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                           John Winthrop Jr.
                                   on
                              Indian Corn

       The New England Quarterly, Volume X, Number 1, March, 1937

                                   By
                           John Winthrop, Jr.
                                  and
                       Fulmer Mood (Introduction)




                              Introduction

                              Fulmer Mood

There is some evidence to show that one of the effects of the civil
wars on English agriculture was to bring about an increased interest
in improved methods and new crops. The revolution in English farming
that was eventually to follow included not only the reclamation of land
by drainage and irrigation, but also the use of crops hitherto little
known to the English: turnips and other roots, grasses, clover, and the
like. It did not escape the attention of some of the thoughtful men of
the period of the Restoration that an earlier importation, the potato
plant, had become of vital importance in the economy of Stuart Ireland,
and it was therefore only a short step forward to consider whether
there were not still other crops which could be domesticated for use in
English fields. The civil wars had brought about the economic ruin of
many landlords, and so “spirited farming” rather than the traditional
conservative methods began more and more to be thought of as a
restorative of vanished fortunes.[1]

Among the intellectuals of the day who concerned themselves with the
problems of improving the efficiency of English agriculture were Samuel
Hartlib[2] and Robert Boyle. Hartlib published numerous treatises on
agriculture, of which perhaps the best known is his _Legacy of
Husbandry_ (1655). We are more likely to think of Boyle’s name
in connection with pure science and his leadership in organizing the
Royal Society rather than in relation to agrarian arts, but Boyle,
as a matter of fact, was a prominent figure in the discussion of the
techniques of improved farming. Early in the life of the Royal Society
a “Georgical Committee” of thirty persons was appointed; elaborate
questionnaires were drawn up; and these were distributed in many parts
of the kingdom. It was hoped that from the answers to these much useful
information could be collected and reduced to order for the general
advancement of English farmers.[3]

Boyle was thoroughly at home with the scientific knowledge of the
time, and his restless, curious mind roamed unceasingly through
the many books of travel and records of exploration which had been
accumulated by 1660 as a result of the visits of Englishmen to
strange and remote lands. He was in the habit of ransacking Hakluyt,
Purchas, and similar writers for information that might be of possible
economic value. In the archives of the Royal Society at London there
are still to be seen scores of sheets of notes which he made from
Purchas and other compilations. When once Boyle isolated an item
that interested him, he was in the habit of trying to test its value
by having Englishmen who were leaving Europe make careful enquiries
on the subject and then draw up reports which they were expected to
send back to him. In the end Boyle worked out a systematic list of
queries—a kind of “Intelligent Man’s Key to Intelligent Questions
to Ask”—and published the list where all could read it in the
_Philosophical Transactions_: “General Heads for a Natural
History of a Country, great or small, imparted ... by Mr. Boyle.”[4]
A single excerpt suffices to show Boyle’s curiosity about foreign
methods of farming. These are what travellers were requested to note
and make reports about: “What the Nature of the Soyle is, whether
Clays, Sandy, _etc_. or good Mould; and what Grains, Fruits, and
other Vegetables, do the most naturally agree with it: As also, by what
particular Arts and Industries the Inhabitants improve the Advantages,
and remedy the Inconveniences of their Soyle: What hidden qualities
the Soyle may have (as that of Ireland, against Venomous Beasts,
_etc_.).”[5]

Those with special information, if they happened to be close at hand,
were not ignored. In January, 1662, John Winthrop, Junior, chanced to
be in London on important business for the Connecticut colony, of which
he was governor at the time. It was in this very month that Winthrop
was elected to membership in the Royal Society.[6] Boyle must at once
have improved the opportunity to question this well-informed colonial,
for under date of July 29, 1662, we find that Winthrop wrote to him,
apologizing for his tardiness in satisfying Boyle’s request to supply
him with certain information. He had written an essay on American
maize, Winthrop explained, but modestly declared he had his doubts
concerning the completed task:

  ... there will appeare many impertinences as to the cheife
  [_sic_] matters that concerne that subject (the husbandry of
  it being, as I remember chiefly desired, together with the manner
  of the bread and beare made out of it). What is added impertinently
  was intended to obviate some questions, and make knowne some other
  things that are only occasional, which I was the bolder to doe being
  intended only for your honors private view, and an other honorable
  friend [perhaps Henry Oldenburg, Secretary of the Royal Society] then
  present when I had your commands about it.[7]

