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} + +.center {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0em;} + +.right {text-align: right;} + +.r2 {text-align: right; + margin-right: 2em;} + +.r4 {text-align: right; + margin-right: 4em;} + +.left1 {text-align: left; + text-indent: 2em;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + +/* Images */ + +img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; +} + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: 1px dashed;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; +} + + </style> +</head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78617 ***</div> + + + +<h1 class="smcap">Dangerous Trades</h1> + +<p class="center lg">THE HISTORICAL, SOCIAL, AND LEGAL<br> +ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS<br> +AS AFFECTING HEALTH, BY A NUMBER<br> +OF EXPERTS</p> + +<p class="center p2">EDITED BY THOMAS OLIVER, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.</p> + +<p class="center xs">MEDICAL EXPERT ON THE WHITE LEAD, DANGEROUS TRADES, POTTERY, AND<br> +LUCIFER MATCH COMMITTEES OF THE HOME OFFICE; PROFESSOR<br> +OF PHYSIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM; PHYSICIAN TO<br> +THE ROYAL INFIRMARY, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE</p> + +<p class="center p4 sm">WITH ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<p class="center p4 sm">LONDON</p> + +<p class="center p-min">JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET</p> + +<p class="center p-min sm">1902</p> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p class="center p4 sm">TO</p></div> + +<p class="center sm"><span class="smcap">The Right Hon.</span> WILLIAM HENRY ASQUITH, K.C., M.P.</p> + +<p class="center xs">AND</p> + +<p class="center sm"><span class="smcap">The Right Hon.</span> VISCOUNT RIDLEY</p> + +<p class="center xs">TO WHOM, AS HOME SECRETARIES, THE EDITOR IS IN A VERY SPECIAL<br> +MANNER INDEBTED FOR THE MANY OPPORTUNITIES AFFORDED<br> +HIM OF ACQUIRING THAT PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE WHICH<br> +HAS ENABLED HIM TO BRING TOGETHER THE<br> +INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE FOLLOWING<br> +PAGES, THIS BOOK IS, WITH<br> +GRATITUDE AND RESPECT,<br> +DEDICATED</p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> +</div> + + +<p>This is the first occasion on which, on the special lines indicated +in this book, any adequate attempt has been made in this or any other +country to deal with the conduct of trades and other occupations in +respect to the dangers to life and health to which the workers are +liable.</p> + +<p>The subject is year by year engrossing more of the attention of the +public, and this has been evinced in many ways, <i>e.g.</i>, in the +amount of space devoted by the Press to the subject of leadless-glaze +in pottery, and to the manufacture of matches without phosphorus, etc.</p> + +<p>The increasing interest displayed by the public in social affairs +has led to a corresponding desire for accurate information as to the +condition in which their fellow-men and women live and work. This +volume is a response to a widely-expressed demand for a true and +authoritative statement on this important subject—a subject which +concerns thousands upon thousands of our fellow country-people.</p> + +<p>The field covered by “Dangerous Trades and Occupation Diseases” is +a very wide one, and, as there is no one person competent to deal +adequately with the whole, it has been found desirable to engage the +co-operation of experts on the various trades with which the volume +treats.</p> + +<p>In carrying out this scheme, an enormous amount of information which +has hitherto been unrecorded or inaccessible has been brought into +focus and made available for reference.</p> + +<p>The language employed has been kept as free as possible from +technicalities. It is confidently believed that this volume<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span> will be of +considerable value, not only to medical men, whose practice brings them +into contact with the working classes, to Certifying Factory Surgeons, +Factory Inspectors, and employers of labour, but also to the educated +public and to professional men interested in the hygienic side of +industrial problems and in occupation diseases. It is hoped also that +it will be of assistance to members of both Houses of Parliament.</p> + +<p>Whilst congratulating myself on my good fortune in securing the +assistance of many distinguished and able specialists, I take this +opportunity of expressing my warmest thanks to Dr Whitelegge, Dr +Morison Legge, Miss A. M. Anderson, and especially to Commander +Hamilton Smith, R.N., of the Factory Department of the Home Office, for +their help in various ways, and to all my contributors for their ready +acquiescence and loyal support.</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min">THOMAS OLIVER.</p> + +<p class="smcap p-left p-min sm">Newcastle-upon-Tyne,</p> +<p class="left1 p-min sm"><i>March 1902</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>LIST OF CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + +<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 40em"> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th class="pag">PAGE</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Introduction.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Historical Sketch of the Development of Legislation for +Injurious and Dangerous Industries in England.</span> By +Miss <span class="smcap">A. M. Anderson</span>, <i>H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of +Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Special Rules for Injurious Occupations—Appendix.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Regulation of Injurious or Dangerous Occupations in Factories +and Workshops in some of the Chief European +Countries.</span> By Miss <span class="smcap">A. M. Anderson</span>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Principles of Prospective Legislation for Dangerous Trades.</span> +By <span class="smcap">H. J. Tennant</span>, M.P., <i>Chairman late Dangerous Trades +Committee</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Infant Mortality and Factory Labour.</span> I.—By Mrs <span class="smcap">H. J. +Tennant</span>. II.—By <span class="smcap">George Reid</span>, M.D., D.P.H., <i>Medical Officer +of Health, Staffordshire County Council</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Child Labour.</span> By Miss <span class="smcap">Margaret M’Millan</span>, <i>Member of School +Board, Bradford</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Home-Work.</span> By <span class="smcap">A. Ballantyne</span>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Physiology and Pathology of Work and Fatigue.</span> By +<span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Mortality of Occupations.</span> By <span class="smcap">John Tatham</span>, M.A., M.D., +F.R.C.P., <i>General Register Office, Somerset House, London</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Dust-Producing Occupations.</span> By <span class="smcap">John Tatham</span>, M.A., M.D., +F.R.C.P., <i>General Register Office, Somerset House, London</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Potter, Earthenware, China Manufacture—Cutlers, Scissor-makers—File-cutters—Glassmakers—Copper-workers—Iron +and Steel Workers—Zinc-workers—Lead-workers—Stone +Quarriers—Brass-workers—Gunsmiths—Chimney Sweeps, Soot +Merchants—Textile-workers—Wool, Worsted Manufacturers—Other +Workers in Dusty Trades—Effects of Breathing Foul +Air: Bookbinders, Printers; Musicians; Hatters; Hairdressers; +Tailors; Drapers, Manchester Warehousemen; +Shoemakers—The Mining Industry: Coal Miners; Ironstone-mining; +Copper Miners; Tin Miners—Mortality of Unoccupied +and Occupied Men.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Diseases of Soldiers at Home and Abroad.</span> By <span class="smcap">John R. +Dodd</span>, M.D., F.R.C.S., D.P.H., <i>Lieutenant-Colonel Royal Army +Medical Corps</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Health in the Marine Service.</span> By <span class="smcap">William Collingridge</span>, +M.A., M.D., F.R.C.S., D.P.H. (Camb.), <i>Medical Officer of Health, +City of London, formerly (1880–1901) Medical Officer of Health, +Port of London</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Diseases due to their Employment—Diseases caused by the +Habits of Seamen—Diseases of Climate—Diseases due to +Insanitary Conditions and Environment.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Railways.</span> By <span class="smcap">Henry H. Cunynghame</span>, C.B., <i>Assistant Under-Secretary, +Home Department</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Safe-Guarding of Machinery.</span> By <span class="smcap">H. S. Richmond</span>, <i>H.M. +Superintending Inspector of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Prime Movers—Steam Engines—Gas and Oil Engines—Other +Prime Movers—Electrical Generators—Mill-Gearing—Mill-Gearing +Construction—Access to Shafting—Fencing of Low +Shafting, etc.—Pulleys—Driving Belts—Shipping of Belts— +Belt Poles—Protection of Belts—Bevel Wheels—Means of +Stopping Machinery—Machine Tools—Fencing of Dangerous +Machinery—Set-screws—Toothed Wheels—Shaft or Spindle +Ends—Loose Pulleys and Strap Forks—Plate Wheels—Hoists—Teagles—Cranes, +Winches, etc.—Self-acting Mules—Looms—Circular +Saws—Planing Machines—Power Process.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Agriculture, Horses, Cattle.</span> By <span class="smcap">D’Arcy Power</span>, F.R.C.S., +M.A. (Oxon.), <i>Senior Surgeon, Victoria Hospital for Children; +Assistant Surgeon, St Bartholomew’s Hospital; Assistant Professor +of Physiology, Royal Veterinary College, London</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Agriculture: Labourers; Gardeners—Horses: Ostlers, Stablemen, +and Cartmen—Cattle: Butchers, Slaughterers, and +Tanners; Cowmen and Dairymaids; Shepherds; Pig-keepers.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Electric Generating Works.</span> By <span class="smcap">Hamilton P. Smith</span>, <i>Retired +Commander R.N., and one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Dust as a Cause of Occupation Disease.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, +M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">General View of the Subject—Skin Diseases of Flax-workers—Diseases +of Nails in Furriers—Lung Diseases due to Dust—Gastro-intestinal +Lesions.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Dust Women.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Lead and its Compounds.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Lead Mining and the Health and Surroundings of the Miner—Lead-smelting—Red +Lead, Lead Oxide, Litharge, Massicot, +Minium—White Lead: Carbonate of Lead (Céruse, <i>Fr.</i>)—Lead +Poisoning—Treatment: Preventive and Curative—Chromate +of Lead: Dye Works—Calico Printing—Enamelling of Iron +Plates and Hollow Ware—Electric Accumulator Works and +Lead Poisoning—Motor Cars—Electric Tramways—Soldering, +Typefounding, Printing, Typesetting, Linotyping—Precautions—Plumbing—House +Painting—Coach Painting—Glass Polishing—File-cutting—Use +of Lead in Potteries—Chromo-lithographic +Works and Transfer-making—Tile-making and Manufacture of +Porcelain Stoves—Washing of Lead-workers’ and Painters’ +Clothes—Lead Foil Manufacture—Shoe-finishing and Staining +by Lead Compounds—Lucifer Matches containing Lead—Buffing +of Brass Cocks and Plumbism.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Electrical Treatment in Cases of Lead Poisoning.</span> By <span class="smcap">H. +Lewis Jones</span>, M.D., <i>Medical Officer in charge of Electrical +Department, St Bartholomew’s Hospital</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">The Elimination of the Metal—The Electrical Treatment of the +Paralysis caused by Lead.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Arsenic.</span> By <span class="smcap">Malcolm Morris</span>, F.R.C.S., <i>Lecturer on Dermatology, +St Mary’s Hospital, London</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Symptoms—Treatment and Prophylaxis.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">China and Earthenware Manufacture: Potters’ Rot.</span> By +<span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_382">382</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Symptoms—Prevention.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Basic Slag.</span> By <span class="smcap">John Hedley</span>, M.D., <i>Middlesborough</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Ganister Crushing.</span> By <span class="smcap">Hamilton P. Smith</span>, <i>Retired Commander +R.N., and one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Report on Portions of Lung from a Ganister Miner—Microscopic +Examination—Chemical Analysis.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Millstone Building: French Buhrstone.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, +M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Steel Grinding.</span> By <span class="smcap">Sinclair White</span>, F.R.C.S., <i>Lecturer on +Surgery, University College, Sheffield</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Grinding—Glazing—Polishing—Lapping—Racing the Stone.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Phosphorus and Lucifer Matches.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., +F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_417">417</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Phosphorus Necrosis—Prevention of Phosphorus Necrosis—Treatment +of Phosphorus Necrosis.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Dangers in the Use of Mercury and its Salts.</span> By <span class="smcap">T. +Morison Legge</span>, M.D., <i>H.M. Medical Inspector of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Introduction—Historical—Mode in which Poisoning is brought +about—Symptoms—Recovery from the Ore—Making of Thermometers—Incandescent +Electric Lamps—Electrical Meters—Gold +and Silver Extraction—Water-gilding—Silvering of +Mirrors—Hatters Furriers’ Processes—Preparation of Mercurial +Compounds—Preventive Measures—Rules to be observed in +the Manufacture of Mercurial Preparations.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Lesions resulting from the Manufacture and Uses +of Potassium and Sodium Bichromate.</span> By <span class="smcap">T. Morison +Legge</span>, M.D., <i>H.M. Medical Inspector of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Nature of the Perforation—Ulceration of the Skin.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Copper and Brass.</span> By <span class="smcap">Robert M. Simon</span>, B.A., M.D. (Cantab.), +F.R.C.P., <i>Physician, General Hospital, Birmingham; and</i> +<span class="smcap">Seymour H. Knyvett</span>, M.A. (Oxon.), <i>one of H.M. Inspectors of +Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_455">455</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Indiarubber—Dangers Incidental to the Use of Bisulphide +of Carbon and Naphtha.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., +F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_470">470</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Effects of Dinitrobenzine and other Nitro-substitution +Products of the Aromatic Series on the Workmen +employed in the Manufacture of High Explosives.</span> By +<span class="smcap">Robert Prosser White</span>, M.D., <i>Surgeon, Roburite Explosives +Company; Hon. Medical Officer, Royal Albert Edward Infirmary, +Wigan</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Poisonous Dose—Acute Poisoning—Subacute Poisoning—Chronic +Poisoning—Muscular System—Nervous Symptoms—Eye +Affections—Urinary Affection—Urine—Pathology: The +Blood—Prognosis—Precautions.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Dry Cleaning by Means of Benzine.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, +M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXIV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Use of Inflammable or Spirit Paints.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, +M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_494">494</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Acetylene and its Dangers.</span> By <span class="smcap">Hamilton P. Smith</span>, <i>Retired +Commander R.N., and one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_497">497</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXVI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Flour Mills.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_505">505</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXVII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Mining.