of making a
+better department for sight, but the departments for
+the sense of hearing and for body and contact senses
+have not been behindhand in expanding in these lower
+monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>Another pronounced sign of progress is the gradual
+change in the position of the groove of Sylvius. In
+lemur it is almost vertical, as in the cat, in the dog,
+and other lower mammals. The arrangement of other
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span>smaller grooves around it is also similar to that in
+lower animals. In the tarsius this groove is equally
+primitive. It is beginning to tip backward a little in
+marmoset. Finally, in the howling monkey this groove
+has become quite oblique, as it is in most of the apes
+and man.</p>
+
+<p>All of this change has occurred as a direct result of
+perfecting the organization in the department of hearing.
+The more tilted the Sylvian groove becomes, the
+better developed is the temporal lobe which carries
+on the business of hearing. The tilting backward of
+this groove also results from an increase in that part
+of the superbrain which lies immediately about the
+groove. This is the parietal lobe, the department of
+contact and body sense. It is in this department that
+the especially important information concerning the
+movements in the hands and feet is registered. Thus
+the tilting backward of the Sylvian groove plainly
+tells the story of improvements in the departments of
+hearing and of body and contact sense.</p>
+
+<p>Still another sign of progress appears in the central
+groove, which has an equally interesting history. In
+the lemur this groove is just discernible as a faint dent.
+In position it resembles a corresponding groove in
+animals like the cat and dog. Lemur in this respect
+suggests that in its striving to part company with
+the lower animals, to break away from ancient contacts,
+and to get on an independent new line of its
+own, it has not been entirely successful. This central
+groove shows where the chief department of the superbrain
+begins, that is, the frontal lobe. In the lemur
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span>this department is poorly developed. In tarsius it is
+impossible to find anything that looks like a central
+groove. This animal’s brain is an example of some
+of that hesitation which was encountered in the path
+of progress. The same faltering is also seen in the
+brain of marmoset, which has no central groove whatsoever.
+These little South American animals, it must
+be remembered, are thought to be backsliders, and
+this particular defect in their brain strongly supports
+that conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>In the brain of the howling monkey we find the
+central groove now well developed. The superbrain
+shows that it is at length pursuing some definite
+policy of expansion in its most responsible department.
+Emphasis in growth is now obviously given to
+the frontal lobe for advancing the capacity to transact
+all higher mental faculties. In the howling monkey
+this department may not have attained any high degree
+of development, but its presence is undoubted,
+and from this relatively simple beginning it is only
+a matter of further expansion to bring into existence
+the most productive mechanism of the brain. The
+howling monkey shows its superiority over all lower
+monkeys in another respect. It has developed the ape
+groove, and by it the boundary between the department
+of sight and the department for body and contact
+sense is fully established.</p>
+
+<p>Viewed as a whole, the brains of these four lower
+monkeys show distinct progress in the interests of
+developing a more efficient superbrain. Each of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span>sense departments has gradually become better defined
+in its boundaries, and doubtless correspondingly
+better organized for the administration of its duties.
+Rising supreme above them all there finally appeared
+the controlling department of the chief executive in
+the frontal lobe. We see this in its earliest stage in
+lemur. It assumes still more importance in the howling
+monkey. The departments of sight (occipital
+lobe), of hearing (temporal lobe), of body and contact
+sense (parietal lobe), show the effects of steady improvement
+from lemur up to the howling monkey.
+If there have been some hesitations, even some slipping
+back in the organization of efficiency, it is because
+some of these animals were rather uncertain
+disciples of progress. They may have been, as is probably
+true of tarsius, too close to the starting point
+where the real advances of the monkey kind began;
+or perhaps, like the marmosets, they ran into early
+difficulties along the upward climb. It seems probable
+that they were not able to extricate themselves with
+credit from these hazards or to overcome the obstacles
+that confronted them. For this reason their brain
+shows some actual backwardness. With these exceptions,
+however, the evidence of progress is undisputed.
+It seems sufficient to convince the most sceptical.
+The purpose of the progress is also sufficiently
+plain. It clearly appears to be that effort toward
+promoting organization in the superbrain so that the
+offices of the supreme executive might be established
+in the permanent quarters of the frontal lobe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Measurable_Improvements">
+  <i>Measurable Improvements</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Any doubts due to lack of measurable proofs may
+be easily overcome by several comparative measurements
+of the bridge and the pyramid. The size of
+these structures, both of which reveal the behavioural
+capacities of animals, has been carefully estimated.
+Accordingly the bridge has been assigned the following
+values: lemur, .055; tarsius, .057; marmoset,
+.095; howling monkey, .103. Thus the bridge, called
+by some authorities an index of intelligence, shows
+distinctly the advances made among these simple
+monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>Quite as striking are the figures for the pyramid,
+which indicate the degree of voluntary control that
+the superbrain has over all actions: lemur, .110;
+tarsius, .032; marmoset, .064; howling monkey, .137.</p>
+
+<p>From these figures the howling monkey stands in
+advance of his monkey associates in the index of his
+voluntary control. Doubtless much of this advantage
+is due to the high degree of hand-like specialization
+in this animal’s hands and feet. But the grasping
+tail of the howling monkey should not be overlooked.
+If tarsius and the marmoset appear to stand lower
+than the lemur, it is because one of them is a primitive
+type of animal with a much restricted repertoire of
+reactions, and the other, the marmoset, is a backslider
+less richly endowed in the more effective motor
+capacities.</p>
+
+<p>All of these features in the brain seem to coincide
+with progress in the behaviour of the lower monkeys.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span>They show the path which progressive advance has
+pursued. In the beginning, emerging from those
+strivings of lower mammals and with much of the
+mammalian heritage handed down by them, the
+lemurs took the first step of the monkey kind toward
+a new type of brain. There was prophecy in these
+early attempts made by the lemur. In some degree at
+least they foretold what this new kind of brain was to
+be. Obviously they had as their distant mark the
+ultimate upbuilding of the superbrain until an adequate
+department for the supreme executive of life
+was produced. If tarsius hesitated in reaching out
+toward this objective, it was none the less travelling
+in the right direction. The destination of this course
+was clearly visible in the brain of the howling monkey
+and other similar monkeys of the New World. In
+this manner the first primate steps toward a more
+highly efficient type of brain were taken. The conditions
+of tree life both incited and successfully urged
+them onward.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">
+    CHAPTER VII
+    <br>
+    ON THE WAY UPWARD
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">BRAINS OF THE OLD WORLD MONKEYS</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We have seen that the first steps leading to improvements
+in the primate brain were taken by certain
+humble creatures living in distant parts of the earth,
+and by the great tribes of the New World monkeys
+inhabiting South America and Central America.
+These steps did not lead far along the path of progress.
+They were only a beginning, the first harbingers
+of man’s arrival. Many lowly animals in the ape house
+at the zoölogical gardens reveal numerous features
+suggestive of the human being. Such features not only
+include their fingers, finger nails, toes and toe nails,
+but even more their facial appearance. Many of these
+monkeys look like diminutive old men. They snarl
+and show their teeth when angry. Their way of indicating
+displeasure is almost human. They make
+certain expressive gestures, like nodding or tilting of
+the head to one side in a quizzical or even pathetic
+manner. They make plaintive cries or sounds, in some
+cases almost like the notes of a bird, or they scream
+out loudly in anger. All of these New World monkeys
+are notable for one other reason. They do not make
+any of those humorous grimaces that are so amusing
+in the Old World monkeys. These latter manifest a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span>certain drollness in their constantly changing facial
+expression.</p>
+
+<p>The Old World monkeys include about three quarters
+of all living species. They are embraced in one
+great family, but the members of this family show
+many differences ranging from the huge dog-faced
+baboon to the small bonnet monkey. Some of them
+are gentle and affectionate, some are savage, pugnacious,
+and treacherous. This entire family is spread
+out over the hot or semitropical regions of the world.
+Many of its members live in the damp, tropical
+forests; others prefer rocky, almost barren country,
+and a few seek their homes in temperate climates.
+Some monkeys are found among the lower ranges of
+the Himalayas and may be seen in the winters playing
+among the branches of snow-laden trees. Two varieties
+seem to have a surprising endurance in really
+severe cold. They inhabit the elevated regions of
+eastern Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>In picturing to ourselves the characteristics of a
+monkey we are apt to have the conception of an
+animal that can hold on and hang by its tail. None of
+the Old World monkeys has this kind of tail. The
+greatest number of them live in the trees, and the
+tail, while generally short and stumpy, in some cases
+is decorative and almost plume-like. Most of the
+Old World tribes are especially interesting and amusing
+because of a large elastic pouch in each cheek.
+This pouch the monkey greedily crams with food in
+his haste to get his meal into safe-keeping. When the
+cheek pouches are filled both cheeks are bulged out
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span>and give the animal somewhat the appearance of a
+gourmand embarrassed by a mouthful of delicacies.
+Later on, at his leisure, the monkey chews and swallows
+the food.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Baboons">
+  <i>Baboons</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>By far the largest of the Old World monkeys are
+the baboons. They may be recognized at once by
+three characteristics. The head and face look much
+more like those of a dog than is true of other monkeys.
+They have long and dangerous fangs in the
+upper and lower jaws. They go about, like most four-legged
+animals, upon hands and feet which have
+much the appearance of paws.</p>
+
+<p>Further acquaintance with the baboon shows him
+to be a surly, unmannerly, savage, and thoroughly
+undependable creature. All of his tribes have fleshy
+pads over the buttocks, which in some cases are large
+and brilliantly coloured. Some members of his clans,
+such as the mandrill, have faces which look like gruesome
+masks or hideously painted savages. The skin
+over the nose is a fiery red, while the cheeks are swollen,
+ribbed, and of a vivid blue colour. A beard of
+golden hue hangs beneath the chin in contrast to the
+dull olive drab of the body. Protruding over the lips
+are savage canine teeth, long and dagger-like. These
+baboons are about as large as a good-sized dog. The
+colouring of the face adds considerably to the repulsive
+unattractiveness of the animal. They run
+along on their hands and feet, with their eyes directed
+downward, so that they are obliged to elevate the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span>large overhanging eyebrows in order to look upward
+and forward. They go about with the palms of the
+hand and soles of the feet laid flat upon the ground.
+The mother is often seen walking or scampering
+around with a young baboon clinging to her back.
+Sometimes the mother will sit up on top of a rock
+just like a human being. Her offspring often perches
+on her neck after the fashion of a well-trained acrobat.</p>
+
+<p>All of these monkeys are gregarious. They travel
+about in large numbers. Often as many as a hundred
+individuals collect in one herd. Because of their aggressive
+disposition, they are dangerous enemies,
+especially when irritated or disturbed. Their long,
+sharply pointed, canine teeth are capable of inflicting
+severe wounds. Although they have no actual speech,
+they utter certain sounds that seem to be thoroughly
+understood by all members of the herd. There is
+quite a variety in these sounds. Some of them resemble
+barks, grunts, or even screams. Often they make
+low and subdued murmurs with various inflections,
+the meaning of which all the baboons seem to understand
+immediately. Sometimes the slightest murmur
+from one of the members of the herd will act as a
+signal or warning. This is particularly true when the
+baboons are out on an expedition of pillage or mischief.
+On such occasions they always station a lookout or
+outpost at some favourable point from which the
+signal may be given upon the approach of danger.
+The faintest murmur made by one of these lookouts
+will start the marauding baboons scampering away to
+safety.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Disposition_of_Baboons">
+  <i>Disposition of Baboons</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>For the most part they live in rocky places near
+ravines, crags, or hilly promontories where grass and
+trees are scanty. Their favourite abodes are usually
+places surrounded by wide plains. This kind of home
+enables them to lie in wait for the right moment to
+perpetrate some thieving expedition upon a garden
+or field and at the same time to have every opportunity
+of escape. They are much given to mischief of
+this kind. Consequently they are feared and despised
+by the inhabitants of the country which they infest.
+If attacked, they often turn upon their pursuers and
+inflict serious wounds upon their assailants. Some
+baboons prefer to live in the dense forest and climb
+readily about even in the tallest trees. Those that
+live in more open country are very agile in clambering
+among the rocks and are able to reach lofty
+heights or positions of safety. The baboon eats a
+little of everything, although its chief diet consists of
+roots, fruits, reptiles, and insects. To procure their
+food they are continually searching, turning over
+stones beneath which the desired food may be concealed.
+When young the baboon is often quite gentle
+and affectionate, but with most of them this disposition
+changes when they grow up. In captivity baboons
+are surly and unfriendly. Even those born and reared
+in captivity are more difficult to approach and teach
+than other apes. They are vindictive and treacherous.
+Their disagreeable dispositions accord well with their
+unpleasant and often repulsive facial expressions.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span>Their savage reactions and lack of intelligence have
+earned for them the reputation of being the lowest of
+the Old World monkeys. Baboons seldom assume the
+erect position for standing or walking. They do, however,
+sit upon their haunches in a somewhat crouched
+position, but not so freely as many other Old World
+monkeys. They all live in Africa, with a slight extension
+into Arabia. It is well that these animals never
+grew to the size of the great apes, for had they done
+so they certainly would have been among the most
+dreaded and frightful creatures ever known on earth.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Ditmars, who has spent much time in observing
+monkeys, reports many interesting studies and experiments
+concerning their behaviour. Apparently
+the habit of throwing missiles when enraged is not
+uncommon among baboons. Any angry monkey may
+in its rage grasp and hurl an object such as a drinking
+pan, but there is usually no accuracy in its aim or intention
+in its act other than an expression of irritated feelings.
+None of the monkeys has ever been known to use
+a stick or a club in attacking others or defending itself.
+Although the throwing of missiles is almost unknown
+among monkeys, the baboon marks an exception.
+As an instance, one day Dr. Ditmars found the visitors
+to the ape house almost in a panic, due to the
+savage behaviour of a big yellow baboon. A part of
+the cement had fallen out of the wall of his cage and
+broken up into sharp pieces. These pieces the baboon
+was hurling at the visitors through the bars in a
+most deliberately offensive manner and with effective
+aim. The crowd in consequence had retreated to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span>various points of safety. Later a shovelful of coal
+was placed in the cage of this same baboon. The
+pieces of coal he also used as missiles, throwing them
+with calculating aim at the keeper and other attendants.
+The baboon seems to have an excellent throwing
+arm, and Dr. Ditmars credits him with good control
+and much speed. During this experiment a baboon
+of a different species acted in precisely the same way.
+In both of these animals their pitching capacity was
+demonstrated without any previous practice or instruction,
+and from these observations it would appear
+that baboons are natural-born pitchers.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Macacus_the_Indian_Monkey">
+  <i>Macacus, the Indian Monkey</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Another one of the Old World monkeys, the macacus,
+shows a different side of the picture. He is more
+friendly, more gentle, more full of fun, and forever
+up to some sort of monkeyshines. Many of these
+monkeys live in India. Mr. Kipling has described them
+in his famous “Road Song of the Bandar-Log”:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">Jabber it quickly and all together!</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Excellent! Wonderful! Once again!</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Now we are talking just like men.</div>
+      <div class="verse indent4">Let’s pretend we are ... never mind,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent4"><i>Brother, thy tail hangs down behind!</i></div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These monkeys have their homes throughout the
+Indo-Malayan regions. They extend northward into
+China and Japan and eastward into Tibet. The macaques
+have a stout body and a proportionately large
+head. There is considerable variation in the tail, which
+ranges from a long, sweeping, plume-like appendage
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span>with a tuft at the tip, as in the lion macaque, to
+a thick, stubby tail much like that of a dog which
+has been docked. The pigtail monkey has a curled
+appendage. One of the macaques of Japan has a mere
+stump, while the Barbary ape has no tail at all. The
+macaques are the typical monkeys about which most
+of the favourite stories concerning the ape kind have
+had their origin. Their enormous cheek pouches, their
+facial grimaces, and the motion of their lips make
+them unusually fascinating to watch. They are extremely
+noisy, jabbering most of the time. They
+seem to have an extensive vocabulary of sounds, consisting
+of shrill calls, grunts, low mutterings, barks,
+chattering noises, and almost ear-splitting yells,
+which they emit in moments of rage. They are playful
+and quarrelsome, and these two phases of their behaviour
+pass without sharp line one into the other.
+They never become involved in serious combats because
+they seldom remain at one thing long enough
+to be effectual fighters. In their quarters at feeding
+time they usually make a real pandemonium in their
+frenzied efforts to stuff their cheek pouches as full
+as they can. They have absolutely no consideration
+or courtesy on these occasions. Their table manners
+are not only rough but actually ruthless, and the most
+delicious morsels go to the strongest. The weak, the
+young, and the female obtain what is left or go without.
+These monkeys are often docile and affectionate.
+They make the most amusing kind of pets. No animal
+is more mischievous or more destructive about a
+home where there is anything within reach to break.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span>Sometimes when they grow up they develop the unpleasant
+tendency of being too strictly a one-man
+animal. To protect their owner against an imaginary
+danger they will often attack strangers or visitors.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Behaviour_of_Macacus">
+  <i>Behaviour of Macacus</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The head of the macaque is much less dog-shaped
+than that of the baboon. The eyes are set closely together,
+and the animal sits on its haunches a good
+deal of the time holding its head upright, so that the
+eyes are directed forward. Its posture in sitting is
+quite human, while its attentive gaze gives the impression
+that it is watching intelligently all that is
+going on. Its nose is short and has a fairly good nasal
+bridge. The lips are thin and the upper one is particularly
+long. The hands and feet closely resemble human
+hands, except that the palm is not so broad, the fingers
+are longer, and the thumb shorter. In its movements
+the macaque is remarkably deft. It changes from one
+position to another with surprising swiftness. These
+monkeys go about in herds, often of considerable size.
+If captured young the animal is easily trained and
+quickly learns many amusing tricks. It is full of
+mischief and curiosity. Macacus monkeys frequently
+become a nuisance in the neighbourhood of towns
+where they live in large numbers. When full grown
+they are sometimes quite ill tempered and often
+savage even to the extent of attacking the inhabitants
+without much provocation. For the most part
+they live in cultivated tracts along the banks of
+streams. They seem to seek rather than avoid the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span>habitations of man. They manifest little fear for their
+human neighbours and take a real delight in molesting
+them by many annoying pranks. Sometimes their
+attentions are vigorously resented and their human
+neighbours turn upon them. Their behaviour on such
+occasions is like that of tantalizing small boys who
+take an almost idiotic delight in the vain efforts of
+their pursuers to overtake them, and continue their
+aggravating antics in order to prolong the excitement
+of the futile pursuit. If one happens to be captured, a
+number of them will turn back to take the part of the
+unfortunate captive. In their native haunts they are
+constantly on the move. Repose is totally foreign to
+their daily programme. Scampering, swinging, chattering,
+screaming, they go among the trees all day
+long. Either their actions are without design, or else
+their purpose changes so rapidly and frequently that
+their behaviour has the appearance of ceaseless motion.
+When together they are very quarrelsome, constantly
+nagging or teasing each other, but here, as
+in all of their activities, the object of their anger,
+the victim of their jest, is as quickly shifted as their
+fleeting attention. Having no fear of the water, they
+are able to swim for long distances and greatly enjoy
+it. They feed upon spiders and many other insects,
+besides fruits and berries. As compared with the
+baboon, they show a greater mental alertness.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Mental_Tests">
+  <i>Mental Tests</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Considerable psychological study has been made
+of the macaques, particularly concerning their ability
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span>to learn and their mentality. Dr. Kinnaman, who
+has made some of these studies, believes that they
+have attained a higher level of intelligence than that
+ascribed to the New World monkeys by Professor
+Thorndike. He thinks there is some evidence that
+the macaques have powers of reasoning, although of a
+low order. Dr. Hobhouse agrees with this view and
+adds that the macacus monkey seems to be possessed
+of definite ideas. Professor Yerkes, after a longer and
+more systematic study with experimental methods
+better suited to the problem, agrees with Professor
+Thorndike that the macacus may have a certain number
+of limited ideas. It is clear to him also that there
+are extreme differences in the mentality of different
+species of monkeys. The slow process which they display
+in the solution of problems is quite surprising,
+in many instances being actually less rapid than in
+some of the lower mammals.</p>
+
+<p>One question is certain to arise at this point: How
+do the Old World monkeys compare in mentality
+with lemur and tarsius and with the monkeys of the
+New World? Perhaps the best answer to this question
+may be obtained by watching the actions of these
+different animals in their cages at the zoölogical
+gardens. Looking at a lemur as he jumps about restlessly
+among the supports of his cage, it is quickly
+concluded that this animal, not unlike a diminutive
+fox, is interesting only because of his remarkable
+agility. Tarsius would probably not be found in most
+zoölogical gardens because these animals do not survive
+long in captivity. The marmosets would attract
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span>little more attention than the lemurs, not only because
+of their small size, but also because of their
+lack of interesting reactions. Howling monkeys,
+spider monkeys, and woolly monkeys are more interesting
+because of the remarkable way in which
+they use their tails like a fifth hand. Their facial
+expression and their general behaviour, however, are
+somewhat monotonous.</p>
+
+<p>The Old World monkeys, especially the macaques,
+hold the attention and create a real interest. Here is
+to be seen a busy world of jabbering, mischievous,
+tricky, athletic monkeys whose antics easily rival the
+best of human clowning. There can be no doubt that
+these Old World monkeys are on a higher mental
+plane than those of the New World. The main fault
+to be found with them is that they never get anything
+really done, except perhaps filling the pouches in
+their cheeks just as full as they can. Even the grouchy
+baboons show some signs of better mental powers
+than the South American monkeys. They have a
+thoroughgoing hostility for their human contemporaries
+which they have never changed, and their
+powers of organized banditry show a degree of mental
+capacity that is foreign to the lower monkeys. This
+capacity we should consider all the more noteworthy
+because the baboon manifests a distinct tendency to
+lose some of the benefits derived from living in the
+trees. It almost seems as though, to a certain extent,
+it had retrograded. This retrogression appears in
+the fact that many of the baboon’s characteristics are
+less ape-like and more dog-like than other Old World
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span>monkeys and also because its hands and feet seem
+to be specialized more in the direction of paws. Yet,
+in spite of this backsliding on the part of the baboon,
+the monkeys of the Old World are as a whole eminently
+more efficient in their actions and capacities
+than any of the New World monkeys, the lemurs or
+tarsiers.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brains_of_the_Old_World_Monkeys">
+  <i>Brains of the Old World Monkeys</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>A question may arise concerning the relation in
+point of time which the Old World monkeys bear to
+those of the New World. All of the evidence supplied
+by fossils indicates that lemurs and tarsiers, as well
+as the monkeys of South America and Central America,
+came into existence long before those species
+which inhabit Africa and Asia. According to most
+reliable records, the monkeys had their start some
+time early in the Age of Mammals. It is correct, therefore,
+to look upon the Old World monkeys as a later
+and higher stage of development in apedom. This
+conclusion is borne out when we view the brains of the
+macaque and the baboon. In this comparison we may
+be able to detect many signs indicating improvements
+in the brain; in fact, all doubts may be set at
+rest concerning the superiority of Old World monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>If we look at the baboon’s brain we are impressed
+by the fact that it has many more grooves and many
+more convolutions than the brain of the South American
+monkey. The convolutions and the grooves of the
+brain indicate the amount of cell space which the
+superbrain provides for developing brain power.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span>As between the baboon and the macaque, the difference
+in this respect somewhat favours the former. This
+difference is small and may perhaps be discounted
+by the fact that in macacus the grooves have a slightly
+more advanced arrangement in consequence of which
+certain departments of the superbrain show more progressive
+tendencies than in the baboon. This is particularly
+true of the department of hearing (temporal
+lobe) and the department of body and contact senses
+(parietal lobe). Comparing the groove of Sylvius,
+whose general angle furnishes such an important
+standard in rating a brain, there is more of a backward
+tilting seen in this groove of the macaque than
+in the baboon. Such an inclination is characteristic
+of higher races. The central groove appears to be
+about on a par in both brains, and the ape groove is
+likewise well developed both in the macaque and the
+baboon. These three great boundary lines separate
+the four major lobes of the superbrain. The department
+of sight in the occipital lobe in macacus has no
+real advantage over the corresponding area in the
+baboon. As already noted, the departments of hearing
+and of body and contact sense are better organized
+and somewhat more expansive in macacus than in
+baboon. But when we come to the preëminent part
+of the superbrain, that portion in which the chief
+executive function is located, namely, the frontal
+lobe, the baboon actually seems to have some real
+advantage. Recalling the ugly disposition and ferocious
+nature of this animal, we may question why he
+is superior in this highest part of his brain to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span>lively and humorous little macaque. It is unfortunate
+that we have not as yet any good psychological studies
+of the baboon by which we may compare him
+with his more nimble associates. Doubtless it is the
+disagreeable nature and uncompromising aversion
+which the baboon has for mankind that make it so
+difficult to estimate him psychologically. Yet there
+may be something of an enviable consistency in the
+baboon’s aversion to man that implies a better type
+of mental power than one might infer from the jabbering,
+ceaseless activities of the macacus and all of the
+other bandar-logs. Some explanation of this sort must
+at present suffice until we are possessed of better
+standards for psychological comparison.</p>
+
+<p>The two important structures on the base of the
+brain furnish a definite idea of an animal’s rating.
+Accepting their evidence, it appears at once that the
+bridge (<i>pons</i>) bears out our previous observations
+concerning the powers of the superbrain. This evidence
+gives the baboon a higher standing in intelligence
+than the macacus. The value assigned to the
+bridge in the baboon is .164, while in the macacus it is
+.150. This contrast gives an interesting corroborative
+estimate of the superior mental powers of the baboon.
+From the figures indicating the relative size of the
+pyramid, it would seem that the macacus is somewhat
+more richly supplied in his variety of skillful movements
+than the baboon. The figure in macacus is .147
+and baboon .143. While this is not a marked difference,
+it seems to indicate an advantage probably
+derived from the more nimble and acrobatic actions
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span>of the macacus. This animal has acquired a more
+highly efficient mastery of tree life as compared with
+the more sluggish tendencies of baboons, most of
+which prefer to live upon the ground and go about like
+other four-legged animals. These contrasts between
+the Old World monkeys are interesting for what they
+show in themselves. They give rise to many questions
+which we would be glad to see answered by more
+exact and extensive study. The reasons why the baboon
+or the macacus should be endowed with superior
+qualities in one particular or another, or why there
+should be corresponding improvements in the brain,
+are not clear. There can be no doubt, however, that
+in the Old World monkeys as a whole both behaviour
+and brain are in many respects superior to the monkeys
+of the New World. We cannot fail to discern
+the special points of this superiority in the brain.
+It seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that when
+the Old World monkeys made their appearance they
+definitely advanced the cause of progressive improvement
+and that from this progress the brain profited
+as much as or even more than any other part.</p>
+
+<p>Turning back for a moment to the brains of the
+New World monkeys and comparing them with those
+of the Old World group, we will find sufficient
+evidence to convince us that the chief organ of the
+body was surely on the way upward, and that the
+first humble steps taken by the earliest members
+of monkey kind had been supplemented by further
+and bold advances.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">
+    CHAPTER VIII
+    <br>
+    MANLIKE TENDENCIES
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">BRAINS OF GIBBON AND ORANG-OUTANG</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>There is little about the Old World monkeys, either
+in their mode of life or in their appearance, to inspire
+respect or confidence. The savage fierceness of the
+baboon, the mischievous nonsense of the macaque,
+seem like flimsy foundations upon which to build a
+race of intelligent human beings. When these animals
+first made their appearance they were but vague
+foreshadowers of what mankind might be. It is not
+alone their form and structure that interests us; their
+actions, habits, and behaviour must be carefully
+studied at the same time.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Anthropoid_Gibbon">
+  <i>The Anthropoid Gibbon</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Had the human eye been able to observe all that
+transpired in the early days of the monkey kind, it
+would have been difficult to believe that a race of
+men was in the making. It would have seemed incredible
+that from these chattering, restless monkeys
+change and modification could eventually bring forth
+that development necessary for the human form. And
+yet in the course of time changes of this kind did bring
+into existence an ape which bore a much closer resemblance
+to man. It was then possible to foresee how,
+from this new kind of animal, certain human features
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span>might be derived. This particular member of the ape
+world is the gibbon. All of his tendencies make him
+somewhat shy and inconspicuous. At the zoölogical
+gardens he is generally sitting high up on a perch in
+his cage with his long arms folded over his head, peering
+quietly about him. His fur is usually dark, although
+some members of his family are quite light in
+colour. The most impressive thing about the gibbon
+is the fact that he can stand up, walk, and run upon
+two legs. This he does a little awkwardly, but not
+unlike a human being. In a certain memorable moving
+picture, an unusually interesting silvery gibbon
+nearly usurped the rôle of leading man. His marvellous
+feats earned for him universal applause, and
+whenever he appeared he was the centre of attention.
+Among its most stirring moments, this picture shows
+a dramatic scene in which a great Indian elephant
+whose young one has been captured demolishes the
+dwelling of the jungle native who has trapped her
+offspring. Shortly after the native with his wife and
+children has escaped to safety, the gibbon emerges
+cautiously from the wreckage of the home. Through
+the darkness of the forest he discerns the glistening
+eyes of a tiger that is about to spring upon him.
+Realizing that retreat is cut off, he takes to flight.
+In escaping he stands upright and runs like a man,
+screaming in his fright in a thoroughly human manner.
+Fortunately for the gibbon, the branch of a tree
+comes opportunely in his path, and then, with a single
+upward bound, he is off like a bird through the trees
+to safety.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span></p>
+
+<p>Gibbons are gentle, affectionate creatures. They
+are also timid and at the first sign of danger hurry
+away through the forest as far up in the trees as they
+can go. The gibbon’s body and head are relatively
+small, being only a little larger than some of the
+smaller macaques. The animal’s legs are short and it
+has no tail. A prominent feature is the exceptional
+length of the forearm and of the fingers. The hand is
+slender and longer than the foot. The female bears
+one young at a time, which the mother carries under
+her body, the young one clinging to the fur on her
+chest with hands and feet. This burden does not
+embarrass her in the slightest as she swings her way
+from tree to tree through the forest. She makes as
+good time in this transportation as the unincumbered
+males.</p>
+
+<p>In the wild state the gibbons never leave the jungle,
+and live for the most part throughout southern Asia
+and the adjacent islands. A few of them venture from
+the inland forests to the vicinity of the coast. All of
+the gibbons are highly developed for life in the trees.
+This specialization is important not only for the
+effects it has had upon these apes but also for those
+developments in them which were to be of subsequent
+and substantial advantage to the rise of man.</p>
+
+<p>There are many different varieties of gibbons such
+as the white-handed gibbon, the silvery gibbon, the
+white-cheeked gibbon, the slender gibbon. The
+animal that we shall consider is the hoolock gibbon
+of India. He gets his name from a peculiar sound or
+cry which he makes. If it were at all possible to imitate
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span>this cry it might be expressed as “hooloo! hooloo!
+hooloo!” Mr. Candler has studied this interesting
+animal at close quarters, and his account of its habits
+is well worth quoting:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The Hoolock swings along the thinnest part of a bough or
+to the slender end of a bamboo, until it bends to its weight, then
+with a swing and a sort of a kick-off he flies through the air
+seizing another branch, and swinging along it with the accuracy
+of a finished trapeze performer. I fancy he does very little walking
+in the wild state, for I have never seen a wild Hoolock on the
+ground. Moreover, they are only found in the dense jungle
+where the ground is everywhere covered with tangled vegetation.
+The Hoolocks are extremely shy and it is difficult to watch
+them as they are concealed by leaves high up on the bamboo
+clumps or tops of forest trees. The cry of the Hoolock is characteristic.