Maize was no novelty by the time of the Restoration. The Elizabethan
herbalist, John Gerard (1545-1612), had looked into the qualities of
the plant and penned an unfavorable judgment. In his great compilation,
published first in 1597 and republished in 1633 and again in 1636,
he wrote: “It is planted in the gardens of these Northern regions
[Virginia and Norumbega?], where it commeth to ripeness when the summer
falleth out to be faire and hot; as my selfe haue seen by proof in myne
owne garden [near Fetter Lane in Holborn, London].”[8] Maize or Indian
corn

  ... doth nourish far lesse than either wheat, rie, barly, or otes.
  The bread which is made thereof is meanely white, without bran: it
  is hard and dry as Bisket is, and hath in it no clamminess at all;
  for which cause it is of hard digestion, and yeeldeth to the body
  little or no nourishment; it slowly descendeth, and bindeth the
  belly, as that doth which is made of Millet or Panick. Wee haue as
  yet no certaine proofe or experience concerning the vertues of this
  kinde of Corne; although the barbarous Indians, which know no better,
  are constrained to make a vertue of necessitie, and thinke it a good
  food: whereas we may easily judge, that it nourisheth but little, and
  is of hard and euill digestion, a more conuenient food for swine than
  for man.[9]

A passage in Parkinson’s _Theatricum Botanicum_ of 1640 set
out to confute an opinion fantastic enough to win deathless obloquy
from every right-thinking farmer west of the Alleghanies.


  Many doe condemne this Maiz to be as dry and of as little nourishment
  as Millet or Panicke, but they doe not as I thinke rightly consider
  the thing, for although the graine be dry, yet the meale thereof
  is nothing so dry as of the _Turkie Millet_, but hath in it
  some clamminesse, which bindeth the bread close and giveth good
  nourishment to the body, for wee finde both the Indians and the
  Christians of all Nations that feede thereon, are nourished thereby
  in as good manner no doubt, as if they fed on Wheate in the same
  manner.... Of it is made drinke also, both in the _Indies_ and
  our _English_ plantations, that will intoxicate as quickly as
  our strong Beare if it bee made accordingly: but is found to be very
  effectuall to hinder the breeding of the Stone, so that none are
  troubled therewith that doe drinke thereof, the leaves thereof are
  used also to fatten their Horses and cattle.[10]

Perhaps it was to settle this dispute between weighty authorities that
Boyle asked Winthrop to write his little essay. The Anglo-American, for
his part, was aware of Gerard’s opinion of maize, for he mentions the
herbalist by name in his text. And we shall probably not go very far
astray if we credit Boyle, too, with a knowledge of Gerard’s work.

Did Boyle think to introduce maize into England, if circumstances
should prove favorable? There can be no certainty about the answer.
Nevertheless, Boyle, despite his devotion to theory and science in
general, was a man dominated by practical aims, and when he took the
trouble to procure the writing of an essay on American corn, he had (it
may be suspected) utilitarian motives in mind.

The essay is here published in full for the first time. An abbreviated
text was brought out in an issue of the _Philosophical
Transactions_ in 1678.[11] The original manuscript and Winthrop’s
covering letter are now in the possession of the Royal Society, by the
kindness of the council of which they are reproduced.[12]

To students of our colonial cuisine no less than to those interested
in agriculture the essay will be of value. It may serve, too, as
a specimen of the descriptive or scientific prose of the age, and
although the writing is hardly elegant, it is informed throughout by a
sincere appreciation of the importance of corn in colonial economy that
lends to it a modest degree of charm, if not of distinction.




                              Indian Corne
              (The Description, Culture and Use of Maiz)

                           John Winthrop, Jr.

The Corne which was used in New England before the English inhabited
any of those parts, is called by the Natives there Weachim, and is the
same which hath beene knowne by the Name of Mays in some Southerne
partes of America. This sorte of Corne is generally made use of in
many parts of America for their food, and although in the Northerne
Plantations, where the English and Dutch are settled, there is plenty
of Wheat, and other Graine, yet this sort of Corne is still much in
use there both for Bread, and other kind of food made out of it. It
seemes in those times before it was so well knowne, Mr. Gerard had
beene informed of it, as if it were a Graine not so pleasant or fitt
to be Eaten by mankind, as may appeare by what he writeth of it in his
Herball[13] page 83, That it is hard of Digestion, and yeildeth little
or no Nourishment _etc_, (yet acknowledgeth, there had beene yet
no certaine proofe or experience of it), yet it is now found by much
Experience, that it is wholesome and pleasant for Food of which great
Variety may be made out of it.