</span> By <span class="smcap">Henry Louis</span>, M.A., A.R.S.M., F.I.C., F.G.S., <i>Professor +of Mining, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_508">508</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXVIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Air of Mines.</span> By <span class="smcap">John Haldane</span>, M.D., F.R.S., <i>Fellow +of New College, and Lecturer on Physiology, University of Oxford</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_540">540</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Black-damp—Carbonic Acid—Fire-damp—After-damp—Smoke—White-damp, +Gob-stink, Fire-stink—Gases from Explosions.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXIX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Quarries.</span> By <span class="smcap">John Brown</span>, M.D., D.P.H., M.O.H., <i>Borough of +Bacup</i>; and <span class="smcap">T. N. Kelynack</span>, M.D., M.R.C.P., <i>London, Assistant +Physician to Mount Vernon Hospital for Consumption and Diseases +of the Chest, Hampstead and Northwood; late Pathologist and +Medical Registrar, Manchester Royal Infirmary, etc.</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_557">557</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Introduction—Definitions—Varieties of Quarries—Methods of +Working—Pathology—Etiology—Quarry Accidents—Diseases—Affections +of the Respiratory Organs—Cardio-Vascular +Disease—Cutaneous Lesions—Digestive Disturbances—Ear +Affections—Eye Affections—Osteo-arthritis—Septic Infection—Tetanus—Legal +Provisions—Prophylaxis and Treatment—Preventive +Measures—Treatment of Accidents and Ailments +occurring in Quarries.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XL</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Chemical Trades.</span> By <span class="smcap">A. P. Laurie</span>, M.A., <i>Principal, Heriot-Watt +College, Edinburgh</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_568">568</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Introductory Remarks—The Le Blanc Process—Alkali Manufacture, +other Methods—The Chemical Worker—Hours of Work +in Alkali Manufacture—The Administration of the Alkali Act—Output +Method of Paying Wages—Bichromate of Potash Manufacture—Coal +Tar Products—Bisulphide of Carbon—Phosphorus—Health +of Chemical Workers as shown by Statistics.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Explosions and Explosives.</span> By <span class="smcap">A. Cooper Key</span> (Major, late +R.A.), <i>H.M. Inspector of Explosives</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_599">599</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Introductory—Accidents in Manufacture and Use—Products of +Combustion; Fumes—Explosives in Coal Mines.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Anthrax.</span> By <span class="smcap">W. H. Hamer</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., <i>Assistant Medical +Officer of Health, City of London</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_621">621</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Hides and Horsehair—History of the Disease—Anthrax Statistics—Outbreaks +Recorded during Recent Years—Anthrax Notification—Grouping +of Anthrax Cases—Grouping of Cases considered +in relation to Preventive Measures—Disinfection and +Other Measures of Precaution.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Anthrax: Its Relation to the Wool Industry.</span> By <span class="smcap">John +Henry Bell</span>, M.D., <i>Consulting Medical Officer, Bradford Royal +Infirmary; Consulting Surgeon, Bradford Eye and Ear Hospital</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_634">634</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Cutaneous Anthrax—Erysipelatous Anthrax: Symptoms; Diagnosis; +Prognosis—Pulmonary Anthrax: Symptoms; Duration +of Illness; Diagnosis; Prognosis; Incubation—Pathological +Changes: External; Internal—Intestinal Anthrax—Distribution +of the Bacilli—Preventive Measures—The Precautionary +Regulations—Treatment.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLIV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Rags and their Products in Relation to Health.</span> By <span class="smcap">John +A. E. Stuart</span>, L.R.C.S. (Edin.), <i>Medical Officer of Health, Batley, +Yorkshire</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_644">644</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Rag-Sorting, Rag-Grinding, Shoddy, Mango, Flocks, Carbonising +or Wool-Extracting—Effects of Rag-Sorting on Health—Carbonising—Recommendations.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Blanket Stoving.</span> By <span class="smcap">John A. E. Stuart</span>, L.R.C.S. (Edin.), +<i>Medical Officer of Health, Batley, Yorkshire</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_648">648</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLVI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Jute.</span> By <span class="smcap">Harry J. Wilson</span>, <i>one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_650">650</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLVII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Laundry Workers.</span> By <span class="smcap">Lucy A. E. Deane</span>, <i>one of H.M. Inspectors +of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_663">663</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLVIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Fish-Curing and Fruit-Preserving.</span> By <span class="smcap">Mary M. Paterson</span>, +<i>one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_673">673</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XLIX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Women’s Labour in Tinplate Works.</span> By <span class="smcap">Rose E. Squire</span>, +<i>one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_681">681</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Opening—Washing—Pickling—Tin-houses.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER L</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Women’s Labour in Aerated Water Works.</span> By <span class="smcap">Rose E. +Squire</span>, <i>one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_687">687</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Flax and Linen.</span> By <span class="smcap">Henry S. Purdon</span>, M.D., <i>Certifying +Factory Surgeon; Consulting Physician, Hospital for Skin Diseases, +Belfast</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_691">691</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Historical, Manufacturing, Hygienic, and Medical.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Manufacture of Cotton.</span> By <span class="smcap">Jas. Wheatley</span>, M.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), +<i>Medical Officer of Health, Blackburn</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_702">702</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Rabbit Down.</span> By <span class="smcap">Rose E. Squire</span>, <i>one of H.M. Inspectors of +Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_724">724</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LIV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Diseases due to Working in Compressed and Stagnant Air.</span> +By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.A., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_728">728</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Caisson Disease: Treatment—Dangers Incidental to the Making +of, and Working in, Tunnels—Underground Railways—Divers’ +Paralysis.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LV</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Diseases due to Diminished Atmospheric Pressure: Pure +and Impure Gases.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, +M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_749">749</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Mountain Climbers—Military Balloonists.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LVI</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Effects of Concussion of the Air.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, M.D., +F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_752">752</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Boilermakers—Riveters—Shipwrights, etc.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LVII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Iron and Steel Industries.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, + M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_756">756</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Exposure to High Temperatures, and Severe Muscular Strain—Blacksmiths +and Forgemen—Use of Converters in Steel Works—Nail +and Chain Making.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LVIII</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Eye Diseases and Eye Accidents in relation to Industrial +Occupations.</span> By <span class="smcap">Simeon Snell</span>, F.R.C.S. (Edin.), <i>Ophthalmic +Surgeon, Royal Infirmary; and Professor of Ophthalmology, University +College, Sheffield</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_761">761</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Diseases due to Occupations involving prolonged use or excessive +strain of the Eyes, such as Nystagmus in Miners and others—Diseases +due to Occupations involving the use of certain Poisonous +Substances, such as Dinitrobenzol, Bisulphide of Carbon, +Tobacco, Lead, etc.—Diseases due to Occupations involving +exposure to excessive Light or Heat, or both, such as Burnishers, +Steel Melters, Electric Welders, etc.—Exposure to Electric +Light—Injuries or Accidents amongst Grinders, Iron and Steel +Workers, Masons, Coal Miners, Weavers, etc.—Bursting of +Water Gauges on Boilers.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LIX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Trades.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, + M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_788">788</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Silicate of Cotton—Upholsterers’ Occupation—Joiners and Carpenters: +Workers in Sequoia Wood—Manufacture of Celluloid—Tobacco +and Cigar Manufacture—Engine-Drivers and Railway +Employés—Drivers of Public Vehicles—Cooks—Confection +Makers—Domestic Servants and Housemaids, etc.—Barmen +and Dealers in Alcoholic Drinks—Sewing-Machine +Workers—Label-licking—Glass Manufacture: Glass-Blowing—Glazed +Ware Poisonous from other causes than Lead: +Cyanide of Potassium—Coal-Heaving, Coal-Trimming, and +Chimney-Sweeping—Manufacture and Use of Emery Wheels.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER LX</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Occupation Diseases due to Excessively Repeated Muscular +Actions.</span> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Oliver</span>, + M.D., F.R.C.P.,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_815">815</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Fatigue Neuroses: Scriveners’ Spasm, or Writers’ Palsy; Telegraphists’ +Spasm, or Cramp; Pianoforte Players’ Cramp, etc.; +Shoemakers’ Spasm—Boot and Shoe Making.</td> + <td class="pag"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht2"><span class="smcap">Appendix: Special Rules.</span> By <span class="smcap">Hamilton P. Smith</span>, <i>Retired Commander +R.N., and one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories</i>,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_827">827</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> +</div> + +<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 40em"> + <tr> + <th class="chap">FIGS.</th> + <th></th> + <th class="pag">PAGE</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">1.</td> + <td class="cht">Strong’s “Standard Guard” for Engine Fly-wheels,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p207">207</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">2.</td> + <td class="cht">Safety Starting-gear for Gas and Oil Engines,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p208">208</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">3.</td> + <td class="cht">Coupling with Dangerous Projecting Bolt-heads,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p209a">209</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">4.</td> + <td class="cht">Safety Coupling with Countersunk Bolt-heads,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p209b">209</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">5.</td> + <td class="cht">Collar with Dangerous Projecting Set-screw,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p209c">209</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">6.</td> + <td class="cht">Collar with Countersunk Set-screw,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p209d">209</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">7.</td> + <td class="cht">A Safe Form of Set-screw,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p215a">215</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">8.</td> + <td class="cht">For Use with Screwdriver,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p215b">215</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">9.</td> + <td class="cht">Halstead’s Patent Unbreakable Square-hole Solid-ended Grub +Screw,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p215c">215</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">10.</td> + <td class="cht">Incomplete Guards for Spur Wheels,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p216a">216</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">11.</td> + <td class="cht">Spur Wheels with Suitable Guards,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p216b">216</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">12.</td> + <td class="cht">A Good Form of Guard to Cover Bevel Wheels</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p217a">217</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">13.</td> + <td class="cht">A Method of Covering Shaft Ends with a Sheet-metal Cap,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p217b">217</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">14.</td> + <td class="cht">Knowles’ Improved Safety Hoist,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p219">219</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">15.</td> + <td class="cht">Morgan’s Patent Safety Catch,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p221">221</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">16.</td> + <td class="cht">Wadsworth’s Self-landing and Delivering Hoist,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p222">222</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">17.</td> + <td class="cht">Self-acting Mules. Shows Unsatisfactory Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p223a">223</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">18.</td> + <td class="cht">Shows a Guard which Completely Covers the Band round Pulley,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p223b">223</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">19.</td> + <td class="cht">Self-acting Mules,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p224">224</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">20.</td> + <td class="cht">Hargreave’s Mule Carriage Wheel Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p225a">225</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">21.</td> + <td class="cht">Hargreave’s Mule Carriage Wheel Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p225b">225</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">22.</td> + <td class="cht">Safe-guards for Ends of Looms,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p226a">226</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">23.</td> + <td class="cht">Shuttle Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p227a">227</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">24.</td> + <td class="cht">Elvatka Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p227b">227</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">25.</td> + <td class="cht">Longmore’s Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p228a">228</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">26.</td> + <td class="cht">Victor Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p228b">228</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">27.</td> + <td class="cht">Woodhouse and Mitchell’s Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p229a">229</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">28.</td> + <td class="cht">Campbell and Greenwood’s Guard,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p229b">229</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">29.