+It is a very pleasing note, rising and falling in intensity,
+and reminding one somewhat of a pack of beagles giving
+tongue on a scent, which is waxing and waning in strength as a
+larger or smaller number of the band join in the chorus. It is
+heard chiefly in the early morning, then through all the heat of
+the day there is silence, but towards evening as the sun sets you
+may hear it again.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>One might almost think that their early morning
+cry was like a rising bell, and their cry toward evening
+was their curfew.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Manners_of_the_Gibbon">
+  <i>Manners of the Gibbon</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Gibbons live in fairly large communities. They are
+constantly on the move. From what is known of their
+intelligence it seems probable that their movements
+are guided by definite plans. They even seem to have
+some simple sort of governmental system. Tea planters
+in India often keep these gibbons as pets for years.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span>They run about the compound quite freely. At times
+they suddenly disappear and are gone for several
+months. Eventually they return quite unconcerned,
+as if nothing had occurred to interrupt their pleasant
+human associations. For the most part the gibbon
+is sociable. After he has become acquainted he will
+often sit on the arm of a person’s chair at breakfast.
+Whatever his appetite, he will never reach out for food
+at the table, although his long arms give him much
+advantage over his human host. Nor will he ever
+snatch things off the table. His manners are above
+reproach and he keeps himself scrupulously clean.
+As the day is drawing to a close it is his habit to get
+ready for the night. At sunset he settles down to sleep,
+safely seated in the fork of a tree, usually with his
+long arms over his head. He is never boisterous, mischievous,
+or noisy. Oftentimes he seems to be more
+in sympathy with children than with grown-ups.</p>
+
+<p>The diet of the gibbon includes a long list of foods,
+such as fruits, leaves, and young shoots, spiders,
+birds’ eggs, insects, and young birds. If captured
+young the gibbon is readily tamed. He is never sulky
+or ill tempered and shows marked intelligence both in
+learning many tricks and adjusting himself to the
+rules of the home.</p>
+
+<p>The locomotion of these animals among the trees is
+totally different from that of the monkeys. The latter
+climb about using both hands and feet. Gibbons
+employ their arms almost exclusively, swinging from
+branch to branch, with the legs tucked close to the
+body. This is such an important change in the transportation
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span>methods of apedom that we should give it
+particular attention in order to note what effects it
+had produced upon the gibbons themselves. In the
+first place, swinging from one limb to another by the
+hands greatly elongated the forearm and the fingers.
+This kind of locomotion gives the gibbon the appearance
+of taking tremendously long strides with his
+arms. The right hand, first grasping a branch, permits
+the animal to swing twelve or more feet to the next
+branch which is grasped by the left hand. In the next
+step the forward stride is taken by the right hand.
+Thus the animal alternates the right and left hand
+just as we alternate the right and left foot. It is
+probably for this reason that the gibbons have been
+called “tree walkers” (<i>Hylobates</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The second effect produced by this kind of swinging
+locomotion, called brachiation, is even more decisive
+in the final outcome. Transportation such as this
+swinging by the hands drew the body more and more
+into the upright position. It brought about many of
+those fundamental changes which made it possible
+for the gibbon to stand upright, walk, and run upon
+two legs. Compared with other animals of this class,
+the gibbon is the most two-legged of all the apes. He
+walks rather quickly in the erect posture. His gait is
+waddling, and if pursued he will make every effort
+to reach some support by which he can swing himself
+to safety. In walking he turns his leg and foot outward,
+which gives him a bow-legged appearance,
+added to which the shortness of his legs makes his
+movements in walking and running far less graceful
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span>than these acts ultimately came to be in their highest
+exponent, man. Here undoubtedly may be discerned
+important elements for the inception of human locomotion.
+They appear in an animal which can stand,
+walk, and run upright, and also possesses well-developed
+hands.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Gibbons_Resemblance_to_Man">
+  <i>Gibbon’s Resemblance to Man</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The gibbons are said sometimes to scoop up water
+in the hollow of the hand in order to drink. At other
+times they stretch out their long arms among the
+foliage and lick off the dew which adheres to their
+hair, in this way quenching their thirst.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these facts our estimate of the gibbon
+may credit him with certain manlike traits. Yet his
+resemblance to human beings, considering the animal
+as a whole, is at best sketchy and vague. Casual
+observation of the gibbon does not bring any clear
+association with the human being at once to mind.
+Only after watching him, after noting the manner in
+which he gets about, after seeing him walk and run
+on two legs, is it possible to recognize certain tendencies
+which point in the human direction. It is for
+this reason that the gibbon is said to represent a stage
+preceding the manlike apes. Some students of this
+question class the gibbon with these anthropoid apes.
+It seems better judgment, however, to consider him
+rather an animal showing dispositions which serve
+as a starting point for the anthropoids. These tendencies,
+as they are crystallized in the gibbon, represent
+an introductory chapter in the history of all
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span>those animals which later became notable because
+they walked more or less upright and had the use of
+hands. Thus the gibbon is often spoken of as pro-anthropoid.
+He himself is a modern animal. One of
+his venerable ancestors, very much like himself,
+lived long ago—<i>Propliopithecus</i> of the Oligocene.
+The descendants of this ancient extinct ape with the
+long name, whose fossil remains have been found in
+Egypt, followed two lines of development. One line
+led up to the modern anthropoid apes and man, the
+second to the modern gibbons. The first offshoot from
+this line gave rise to a great ape which in many features
+looks much more like man than does the gibbon.
+This is the orang-outang. He is one of the big apes
+seen in the large primate cages of the zoölogical
+gardens. He may be recognized by the brownish-yellow
+hair which covers his body, by his face which
+bears a humorous caricatured resemblance to man,
+and by the erect posture which he assumes much of
+the time. Although he climbs about his cage and its
+supports like a skillful acrobat, this manlike ape lacks
+the grace and agility of the gibbon. He is wild and shy,
+but possesses enormous strength, which makes him
+more than a match for the most able-bodied man.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Orang-Outang">
+  <i>The Orang-Outang</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The orang lives in Borneo and Sumatra. He has
+not been found elsewhere in the world. In his island
+home he enjoys a deserved reputation because of his
+prodigious strength. When full grown he stands a
+little over four feet in height. He has a heavy body,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span>short thick neck, receding forehead, thick lips, and a
+face uncovered by hair. His muzzle protrudes to form
+a thick and heavy upper jaw, with a large mouth
+and large teeth. In the full-grown male the cheek
+pouches become greatly enlarged, so that they look
+like an old-fashioned ruff around the head. This feature
+gives him a hideous and gruesome appearance.
+The arms are long, reaching almost to the ankles
+when the orang stands upright. The hands are long
+and narrow, the thumb is short, the fingers are united
+by webs at their bases. The legs are short in comparison
+to the length of the body and considerably bowed.
+The feet are long and narrow. The great toe is short,
+but it can be used for grasping the branches. Fleshy
+pads over the buttocks are present in the adult male,
+but the orang has no tail. He is easily distinguished
+from the other great apes by his bulging muzzle and
+his light yellowish-brown hair. He seldom exceeds
+four feet two inches when standing upright, but his
+outstretched arms together measure nearly eight
+feet from finger tip to finger tip. Some specimens
+killed by hunters have been reported to stand five
+feet three inches high.</p>
+
+<p>Among the first accurate accounts of the orang-outang’s
+life is that of Alfred Russell Wallace appearing
+in his famous book <i>The Malay Archipelago</i>, from
+which the following description is an extract:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The orang has a wide distribution, inhabiting many districts
+along the coast of the island [Borneo] where it appears chiefly
+confined to the low swampy forests. It particularly affects a
+country which is low and level with a few isolated mountains,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span>on some of which the Dyaks have settled and planted many
+fruit trees which are a great attraction to the orang, as his most
+desirable food seems to be unripe fruit. The habitual habitat of
+the animal is in the lofty virgin forests, in which they can roam
+in every direction with as much facility as the Indian on the
+prairie, passing from treetop to treetop without being obliged
+to descend to the earth. The orang makes his way leisurely
+through the forest, with remarkable ease. He walks deliberately
+along the larger branches, in a semi-erect attitude which his
+great length of arm and the shortness of his legs causes him
+naturally to assume. But this proportion between his limbs
+is increased by his walking on his knuckles and not on the palm
+of his hand. He chooses those branches which intermingle with
+those of an adjoining tree. In approaching these he stretches out
+his long arms, seizing the neighboring bough with both hands
+and then deliberately swings himself across to the next branch,
+on which he walks along as before. He never jumps or springs
+nor even appears to hurry himself, yet he manages to get along
+almost as quickly as a person can run through the forest beneath.
+The long powerful arms are of greatest use to the animal, as
+they enable him to climb easily the highest trees, to seize fruit
+and young leaves from slender boughs which will not bear his
+weight and to gather leaves and branches from which to form
+his nest at night. When wounded he endeavors to make a nest
+in which to remain quiet, and similarly at night prepares a
+resting place in the tree to sleep. He likes this place low down in
+the tree, not over 20 or 30 feet from the ground, probably because
+in this position it is warm and less exposed to the wind.</p>
+
+<p>The orang, it is said, makes a new nest for himself every night
+or perhaps remakes an old one. In rainy weather the animal
+covers himself with leaves or large ferns, and this may have led
+to the belief that he actually builds huts in the trees. The animal
+does not arise from his bed in the morning until the sun is well
+up and has dried the dew upon the leaves. He seldom returns
+to the same tree two days in succession.</p>
+
+<p>They have no particular fear of man, and only retreat slowly
+after a considerable period of scrutinizing inspection. They do
+not have so much of the gregarious tendencies as do the other
+large apes. Two full-grown animals are seldom seen together,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span>but males and females are sometimes accompanied by half-grown
+young ones. At other times three or four young animals
+are seen together. Their food consists almost exclusively of
+fruits, leaves, buds and young shoots. They seem to prefer the
+unripe fruit, even when very sour or intensely bitter, the red
+fleshy arillus being a particular favorite. The orang rarely
+descends to the ground except when pressed by hunger, when
+it seeks the succulent shoots at the riverside. In very dry weather
+it also comes down from the trees in quest of water, of which
+it generally finds sufficient in the hollow of the leaves. They have
+been seen upon the ground playing together, at which times
+they assume the erect posture and grasp each other with their
+arms.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Wallace believes that the orang seldom stands or
+walks erect unless when using its hands to support
+itself by the branches overhead, or when attacked.
+He also thinks that the representations of it walking
+with a stick are quite imaginary. In its general demeanour
+the orang would impress one as dull and
+apathetic. When seated among the branches its back
+is bent, its head is bowed, and its long arms either
+reach up to grasp a branch overhead or hang listlessly
+by its sides. Some explorers have maintained that the
+animal builds huts for itself in the trees. This is largely
+an exaggeration, but the orang has developed an interesting
+technique for building itself a nest in the
+trees as night approaches. Small branches are first
+laid crosswise to form a framework, and over this a
+thick bed of leaves is placed. The orang is quite
+fussy about the construction of its bedroom and takes
+good care to cover itself up when the wind is chilly
+or the night stormy. Even in captivity the animal is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span>particular about the details of its bedchamber and
+always manages to cover itself with straw or newspapers
+if it happens to find them in the cage.</p>
+
+<p>The orang has other constructive tendencies. He
+often manifests some engineering skill in devising
+supports for himself in his cage. With these he will
+amuse himself by the hour, climbing upon the support,
+dropping to the floor, and repeating the entire
+performance time after time in as many different
+ways as he can. In one instance a young male orang
+found a long rope hanging from the roof of his cage.
+He clung to the rope by his left hand and both feet.
+With his free right hand he passed the end of the rope
+around the bars, turned it through a right angle, and
+pulled it tight. In this way he made an interesting
+perch for himself. If anyone detached the rope he at
+once replaced it and thus remade his perch.</p>
+
+<p>On the ground the orang is clumsy. He usually goes
+on all fours, and his walking gait has been likened
+to that of a very old man bent down by age, hobbling
+along with the aid of a cane. It is interesting to note
+that in walking he goes on the outer borders of his
+feet. His stride is short and shuffling. Even when
+hurrying he lopes along rather than runs. Unlike the
+gibbons, the orang does not use his hand as a drinking
+cup. His lower lip protrudes in a capacious trough
+for collecting rain water. If given a pail of milk or
+water the orang lifts the pail and pours the fluid into
+this trough and then swallows it. When captured
+young the animals can be trained and taught to obey
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span>many words of command. In time they get over their
+shyness and seem to like human companionship.
+They are, however, easily frightened. Females when
+pregnant separate themselves from the others and
+remain more or less in seclusion until the young are
+born. The offspring grow slowly and, like human
+infants, require the care of their mothers for a long
+time. When the mother moves about the young one
+clings to the hair of her chest. This is a marked characteristic
+of child care throughout the ape world.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Orang_in_Infancy">
+  <i>The Orang in Infancy</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Wallace recites an interesting experience which he
+had with a baby orang whose mother was shot and
+killed by him in the forest the preceding day. This
+experience is especially interesting because of its
+many human resemblances. When Wallace stooped
+to pick up the helpless infant orang that lay sprawling
+on its back, his long beard was immediately seized
+by the grasping hands and feet of the youngster.
+It was a long and painful ordeal to get away from
+this clinging infant. The baby orang had but a single
+tooth, but soon its milk teeth began to appear, much
+as in a human infant. The lack of milk on the island
+made it difficult to feed the young ape. When a finger
+was placed in its mouth it would suck with great
+vigour, drawing in its cheeks in a vain effort to extract
+milk. After persevering for a long while it would
+give up in disgust and start screaming, much as would
+a human baby under similar circumstances. When
+handled or nursed it was always quiet, but if laid
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span>down by itself it would invariably cry. It enjoyed
+being rubbed after its morning bath and was quite
+happy while its hair was being combed and brushed.</p>
+
+<p>For the first few days it clung desperately by all
+four hands to everything it could reach, and Wallace
+remarks that it was necessary for him to be cautious
+in keeping his beard out of the way. He felt that the
+infant ape was lonely and needed companionship, so
+a little harelipped monkey of the macacus variety was
+obtained as a playmate. It was curious to see the
+difference in the actions of these two animals, the
+one an offspring of a humbler monkey, the other born
+of one of the great manlike apes. The two young ones
+were about the same age. The orang, just like a human
+baby, would lie upon its back helplessly rolling
+from side to side, stretching out all four hands into
+the air and striving to grasp something, although
+hardly able to guide its fingers to any desired object.
+When dissatisfied it opened wide its almost toothless
+mouth and expressed its discomfort in an infantile
+scream. The little macacus monkey, on the other
+hand, was constantly on the go, running and jumping
+about, examining everything in sight, taking hold
+of objects with greatest precision, balancing itself on
+the edge of its box and searching everywhere for food.
+There could scarcely be a greater contrast. One could
+hardly escape the conclusion that in the orang, as in
+man, a long period of slow growth is necessary for its
+final development. The advantages of such growth
+are sufficiently apparent and need no further comment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Psychological_Tests">
+  <i>Psychological Tests</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The orang-outang has not yet been so extensively
+subjected to psychological study as its more sociable
+fellow ape, the chimpanzee. It is fortunate, however,
+that at least one of this species has come under the
+critical observation of an astute student of animal
+behaviour, Professor Robert M. Yerkes, of Yale
+University. In his notable contribution on the mental
+life of monkeys and apes, Professor Yerkes has described
+certain tests devised for estimating the intelligence
+of lower animals, and applied to the partly
+grown orang known as “Julius.” These tests were
+devised on what is known as the “multiple choice
+basis.” Julius, after many unsuccessful efforts to solve
+his problems by the method of trial and error, quite
+unexpectedly seemed to get the idea of what was
+wanted. He suddenly responded to the test without a
+single mistake. He seemed to solve his problem quite
+as if he knew what it was all about. It took him a
+long time, but at last he showed that he was capable
+of some kind of thinking. The curve of learning as it
+was charted day by day from the actions of Julius
+indicated that if he had been a human subject his
+mental process would possibly have been described
+as rational. Professor Yerkes feels justified in concluding
+from this evidence that the orang solves his
+problems ideationally. In general, Julius appeared to
+be far superior to other monkeys in his intelligence.
+His mental processes were slow, but the method of
+learning by ideas seemed to replace the simpler way
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span>of trial and error which is common throughout the
+monkey world. Julius persistently endeavoured, and
+often vainly, to gain some insight into a situation.
+Even though slow, he showed nevertheless that the
+brain had at length attained the development necessary
+for the production of real ideas. However questionable
+this attainment may be in the monkeys or
+in other lower animals, there seems to be little doubt
+about its existence in the orang.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brains_of_the_Gibbon_and_Orang">
+  <i>Brains of the Gibbon and Orang</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Upon reviewing the facts concerning the gibbon
+and the orang, we may ask certain questions. For
+example, does the real progress which these two members
+of the ape world show in their capacity to do
+things manifest itself as a measurable difference in
+their brains? Would it be possible to maintain that
+these were indeed the brains of more capable and
+more intelligent animals than the monkeys? Certain
+features about the brain of the gibbon and the orang
+are striking. In the first place, the pattern of their
+convolutions is more complicated. The orang especially
+has more grooves and convolutions upon the
+surface of the superbrain. It is believed, and many
+facts sustain the belief, that convolutions indicate in
+a general way the capacity of an animal to develop
+brain power. In the gibbon the increase in convolutions
+is not so pronounced as in the orang, although it
+is not difficult to see that in this respect the gibbon’s
+brain is much improved when compared with lower
+monkeys. Upon identifying the familiar landmarks,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span>it is obvious that the groove of Sylvius, the central
+groove, and even the ape groove form more decisive
+boundaries and outline more prominent lobes than in
+macaque or baboon. The superbrain departments
+for sight (occipital lobe), for hearing (temporal lobe),
+for body and contact senses (parietal lobe), are all
+more extensive. Each lobe, by the presence in it of
+smaller secondary grooves which do not appear in the
+lower monkeys, shows how its capacity has expanded.
+The grooves of the brain, in their arrangement, number,
+and relations, now begin to assume an appearance
+similar to that of the human brain. Each sense
+department in the orang is well organized. Each has
+gained in prominence, thus indicating how the senses
+of sight and hearing, and body and contact senses,
+have increased their capacity. By means of its amplified
+sensory combinations the superbrain was eventually
+capable of producing intelligent reactions.
+The area in front of the central groove manifests the
+chief improvement. This is the part of the brain in
+contact with the frontal bone. It has made some advances
+in the gibbon but is still more prominent in
+the orang. At this stage it is possible to speak of a
+well-developed frontal lobe acting as the headquarters
+of all higher mental functions. The large increase in
+the size of the orang’s brain is in some degree proportional
+to the size of the animal’s body. Many other
+factors have actuated this expansion and will receive
+special consideration in a subsequent chapter.</p>
+
+<p>If it were possible to reduce the difference in intelligence
+between the orang and the gibbon to actual
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span>figures, the contrasts would be marked. Certain
+estimations of this kind are significant. The bridge
+(<i>pons Varolii</i>) on the base of the brain, which may be
+regarded as an index of intelligence, has a value of
+.200 in the gibbon and .300 in the orang. The pyramid,
+indicating the degree of skill in movement attained
+by the animal, as well as the degree of controlling
+itself by the dictates of its will, also shows a considerable
+difference. This difference is again in favour
+of the orang, whose pyramid is estimated at .160,
+while that of the gibbon is .138.</p>
+
+<p>Many other points indicating similar advantages
+held by the orang over the gibbon might be cited.
+They have the same general meaning, namely, that
+the orang possesses a better brain. In fact, all of the
+evidence gathered from this animal reveals many
+manlike tendencies. Such tendencies, both in brain
+and behaviour, first became notable in the gibbon.
+At this stage they were not prominent features. They
+were, so to speak, in a preparatory or pro-anthropoid
+phase. In the orang those manlike tendencies foreshadowed
+by the gibbon became more definite and
+better developed. They formed the foundations for
+new combinations out of which was to emerge a still
+higher type of animal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">
+    CHAPTER IX
+    <br>
+    HUMAN IN MINIATURE
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">THE BRAIN OF THE CHIMPANZEE</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The chimpanzee has a well-established reputation
+for many sterling qualities. He is a comedian of no
+mean talent, and often as a buoyant fun maker earns
+a large salary. He is also famous as an acrobat.</p>
+
+<p>Depending upon his species, the chimpanzee varies
+in height from four feet to four feet five inches. As a
+class these apes are spread out over more territory
+than any of the other great anthropoids. They live in
+West and Central Equatorial Africa ranging from
+Gambia in the north as far south as Angola. In colour
+they are black with thick hair over the entire body,
+except the brow and face. In some species the scalp
+is bare, as in the bald-headed chimpanzee. All varieties
+are powerful but lightly built animals. They
+possess great strength and agility. In spite of his relatively
+short stature, the chimpanzee is a dangerous
+enemy even for the strongest man. His head is flattened
+in the region of the forehead, which has a thick
+bony ridge above the eyes. The ridge of the nose is
+flat. The mouth is large and the lips thick. The ears
+are especially large and project upward almost as
+high as the vertex of the head. The lower jaw protrudes
+considerably. The teeth in general are large
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span>and formidable, the canines in particular being prominent.
+The skin over the face is usually dark, but in
+some species it is lighter than surrounding areas.
+This is particularly true in the region of the mouth
+and nose. The body is short and the abdomen pendulous.
+The legs are shorter than the arms. The foot is
+short with a great toe that is thick and opposable.
+The other toes are united by a web near the base.
+The arms are long, with finger tips reaching a considerable
+distance below the knees when the animal
+stands erect. The hands are broad, the thumb is
+short, and the fingers webbed near their bases, as in
+the case of the toes. As is true of the other great anthropoids,
+the chimpanzee has no tail. The female
+bears one young at a time, which she carries when
+passing through the forest and along the ground in
+the manner characteristic of other apes.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Intelligence_of_the_Chimpanzee">
+  <i>Intelligence of the Chimpanzee</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Concerning the habits of the chimpanzee in its
+native state little is known. Fortunately, many of
+these animals have been captured when young.
+Some of them have become noted circus performers,
+or famous moving-picture actors. A number of them
+have been studied from the standpoint of their behaviour
+and psychology. One of the best records of
+the chimpanzee comes to us as an echo of the Great
+War. It furnishes another instance of German thoroughness
+and scientific enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago the Prussian Academy of Science
+established at Teneriffe in the Canary Islands a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span>special station equipped for the study of the great
+manlike apes. It was here that Professor Köhler
+found himself during the Great War and here he remained
+interned with nine chimpanzees for two years.
+During this time he lived with these animals largely
+shut off from the rest of the world by the naval
+blockade. The report of his experience and studies is
+given in a delightful narrative published both in English
+and German called <i>The Mentality of Apes</i>. The
+following descriptions of the chimpanzee are taken
+from Professor Köhler’s book. In this work his chief
+purpose was to test the intelligence of the larger manlike
+apes. To this end it was necessary to devise certain
+methods which he called “roundabout tests”
+because they complicated ordinary situations in such
+a way as to require intelligence on the part of the
+animal for their solution.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the study one of the most quick-witted
+chimpanzees in the collection was given the following
+problem: From the roof of the animals’ playground a
+basket of bananas was suspended by means of a
+string passed through an iron ring. The end of this
+string was tied in a noose and placed over the limb
+of an old tree at a height of nine feet from the ground.
+When all was ready, the chimpanzee called “Sultan”
+was sent out into the playground. He, of course, was
+familiar with this basket and associated it with feeding
+time. On entering the enclosure Sultan saw the
+basket at once and then began to manifest signs of
+agitation because, contrary to custom, he was all
+alone in the open. He began at once to show his feelings
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span>in true chimpanzee style. Jumping about he expressed
+his extreme disapproval at being alone by
+making a thundering noise with his feet against the
+wall of the ape house. It seemed as if he were calling
+upon the other chimpanzees to come out and join
+him. He even tried to get in communication with
+the other animals by climbing up and looking in at
+their windows. But all of this was to no avail. Presently
+he appeared to take a renewed interest in the
+bananas. He looked up at the basket, and having
+sized up the situation made for the tree, climbed
+quickly to the noose, pulled the string until the basket
+bumped against the roof, released the string, pulled it
+a second time even more vigorously, until a banana
+fell to the ground. Sultan then left the tree, but soon
+ascended once more, now to pull violently upon the
+string until it broke and the entire basket fell. Immediately
+he scampered down, took the basket, and
+went off in a corner to eat the fruit. Thus Sultan, in a
+comparatively brief time, solved this roundabout
+problem by obtaining the objective in spite of the
+obstacles put in his way.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Chimpanzees_Use_of_Implements">
+  <i>The Chimpanzee’s Use of Implements</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Many experiments were made to see how much the
+chimpanzees make use of implements, but in the
+main these experiments were not necessary. The
+chimpanzee, as if by nature, handles many objects
+in his immediate surroundings in a variety of ways.
+His powerful hands serve in a most natural manner
+as a useful link between him and the world of things
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span>outside. His feet, although far more than a second pair
+of hands, may be used in emergencies when the human
+feet would be quite useless. The jaws and teeth
+are also serviceable, and are employed as among
+many African tribes and other primitive people.
+The handling of everyday objects by the chimpanzee
+comes almost entirely in the nature of play. Sometimes
+under the pressure of need it appears that new
+knowledge acquired from using objects at play will
+be put to still better use in gaining some desired objective.
+In the main, however, what the chimpanzee
+may use in this way is without the slightest idea of
+immediate gain and serves only to increase the joy
+of living. Thus jumping with the aid of a stick or pole,
+invented by one of the brightest chimpanzees, was
+imitated by all the others as a means of entertainment.
+Later it was put to more practical use for obtaining
+food which was suspended above them and out
+of reach. In order to get this food it was necessary
+to resort to some means of lifting their body toward
+the desired goal. In the end the jumping with a stick
+in play was converted to a sort of pole vaulting by
+means of which the chimpanzees all acquired a
+thoroughly businesslike method for getting such food
+as was out of reach over their heads. These chimps
+also used straws and twigs as we use spoons. At first
+this was more or less in play during mealtime, especially
+after their first thirst had been quenched.
+Then they liked to amuse themselves by dipping the
+water up with a straw and sucking the straw. Once
+some red wine was poured into the drinking water
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span>which they shared in common. At the first taste of
+this new mixture they all paused for a moment and
+looked at each other; then one of the chimpanzees
+began to spoon up this wonderful drink with a straw,
+and all the others immediately followed his example.
+In learning to use twigs and straws for spoons there
+was no possibility of imitation. None of the chimpanzees
+had a chance of seeing a human being use a
+knife or spoon while eating. The twig or stick was also
+employed quite deftly in other ways, adding to its
+usefulness as a table utensil some of the properties of
+a weapon for the chase. In the summer time a species
+of ant infests the part of the Canary Islands where
+these great apes were housed. These ants passed in a
+wide stream, moving along over the beams, around a
+wire netting which encircled the playground. The
+chimpanzee has a great liking for acid fruit, which he
+prefers to all others. It is no doubt for this reason
+that he relishes the formic acid in the ants. Usually
+upon seeing the ants the chimpanzee simply rolled
+his tongue along a beam over which they were crawling
+and thus gathered them in to himself. If the wire
+netting came between him and this coveted delicacy,
+such a method of capture would not suffice. In consequence,
+all of the chimpanzees soon learned to
+use sticks and straws, which they thrust through the
+wire netting and held in this position until covered
+by ants. The straws were then withdrawn, and the
+insects promptly licked off and devoured. This
+method of capture proved most satisfactory and entertaining.
+Their attention was entirely absorbed in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span>the process of overcoming the obstacle between them
+and the delicate morsels which they craved.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Strong_Human_Resemblances">
+  <i>Strong Human Resemblances</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>If a mouse, a lizard, or some small crawling animal
+entered the playground, the chimpanzees at once
+became greatly excited. They manifested all of the
+hunting interest apparent in the human species under
+like circumstances. There was also evidence of fear
+and timidity on these occasions, not, however, confined
+to the female alone. Even the bolder chimpanzees
+that evinced the greatest hunting interest did
+not give chase with any creditable show of courage.
+They manifested caution and hesitation throughout
+the entire performance. Nearly every movement on
+the part of the poor quarry was followed by nervous
+gestures of the chimps. The largest ones hesitated to
+make a capture by a sudden snatch with the naked
+hand. It was amusing and almost laughable to see
+these powerful apes stretch out their hands with the
+evident intention of catching the prey, with fingers
+all pointed in anticipation, then suddenly, on the
+slightest movement of the mouse or lizard, quickly
+withdraw the hand again. A firm grasp upon one of
+these little wriggling animals appeared almost as
+impossible for the chimpanzees as for many people.
+Despite the great excitement which the presence of
+invaders occasioned, the little animals would often
+escape because the chimpanzees lacked that last degree
+of daring necessary to make a successful capture.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span>Presently they learned to use sticks upon the
+small intruders of their domain. With these weapons,
+if the victim did not escape, they would at length
+dispatch it. This they did in no spirit of cruelty but
+rather in sheer excitement of the chase.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Köhler took great pains to observe the
+rapidity with which the chimpanzees adjusted themselves
+when confronted by new conditions for the
+first time in their lives. One of the most striking
+tests of this kind was their introduction to the electric
+current. It was decided to observe how the chimpanzees
+would act when they made the acquaintance
+of this entirely new circumstance. For this purpose
+one wire from an electric induction coil was attached
+to a metal basket filled with bananas and suspended
+from the roof. The other wire from the battery was
+made fast to a metal netting upon the ground beneath
+the basket. In a short time all of the chimpanzees
+became intensely interested in the fruit above their
+heads. They were particularly eager to reach the
+bananas. To do so it was necessary for them to stand
+upon the wire netting on the ground. At first one
+chimpanzee approached cautiously. Having taken
+up his position with both feet upon the wire netting,
+he reached slowly up to the metal basket. This of
+course immediately made a connection which delivered
+an electric current through his hand. The reaction
+of the chimpanzee was astonishingly human.
+Immediately upon touching the basket he felt the
+shock of the current and with a cry of dismay bounded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span>off in great surprise. His curiosity, however, was not
+yet satisfied. He still had a hungry longing for the
+bananas. Everything about the situation looked
+thoroughly familiar and innocent to him. He could
+see no reason why the basket on this occasion should
+treat him so rudely or why he experienced such an
+unpleasant sensation in trying to get his food as he
+had done a hundred times before. Appetite and curiosity
+finally got the upper hand, and stealing up
+cautiously he made a second attempt. This time he
+was less hasty in grasping the basket and spent
+several moments in hesitating attempts to touch it,
+drawing his hand back now and again. At length, with
+a sudden grasp, he reached for the goal, only to
+receive another shock. In apparent indignation he
+hopped away in much the same manner as might any
+human being who had inadvertently touched a hot
+stove. Nothing would do, however, but that all of
+the chimpanzees in turn should follow the example
+of their leader and try to get the bananas away from
+this strange thing that seemed to be outwitting them.
+One after another they made their futile attempts
+until it became a pathetic sight to see them sitting
+around in a mournful ring, sometimes looking at their
+hands, sometimes shaking them resentfully, and always
+gazing wistfully at the inaccessible delicacies.
+Most of the chimpanzees during this test reacted in
+a manner which might easily be called human. It was
+rather impressive to observe that all of their reactions
+under these conditions were actual counterparts of
+human behaviour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Chimpanzee_Sports_and_Nest_Making">
+  <i>Chimpanzee Sports and Nest Making</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In handling other objects the chimpanzees showed
+a strong tendency to develop new habits. After a
+time they did not confine themselves alone to thrusting
+and hitting with sticks. They soon began to
+throw them around. In moments when they were
+greatly pleased (and chimpanzees have a joyful,
+buoyant nature) they showed their delight in a new
+way, especially when very good food was being provided.