The Composure of the Eare is very beautifull, being sett in Even
Rowes, every Graine in each Rowe over against the other, at equall
distance, there being commonly Eight Rowes upon the Eare and sometimes
more, according to the Goodness of the Ground. It hath also usually
above thirty Graines in one Row, the number of Rowes and Graines being
according to the Strength of the Ground, the Eare is commonly about a
Span long.

Nature hath delighted it selfe to beautify this Corne with great
Variety of Colours, the White, and the Yellow being most common, being
such a yellow as is betwene Straw Colour, and a pale yellow; there are
also of very many other Colours, as Red, Yellow, Blew, Olive Colour,
and Greenish, and some very black and some of Intermediate degrees of
such Colours, also many sorts of mixt colours and speckled or striped,
and these various coloured Eares often in the same field and some
Graines that are of divers Colours in the same Eare.

This Beautifull noble Eare of Corne is Cloathed and Armed with strong
thick huskes of many doubles, which provident nature hath made usefull
to it many wayes, for it not onely defends it from the cold, and too
much moisture of unseasonable Raine (which sometimes may happen) and
the Cold of the Nights which might hinder the Ripening of it (being
the latter end of September in some parts before it be full Ripe) and
possibly the Injury of some blasting Winds, but also defends it From
the Crowes, Sterlings, and other Birds, which would otherwise devour
whole fields of it before it could come to its full maturity. These
Birds especially Sterlings come in greate flights into the fields, when
the Eare beginneth to be full, before it hardneth, and being allured
by the Sweetness of the Corne, will sitt upon the stalke, or the Eare
it selfe, and so pick at the Corne through the huske at the top of the
Eare (for there it is tenderest) and not cease that worke till they
have pulled away some of the huske that they may come at the Corne,
which wil be plucked out so farr as they can come at it. There groweth
within the Huske upon the Corne a matter like small threads which
appeare out of the top of the Eare like a tuft of haire or Silke.

The Stalke of this Corne groweth to the Height of 6 or 8 foot and more
or less according to the Condition of the Ground, and the kind of Seed.
The Stalkes of the Virginian Seed grow taller then that of the New
England, or the intermediate places: But there is another sort which
the Northerne Indians farr up in the Countrey use that groweth much
shorter then the New England Corne, the Stalke of every sort is Joynted
like to a Cane and is full of sweete Juice like the Sugar Cane, and a
Syrrop as sweete as Sugar Syrrop may be made of it which hath beene
often tryed, and Meates Sweetned with it have not beene discerned, from
the like sweetness with Sugar, some trialle may make it knowne whether
it may be brought into a dry Substance like Sugar, but it is probable
it may be done. At every Joynt there are long Leaves like flaggs, and
at the very top there is a bunch like Eares as if it were some kind of
small Graine, and Blossoms like the Blossoms of Rye upon them but are
wholy Barren, and an empty huske conteyning nothing in it.

The time of planting this Corne in that Countrey is any time betweene
the middle of March and the beginning of June, but the most usuall time
is from the middle of Aprill to the middle of May: The Indians observe
in some parts of that Countrey a Rule from the comeing up of a Fish
called Aloofes[14] into the Rivers and Brookes for the time to begin
their planting, in other parts they observe the Leaves of some trees
beginning to put forth:

In the Southerly parts of that Continent as Virginia, and Florida they
have their sooner Seasons, and in the Northerly parts, and Upland
parts are later, where they use a peculiar kind of that Corne which
is called Mowhawkes Corne, which though planted in June wil be Ripe in
Season, the Stalkes are shorter than the other Sorts, and the Eares
grow neerer the bottom of the Stalke and are generally of divers
Colours.