</td> + <td class="cht">Power Presses,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p230">230</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">30.</td> + <td class="cht">Treatment of Persons apparently Killed by Electricity,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p264">264</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">31.</td> + <td class="cht">Treatment of Persons apparently Killed by Electricity,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p265">265</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">32.</td> + <td class="cht">Mild Form of Dermatitis in Flax-spinner,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p268a_a">268</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">33.</td> + <td class="cht">Medium Degree of Dermatitis in Flax-spinner,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p268a_b">268</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">34.</td> + <td class="cht">Severe Form of Dermatitis in Flax-spinner,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p268c_a">268</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">35.</td> + <td class="cht">Severe Form of Dermatitis in Flax-spinner,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p268c_b">268</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">36.</td> + <td class="cht">Disease of Finger Nails in Hide-dressers,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p270a_a">270</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">37.</td> + <td class="cht">Severe Type of Disease of Finger Nails in a Hide-dresser,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p270a_b">270</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">38.</td> + <td class="cht">Human Lung in Health,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p272a_a">272</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">39.</td> + <td class="cht">Lead Miner’s Lung,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p272a_b">272</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">40.</td> + <td class="cht">Steel Grinder’s Lung,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p272a_c">272</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">41.</td> + <td class="cht">Coal Miner’s Lung,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p272a_d">272</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">42.</td> + <td class="cht">Cement,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p274a_a">274</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">43.</td> + <td class="cht">Sandstone,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p274a_b">274</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">44.</td> + <td class="cht">Granite,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p274a_c">274</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">45.</td> + <td class="cht">Lead Dust from Printing Shop, and Type-casting,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p274a_d">274</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">46.</td> + <td class="cht">Gilchrist-Thomas’ Slag,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276a_a">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">47.</td> + <td class="cht">Needle Grinding,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276a_b">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">48.</td> + <td class="cht">Mother-of-Pearl,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276a_c">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">49.</td> + <td class="cht">Sawdust,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276a_d">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">50.</td> + <td class="cht">Flax,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276c_a">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">51.</td> + <td class="cht">Hemp,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276c_b">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">52.</td> + <td class="cht">Jute,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276c_c">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">53.</td> + <td class="cht"> Cotton,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276c_d">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">54.</td> + <td class="cht">Silk,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276e_a">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">55.</td> + <td class="cht">Horn,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276e_b">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">56.</td> + <td class="cht">Ivory,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276e_c">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">57.</td> + <td class="cht">Felt Manufacture,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276e_d">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">58.</td> + <td class="cht">Dust from Fur Brushing Machine,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276g_a">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">59.</td> + <td class="cht">Dust from Rag Cleaning,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276g_b">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">60.</td> + <td class="cht">Bone Meal,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276g_c">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">61.</td> + <td class="cht">Dust from Wheat Cleaning,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276g_d">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">62.</td> + <td class="cht">Ordinary Slag,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276i_a">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">63.</td> + <td class="cht">Basic Slag,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276i_b">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">64.</td> + <td class="cht">Ganister,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276i_c">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">65.</td> + <td class="cht">Dust from Fork Grinding on Dry Stone,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276i_d">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">66.</td> + <td class="cht">Powdered Flint,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276i_e">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">67.</td> + <td class="cht">Glaze Cleaned off Ware,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p276i_f">276</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">68.</td> + <td class="cht">Lead Mine,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p284a">284</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">69.</td> + <td class="cht">Other View of Lead Mine,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p286a">286</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">70.</td> + <td class="cht">A “Blue” Bed in a White Lead Factory,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p288a">288</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">71.</td> + <td class="cht">Female Carrying Basins Filled with Washed White Lead from Vat +to Stoves,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p288c">288</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">72.</td> + <td class="cht">Interior of Stove for Drying White Lead,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p290a">290</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">73.</td> + <td class="cht">Section of Caisson Used in Rebuilding Redheugh Bridge,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p729">729</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">74.</td> + <td class="cht">The Simplon Tunnel Operations at Iselle,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p738a">738</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">75.</td> + <td class="cht">Section of Simplon Tunnel, showing Difference in Levels between +North and South Ends</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p739a">739</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">76.</td> + <td class="cht">Section of Simplon Tunnel, showing Cross Gallery by Means of +which Air is Transmitted from Ventilating Passage to Head of +Tunnel where the Men are Working,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p739b">739</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">77.</td> + <td class="cht">Interior of Bath-house and Vestiary for the Miners at the Simplon +Tunnel, Iselle,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p740a">740</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">78.</td> + <td class="cht">Bottom Holing,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p762a_a">762</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">79.</td> + <td class="cht">Bottom Holing. (To show Position of Head and Eyes),</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p762a_b">762</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">80.</td> + <td class="cht">Deputy Examining Roof,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p764a">764</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">81.</td> + <td class="cht">Grinders. Edge-tool Grinding,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p778a">778</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">82.</td> + <td class="cht">Men Engaged in Chipping,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p780a_a">780</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">83.</td> + <td class="cht">Chipping against a Screen. Men Wearing Protectors,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p780a_b">780</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">84.</td> + <td class="cht">Protectors,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p782a">782</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">85.</td> + <td class="cht">Glass-blower when in Normal Condition,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p806a_a">806</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">86.</td> + <td class="cht">A later Photograph of Glass-blower in Fig. 85, showing Relaxed +Condition of Cheeks,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p806a_b">806</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">87.</td> + <td class="cht">German Sweep’s Costume,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p810a">810</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">88.</td> + <td class="cht">Belgian Sweep’s Costume,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p810c">810</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">89.</td> + <td class="cht">Shoemakers’ Chest,</td> + <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p823">823</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</span></p> +<h2>LIST OF AUTHORS</h2> +</div> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li><span class="smcap">Anderson, Adelaide M.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Ballantyne, A.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bell, John Henry</span>, M.D.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Brown, John</span>, M.D., D.P.H.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Collingridge, William</span>, M.D., <span class="smcap">Etc.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Cunynghame, Henry H.</span>, C.B.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Deane, Lucy A. E.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Dodd, John R.</span>, M.D., <span class="smcap">Etc.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Haldane, John</span>, M.D., F.R.S.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Hamer, W. H.</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Hedley, John</span>, M.D.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Jones, H. Lewis</span>, M.D.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Kelynack, T. N.</span>, M.D., M.R.C.P.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Key, A. Cooper</span>, <i>Major, late R.A.</i></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Knyvett, Seymour H.</span>, M.A. (Oxon.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Laurie, A. P.</span>, M.A.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Legge, T. Morison</span>, M.D.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Louis, Henry</span>, M.A., A.R.S.M., F.I.C., F.G.S.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">M’Millan, Margaret.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Morris, Malcolm</span>, F.R.C.S.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Oliver, Thomas</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Paterson, Mary M.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Power, D’Arcy</span>, F.R.C.S.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Purdon, Henry S.</span>, M.D.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Reid, George</span>, M.D., D.P.H.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Richmond, H. S.</span>, B.A.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Simon, Robert M.</span>, B.A., M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.P.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Smith, Hamilton, P.</span>, <i>Retired Commander R.N.</i></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Snell, Simeon</span>, F.R.C.S. (Edin.).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Squire, Rose E.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Stuart, John A. E.</span>, L.R.C.S. (Edin.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Tatham, John</span>, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Tennant, H. J.</span>, M.P.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Tennant</span>, Mrs <span class="allsmcap">H. J.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Wheatley, James</span>, M.D., B.Sc.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">White, Robert Prosser</span>, M.D.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">White, Sinclair</span>, F.R.C.S.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Wilson, Harry J.</span></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p> +<p class="center p2 xl">DANGEROUS TRADES</p> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I<br> +<span class="subhed">INTRODUCTION</span></h2> + +<p>The commencement of the Twentieth Century finds us discussing problems +and elaborating plans for the amelioration of the life of the people. +The last few years have witnessed an unexampled awakening of the public +to a sense of its responsibility in regard to conditions of labour and +unhealthy trades. The question is not should men and women work, but +how do particular trades affect individuals, physically and morally? +Like human life itself, industrial occupation has been a passage +from the simple to the complex, a process of evolution wherein each +succeeding stage of industrial development has been attended by labour +problems, social difficulties, and diseases particularly its own. An +attempt has been made to include within this book special knowledge, +and I have preferred that each contributor should express his or her +own opinions unfettered by editorial requirements, since the object +sought is not the promulgation of the views of a particular school, +but enlightenment, so that the lot of our working classes may be +improved, industrial hygiene promoted, and higher ideals if possible +attained. Living in a democratic age, we hear much of the claims of +the right to live, right to work, and the right of workers to a larger +share of the produce of their labour. These are not the subjects +dealt with in the following pages. There are certain side issues that +deserve consideration, but which can only be mentioned here. Social +advancement and commercial prosperity, while creating fresh desires, +often increase the difficulty of satisfying natural wants. The growth +of large towns and the concentration of people in the crowded homes +of our great cities are limiting the amount of pure air necessary to +the life of those collected there. Drinking water has to be brought +from distant sources and at great expense. The removal of the waste +or refuse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span> of human activity is often as difficult a problem as the +conveyance of the necessaries of life. It is not, however, with such +problems as these we are concerned, but rather with the conditions +under which labour is carried on and its effect upon the people. +Manual labour and handicrafts exercised for the purpose of gain were +in a measure formerly controlled by family interests, subsequently by +guilds, and to-day they are largely regulated by trade unions. By trade +unions an attempt has been made, not only to sell labour in the highest +market, but to artificially restrict output by objecting to the use +of machinery, by requiring that machines shall run at a speed lower +than their full capacity, by demanding one day’s holiday during the +working week, claiming in many instances a uniform wage alike for the +skilled and the less skilled workman, and a reduction of the working +hours without a corresponding reduction of wages. Such methods in the +long run cannot but be disadvantageous to the workers themselves, for +they discourage industrial energy and enterprise, without which the +wage-fund must inevitably fall. Instead of mutual co-operation there +is an unnecessary conflict between labour and capital. The demands of +organised labour already mentioned have called forth a marshalling +of the forces of capital. Industrial competition concerns the sale +of labour as well as that of products. Some persons maintain that in +the bargaining that goes on capital has the advantage over labour. +Without expressing an opinion upon this point, it is apparent that +only organised capital is capable of holding its own against organised +labour.