+On such occasions one of them would seize
+another and shake him violently out of sheer pleasure
+and approval. Under such provocation a large chimpanzee
+developed the habit of taking a stick and
+flinging it forcefully at some comrade in his vicinity.
+This frequently happened in play also. One female, a
+remarkable athlete called “Chica,” developed the
+amusing pastime of stealing up behind her companions
+as they sat quietly at rest, and from fairly close
+quarters hurling a stick at them. Immediately she
+would scurry off, apparently much delighted by the
+discomfort that she had caused. From throwing
+sticks it was but a short step to throwing handfuls
+of sand at one another, and finally stones of varied
+size and weight. At first their aim was poor, but soon
+throwing stones became a ruling passion among them,
+and some of them became dangerously expert, especially
+the wily Chica. She practised so continuously
+that she soon acquired great skill and an excellent
+aim. From this pastime she appeared to derive much
+satisfaction, whether hurling stones at her fellow
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span>apes or at her human associates. Both ape and man
+acquired such a genuine respect for her ability in
+this regard that whenever they found her in this
+mood they quickly retired to safety and permitted
+the expert marksman to find her amusement on less
+sensitive targets. All of these hurling activities, which
+were in the nature of play, might for a few moments
+determine an exciting stone battle. But the sharpshooting
+Chica was so obviously superior that the
+fray was certain to be short lived.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all of the chimpanzees made nests for themselves,
+even from the earliest infancy onward. In
+these operations, as might be expected, the full-grown
+chimpanzee made the best beds. It may not be
+altogether clear why the adult female was the best
+chambermaid of all. Her efforts in bed making did in
+fact show a precision in tidiness that was unequalled
+by any of the others. Usually in the evening, as the
+strenuous play of the day subsided, all of the apes
+began to gather heaps of straw. In the centre of each
+heap a chimpanzee would sit quietly and begin to
+twist the ends of the straw together. This work continued
+all around the edge until a natural nest, not
+unlike that of the stork, was formed. The younger
+animals in their nest making were less exact. They
+seldom made so neat a turning down of the outer
+edges, but on some occasions, when they apparently
+took more pains with their handiwork, their movements
+during the preparation of the nest were exactly
+like those of the older females. Nests were often
+made during the day in pure fun, and many different
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span>materials, such as string, grass, branches, rags, ropes,
+and even wire, were collected for this purpose. It was
+quite evident that in their nest-making activities
+the younger chimpanzees imitated the actions of the
+older ones.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Clowning_and_Masquerade">
+  <i>Clowning and Masquerade</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Objects of many kinds interested these apes. They
+seemed particularly fond of carrying quite a variety
+of rubbish about on the body in one way or another.
+Nearly every day some of the animals began walking
+around the playground with a piece of rope, a bit of
+rag, a blade of grass, or a twig upon the shoulders.
+Some of them if given a bit of metal chain would put
+it proudly around their necks like a necklace. Bushes
+and brambles were often carried in considerable
+quantities spread out over the entire back. In these
+actions they affected a manner that revealed tendencies
+familiar to human masquerading in grotesque
+or fantastic costumes. One of the chimpanzees contracted
+the habit of carrying around empty preserve
+cans by grasping the lid of the can between his
+teeth. All of this occupation was done as diversion or
+entertainment, from which the chimpanzees derived
+much visible pleasure. The clowning actions of these
+apes clearly held the attention of those not actively
+participating in the performances, and many of them,
+like little children, attempted to imitate the antics of
+the leader. When dressed up in these various ways
+the chimpanzees often displayed an almost impish
+self-important audacity, strutting about among their
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span>companions or advancing upon them in a menacing
+way. One of the older females, attired for play, would
+trot around in a circle with several of the smaller
+animals following closely at her heels. Sometimes the
+entire company playing in this fashion would march
+around in a circle, one behind the other. The largest
+animal would stamp its foot at each step, as though
+beating time for the parade. The other animals followed
+suit by an accentuation of the marching movements.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Manufacture_and_Building">
+  <i>Manufacture and Building</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Not only did the chimpanzees acquire many ways
+for employing objects which they encountered, but
+some of them actually went one step farther. They
+manifested a degree of ingenuity in constructing special
+implements for themselves. The results of this
+constructive industry, it must be admitted, were relatively
+simple. On the other hand, there can be no
+doubt that the chimpanzee does manufacture instruments,
+in a modest way, which help him to gain
+his ends. One of the most talented apes learned to
+fit a small piece of bamboo into the cavity at the
+end of a larger piece. In this way he built a long bamboo
+pole, which was especially useful for procuring
+food hung above his head and out of reach. All of the
+chimpanzees ultimately developed some degree of
+constructive or engineering ability. They actually became
+builders on a small scale. This ability grew out
+of their learning to use boxes in order to reach objects
+over their heads. Using one box led to the advantage
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span>of piling one box on top of another and thus constructing
+a tower. They were not all equally expert as
+builders. As might be expected, the more quick-witted
+and alert members of the group learned how to
+build first, and this they did entirely of their own
+initiative. After they had built a tower of this kind,
+the long bamboo stick came in handy as a means to
+bring the suspended banana to the ground. Here two
+modes of solving a problem were combined—that of
+building, and that of using the long pole. Building
+operations soon became a favourite pastime; yet in
+spite of the fact that they were given every opportunity
+they never developed an efficient labour organization.
+However helpful united efforts may have been
+toward their ultimate aim, the chimpanzees failed to
+realize the advantages of a mutual aid society. There
+was doubtless a reason for their lack of intelligence
+in developing higher efficiency in this respect. Almost
+invariably their building operations were dictated by
+a desire to obtain food that was out of their reach.
+Among the chimpanzees this goal was in no sense a
+mutual interest. It was a matter of the utmost selfish
+concern to each chimpanzee. So whatever advantage
+there might have been in a division of labour, there
+was never a thought of dividing the spoils. When the
+chimpanzees gravely assembled in the presence of a
+basket of food hung up over their heads, they gazed
+about for proper materials to use as tools in reaching
+the desired goal. One would bring a pole; another
+would drag up a box. These were put in position preparatory
+to constructing a tower. The building
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span>would then begin in earnest. When the first stages of
+construction were complete several of the animals
+at the same time would show great impatience to
+clamber up. Each one of them acted as if either he or
+she were the sole proprietor of the structure. Often,
+too, the box already in position would be snatched
+away by some competitive group in the building industry
+and dragged off to be used in the construction
+of a rival tower. This would usually result in a wrangle
+among the architects. In fact, the entire company
+of builders might come to blows over this infringement
+of property rights. After the subsidence of these
+Babel-like controversies the building would be resumed
+and the structure would continue to grow in
+height until it became an object of ever-increasing
+excitement to the assembled workers, each manifesting
+a keen desire to mount it. In consequence of this
+highly individualistic competition and due to their
+restless efforts, the tower would sometimes tumble
+over and the result of their labours be destroyed.
+Then it was necessary to begin all over again. Usually
+in this renewed effort only the more diligent and
+patient of the chimpanzees adhered to the original
+purpose. The others became interested in more trivial
+occupations. Eventually the tower was finished, and
+the more diligent as well as the more patient of the
+toilers quietly mounted to the summit of the structure
+and, either with or without the aid of the pole, obtained
+the coveted bananas. Sometimes, however,
+just when the diligent one was ready to reap the just
+reward of his efforts, some member of the group endowed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span>with unusual athletic prowess rushed up
+stealthily and with great speed to the top of the tower
+and seized the prize before the rightful winner had
+time to protest or retaliate. In all of this building enterprise
+there is something so fundamentally human,
+so reminiscent of modern methods, that it seems inaccurate
+to class these reactions too rigidly in the
+category of ape behaviour.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Emotions_of_the_Chimpanzee">
+  <i>Emotions of the Chimpanzee</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The chimpanzee, according to Professor Köhler,
+has a range of expression of emotion even greater
+than that of the average human being. The chimp
+shows his feelings by his entire body, not merely
+by his facial expressions. It is his custom to jump up
+and down both in joyful anticipation and in anger or
+annoyance. In extreme despair or disgust, which
+the animal shows on slight provocation, he has the
+habit of flinging himself upon his back, rolling wildly
+to and fro, swinging and waving his arms about his
+head in a frantic manner not, on the whole, very
+different from the way in which some non-European
+races manifest their disappointment and dejection.
+The chimpanzee is not known to weep, nor does he
+laugh in quite the human sense of the term. There is
+something approaching human laughter in his rhythmical
+gasping and grunting when he is tickled. While
+quietly watching objects that seem particularly
+pleasing (and his greatest delight comes from observing
+little children) the face of the chimpanzee, especially
+around the mouth, has an expression not unlike
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span>a human smile. When perplexed or in doubt, he has
+a way of scratching the surface of his body, especially
+the arms, breast, or upper portions of the thigh. It
+has not been stated that during these moments of
+perplexity he scratches the head, as is the common
+human custom. He conveys his meaning not only of
+emotional distaste but also of definite desires. The
+expression of his wishes is in large part shown by
+direct imitation of the actions desired. Thus, when
+one chimp wishes to be accompanied by another, he
+gives the latter a nudge and pulls him by the hand.
+If one chimpanzee wishes to receive bananas from
+another, he imitates the movement of snatching
+or grasping accompanied by pleading glances. The
+summoning of another chimpanzee from a considerable
+distance is often accompanied by a beckoning
+that is very human in character. Their many actions
+in all instances are characteristic enough to be understood
+by their comrades.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Surgical_Interests">
+  <i>Surgical Interests</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The chimpanzee is especially prone to pay close
+attention to the wounds or injuries received by his
+fellows. The motive of this attention may scarcely
+be called mutual aid. The removal of splinters from
+each other’s hands and feet is a favourite clinical
+operation. In this pursuit the chimpanzee employs
+methods usually in vogue among the human laity.
+Two finger nails are pressed on either side of the splinter,
+which is thus elevated until it may be caught and
+removed by the teeth. Professor Köhler himself,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span>once having suffered from such an accident, ventured
+to allow one of the chimpanzees to remove the splinter
+from his hand. On perceiving the condition, the chimpanzee’s
+face at once assumed an expression of eager
+intensity, and his attention became concentrated in
+preparation for his surgical efforts. He seized the
+hand, examined the wound, forced out the splinter
+with two somewhat powerful squeezes of his finger
+nails, and then closely examined the hand to be satisfied
+that his work was well done.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Morals_Among_Chimpanzees">
+  <i>Morals Among Chimpanzees</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>There is much of interest in the experiences of
+another distinguished observer, Dr. Charles F.
+Sonntag, formerly Prosector of the Zoölogical Society
+of London, who has called attention to the fact that
+the chimpanzee is said to be filthy in its habits.
+He observed that many of these animals in captivity
+do not manifest such traits, nor do they
+show any tendency toward immoral behaviour as
+has been claimed. It seems unfortunate even to imply
+that such a delinquency as immorality exists among
+chimpanzees or, for that matter, any of the lower
+mammals. But since the point has been raised, it may
+be well to recall that morals are of human making.
+They are designed to modify, to restrain, or to prevent
+the development of certain animal tendencies which
+are a human heritage from the great animal kingdom.
+If the chimpanzee in any of its actions tends to depart
+from the code of morality established by man in one
+part of the world or another, this can be no reproach
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span>to the ape, since man himself has not yet been completely
+successful in building up a system of restrictive
+laws to protect himself from the devastations of
+his own animal inheritance.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Köhler, from his long studies of the chimpanzees,
+concluded that these apes manifest intelligent
+behaviour of a general kind familiar in human
+beings. Not all of their intelligent acts are similar to
+human acts, but by means of well-chosen tests the
+character of intelligent conduct can always be traced
+in the chimpanzee. These apes differ among themselves
+just as much as people do, in their mentality
+and intelligence. Some of them may be mentally
+deficient, just as there are mentally deficient human
+beings. One remark of Professor Köhler’s is a keen
+social criticism with a wide application to life in general.
+He maintains that the tests designed for the
+chimpanzee serve two purposes: First, they determine
+the intelligence of the apes; and, second, they test
+the intelligence of the examiner. This is eminently
+true in all intellectual contacts between human
+beings. It is a fact that the chimpanzees stand out
+among all other animals in their form, in their actions,
+and in their understanding. In these respects they
+come much closer to the human standard than any
+other ape, with the possible exception of the gorilla.
+All of these observations agree well with the theory
+of evolution, and in particular with the close relations
+existing between the growth of intelligence and the
+development of the brain.</p>
+
+<p>Many other chimpanzees have been studied from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span>time to time. The conclusions drawn from them have
+been closely similar to those already cited. Romanes
+some years ago studied the trained chimpanzee,
+Sally, which was famous for her high degree of intelligence.
+Under training this animal acquired the ability
+to count. She could draw a number of straws to six
+or seven, and upon request would indicate with
+straws the exact number she had been instructed
+to show. This achievement, in combination with
+many other extraordinary performances, reveals certain
+striking likenesses to man, particularly as to the
+degree of the chimpanzee’s power to learn.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Chimpanzees_Social_Traits">
+  <i>The Chimpanzee’s Social Traits</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Others besides Professor Köhler are willing to give
+the chimpanzee credit for unusual good-fellowship.
+All admit that he is a most friendly creature. Often
+an affectionate attachment exists between him and
+his owner or keeper. He is never loath to indulge in
+his clowning performances to please and entertain his
+human friends. His actions on these occasions have
+doubtless been the models for the ludicrous mimicry
+of olden times now generally referred to as “aping.”
+In many of the army encampments in Africa, monkeys
+and apes have been the much-prized pets of the
+officers. It was not uncommon to find among these
+pets the highly sociable chimpanzee. Frequently the
+officers manifested much zeal and interest in training
+their charges and felt a real pride in exhibiting them.
+Sometimes on gala occasions these simian pets occupied
+places at the table beside their owners. They
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span>partook in most approved style both of food and of
+drink. Not a few of them have shown a distinctly
+human characteristic in their strong liking for intoxicating
+liquors. The chimpanzee has always had a decided
+penchant in this direction. At mess dinners
+and on other occasions he not only manifested a keen
+liking for good wines but took his share with the rest.
+Often he, like his human companions, rose to hilarious
+heights. Often, too, it was necessary to lead him off to
+bed in such a deplorable condition that he would
+appear next morning with a shaky hand on his brow
+and that sad expression which plainly told the consequences
+of festive revelry. One of these chimpanzees
+had a particular fondness for afternoon tea and would
+join the officers’ group at this time as a matter of
+course. His manners were altogether agreeable. He
+acquired all of the airs essential to such occasions
+even to certain banal chatterings.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="In_Prophecy_of_the_Human_Brain">
+  <i>In Prophecy of the Human Brain</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>If doubts should remain concerning the superior
+and almost manlike capacities of the chimpanzee,
+these may be soon put at rest by inspection of his
+brain. In this organ there are indications of the means
+by which the chimpanzee has acquired his new and
+extensive powers of learning, his greater understanding,
+his higher capacity for adjustments to life, and
+his many reactions which are so nearly human.</p>
+
+<p>Every sense department in the superbrain has
+shown pronounced improvements. A survey of the
+chimpanzee’s brain shows it to be a mechanism better
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span>organized for the purposes of efficient output than
+that of other apes and monkeys. It is a larger brain.
+It also has a greater richness in grooves and convolutions
+showing that its capacity for developing brain
+power has been much increased. The groove of Sylvius
+has been tipped backward in consequence of expansions
+in the department of hearing and the department
+of body and contact senses. In the department
+of hearing (the temporal lobe) the convolutions are
+more complex than in any other lower apes or monkeys.
+In fact, the entire pattern of coil arrangement
+in this part of the superbrain is similar to that seen
+in man. It has, perhaps, a simpler design, but the
+essential features of the pattern may all be identified.
+In the department of sight the same principle of expansion
+has been at work. The convolutions in the
+occipital lobe have increased both in number and
+complexity of arrangement. There are more grooves
+and more convolutions in this region than we have yet
+encountered. Such also is the case in the department
+for body and contact senses (the parietal lobe), in
+which the grooves and convolutions manifest an
+arrangement identical to that of man. The lesser
+brain, lying as it does tucked away beneath the occipital
+pole of the superbrain, also shows marked increase
+in size, so that the subsidiary department
+essential to postures of the limbs and body, and also
+to balance, has kept pace with the superbrain. Appraised
+on the value of its great working departments,
+a brain like this reveals the manner in which
+progressive development has advanced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span></p>
+
+<p>The organization for transacting the functions of
+hearing has been greatly improved, if we judge by
+the enlargement of the temporal lobe. Furthermore,
+it appears that certain sub-departments for handling
+these transactions have been established. They doubtless
+have to do with a better filing system for auditory
+impressions and especially for correlating the impressions
+of things heard with similar records of things
+seen. This method of cross reference produces a better
+understanding of all objects encountered in the surroundings.
+A practical illustration may assist in
+visualizing the manner in which such associations
+operate. If in their home life the chimpanzees are
+suddenly startled by the report of a gun, which they
+have never heard before, the entire family may be
+greatly perturbed by the harsh and unfamiliar sound.
+The sound alone might be startling and disagreeable,
+but the sound cross referenced by the sight of the
+hunter and gun comes to mean peril. Instances of this
+kind might be multiplied to show how essential to
+success in life this system of cross reference is. In fact,
+it is the amplification of this system that underlies
+our progress as individuals or as a race. The structural
+signs of this progress are to be found in the region of
+the brain that we have been discussing. We may
+recognize them in the increased number of convolutions
+which provide for better development of brain
+power. Equally pronounced are the advances that
+have taken place in the organization of body and
+contact senses. This department lies immediately
+above the Sylvian groove in the parietal lobe. It receives
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span>all communications transmitted from the outside
+world by the sense of touch and by the various
+movements of the body. The convolutions in this
+region indicate a highly organized department which
+we might expect in view of the remarkable performances
+of the chimpanzee. Walking a tight rope, eating
+his food with a certain degree of good manners, drilling
+to music, or driving an automobile, the chimpanzee
+clearly demonstrates how expert he has
+become in the use of his hands and feet. His cleverness
+depends upon his ability to sense the things he
+touches and to appreciate the finest grades of motion
+made by his arms and legs. In addition to this high
+degree of sensing in his hands, he has also acquired
+greater capacity for appreciating movements and
+postures of his entire body. Unless the chimpanzee
+had this expanded department for body and touch
+senses, it would be impossible for him to learn many
+of the performances which he does so skillfully. He
+also would be unable to apply this skill under the
+direction of his masters or according to the dictates
+of his own wishes. It is not difficult to understand,
+therefore, why all the great departments of the senses
+have increased so much in size in the chimpanzee.
+Obviously, by amplifying and refining the raw materials
+received as sense impressions, the output seen
+in the chimpanzee’s behaviour has been correspondingly
+amplified and extended. The significance of
+growth in the parietal, the occipital, and the temporal
+lobes in this light becomes clear.</p>
+
+<p>One important detail in the superbrain of the chimpanzee
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span>we have not yet considered. It will be recalled
+that the central groove is one of the salient landmarks
+in the brain. Its outstanding importance arises from
+the fact that it is the boundary line of the frontal
+lobe. All of the territory lying in front of this groove
+represents the last acquired department of the superbrain,
+the one having the highest authority. It is here
+that all of the highest brain functions are located.
+Judgment and reason are included in this list. But
+to these should be added the ability to profit by
+experience in the better guidance of life, the upbuilding
+of personality, and the proper adjustment in all
+courses of action requiring initiative, insight, restraint,
+and self-control; and, finally, recognition of
+responsibility and appreciation of opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>The frontal territory in the chimpanzee is more
+extensive than in the orang or any other of the lower
+apes. It shows an additional amount of convolution.
+The frontal coils for producing the brain power of
+this highest department have attained a development
+not far below that of man. The counterpart of each
+human convolution is present, the only difference
+being that each individual convolution in the chimpanzee
+is less complex than in man. These facts about
+the frontal lobe, which we must regard as the permanent
+headquarters of the chief executive of the superbrain,
+are in harmony with what Professor Köhler
+and other students of animal psychology have told
+us about the chimpanzee’s intelligence. Man’s frontal
+lobe is a highly complex facsimile of the chimpanzee’s,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span>just as human intelligence is a more complex development
+of the higher mental powers.</p>
+
+<p>These improvements in the superbrain are borne
+out by both the bridge and the pyramid. The bridge,
+recognized as a reliable index of intelligence, has the
+value of .400 in the chimpanzee, a rating much above
+the orang or any of the lower apes already considered.
+The pyramid also shows a corresponding increase,
+having a value of .172, and thus indicating a greater
+development in skilled acts and in the voluntary control
+over the actions of the body. These two structures
+show that the superbrain has, in fact, become
+a more efficient governor for the guidance of a larger,
+a more complex, and a more effective machine. Every
+detail in the brain of chimpanzee clearly demonstrates
+the marked advance that has been made in the steady
+upward climb. We are able to identify all of the chief
+features characteristic of the human brain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">
+    CHAPTER X
+    <br>
+    ALMOST HUMAN
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">THE BRAIN OF THE GORILLA</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The largest member of the ape world is the gorilla.
+There is much dispute to-day concerning the place
+he occupies in relation to man, and also as to what
+rating his intelligence deserves. Neither of these
+questions can be settled at present. His case, in fact,
+requires much more study than has yet been given
+to it. Recently the gorilla has been befriended by
+several famous African explorers like the Bradleys
+and the late Mr. Carl Akeley. They have given him
+a rather favourable recommendation as an inoffensive
+and retiring animal. In spite of this vindication, however,
+most persons who have any acquaintance with
+him regard the gorilla as a dangerous, savage brute.
+Standing upright, he is nearly as tall as the average
+man. Sometimes his height reaches six feet, and often
+the adult male attains the great weight of nearly
+four hundred pounds.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="A_Superlative_Fighting_Machine">
+  <i>A Superlative Fighting Machine</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The body of the gorilla is stout and large. His legs
+are short but his arms are extremely long. When
+standing erect the tips of his fingers reach to about
+the middle of the leg below the knee. His huge and
+grizzly head, flat, broad nose, prominent muzzle,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span>large mouth, very large canine teeth, and protruding
+ears all give the animal a terrifying appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which he rises on his hind legs and
+makes the forest reverberate with his roars when
+attacked is one reason why the gorilla is considered
+the most savage of all beasts. His hands are large
+and thickly covered with black hair on the back. The
+palms of the hands have no hair. They possess many
+grooves and markings with strong human resemblances.
+The thumb is somewhat short for the size of
+the hand, but is thick and bears a broad nail. The
+animal’s body as well as the head up to the brow
+line is covered with thick, black, shaggy hair. The
+skull is massive and heavy. The eyes are surmounted
+by a heavy ridge of bone, and a thick bony crest extends
+from the bridge of the nose to the back of the
+skull along the middle of the head. All of these bony
+structures provide the gorilla with a most effective
+fighting helmet. The massive head, the short neck,
+the powerful arms, and the savage teeth create
+the impression of a superlative fighting machine—a
+sort of dreadnaught. But this machine has one
+inherent weakness. The feet and legs are inadequate
+for a finished fighter. The gorilla is able to assume
+the upright position and walks thus in an awkward
+manner, using the arms in balancing. In the main,
+however, he goes on all fours, especially when making
+speed through the underbrush or climbing among the
+trees. He rises upon his hind legs largely for purposes
+of inspection in order to make a survey of the
+surrounding territory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span></p>
+
+<p>Many species have been identified. They all live in
+Africa. One variety inhabits the Gaboon in West
+Africa. It also extends into regions of southern and
+northern Cameroon, near the border of the French
+Congo. This variety of gorilla is especially adapted
+for forest life. Another type, sometimes spoken of as
+the mountain gorilla, inhabits mountainous localities
+in the Belgian Congo.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Gorillas_Ancient_Disrepute">
+  <i>The Gorilla’s Ancient Disrepute</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The gorilla has been long and unfavourably known
+to mankind. Ancient rumour of him spread abroad
+many unsavoury reports about his savage disposition.
+In the Fifth Century <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> gorillas were first spoken of
+as wild, hairy men living in Africa. The Carthaginian
+Admiral Hanno, in his famous voyage to the Pillars
+of Hercules, appears to have been the first white man
+to encounter them. He and his comrades unexpectedly
+came upon a group of these wild people. All of the
+men fought so savagely that they made their escape,
+but Hanno and his friends were able to capture three
+of the women. These females were so ferocious and
+unfriendly that it was necessary to kill them. Their
+skins were preserved, taken to Carthage, and there
+placed in the Temple of Juno, where they were held
+sacred until that city was destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The famous explorer, Paul Du Chaillu, in his <i>Explorations
+and Adventures in Equatorial Africa</i> describes
+the gorilla as gregarious. He found them going
+about in companies of eight or ten. Sometimes the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span>older males become superannuated. Then they live
+solitary lives apart from these small communities.
+When grown old they appear actually grizzled with
+age, and the hair, which in youth is black, becomes
+almost white. Du Chaillu was probably the first
+European to kill a gorilla in its native forest. His
+description of their habits was thought to be an exaggeration,
+but later information largely upholds his
+opinion. He believed that the gorilla did not, as often
+claimed, lurk in the trees just above the roadside in
+order to reach down with his great arms and snatch
+up the unsuspecting passer-by. He discredited the
+ancient story that these animals attack elephants
+and beat them to death with sticks, and that they
+carry off native women to devour them in the depths
+of the forest. He did not even believe that the gorilla
+built itself houses or nests from twigs among the trees,
+or that large bands of them made attacks upon men
+whose homes were in the neighbourhood of the forest.
+Du Chaillu reported that the gorilla lives in the loneliest
+portions of the dense African jungle. It is seldom
+found in the same place two days in succession. It
+prefers deep wooded valleys or rugged heights and
+roams about over a large area in search of food. It
+consumes a large amount of food, such as pineapple
+leaves, berries, wild sugar cane, and other vegetable
+matter. The animal sleeps sitting on the ground with
+its back against the trunk of a tree, and when full-grown
+seldom ascends high among the branches. The
+young sleep in the trees, and possibly the females may
+occasionally do so.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Like_Some_Monster_of_a_Nightmare">
+  <i>Like Some Monster of a Nightmare</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In spite of their reputation to the contrary, the
+gorillas are in reality shy. The female will run to
+shelter at the first sound of alarm, carrying her young
+one with her. The male, however, is less hurried in his
+retreat. In fact, he seems to act upon the theory that
+the best defense is an attack. He rises up on his hind
+legs for a moment, showing his savage face among
+the underbrush. Then, glaring at the intruder, he
+begins to beat his chest with his closed fists, at the
+same time uttering a deep, terrifying roar. This sound
+begins at first as several loud barks like those of a dog
+and then changes to a deep-throated growl, which is
+emitted with redoubled force, causing echoes in the
+forest like distant thunder. Du Chaillu said that the
+horror of the animal’s appearance at this time is
+beyond description. It seems like some monster of a
+nightmare, an indescribable piece of hideousness.</p>
+
+<p>In walking, the gorilla waddles from side to side as
+he proceeds upon his hind legs. Meanwhile, in order to
+balance himself, he swings his great arms at his sides,
+which makes him appear more determined and awe-inspiring.
+When attacking, his features are distorted
+by hideous wrinkles, and his lips are drawn back
+revealing long fangs in the powerful jaws by which a
+human limb could easily be crushed.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated African explorer, Mr. Akeley, has
+pointed out that there is no difficulty in shooting the
+gorilla. In fact, against modern firearms this animal
+is as defenseless as a crippled woman. Such hunting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span>is thoroughly distasteful and seems to be an atrocity
+closely akin to murder. It was due to Mr. Akeley’s
+efforts that the King of Belgium recently set aside a
+large territory in the Congo as a gorilla sanctuary, in
+which all hunting of this animal is prohibited. Here, in
+the vicinity of the three extinct volcanoes, Mt. Keno,
+Mt. Karissimbi, and Mt. Visake, Mr. Akeley hoped
+that a biological station might be established for the
+further study of the gorilla’s behaviour. In this
+sanctuary, now known as Albert National Park, he
+believed it would be possible to gain a footing on
+close and intimate terms with this gigantic ape.
+Mr. Akeley was convinced that the gorilla’s reputation
+for ferocity was greatly exaggerated, and that the
+animal was actually a timid and retiring beast. This
+new estimate of the gorilla’s disposition gives encouragement
+to the expectation that in time this fast-disappearing
+offshoot of the prehuman stock may
+furnish its full testimony concerning the evolutionary
+process.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Training_the_Young_Gorilla">
+  <i>Training the Young Gorilla</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In adult life the gorilla is untamable. If captured
+young, as much may be done with it as with many
+other apes in captivity. The following account of a
+gorilla’s life in civilization, given by Miss Alyse
+Cunningham, of London, testifies to this fact. It is
+the story of the young gorilla called “John Daniel the
+First.” The record was made by Miss Cunningham
+herself. At first she had no fancy for this animal; in
+fact, she felt rather a dislike for anything in the shape
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span>of a monkey or an ape, but she soon became interested
+in the young gorilla and took his education
+seriously in hand. The animal was presented to her
+by her nephew, Major Penny, shortly after the end
+of the Great War. He was much interested in apes
+and bought the gorilla with the idea of seeing how
+much mentality it possessed and how much it could be
+developed. John Daniel was captured when very
+young in the French Gaboon country and came to
+England when he was about three years of age. Major
+Penny first saw the young gorilla on exhibition, during
+the Christmas holidays, in a large show window of
+a well-known shop in London. The animal attracted
+much attention and large crowds gathered daily to
+watch him. As a dry-goods advertisement he was a
+splendid investment, but unfortunately at that time
+he was suffering from rickets. With the severe changes
+of weather in the Christmas season he contracted an
+attack of influenza. On this account his owners were
+compelled to retire him from his advertising post and
+found themselves at their wit’s end to know what to
+do with this sick infant gorilla. When he was finally
+sold to Major Penny his original owners did not think
+he would survive for very long. In this respect their
+calculations went astray. Miss Cunningham took the
+sickly gorilla, nursed him as she would a child, brought
+him through his influenza, and so successfully cared
+for him that during the next three years he reached
+the weight of 112 pounds and the height of three feet
+four and a half inches. Meanwhile, he acquired many
+of the habits and adjustments necessary to fit him as
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span>an interesting if somewhat unusual member of the
+household.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="John_Daniel_the_First">
+  <i>John Daniel the First</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>We are indebted to Miss Cunningham for the excellent
+account of his life, which indicates the extent
+to which this great ape may be trained and educated.
+Little John, immediately after his recovery from influenza,
+began to show some singularly childlike
+emotions. He was gentle and affectionate in response
+to the tender care he received. But he became too
+much attached to his new and kind friends. His devotion
+in this respect created some difficult situations
+in the household. If he were left by himself at night
+he would shriek from fear and loneliness. Perhaps
+he remembered the long and cheerless nights when he
+was a Christmas exhibit in the department store. In
+any event, Miss Cunningham was forced to treat him
+just as she would any little child. She coaxed and
+soothed and petted him until she had allayed his
+fears. Then he would become quiet and fall asleep.