The Manner of planting every kind of this Corne, is in Rowes at equall
distance every way about five or Six foote asunder, they open the Earth
with a How, takeing away the Superfices three or fower Inches deepe and
the breadth of the How which is used, and in the middle of that hole
they throw in fower, or five Graines of that Corne, a little distant
one from the other, as they may fall and place themselves accidently
covering them with Earth. Of these Graines if but two or three grow up
it may do well, for some of them are usually plucked up by the Crowes
or Birds, or Mouse-Squirrells (a little creature, that doth much hurt
in some Fields newly planted). After the Corne is growne up, the length
of an hand, it wilbe time to weed about it, which is done by a broad
how, which cuts up the Weeds, and looseneth the Earth, and this Labour
is so often performed as the Weeds do grow up in any Quantity.

When the Stalke beginneth to grow high, they draw (at the second
weeding) a little Earth about it, and afterwards, as it groweth higher,
and puteth forth the Eare, they draw so much Earth about these Stalkes,
that maketh a little hill like hopp hills, using the same manner, as
they do hopp grounds with broad Howes. After this they have no other
business about it till Harvest, when they gather it, which doth not
require great haste, (if it be secured from cattle) when it is gathered
it must be as soon as may be stripped from the Huskes, except it be
laid very thin, otherwise it will heate and grow mouldy, and sometimes
sprout in the huskes: where they have Roome enough to spread the Eares
thin, and keepe them dry, they onely pull off the huske, and lay the
Eares thin in their Chambers and Garretts, but the Common way is to
weave it together in long traices by some parts of the husks left
upon the Eare (this worke they call traicing) and these traices they
hang upon Stayes or other bearers without doors, or within, for it
will keepe good and sweete hung in that manner all the Winter after,
though it be in all weather without. The Natives commonly thresh it
out as they gather it, and dry it well upon Matts in the Sun, and then
bestow in holes in the Ground (which are their Barnes) well lined with
withered Grass, and with Matts, and then covered with the like and over
that covered with Earth, and so it keepes very well till they use it,
this was the way of planting used by the Natives, and English also.
But now the English have found out an Easier way of raising Quantity
of that Corne by the helpe of the Plough, which is performed in this
manner. In the planting time there are single furrowes ploughed through
the whole field, about Six foote asunder more or less, as they will
plant in distance, then they plow such like furrowes Cross at the same
distance, and where the Cross furrowes meete there they throw in the
Corne as before mentioned, and cover it with an How, or with Running
an other Furrow by the Plow, and that’s all till the Weeds begin to
overtop the Corne, then they plough over the rest of the field betweene
these furrowes where they planted, and so turne in the Weeds, and
this is done only a second time about the time of the Summer, they
used to begin to hill the Corne with the How, and so the Ground is
better loosened then with the How, and the Rootes of the Corne have
more Liberty to Spread. So as there is not so much need of that kind
of hilling, as is described before, yet they do cast up the Earth
about the Corne as well as they can with the Plow, and some will after
helpe it a little with the Plow neere the Hill, though others do not
regard that way, where any Weeds escape the Plow, a little worke of
the how will mend that defect. Where the Ground is not very good, or
hath beene long planted and worne out, the Indians used to put two or
three of those forementioned Fishes under each place upon which they
planted their Corne, or if they had not time before planting, then
they would put them afterwards into the Earth by the sides of those
Corne hills, and by these meanes had far greater Crops then that ground
would otherwise produce, many times more then double, the English
have learned this good husbandry of the Indians, and do still use it
in places, where those Mooses come up in greate plenty, or where they
are neere the fishing Stages, haveing there the heads and Gurbage of
Codfish in greate plenty at no charge, but the fetching. Some also have
tried the Dung of their Cattle well Rotted, and putting a little under
every place, or hill, and covered it with earth, and the Corne throwne
in upon it, have had very good advantage in their Cropps by it; the
Fields thus plowed for this Corne after the Cropp is off, are almost
as well fitted for English Corne, specially Summer graine (As Peas or
Summer Wheate) as if lying fallow they had an ordinary Summer tilth:
The Indians and some English also (Especially in good ground or where
it is well fished as before) at every hill of Corne will plant a kind
of Beans with the Corne (they are like those here called French Beans
or turky Beans) and in the Vacant places and betweene the Hills, they
will plant Squashes and pumpions, loading the Ground with as much as it
will beare; The Stalkes of the Corne serveing in stead of poles for the
Beans to Climb up, which otherwise must have poles to hang upon. Many
English also after the last Weeding their Ground sprinkle Turnep-seed
between the hills, and so have after Harvest a good crop of turneps in
the same Field.