</p> + +<p>The change from the domestic system of industry to the modern methods +of production by machinery and steam power forms what is known as the +Industrial Revolution, and marks an important epoch in the history of +the world. Within the last one hundred and thirty years the changes +produced in the social and intellectual condition of the people have +been enormous. Ever since the Industrial Revolution in our own country +there has been gradually coming a greater demand for knowledge on the +part of those workpeople who may subsequently acquire the control of +industries and direct the manufacture of machinery. There has been +created, if not immediately, certainly by degrees, a need both for +general education throughout the country and a special education for +those who wish to become leaders. On the one hand it has been felt +desirable to counteract the cramping effects of machinery and to +diminish the dwarfing influences of the division of labour upon the +intellect of the workpeople by giving them the benefits of a wider +education.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> As knowledge has been gained by the artisan classes, +their aspirations have naturally risen. With improved constitutional +means for the redress of grievances there has been in many instances +a gradual supplanting of methods that involve acts of violence and +intimidation, which years ago disgraced our large industrial centres. +Thus is it that while in the early decades of last century, shortly +after the Industrial Revolution and before labour had become organised, +factory legislation was promoted by the wealthier classes for the +benefit of the workers, the latter at the present time, with their +improved education and personal knowledge, can themselves bring to bear +upon the legislature demands for reform that are deserving of careful +consideration, especially when these are not extravagant and do not far +exceed the limit of experience. Factory legislation, while it embodies +the opinions of Members of Parliament who have studied labour problems +theoretically, and of a few who have practical knowledge, is a State +direction of our industries so far as relates to the safety, health, +and moral condition of the people, and which embraces to-day, more +than in any other epoch, the opinions of the workers themselves. The +story of factory life in Britain, of the long hours of toil spent by +children in the mills, and the physical suffering they endured, remains +a blot upon the pages of British history. Britain was the pioneer +of factory legislation—does she still lead the way? Her commercial +supremacy, we are told, is questioned, and the position she has long +held is being threatened by increasing competition. Despite this fact +there is a disinclination on the part of British manufacturers to admit +the necessity of learning anything from their Continental or American +friends. Is our country, both as regards methods of production and +factory legislation, abreast of the times and of other nations? Instead +of manufacturers hugging themselves into a state of industrial lethargy +which our insular position and national prejudices encourage, it would +be well if they sent their sons and heads of departments abroad to see +what other nations are doing.</p> + +<p>Several things have prevented factory legislation being as far forward +as it ought to be. In our country no Government, however strong, can +hope to successfully introduce social legislation largely affecting +personal interests until public opinion has been educated to the belief +that the remedies proposed are really necessary. The facts likely to +carry conviction can only be produced after years of careful study and +investigation, consequently factory legislation has to some extent +progressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span> slowly. It is, however, fair to say that when certain +trades’ organisations or representative bodies combine to secure +amendments to Bills which, in their opinion, appear necessary, there +is a tendency on both sides of the Houses of Parliament to drop party +considerations, and to give facilities for well-considered legislation +likely to benefit the community. At this stage of our inquiry it may +therefore be not inopportune to refer to the Factory Act recently +passed (August 1901), the framing of Special Rules, and the means of +securing their observance.</p> + +<p>In matters industrial the Home Secretary is not endowed with authority +equal to that enjoyed by similar officials on the Continent. The +arbitrary powers granted by foreign Governments for the regulation of +factories do not commend themselves to English politicians, and this +was borne in mind by the framers of the clauses in the Factory Act of +1891 relating to Special Rules and requirements, when each and every +occupier could demand that a matter of difference between himself and +the Secretary of State should be referred to arbitration. This system +may be said to have answered fairly well when dealing with small +trades, but certainly not in regard to extensive industries, such, +for instance, as the manufacture of pottery. In this particular trade +litigation has gone on for many years, and the questions at issue, at +the time of writing, are not yet settled. The methods now proposed +should not only secure fair-play to the manufacturer and the worker, +but should obviate loss of time and unnecessary labour. Under the Act +of 1891 the Secretary of State could not be held responsible to the +House of Commons, or to the country, for the final word rested with an +irresponsible arbitrator. Under the more recent provisions the ultimate +decision will rest, as it undoubtedly should, with Parliament. Having +certified that in his opinion any manufacture, machinery, process, +or description of manual labour used in factories or workshops is +dangerous, the Secretary of State may (subject to the provisions of the +Act) make such regulations as appear to him reasonable and practicable. +He must publish the proposals, with information as to where copies of +the suggested regulations can be obtained, and the time within which +objections may be made by, or on behalf of, the persons affected. He +is bound to consider their objections, and may, if he thinks fit, +amend the draft regulations, but where he does not amend or withdraw +these draft regulations, he is required to direct an inquiry by a +competent person, to be held in public, and the chief inspector, any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span> +objector, or any other person affected, may appear either in person, by +counsel, or solicitor or agent. The witnesses may be examined on oath. +The proposed regulations may apply to all factories and workshops in +which the manufacture, machinery, process, or description of labour +certified to be dangerous is used, or to any specified class of +factories or workshops. The regulations may provide for the exemption +of any specified class of factories or workshops, either absolutely or +subject to conditions. They may prohibit the employment, and modify or +limit the period of employment, of all persons or any class of persons +in any process certified to be dangerous. They may prohibit the use of +any material or process, and modify or extend any special regulations +for any class of factories and workshops contained in the Factory Acts. +The regulations made under the new provisions shall not come into force +until they have been laid for a period of six weeks before both Houses +of Parliament. In the <i>London Gazette</i> must be published notice of +the regulations made, and an announcement of the place where copies of +these can be procured.</p> + +<p>The right of arbitration conceded to manufacturers has been sometimes +regarded as one of the means whereby the benefits of factory +legislation have been diminished. No person considers it desirable for +industrial liberty to be crippled by Acts of Parliament, or industrial +progress checked by Home Office interference, and yet the dictates of +humanity demand that no labour shall exceed the limits of endurance +of the workers, and that all occupations shall be made as healthy as +possible. The history of factory legislation is a record of attempts +made to better the conditions of labour, improve the health of workers, +and control the disposing power of employers over their workpeople. +Those who blame State interference as the cause of the doubtful decline +of our industrial supremacy, and who believe that it is checking +enterprise, are not making a sufficiently serious attempt to grapple +with the question by sifting all the facts carefully. It can be +demonstrated that legislation has not paralysed but has improved trade +as well as the conditions of labour.</p> + +<p>At a meeting of the chemical industry in Glasgow, on 24th July 1901, +Mr Joseph Wilson Swan remarked that “two causes are contributing to +our loss as a nation in the chemical and metallurgical industries. +One is the supplanting of old methods of manufacture by newer, +<i>e.g.</i>, the application of electricity. The electro-chemical and +electro-metallurgical industries of the future<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> are grouping themselves +around large water-power stations,—90 per cent. of the power thus +used being obtained on the Continent from waterfalls. We have no such +available water-power in Britain, but we possess instead an abundance +of cheap coal. The other cause is the lack of scientific training, +and the indifference of our leaders of industry to the results of +scientific research. They are contented with the methods of production +of a bygone age. Their plant is old.” It is circumstances such as +these that explain, for example, the decay of the chemical industry +on Tyneside, and its transference to other localities at home and +abroad. As regards the causes that are threatening our industrial +supremacy, apart from the serious attempts made by countries possessing +the raw materials to complete the finished products on the spot, thus +hitting hard our textile and iron industries, I would emphasise the +higher technical education of the men who are heads of departments in +factories abroad compared with those in similar positions at home. +They are on the Continent a superior class of men. I am not for a +moment contending that the German or French workman is, as a workman, +superior to the average British artisan similarly employed. In many +respects I think our own is the more capable man; but the foreigner +is better directed, owing to the fact that the managers’ assistants +and principal foremen have been highly instructed; several of them +have had a University training, and they thus possess a theoretical as +well as a practical knowledge of the particular industry. Besides, it +is well known that in Germany at least, large firms employ men well +trained in chemistry and physics to do nothing but research work, with +the view of not only finding out new products, but of improving them +and cheapening their manufacture. Industrial methods, in a word, are +more scientifically studied on the Continent than at home, so that +while such labour troubles as strikes, and the higher wages paid to +English workmen, are to some extent responsible for the loss of some +of our manufactures and their transference to the Continent, the +cheapening of methods of production has not been without its influence. +As international competition becomes keener, and our manufacturers +endeavour to produce more cheaply by increasing the speed of their +machinery, there will be imposed upon the workpeople greater tension +during the hours of labour. Will this circumstance, also the rising +rents of houses and the consequent overcrowding in our large towns, +improve the physique of future workers? A study of the prospects<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span> of +the artisan classes is of necessity many-sided, since it must deal +not only with the effect of work upon their health, but take into +consideration the influence of their home life and surroundings. Our +large industries, excluding mining, have scarcely existed long enough +for us to realise to the full the physical changes they are inducing +in the workpeople. Hitherto there has been no great difficulty in +obtaining strongly-built men of good muscular development for hard +manual labour. Many of these have been taken from rural districts. As +these districts are becoming depopulated, they will cease to be the +source of supply they have been in the past. It is not altogether idle +to ask how far the second and third generations of the town-bred poorer +working classes will possess the necessary physical powers for hard +toil. Overcrowding and poverty are exercising a degenerating influence +upon the rising generation; besides, industrial occupation as carried +on in several of our large textile districts is preventing rather than +encouraging development, especially when children are employed at too +early an age. There is something in the air of such factories, it may +be the excessive heat and moisture, or the animal products given off +during perspiration and breathing, that interferes with the nutrition +of the body and checks its growth.</p> + +<p>Half-timers, fortunately, are becoming fewer and fewer. Experience has +shown that they are not equal in physique to their classmates who are +allowed to remain all day at school. When healthy country children +have been taken into the factories of large towns, it has been found +that their normal rate of growth has been checked, so that after two +or three years’ work in the mills, they are observed to be of shorter +stature than their former playmates left at home and allowed to +rusticate. There is a limit to each person’s capability of doing work, +and when this is passed, the results are harmful. We should not ask +from any person more than his powers will enable him to accomplish. +For mechanical as well as manual labour there is a determined number +of hours beyond which the worker cannot proceed without physical +suffering on his part, while industrially with each succeeding hour +occupied there is a diminishing production. It is knowledge of this +fact, apart from economic considerations, that is used as a lever by +the working classes to obtain parliamentary sanction to limit still +further the hours of labour. Our attention, for example, is directed to +Australia, where, since 1856, the hours of toil have been reduced to +eight per day with a satisfactory result. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span> coal mines, as well +as in the factories of Sydney, the week’s work is forty-four hours. +The eight-hours’ day has also been instituted in Tasmania, Victoria, +and New South Wales. A few years ago an eight-hours’ day was conceded +to the men employed in Woolwich Arsenal, and as this turned out to be +satisfactory, the Admiralty, in July 1894, took a similar step. There +are many writers who maintain that to a reasonable diminution in the +number of hours devoted to work there corresponds a qualitative and +quantitative increased production. There is a maximum beyond which +production is not profitable. The produce of one particular period +of the day cannot always be compared with that of another. While the +reduction from twelve to ten hours’ labour may have been beneficial, +and may even have improved production, it does not necessarily +follow that a reduction from nine to eight would be followed by a +corresponding result, and a reduction from eight to seven hours by +one still better. On this and other points the facts detailed further +on in this book by Mr A. P. Laurie, in his paper on Chemical Trades +under the heading “Health of Chemical Workers, etc.,” will be found +interesting. Too long hours are certainly a cause of accidents in +factories. Experience alone can settle the question of the number of +hours to be worked, and that number must clearly be not the same for +every occupation. Common sense, too, must dictate the minimum limit +of working hours. Men and women are conscious when their occupation +exceeds their strength; but the demands of the machinery they tend are +exacting, and so no difference is made between the strong and feeble +workmen. A few years ago, Messrs Mather & Platt, iron manufacturers, +Salford, reduced the number of hours worked in their factory from +fifty-three to forty-eight per week without reducing the wages of the +men, and this regulation is still, I believe, in force. Employers have +frequently questioned the value of the work done by the men between +6 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> and 8 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> Mr Mather holds the opinion that +the first two hours before breakfast are hardly worth the trouble and +disarrangement which they cause alike to the employers and the workers. +Not only are these two hours ineffective from a productive point of +view, but their effect upon the physical and mental condition of the +men is to diminish their vigour and spirits and their interest in what +they are doing.</p> + +<p>Coal mining is one of those industries from which an answer to this +question of the effectiveness of work in the early morning hours might +be expected, for the men work in two relays, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> “fore” and “aft” shift, +and they change every fortnight. When working in the fore shift the +miners enter the pit about 3 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, and when in the aft at 10 +<span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, each working in the North of England about six and a +half hours. Mr Ralph Young, Secretary to the Northumberland Miners’ +Mutual Confident Association, informs me, in answer to questions +addressed to him on this point, that the present method of working coal +mines scarcely allows of a satisfactory reply being given as to whether +more work is done during the fore or aft shift. There is a feeling +among some of the miners themselves that they can do more work in the +fore shift, <i>i.e.</i>, between 3 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> and 10 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, +but they attribute this circumstance not to the particular hour of +the day in which work is carried on, but to the fact that the air in +the coal mine is fresher and purer then than later on in the day. In +other occupations it is equally difficult to get at the real facts +of the case. To questions of a similar character addressed to twenty +foremen and men working in a large iron and steel factory on Tyneside, +I received the following answer—that more work is done in the hours +9 to 11 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> than 6 to 8 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, and that a man does +more work after than before his breakfast. As regards the influence of +day and night shift, they all agreed that less work was done on the +night shift compared with the same number of hours of the day, but it +is difficult to express this in terms of percentages. Some of the men +stated that the amounts varied from 10 to 20 per cent. Against this, it +is only right to mention that some of my Infirmary patients working in +the same factory have told me that they believed after a time they did +as much work on the night as on the day shift. It was entirely a matter +of habit.</p> + +<p>The Workmen’s Compensation Act, which was so strongly opposed by many +employers on the supposed ground that it would ruin the industries of +this country, has had apparently no effect in that direction. Although +it has theoretically increased their financial liability, as a matter +of fact many employers have been less out of pocket than formerly. The +Act has cleared the industrial atmosphere, made employers more careful +in their selection of workmen, more willing to safeguard machinery, and +do all they reasonably can to prevent accidents. It pays them to do so.</p> + +<p>Until July 1898, when the Workmen’s Compensation Act of the previous +year came into force, in the case of all accidents coming under either +the common law or the Employers’ Liability<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span> Act 1880, the basis of the +action was negligence or wrongful act on the part of the defendant, or +of some person for whom the defendant was responsible. Since 1898 it +matters little how the accident was caused, the employer is held liable +by the Act of 1897. Certain trades only are included under the Act, +<i>e.g.</i>, railways, factories, docks, laundries, mines, buildings 30 +feet high, and any building in which machinery is driven by mechanical +power. So far as compensation for injury is concerned, the workman must +be incapacitated for more than two weeks as the result of the injury +before he can receive any benefit under the Act. After a fortnight a +weekly payment is secured to him of one half of his weekly wages during +his period of incapacity, or for six months, after which the employer +can claim to have his liability redeemed by paying a lump sum fixed by +agreement or arbitration. In the case of death the employer is liable +to the extent of three years’ wages, or 156 times the average weekly +earnings of the deceased workman during his period of employment, the +amount to be not less than £150 and not more than £300.</p> + +<p>When the Workmen’s Compensation Bill was introduced it was strongly +opposed, as already stated, on the grounds that it would injure +trade and ruin many employers. So far, events have not justified +this suspicion, but have shown that these fears were more or less +groundless. In providing compensation for injured workmen, Britain was +only doing what other nations on the Continent, especially Germany, had +already accomplished. It was thought at the time that the operation +of the Workmen’s Compensation Act would very materially affect the +output and price of coal as well as the wages of the miners. There is +no clear evidence that it has increased the price of coal. The cost +of compensation paid in Northumberland and Durham does not exceed +one halfpenny per ton, while the cost under the Act for the United +Kingdom is under three farthings per ton. This is a small sum compared +with the threepence we were informed would be added to the price of +each ton of coal. One way in which the Act might indirectly increase +the price of coal would be by restraining timid capitalists from +investing money in coal mining through fear of being ruined by some +great accident or explosion; but this is a remote probability, and a +contingency that could be met by insurance. Nor can it be shown that +the Workmen’s Compensation Act has had any effect upon the miner’s +wages. Theoretically the wages of miners should fall <i>pro rata</i> +with the benefits received under the Act, but as the benefits will +not be more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> than 1½ per cent. of the wages, any readjustment would +be small. It cannot be said that in coal mining the Act has had any +noticeable effect one way or the other, so far as the number of +accidents is concerned. For several years prior to 1898, owing to newer +and more scientific methods, the number of accidents in coal mines had +been diminishing. It would appear from the reports of Mr Hedley, H.M. +Inspector of Mines for Northumberland, Cumberland, and North Durham, +that during 1899 there were 84 lives lost, and in 1900 the number was +105, or a ratio of 1 death for every 784 persons employed, against 1 +for every 924 in 1899; in 1898 the ratio was 1 in 1053, and for the +five years 1893|97 the ratio was 1 in 895.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>Mr Ralph Young has abstracted from the annual reports of the +Northumberland and Durham Miners’ Permanent Relief Fund the following +facts, showing the number of fatal and non|fatal accidents, with the +percentages of non|fatal accidents, spread over ten years in the North +of England.</p> + + +<p class="center p1">MINERS’ PERMANENT RELIEF FUND.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Membership.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Fatal Accidents.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Non-Fatal<br>Accidents.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Percentage of<br>Non-Fatal<br>Accidents.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1890</td> + <td class="ctrr">107,997</td> + <td class="ctrr">158</td> + <td class="ctrr">16,000</td> + <td class="ctrr">14.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1891</td> + <td class="ctrr">113,126</td> + <td class="ctrr">167</td> + <td class="ctrr">16,500</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1892</td> + <td class="ctrr">114,326</td> + <td class="ctrr">149</td> + <td class="ctrr">13,000(<i>a</i>)</td> + <td class="ctrr">12.24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1893</td> + <td class="ctrr">115,361</td> + <td class="ctrr">177</td> + <td class="ctrr">16,400</td> + <td class="ctrr">14.21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894</td> + <td class="ctrr">121,133</td> + <td class="ctrr">166</td> + <td class="ctrr">17,000</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">121,944</td> + <td class="ctrr">168</td> + <td class="ctrr">17,450</td> + <td class="ctrr">14.42</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">122,257</td> + <td class="ctrr">163</td> + <td class="ctrr">19,200</td> + <td class="ctrr">15.7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">124,920</td> + <td class="ctrr">204</td> + <td class="ctrr">20,000</td> + <td class="ctrr">16.01</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">127,564</td> + <td class="ctrr">159</td> + <td class="ctrr">19,511</td> + <td class="ctrr">15.28</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrr">130,552</td> + <td class="ctrr">197</td> + <td class="ctrr">19,484</td> + <td class="ctrr">14.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1900</td> + <td class="ctrrb">137,073</td> + <td class="ctrrb">198</td> + <td class="ctrrb">18,470</td> + <td class="ctrrb">13.4</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center smaller">(<i>a</i>) Durham Strike, 90,000 members idle for 13 weeks.</p> + +<p>The Workmen’s Compensation Act came into force in 1898, but it cannot +be said, looking at the foregoing figures, that it has had any +material influence upon the number of accidents in coal mines, nor, +as was anticipated, has it so far displaced many of the older miners +by younger men. There is a remarkable constancy in the number of pit +accidents. I have tried to ascertain whether there is any decade in a +miner’s life during which accidents are more numerous than another, +but statistics do not support the supposition. There is a personal and +age element that must not be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> lost sight of, also one of fatigue. The +older miners have experience and caution; the younger, if rash and less +experienced, are more alert and can get out of danger quicker.</p> + +<p>As bearing upon this part of our inquiry, the annual reports of the +Chief Inspector of Factories give the following information:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Industry.</span></td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="8"><span class="smcap">Accidents Reported to Certifying Surgeons, and also +to Inspectors.</span></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrdb" colspan="4">Fatal.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="4">Non-Fatal.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">1900.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1899.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1898.</td> + <td class="ctrrdb">1897.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1900.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1899.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1898.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1897.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Textile Total,</td> + <td class="rightr">70</td> + <td class="rightr">52</td> + <td class="rightr">59</td> + <td class="rightrd">43</td> + <td class="rightr">4,647</td> + <td class="rightr">4,332</td> + <td class="rightr">3,786</td> + <td class="rightr">3,565</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Non-Textile Total,</td> + <td class="rightrb">975</td> + <td class="rightrb">819</td> + <td class="rightrb">668</td> + <td class="rightrdb">615</td> + <td class="rightrb">22,012</td> + <td class="rightrb">17,568</td> + <td class="rightrb">14,714</td> + <td class="rightrb">11,762</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Grand Total,</td> + <td class="rightrb">1045</td> + <td class="rightrb">871</td> + <td class="rightrb">727</td> + <td class="rightrdb">658</td> + <td class="rightrb">26,659</td> + <td class="rightrb">21,900</td> + <td class="rightrb">18,500</td> + <td class="rightrb">15,327</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In reference to these figures Dr Whitelegge states that there has been +an increase in the numbers of <i>reported</i> accidents since 1897, the +year previous to the coming into effect of the Workmen’s Compensation +Act. Many considerations other than the Workmen’s Compensation Act +have to be taken into account, <i>e.g.</i>, the better reporting +of accidents, activity of trade, and classification of industries. +From these figures of the Chief Inspector of Factories no definite +conclusion can be drawn as to the influence of the Act in preventing +accidents. As a contrast it should be mentioned that in some large +factories where an “Accident Compensation Fund” previously existed +under the Employer’s Liability Act, to which employers and employed +contributed in the ratio of 2 to 1, and out of which all accidents +were compensated, statistics show a remarkable falling off in the +number of reported accidents under the Workmen’s Compensation Act. +In some works these are now only one-third of what they were. This +reduction is probably explained not by any change in the methods of +production, nor by better safe-guarding of machinery, but by the fact +that while previously all accidents, however trivial, were reported and +compensated, accidents under the Act of 1897 must be of such severity +as to prevent the individual following his employment for two weeks +before he is entitled to compensation.</p> + +<p>Although difficult to prove by actual statistics, there is a feeling +that the Act has on the whole been beneficial alike to employer and +workmen. It is this circumstance that has induced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> some Members of +Parliament to press for an extension of the Act so as to include +a larger number of industries, and particularly those regarded as +Dangerous Trades. One of the principal features of the Workmen’s +Compensation Act is that it fixes the liability upon the employer, +so that where an accident causes injury to health or the death +of a working man the individual himself or his relatives receive +compensation. If the circumstance solely of ill-health or of death +caused through work, and not violence or the manner in which either of +these has been induced, were made the principle that ought to underlie +the operations of the Act of 1897, there would be found many persons +who, taking effects alone into consideration, would recognise no +difference between ill health the result of an accident in a factory, +and ill health brought about by working at a particular trade known +to be dangerous. Ought dangerous trades, therefore, to be brought +within the scope of the Workmen’s Compensation Act? Many advocate their +inclusion. The law recognises that trade shall be made as healthy +as possible, and it takes steps to secure this, both by providing +regulations and penalising those who transgress these regulations. +Will it go further, and impose a burden upon the employer by making +him compensate a workman injured in health when it can be shown that, +even where all precautions have been taken, ill health has followed? +Occupation ought to be the opportunity whereby an individual, in return +for work done, should receive sufficient wages to enable him to live, +and not, as it occasionally is when he is employed in a dangerous +trade, the means whereby he becomes the subject of ill health at an +early age, and is thrown as a burden upon the ratepayers for the +remainder of his life. No high wages paid to men to undertake work in a +dangerous trade, even if it were always the case that such were paid, +can adequately compensate the affected workman for the loss of health +caused by following a dangerous occupation. Many dangerous trades are +far from being highly paid. The class of workpeople who are affected +by these industries are usually very poor, their occupation is often +interrupted, and they are not organised into Unions, so that they +neither contribute to the funds of, nor do they receive benefits from, +a Friendly Society. The Workmen’s Compensation Act makes accident the +sole circumstance that enables an individual to receive compensation. +As the Act stands at present it is clearly meant to distinguish +between accident and disease. It is a disputable point, for example, +how far a fatal disease like anthrax caught in a wool-combing factor +is not as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> much an accident beyond the control and expectation of the +individual workman as the fatal burns caused by the sudden ignition of +some spirit paint in a shipyard. A similar line of argument might be +made to apply to other trades. The man who gets his arm broken by a +piece of machinery in motion or by a barrel falling off a trolley in +a colour factory receives a weekly allowance from his employers; but +another man who becomes paralysed in both hands as a consequence of +having filled the barrels with white lead in the same factory does not +receive any part of his wages at all when off ill. It is said that the +Act only recognises the fact of external injuries, but it goes beyond +this, for a workman may die as a consequence of shock without any sign +of external injury and yet his relatives receive compensation. It is +the fact of personal and not external injury that underlies the Act. Is +phosphorus necrosis, which is a purely personal malady, an accident? +The Act answers—No.