+But even this was not sufficient. It soon became
+necessary to place her nephew’s bed in the room adjoining
+the cage of the gorilla. Apparently he craved
+companionship of some kind and at length became
+quite happy under this new arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>John soon began to grow and to put on weight. He
+gradually got over his rickets. At first he was taught
+to be clean in his habits by a system of rewards and
+punishments. At the end of six weeks he was thoroughly
+housebroken. At this time he was taken out of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span>his cage and allowed the freedom of the house. Thereafter,
+John would always run upstairs to the bathroom
+of his own accord. He would turn the knob of a
+door and took pains to see that he always left it closed
+behind him. He showed strong likes and dislikes in
+the matter of food. There was one feature that always
+puzzled Miss Cunningham in this respect. Generally
+speaking, John was not a thief. He manifested average
+honesty, but when it came to food he much preferred
+to steal it than have it given to him. It was
+difficult to understand the motive underlying this
+course of action. There were some things about it
+that seemed to indicate a real satisfaction derived
+from stealing, due, perhaps, to an outcropping of his
+native cunning. Perhaps it was the consequence of a
+well-recognized quality of natural aloofness characteristic
+of the gorilla in general that made John
+Daniel averse to receiving favours from others. He
+would always avoid any food that had been exposed
+to the air for long. He was particularly fond of
+oranges and apples, but would never eat them if they
+had been cut a few hours. John had what almost
+amounted to a passion for eating roses. The more
+beautiful they were, the more he seemed to like them,
+but nothing would induce him to eat faded roses.
+Nuts he did not much care for, although at times he
+showed a liking for walnuts. A cocoanut was always
+a problem to him. It was most amusing to see how he
+went about this problem. He understood that it was
+necessary to break the cocoanut. First he would throw
+it upon the floor, but failing to break it this way
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span>he would finally bring it to one of the members of the
+family with an appealing look for help. If given a
+hammer he would use it viciously on the nut, but
+never effectively. After several failures John would
+take the nut and the hammer to someone, indicating
+what he wanted.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Johns_Social_Behaviour">
+  <i>John’s Social Behaviour</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>John had a good understanding of tools, almost too
+good, in fact. In consequence, hammers, chisels, and
+saws were kept in hiding, and if John happened to
+find them he was apt to indulge in a somewhat ruthless
+carpentry on the household furniture. From his
+babyhood, and while he was growing up, he was always
+fond of people. He liked to have them come to
+visit him at his home. Far from being timid and shy,
+he was quite the reverse. Whenever there were visitors
+he always liked to show off, just like a child. He
+would take the visitor by the hand and lead him
+round and round the room. This amused John greatly,
+and if his guest responded playfully all went well, but
+if there was any sign of nervousness or fear John took
+an impish delight and would run by the visitor, giving
+him a smack on the leg. Then, perching himself on a
+chair, he would grin foolishly at his own mischief.
+This was the only blemish on his company manners,
+and he always appeared a bit shamefaced when rebuked
+for such misbehaviour. He did not, however,
+go the length of making apologetic overtures to his
+offended visitor, but kept himself aloof with an air
+of injured innocence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span></p>
+
+<p>Miss Cunningham had few misgivings about John
+when she had company in the home. He was always
+very obedient to her and seemed to recognize that
+her wishes were law. It hurt him apparently to be
+guilty of any act which caused her displeasure, and
+while sometimes he would perpetrate some mischief
+on the sly he would always be on his best behaviour
+when he felt Miss Cunningham’s eye upon him. His
+table manners were rather good. He always sat at the
+table, and when the meal was ready would pull up
+his chair to the designated place. He never cared for
+great quantities of food, and his actions at table required
+little, if any, more reproval than did an ordinary
+child. He was especially fond of drinking water
+from a tumbler. He always took afternoon tea with
+the family. He had a particular liking for this beverage
+and with it would eat a thin slice of bread with
+plenty of jam. He also liked his demi-tasse of coffee
+after dinner. The family estimate of him was generally
+high. He was regarded as the least greedy of all
+the animals that had ever come under the observation
+of his owners. He would never snatch for anything at
+the table, and he always ate slowly. He was accustomed
+to drink large quantities of water, which he
+got for himself whenever he wanted it by turning on
+the tap. Strangely enough, he always turned off the
+water when he had finished drinking.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="A_Gorilla_with_a_Sense_of_Humour">
+  <i>A Gorilla with a Sense of Humour</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>John Daniel had a very good opinion of himself.
+He was quite well poised and self-contained. Nothing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span>seemed to ruffle him, and he could amuse himself in
+simple ways by the hour. He seemed to believe that
+his own estimate of himself was shared by others and
+appeared confident that everyone was delighted to
+see him. Often he would stand on the window sill and
+throw up the shade. In a short time a large crowd
+would collect on the street below to watch this unusual
+sight at the window. He enjoyed such publicity
+immensely and would stand watching the people for
+a long time. Once in a while, if the crowd grew very
+large, he would pull the shade down deliberately in
+their faces and run away shrieking with laughter, in a
+way which seemed to indicate that he was conscious
+of having perpetrated a huge joke upon his audience
+outside. Of course, this entire reaction and the motives
+underlying it are open to several interpretations.
+Skeptics will say that the version here given endows
+the gorilla with attributes more human than he could
+possibly possess. However that may be, those who
+actually observed these performances were impressed
+by the fact that John Daniel did act in a seemingly
+human manner.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Fondness_for_Little_Children">
+  <i>Fondness for Little Children</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>John was especially attached to Miss Cunningham’s
+three-year-old niece, who often came with her
+mother to stay at the house. They would play together
+by the hour. The gorilla seemed to know just
+what this little girl wanted him to do. If she cried for
+any reason, when her mother came to pick her up,
+John would give the mother’s hand a nip with his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span>teeth or slap her with the full weight of his palm,
+apparently thinking that she was the cause of the
+child’s grief. One day Miss Cunningham was dressed
+for going out, and John Daniel wished to sit on her
+lap to bid her good-bye. It chanced that her gown
+was a light-coloured one, and she pushed him away,
+saying that she feared he might soil her dress. Poor
+John was deeply distressed. At once he lay down on
+the floor and cried like a baby for a moment. Then he
+looked around the room, found a newspaper, laid it
+on Miss Cunningham’s lap, and climbed up on it. This
+was the cleverest thing he had ever done. Those who
+saw it said they would not have believed it had they
+not themselves been present.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Like_a_Child_in_Play">
+  <i>Like a Child in Play</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>John Daniel apparently could stand a good deal of
+cold weather. He would often climb out on the roof
+when the thermometer was below the freezing point.
+He did not seem to mind how cold it was so long as
+he could come back into a warm room when he wanted
+to. Then he would go directly to the fire, rub his
+chest, and sit down with his feet cocked up on the
+fender. Exercise was necessary to keep him in good
+health, and John got much of this by playing hide-and-seek
+with Major Penny. In the morning before breakfast
+and in the evening before dinner the Major
+would run up and down stairs, in and out of all the
+rooms. The game appeared to delight the gorilla,
+who would giggle and laugh while being chased. He
+never took any chances about going into a dark room,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span>however. Invariably he would make sure to turn on
+the light first.</p>
+
+<p>It was his habit to retire each night at eight o’clock,
+and it was not necessary to tell him to do so more
+than once. He had his own little room adjoining that
+of Miss Cunningham’s nephew, in which he had a
+spring bed of his own, with blankets and pillows. At
+night he would get up out of bed by himself, go back
+to bed, and pull the blankets up over himself quite
+neatly. One of John’s greatest pleasures was to stand
+on the top rail at the foot of the bed and jump on
+the springs, just like a little child. He was never
+taught any tricks, but simply acquired knowledge
+by himself. In the summer time John was taken by
+train to the family’s cottage in the country. He occupied
+his seat in the railway coach like any other
+passenger, without so much as a chain around his
+neck. When out of doors the broad fields and open
+country seemed to terrify him, but he was singularly
+happy and contented in the quiet garden or in the
+woods. He seemed to fear full-grown sheep, cows,
+and horses, but colts, calves, and lambs attracted
+and amused him. It seemed to those who cared for
+him that he recognized youth and was sympathetically
+drawn to it.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="John_Becomes_Famous">
+  <i>John Becomes Famous</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>As the years passed he became more devotedly
+attached to the family. If left alone he would make a
+great noise, shrieking and crying. This tendency increased,
+so that after three years it was necessary to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span>make some other arrangement for him. Through a
+misunderstanding which his owners have always regretted,
+John was sold to a circus. He was taken
+across the Atlantic to New York. Here, after a
+month’s separation from his devoted friends during
+which time he refused to take food and showed every
+sign of real homesickness, he died in the tower of the
+old Madison Square Garden, in April, 1921.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the New York daily papers published a
+notice of this remarkable ape’s death, telling how the
+gorilla, John Daniel, homesick and disconsolate without
+those who had befriended him, died of a broken
+heart. The skeleton and taxidermic preparation of
+this gorilla, who has contributed so much to our
+knowledge and understanding of the great apes, may
+be seen in the anthropoid collection in the American
+Museum of Natural History, bearing the label “John
+Daniel.”</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="A_Gorilla_at_Afternoon_Tea">
+  <i>A Gorilla at Afternoon Tea</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>As an interesting sequel to this history of what
+appears to be the first gorilla raised under the conditions
+of such intimate domestic life, it may be
+added that Miss Cunningham secured another gorilla,
+which she called “John Daniel the Second.” John
+Daniel the First was a little over six years old when he
+died and was then less than half grown. These two
+great apes resembled each other closely in their
+emotional reactions and in their responses to training.
+Both were about of the same age. John the Second
+was perhaps a less likable individual and had a disposition
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span>more in keeping with the ancient reputation
+of gorillas. Several years ago, while he was visiting
+in New York, a number of scientists were invited to
+have afternoon tea with him at a certain fashionable
+hotel. On this occasion the troglodyte host was found
+seated in a comfortable chair. He displayed much
+gravity and apparent enjoyment as he drank from a
+cup of tea. During the course of conversation John
+the Second was for a moment not the actual centre of
+attention. Suddenly he dashed across the room with
+unbelievable swiftness and attacked one of his visitors
+with repeated rapid blows of both fists in the neighbourhood
+of the solar plexus. Just as quickly he
+hopped over the foot of the bed and from this point
+of vantage watched the discomfiture of his guest.
+A moment later, when less sharply watched, he
+hurled his full weight in most approved football style
+against a distinguished professor of zoölogy, who,
+as a result, was thrown from his chair. In the intervals
+between these presumably playful diversions
+this powerful gorilla sat quietly. Yet, in spite of his
+innocent demeanour, one was suspicious that he was
+casting about for the next piece of mischief that he
+might perpetrate. There was a degree of roughness
+and sudden strength in the playfulness of this young
+gorilla that afforded some idea of the terrific power
+these animals must possess when full grown.</p>
+
+<p>The attractive prospect of a biological station in
+Africa, as suggested by the late Carl E. Akeley, for the
+study of the gorilla is inspiring. It should be possible under
+these circumstances for one scientifically inclined
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span>to saunter into the jungle of a morning, call to some
+particularly promising gorilla, and with the troglodyte
+spend many profitable hours in biological study.
+If the full-grown gorilla, however, is anything like
+John Daniel the Second, this studious occupation
+might not prove so simple. Indeed, it seems probable
+that only the most hardy of human adventurers will
+ever enjoy the privileges of anything approaching a
+familiar acquaintance with these giant apes. Such
+adventurers may live to report that the great brutes
+have acquired no marked degree of gentleness even
+in their own gorilla sanctuary.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Art_of_Capturing_Young_Gorillas">
+  <i>The Art of Capturing Young Gorillas</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>On a number of occasions young gorillas have been
+captured alive. Mr. Ben Burbridge, using some clever
+tactics, has succeeded in capturing several small
+gorillas. The approved style of such hunting is to
+lure the young animal away from the older gorillas;
+then, grasping the throat, force it to the ground until
+helpers arrive to slip a stout bag over its head. On
+one occasion Mr. Burbridge succeeded in artfully luring
+a gorilla from the rest of his family. He at once
+proceeded to seize him in the usual manner. Immediately
+he realized that he had caught a tartar.
+The young gorilla was much stronger than any man,
+and grasping both of Mr. Burbridge’s hands he forced
+them into his savage mouth. Nothing but iron nerve
+and quickness of wit would have saved a man under
+these circumstances. Realizing his inability to overpower
+the gorilla or free himself from its vise-like
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span>grip, Mr. Burbridge did the only thing left for him to
+do. He thrust his hands down the animal’s throat as
+far as they would go. Several natives finally succeeded
+in overpowering and binding the young giant.
+The first burlap bag put over his head he split asunder
+like a piece of gauze. At length he was bound and
+carried off to camp. But this young monarch of the
+volcanic mountain sides would not accept captivity.
+He was unapproachable and so actively hostile that he
+soon died. Later, Mr. Burbridge succeeded in capturing
+and bringing home to Florida a small female
+gorilla, weighing sixty-five pounds, which he called
+“Congo the Second.”</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Professor_Yerkes_Studies_Congo_the_Second">
+  <i>Professor Yerkes Studies “Congo the Second”</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>We are extremely fortunate that this gorilla has been
+studied by Professor Yerkes, who in a book recently
+published, called <i>The Mind of a Gorilla</i>, has given us
+another of his brilliant works on animal behaviour.
+This is a most readable account of Congo’s actions,
+and those who wish further information will derive
+much pleasure from Professor Yerkes’s story. All of
+his observations are illuminating and helpful in understanding
+the brain of this great troglodyte.</p>
+
+<p>The mountain gorilla, as Professor Yerkes points
+out, is built for strength rather than speed. Congo,
+although still in her childhood, and weighing only
+sixty-five pounds, was amazingly strong. She could
+lift weights and overcome resistances that required
+the full strength of a grown man. In her play with a
+young Airedale terrier she became so rough that the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span>dog finally avoided her. Her climbing among the
+trees, about which she seemed eager, was scarcely
+any better than that of an active small boy. It was
+easy to outrun her and throw her off her balance.
+The tremendous strength of the gorilla must, therefore,
+be looked upon as the real secret of his success
+in life. Without this strength he probably would not
+have survived, since he has neither the skill in climbing
+nor the speed upon the ground to escape his
+deadly enemies. His deadliest foe is the leopard.
+This stealthy and powerful cat often steals up to a
+gorilla family and snatches away the little ones. The
+gorilla’s sole defense against the leopard is his gigantic
+strength. If at present this great ape is threatened
+with extinction it is because his natural enemies are
+increasing in number. Man with his modern equipments
+must be listed among these hostile contemporaries.
+For ages the struggle between the gorilla
+and his enemies in the jungle has been going on relentlessly.
+The great ape has been able to maintain
+that margin of superiority which permitted his kind
+to come down into modern times.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Yerkes devised a series of tests for determining
+the mental capacity of the young gorilla,
+Congo the Second. These were arranged in several
+groups such as the following:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>The use of the stick as an implement.</li>
+
+<li>The use of simple mechanisms showing adaptive
+ability.</li>
+
+<li>The uses of boxes and piling boxes.</li>
+
+<li>Tests for memory.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span>Observations of social relations.</li>
+
+<li>Study of emotions and incentives to action.</li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Mind_of_a_Gorilla">
+  <i>The Mind of a Gorilla</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In all, twenty-four tests were employed in the
+experiments to fathom Congo’s mind. Among them
+were the stick used as an implement, a buried jar of
+food, food suspended and made accessible by using
+the stick, food suspended and made accessible by
+piling boxes one on top of another, the use of hammer
+and nail in imitation of a man using the same implements,
+the mirror test and the animal’s reaction to the
+looking-glass. Professor Yerkes carried on his studies
+through a number of weeks on two different occasions.
+The first series was conducted in January, 1926, and
+the second series, largely repeating the conditions
+of the first, in January, 1927. During this time the
+little gorilla had grown and prospered. She had
+doubled her weight in twelve months and she manifested
+many changes in her behaviour. In the first
+place, she had become somewhat destructive, although
+when she first came to Shady Nook in Florida
+this was not the case. Her curiosity had increased as
+had also her powers of imitation and her emotional
+expressions. She was much more self-reliant and likewise
+more coöperative. She showed a very considerable
+improvement in her ability to solve the problems
+of the several tests given to her. In using the
+stick she manifested greater cleverness and adaptability,
+with some indications of real insight into the
+situations that confronted her. There were signs also
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span>that she had gained a greater degree of adaptability
+in the use of simple mechanisms. These appliances
+in her earlier tests baffled Congo, but upon repetition
+a year later she not only gave evidence of memory
+concerning the tests but also had more ability in solving
+the problems which she had previously failed to
+master. She showed much improvement, particularly
+in piling boxes one upon another. Certain memory
+tests, which were unsuccessful in January, 1926, were
+quite successfully performed in January, 1927. Heretofore,
+no animal except man has been capable of
+correct response in these particular memory tests.
+Congo’s success possibly demonstrates the existence
+of a mechanism in the gorilla brain that is possessed
+by the most highly organized animals only. It is this
+mechanism, doubtless, which distinguishes man and
+the great apes from all other mammals. Buried food
+tests also demonstrated an ability to remember after
+intervals of one or two days. Congo’s emotions likewise
+had changed. At first she appeared aloof, independent,
+and inexpressive. She still remained reserved,
+and although playful she was highly self-controlled.
+Her emotional expression by voice, face, and attitude
+was rare, and seldom appeared in response to definite
+provocation. Her incentives and motives seemed
+much more complex than in lower animals, like rats
+and guinea pigs. Congo was moody, having her good
+days and bad days in doing the tests. The inducements
+offered her to perform certain acts did not
+have the same certainty that they have with lower
+animals. In her social relations she was extremely
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span>simple. She apparently gained an increased interest
+in those with whom she was familiar and also with
+strangers. She enjoyed visitors and acted in a limited
+way to entertain them. Seeing herself in the looking-glass,
+she had a marked interest in her image. In the
+second series of tests her interest in the mirror seemed
+more intelligent than the first. In sexual interest
+Congo showed a marked development. At first she
+manifested nothing resembling sex play, but in the
+course of the year this became evident in her relations
+with her dog companions and other objects. Ultimately
+she had a decided preference for the male dog.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Mental_Comparisons_of_the_Great_Manlike_Apes">
+  <i>Mental Comparisons of the Great Manlike Apes</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Professor Yerkes’s comparison of the behaviour of
+the three great apes, the orang, the chimpanzee, and
+the gorilla, is particularly interesting and important.
+He carefully guards his statement by acknowledging
+that these are rough comparisons based on the intimate
+study of only a few individual apes. The physical
+differences between these anthropoids may have
+a definite bearing upon their mental characters. The
+chimpanzee is well but lightly built. The orang, in
+contrast, is loosely built, with arms that seem much
+too long and liable to be in the way. The gorilla is
+stocky, somewhat clumsy, but of impressively strong
+build. The general disposition of these three apes
+varies somewhat according to their physiques. The
+chimpanzee is sanguine, buoyant, alert, and snappy.
+The orang-outang is melancholy and taciturn. The
+gorilla is reserved and aloof almost to the point of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span>manifesting a superiority complex. In their attitude
+toward others and things in general this same difference
+is observed. The chimpanzee is preëminently a
+leader in playfulness and invention of ways to amuse
+himself. He is quick, impulsive, energetic, and comical.
+He has much enthusiasm and optimism, all of
+which makes him the showman’s prize. The orang
+is more slow and cautious, with little impulsiveness
+and no show of optimism. He seems more stable and
+dependable than the chimpanzee. He is certainly
+more readily depressed and discouraged than his
+livelier cousin. The gorilla is calm, reserved, cool, and
+calculating. His disposition is quite the opposite of
+that of the chimpanzee. The terms sullen, morose,
+ferocious, and unrelenting did not, however, apply
+to Congo, who was placid, self-dependent, and usually
+superior to the incidents of her artificial life in captivity.
+In curiosity the chimpanzee heads the list.
+The orang is a close second. The gorilla may be
+stirred to curiosity, but under such circumstances
+usually acts as though he considered himself superior
+to such childish indulgence. The manner and methods
+of learning in these three great apes are remarkably
+interesting. In learning by imitation from man,
+the chimpanzee has a long lead. The orang is not
+entirely unsuccessful in this matter, but the gorilla,
+especially as typified by Congo, shows an actual resistance
+to learning by imitation of man. The ability
+to acquire new habits and adjustments to life by
+means of trial and error shows that the great apes
+rank as follows: Chimpanzee first, orang second,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span>gorilla third. Learning by ideas, experience, insight,
+and understanding seems to reverse this order and
+puts the gorilla at the head of the list.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Yerkes appears to think that, as compared
+with chimpanzees and orangs of like age, Congo
+was remarkably slow in adapting herself and was more
+limited in initiative, originality, and insight. He concludes
+that the general tendency to rate the gorilla
+in a mentally higher class than the chimpanzee or
+orang finds no support from his study of Congo. He
+also believes that conclusions based on a single specimen
+of this great ape are not sufficient to determine
+the mental rating of the gorilla. This animal, like the
+chimpanzee and the orang, indeed like man himself,
+has great individual variations in mental development.</p>
+
+<p>Such records as those of John Daniel, First and
+Second, made by observers little trained in the
+technical methods of behavioural study, must of
+course be accepted with some reservations. Viewed
+in the light of Professor Yerkes’s studies on Congo,
+they do afford an illuminating picture of the gorilla’s
+mental capacity, disposition, and ability to learn. To
+say the least, in all of these qualifications the largest
+of the great apes is strikingly human. Its brain,
+which weighs and measures more than that of other
+apes, is in many respects nearer to the brain of man.
+In the gorilla’s brain it is possible to discern the
+process by which the progressive development of this
+organ has made great strides. All of the landmarks
+of the superbrain are more distinctly human in their
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span>arrangement and disposition than in the chimpanzee
+or orang. If the chimpanzee’s brain is a human
+miniature, the resemblance to man in gorilla has
+become still more striking. The position of the Sylvian
+groove and of the ape groove marks the boundary
+of the two great departments of sight and hearing.
+In the gorilla both of these have increased the area
+for radiating brain power. The convolutions in both
+of these regions bear a close resemblance to those of
+the human brain. This similarity is likewise true in
+the department for body and contact sense, where
+the convolutions have increased in complexity as well
+as in relative size. The central groove forms the
+boundary for a well-defined frontal lobe. If it were
+possible to make a measurable contrast of this permanent
+headquarters for the higher faculties in gorilla
+to that of chimpanzee, it seems fair to say that the
+gorilla would show some slight advantage. This advantage
+may account for the gorilla’s greater reserve,
+which in some ways indicates a more mature attitude
+toward life, especially when compared to the restless
+and more childlike behaviour of the chimpanzee.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Secret_of_the_Gorillas_Survival">
+  <i>Secret of the Gorilla’s Survival</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Professor Yerkes would perhaps be unwilling on
+the strength of his studies to admit any measurable
+degree of superiority on the part of the gorilla’s mentality
+over the chimpanzee. Unquestionably this is a
+proper point of view in the light of those great apes
+which have been available for experiment and investigation.
+In the main, such gorillas have been
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span>both too young and too few in number to permit any
+just estimate of their real ability. One fact in their
+history does speak forcibly in behalf of their mental
+superiority over all other apes. In form and physique
+the gorilla occupies an intermediate position. He is
+not well adapted for great successes living upon the
+ground. He is too heavy to capitalize the full advantages
+of living in the trees. Added to this is the
+fact that he is both slow and clumsy. His one physical
+asset in the struggle for life is his gigantic strength.
+By means of this advantage he has been able to meet
+all comers of the wild, to contend with such deadly
+enemies as the leopards and other members of the
+great cat family. He has eked out an existence in a
+territory filled with all manner of hazards. Yet in
+spite of his handicaps he has not only held his place
+in nature but he has kept his line a vital and going
+concern with all the increasing odds against him.
+This success in adjustment must depend upon something
+more than mere chance. We are perhaps fair in
+assuming that added to his chief asset of brute-like
+strength there have been certain superior mental
+qualities derived from a superbrain and particularly
+from a frontal lobe which surpassed that of all his
+animal competitors.</p>
+
+<p>The index of his powers to adjust himself to a
+strenuous life is shown by his bridge (<i>pons</i>). This
+gives him a rating of .480, which is still higher than
+in the case of the chimpanzee. Most interesting in
+this connection is the fact that the pyramid in the
+gorilla is .161, which is considerably less than in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span>chimpanzee. The pyramid, as will be recalled, indicates
+the degree of skill that an animal has in controlling
+its voluntary movements; that is, in making
+its muscles act in many and varied ways according
+to the dictates of the will. That the agile, speedy, and
+acrobatic chimpanzee should surpass the clumsy and
+slow-moving gorilla in this particular might be expected.
+In almost every other detail of its development
+the brain of the gorilla is nearer to man than
+is the brain of any other ape, great or small. Those
+who have studied this question are fully convinced
+of the near approach in brain structure which all three
+of the great manlike apes make to the human brain.
+If any final estimation is justified at the present time,
+the gorilla’s brain appears to be the most advanced of
+all the apes and is, in fact, almost human.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">
+    CHAPTER XI
+    <br>
+    HUMAN AT LAST
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">THE BRAIN OF PREHISTORIC MAN</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Those individual characteristics which distinguish
+the orang, chimpanzee, and gorilla may be easily
+recognized. Yet, notwithstanding their striking differences,
+these animals all belong to the same family,
+called the <i>Simiidæ</i>. As a family this was and still remains
+the highest in the ape world. All of the great
+apes manifest certain pronounced manlike tendencies.
+Up to this point they were progressive, but beyond it
+they did not go. They were not equipped to reach the
+upper footholds or to gain the vast plateaus on the
+top of the world. This last achievement remained for
+another, who, being freed from many simian restrictions,
+had already outstripped the anthropoids.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Human_Superiority">
+  <i>Human Superiority</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>As a machine, this newcomer in the animal world
+was more effective than any of his forerunners. His
+human superiority was not due to higher speed,
+greater strength, or better staying powers. Many
+of his animal competitors could far outdistance him,
+could easily overpower him, could surpass him in endurance.
+He did, however, have an exceptional advantage.
+He was able to combine these essential
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span>qualities with many others in a variety of ways and
+thus gain an ultimate supremacy. In the end it was
+better brain power that raised man above his lower
+contemporaries and set him on his path toward human
+success. This new power of his did not come all
+at once. It needed the steady effort of ages to reach
+its present development. Compared with the existence
+of other species, the human race is relatively
+young. In point of geologic time so also is the human
+brain. Many students are agreed that temporally and
+in other respects our brain has scarcely outgrown its
+childhood. The brain power of to-day may require
+further ages of development to attain its highest
+possibilities.</p>
+
+<p>When man first appeared on earth he had much in
+common with the great apes. Although not descended
+from them, he had inherited with them many qualities
+from a common ancestor. It is now settled beyond
+question that in earliest times the human brain
+possessed all of the basic patterns and mechanisms
+still to be found in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and
+the orang. It had one fundamental advantage that
+greatly improved its capacity for developing its
+power. Expansion was the secret of this advantage.
+It was apparent in all parts of the superbrain,
+but most prominent in the department
+of the highest mental faculties, the frontal lobe. We
+may discern this great advance at a glance by comparing
+the sloping, narrow foreheads of the great
+apes with the high and prominent brow of man. The
+frontal lobe gradually pushed forward over the eyes,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span>and in consequence the forehead slowly rose above
+them. It seems fair to say that as the brow grew
+higher through successive stages the race gradually
+rose in humanity. We are still much in the dark concerning
+the early phases of this slow rise to power.
+Some of the stages, it is probable, we shall never
+know. On the other hand, a large number of human
+fossils have been found during the past century.
+From these it is possible to decipher what the human
+brain must have been like at certain critical periods
+of man’s long journey. The brain, like all other soft
+parts of the body, disappears in time after death. How
+is it possible, therefore, to speak about the brains of
+men long since dead, or of races long ago extinct?</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Fossil_Records_of_Man">
+  <i>The Fossil Records of Man</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is true that only the bones of ancient peoples remain
+to tell us what they were like. Many of these
+bones have become fossilized by impregnation with
+minerals and are, so to speak, turned into stone. Thus
+they make an enduring record of man’s bony framework.
+From these petrified bones we can read many
+things about the people of the past to whom they
+belonged. We can measure their height, determine
+the manner in which they held their bodies in walking,
+and estimate their muscular strength. We may
+even rebuild their bodies about their skeletons by
+using certain standard measurements and so gain a
+fair idea of what these men must have looked like
+when alive. From the shape of the head it is possible
+to decide whether the jaw was massive and protruding,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span>or of modern type; whether the cheek bones were
+heavy and prominent or relatively inconspicuous;
+whether the forehead was low and receding or high
+and broad; whether the nose was flattened or had a
+high nasal bridge; whether the chin was weakly developed
+or large and firm; whether the brain case was
+small, round, and narrow, or long, high vaulted, and
+capacious.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brain_Casts_of_Extinct_Races_of_Men">
+  <i>Brain Casts of Extinct Races of Men</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Many other characters of extinct races may be
+determined by means of exact measurement. So much
+has already been accomplished in this way that it is
+possible to reproduce a reasonable facsimile of races
+that vanished long ago. It is possible also to reproduce
+a reasonable likeness of their brains. Reproductions
+of this kind depend upon the use of the fossil skulls
+as molds from which plaster of Paris casts are made.
+Upon the inner surface of the skull the brain makes
+certain definite impressions. It leaves grooves in the
+bone where great arteries run. It shows deep indentations
+caused by the convolutions. It contains
+other landmarks indicating the size and position of
+certain prominent features in the brain. These casts
+do not show the brain characters in all their sharp
+details because within the skull the brain is covered
+by three layers of membranes and surrounded by a
+thin jacket of fluid. In consequence, all of the prominent
+characters, although easily recognized, are somewhat
+veiled. It is for this reason that we are unable to
+detect every coil and groove in a brain cast of a fossil
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span>skull. We may, however, discern many important
+features and thus form an accurate estimate concerning
+the brain characters of several prehistoric races
+of man. Many casts of this kind are now available for
+study.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that a number of distinct species of
+prehistoric races have passed away leaving no trace of
+themselves. Even the bones of man’s body gradually
+crumble into dust unless, by some fortuitous circumstance,
+they are slowly converted into stone through
+the deposit of mineral salts. It seems likely that only
+a few of man’s skeletal remains have been preserved
+for us in this manner. By far the vast majority have
+gone the way of all flesh and most bones. The few
+precious relics that we thus far have had the good
+fortune to discover are treasured as rare possessions.
+They tell us in a somewhat disconnected way of many
+ancient people who have lived long before our times.
+Yet, however disconnected this story may be, however
+wide its gaps, however serious its omissions, it
+would be improper to overlook the fossil evidence of
+these early people. The fossilized relics must be permitted
+to set forth the story which they have to tell
+while we endeavour to keep our interpretations
+within the bounds imposed upon us by the nature of
+the evidence.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brain_of_Java_Ape_Man">
+  <i>Brain of Java Ape Man</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The brain cast representing the most ancient race
+of men yet discovered is that of the ape man of Java
+(<i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i>). Dr. Eugen Du Bois, when
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span>he made his wonderful discovery in Java, found almost
+the entire skull cap of this primitive man, who
+lived somewhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000 years
+ago. His brain was remarkably small. It was not
+nearly so large as our modern brain or even as the brain
+of many other prehistoric people. Its capacity was
+only 940 cubic centimetres. This is small for a human
+brain, which ranges between 1000 to 1400 cubic centimetres.