The Stalke of this Corne cut up in due time (before too much dried)
and stacked up or laid up in a Barne drie, are good Winter Fodder for
Cattle but they usually leave them upon the Ground, where the Cattle in
the Winter will feed upon them, and leave onely the hardest part of the
Stalkes next the Ground; which are pulled up by hand before the Land be
againe planted or sowed: Those Stalkes which are about the Eare, are
also good Fodder for Cattle given them for Change sometimes after Hay.
The Indian Women make Basketts with them, splitting them into narrow
parts, weaveing them artificially into severall fashioned Basketts.

This Corne the Indians dress it in severall manner for their food
sometimes they boyle it whole, till it swell, and breake, and become
tender, and then eate it with their Fish, or Venison in stead of
Breade, or onely that without other foode, sometimes they bruise it in
a Morter, and then boyle it and make good food of it, bakeing it under
the Embers _etc_, but a very Common way of dressing of it is by
parching it among the Ashes, which they do so artificially, by putting
it amongst the hott Embers, and continually stirring of it that it
wilbe thoroughly parched without any burneing, but be very tender, and
turned almost quite the inside outward, which wilbe almost white and
flowry, this they sift very cleane from the Ashes, and then beate it in
their wooden Morters with a long Stone for a pestle, into fine meale,
which is a constant food amongst them, both at home, and especially
when they travell, being putt up into a Bagg for their Journey, being
at all times ready, and may be Eaten either drie, or mixed with water;
they find it a strengthening and wholesome diet, and is not apt to
breed wormes in their Children or others, this is the food which their
souldiers Carry with them in time of Warr. The English sometimes for
Novelty will procure some of this to be made by the Indian Women, and
adding Milke, or Sugar, and Water, will make it much more pleasant to
be taken.

The English make very good Breade of the Meale, or flower of it being
Ground in Mills, as other Corne, but to make good bread of it there is
a different way of ordering of it, from what is used about the Bread of
other Graine, for if it be mixed into stiff past, it will not be good
as when it is made into a thinner mixture a little stiffer then the
Battar for Pancakes, or puddings, and then baked in a very hott oven,
standing all day or all Night therein, therefore some use to bake it
in panns like puddings. But the most ordinary way is this, the Oven
being very hott they have a great Wooden Dish fastened to a long staff,
which may hold the Quantity of a Pottle, and that being filled, they
empty it on an heape in the Oven, upon the bare floore thereof cleane
Swept, and so fill the Oven, and usually lay a second laying upon the
top of the first, because the first will otherwise be too thinn for
the proportion of a Loafe because it will spread in the oven at the
first pouring of it in: if they make it not too thinn it will ly in
distance like Loaves, onely in some parts where they touch one another
will stick together but are easily parted but some will fill the whole
floore of the Oven as one intire Body and must then cut it out in
greate peices; In just such manner handled it wilbe (if baked enough)
of a good darke yellow Colour, but otherwise white which is not so
wholesome nor pleasant, as when well baked of a deeper Colour. There is
also very good Bread made of it, by mixing half, or a third parte, more
or less of Ry or Wheate-Meale, or Flower amongst it, and then they make
it up into Loaves, adding Leaven or yeast to it to make it Rise, which
may be also added to that other thinner sorte beforementioned.