</p> + +<p>There is considerable difficulty in defining what is meant by +industrial disease. It would be well if we could have some clearer +conception of what is implied both by “industrial disease” and +“dangerous trades,” for there is scarcely any trade or occupation that +is not attended by some risk or another. It is admitted that certain +occupations involve exceptional risks. Theory cannot determine what +these trades are, but experience and inquiry can. As an illustration, +I might mention that of 22 trades suggested as dangerous, and given by +the Home Secretary to the Dangerous Trades Committee to investigate, +careful inquiry showed they could not all be included in this category.</p> + +<p>In the case of an accident there is usually the history of a violent +cause in operation, and there is the fact of an injury received. +Yet even with accidents there are certain contributing factors, +<i>e.g.</i>, the length of the working day, the previous ill health +of the workman, and his state of debility anterior to the accident. +Old age, too, aggravates the harmful effects of an accident. It is +accessories such as these that have made legislation difficult and +tied the hands of Governments. The subject is one to which at home Mr +H. J. Tennant, M.P., Sir Charles Dilke, Bart., M.P., Sir John Stirling +Maxwell, Bart., M.P., Mr John Burns, M.P., and other members of the +House of Commons have given considerable study, and to which among +others on the Continent, Mr Arthur Verhægen, member of the Belgian +Superior Council of Labour, drew the attention of members at the +Congrès International des Accidents du Travail in Brussels in 1897.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> +Several writers have defined industrial disease. Dr Van der Borght +says: “Industrial diseases are those maladies which arise as the result +of the prolonged action of harmful influences in certain occupations, +and which consequently and exclusively occur in persons working in +these trades, or at least more frequently than in other persons in +general.” Dr Glibert, Medical Inspector of Labour, Belgium, says: +“Every disease recognised as particularly frequent in a profession +ought to be considered as an industrial disease to the extent that it +is clearly due to the risks in the trade.” By the term occupation or +industrial disease we mean, briefly, disease the direct effects of +a particular trade in which a person is engaged. In many instances +there are also included maladies that are the result of pathological +alterations of structure, <i>indirectly</i> induced by the occupation. +Colic, for example, might be regarded as a <i>direct</i> effect of +working in lead, and yet this is unaccompanied by structural alteration +in the wall of the intestine; on the other hand, kidney disease in +the file-cutter is very slowly developed, and although, as regards +its production, there are other causes in operation than lead, still +the kidney lesion is believed to be a remote or <i>indirect</i> +consequence of plumbism. As artisans are liable to the ordinary +ailments of humanity, it is necessary to carefully sift statements so +as to eliminate all causes other than those related to the particular +industry in question. To the production of occupation disease, several +factors contribute. Even in the causation of such an indisputable +malady as industrial lead poisoning, it is well to remember how +important is the part played by individual idiosyncrasy, while in the +badly ventilated state of one factory compared with another, the home +life and surroundings of the workpeople, poverty, heredity, age, and +sex are to be found conditions that favour its production, and are +therefore not to be ignored. Usually it is a gradual deterioration of +health that is produced. There is nothing of the nature of an acute +illness in industrial disease comparable with an accident. The only +occupation disease that approaches accident in the suddenness of its +development is anthrax, and even here the prospects of recovery are +influenced by the channel of invasion, the severity of the attack, the +vital resistance and idiosyncrasy of the affected individual. Take +another example: it is not always easy to draw a distinction between +potters’ phthisis due to the inhalation of dust when at work, and +a broncho-pneumonia which has become tuberculous, and yet potters’ +consumption in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span> the early stages may be as much the result of the trade +at which the person has worked as is the paralysis of the file-cutter.</p> + +<p>In order to make an employer liable for an occupation disease there +would have to be a stated limit as to the length of time an individual +had worked in a particular factory, and as in some of the dangerous +trades the workpeople change frequently from factory to factory, +it would be difficult to prove under which employer the malady was +caught. Carelessness on the part of the employed, through ignorance or +intention, would also have to be disproved. In the case of workpeople +who spend practically the whole of their life in one factory, say a +white lead works, and who at the end of twenty or thirty years’ service +find themselves the victims of an incurable form of plumbism, humanity +and good feeling alike should indicate to the employer his obligation +to the affected workmen. Yet even here the question might be raised, +did the workman fully attend to all the regulations when in the factory +as regards personal cleanliness, and were his habits, when not working, +those of a temperate man? Mr Verhægen gives illustrations of the +difficulty of exactly defining occupation disease. A workman becomes +the driver of a public vehicle, and in the course of time, having +developed rheumatism, he is obliged to give up work. To the individual +thus crippled by rheumatism, is the employer financially liable? One +can scarcely think so, for the simple reason that while exposure to +inclement weather may be a cause of rheumatism, certain persons are by +heredity predisposed to it, and would develop the malady irrespective +of what their calling in life might be. Besides, are delicate men +and imprudent drivers to be placed on the same footing as robust and +careful men? Verhægen recognises the inexactitude, and states that +if we would but limit the term occupation disease to conditions of +ill health due to <i>poisoning</i> caused by coming into contact with +certain chemical and other agents used in such industries as lucifer +match making, colour grinding, etc., the difficulty would be materially +lessened. It would still not always be easy to assign to one particular +factory, especially when it was known that the workman had moved from +place to place, the blame for having caused ill health. Even in cases +of “phossy jaw,” in which it is generally admitted that exposure to the +fumes of yellow phosphorus is its cause, there is yet some doubt as +to whether the necrosis of bone is entirely due to this circumstance, +or partly to it and the operation of micro-organisms. Take, too, the +diseases of Italian miners and of the colliers of Belgium, particularly +ankylostomiasis. Dr Kuborn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span> of Seraing, in discussing this question, +maintains that the maladies special to mining have their origin very +largely in the kind of life the men lead, their inattention to the +rules of ordinary hygiene both in their home and person, excesses +of various kinds, imperfect feeding and clothing, etc., causes to +the influence of which want of education greatly contributes. In +some industries there are inherent dangers, and yet with care these +can be diminished if not removed. Ventilation of British coal pits, +for example, has practically abolished pulmonary consumption in our +miners. Experience shows that there is scarcely a dangerous trade from +which, with extreme care and attention to regulations, the dangerous +influences cannot be largely removed. There is no occupation so risky +to life as the manufacture of the high explosives. I have had the +opportunity of visiting the largest explosives works in the kingdom, +and can bear testimony to the healthiness of the employment and its +comparative safety owing to the careful training and discipline of the +workers, scrupulous cleanliness and attention to the minutest details.</p> + +<p>Occupation disease, it must be remembered, is not <i>always</i> +easy of recognition. There is no difficulty in diagnosing a malady +to be plumbism when there are double wrist drop and a history of +exposure to the metal when at work; but where there is only complaint +of abdominal pain and vomiting, the diagnosis cannot be always so +clearly established, even in the presence of a well-marked blue +line on the gums. Several cases have been recorded in the medical +journals of acute abdominal pain occurring in painters, which had been +regarded as lead colic; but when the patients died, the post-mortem +examination showed that death was due to a small ulcer of the bowel +or to inflammation limited to a particular portion of the intestine +known as the appendix, which a surgical operation might have cured; +while, on the other hand, workers exposed to lead and with similar +symptoms have been operated upon by careful surgeons for appendicitis +when the malady was lead colic. If this is the difficulty experienced +by competent surgeons and careful medical observers, it shows us some +of the pitfalls parliamentarians might easily drop into by including +industrial diseases under the Workmen’s Compensation Act. Verhægen is +of opinion that the matter would be more easily settled by accumulating +a larger number of statistics of disease occurring in occupations; +but this inquiry would have to be extended over a lengthened period, +there would have to be some degree of uniformity in the conditions +under which the people worked, there would also have to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> be taken +into consideration the hygienic conditions of the factories, the +situation of these buildings, the number of hours worked per day, and +the influences that would follow a prolonged strike of the workpeople, +such as poverty. To be exact, too, the workpeople would have to be +medically examined before entering upon the particular industry, and +re-examined months afterwards so as to ascertain what effects, if any, +the trade had produced. Some of the difficulty would be got over by +limiting the definition of industrial disease to maladies that are +the direct consequence of occupation, and in which as a result there +is a well-ascertained lesion of the organism. Verhægen, as already +mentioned, illustrated his argument by alluding to the driver of a +public vehicle who in good health to commence with, and notwithstanding +his obedience to the laws of prudence yet becomes rheumatic, and +to another man who, under similar conditions as regards health and +carefulness, undertakes work in either a lucifer match or a white lead +factory, and suffers from phossy jaw or wrist drop. The malady is in +either of the latter instances regarded as a disease of occupation, +in the former it is not, the explanation of the difference being +that as regards the first illustration rheumatism is not confined +to the occupation of coach driving; also while it is admitted that +out-of-door occupations expose the individual to all kinds of weather +and predispose to rheumatism, the same out-of-door life led by other +people is in them an explanation of the good health they enjoy. In the +case of the match and white lead maker, had it not been for exposure to +the fume of phosphorus or the inhalation of lead dust the workman would +not have become the victim of phossy jaw or of wrist drop.</p> + +<p>Although many workpeople in the factory incur the same risk, yet all +do not equally suffer. Some men are more susceptible than others. It +would be regarded as an interference with the liberty of the subject +if an attempt were made to prevent people going to work in a factory. +It is known, for example, that engravers are more liable to lose their +eyesight at an earlier age than men engaged in outdoor occupations. +Should a man with feeble sight be allowed to undertake this kind of +work? On commencing his industrial career, unless he voluntarily seeks +the advice of an oculist, who is to say to him nay? There cannot be, +although it is accomplished in certain dangerous trades without much +opposition, a medical examination of all persons undertaking work. The +dangers of particular occupations ought, however, to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> pointed out +to all applicants for work, after which these should state that they +are prepared to accept certain risks. At present many workpeople incur +risks without knowledge of the danger or of the means of preventing +it. There are occupations that are not of themselves unhealthy, and +yet owing to the strain which they impose upon the body, the weak +spot of the organism, so to speak, is found out, and for this the +occupation itself cannot altogether be held responsible. Take what +is known as rupture or hernia, which occurs with greater frequency +in persons whose work obliges them to be long upon their feet, and +who are exposed to sudden strain, the lifting of heavy weights, etc. +What is said of it applies equally to varicose veins in the legs. +Both of these may be partly the result of the position assumed by +the individual when at work or the strain he is exposed to, and yet +it would scarcely be right to make the occupation responsible for an +affection the result of an inherent weakness of the abdominal wall +which allowed a portion of intestine to protrude, giving rise to +rupture, or for an ill-nourished condition of the walls of the veins +in the legs whereby the blood-vessels became distended and deformed. +To secure compensation, the workman would have to establish that the +hernia was solely the result of his work. Life is for all of us very +much a game of chance, and we have to run ordinary risks. For a disease +to be regarded as industrial, and capable, therefore, of being brought +within the scope of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, it would have to be +placed upon the same narrow limit as an accident. It would require to +be shown that it was the sole result of the occupation, and that there +had been produced a definite pathological lesion of the body. Adopting +this view, the maladies that could be included in the category would +be, among others, anthrax, poisoning by lead, mercury, phosphorus, +and bisulphide of carbon; but with the exception of anthrax, in which +the disease is often suddenly induced, and as rapidly runs to a +fatal termination, there is not as a rule the same exactitude in the +incidence of disease as is the case in accident. There might be little +difficulty in including anthrax under the Act of 1897. The inclusion +of some of the other dangerous trades would give rise to frequent +litigation, but it would make employers more careful in the selection +of their workpeople, and in the means adopted to prevent industrial +poisoning. This latter fact is one of the objects aimed at by those +who are in favour of an extension of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, +not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> omitting, where it can be clearly proved, the financial liability +of the employer to compensate the affected workman. In the case of a +fatal accident occurring in a factory, a post-mortem examination shows +perhaps the body to be healthy, and therefore the accident to have +been the sole cause of death, or there are certain signs of disease +present which may have caused or hastened the fatal termination. In the +latter instance the law takes no cognisance of the previous disease. +It takes for granted that but for the accident the individual would +have gone on following his occupation. In industrial poisoning, would +a similar legal opinion be entertained? In acute lead poisoning, when +the post-mortem examination and chemical analysis of the internal +organs conclusively prove that death was due to lead, it might be a +comparatively easy thing to fix the liability upon an employer; but +the presence of signs of previous disease in the body, which probably +contributed to the fatal termination of the illness, would make it +extremely difficult to assign to each of the two circumstances its +proper share in causing death.