+But if it is small for a man, it is much larger
+than any ape brain. An interesting comparison as to
+the size of the ape man’s brain is afforded when the
+brains of a large gorilla, of the Java ape man, and of a
+modern man are placed side by side. At once the differences
+are apparent. The brain we are now considering
+clearly occupies an intermediate position between
+the gorilla and modern man.</p>
+
+<p>The striking feature about the brain of the lowly
+ape man is the great expansion which has taken place
+in the department and permanent headquarters of the
+highest mental faculties—the frontal lobe. Compared
+with the brain of the gorilla, there can be no dispute
+as to the great advantages held by the ape man in
+this part of his brain. The convolutions are plainly
+shown in this frontal area. In fact, these coils are more
+prominent in this region than elsewhere. This fact
+does not imply that the convolutions in the brain are
+supreme in the frontal lobe of the ape man. If they
+seem less prominent in the other lobes it is only because
+the frontal coils in all cases make more positive
+impressions upon the skull. It is fortunate, though,
+that these coils may be so clearly seen in that region
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span>of the superbrain which reveals the development of
+the highest faculties. We should also bear in mind
+that this department of the chief executive in the
+frontal lobe is preëminently a human possession. A
+comparison with the gorilla’s brain shows at once
+the great expansion which has occurred in the most
+responsible portion of man’s superbrain. In consequence
+of such frontal growth the human race distinguished
+itself in creation by acquiring all that is
+implied in the title <i>Homo sapiens</i> (man of wisdom).</p>
+
+<p>Another decisive feature appears in this frontal
+region. The left convolutions are slightly larger than
+those on the right side. In all probability this difference
+in size indicates that a highly characteristic
+human quality has already been introduced. In the
+ape man the right hand already appears to have become
+the leader in all the varied skillful performances
+of manual achievement.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Speech">
+  <i>Speech</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In this early period it seems likely that man was
+using his hands for constructive purposes. Of far
+more significance and bearing more decisively upon
+the destiny of humanity is the appearance of a well-marked
+coil in the lower portion of this frontal lobe
+on the left side. In all living races of man this convolution
+is associated with the control of spoken
+language. From this specialization it is apparent that
+the ape man had acquired the powers of speech. Even
+if his frontal lobe were small, it far surpassed that of
+any ape however highly developed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is clear from these facts that the primitive ape
+man of Java had risen to a plane far above the gorilla,
+although he was still much below that of modern
+man. Visualized from his brain, this Java man must
+have had increased powers of reasoning. He must
+have been capable of making better adjustments to
+life than the gorilla or any of the great manlike apes.
+He possessed the ability to build up a greater sphere
+of experience and make some approach to human
+personality. His tendency to right-handedness was a
+distinctly human character, around which are built
+many of man’s most productive specializations. In
+all of his qualities the Java man was much below his
+later human successors. It is difficult to estimate how
+much skill he had acquired with his hands, but it
+seems almost certain that he added one supreme
+advantage to the motor equipment of animal life.
+<span class="allsmcap">HE HAD LEARNED TO SPEAK</span>—to communicate in verbal
+language. The animal machine had acquired a
+new means of expressing itself. It was capable of
+developing a new output in the production of which
+it became highly prolific.</p>
+
+<p>Several theories have been advanced to explain
+the development of human speech. One of these
+attributes the origin of language to gestures, especially
+those made with the hands. Gestures indicating direction,
+location, distance, size, shape, motion, number,
+and many other specifications became associated with
+vocal expressions. These symbols were the basis of
+language, which required special speech centres in
+the brain for its control.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span></p>
+
+<p>This means of communication laid the foundation
+of all human knowledge. Doubtless the linguistic
+ability of the Javan ape man was extremely crude,
+but he had taken a decisive step in a direction necessary
+to the further development of mankind.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="More_Effective_Use_of_the_Senses">
+  <i>More Effective Use of the Senses</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the department of his body and contact senses
+the ape man’s brain shows marked advances over the
+apes. The expansions here must be regarded as
+particularly connected with the free use of the hands
+and arms and the assumption of the erect posture. A
+much richer supply of raw materials in the way of
+sense impressions from the legs and arms, and from
+the body, generally speaking, made possible a more
+effective turnover and output of nervous energy.
+During this time man was learning many new uses
+for his hands in devising original means for maintaining
+and advancing his footholds in life.</p>
+
+<p>The departments of sight and hearing situated respectively
+in the occipital and temporal lobes of the
+brain show that degree of expansion which supplied
+greater human powers. Man could see, and understand
+better what he saw. He could hear, and understand
+more fully what he heard. He was capable of
+more effective appreciation of his surroundings. If he
+obtained a better idea of the world through his sense
+of sight, he put these more ample impressions to
+better use in the visual direction of his actions and
+more especially in guiding the work of his hands by
+his eyes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span></p>
+
+<p>If his sense of hearing likewise gave him better
+understanding of the audible world about him, it was
+most important in that it contributed to the upbuilding
+of his vocal speech. Sounds which he heard began
+to have new meanings to him. From this it was but
+a step to translate such sounds into spoken words
+with fixed meanings of their own.</p>
+
+<p>In all of these particulars the brain of the ape man
+had made definite advances. It was superior to all of
+its forerunners in the animal kingdom. The fact that
+it had thus advanced brings to mind many perplexing
+questions. Why had this great change taken place?
+What causes had produced the marked extensions in
+the frontal lobes and in all other lobes, sufficient at
+last to lift man up to a human level? Attempts to
+answer such questions venture into the field of conjecture.
+Many factors yet unknown may have been
+the real causes in producing this remarkable change.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Human_Hand_and_Foot">
+  <i>The Human Hand and Foot</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>One great difference between man and the manlike
+apes seems to be based upon the character of the feet.
+Man had at length acquired two feet upon which to
+stand upright and make his way. His erect posture
+had caused many changes in his body, including the
+position of the head, the relation of the eyes, and the
+length of his limbs. None of these changes had more
+telling effect upon human destiny than the final freeing
+of the hands for occupations other than locomotion.
+In this way man acquired his most useful
+advantage—the hand. It became his chief reliance,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span>the basis of his constructive abilities, and the guide
+of his analytical powers. It has been the achievement
+of his hands that has carried man onward. Some
+authorities believe that brain development was the
+chief factor in human progress. Such no doubt is the
+case, but it was the hand that called upon the brain
+for its progressive development.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever other factors were at work, the hand was
+one of the most potent influences in the rise of man.
+With the brain to direct its action, to expand its
+usefulness, with the upright posture to give free range
+to its executions, with speech to make its accomplishments
+available to all, the hand became a master key,
+opening all the ways leading through the vast domain
+of human behaviour. If the influences which determined
+human emergence from the lower levels
+of animal life might be catalogued as a working
+theory, they would perhaps appear in the following
+order:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>The development of the human foot upon which
+to establish the erect posture.</li>
+
+<li>The freeing of the hand in consequence of the
+erect posture for the purposes of human success.</li>
+
+<li>The expansions of sight and hearing for the
+better appreciation of the world and the more effective
+guidance of action.</li>
+
+<li>The development of speech.</li>
+
+<li>The establishment of human personality and
+the development of higher mental faculties. For the
+successful administration of these special powers, a
+brain of at least human capacity was necessary.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brain_of_Piltdown_Man">
+  <i>Brain of Piltdown Man</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>When Mr. Dawson found the fossil remains of the
+Piltdown Dawn man he brought to light another view
+of the human prehistoric brain. There are many indications
+that the Piltdown men had made great
+strides in their brain power. This is especially apparent
+in the frontal lobe. The convolutions are
+prominent, especially that one upon the left side which
+plainly indicates the power of speech. These early
+inhabitants of England must have been more gifted
+than the humbler ape man. Such at least is the evidence
+of the frontal lobe in which the department
+of the highest mental faculties was much better
+developed. Similar advances appear in the parietal
+regions, suggesting that the hands of these Dawn
+men had acquired increased capacities as constructive
+agents and sensory organs. The large expansion
+in the department of body and contact senses plainly
+signifies great advantages gained in exploring the
+world. Piltdown man must have understood the consistency,
+the texture, and shape of the things he
+touched. The weight and mobility of objects gave
+him information concerning their use. The advantages
+of wood and stone for projectile and penetrating
+purposes, the utility of sharp edges, the flexibility and
+tensile strength of various tissues, like the bark of
+trees or climbing vines, all came to him as revelations
+evoked by his new powers for sensing his world. These
+revelations were of much service in other ways. The
+Dawn man could utilize these sense impressions in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span>directing new actions which helped him to overcome
+obstacles or to gain greater security. He could now
+combine stick and stone in a manner advantageous
+for his daily contacts with life. There may be some
+question whether the earlier ape man of Java had
+learned the secret of making implements for himself.
+With the Dawn man of Piltdown the case is different.
+It seems most likely that he had already established
+the industry of instrument making. Some students of
+this question still hesitate to believe that the dawn
+flint implements (eoliths) found in association with
+the Piltdown remains were really the product of human
+hands. It is probable that the Dawn man already
+possessed the great advantage of being right-handed.
+The chipping of stone implements would make it
+necessary for him to hold the flint in one hand and
+flake it skillfully with the other. The departments of
+hearing and sight both show an expansion similar to
+that in the other parts of the brain.</p>
+
+<p>The Piltdown brain is superior to that of the Java
+ape man in all particulars. It indicates the power of
+speech, the development of right-handedness, and the
+establishment of higher mental faculties. It also attests
+that the Dawn man had come a long distance
+from that parting of the ways at which the human
+race separated from the great apes.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Neanderthal_Brain">
+  <i>The Neanderthal Brain</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The time assigned to the Dawn man’s day on earth
+varies considerably according to different estimates.
+The latest calculations place this time at a little over
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span>a million years ago. By comparison, Piltdown men
+were certainly more ancient than another race which
+dominated Europe for long ages. This was the famous
+Neanderthal race. These early and long extinct
+people migrated into Europe from the East. Their
+scattered fossil remains found in many different parts
+tell the same story of an unusually powerful race. In
+stature they were relatively short, probably not
+averaging much more than five feet three inches in
+height. Their arms were long and powerful, their
+necks thick and extremely muscular. Their legs were
+heavy and slightly bent at the knees. As a race they
+were distinguished by the shape of their heads and
+the size of their brains. The Neanderthal had a low,
+retreating forehead and a head that was peculiarly
+flat near the top. It seems as if the head were especially
+constructed as part of an effective fighting
+machine. Heavy ridges of bone surmounted the eyes
+much as is the case in the gorilla. The head was set
+down well upon the shoulders. The jaws were heavy,
+indicating that the teeth as well as other parts of
+the body might be employed in combat. The nose
+was broad and flat and the chin lacked prominence.
+All of these features must have given the Neanderthal
+man a brutish appearance. The low beetling
+brow, the flattened vault of the skull, the heavy jaw
+with receding chin, the broad flat nose, all gave him
+a countenance not unlike that of the great apes.
+Visualized from his fossil remains, the Neanderthal
+was a savage-looking creature. He would have been a
+dangerous wayfarer for the unwary to meet. He was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span>probably so hideous in his appearance that his presence
+gave offense to men of more refined sensibility.
+This seems like a harsh judgment upon the Neanderthal.
+It is a low estimate of him which his brain does
+not justify. As a matter of fact, the size of the Neanderthal
+brain is somewhat greater than that of any
+modern races. If size alone were the standard, such
+a brain would not indicate a low degree of mental
+organization. But size alone is not a reliable indicator
+of brain capacity. Unusually large brains are often
+inferior in their brain power. It is said that the largest
+brain, both by weight and measure, was that of a
+feeble-minded gardener at one time employed in a
+large public garden in London. The volume of the
+Neanderthal brain is not a convincing argument as
+to its efficiency. From other indications, however, it is
+certain that this race had made definite advances in
+human progress. They were skilled artisans and flint
+workers. They had command of fire, which was employed
+in the upbuilding of distinct industries. Far
+from being lowly, ape-like creatures, they had many
+of the higher attributes of man.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest discovery of these ancient people occurred
+in 1848 when Lieutenant Flint found the
+first Neanderthal skull in an old quarry at Gibraltar.
+The real meaning of this find, however, was not appreciated
+until more than sixty years later.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important Neanderthal discoveries
+was made in the valley of the Dordogne in southwestern
+France. In a cavern near the little village of
+La Chapelle-aux-Saints, the abbés Bouyssonie and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span>Bardon (autumn, 1908) found the skeleton of a
+primitive man. The body rested upon its back, with
+its head toward the west, its legs, thighs, and forearms
+folded together. The head had been protected by
+flat stones, and many skillfully worked flints of the
+Mousterian period surrounded the body. There was
+every evidence of interment and burial ceremony
+about the discovery which, it was finally decided,
+was the skeleton of a middle-aged man belonging to
+the Neanderthal race. By measurement it was found
+that the skeleton must have contained a brain of large
+size, considerably larger than the average modern
+brain. The brain cast of this prehistoric man gives us
+some clear idea of Neanderthal brain power. In shape
+the brain is distinctly flat. The arching in the region
+of the forehead, so prominent in modern races, is
+absent. This part of the brain seems to sink inward
+as if the frontal lobe had gone somewhat into eclipse,
+or had not yet made that decisive expansion characteristic
+of later races of man. This condition, however,
+corresponds exactly with the low retreating forehead
+of the Neanderthal. When compared with the ape
+man of Java, or with the Dawn man of Piltdown, the
+Neanderthal brain does, however, show expansion in
+all of its major departments. The parietal, occipital,
+and temporal lobes have all increased in size. This is
+true also of the frontal lobe, but the ratio of expansion
+appears to be less here than in other areas. It is in this
+department that the real flatness of the brain is most
+pronounced. The convolutions in the frontal lobe fail
+to give the superbrain those dominant characters
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span>which produce a high, wide forehead in modern man.
+This apparent failure of the frontal lobe to attain
+greater proportions must have had far-reaching influences
+upon the life and destiny of these primitive
+Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>All of the major departments of the brain show
+considerable expansion. The entire brain of the
+Neanderthal gives evidence of progressive development
+at the same time that it manifests many signs
+of deficiency and incomplete realization along the
+higher lines of progress.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brain_of_Rhodesian_Man">
+  <i>Brain of Rhodesian Man</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Asia and Europe have produced evidence of prehistoric
+man. Until quite recently Africa has been
+peculiarly silent in this regard. At length even the
+Dark Continent has revealed signs showing that man
+of a primitive type has gone a long way toward the
+south in his wanderings over the earth. This important
+discovery was made in Rhodesia and first
+publicly reported in 1921 by Mr. William L. Harris.
+The conditions of this discovery were peculiar and
+significant. Actual remains of two human skeletons
+were found at Broken Hill mine in northern Rhodesia.
+Connected with this mine there was originally a
+natural cave about 120 feet long. This is known as
+the bone cave. It contained a vast number of animal
+bones all impregnated with the salts of zinc and lead.
+At the bottom of this cave the human remains were
+found. Like all of the other bones, the human skeletons
+were incrusted by zinc and lead. The cave itself
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span>seems to have been the ancient feasting place for
+hyenas, which dragged thither their prey. There is
+some suspicion that these human remains may have
+come to their last resting place in the cave of bones
+in a similar manner. The cleft of the roof of the cave
+here is far in, which suggests the possibility that the
+men or women whose bones were found may have
+fallen into the cavern. Certain features of the skull,
+however, have convinced eminent authorities that
+these individuals belong to a very ancient prehistoric
+race. The face is far more brutal than that of any
+other known human being, living or extinct. The
+enormous eyebrow ridges resemble those of the gorilla,
+the nose is flat and has that snout-like appearance
+suggesting a peculiarly significant mark of the beast,
+known only in one other extinct member of the human
+family, the Neanderthal man. Another remarkable
+feature of the head is the great size of the palate and
+teeth. The brain case and the features of the brain
+lend support to the view that this Rhodesian man
+was even older and more primitive than Neanderthal
+man.</p>
+
+<p>By all the signs of his frontal lobe the Rhodesian
+must have been a humble sort of human. Nothing in
+this department of his brain suggests any near approach
+to the attainments of modern man. The frontal
+lobe bears many marks of ape-like characters. It
+indicates at the same time a brain power which surpassed
+the limits of the great apes. It was a brain
+fast carrying man upward to the broader plains of
+human experience. The lot of the Rhodesian must
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span>have been precarious. He was pitted against formidable
+animals of the African wilds. But, judged by his
+frontal lobe, his brain had not left him destitute for
+the exigencies of such competition. He doubtless
+possessed the power of speech and the capacity for
+making human combinations. Compared with lower
+mammals he had a more facile association of ideas
+and could profit more effectively from experience.
+The evidence of his parietal, temporal, and occipital
+lobes indicates definite progress in all departments
+of sense perception. His brain was human though still
+in the rough. Whatever position is finally assigned
+to this far-distant cousin in our human family, he
+seems from his brain to have been a very simple sort
+of human being, older perhaps and even more primitive
+than any of the Neanderthal race.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Changes_in_Human_Race_Extremely_Slow">
+  <i>Changes in Human Race Extremely Slow</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is impossible to give the exact dates for the appearance
+of the different races of prehistoric men.
+At best, our ideas concerning their antiquity must
+be approximate. Yet these fossils do not leave us in
+doubt in one respect at least. We know and we may
+prove our knowledge in many different ways that
+man has inhabited the globe through long ages,
+whether we rate these ages as hundreds of thousands
+or millions of years. Throughout these ages man has
+varied considerably. At first he bore many close resemblances
+to lower forms of life. Slowly he improved
+and manifested a progressive advance toward higher
+humanity. We may be inclined to question this progressive
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span>change from one stage to another largely
+because our own experience of life is limited to such a
+short span of time. Within the memory of any man
+the changes in his fellows seem inconsiderable. Mankind
+appears to have a dominating fixity in appearance.
+It is only a little more than sixty generations
+since the birth of Christ, and during this time the
+racial characters of men have changed but little.
+The white man, the red man, the black man, and the
+yellow man, are all much the same in the form of body,
+the shape of head, the appearance of face, as they
+were sixty generations ago. There is more than a
+striking figure of speech in the scriptural definition
+that a thousand years are but as a day in the endless
+expanse of time. Measured by such days as these,
+man has changed slowly but surely. When we contemplate
+long days of this kind, each of a thousand
+years, their accumulation in the existence of our race
+takes on a new meaning. Estimate, for example, how
+far back ten days of this time would take us. We
+should find ourselves in the life of the world as it was
+ten thousand years ago, in that critical period when a
+vast social and racial change was altering the colour
+and complexion of human existence in Europe. The
+senile but still wonderful Cromagnon race was then
+limping along to the last stage of its declining old age
+and was about to disappear. The hardy and practical
+man of the New Stone Age had already arrived and
+was fast becoming master of the situation. The Cromagnon
+artist-hunter was passing the sceptre of
+human control in Europe over to the hard-headed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span>Neolithic business man. Another fifty days (each of a
+thousand years) still further back and we find again
+a momentous crisis. At that time the Neanderthal
+man was passing. In spite of all his rugged vigour, his
+day on earth was done. He had carried on existence
+successfully for seven or eight hundred thousand
+years, but now the time of his extinction was at hand.
+These seven or eight hundred thousand years would
+merely be seven or eight hundred days, according to
+the new kind of timepiece by which we are endeavouring
+to measure the duration of human progress.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Cromagnons_Replace_the_Neanderthals">
+  <i>Cromagnons Replace the Neanderthals</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>We may pause to seek some reason for the momentous
+change when the Neanderthal appears to have
+bowed before the Cromagnon. The real secret in the
+failure of the old race and the success of the new may
+be found in the brain. It was the increased brain
+power of the Cromagnon which produced the supremacy
+of this great race. It was this power which gave
+Europe its first pioneers in art and, for all mankind,
+opened the doors of creative imagination and appreciation
+of beauty in the world.</p>
+
+<p>It would be particularly illuminating if a brain of the
+Cromagnon race were available for study. These first
+artists occupied an exalted position. They began their
+life in Europe about fifty thousand years ago and
+carried on their industries for a period twenty times
+longer than the duration of the Christian Era. At
+present there is no Cromagnon brain cast available.
+We may, however, draw analogies from certain of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span>their human contemporaries, who lived in the middle
+part of Europe during the Solutrean period. These
+were days when Cromagnon art and industry were
+at their zenith, when the Old Stone Age had attained
+its culminating stage and flourished in its fullest development.
+The Solutrean contemporaries of the
+Cromagnons were themselves a remarkable people.
+They are known as the “great mammoth hunters of
+Prêdmost.” Their fossil remains have been found in
+Moravia. Associated with them were the fossilized
+bones of nearly nine hundred specimens of mammoths.
+In addition to these fossils of men and beasts there
+were found many highly worked flints, including
+spear heads and other stone implements, all having
+a pattern which belonged to the Solutrean period. At
+Prêdmost, where this discovery was made, there was a
+collective burial of fourteen human beings, with the
+remains of six others. These great mammoth hunters
+must have been a large and powerful race. Their prowess
+as trackers of great game was exceptional. The
+character of their brain as revealed by the casts made
+from their skulls places them at once on a plane higher
+than any of the earlier races of man. In fact, it admits
+them to membership in the same race to which we
+ourselves belong—that is, <i>Homo sapiens</i>. These intrepid
+hunters, according to their fossil remains,
+closely resembled their splendid contemporaries of
+western Europe, the Cromagnons. Of these latter
+there is an ample record in consequence of which they
+will always rank among the best representatives of
+the human species. Their remarkable artistic contributions
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span>denote far more than the executive mastery
+of art. They signalize that new spirit which had been
+breathed into mankind, that devotion to the beautiful
+in life which created an abiding enthusiasm in all
+of our race for its highest ideals and loftiest purposes.
+From the first days of Cromagnon life these tendencies
+were dominant. They were a people who delighted
+in the lavish use of personal adornment. Coiffure was
+of particular interest with the women and a highly
+developed personal achievement. Both the men and
+the women seem to have been fond of using red and
+yellow ochre, much as in modern times, to beautify
+the body. If certain Egyptian ladies are credited
+with the invention of the lipstick and of rouge, it is
+probable that they found their examples for such
+artistic practices in these Cromagnon prototypes.
+Drawing, painting, and sculpture were not the only
+creations of the Cromagnons in the realm of art. It
+seems probable that they had invented some form of
+music. Their sketches of dances and masks make it
+seem likely that to vocal expression they had added
+certain artificial accessories in the shape of crude
+musical instruments. One character in the artistic
+discrimination of these artists and sculptors of the
+Old Stone Age is of unusual interest. It shows a
+distinct partiality for portraying women of extreme
+corpulence. Many of their statuettes have been discovered
+which, in spite of their somewhat unsightly
+<i>embonpoint</i>, are called Venuses. The most famous of
+these is the Venus of Willendorf. It was, however, in
+the carving of animal forms that Cromagnon art
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span>attained its real heights. Many living and extinct
+species of birds, mammals, and fish have thus been
+immortalized. Back of all this varied artistic creation
+there must have been a social organization of high
+order, for only a rich human experience could provide
+the soil for such vivid and real beauty in art.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Mammoth_Hunters_of_Predmost">
+  <i>The Mammoth Hunters of Prêdmost</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The brain of the great mammoth hunters of Prêdmost
+had a volume close to the standards of modern
+men. It had lost those marks of inferiority which
+stamp the brains of lower races. It had gained that
+refinement of structure in the superbrain which proclaims
+the ascendant qualities of humanity. The
+groove of Sylvius and the central groove show the
+boundaries and the size of the several lobes of the
+brain, which correspond closely to those of modern
+man. It is in the frontal lobe that the most remarkable
+gains are apparent. The convolutions in this
+region are prominent and well defined. That flatness
+so typical of the Neanderthal brain has disappeared.
+These Prêdmost and Cromagnon people were not a
+race of flatheads, such as were the Neanderthals.
+The human forehead had become high and broad.
+It was no longer ape-like and receding, but clearly
+indicated that the human brain had developed sufficiently
+in its latest acquired and most highly organized
+department to demonstrate that man at
+length was capable of real humanity.</p>
+
+<p>From the Java ape-man up to <i>Homo sapiens</i> of
+modern times there has been a slow but gradual
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span>increase in all of the important measurements of the
+brain. There has been a gain in length, in breadth,
+and in height. Much of this gain has taken place in
+the region of the frontal lobe, and thus has expressed
+itself in expansion in the highest department for developing
+brain power. The meaning of this pronounced
+frontal expansion is evident in the progressive extensions
+of human intelligence.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Progress_of_the_Human_Family">
+  <i>Progress of the Human Family</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Judged by its brain power, the human family has
+clearly been progressive. In this respect it differs from
+all other families in the animal kingdom. In various
+parts of the world mankind has lagged behind. Such
+is the case in the tropics, where the races of men are
+still in a primitive stage. This is true also of many
+islands of the sea, in the arctic regions, and in other
+remote and inaccessible places of the earth. But given
+its full opportunity the human family has not failed
+to go forward. The line of its progress may not be
+deemed wholly satisfactory by the higher standards
+of enlightened criticism. Yet in bending the forces of
+nature more and more to his will as well as to his
+convenience, man has surely progressed. Where he
+has stood still, where perhaps he has even fallen
+behind, is in the manifest lack of control over his own
+nature. His curiosity has led him to inquire into every
+phase and aspect of life upon the globe. But in all of
+these inquiries he has given far too little thought to
+himself. Only within recent years has he become
+deeply interested in the mechanisms of his own
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</span>behaviour. Least of all has he devoted time and
+thought to the organ of his chief reliance, to the
+creator of his successes, to the dictator of his future.</p>
+
+<p>Since his earliest beginnings man has grown in
+humanity as his brain expanded. Such a conclusion
+seems irresistible. If we place side by side the brain
+casts of the ape man of Java, the Dawn man of Piltdown,
+the Rhodesian, the Neanderthal, the Prêdmost,
+and the modern, we have before us a demonstration
+of this progress more effective than words.</p>
+
+<p>The regions in which the greatest development has
+occurred are easily discerned. Marked additions have
+been made to the department of sight in the occipital
+lobe, of hearing in the temporal lobe, of body and
+contact sense in the parietal lobe. The mechanisms
+for the amplification of sense perception and sense
+combination have been manifoldly increased. But it
+is in the department of the chief executive of life
+and experience that the most decisive advance has
+occurred. This area of the frontal lobe, so poorly
+represented in man’s nearest kin, the great manlike
+apes, shows exuberant growth, even in the ape man
+of Java. Here its features correspond to those of
+modern man in nearly every detail. Its only essential
+inferiority is its relative smallness. Its special development
+of convolutions denotes the acquisition of human
+speech and human reason.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Progressive_Development_of_the_Human_Brain">
+  <i>Progressive Development of the Human Brain</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Were we to select any single area in the superbrain
+as the department supreme in mental organization,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</span>we should not neglect the claims of the department
+for vision, for hearing, for body and contact sense.
+Although each of these has progressively expanded,
+we would be much more strongly inclined to favour
+that part of the superbrain which has been active
+as the superlative sense combiner, which has served
+to develop the fullest impressions of human existence,
+to accumulate the widest ranges of experience, to
+direct most broadly the actions of our behaviour.
+Traced through all of their intermediate stages upward,
+it is these frontal regions which manifest the
+most conspicuous development. The process of this
+long, progressive expansion in the frontal lobe reaches
+back to the earliest periods of man’s existence. It
+conveys an accurate impression of the manner in
+which the brain has responded to the demands made
+upon it. The human brain may still be considered to
+be in its early youth, in spite of the fact that more
+than a million years of human striving lie behind it.
+This great antiquity, this remarkable flexibility,
+have been largely overlooked. By most of us the
+human brain is regarded as a finished product. Its
+long, prehistoric record as we know it to-day does not
+support this point of view. On the contrary, it makes
+it appear far more probable that the brain of modern
+man is only some intermediate stage in the ultimate
+development of the master organ of life. The greatest
+possibilities for future progress lie in further expansion
+of the frontal lobe. For this reason the brain of
+prehistoric man is not merely an antiquarian relic,
+it is a sign from the long ages of the past showing the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</span>road man has followed in his upward course. It likewise
+conveys some suggestions concerning the future.
+For, if the human brain began as a simple organ and
+gradually developed through successive stages, there
+is reason to believe, if not to predict, that it may
+develop still further.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">
+    CHAPTER XII
+    <br>
+    IMPLEMENTS OF HUMAN SUCCESS
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">HOW THE HAND, FOOT, AND BRAIN LED THE
+    WAY TO HUMANITY</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>It is not sufficient to know that the brain began as a
+simple organ and gradually became more complex.
+Sooner or later we must learn the reasons why it
+made this progress. At present we are able to identify
+some of the essential principles underlying brain
+development, yet with few exceptions the exact
+causes are still obscure. We may feel certain, however,
+that the progressive advances were due to the accumulation
+of slight changes which, modifying brain
+structure ever so little, ultimately made it more
+highly effective. Such changes in the different parts
+of the body are the result of a complex interplay of
+influences acting upon the animal as a whole. The
+brain has been particularly responsive to this interplay.
+It has at the same time been thoroughly conservative.
+Throughout all its wide range of variation it
+has maintained its basic designs. If readjustment of
+the body to certain conditions has resulted in the
+depreciation of a special part, such as the eye, the
+structure of the brain shows corresponding depreciations.
+The principle of compensation has also been at
+work. The power which may be depreciated or lost in
+one department is, to some degree at least, compensated
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span>for by others. An illustration of this compensatory
+power is afforded by the mole. This animal lives
+a burrowing life beneath the ground. Light rays do
+not reach it, and it therefore has no need for vision.
+In consequence, its eyes do not develop the function
+of sight. Its senses of touch and hearing, however, are
+greatly amplified, and the structure of its brain gives
+evidence of this compensatory readjustment.</p>
+
+<p>Signs of the close relation between the brain and the
+parts which it controls may be found in many organs
+of the body. In some instances these signs are outspoken;
+in others they are less clear. It is much easier
+to find evidence of this correlation in those parts
+which play a conspicuous rôle in life. The arms and
+legs, the eyes and ears, are particularly good examples.
+Modifications which have affected these parts
+are distinctly reflected in the brain. If more brain
+power is required for their better operation, more ample
+provision is made for them in brain structure.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Relation_of_One_Part_of_Body_to_Another">
+  <i>Relation of One Part of Body to Another</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is a debated question whether the brain or the
+external part of the body takes the lead in progressive
+modifications. Some authorities believe that all advances
+of this kind are dictated by development in
+the brain. Others ascribe the determining influence
+to the external part. For the present it seems wiser to
+consider these modifications as simultaneous, as
+affecting the external part and the brain together.
+Certain dangers arise from regarding the body as
+divided too strictly into definite parts. Such a division
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span>has advantages for purposes of description, but it
+may tend to obscure the important fact that life is
+carried on by the body acting as a whole. In this light
+the division between external part and the portion
+of the brain controlling it establishes an artificial
+distinction. Viewed in the light of purposeful life,
+one is of little use without the other. Both external
+part and the portion of the brain controlling it establish
+a special unit which, coöperating with all other
+special units, carry on the process of living.</p>
+
+<p>This view is known as the organismal conception
+of life. It estimates the entire animal not as a collection
+of different parts but as a combination which
+makes life possible. According to this conception
+the external structure (arm, leg, eye, ear, etc.) and
+the portion of the brain controlling it form an operating
+part of the whole. Modifications in the one are
+reflected in the other. They cause mutual reactions.
+When eyes are developed for different kinds of vision,
+corresponding provisions are made for them in the
+brain. When legs are specialized for various kinds of
+locomotion, brain structure adapts itself accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>It is important to realize what the eyes and the
+ears and the organ of smell have contributed to the
+progressive advance of the brain. In all of these organs
+there is a marked constancy and sameness among
+animals possessing them. Structures presenting a
+greater variety of form might have even greater
+pertinence. It therefore is a more leading question to
+ask what relation the brain bears to the extremities,
+to the fore and hind legs, to the hands and feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="History_of_the_Hand_and_Foot">
+  <i>History of the Hand and Foot</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>There is a long history of progressive change back
+of the hand and foot. In their development they
+emerged from more simple structures connected with
+the ends of the limbs in certain four-legged animals.