There is also another sort of Bread, which they used to make before
they had Mills, which was in this manner, they beate the Corne in
Morters of Wood, first watering of it a little that the huskes may come
cleane off by the beateing. When it is beaten they sift the Meale out,
and then they Winnow the Course parte, Seperating the loose hulls by
the Wind, this Course parte which is seperated from the finer Meale,
they boyle it till it be thick like batter, and then Cooleing of it,
mix so much of the finer Meale, which was sifted out, as might make it
into a past, of which they make Loaves, and bake them as other Bread.
This kind of Bread is very well tasted and wholesome, but the best sort
of Food which the English make of this Corne is that they call Sampe,
which is made in this manner. They first Water the Corne, if with Colde
Water a little longer, if with Water a little warmed a shorter time
about halfe an hower more or less, as they find it needfull, according
to the driness of the Corne, then they either beate it in a Morter as
beforementioned but not so small, as for that use of makeing bread of
it, but to be about the Biggness of Rice, though some will be a little
smaller, and some a little greater, or Grind it gross as neere as they
can about the bigness of Rice in handmills or other Mills, out of which
they sift the Flower, or Meale very cleane (for whether they beate it
or Grinde it there wilbe some little Quantity of Meale amongst it) then
they winnow it in the wind, and so seperate the hulls from the rest
this is to be boyled or Stued with a gentle Fire, till it be tender,
of a fitt consistence, as of Rice so boyled, into which if Milke, or
butter be put either with Sugar or without, it is a food very pleasant
and wholesome, being easy of Digestion, and is of a nature Divertical
and Clensing and hath no Quality of binding the Body, as the Herball
supposeth, but rather to keepe it in a fitt temperature, but it must
be observed, that it be very well boyled, the longer the better, some
will let it be stuing the whole day: after it is Cold it groweth
thicker, and it is Eaten commonly by mixing a good Quantity of Milke
amongst it. This was the most common diet of the planters, at the first
beginning of planting in these parts and is still in use amongst them,
and may be taken as well in Sickness as in health, even in feavers and
other acute Diseases. A learned Physician that not long since lived in
London (Doctor Wilson[15]) had every yeare some Quantity brought over
ready beaten, and fitt to be boyled, and did order it to such Patients
as he saw cause for it. It was observed that at the beginnings of the
Plantations, where this foode was most in use it was very rare that
any were troubled with the Stone, and amongst the Indians that Eate
no other sorte of Corne but that. The English that have beene most
acquainted with them, have beene informed by them, that the disease of
the stone is very seldome knowne amongst them. It is accounted also a
good meanes against the Scurvie.

The Indians have another sort of Provision out of this Corne, which
they call Pondomenast—the English call it sweete Corne, which they
prepare in this manner: When the Corne in the Eare is full, whiles it
is yet greene it hath then a very sweete tast, this they gather and
boyle a convenient time, and then they drie it, and put it up into
Baggs or Basketts, for their store, and so use it as they have occasion
boyleing of it againe either by it selfe, or amongst their Fish or
Venison or Beavers Flesh, or such as they have, and this they account
a principall Dish, either at their ordinary Meales or Feastivall
times, they boyle it whole, or beaten Gross, as was formerly mentioned
conserning their other Corne. These Eares while they are greene and
sweete they roast before the fire, or covered with Embers, and so Eate
the Corne, picking it off the roasted Eares as they Eate it, therefore
at that time of the yeare, when this Corne beginneth to be thus full in
the Eare, they have sufficient supply of Food, though there store be
done, and their Soldiers doe then most commonly goe out against their
Enemyes, because they have this supply both in their Marches if it be
in places inhabited, and also in the Fields of those Enemyes against
whom they make Warr, but this is observable amongst them, that they do
not Cutt downe, or spoile their Enemies Corne more then they gather to
Eat.

The English have found out a way to make very good Beere of this Graine
which they doe either out of Bread made of it, or by Maulting of it,
that way of makeing Beere, of Bread, is onely by makeing the Bread in
the manner as before described, and then breake it or Cutt it into
greate Lumps, as bigg as a mans Fist or bigger (for it must not be
broken small) then they Mash it and proceed every way about brewing of
it, as is used in Brewing Beere of Mault, adding hopps to it as to make
Beere.