</p> + +<p>It is facts such as these that doubtless led to the rejection by +Parliament in 1897 of the proposal to extend the scope of the Workmen’s +Compensation Bill so as to include industrial diseases, and place them +on the same footing as accidents occurring at work. There is, however, +a common sense view of the matter which should not be overlooked, and +it is this. Where a person suffers in health, or loses his or her life +through neglect of the employers to comply with the legal requirements +of the Factory Acts, surely the employer under these circumstances +ought to pay full compensation. In the case of accidents the question +of neglect does not arise under the Act of 1897. The injured person +is compensated, and that is the difference between the Employers’ +Liability and the Workmen’s Compensation Act. The question that calls +for an answer then is rather this: Where an employer has followed out +to the full all the regulations required by the Home Office, and it +is shown that he has done all that common sense and humanity dictate, +and yet industrial poisoning has occurred, is the employer under these +circumstances to be considered liable? In France, where the match +industry is a State monopoly, the Government admitted its liability +by paying to the workmen who suffered from the effects of phosphorus +a stated indemnity. Bryant & May’s firm has always recognised its +liability by paying a weekly allowance to the workpeople off ill +through phosphorus necrosis. Other firms in other trades probably do +the same. It is for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> public, therefore, to say whether humane +deeds like these, which are purely voluntary in this country, should +be made compulsory by an extension of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, +or be simply dealt with through the medium of mutual trade insurance +societies.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>Collectively, occupations may be likened to a huge organism. Industries +are the functions that indicate the life and prosperity of a nation, +and like the higher forms of life they have grown in process of +time from simple beginnings to highly complicated combinations, +the controlling and to some extent directing agent of which is +parliamentary legislation, keeping pace with the inventiveness of man +and human requirements. In many ways is the resemblance between the +industrial and human organism demonstrated. No man can use unrestricted +freedom with his own body. There is a physiological limit to which +he must bow. An over-worked brain or group of muscles sooner or +later tells its own tale, unbridled licence causes degeneration of +the nervous system, and excess in wine or at table is checked by the +diseases it produces. Perfection is what we ought to strive for, and +this can only be obtained by submission to nature’s laws. So, too, in +the industrial organism it is recognised that production should be +kept within limits, reckless bargaining should be curtailed, that each +man should put his very best into the work he is doing, and that there +should be more sympathetic communication between employer and employed. +Trades, like human beings, are influenced by their surroundings. They +do not thrive well away from coal fields and centres of human activity. +Competition or the struggle for existence is as keen in the world of +industry as in that of biology, and there occurs the same weeding out +in both. Thwarted by local conditions and hampered by scarcity of +labour, overburdened by excessive taxation or ground rents, industries +will languish in one place, while with fewer restrictions they will +flourish in another. New trades are constantly developing, and new +methods of manufacture keep replacing those that are old. Everything is +tending towards improvement. Many circumstances are operating to direct +the industrial evolution of to-day. Human wants and man’s inventiveness +play their part so that those manufacturers alone of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> their commercial +confrères are successful who, recognising the spirit of the age, make +an attempt to meet its demands.</p> + +<p>Admitting that factory legislation has for the last century been +gradually bringing into line industrial undertakings of all kinds, +and that the Government has by enforcing regulations exercised a +disciplining influence upon masters and men, it is only recently +that it has taken up a strong and decided attitude in regard to the +effects of particular trades upon health. Public health as a science +is still in its infancy; it owes its origin mainly to the rush of +people into the large towns. Its theories and facts have been brought +by municipalities to bear upon the conditions of life in our homes +and persons. Modern factory legislation, so far as industrial hygiene +is concerned, is an extension of the ordinary laws of health to those +workers who in many instances cannot frame rules of guidance for +themselves. Law restricts as well as regulates individual freedom. The +Public Health Acts have interfered with the liberty of the subject by +insisting upon closing unhealthy dwellings, the removal of refuse, the +notification of infectious diseases, and the compulsory removal from +the home of members of a family who are suffering from some infectious +malady, and by doing so have secured a larger measure of health for the +community. Factory legislation similarly aims at improving the health +of the workers.</p> + +<p>Every man tries to get as much out of life as possible. Ideally he +ought to contribute his best to it. A workman, while obtaining for +his labour the largest wages possible, ought to put into his labour +the best of his thought and energy so as to improve the character of +the work he is engaged in. While the immediate object of labour is to +obtain the wherewithal to live, the character of the work performed is +unconsciously shaping the destiny of labour and building up through +individuals the national reputation. The end of work is progress, and +just as human life is perfected through suffering and experience, so is +the industrial.</p> + +<p>There are many ways by which the hygiene of trades may be promoted. +The notification of industrial diseases to the Chief Inspector of +Factories has, although it has only been in existence a very few +years, already placed the Home Office in possession of facts and +statistics which enable the Factory Department at once to realise +when a particular industry is becoming prejudicial to the health of +workers, and how it may be met. The good effects of notification are +observed in the trades in which lead, mercury, and phosphorus are +used. The power granted to the Home Secretary, which enables him to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> +schedule a trade as dangerous on sufficient information being given +to him, is, so long as it is judiciously applied, a step in the +right direction. It is desirable that accurate information should be +obtained from all sources, from employers as well as employed, and from +experts, chemical and medical. The formation of a consultative body or +of an industrial council composed of the Home Secretary and members +of the factory staff, employers, a few educated workmen, chemists, +medical men, and electricians, for the purpose of discussing with the +Home Secretary terms of Special Rules and prospective legislation +has been recommended, and might be helpful. On the Continent such +industrial councils exist, a description of which will be found in +Miss Anderson’s paper on “Regulations of Injurious or Dangerous +Occupations in Factories and Workshops in some of the Chief European +Countries.” In Britain there might be some difficulty in including upon +a permanent consultative body gentlemen capable of dealing with the +numerous technical questions that constantly arise, but the difficulty +would be no greater there than in France. Within the last few years +the Home Secretary has, whether for direct advice or to serve upon +committee, occasionally called in the assistance of recognised experts +or authorities upon particular points under consideration. This system +has worked well, and might with advantage be extended. Industrial +hygiene, too, so far at any rate as dangerous trades are concerned, +could be promoted by small International Committees meeting to improve +the sanitation of labour rather than to discuss economic problems of +production. By many it is believed that the cause of industrial hygiene +would be furthered by the establishment of a Ministry of Labour. +It seems an anomalous circumstance that a country like ours, whose +reputation has been built upon commerce, should be without a department +specially devoted to labour and labour problems. The Home Office has +the necessary machinery and possesses all the information, but its +jurisdiction covers too extensive a field. The Factory Department +ought to form a separate and distinct branch of the Home Office to be +directed by a Secretary or Under-Secretary of State. Year by year the +work of the Department and its scope increase, and surely among the +many Departments of the State there can be none of greater importance +than that which watches over the millions of persons engaged in +factories and workshops in the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER II<br> +<span class="subhed">HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEGISLATION FOR INJURIOUS AND +DANGEROUS INDUSTRIES IN ENGLAND</span></h2></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Now, since both the Ages of Antiquity and that we now live in +shew Laws ... calculated for the good Order and Reputation of +Tradesmen, ’tis but reasonable that Physick should contribute +its quota for the Benefit and Comfort of those of whom the Law +has been so tenderly careful, and display itself in a particular +manner (that has been hitherto neglected) for the safety of +Tradesmen, that they may follow their Trades without injuring +their Health.”—<span class="smcap">Ramazzini</span>: <i>Treatise of the Diseases +of Tradesmen</i>. English Edition, 1705. Italian Edition, +Modena, 1670.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Year after year, as far forward as any present judgment would +willingly speculate, the same terrible waste of adult life must, +with no great mitigation, continue, unless the Legislature +see fit to provide by special enactment for more wholesome +conditions of labour.... The canker of industrial diseases +gnaws at the very root of our national strength. The sufferers +are not few or insignificant. They are the bread-winners for +at least a third part of our population.... That they have +causes of disease indolently left to blight them amid their toil +... is surely an intolerable wrong. And to be able to redress +that wrong is perhaps among the greatest opportunities for +good which human institutions can afford.”—<i>Report of the +Medical Officer (Dr, afterwards Sir John Simon) to the Privy +Council</i>, 1861.</p> +</div> + + +<p>From the benevolent and learned Italian physician of the seventeenth +century, in touch with every available source of information of his own +and preceding ages, searching for mitigation of the diseases of workmen +which he believes to be “incurable,” to the English State physician +of the nineteenth century seeking to persuade men that the diseases +must not be allowed even to arise, is indeed a long way. The way is +long in all that concerns knowledge of the causes and treatment of +disease, no less than in circumstances and organisation of industry. +It is doubtful, however, whether the transformation of ideas in either +is so great as in the general attitude of civilised society towards +protection of labour and promotion of industrial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> health. The change +cannot be accounted for, completely, either by change in the methods +and organisation of industry, or by increased knowledge, medical, +economic, or social. Nor can the increased breadth of conception be +attributed solely to that increased intensity and quantity of human +suffering which inevitably accompanied concentration and growth of +industry. In all ages there have been physical, moral, and economic +evils which fell to the lot of the labourer, probably differing from +time to time on the whole more in degree than in kind, and doubtless +felt at each stage by the sufferers, and sometimes by onlookers, with +an intensity which relatively was great, and which with adequate +discernment of a remedy and the duty or expedience of applying it, +would have led to legislative action.</p> + +<p>In the great civilisations of antiquity, whether in the East, West, or +in Europe generally, there was sufficient concentration of the forces +of labour to produce the intensest forms of the maladies classed by +Pliny as the “diseases of slaves.” Some of the most injurious processes +known to us now are extremely ancient. To mention but a few: lead and +quicksilver mining, the potters’ craft, and the textile processes of +preparing and weaving asbestos and flax.</p> + +<p>The long history, in another department of social ills, of legislation +and organised guild efforts for protection of buyers from dishonest +manufacture and dishonest trading in adulterated products, or again, +of efforts to regulate supply of labour and to enforce honest service +from workers, affords many illustrations of the action that could be +taken in Middle Age and Renaissance Europe, where an evil was both +recognised and also believed to be remediable. It is to be noted how +few the indications are that the strivings after social improvement of +handicraftsmen and labourers were in those times inspired by any clear +vision of the physical safety and health of individuals as part of the +well*-being to be sought. Illustrations might indeed be gathered from +records of craft guilds and municipal organisations, of provisions and +regulations that tended to results similar to those expressly aimed at +by modern sanitary regulations. This is especially true of England, +where the masses of manual workers came earlier than in other countries +of Modern Europe to comparative physical comfort. We must, however, +avoid the mistake of reading into past events, however interesting, +ideas that are consciously at work in practical affairs only in our own +times.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p> + +<p>Of much later date are the first documents that I have been able to +trace expressly dealing with the nature and results of industrial +occupation in dangerous or injurious processes. These are in the +<i>Transactions of the Royal Society of England</i>, and are of the +theoretic and reflective character that is appropriate to their +setting. Belonging to the same century as Ramazzini’s most human +treatise (1670 and onwards), touching both manufacture and mining in +Europe (<i>e.g.