+Because they are attached to the limbs in this way,
+they have played an important rôle in one of the chief
+activities of life—locomotion. The fore and hind legs
+act as a series of levers. They are moved by muscles
+and in this way make transportation possible. Consequently
+the modifications in the ends of the limbs
+in response to special types of locomotion have a
+most important bearing upon the life of the animal
+and thus upon the brain.</p>
+
+<p>In animals living upon land such parts of the limbs
+as touch the ground are modified by many factors;
+thus the weight of the body, the speed of movement,
+and the kind of locomotion would all exert their modifying
+influence. Limbs of several different designs
+have thus been produced. Heavy animals, like horses
+and cattle, which require speed and endurance for
+long journeys, need hoofs. Still larger hoofs were
+developed by heavier animals, like the elephant and
+rhinoceros. The paw was the design utilized by animals
+like cats and dogs. Their bodies were not so
+heavy as those of horses and cattle. They were capable
+of great speed and needed sharp nails on their
+paws to hold the ground in running and springing.
+These talon-like nails they also used for defending
+themselves or in capturing their prey, as do the lion,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</span>tiger, leopard, and bear. The paw is a more flexible
+implement than the hoof. It provides a soft, elastic
+pad by means of which the animal touches the ground.
+In animals like the seal, walrus, and sea lion the
+flipper is the design utilized. Here the digits are connected
+by means of a web. The wing is the specialization
+in such animals as the bat whose transportation
+depends upon flight through the air.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Locomotor_Devices">
+  <i>Locomotor Devices</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>These various devices for moving the body about
+on the land, in the water, or through the air have
+been developed by mammals. By such contrivances
+they are enabled to subsist, each according to its
+own mode of living. Some of them have returned to a
+life in the water. The result of aquatic habits in
+mammals is extremely interesting. The flippers of
+seals, walruses, and sea lions equip these animals to
+swim with great ease and speed. They enable them to
+clamber about on the rocky coast by the edge of the
+sea, or upon the ice fields of the arctic regions. Because
+of its apparent limitations, such a life held
+little prospect for developing the powers of higher
+intelligence. A flipper is in no sense an efficient implement
+by means of which to acquire a superior position
+in the world. The seals and all of their kind, therefore,
+offer little promise of progress. They are capable
+of astonishing proficiency in the control of their neck
+muscles and movements of their heads, but this at
+best is a meagre advantage. They are somewhat
+better off than another group of mammals which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span>took to the water, namely; porpoises and whales.
+Nothing in the equipment of these animals could
+serve as efficient instruments by which to gain a preëminent
+place in nature.</p>
+
+<p>By developing wings in connection with their limbs
+the bats were also excluded from the lines of higher
+progress. However effective they are in flight, their
+wings could not be made to serve constructive purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Animals with hoofs, such as horses and cattle, elephants
+and rhinoceroses, acquired solid and reliable
+feet for withstanding the heavy strain which their
+speed and weight imposed upon them. Hoofs, however,
+are far from ideal as universal instruments.
+Although sufficient for the work they have to do,
+they cannot be utilized for purposes other than those
+of transportation except, in a certain minor way, for
+offensive and defensive tactics. In these animals all
+of the digits are either bound together in one large
+supporting pad, as in the elephant, or are encased by
+a horny covering, as in cattle and deer. In the modern
+horse but one digit persists, and this is surrounded
+by a heavy, horny hoof. Such an implement would not
+require a highly specialized endowment of brain
+power for its control.</p>
+
+<p>The daily programme of these animals, limited
+largely to transportation, calls for no constructive
+ability and no intentionally destructive one. The
+hoofed animals possess no means for accumulating
+or storing food in preparation against a day of need.
+They are forced to move from place to place in order
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span>to find their browsing and grazing lands. They cannot
+stand against great changes of climate or season.
+They must flee before the advance of winter as well
+as from their enemies. The hoof for this reason offered
+little promise for the development of a more efficient
+kind of instrument. Such hoofed animals as also possess
+a trunk developed an accessory organ of much
+value. It is doubtless an important factor in the high
+specialization of the elephant’s brain. Even this
+flexible instrument, however, has its decided limitations.</p>
+
+<p>All of these mammals, whether hoofed, flippered,
+or winged, have failed to develop a brain of superior
+qualities. In no instance is it an organ capable of a
+high degree of learning or intricate control of life.
+The hoof of the horse, cattle, deer, elephant, rhinoceros,
+and the like set the stamp of the wild upon
+these animals. This is the keynote of their behaviour.
+Flipper and wing are equally indicative of inferior
+qualifications in so far as efficiency and brain power
+are concerned. There may be sufficient reasons for
+placing these mammals in the same bracket with
+man in the great classes of the animal kingdom. Their
+inferiorities are apparent, however, when their intelligence
+is estimated by human standards. It is then
+clear how far below the human level of brain power
+they are.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Paw_in_Relation_to_Hand_and_Foot">
+  <i>The Paw in Relation to Hand and Foot</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In our search for animals capable of a greater range
+of adjustments we will find another group with a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span>much more promising locomotor equipment. This
+group comprises those mammals possessing paws,
+such as dogs, cats, bears, rats, squirrels, and the like.
+In itself the paw is a most flexible implement susceptible
+to many modifications. It possesses five distinct
+finger-like processes or digits, each of which is
+capable of some degree of individual movement. The
+digits may be spread out or drawn together; they
+may be folded or extended. In every typical paw there
+are eighteen movable joints, each of which is capable
+of some independent motion. Twenty-five muscles
+make more than seventy separate movements possible.
+These figures afford some idea of what a complex
+structure the paw is. Attached to the extremity of
+each digit is a sharp claw-like nail, beneath which an
+enlargement in the skin forms a prominent “tip pad.”
+Over each of these pads the skin is arranged in ridges.
+The ridges roughen the surface and produce what is
+called “friction skin.” The roughened skin and the
+claws at the end of the digits give the animal better
+ground-gripping powers. In addition to the tip pad,
+each typical paw has four enlargements where the
+digits come together. These are the “palm” and “sole”
+pads. They are likewise covered with ridged friction
+skin. The paw terminates in the wrist or ankle, and
+at this junction there are two enlargements called
+respectively the “wrist” and “ankle” pads. They are
+also covered with friction skin.</p>
+
+<p>This design of paw with its separate digits, its
+claw-like nails, and its eleven pads affords an especially
+adaptable structure from which to create many
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span>different kinds of useful implements. In the gnawing
+animals, like the rats and squirrels, the paw is developed
+particularly for running and climbing. The
+long sharp claws serve the purpose of spurs which,
+as in the case of the squirrel, may be driven into the
+bark of trees. All of the pads in the paw come in
+contact with the surface over which the animal is
+moving, thus giving information concerning its support
+and aiding its transportation.</p>
+
+<p>In moles and burrowing animals the hind paw retains
+its usual features, while the fore paw is converted
+into something resembling a shovel. The paw
+becomes broad and flat, particularly in the moles,
+and there is no suggestion of any of its pads. Since
+this specialization is adapted principally for digging
+underground, little could be expected in the way of
+high attainment for animals of this kind. Their burrowing
+capacity is excellent, but this is the extent of
+their ability.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Special_Uses_of_the_Paw">
+  <i>Special Uses of the Paw</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the meat-eating animals, like the dog and the
+cat, the individual digits and the claws are somewhat
+shorter, but their most important modification is the
+fusion of the paw pads and the reduction in the first
+digit. This change is a specialization for their more
+springy type of locomotion. Such animals run on the
+tips of the digits, using especially the second, third,
+and fourth digits. The paw pads usually fuse to form
+one or two which serve to increase the spring of the
+animal. The fore limb of the rat may be accepted
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span>as the working model, because it has all of the general
+features that make up a typical paw. It provides for
+running, climbing, clinging, and clawing. When compared
+with the paw of a mole, the modifications necessary
+for a good digging implement are clearly seen. The
+pads are no longer needed and might, as a matter of
+fact, be in the way. The digits are shorter and the whole
+hand is broader and more scoop-like. The paw of the
+mole is modified for the work it has to do and has lost
+many of the structures necessary for ordinary locomotion
+over the ground. Long claws are no longer essential
+for climbing or clinging, and the nails have been
+converted into burrowing ground-breakers. The
+rabbit and the guinea pig show changes in the fore
+paw necessary for rapid transportation in a kind of
+jumping locomotion. They have lost the specializations
+in the paw necessary for climbing. The nails
+and the digits are less long and somewhat heavier.
+The squirrel, on the other hand, has a fore paw specialized
+for climbing trees. This modification has
+emphasized the length of the individual digit and
+particularly the length and sharpness of the claws.
+Often the squirrel may be seen sitting upon its
+haunches holding between its fore paws a nut, the
+shell of which it is attempting to crack with its teeth.
+Such grasping power is not found in the paws of
+animals specialized for running and jumping solely.
+The squirrel’s modification of the front paw is extremely
+important. It reveals how the animal’s life in
+the tree has lengthened the digits as well as the nails.
+Some degree of power for grasping small objects has
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span>come through this lengthening. The fore paw of a
+cat compared with that of a dog illustrates other
+important specializations. Both of these animals are
+strong runners. In running they travel along on the
+tips of the digits. For this reason the tip pads and the
+friction skin over them have become highly developed
+for ground-gripping purposes. The paw pads and the
+wrist pads have tended to fuse in order to give an
+elastic surface necessary for that springy gait determined
+by running on the tips of the digits. The individual
+digits are somewhat longer in the cat than in
+the dog. The claw-like nail of all the cat family is
+one of their distinguishing features. By means of these
+claws they are able to climb trees, which is a provision
+of great service in procuring food. Dogs, on
+the other hand, have short digits, with thick, heavy
+nails suited more as spikes in running but not adapted
+to climbing. In many of the great cats, like the leopard,
+climbing trees is an essential part of their hunting
+strategy. For this reason they require long, sharp
+claws, which may also be used as weapons in attacking
+their prey. The long claws of the bear likewise
+indicate a modification of the fore paw in adjustment
+to the animal’s climbing propensities. The great
+weight of the bear makes it necessary for it to have
+these long spur-like claws in order to get a proper
+grip on the bark of a tree when climbing.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Transformation_from_Paw_to_Hand">
+  <i>Transformation from Paw to Hand</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Illustrations of this kind might be multiplied to
+show that in all animals having paws these implements
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span>have been modified in one way or another to
+suit the kind of work they have to do. In the main,
+this work is transportation. But there are many special
+problems in the different kinds of transportation.
+There are also numerous other adjustments to life
+that are capable of producing profound modification
+in the paws. From such facts as these it must be
+clear that the paw has been serviceable as the basis
+for developing instruments suited to many special
+purposes. One prominent feature in the several modifications
+of the fore paw is the effect which climbing
+has had upon the length of the digits and upon the
+length of the claw-like nails. In the rat and particularly
+in the squirrel these effects of climbing are
+especially distinct. When climbing at length became
+a dominant factor in the life and livelihood of the
+animal, certain still more decisive modifications were
+produced in the paws. We may now endeavour to
+gain some idea of that important transformation
+which occurred when certain groups of animals took
+up more or less permanent life in the trees. These
+mammals were representative of the monkey kind.
+They did not resort to tree climbing as many others
+have done as an expedient in hunting or in escaping
+from their enemies. The trees became their abodes.
+Many changes were induced by this new adjustment
+to life, changes which affected the muscles and bones
+and even the skin. During the process of this adjustment
+certain ridges upon the skin in the palm of the
+hand and sole of the foot began to show marked
+changes, probably because they were in such immediate
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span>and constant contact with the branches of
+the trees. In their basic designs these ridges which
+form the friction skin may be traced back to the simplest
+of pawed animals. Their successive modifications
+offer one of the most certain guides in following the
+stages through which the hand emerged from the
+paw.</p>
+
+<p>Each ridge upon the skin of the paw (<i>chiridium</i>)
+is an elevation of the superficial layer which contains,
+at regular intervals, the mouths of minute canals
+coming from sweat glands. In its simplest form each
+sweat gland in regions of the skin not covered by hair
+(sole of the foot and palm of the hand) consists of a
+mound-like elevation in the centre of which is the
+mouth of a sweat duct. With the higher development
+of the skin, numbers of these little mounds ran together
+in rows thus forming the friction ridges. Depending
+upon the pressure and the kind of contact
+made with the ground or other surface, the ridges of
+the skin are arranged either in concentric circles, in
+ellipses, or in parallel lines. They serve two useful
+purposes: First, they roughen the surface so that it
+can grip the ground more effectively; second, by the
+continuous secretion of fluid from the sweat glands,
+they keep the skin soft, pliable, and sensitive. In this
+last particular, namely, the sensitiveness of the skin,
+the ridges also serve in another capacity. They provide
+proper locations for nerve endings, necessary to the
+sense of touch in all of its various modifications. Thus
+the paws in the more minute architecture of their
+skin pads and friction ridges afford highly pliable
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span>and sensitive instruments by means of which different
+kinds of mammals are able to adjust themselves
+in a great variety of ways.</p>
+
+<p>After many intermediate stages of transition the
+fore paw assumed the appearance of a hand. Simultaneous
+with this change the hind paw also began to
+manifest many hand-like characters. Potent factors
+were at work determining this important transformation.
+Their influences were decisive not alone because
+they changed the paw into a hand but because they
+instituted equally profound changes in the structure
+of the brain. Such modifications as these brought
+about many adjustments to life destined to be the
+special determinants of human behaviour. One of
+the first changes to occur in transforming a front
+paw into a hand was the direct result of arboreal life.
+This modification consisted of a decisive lengthening
+of the digits, particularly the second, third, fourth,
+and fifth digits. In this way the fingers were formed.
+The first digit which ultimately became the thumb
+did not lengthen to the same degree as the other four.
+The chief influence in producing this lengthening to
+form fingers arose from the need of a firm grasp upon
+the branches. Its effects appear in the simplest monkeys,
+such as tarsius. The small hand of this animal
+has four long fingers and a diminutive thumb, all of
+which are well adapted to encircling and grasping a
+cylindrical branch. Another important transitional
+feature is the flattening in the ball of each digit. In
+tarsius each finger tip has a disk-like appearance.
+This is an extreme development. It produces what
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span>in effect is a suction pad on the tip of the finger not
+unlike that observed in some of the frogs (<i>Hyladæ</i>).
+Such suction pads enable the animal to strengthen its
+grasp upon the bark. The flattening of the finger tips
+due to the pressure required in grasping the limb
+of a tree produced a third great change. It caused a
+corresponding flattening of the back of the finger tip
+and thus developed a broad, flat finger nail to replace
+the sharp, claw-like nail of the cat, rat, and other
+similar mammals.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Hand_of_Tarsius_and_Lemur">
+  <i>The Hand of Tarsius and Lemur</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The three changes observed in the most primitive
+of the monkey kind (<i>Tarsius</i>) comprise the pronounced
+lengthening of the fingers, the flattening
+of the finger tips, and the flattening of the finger nails.
+These transformations are easily understood in connection
+with the necessity of grasping cylindrical
+branches. In other words, a prehensile hand came into
+existence as a result of living in the trees, and a new
+kind of instrument made its appearance in relation
+with the upper extremity. The need of a firm grasp on
+the branches was the fundamental cause of this modification
+of the paw. It had far-reaching effects because
+it created the facility to grasp many other objects
+and thus struck the keynote of those further developments
+which ultimately gave rise to the grasping
+hand of man.</p>
+
+<p>All of the pads covered by friction skin which are
+characteristic of lower mammals like the rat and the
+squirrel may be identified in tarsius. The tip pads
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span>are somewhat changed to form the suction disks.
+The palm pads, four in number, occupy their usual
+position in the angle between the digits. The wrist
+pads, two in number, are well developed. By means
+of these elastic cushions the animal makes its contacts
+with the branches.</p>
+
+<p>Transition from paw to hand is still more pronounced
+in the lemurs. These animals in many ways
+stand lower in the scale than tarsius. In them the
+lengthening of the digits to form real fingers, the
+marked development of the thumb, the appearance
+of friction pads, and broad, flat finger nails are all
+prominent. The index finger shows certain variations
+in its development. In other respects these lowly
+members of the monkey kind manifest definite progress
+in the change from paw to hand.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Interesting_Case_of_the_Marmoset">
+  <i>The Interesting Case of the Marmoset</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>At this point it is interesting to consider the case of
+the marmosets. Here the progress which the paw had
+made toward a more effective structural instrument
+encountered a serious setback. The hand of these
+little animals, in a general way, has much that resembles
+a paw. Although it has long fingers and a
+prominent thumb, there is an evident slipping backward.
+The claw-like finger nails suggest an actual
+retrogression in the process of developing a hand.
+If the marmosets were actual backsliders, other
+monkeys of the New World were particularly progressive.
+They developed hands which are extremely
+human in appearance. Their long, tapering fingers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span>have broad, flat nails. Their thumbs are fairly well
+formed. Their finger and palm pads have characteristic
+appearances. This interesting group of South
+American monkeys show in a most striking manner
+those changes which life in the trees has brought
+about in the fore paw. Such modifications are especially
+significant because of their influence upon the
+behaviour of those animals which have taken up a
+permanent arboreal life. They have also made a deep
+impression upon the structure of the brain. The
+transition from a running, ground-living animal to
+the simpler arboreal forms is foreshadowed in the
+lemur’s hand. In many respects this transition stands
+just upon the border line. Its apparent indecisiveness
+is recorded in the brain, for the lemur retains many
+of the ancient brain features created by older ground-living
+habits. At the same time, it indicates certain
+adventurous attempts to break away from the earth
+and ascend into the trees. The grooves of the brain
+show this new departure particularly well. They
+retain their strong family resemblances inherited
+through long ages of four-legged ancestors. But added
+to this they manifest a tendency to assume the characters
+which in due course would lift their successors
+farther from the ground and into a more erect posture.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Appearance_of_the_Hand-like_Foot">
+  <i>Appearance of the Hand-like Foot</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Up to this point attention has been centred upon
+the important changes which attended the transition
+from paw to hand. Equally momentous were the
+modifications in the hind paws which resulted in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</span>hand-like feet. This transformation slowly altered the
+digits, the claw-like nails, and the friction pads. It
+modified all of these parts in such a way as to produce
+better limb-gripping instruments. A great change in
+transportation had taken place. Running over the
+ground in easy, secure fashion now gave place to
+the more hazardous method of climbing among the
+branches of trees. A dependable grip was the prime
+need. This capacity required long toes with which to
+encircle the branches, a powerful sole, and a great
+toe with strong grasping power. The four-legged
+animals that travel over the ground on various kinds
+of paws support the weight of the body on two main
+arches of the foot. One arch consists of an elastic
+span between the tip and the sole pads. The other
+arch extends between the sole and ankle pads. Generally
+speaking, those animals living on the ground
+first strike the surface at each step on the tip pads
+of the four outer toes. As the full weight of the body
+is accepted by the hind paw, the sole pads touch the
+ground. Last and most lightly, the ankle pads in
+the region of the heels rest on the supporting surface.
+In many running animals of this kind the heel touches
+the ground infrequently. Their running and walking
+in consequence have a springy quality that prepares
+them for a quick bounding start at an instant’s notice.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Strong_Grasping_Powers">
+  <i>Strong Grasping Powers</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Animals like the rabbit and kangaroo possess hind
+legs that work together, while the fore limbs are put
+forward first one and then the other. The most effective
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</span>type of transportation in animals possessing
+paws has developed a gait in which the action of
+the hind leg of one side follows the action of the fore
+leg of the opposite side. This is the manner in which
+the dog runs. It is also true of all members belonging
+to the great cat family. The hind paw is put down in
+the footprint of the opposite fore paw. Apparently
+there is no deliberate supervision of this action which
+seems to be wholly automatic in its nature. To a great
+extent, however, this automatic regularity in the
+hind legs ceased when the four-handed animals came
+into existence and began to live in the trees. The
+problem then was a totally different one. It was not
+necessary for these animals to be on their toes every
+moment. They did not require the powerful spring
+formed by the two arches in the sole of the foot. Their
+chief necessity was a foot that would have the grasping
+powers of a strong hand. In this way they could
+make sure of seizing the branches securely.</p>
+
+<p>The first digit of the foot, which in most pawed
+animals often fails to develop, became of greatest
+service to the monkeys. In most of them the great
+toe offers an added means for securing a firm grasp.
+It may be extended behind the branch while the other
+toes encircle it and all working together produce a
+firm grip not unlike a wrench on a pipe. The need of a
+long lever extending from the tip of the toes back to
+the heel, essential to the springy gait of the ordinary
+pawed animal, is not so strongly felt in arboreal life.
+In fact, a foot which is too long may be an actual
+disadvantage, while one facilitating the best kind of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</span>gripping power would necessarily require a shortening
+from toe to heel. This was the change which took place
+in the early beginning of tree life.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Under_Direction_of_the_Eye">
+  <i>Under Direction of the Eye</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is difficult to appreciate all of the decisive modifications
+throughout the body which the development
+of such hand-like structures determined. Their
+influences operated in profound and subtle ways.
+They caused a great change in body posture. The
+animal was now able to reach for branches above its
+head. This was a long step in the direction of standing
+upright. It modified the relation of the head which in
+most four-legged animals is directed so that both
+the eyes and the nose are turned toward the ground.
+Reaching upward to grasp branches and drawing
+the body in this direction lifted the head. It has been
+shown that this action of pushing the head backward
+and stretching the neck causes the hind legs to
+straighten out automatically in exactly the position
+necessary for standing erect. Such a beginning of the
+upright posture also produced a change in the position
+of the internal organs of the body as well as in the
+position of the eyes. These modifications influenced
+the growth of the superbrain, which finally acquired
+that appearance seen only in animals possessing
+hands. Coincident with these modifying factors, still
+another important change was in process. In all four-legged
+animals the paws, and more especially the
+hind paws, operate out of sight of the eyes. The
+animal does not see their action. The eye does not
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span>watch and supervise the movements of the paws step
+by step, but allows them to shift more or less for
+themselves. With the appearance of hands connected
+both with the fore and hind limbs, this state of affairs
+ceased. Both the hand and the foot now came under
+the critical supervision of the eye. The eye was able
+to hold in plain view the performances of the hands
+and hand-like feet. It could see and direct their movements.
+It could single them out individually or watch
+them while they all worked together. It could even
+make critical discriminations in each hand and in each
+foot. It could select a thumb or a great toe, or each
+one of the other fingers and toes, and thus guide its
+movements. This selective discrimination in the
+hands and feet was an advantage never enjoyed by
+any of the pawed animals whose habit it is to use all
+of the digits together. In this manner both hand and
+foot profited by their new adjustments. As instruments
+they were capable of a far wider range of application,
+although it was not alone by this expansion
+in their utility that they became more effective. They
+were better agents for sensing the world and possessed
+a more ample sensory capacity which arose from
+their own multiplied movements.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Threshold_of_a_Great_Change">
+  <i>Threshold of a Great Change</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the animal kingdom it would be difficult to find
+more provocative influences than those which determined
+the transformation of paws into four hands.
+Considered casually, the appearance of the quadrumanous
+monkeys in all their varieties seems little
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span>more than the addition of many interesting forms of
+life. This addition, however, had a far greater significance.
+The four-handed stage of animal existence
+led to the highest development of the brain. Without
+this stage the ultimate advances in life, the supreme
+achievements in progress, would have been impossible.
+Numerous factors contributed to the acquisition of
+hands and hand-like feet, but no one of them was
+more potent in the final outcome than the effects of
+tree-living. Almost every other combination of habitat
+and adjustment had exerted its influence upon the
+form of the mammalian body, yet in no other instance
+has there been achieved a success comparable to the
+development of hands. Most mammals are equipped
+with highly efficient eyes, keen ears, and a serviceable
+sense of smell. These endowments have had opportunity
+to contribute to the efficiency of life. But neither
+sight nor hearing nor smell was sufficient of itself to
+determine those advantages capable of giving the
+animal a supreme position. It was the hand which
+opened the door to give the senses those opportunities
+never enjoyed before. It called upon the brain for
+further expansions to direct new ranges of movement.
+It required additional brain extensions for a
+greatly amplified sense of touch in the fingers and
+palms, in the toes and soles of the feet. It was the
+hand, in a word, that afforded an entirely new grasp
+upon life and in the end created not only a new order
+of mammals but almost a new kingdom of life. The
+transition from paws to the hands of the quadrumana
+is the threshold of an epochal change. As the paw was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span>the basic pattern for the hand, the hand was the indispensable
+stepping-stone to the development of man.
+This formula may perhaps seem altogether too simple
+and graphic. It would be such, in fact, if many of the
+important intermediate stages in the process of development
+were overlooked. These stages may now be
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>The consequences of the transition produced under
+the influence of tree-living appear conspicuously in
+the lengthening of the digits to form fingers, in the
+appearance of an opposable thumb, in the acquisition
+of a grasping hand. All of these are definitely adaptive
+changes. They are applied directly to meet the
+conditions of locomotion through the trees. But if
+these modifications conferred upon the animals many
+real advantages, they also introduced certain imposing
+hazards to further progress. They were adequate
+for the mastery of arboreal life, yet at the same time
+they permitted the forest to become master of these
+four-handed animals. This is true in exactly the same
+way that the sea imposes its laws upon aquatic mammals,
+the plains dictate to the ungulates, and the air
+exerts its control over the bats.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Possession_of_too_Many_Hands">
+  <i>Possession of too Many Hands</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>So far as the monkeys are concerned, an obstacle
+lies squarely across the path of further progress. They
+are possessed of too many hands. Hand and hand-like
+foot both serve the purposes of locomotion. Neither
+the one nor the other is afforded those opportunities
+of exclusive use which are essential to the highest
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span>development. This is true even of most of the monkeys
+of the Old World, like the macaques. Their
+locomotion requires the use of all four extremities.
+They run along on the top of the branches, grasping
+firmly as they go. They leap from one branch to
+another, employing all four hands in this mode of
+transportation. As a result of these activities the
+hands are long and slender, the fingers long and tapering,
+and the thumb short but opposable. The foot
+has much the appearance of the hand.</p>
+
+<p>One group of the ape world offers a striking departure
+from this more general rule of development.
+This exception is particularly interesting. It appears
+in the baboon and more especially those members
+of their family which have taken up a life upon the
+ground. With the baboons the resumption of terrestrial
+life came long before any of the monkeys had
+made pronounced advances toward the erect posture.
+It is for this reason that when these animals adopted
+habits of ground life they readjusted themselves after
+the fashion of other four-legged animals. They travel
+about much like the dog or cat, with their muzzles
+directed to the earth. In fact, many of their features,
+both in head and body, take on a definite canine
+appearance. A feature of special significance is the
+manner in which their fore and hind limbs have reacted
+to the influences of ground-living. The great
+lengthening in the hands, fingers, feet, and toes,
+conspicuous in monkeys that live in the trees, has
+actually been reversed in the baboon. It is still proper
+to speak of hands and feet, but both hand and foot
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span>have shown striking tendency to revert to paws.
+This specialization illustrates a remarkable disgression
+in the development of the monkey kind. It means, if
+it means anything at all, that the adaptations necessary
+for carrying on life in the trees have withdrawn
+their influence and permitted the habits of adjustment
+to the ground to modify the character of the extremities.
+In four particulars the hand of the baboon
+shows distinct tendencies to revert to a paw:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>All of the fingers are shortened.</li>
+
+<li>The thumb has been reduced if not to the state
+of a vestigial tubercle as in the dog, at least until it
+has become extremely rudimentary.</li>
+
+<li>The nails have become much longer and more
+slender, as if they were tending to form claws.</li>
+
+<li>Both the tip pads and the palm pads have become
+more prominent, the latter actually fusing to
+form a single palmar cushion.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>In the foot similar tendencies toward a paw are
+present. The lesser toes and the great toe are much
+shortened, and there is a distinct fusion of the plantar
+pads. This reversion in the hands and feet of the
+baboon shows clearly how readjustment occurred
+when the influences of tree living were withdrawn.
+It also demonstrates the strong tendency for the
+chirideal structures to assume the ancient patterns
+of the paw in response to the habits of four-footed
+living upon the ground. The baboons, therefore, cannot
+be considered in the direct line of progress. They
+not only failed to advance the cause of developing
+the hand but they did nothing to further the erect
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span>posture or the progressive expansion of the brain.
+It was perhaps the large size of their body that made
+it necessary for them to desert the tree and seek more
+secure support upon the ground. This increase of body
+size, however, came at an early period, long before
+the primates had begun to feel those decisive influences
+which favoured standing erect.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brachiation_and_the_Erect_Posture">
+  <i>Brachiation and the Erect Posture</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Considerably later in geologic times another class
+of apes made its appearance, which felt the full power
+of this determining influence. These animals were the
+gibbons. They introduced a new type of transportation.
+Their locomotion no longer depended upon running
+along on the tops of the branches, or leaping
+from one support to the next. They introduced the
+novel method of swinging by the hands. Reaching
+for a branch over the head with the right hand, the
+gibbon swings its body forward to grasp the next
+branch in advance with the left hand. Swinging in
+this manner, step by step, first with the right hand,
+then with the left, these animals walk through the
+trees. The results of this arm-swinging locomotion
+(brachiation) are apparent in the development of the
+hand. The fingers, tip pads, the palm, and the palm
+pads are greatly elongated. Similar lengthening is also
+apparent in the forearm. The acrobatic manœuvring
+requisite to such locomotion has developed a high
+degree of skill in using the hands and arms. It also
+requires a close coöperation between the movements
+of the upper extremities, eyes, and head. The influence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span>of these several modifications has impressed itself
+upon the brain. But the most decisive effect of the
+gibbon mode of locomotion is seen in the posture of
+the body. The swinging by the hands well above the
+head produces an almost constant erect posture.
+The muzzle no longer points, as in the great majority
+of monkeys, toward the ground. It, as well as the eyes,
+is now directed toward the horizon, and thus those
+factors which have contributed most to an upstanding,
+forward-looking primate were first introduced by the
+gibbon. The foot of these animals, while it retains
+many features and markings of a hand, affords a
+fairly satisfactory support for bipedal locomotion in
+the erect posture. Obviously the effects of tree life
+are responsible for these changes in the gibbon. All
+other monkeys up to this stage have been embarrassed
+by an over-endowment of hands. But the gibbon, by
+over-emphasizing the upper extremity, has to some
+degree nullified the importance of hand-like feet. It
+has begun the solution of that perplexing problem
+which was imposed upon the monkeys by their almost
+exclusive tree life and which must be solved in order
+to provide for the manlike specializations essential
+to bipedal locomotion.</p>
+
+<p>In this gibbon level of the ape world such specializations
+began to manifest themselves. From some
+gibbon-like progenitor, early in the Age of Mammals,
+there arose a common stock capable of producing
+all of the modern gibbons, the great anthropoid apes,
+and man himself. This gibbon stage of development
+contained the potential material from which to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</span>evolve the erect posture, bipedal locomotion, hands
+freed for the purposes of the greatest utility, and a
+brain adequate to the needs of the highest primates.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="A_New_Grasp_on_Life">
+  <i>A New Grasp on Life</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In the three great anthropoids, orang-outang,
+chimpanzee, and gorilla, the hand is approaching
+more closely to the human pattern. In all three the
+leading advance is due to the development of a more
+effective opposable thumb. The result of this change
+has caused the disappearance of the two wrist pads
+so characteristic of the mammalian paw and so prominent
+in the great majority of monkeys. Power to oppose
+the thumb against each one of the fingers separately
+has increased to a great extent. The opponens
+muscle of the thumb has become more prominent and
+caused the appearance of a conspicuous muscular
+swelling in the palm of the hand, the thenar eminence.