In makeing Mault of it to make it good there is a singular way must be
used. The Maulters that make Mault of Barly have used all their skill
to make Mault also of this Corne, but cannot bring it the ordinary way
to such a perfecion that the whole Graine is Maulted, and tender, and
Flowry, as other Mault; Nor will the Beere made of it be well Coloured,
but witish, the reason that it doth not come to the perfection of
good Mault in that way of Maulting as of other Graine, is this. It is
found by experience, that this Corne before it be fully changed into
the nature of Mault, must sprout out both wayes a great length the
length of a Finger at least, but if more its better, so as it must
put out the Roote as well as the upper sprout, and that it may so
do, it is necessary that it be laide upon an heape a convenient time
till it doth so sprout, but if it lieth of a sufficient thickness for
this purpose, it will quickly heate and moulde, if it be stirred and
opened to prevent the too much heating of it, those Sprouts that are
begun to shoote out (if spread thin) cease growing, and consequently
the Corne ceaseth to be promoted to that mellowness of Mault. If left
thick till they grow any length they are so intangled one in the other
and so very tender that the least stirring and opening of the heape
breaketh those axells of, and every Graine that hath the sprout, so
broken ceaseth to grow to any further degree towards the nature of
Mault, and soone groweth mouldy if not often stirred and spread thinn.
To avoid all these difficulties, and to bring every sound Graine to
the full perfection of good Mault, this way was tried, and found a
sure and perfect way to it. In a Field or Garden or any where that
there is loose Earth, take away the top of that Earth two or three
Inches for so great a space as may be proportionable to the Quantity
of Corne intended to be made into Mault, the Earth may be throwne up
halfe one way, and halfe the other, for the more facility of that,
and the following labour. Then upon the even Bed, or Floore of Earth
where the upper part is so taken off, there lay the Corne intended to
be maulted all over, that it may fully cover the Ground, then cover it
over with the same Earth, that was taken thence, and then you have no
more to doe, till you see all that plott of Ground like a greene Field
covered over with the sprouts of the Corne, which within tenn dayes, or
a Fortnight, more or less according to the time of yeare wilbe growne
greene upwards, and Rooted downwards, and then there is no more to be
done but to take it up and shake the Earth from it and drie it. It will
by the Insnarlements of the Rootes one with another be like a Matt and
hang so together that it may be raised in greate peices and the Earth
shaken off from it (which is best to be done in a dry time) and then to
make it very cleane, it may be washed and presently dried upon a Hill
or in the Sun, or in that Countrey it selfe, spread thinn on a Chamber
floore. This way every Graine that was sound, and good will grow and
consequently become Mault, and no part of the Graine remains steely (as
is alwayes in the other wayes of maulting it) but be mellow, and Flowry
and very sweete, and the Beere that is made of this Mault wilbe of a
very good browne Colour, and be a pleasant, and wholesome drinke. But
because the other way of makeing Beere out of the Bread, as before sett
downe, is found to be as well Coloured, and pleasant, and every way as
good and very wholesome without any windy Quality, and keepeth better
from Sowring then any other Beere of that Corne, therefore that way of
Brewing is most in use in that Countrey, that way of Maulting being
also yet little knowne.


                               Footnotes

[1] Ephraim Lipson, _Economic History of England_ (London, 1931). II,
373.

[2] _Dictionary of National Biography_ (London, 1891), XXV, 73.

[3] _Economic History Review_ (London), IV, I (October, 1932): R.
Lennard, “English Agriculture under Charles II: The Evidence of the
Royal Societies’ ‘Enquiries.’” 23-45.

[4] _Philosophical Transactions_ (London), II (April 2, 1666), 186.

[5] _Philosophical Transactions_ (April 2. 1666), 188.

[6] Thomas Birch, _History of the Royal Society_ (London, 1756), I, 68.

[7] Royal Society, London: Boyle Manuscripts, BI. V, 197.

[8] John Gerard, _The Herball or Generall Historie of Plants ...
Enlarged and Amended by Thomas Johnson_ (London, 1636), 82.

[9] Gerard, _Herball_, 83.

[10] John Parkinson, _Theatricum Botanicum_ (London, 1640), 1138-1139.

[11] _Philosophical Transactions_, 142 (1678), 1065-1069.

[12] Royal Society, London: Catalogued as BI. V. 199.

[13] A reference to the edition of 1636.

[14] Alewives. Winthrop’s use of “aloofes” supplied the editor of the
_New English Dictionary_, I (1888), 215, with the earliest use of this
rare word.

[15] Perhaps to be identified as Edmund Wilson, of Oxford and Padua,
Fellow of the College of Physicians, Censor and Harveian Orator,
who died in 1657. William Munk, _The Roll of the Royal College of
Physicians of London_ (London, 1878), I, 246.




                          Transcriber’s Notes

John Winthrop Jr.’s paper was originally published in 1676.

Original spelling and punctuation have been maintained as printed.

Footnotes have been moved to the end of the text.

New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the
public domain.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78645 ***