+The palm muscles developed in connection with the
+little finger have likewise occasioned the appearance
+of the hypothenar eminence and at the same time
+the disappearance of the second wrist pad. These
+developments, all clearly seen in the anthropoid
+apes, and most prominent in the gorilla, reach their
+greatest proportions in man. They are evidence not of
+the further adaptation of the hand to locomotion
+but of its liberation for other and more constructive
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of this advance in the hand from one
+primarily intended to provide a firm grip upon the
+limbs of trees to one of almost universal application
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</span>are revealed by alterations in the palmar lines. These
+lines are three in number, namely, the anterior, middle,
+and posterior groove. In the gibbon they extend
+across the palm almost parallel to each other. They
+are creases which represent the lines of palmar flexion
+resulting from grasping cylindrical branches. In the
+orang-outang these lines are still essentially parallel,
+indicating a hand designed to grasp a cylinder. In the
+chimpanzee and gorilla the palmar grooves begin to
+converge toward the space between the index finger
+and thumb. In man this convergence is complete,
+due to the development of the powerful hand muscle
+which permits the opposable thumb to reach the
+other fingers. This progressive convergence of the
+palmar lines indicates the development of a hand no
+longer intended for the simple purpose of grasping
+a cylinder, but not constructed to take firm hold
+upon a sphere. Figuratively this change in hand from
+cylinder- to sphere-holding capacity is illustrative of
+actual development in the intellectual grasping powers
+that became the distinguishing feature of mankind.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="A_Firm_Foundation_for_Humanity">
+  <i>A Firm Foundation for Humanity</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Thus far we have been able to trace the stages by
+which the hand developed in consequence of tree life.
+It is now necessary to follow the modifications which
+terminated this arboreal domination and consequently
+liberated the animal from the forest. This
+transition determined an adjustment to life that was
+finally productive of the most effective behaviour.
+The outcome of this modification was the freeing of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span>the hand for purposes other than locomotion. The
+immediate agent that made such a result possible
+was the development of a foot capable of supporting
+the upright posture. This foot, as it made its appearance
+in man, passed through a long series of transitional
+phases. It had its beginning in a definitely prehensile
+stage when in the earliest of the monkey kind
+it was hand-like in its appearance. The structure
+that was the forerunner of the human foot had the
+same bones, the same muscles, the same ligaments.
+The only substantial difference was in the form and
+arrangement of these parts. Even in such a minute
+particular as the three contravehent muscles in the
+sole of the monkey’s foot, which draw together the
+heads of the metatarsal bones, the correspondence
+is complete. These muscles are present and active in
+the gibbon. They are much diminished in the chimpanzee.
+In the orang and the gorilla they are still
+further reduced and closely resemble the atrophic
+fibrous strands found in man. A similar correspondence
+involves the muscles which separate and draw
+the toes together (the interossei). They are deeply
+situated in the plantar surface of the foot in most
+monkeys. In the orang and gorilla they have exactly
+the same position and relations as in man. The human
+embryo affords the final connecting link, for in this
+stage of development the muscles correspond to those
+of the lower monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>The human foot is foreshadowed by that of the
+great anthropoids. It is, in fact, the culminating stage
+in that series which had almost reached the human
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span>goal in the orang, chimpanzee, and gorilla. The
+plantar grooves in the feet of the anthropoid apes
+clearly indicate the lines of flexion adapting the foot
+for purposes of grasping the limbs of the trees. In
+passing from the gibbon to the orang and the chimpanzee,
+with the slow development of semiterrestrial
+life, there is a progressive disappearance of the plantar
+grooves. This change illustrates the manner in which
+the foot became adapted to the purposes of bipedal
+locomotion. Of all the great apes, the gorilla makes
+the nearest approach to the human foot. The toes
+have become shorter and have lost their finger-like
+resemblances. The great toe has become larger and
+is partially assuming an axis in parallel with the other
+toes. It has also migrated toward the end of the foot
+and, in older adults, has lost much of its prehensile
+character. Another modification is the gradual broadening
+of the heel and the appearance of the plantar
+arch. All of these changes have been developed for
+the purposes of bipedal locomotion and the erect
+posture. In consequence of these new functions the
+simple grasping foot of the monkey is altered to serve
+as a powerful stepping lever. In its simian form the
+foot is a Y-shaped prehensile organ. The stem of the Y
+is represented by the long heel. The two branches are
+formed by the great toe and the lesser digits respectively.
+In the higher primates, such as the orang,
+chimpanzee, and gorilla, the simple Y foot has undergone
+a striking change. The sole of the foot, including
+the ball and the heel, has greatly increased, while the
+toes or grasping elements have become shorter. In
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</span>gorilla this is particularly true of all the toes except
+the great toe, which has not only become somewhat
+longer but now tends to be in the main axis of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The most important features in the development
+of the foot are the increase in the supporting surface
+of the heel and the appearance of the plantar arch.
+In the lower monkeys the arch of the foot is double.
+In the great apes, more especially in gorilla, the plantar
+arch is single and corresponds practically to that of
+the human foot. The sole pads have become fused to
+form the ball of the foot, while the development of
+the heel has caused the disappearance of the ankle
+pads.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been the influences which
+caused certain members of the prehuman stock to
+desert the trees and live upon the ground, it is clear
+that one most important result of this change was the
+formation of the human foot. This structure was a
+solid foundation for the highest achievements of
+organic evolution. It ultimately produced an animal
+capable of dominating the world. It was responsible
+for all of the extensive changes incident to the erect
+posture—for the rearrangement in the shape of the
+body, for the squaring of the shoulders and the broadening
+of the pelvis, for readjustments in the position
+of the heart and lungs, for new provisions in supporting
+the abdominal organs, for a reordering in the
+relation of the eyes to provide for binocular, stereoscopic
+vision, for the modifications in the neck to suit
+the purposes of the most effective head movements,
+for the freeing of the hands so that they might become
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</span>constructive agents, and, above all, for impressing
+upon brain structure the effects of these many progressive
+advantages. If there could be any doubt that
+the hand and the foot contributed in this decisive
+manner to the development of the brain, we might test
+this supposition by a pertinent question: What, for
+example, would the brain have been if neither hand
+nor foot had made its appearance? It is clear to us
+what limited advantages were acquired by animals
+equipped with hoofs or paws or flippers or wings.
+The brain responded to the requirements of these
+specialized organs. None the less, such response was
+always and unmistakably the brain of an ungulate or
+of a meat-eater, of a flying or of a swimming mammal.
+It was the brain of a creature of restricted behaviour,
+as limited in the development of its intelligence as
+it was in the amplitude of its adjustment to life. It
+was particularly deficient in one great department
+which is the hallmark of all animals possessing hands.
+Summarized as briefly as possible, it may be said
+that what the brain owes to the hand and foot is the
+frontal lobe. Through all the stages of progress,
+from the time when the monkeys first began to live
+in the trees until their successors, through graded
+intermediate phases, developed the hand and foot of
+man, this lobe has been the outstanding feature of
+the brain.</p>
+
+<p>It is perhaps unwise and also unwarranted to speak
+of the debt that one organ owes to others, especially
+when the activities of all represent a unified process.
+Brain, hand, and foot are in the strict sense a single
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</span>functional unit. Each is indispensable to the others.
+Yet it may be assumed that it was the new opportunities
+for action provided by the hand and foot which
+at length gave the brain its human capacities. These
+ultimate instruments of man’s success amplified brain
+power and increased its sphere of influence. The
+hand in particular was the instigator, if not the originator,
+of human speech. Herbert Spencer, in his
+essay on “The Philosophy of Style,” clearly points
+out the fundamental relation of the hand to speech,
+in the following words: “To say ‘leave the room,’
+is less expressive than to point to the door. Placing
+a finger on the lips is more forcible than whispering
+‘Do not speak.’ A beck of the hand is better than
+‘Come here.’” As the creator of indicative gesture
+the hand laid the foundations for the use of symbols,
+which, when vocalized, became established as language.
+This attainment was the most important
+single step in the ascent leading to humanity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">
+    CHAPTER XIII
+    <br>
+    ESTIMATES AND VALUES
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">ASSETS AND LIABILITIES OF THE HUMAN
+    BRAIN</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>There is substantial evidence to prove that the
+brain passed through many intermediate stages before
+it acquired sufficient power to enter upon the
+latest stage of its progress. Wherever it has come
+down into modern times, regardless of race or climate,
+it bears marked similarities in its external appearance.
+In spite of this strong family likeness, however,
+there are many individual variations. Some of these
+variations are especially noteworthy. Certain of
+them are of utmost importance because it is possible
+to discover in them the secret of man’s highest
+achievements.</p>
+
+<p>In the average human brain, as in these notable
+exceptions, the principle of development remains unchanged.
+Expansion, the root and base of this principle,
+has been most pronounced in the departments
+capable of creating human supremacy. From order to
+order among the mammals, increase in the size of the
+brain has been prominent. Depending upon the specialization
+of the animal, this increase has affected the area
+of vision, of hearing, of body sense, of taste, or of
+smell. Only in the family of man has this expansion
+made itself preëminent in the frontal region. Frontal
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</span>growth is the dominant character of man’s physical
+endowment. It seems reasonable, therefore, to speak
+of the entire period of human existence as the Age of
+the Frontal Lobe.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Frontal_Lobe_and_the_Expansion_of_Consciousness">
+  <i>The Frontal Lobe and the Expansion of Consciousness</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Selective development in the brain has had far-reaching
+effects. It has provided for special adaptability.
+It has furnished one or more of the senses with a
+particular degree of keenness. It has determined the
+specific lines of reaction. These lines in all animal
+life express themselves in three phases: (1) the approaching
+phase, (2) the avoiding phase, and (3) the
+resting phase. In the vertebrates each phase depends
+upon impulses which influence the nervous system,
+particularly the brain. The approaching reactions
+embrace all efforts made by the animal to reach out
+and acquire what it needs. In these reactions the
+hunger impulse is the most primitive and the most
+important. It arises from the necessity for food and
+depends upon stimuli from the entire body, more
+especially from the gastro-intestinal tract. Another
+series of approaching reactions takes origin in the
+herding impulse, which leads to the gregarious association
+of animals of the same kind, such as schools
+of fish, flocks of birds, herds of cattle. The stimuli
+for this impulse come through the contact-receiving
+organs. Many approaching reactions express the
+essential necessity of the muscles to contract, as in
+activities without any other apparent objective. Still
+more conspicuous are the approaching reactions
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</span>caused by the mating impulses which arise from
+sexual stimuli.</p>
+
+<p>Impulses of each variety motivating these reactions
+of approach ascend higher in consciousness, or acquire
+greater clarity, in direct proportion to the brain
+capacity of the animal. Consciousness in fish is of a
+relatively low grade. It becomes progressively more
+extensive in amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals,
+reaching its highest development in the human
+cortex. The frontal lobe in man provides for an incalculable
+expansion of these impulses in conscious
+clarity.</p>
+
+<p>The avoiding reactions of animal life likewise depend
+upon fundamental impulses whose essential
+stimuli arise from the hurt or painful elements in sensation.
+All extremes of sensory stimulation may contribute
+to impulses underlying the avoiding reactions.
+They form the natural armament of protection
+upon which the animal depends in adjusting itself
+to its surroundings. As in the case of the approaching
+reactions, so the impulses necessary to avoidance
+are progressively expanded through the vertebrates
+until they reach their highest clarity in the human
+brain. The resting phase depends upon impulses derived
+from the entire metabolism of the body.</p>
+
+<p>These fundamental impulses which become clearer
+in consciousness through the progressive stages of the
+animal kingdom tend to interact in their correlations
+and determine combinations of great importance.
+Avoiding impulses of a protective nature may combine
+with approaching impulses to determine a reaction
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</span>of attack in order to save the animal from some
+threatening enemy. Thus a protective effort may be a
+combination of an avoiding and an attacking attitude
+at the same time, as when the mongoose, jumping
+backward in retreat from the striking cobra, still
+maintains the pose of attack in the entire set of its
+body. The resting phase may be employed as camouflage
+for an avoiding reaction in what is commonly
+known as “playing ’possum,” or it may be used as a
+decoy in preparation for aggressive activities of attack,
+particularly as seen in the cat family. In man the
+range of these combinations has attained the highest
+degree of development. The frontal lobe furnishes an
+extensive equipment for this purpose. In all modern
+races frontal capacity manifests but little difference.
+It therefore seems clear that this common denominator
+of human success has given man his power to
+hold his place in nature and to overcome the difficulties
+which have beset his path.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Caucasian_Supremacy">
+  <i>Caucasian Supremacy</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The greater apparent successes of the white race
+might presuppose a greater degree of brain capacity
+and hence a better frontal lobe. But the frontal superiority
+of the Caucasian peoples, if it exists, is at
+best slight. The white man’s supremacy must, however,
+depend upon some actual advantage. Although
+outnumbered two to one, he is to-day the overlord of
+the world. Of the 1,700,000,000 human beings now
+living, only 550,000,000 are Caucasians. The remaining
+1,150,000,000 belong to the yellow, black, and red
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</span>races. In spite of this disparity, the white man’s
+policies, his products, his projects, penetrate into
+every angle of the earth whose climate, fertility, or
+hidden wealth may be exploited by resources of the
+Caucasian brain.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous facts indicate that in the white race
+there has been an unusually large number of individuals
+with exceptional brain development. Many
+Caucasians who have distinguished themselves intellectually
+show conspicuous advantages in cerebral
+development, especially in the richness of convolutions
+and fissures. The region of the brain showing
+this richness particularly is the frontal lobe.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brains_of_Modern_Races">
+  <i>Brains of Modern Races</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>This lobe is much the same in all modern races of
+men. The Eskimo brain, however, possesses frontal
+convolutions which are rather more complex and
+tortuous than in the average whites (Hrdlicka). As a
+whole, the brain of this northern race is heavier and
+larger than the Caucasian. Its excess of weight over
+the average white man, according to many observers,
+amounts to about 150 grams. The large Eskimo brain
+is not out of proportion with the fact that these
+people are compelled to contend with an exacting
+environment and require much ingenuity to maintain
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The brains of the aborigines in Andaman and Nicobar
+Islands weigh somewhat less than the average
+white brain. The brain is broad and short; the frontal
+lobes are a little less massive than in the Caucasian.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</span>The fissures and convolutions are, if anything,
+slightly less complex than in the white man, although
+the difference is not striking (E. A. Spitzka).</p>
+
+<p>The negro brain, for the most part, has the same
+outline as the European brain (Tiedemann). The
+length and height of the hemispheres do not differ
+visibly, and their breadth is only a little less. The
+convolutions are large in the frontal regions and the
+sulci show a greater degree of symmetry than is
+usually found in European brains.</p>
+
+<p>Among the American Indians the average weight
+of the brain is somewhat less than the Caucasian
+(H. B. Ferris). This is true both of the North and
+South American Indian. On the other hand, the fissures
+and convolutions, especially in the frontal
+region, correspond very closely in complexity and
+dimension to those of the white man.</p>
+
+<p>Examination of Mongolian brains shows that the
+average weight of the Chinese brain is slightly less
+than that of the Caucasian (Kurz). The Chinese
+brain is said to have a number of striking peculiarities
+in which it differs from the brain of other races. One
+investigator mentions thirty-three peculiarities of
+this kind, and yet when each peculiarity is considered
+individually its prototype may be found in an extensive
+group study of Caucasian brains. The frontal
+lobe is richly convoluted and fissured. Kappers believes
+that the Chinese brain retains a degree of
+infantilism, much of which is shown in the high arching
+of the corpus callosum.</p>
+
+<p>Accepting all of these differences in the several races
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</span>of living men as to weight, dimension, development
+of lobes, richness of convolutions and fissures, and
+peculiarities in individual details, it becomes clear
+that such differences as do exist are slight enough to
+be well within the range of individual variation. In
+other words, when large numbers of brains of the
+several races of modern men are compared, the differences
+between them are almost certain to assume no
+great importance. We may conclude that the Caucasian,
+Negroid, Mongolian, and all other forms of
+the modern brain present a striking similarity in their
+general appearance and characters.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Brains_of_Distinguished_Men">
+  <i>Brains of Distinguished Men</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>When, however, we consider the brains of distinguished
+members of the white race, we at once obtain
+the impression of striking individual variations.
+The brains of many men of genius have been carefully
+studied. Spitzka has collected the records of one
+hundred such individuals to which he has added his
+own studies upon six distinguished scientists. All tell
+the same story. These men, noted as jurists, scientists,
+mathematicians, composers, dramatists, physicians,
+journalists, statesmen, and historians, have with few
+exceptions possessed brains which in weight exceed
+those of the rank and file of the race. This is true of
+the brain of such outstanding men as Beethoven,
+Cuvier, Turgenev, Daniel Webster, Lenin, Thackeray,
+Joseph Leidy, William Pepper, Edward Cope, and
+many others. The brain of the remarkable deaf, dumb,
+and blind girl, Laura Bridgman, has been carefully
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</span>studied by Dr. Donaldson. It is notable that in this
+instance the frontal lobes, both in size and in the richness
+of the convolutions and fissures, were well developed.
+It was in this region that the brains of the
+distinguished contributors to human progress already
+mentioned showed their greatest degree of expansion.
+Recently reports on the brains of Sir William Osler,
+of Dr. G. Stanley Hall, and of Dr. E. E. Southard
+have been published. In each of these remarkable men
+the size of the brain and the unusual development of
+the frontal lobe have been striking features. The
+brain of the great German historian, Theodore
+Mommsen, was particularly notable because of its
+frontal development, and so also was that of William
+Bunsen, the scientist and discoverer.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to the massive brains of these other
+men of genius, there has recently been brought to
+light the fact that the brain of a great modern master
+of literature, Anatole France, was remarkably small,
+weighing only 1017 grams. This weight is considerably
+below the average for the white race (1300-1400 grams)
+and not much above the estimated weight of <i>Pithecanthropus
+erectus</i>, the Java ape man. The difference between
+the weight of Anatole France’s brain and that of
+the ape man is 77 grams, according to the estimated
+values. Sir Arthur Keith maintains that in spite of
+this noted academician’s reputation, known the world
+over for his writings as a novelist, philosopher, and
+savant, Anatole France was actually an extremely
+primitive man. This position taken by Keith would
+be difficult to support against the prevailing opinions
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</span>of the day. We should be more impressed by the
+degree of richness in development of the frontal lobe
+and the complexity of its convolutions and fissures
+than by the actual size of the brain. It would seem
+most likely that a marked degree of frontal development
+has been the decisive factor in the production
+of the exceptional brain. Most of the great men who
+have left records in respect to their cerebral endowment
+confirm Sir Arthur’s contention that a powerful
+brain is a large brain. Individual variation may account
+for much, however, and a high grade of frontal
+convolution, implying as it does a great cell richness
+in a cortex, may make amends for many ounces of
+weight deficiency. From the facts available it is clear
+that human greatness in the main depends upon
+largeness of brain and extensive frontal development.
+The possessors of such brains have been the leaders
+in the activities of the white man, in every line of his
+progress, in every detail of his success. They have
+been the Caucasian thinkers, the idealists, the philosophers,
+the poets and artists; they have been the white
+man’s pragmatists, his statesmen and builders of
+empire. They have also been his spiritual pioneers,
+the founders of his religions and ethics. To them has
+been given exceptional power of vision, with equally
+great capacities for transforming what such vision
+revealed into benefits for their race.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Caucasian_Leaders">
+  <i>Caucasian Leaders</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>History gives them their proper places. Their dynamic
+personalities have touched the earth and made
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</span>it bring forth its seven wonders and an increasing
+multitude of lesser wonders, each a marvel of human
+ingenuity. As they touched the earth and made it
+produce, so they have touched the hearts and imaginations
+of their fellow men until their minds responded
+to new aspirations and nobler purposes,
+until the mark of the beast was left farther in the
+distance and the ascendancy of mankind became
+the most stirring theme of creation.</p>
+
+<p>History also shows how these favoured elements
+of the race, under the guidance of their leaders, have
+built brilliant civilizations, compelling systems of
+religion, far-reaching codes of ethics. Nations have
+risen, articulating the ideals of peoples scattered over
+vast territories. Cities have come into existence
+filled with the treasures of man’s imagination. The
+same aspiration shone through them all. It was the
+spirit, the determination to reach out where man
+had never reached before.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever were his material successes, still more
+important was that inner possession which came to
+man during his adventurous development of civilization.
+However simple it may have been in the
+beginning, it grew rapidly. This priceless possession
+was the human intellect. In many tribes of men it
+manifested none of the expansion discernible in the
+more progressive races. But with its fullest opportunity,
+especially under the conditions of European
+environment, it developed to the degree which created
+a new humanity. Man recognized his interdependence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</span>with his fellow beings. His social qualities now began
+to bear fruit in a new soil and in a more invigorating
+atmosphere. The finer traits of his social nature grew
+abundantly. Broader conceptions of responsibility
+to others, deeper understandings of sympathy, led
+to new products of generosity and new vocations of
+social devotion. All of the higher sentiments found
+easier means of expression. These were new conceptions
+denied to lower animals and to the lower races of
+man.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely less substantial than the satisfaction derived
+from this deep social sentiment was the gratification
+obtained from an appreciation of the beauties
+of nature and from man’s own efforts to duplicate
+these beauties in his art and literature. But his eyes
+have never contented themselves with earthly attractiveness
+alone. When he had possessed the earth
+he must still reach out in imagination to gain for
+himself the assurance of kingdoms beyond his present
+state. In all his civilized period and even long before
+man has peered acquisitively into the unknown, to
+create for himself a future existence or the hope of
+such existence. This yearning for another and an
+immortal life has been the basis of his many religious
+beliefs. From this theme of religion have grown the
+impulses for the best of human achievements. It has
+not merely formed a halo about civilization, but has
+reached far inward to exert control over almost every
+human relation. No influence has been a greater force
+in the ennoblement of life. No creation of the brain
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</span>has been a more effective guide in directing human
+destiny. No incentive has sustained human hope more
+consistently than the solace arising from this deep
+source of faith.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Age_of_the_Frontal_Lobe">
+  <i>Age of the Frontal Lobe</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The frontal lobe, which has guaranteed such advantages
+to man, brought him his spiritual understanding,
+his social attributes, and his satisfactions
+from art and literature. It created the means for him
+to gain a more adequate knowledge of the world in
+which he lived and of the great cosmos of which his
+world is but a part. The conquest of reality, the deeper
+appreciation of things as they are, the broad expansion
+of his knowledge of all things in and about
+him, have contributed deep satisfactions to human
+life. It is difficult to estimate in this day the value of
+all the great contributions to science. It is difficult
+also to state which product of man’s frontal lobe,
+his social development, his religion, his art, his
+literature, or his science, has meant most to the
+growth of that imposing figure in which he now presents
+himself. No one of these elements may justly deserve
+to be set above the others. Deprived of any of
+them, the race might have been seriously impoverished;
+it might never have attained that position
+which entitles it to be considered the supreme achievement
+of creation. It is little wonder that the gods
+which man set up for himself have been anthropomorphic,
+cast in his own image and likeness.</p>
+
+<p>In later days there were reasons for the Caucasian’s
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</span>assurance, for his self-reliance, for his faith in his own
+judgment and reason. Peace and comity existed between
+the nations of the earth. Prosperity was within
+their borders. Success and progress filled every walk
+of life. Social order rested upon firm moral foundations.
+This was a human establishment upon which to
+depend. But ultimately this record of the white man,
+from the beginning of his civilized period down to the
+early decades of the Twentieth Century, brings us to a
+fateful midsummer day, the 1st of August, 1914.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Old_Sores_and_Liabilities">
+  <i>Old Sores and Liabilities</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Perhaps there are no good reasons for turning back
+to such old sores. Can any conceivable advantage
+come of opening again those vaults holding that which
+we would rather forget? With passing years memory
+gradually relinquishes what should be the immortal
+lessons of experience. The horror, the degradation,
+and all other outgrowths of the protective mechanisms
+making for better judgment, for saner living, for
+wiser avoidance, are soon forgotten. We look and see
+only the whited sepulchre. The dissolution and disease,
+the lurking danger for the future, are concealed. Yet
+these are our liabilities. If we drive on blindly or with
+our eyes closed to them, such prosperity as we have
+attained is destined to disintegrate.</p>
+
+<p>It is the old formula over again that we see beginning
+to reproduce itself on that fateful August afternoon.
+The expansive demand for power, the will to
+dominate, the insatiable determination to possess,
+are all disdainfully snapping their fingers in disregard
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</span>of the rights and peaceful pursuits of others. Sacred
+obligations are thrown to the winds with the crackling
+of a scrap of paper. There are no obligations.
+Lust, greed, and the dregs of human cruelty are
+seething in the breasts of men turned animals, are
+ready to speak with the tongues of every manner of
+ruthless torment. By armies men return to the filth
+of the earth, living in the mire, breathing the stenches
+of their own corruption, inhaling the gases of sadistic
+invention, meeting the flame of an earthly purgatory,
+and inspired by the single indefatigable impulse to
+kill. And for what purpose? None but the old one! To
+grasp, to gain, to seize by force! There is no question
+of right or wrong. The only question is right of
+possession. Both those who attack and those who
+defend pray to the same God and pray the same
+prayer.</p>
+
+<p>Here in our own days is the frontal lobe leading a
+great fraction of the white race not merely into hell
+but to the brink of its own undoing. If it failed in this
+leadership it was by the narrowest margin. It has left
+us still gasping on the edge of the precipice into whose
+depths we have gazed, wondering how long ere we see
+them again.</p>
+
+<p>Courage, endurance, and heroic determination we
+say were the compensating atonements for this madness,
+for this maniacal era of wanton destruction.
+Nobility of purpose rang out in the defiance—“They
+shall not pass!” Yet where was the nobility in that
+machine-made death which swept regiment after
+regiment into oblivion by its withering fire? Who now
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</span>will claim the glory of 400,000 dead in less than a
+lunar month, of 8,543,515 fighting men fallen in the
+early prime of manhood in four years of war? Is this
+the chronicle for a great race to glory in? It is rather
+the record of the white man at his lowest ebb, dehumanized
+for a mere bauble of possession.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, through four brief years, out of the unhallowed
+precincts of no man’s land, the mark of the
+beast came back. The white man learned that the
+cloak over his baser passions was a thin veneer. He
+learned, or may have learned if there has yet been
+time to recover from the overwhelming concussion,
+that he is not yet master of himself, that the chief
+guide of his life may on slight provocation lead him
+not rightly or well, but with unerring precision, into
+the pitfalls of extermination.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="When_the_Pressure_Comes">
+  <i>When the Pressure Comes</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>We speak of loyalties and vocations of devotion.
+Where are these when the pressure comes? Where are
+they when the man stands with his mob? The greatest
+and best things in life at once take flight. There is
+not even standing-room for them when hate and
+revenge are the passions of the day. It is then that
+class stands against class. All that wealth and culture
+and luxury have built through centuries finds no
+strength against the ire galvanized by equal centuries
+of oppression. Those who have suffered their silent
+agonies confront those who are about to die. Such
+have been the tragedies of revolution. So it was in the
+French Revolution, with its history of guillotine
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</span>horrors. Such was the case of Russia in revolt. Such
+it has always been wherever the privilege to enjoy,
+concentrated for the benefit of the few, has worked
+disadvantage to the many. Neither those who for the
+time enjoy, nor those who are deprived, have sufficiently
+learned the lessons of moderation, self-restraint,
+and control over the human spirit to hold
+in check the baser impulses.</p>
+
+<p>War, revolution, and other mass reactions in the
+interest of readjusting man’s social conditions are
+not rare in our racial experience. Since the beginning
+of historic times there have been thousands of wars
+of greater or less magnitude. If, during the Roman
+era, the gates in the temple of Janus stood open for
+centuries and that great people were almost continuously
+at war without appreciable cessation, we
+moderns would have no need for an energetic gatekeeper.
+In one place or another, throughout the
+globe, we have been continuously waging war or
+producing revolutions. Following the close of the great
+World War, a little more than a decade ago, there have
+been no less than sixteen wars, and seventy-five
+thousand men have died as a result of warfare. Let
+those who philosophize in security call war an activity
+essential to human progress. Those who know it
+through suffering and loss will call it by its proper
+name. It is not, however, in war alone that we may
+discern the results of our defective control over human
+nature. We need turn but a few pages of history
+to encounter many other sore spots. Among these
+blemishes are those arising from a source which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</span>should have been our most unfailing, our deepest
+consolation.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Heresy_and_Retaliation">
+  <i>Heresy and Retaliation</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The spiritual heritage bequeathed by the Great
+Galilean retained its influence for little more than two
+centuries. Through the dark Middle Ages Christianity
+wandered far from the path of its appointed
+blessedness. To many it ceased altogether to be a
+blessing, and to many others it became an actual
+curse, meaning for them torture, imprisonment, starvation,
+humiliation, or death by burning at the stake.
+There can be little wonder that heresies sprang up
+against the inhuman conduct of the mediæval Church.
+Corruption, discrimination, demoralization, abuse,
+and tyranny went unrebuked. The church militant
+was infected by every sin that it was created to prevent.
+Heresy was the reaction to such corruption, and
+the Inquisition was the retaliation on the part of the
+Church to preserve itself against heretical disintegration.
+The barbarous zeal which through many
+centuries brought misery to mankind in the name of
+Christ has been explained in several ways. Some have
+denounced it as mere bloodthirstiness or lust of power.
+Some have traced it to the doctrine of exclusive
+salvation. In order to understand it properly we must
+comprehend the stage of civilization in which it
+flourished. The feudal military spirit was everywhere
+dominant. Society relied more upon force than upon
+persuasion. Industrial influences had not yet tempered
+modes of thought and action. Throughout the Middle
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</span>Ages men were strangely pitiless in their dealings
+with each other. The wheel, the cauldron of boiling
+oil, burning alive, burying alive, flaying alive, and
+tearing apart with wild horses were the ordinary
+means by which jurists endeavoured to deter crime.
+In England poisoners were boiled to death as late as
+1542 (Rouse and Margaret Davie). One woman, in
+1726, was burned at Tyburn. Minor crimes were dealt
+with with a harshness unbelievable in this day, including
+such hideous procedures as blinding, mutilation,
+tearing with hot pincers, breaking on the
+wheel, and cutting out the tongue. People of all
+nations were accustomed to this cruel savagery and
+accepted it in relation to crimes that were thus
+punished. By popular detestation heresy was regarded
+not merely as a sin but as the worst of all crimes.
+This belief was held with equal tenacity both by
+the clergy and the laity. Under the influence of such
+feelings the Church adopted the harshest measures
+and continued to grow more cruel and more unchristian.</p>
+
+<p>The Inquisition was not a local phenomenon. It
+became most intense in Italy, where it gradually took
+shape. In time it spread into Germany, into France,
+and into Spain. The Spanish Inquisition was employed
+for the most part as a state institution to maintain
+the throne. It used all of the ingenuity known to
+the ecclesiastical inquisitors and added punishments
+of its own. The torture chamber, which at first was
+not introduced as an inquisitorial instrument, soon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</span>established itself as an indispensable accessory and
+flourished in many parts of Europe. There was a
+furtiveness in the manner in which the Church doled
+out these punishments. For the repentant heretic life
+imprisonment on bread and water and in chains was
+not a criminal sentence; it was the means of repentance
+and salvation for the unfortunate sinner. If the
+heretic remained unrepentant the Church washed its
+hands of him as a capital offender and turned him
+over to the secular authorities to be burned at the
+stake. The dungeon in which the unfortunate victim
+was imprisoned for life was a frightful chamber, damp,
+and infested by rats and vermin. Confinement was
+solitary and various circumstances besides pain and
+hunger were brought to bear upon the terrorized
+imagination of the prisoner. These dungeons were
+often ingenious means of torture. One in the Bastille
+at Paris had a floor which was conical and pointed
+downward so that it was impossible to sit or lie in it.
+Another in the Châtelet had a floor continually
+covered by water, compelling the prisoner to stand
+erect. Persons convicted of heresy were also forced to
+wear crosses of cloth, generally yellow, sewed upon
+their garments. In this manner the symbol of Christian
+devotion was converted into a badge of utmost
+shame. Confiscation was another penalty with frightful
+effects. Upon arrest for heresy a man’s property
+was sequestrated, and his family thrown into the
+street. After several centuries of unremitting cruelty
+the Inquisition succeeded in suppressing the various
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</span>sects of heretics. For this advantage the Christian
+Church paid an unnecessarily high price by gaining
+for itself a lasting stigma.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Provocations_of_Circumstance_and_Time">
+  <i>Provocations of Circumstance and Time</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Such interludes as these in the course of man’s
+happiness and peace may perhaps be regarded as unfortunate
+digressions from the scheme of human behaviour.
+Their apology lies in the fact that they
+belong to other times by contrast with which we have
+shown great improvement. We are much changed for
+the better—so much changed that many of these
+appalling episodes of history could not occur in this
+day. Reassurance of this kind may comfort us, but it
+does not provide us with protection against ourselves.
+For with due provocations of circumstance and time
+there is no guarantee that we would not repeat or
+even amplify the ghastly delinquencies of the past.
+The pride we feel in our modern progress and prosperity
+elevates us to a plane of conscious superiority.
+And yet this same pride experienced a sickening
+collapse when no later than our own day and generation
+it was forced to witness a phenomenon of
+eruptive brutality compared to which all former warfare
+was insignificant. In spite of this recent experience
+we feel sure of ourselves, confident in the great
+capacities which have made us men. We possess this
+confidence, however unenlightened we may be concerning
+the real power upon which we depend, especially
+as to its source, its nature, its possibilities,
+and its proper management.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Compounding_the_Essential_Impulses_of_Life">
+  <i>Compounding the Essential Impulses of Life</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>As no other members of the animal kingdom, we
+have compounded each one of the essential impulses
+of life. Through our frontal mechanisms we have
+raised these primitive drives to the most elevated
+planes of consciousness. We have increased their
+clarity to the highest degree. It was doubtless the
+introduction of symbols which first secured this
+greater clarity. Later the development of spoken
+language established the universal medium of exchange
+within the brain. Lower animals evidently
+do not learn to speak. They only acquire the use of
+beast cries by which to transmit warnings, sex invitations,
+or challenges to combat. Such specific cries
+modified by the structural adjustments of man may
+have been sufficient for the simple human language
+of earliest times. There seems to be no actual barrier
+between the vocal activities of birds, dogs, apes, and
+men except that superior mechanism of speech provided
+by a progressively developing frontal lobe.
+From its first introduction language was a societal
+phenomenon. All of its products were likewise societal.
+If it raised man as an individual, its greatest profits
+appeared in the elevation of the social order. Under
+this new influence the primitive impulses of hunger,
+herding, mating, avoiding, and the rest entered into
+complex combinations. In consequence, each primordial
+drive was converted into a thriving industry
+in the interest of further human satisfaction. Excessive
+growth in these industries soon manifested
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</span>many dangerous tendencies. New human expansions
+developed out of the primitive impulse of hunger
+under the added opportunities of the frontal lobe.
+Appetite and indulgence with their tendencies toward
+excess came in conflict with sumptuary restrictions
+and prohibitions. The effects of frontal expansion
+upon the herding impulse contributed to the development
+of crime, to the creation of mass phenomena
+under the influence of fear, hate, and hope,
+to the epidemic spread of group manias and popular
+delusions such as were the pilgrimages, crusades, and
+demonism of the Middle Ages, such as was the extremity
+of ruthlessness manifested in the last great
+war. The extension of the sex impulse through the
+mechanisms of the frontal lobe is incalculable. From
+it have come crops of asceticism and licentiousness, of
+poetry and sentimentality, of social order and disorder,
+of philosophy and pure bunkum. The expansion
+of impulses underlying the avoiding reactions has
+produced an unescapable blight upon human life due
+to the extensive corticalization of fear. The fear of
+bondage or slavery, of tyranny or cruelty, is no longer
+upon us. A multitude of more subtle fears, engendered
+by modern civilization, have produced our phobias,
+our irresistible compulsions, and our great variety of
+somatic and psychic anxieties.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Human_Nature_Has_Not_Changed">
+  <i>Human Nature Has Not Changed</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The incentives of life have been magnified and
+multiplied upon the screen of the frontal cortex. They
+have afforded man his powers of judgment and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</span>reason, his greater capacities to enjoy existence, his
+new aspirations of hope. They have supplied him
+with his broader opportunities to order and adjust his
+life and with his stimulating inspirations of learning.
+Each of these new capacities is conditioned by the
+circumstance and fashion of a given age. There is no
+arguing with such fashion. The <i>mores</i> and the times,
+the customs and the place, dominate the products of
+the frontal lobe and mold them in constantly changing
+patterns. The fashion of yesterday is often the
+laughing stock of to-day as that of to-day may be the
+jest of to-morrow. These plastic patterns, which the
+frontal lobe produces for the conduct of human affairs,
+have neither permanency nor assured foundations.
+Great principles which we swear by now we know are
+wholly transitory. While they last certain moral
+notions and devices are in fashion, but these are
+conditioned by the times and customs. In such facts
+as these may be recognized the variable quality of
+human wisdom. Reason is likewise based upon conditioned
+reflexes which have grown out of the <i>mores</i>
+of the time and place. In this light, if man seems to
+have come a long distance from his early beginning,
+the path measured in units of real progress is surprisingly
+short. “Things happen,” says Sumner,
+“which show us that human nature has not changed
+and that the brute in each may awake at any time.
+It is all a question of time, custom, and occasion and
+the individual is coerced to adopt the <i>mores</i> as to
+these matters which are then and there current.”</p>
+
+<p>Morals and manners, like speech, are societal
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</span>adjustments. They are highly conditioned reflexes
+acquired through generations of social experience.
+Self-restraint, agreeability, and coöperation form the
+basic currency of successful social intercourse. They
+are the artifacts of group needs, the medium of exchange
+in all comfortable and safe contacts between
+man and man. That these qualities are superficially
+engrafted upon human nature is easily demonstrated.
+With adequate provocation the individual discards restraint
+and reveals the grossest traits of his aggressive
+reactions, the group is quickly resolved into the lawless
+mob, and nations are easily excited to martial frenzy.</p>
+
+<p>What benefits, therefore, will we obtain by further
+self-deceptions? It is long overdue that we see through
+the thin fabric of traditional delusions wherewith we
+have surrounded ourselves. It requires courage to
+face the truth and an open mind to recognize it. But
+we cannot hope to improve unless we see ourselves as
+we are, unless we appreciate our inherent liabilities
+as well as our assets, unless, divested of angelic or
+godlike disguises, we stand forth for our own inspection
+as human animals occupying the foremost
+place among living things only by virtue of the best
+brain thus far developed. Much that is animal within
+us must remain unchanged despite our utmost strivings.
+All that is human may be modified, enhanced,
+and brought to better fruition.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="Handicaps_and_Restraints">
+  <i>Handicaps and Restraints</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Almost from its beginning the race has recognized
+its handicaps. It has struggled in many ways against
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</span>its own liabilities, especially those due to increased
+brain power. By systems of philosophy the human
+spirit has sought to show the reason and goal of life,
+has endeavoured to envisage the most desirable pathway
+for existence.</p>
+
+<p>Man has endeavoured to hold himself in check
+through religion, bowing to the belief that for every
+human being there is some higher power controlling
+destiny and for this reason entitled to obedient
+reverence and worship. For his hour of need, however,
+philosophy and religion offer no reprieve. The
+Great War comes, and assurances from these sources
+of human reliance have no power to stay the catastrophe.</p>
+
+<p>Man has experimented through societal organization,
+through the formation of governments,
+through the establishment of laws, to restrain the
+dangerous tendencies of his frontal lobe development.
+But if his governments succeeded in utilizing effectively
+his efforts at social order, they have also
+abused these efforts. In every societal system there
+must be a ruling class. According to Professor Sumner,
+no class can be trusted to rule society with due
+justice to all its members. Whatever the sins of
+antiquity, modern society is ruled by the middle class.
+It has to its credit the invention of institutions securing
+civil liberty and the safety of person and property.
+Its history is otherwise not satisfactory. It has
+demonstrated that in no popular government could
+sufficient control be created to restrain the abuses of
+special privilege, to avert the corruption of civic
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</span>power for graft, or to repress the selfish undertakings
+of cliques formed on special interests for the purpose
+of public exploitation. When faced by this test,
+all modern democratic states have failed. Plutocracy
+and the unscrupulous powers of wealth are at the root
+of the financial scandal, which is the blemish upon all
+modern parliamentary organizations. We must recognize
+this defect not merely as a tendency of the times
+but as a national disease. It spoils every institution
+and, extending from one generation to the next, at
+length destroys in the masses the faculties of ethical
+judgment.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="The_Cult_of_Success">
+  <i>The Cult of Success</i>
+</h3>
+
+<p>By education man has likewise endeavoured to
+moderate the recognized liabilities of his frontal
+lobe. But, like his customs, his education has varied
+with the fashions of his time and place. With one brilliant
+exception educational processes have too strictly
+been confined to technological training, or to the inculcation
+of traditional cultures or mediæval scholasticism.
+The ancient Greek alone dealt with his life
+and its problems as we well might with ours. We are
+imitators and large users of secondhand materials.
+He was an originator. His education was an adventure
+of discovery, an absorbing search for the understanding
+of what constituted the good life. Largely without
+traditions and upon his own initiative he endeavoured
+to gain a critical attitude toward all of his prejudices,
+to liberate himself from the dominance of herd influence,
+and to adjust his conduct most intelligently
+for the welfare of the state.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</span></p>
+
+<p>Modern education is especially in a state of confusion.
+It is almost wholly devoid of any broader
+theme than that embraced in the purpose to teach
+the individual the formulas necessary to make good.
+There is little effort to inspire a larger point of view,
+to instill an understanding of life’s values, an appreciation
+of its relations, and of its truly human opportunities
+for intelligent living.</p>
+
+<p>Philosophy, religion, societal order, government,
+and education have failed to produce any entirely
+satisfactory solution of life. They have scarcely
+recognized the existence of the frontal lobe, but, looking
+beyond it to some intangible sources of power,
+they have neither capitalized its assets nor reckoned
+with its liabilities. There is probably a cause of long
+standing behind these several failures. For centuries
+and ages the incentives of human efforts, even the
+best, have laboured under a contaminating influence.
+This influence has touched and tainted every aspect
+of life. During thousands of years men have struggled
+to make good in Europe. The result has always been
+the same. From time to time some section of the race
+has succeeded, later to weaken, and in the end to
+succumb. In the past an invariable cycle of rise, decline,
+and fall has dictated the course of life in Europe.
+Such was the lot of the Neanderthals. Cromagnon and
+Neolithic men both had their days of success and of
+disappearance. It was not different with the Greeks
+or the Romans who rose and finally, under this spell
+of Europe, passed into decline. In many respects the
+motive at work in this destructive cycle seemed to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</span>act like some evil influence. It was already well developed
+in the first trading exploits of the Phœnicians.
+With them it began to migrate westward from harbour
+to harbour along the Mediterranean. It implanted
+the germs of its spreading infection, which
+came to be the dominant spirit of civilization—gold
+and a price for everything. Nothing escaped the effects
+of this new standardization of human enterprise. The
+pioneer Phœnicians carried this gold standard of life
+far beyond the Pillars of Hercules to the shores of
+Britain until it spread throughout Europe. The source
+of this influence lies far back of these earlier civilizations.
+It had its origin in those primitive days
+when Mousterian cave man tasted the first drafts of
+power. The use of this power he justified by one
+standard only—success. For three hundred thousand
+years the human brain has been conditioned by this
+influence. Power increased, successes multiplied, and
+the passion for possession became a frenzy. Thus it
+was that those whom the gods would destroy they
+first made rich; and thus also one civilization after
+another met its destruction. No other solution can be
+worked out on this standard of existence. It will serve
+to exploit nature, including human nature. It may
+bend the natural forces one after another to man’s
+bidding. It may make him master of the entire world
+except in one superlative detail—himself. In proportion
+as it has been concentrated upon the conquest
+of the earth, it has had little time for the mastery
+of the spirit. The old idea is still at work with us
+to-day. We have found nothing new, nothing better.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</span>We scarcely attempt to look. It is now our ruling
+passion. It has been the contaminating influence
+which has for ages frustrated the best human efforts.</p>
+
+<p>Wealth, with the power to confer upon the greatest
+number the benefits of true human satisfaction, is
+not to be condemned. Its acquisition and proper
+distribution must be intelligently encouraged. Such
+wealth is the just return on man’s efforts to make
+and maintain for himself a wholesome place in nature.
+But riches, representing egocentric aggrandizement
+and the upbuilding of special privilege for selfish ends,
+are an open sore in all times and a most serious menace
+for the future.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient motive of possession is still the most
+powerful urge among civilized peoples. It has exerted
+an increasingly evil influence upon modern times. Its
+effects have been unfavourable because possession and
+power depend upon the offensive and defensive
+mechanisms of aggression. Such mechanisms are the
+progenitors of war. They promote the conflicts of social
+rivalry between classes and incite the struggles
+for competitive supremacy between nations. If the
+goal of such life is success, the price of such success is
+strife. This is the standard of existence which has
+prevailed for at least three hundred thousand years.
+It seems irrevocable. Nothing visible in our modern
+world suggests the cessation of its destroying influence.
+In the absence of any present reassurance there
+is a strong probability that we are following, to its
+bitter ends, a path long familiar to our race.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">
+    CHAPTER XIV
+    <br>
+    THE FINAL TEST OF THE BRAIN
+    <br>
+    <span style="font-size: medium;">WORLD COÖPERATION AND RECIVILIZATION</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Our most vital issue is no longer a matter of national
+prosperity alone. The success and therefore the happiness
+of the entire world are at stake. This generation
+of ours has taught us what to expect from the
+old forces of competitive wealth and nationalism.
+It is not difficult to foresee the recurrence of one war
+after another. As Dr. Butler has so forcibly said:
+“The world is just now standing at a crossroads.
+It may take the path in one direction and so make
+agriculture, industry, commerce, trade, finance, the
+fortunate means of uniting the whole world, of increasing
+its prosperity and of buttressing its peace;
+or it can take the opposite path and so turn the
+nations into narrow-minded, unsympathetic, jealous,
+and quarrelling neighbours, and prepare the way for
+another cataclysm which, if it should come, would
+mark civilization’s end. What are we going to do
+about it? Where shall our influence be thrown?
+Shall it be for a repetition of the old stupidities, the
+old ignorances and the old antagonisms, or shall it be
+for a new world order in which selfish competition
+shall be supplanted by kindly and large-minded
+coöperation? That is in substance the crucial question
+which at this moment awaits answer by leaders of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</span>opinion in every land.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> There are many who believe
+that man in his present exalted phase cannot stand
+the test. His modern days are numbered just as surely
+as were those of his ancient glory. He has no further
+reliance, no better assurance now than he had then.
+The fate of civilization hangs in the balance; its
+chances in many respects are unpromising. There
+are no guarantees for the future outside of man himself.
+Although we have multiplied in number and
+compounded our problems of life, the world in which
+we live is much the same as it has been for hundreds
+of thousands of years. If man also remains unchanged
+we may expect the same lot which befell other successful
+people in the past.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> From “The New Center of Gravity,” an address delivered at the Parrish
+Art Museum, Southampton, L. I., on Sunday evening, September 1, 1929, by
+Nicholas Murray Butler.</p></div>
+
+<p>And yet looking beneath the surface and into the
+depths of the organ which has been the chief asset of
+our progress, we may discern some promising possibilities.
+These are possibilities which if developed
+might subordinate or overcome the ancient lures of
+power and possession. They might even establish a
+new order of existence, a new age of wisdom, with
+clearer ways of looking at life and better methods for
+realizing its opportunities. We may have no desire
+to see these possibilities. We may turn from them
+now as we have before. They clearly exist, however,
+and chief among them is the possibility of a better
+human brain, a brain with much more ample power
+by means of which to create a better world.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</span></p>
+
+<p>Many facts support this possibility. We know from
+certain evidence that man in his earliest period on
+earth possessed a brain much simpler than that responsible
+for his modern successes. Such testimony
+is given by the brain cast of the Java ape man. The
+entire cerebral structure in this instance was in an
+intermediate phase of human development. It was
+far in advance of the brain of the highest apes but
+much less developed than the brain of modern men.
+In spite of its simplicity it gives evidence of human
+progress. It had supplied the structural basis needed
+for a crude type of humanity. It indicates that the
+powers of human speech had been acquired and that
+the first steps in the upbuilding of human intelligence
+had been taken.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with this primitive race of extinct men,
+the Piltdown and Rhodesian brain casts bear signs
+of definite progress. With the passage of time brain
+power continued slowly to acquire new capacities.
+Nothing makes this conclusion more certain than the
+facts revealed by the Neanderthal casts. From them
+it is clear that the chief organ of life which directed
+the successes of the Neanderthal race had assumed
+many aspects of modern development. Most of this
+progress in the brain during its gradual stages upward,
+through the ape man, the Dawn man of Piltdown,
+the Rhodesian, and the Neanderthal, manifests
+its highest degree of expansion in the frontal
+lobe. With the coming of the Cromagnon race all of
+the cerebral requirements necessary to modern man
+made their appearance. Thus through more than a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</span>million years the brain has slowly improved. There
+has been a steady increase in the size and richness
+of its convolutions.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast with the lifetime of other families in
+the animal kingdom the human race has scarcely
+passed out of its early youth. Our race seems young
+as the ages of the earth are estimated, and our racial
+youth justifies the belief that the modern brain represents
+some intermediate phase of ultimate development.
+The facts of the distant past point ahead to
+periods of further progress in the future. Influences
+which have operated through vast intervals of time
+in slowly advancing the brain from one stage to the
+next are doubtless still at work. The impulses necessary
+to brain development had their beginning in the
+fishes. They continued through reptilian and mammalian
+phases and finally passed into the period of
+tree life wherein the foundations of the human brain
+were laid. It is difficult to believe that this impetus of
+progress which persisted for ages has at length ceased
+to act.</p>
+
+<p>The possibility of a better brain finds support in
+another fact of great interest. An entirely new force
+favourable to progressive development has made itself
+felt within the last century. Never before has it
+exerted an influence upon the process of evolution.
+At present it is difficult to estimate its full value as an
+element of progress. This new force arises from the
+fact that men and women throughout the world have
+recognized the existence of an evolutionary process.
+In all places where the earnest search for truth is being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</span>made this knowledge has become the dominant
+note. It cannot fail to lead to new understandings and
+to add new quota of power to the organ of our chief
+reliance. An adequate appreciation of the processes
+underlying natural selection is certain to impart new
+and practical significance to the survival of the fittest.
+The means which may subsequently be employed to
+further such survival cannot be predicted. Whatever
+they may be, if they justify themselves by advantageous
+results, they will be applied with courage and
+intelligence. They may embrace measures of extensive
+restriction and intensive selection to meet the conditions
+of overcrowding in population, and of inequality
+in the emoluments of life. The embarrassments
+of the laggard fractions of humanity would
+thus be overcome.</p>
+
+<p>Application of wise societal regulations having as
+their object the better apportionment of opportunity
+and the greater accessibility of human happiness
+might easily be conceived as the outgrowths of such
+further extensions in knowledge. Obviously the questions
+concerning the character of the means directed
+to these desirable ends cannot now be discussed or
+foreseen. It is sufficient to indicate that whatever
+these agencies may be, provided their results are
+calculated to contribute to the betterment of mankind,
+they may be discovered and made practical.
+This possibility presupposes the attainment of those
+advantages which accrue from a better understanding
+of man as a participant in a still active process of
+evolution.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</span></p>
+
+<p>If up to this time we have employed the full power
+of our intelligence, if we have made the best use of
+the brain, there may be actual doubts concerning
+further progress. Many reasons justify the belief,
+however, that the human race has not yet utilized the
+brain to its fullest capacity. Numerous facts support
+this view and make it appear certain that we have
+developed but a small fraction of our potential brain
+power. In exceptional cases of outstanding groups
+and highly specialized individuals the brain may have
+yielded something approaching its best product.
+Even in cases of unusual development there are
+deficiencies and inequalities of development due to
+the circumstances of training, to the introduction of
+adverse influences, and to the universal lack of any
+generally acceptable goal of life. A cross section of
+any community estimated by its high and its low
+intellectual attainments indicates a striking unevenness
+in brain development. It also reveals a low rating
+in the average intellectual level. Averages of this kind
+obtained from nations or races disclose an aggregate
+of brain power far below the grade of the brain’s
+potential capacity. Instances of individual specializations
+make the fractional development of the race
+still more evident. If, for example, Laura Bridgman,
+deprived as she was of sight, hearing, taste, and smell,
+with only a fifth of her brain areas accessible to satisfactory
+contacts with the world, made an adjustment
+to life equal to the average of such adjustments; if
+Helen Keller, almost equally deprived of sensory impression,
+is rated by many as belonging to the class of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</span>genius; then the rank and file of mankind uses but a
+small fraction of its potential brain power. This fraction
+has been variously estimated at one fifth or one
+half. It seems obvious that great advantages for the
+extension of intelligence might arise from the utilization
+of the unemployed fifty to eighty per cent. of
+human power. The large portion of the brain not
+used by the majority of mankind introduces the
+disquieting thought that the usual way of life is the
+easiest way. The intelligent way is laborious and
+fraught with many trials incident to arduous application.
+Brain capacity may be improved only by
+patient and continuous effort and by an unremitting
+submission to diligent self-discipline. The avoidance
+of these exactions has made the development
+of the brain a slow process in man. It is the
+general disinclination to depart from the path of
+least effort which has held human intelligence at its
+average low levels. Many factors have contributed
+to this attitude. Not the least among them is what
+may be called mixed survival. This is a provision by
+which not only those thoroughly equipped but those
+as thoroughly unfit are presumed to enjoy equal opportunity
+in the advantages of life. The unfit depreciate
+the general average. Their inclusion creates
+the level of mediocrity and retards the progress of the
+fittest.</p>
+
+<p>Another fact affords hope for the further development
+of the unused fractions of human brain power.
+It is possible to demonstrate that certain structural
+and chemical elements in the brain develop in relation
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</span>to the use made of them. This is particularly
+true of the insulating substance surrounding nerve
+fibres. Such fibres serve the purpose of impulse conduction.
+Simple and complex associations alike depend
+upon them. It has been shown that the simplest
+of these fibre connections come into use early in life
+while the most important connections appear at later
+periods. In order to be effective the connecting fibres
+must be insulated. The insulating material, a complex
+chemical substance, makes its appearance in direct relation
+to the different periods of mental development.
+This insulating substance is least in amount at birth.
+It increases noticeably at the end of the first year at
+about the time when speech is acquired. It shows
+marked additions at the seventh, tenth, and twentieth
+years. Thereafter it increases slowly up to the fortieth
+year. It also manifests the interesting phenomenon
+of gradual decrease in the declining years of the
+late decades of life. Apparently the mental development
+of different life periods requires differing
+degrees of insulation in the brain. The functional
+use of definite areas appears to bear a direct relation
+to the degree of insulation. The more areas
+in use, the more numerous are the insulated nerve
+fibres to facilitate proper operation. The child
+uses and needs less than the youth, and, in the general
+case, the youth less than the adult. The development
+of the brain thus appears to be proportional to the use
+made of it. In this way human intelligence may be
+gauged in terms of actual brain structure. In cases of
+low intelligence the demands have been relatively
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</span>small, and large fractions of brain remain undeveloped
+because unused. Higher grades of intelligence require
+more extensive development because the objectives
+of their application are more complex and more exacting.
+They are the response to the more extensive
+utilization of brain power.</p>
+
+<p>The recognition of this relation between use and
+structural development of the brain clearly points the
+way by which human intelligence may be extended.
+This relation has long been understood as a biological
+principle. It has been practically applied in the training
+of muscular strength and endurance, in the
+sharpening of the senses, in the cultivation of the
+voice. Its practical application to the development of
+the brain as a whole has been much less assiduous.
+Both in principle and practice this relation of use to
+structure indicates possibilities for producing a better
+human brain. The unused fractions may accordingly
+find opportunity for utilization.</p>
+
+<p>Still another possibility for advancement arises
+from more adequate systems of human training.
+The success with which the brain is used depends in
+large part upon its conditioning. Such conditioning is
+determined by many factors. In the broadest sense
+it includes the influence of physical environment
+from the earliest moments of life, the effects of societal
+habits and ideals both in the family and in the group,
+the impress of formal education and educational
+forces, and the direction imparted by differing degrees
+of satisfaction, health, and disease. If, for example,
+the objective is accommodation to Arctic life, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</span>conditioning process differs in many details from that
+necessary for adjustment to tropical existence. If the
+end sought is success according to European standards,
+a totally different set of conditionings is essential
+to this result. Civilized nations as well as barbarous
+tribes may be trained through generations to the
+pursuits and practices of warlike aggression. The results
+of such conditioning were clearly demonstrated
+in the Great War. Ultimate adjustments are thus
+strongly influenced by the group, the group outlook,
+the time, and the place. For this reason every experience
+in and every contact with existence assumes
+high value as a conditioning factor. The entire span
+of life, from birth to death, becomes a period of active
+training which may be consciously directed. The element
+of chief importance in this conscious control is
+the recognition of the end to which the training is
+directed. If the highest qualities of human happiness
+and satisfaction are the objectives, every factor
+which contributes to the conditioning must be carefully
+estimated and properly adjusted to this end.
+Such certainly is not the objective under the modern
+cult of success.</p>
+
+<p>The earth, which we have made a bone of contention,
+might, to our infinite advantage, become the
+sphere of human content. In order to determine such
+a change it is necessary to reëstimate and readjust
+every influence capable of conditioning the activities
+of the brain. The recognition of the uninterrupted
+continuity in the conditioning process and its specific
+requirements in relation to definite phases of development
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</span>is most essential. Influences of the physical
+environment from the first moments after birth
+through all successive periods demand extensive, renewed
+attention. In the formation of habits and ideals,
+training in the home and in the group reaches down
+to the roots of societal life. These phases of brain
+conditioning are now largely matters of dogmatic
+tradition or confused instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Our present cult of success dominates formal
+education. The profound, far-reaching influence of this
+department of life is exerted through the most effective
+agencies for adjustment and readjustment.
+Education is charged with the responsibilities of devising
+the most beneficial methods for conditioning
+the brain. It participates in deciding to what ends
+such conditioning shall be directed and thus occupies
+a position of supreme control over human behaviour.
+Its supervision embraces and guides every period of
+life. Its disciplines have power to shape the character
+of human intelligence. Its inspirations are the hope
+of the future. Opportunities are even now at hand
+for it to overcome its traditional resistances and to
+open new fields for human satisfaction and contentment.
+Greater than the power of armies, more compelling
+than the military force of the entire globe, is
+the peaceful sway which education may exert in the
+satisfactory reshaping of existence.</p>
+
+<p>There should be added to these possibilities of
+future progress the fact that man, in spite of his
+blemishes, his delinquencies, and failures, is an aspiring
+and plastic animal. He is not unwilling to take the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</span>form of any mold in which he may be cast. He has
+been the victim of many prejudicial molds—clay in
+the hands of circumstance. Yet, whatever his form
+or deformities, he has always aspired to rise above
+himself. His aspirations have been sublimated in the
+heroes he has made to admire, in the gods he has
+selected for worship. Unlike all other animals, he
+has had the gift of idealization, the power of projecting
+far ahead of himself, beyond the limits of his
+recognized imperfections, the ideals of what he hoped
+or craved to be. Even his societal veneer, his morals,
+and his manners are products of his aspirations. His
+idealizations of existence in poetry and art show how
+tenaciously his vision has dwelt on higher things.
+Recognition of his own futilities has made him aspire
+to a future life of purification and redemption. Yet in
+this aspiring he manifests a lingering childhood, which
+reveals his still plastic state. The hereafter which he
+has designed for himself is based on an infantile system
+of rewards and penalties. This eventual refuge
+is an acquisitive immortality born of self-interest and
+bred in self-conceit. It bears the taint of ancient and
+sordid motives of the race. It has none of the altruism
+of that more noble and practical immortality through
+which earthly life strives unselfishly to leave a worthy
+influence for the benefit of those who later follow the
+path of human experience.</p>
+
+<p>In the light of his possibilities man’s further progress
+seems assured. Add to these possibilities his remarkable
+plasticity, his aspiring spirit, his youthful
+racial development, and it appears inconceivable
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</span>that he should not advance. Science is constantly
+placing increased power at his command. While disclosing
+to him his place in nature, it is also revealing
+what still remains to be accomplished in the conquest
+of himself.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever fault may be found with the technique
+of human living, the major complaint is directed
+against the persistence of the old objectives. Ancient
+motives and standards are obstacles in the path of
+progress. A less complex life is needed—one with
+new incentives and different goals. Many are living
+and have lived this kind of life. One among these, the
+Great Galilean, has made it exemplary. As its influence
+comes down through the Christian centuries
+this life brings increasing conviction that it is the best
+yet lived. One third of the globe’s population professes
+to follow it. As followers they are frustrated in
+their purpose by the persistence of more ancient
+influences of the past. Yet it cannot be denied that
+any order of humanity higher than the present one
+requires extensive modifications in our purposes, our
+desires, our outlook on life, our manner of self-expression.
+A long step in this direction will be taken
+when the ancient password of the Old Stone Age—<i>get</i>,
+which for thousands of years has been the mainspring
+of existence, is gradually subordinated by the
+keynote of a New Golden Age—<i>give</i>. This solution of
+the problem is likely to seem utopian. Long ago we
+were admonished to try it. If we have failed we need
+not altogether despair. The human brain has overcome
+other difficulties to which it has been applied.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</span>With all of its possibilities for improvement, it may
+in time solve the supremely difficult problem of
+human nature. Success such as this depends upon
+the further development of science—especially that
+comprehensive science which will deal with all of the
+principles underlying the behaviour of man.</p>
+
+<p>In all respects it is a task of gigantic proportions
+to build the world anew—to readjust, to recivilize
+ourselves. At the same time it is the greatest adventure
+ever conceived by man—to construct his
+final empire of world coöperation wherein to know
+and to control himself. Should this be deemed worth
+while, it must be paid for by the intelligent, unremitting
+toil necessary to develop the full capacity
+of our chief reliance—the human brain.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center p2">
+  THE END
+</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="transnote">
+  <p class="ph2" id="TRANSCRIBERS_NOTES">
+    TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
+  </p>
+
+
+<p><a href="#Page_8">Page 8</a>: original spelling of “Poriphara” retained.</p>
+
+<p>Typos corrected: “in the dog.” to “in the dog,” (<a href="#Page_146">page 146</a>); “pryamid” to “pyramid” (<a href="#Page_166">page 166</a>); “preeminent” to “preëminent” (<a href="#Page_272">page 272</a>); “sufficently” to “sufficiently” (<a href="#Page_316">page 316</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been left unchanged.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78733 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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author	www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org>	2026-05-23 02:05:17 -0700
committer	www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org>	2026-05-23 02:05:17 -0700
commit	392fc97d46b2701f64f6625705337058e0a2de8e (patch)
tree	bfeb916b36b9f1357fce1649763b90a6cc473d8f /78733-h