</i>, manufacture of white lead, silvering of mirrors by +mercury, lead mining, coal mining), they would take an important place +in a general history of European thought and action on this question. +The vivid descriptions by the Italian as well as by the English writers +of the effects on the worker of lead,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of mercury,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> of silk +dust,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of explosions in mines,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> give one a sense now of the kinship +of past labour with present, and a clearer perception of the magnitude +and the worth of the object that this generation has set itself—to +remove such causes of suffering from the path of the labourer.</p> + +<p>In those papers, however, we are still far from any practical +preventive treatment of industrial diseases. My task in this paper is +to trace out in England, that is in the foremost industrial community +of recent times, the history of tentative, halting efforts, almost +wholly within living memory, to engraft on the earlier legislative +movements of the nineteenth century towards hygienic and moral reforms +in industry, that special, applied regulation of injurious manufactures +for which Sir Edwin Chadwick<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and Sir John Simon were the earliest +and most distinguished advocates. In this history itself, I think, is +found the nearest attainable explanation of the wide difference between +the general attitude of our day towards care of the health of the adult +labourer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> at his trade, and that of any previous age, when the diseases +accompanying industry were the subject of scientific observation. In it +is to be seen the gathering momentum which could so completely sweep +away age-long modes of regarding the worker at his bench as merely +a means to the ends of others than himself and his family, that the +legislature and administration could at length treat the promotion +of the physical security of each individual labourer as a worthy end +for the State no less than the labourer. Lord Londonderry, when he +railed in Parliament in 1848 against the “hypocritical humanity” which +sought by protective legislation to save the lives and limbs of the +miners of Great Britain, represented but a singularly extreme though +not isolated survival of the older assumption of legislators that the +health of the masses of people, as of individual labourers, might be +left to take care of itself, if indeed it was worth thinking about +at all. Even the learned and humane contributors in the seventeenth +century to the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society</i> on dangers of +mining and means of overcoming them, can tell without a thought of +irony how a ventilating tube was first placed in a dangerous mine after +an accident from fire-damp, resulting in the loss not only of men but +of a “gentleman of quality.” There is indeed a long series of laws, +extending back to before the time of Elizabeth, for the protection of +the poorer wage-earner in making his contract so that he should not be +cheated by extortionate charges or unfair payments in goods. The real +contrast in the normal attitude of the centuries before our own towards +the <i>persons</i> of workers is nevertheless well seen in Macaulay’s +wondering notice of the fact that in the latter end of the seventeenth +century it was possible for an eminent philanthropist to exult in the +thought that in Norwich, the centre of the clothing trade, where “a +little creature of six years old was thought fit for labour,” boys and +girls of “very tender age created wealth exceeding what was necessary +for their own subsistence by £12,000 a year.” Greater degradation than +any shadowed there had to be achieved, in England at least, before +the first legislative foundations could be laid, on which afterwards +was to be engrafted the special trade legislation with which we are +here concerned. Out of the desecration of child*-life and womanhood, +underground and in factories and workshops, recorded in the Blue +Books of the earlier part of last century, came the needed force for +the beginnings of a State control in England of special conditions +of health and security, which in some other European countries had +been for long, at least in mines, partially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> maintained through the +operation of a more or less definite theory of State or Imperial +ownership.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>Although I refer necessarily to the general sanitary and social +protective measures, the development of which belongs to the great +humanitarian movements of the first half of the Victorian age, I must +at this point make it clear that I exclude here their history, so far +as concerns purely the control of economic and moral abuses, which were +not inherent in manufacturing and mining industry itself. We are not +directly concerned with physical sufferings which, owing to the apathy +of the community, in fact accompanied the earlier developments of the +factory system, nor with the barbarities which culpable ignorance too +long allowed to survive, from rougher and harder times, underground +in mines. Our concern is with those material risks in any industry +which, when reasonably good methods of working have been developed by +the necessary help of law, remain as ordinary accompaniments of the +occupation itself, either because of the nature of the substance used, +or because of the appliances necessary to the processes carried on. +Some special regard for classes of persons employed is also necessary +in so far as they are specially affected by risks on account of tender +years or physical constitution, but not because Parliament was first +and foremost compelled by unnatural conditions to safeguard young +workers and women, nor because the force of law remains, and, humanly +speaking, will continually remain necessary in competitive manufacture +to maintain for them good normal conditions.</p> + +<p>We must remember that applied scientific protection of all workers +against industrial injury was from the outset introduced step by +step into two distinct sets of Acts of Parliament, the Mines Acts +and the Factory Acts, both with primarily social aims, each acting +and re-acting on the other throughout, both in Parliament and in +the Department administering them. This compels study of the stages +of development in those Acts, as distinct from the movements which +produced them, in order to arrive at any comprehension of the nature of +the now resulting form of control of injurious trades.</p> + +<p>In a complete history of this subject a long section would be devoted +to the development of the later-initiated law relating to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span> Public +Health, to the origins of the two great Sanitary Commissions of 1843–5 +and 1869–71 and their reports, and adequate recognition would be +possible of one main cause of gradually quickened public and official +understanding of the need of special precautions for health in +injurious industries. This cause was the introduction into the service +of the State, first as special commissioners, later as permanent +officials, of scientific investigators and medical officers, whose work +brought to light not merely new facts bearing upon industrial disease, +but also new and broad ideas as to their origin and effects, and whose +reports secured in some instances attention far beyond the boundaries +of England. It is difficult for a modern Factory Inspector to realise +all that is implied in the brief allusions of a former Chief Inspector, +Mr Redgrave, in one of his annual reports, as late as 1868, to the fact +that cleanliness, ventilation, and prevention of disease generally, in +factories, were then regulated only so far as they were provided for at +all in the “Sanitary Act,” and applied by local medical officers—where +there were any—without effective central control or organisation. +What it meant in loss of life and injury to the bread-winners of the +masses of the nation was only too clearly set forth in the accumulated +evidence in Dr Simon’s and Dr Greenhow’s reports to the Board of Health +and to the Privy Council on the sanitary state of the people of England +from 1858 onwards. The words I quote at the head of my paper indicate +Sir John Simon’s idea of the magnitude of the evil at that time. In +many passages he showed his view of the worthlessness of such general +powers as then could be applied to the more general classes of evil.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +In prolonged special investigations, guided by the danger signals of +mortality statistics, he traced out the preventible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> injuries going +on steadily in half-regulated or wholly unregulated dangerous trades. +“Certain industrial establishments,” he said, writing in 1862, “are +subject to Government inspection, and some to a very limited extent +are regulated by Act of Parliament.... Is there any sufficient reason +why these precedents should not be followed in other industrial +establishments.... There is abundant causation of premature death +in mines which are neither coal mines nor ironstone mines,<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> and +potters, grinders, carders, hacklers, not to mention hosts of other +artisans, may, any of them, show the same claim as miners—the claim +of grievous physical suffering—to have the special circumstances +of their industry subjected to Government supervision.”<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> These +observations were not based on vague description or casual inquiry into +the circumstances of industry, but on systematic notes of conditions +of employment in selected localities where mortality due to given +diseases—for example, tubercular phthisis or irritative disease of +the lung—was three, four, or even six times as high as in other parts +of England. The evidence for this need of supervision by centrally +directed specialists, working under a specialised legislation, had +been already repeatedly touched on in Reports of Royal Commissioners +primarily appointed to inquire into employment of children and women. +Far more had to be later said and written before the first steps could +be taken in some of these manufactures to remove causes of injury +which, later, the Commissioners of 1878 referred to as a “public +scandal,” and for which no basis of control existed until 1891.</p> + +<p>What, then, are the first beginnings of special legislation; and how +did the succeeding steps follow each other in the Factory and the +Mines Acts respectively? First, it must be pointed out that whereas +the particular kind of legislative weapon (the provision for “Special +Rules”), which was destined to be forged for use against dangerous +trades, was first planned in connection with regulation of mines, +it reached its most elaborate form in connection with regulation of +manufacturing industries, that is, in the earlier and more fully +regulated industries, under the Factory Acts.</p> + +<p>It is now almost incredible that one of the most dangerous of all +groups of industry—mining—should have been free in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> England from any +form of protective legislation until 1842,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> when women and girls +were excluded from underground working, and that it was not until 1855 +that any comparatively useful safeguards of health, life, and limb were +prescribed by law. It is still more difficult to realise that before +1814 it was not customary to hold inquests on deaths of miners killed +by accidents in mines. With the exception of regulations against truck, +there was no provision except such as protected the colliery owner—and +of that kind there were many—against injury to his property by miners.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the landmarks from the present standpoint in factory +regulation had been the Acts of 1802 and 1833. The first, aiming +only at the preservation in cotton mills of the “health and morals” +of apprentices, further laid down that “visitors,” to be appointed +by justices in every county for repression of contraventions, were +empowered to “direct the adoption of such sanitary regulations as +they might on advice think proper.” The Act of 1833,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> regulating +first the labour of children and young persons in textile factories +generally, replaced those “visitors” of the Act of 1802 (who had seldom +been appointed, and still more seldom had acted) by “inspectors” with +similar powers of entry, and of calling to their aid expert advisers, +but with additional powers: to administer oaths and to make such +“rules, regulations, and orders” as were necessary for the execution +of the Act, and to convict offenders and impose penalties under the +Act, as if they were Justices of the Peace. In 1844 an Act applying +similarly only to textile factories repealed these remarkable powers +of Factory Inspectors to make rules, orders, and regulations, and +to act as Justices of the Peace; at the same time it organised the +Inspectorate, with institution of an office in London, on lines +comparable to those of our own time. Certifying surgeons were then +first provided primarily for the purpose of examining young workers +under sixteen years of age as to their fitness for employment, and +granting certificates of age and ordinary strength; but further also, +for re-examination of such workers at the instance of an inspector +where there was reason to believe that injury would be caused by +continued<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span> employment. The Acts were now extended to women, and for +the first time special provisions for health and safety (as distinct +from general provisions for cleanliness of the factory) began to make +their appearance. Workers in wet spinning became entitled to sufficient +means against being wetted and against unnecessary escape of steam into +the room if young persons or children were employed there; but far +more important were the new attempts to reduce accidents by providing +for the safer use of machinery, inquiry into causes of accidents, and +penal compensation to workers for accidents due to machinery remaining +unfenced after notice from the inspector that it was “deemed to be +dangerous.” These provisions embodied a few of the recommendations +made in Special Reports of the Inspectors of Factories, presented to +Parliament in 1841, and the recommendations of the Select Committee of +the House of Commons presented in the same year; with them, however, +was also introduced the principle of Arbitration on the objections +raised by an occupier. The inspector might give notice of dangerous +machinery to be fenced, but for fourteen days the right remained with +the occupier to require the appointment of arbitrators “skilled in the +construction of the kind of machinery” to which the notice referred. +Each party, the occupier and the inspector, was then to nominate his +arbitrator, and the two arbitrators were to proceed to examine the +machinery “alleged to be dangerous” within fourteen days. If they could +not agree, they were together to appoint as umpire a third arbitrator +“possessing a similar knowledge of machinery.” When the ultimate +decision supported the occupier’s objection, the inspector’s notice as +to danger was annulled, and even if an accident thereafter occurred, +penal compensation could not be obtained for an injured worker. Not +until the Act of 1891 did this principle, later so greatly extended in +application to matters of health as well as safety, cease to control +the fencing of dangerous machinery (other than mill-gearing) in +factories, and it still remains for all dangers in mines not expressly +covered by any other provision. As regards this first introduction +into the Factory Acts of penal compensation for preventible injuries, +it appears to have been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses +before the Royal Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and +Manufactures in 1841. This was the “trade charge or insurance payable +by the branch of industry liable to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> accidents,” which has been at +length secured to the worker only at the end of the nineteenth century +by the Compensation Acts.</p> + +<p>In the year in which these considerable steps had been taken in +factory legislation (1844), the Mines Inspector under Lord Ashley’s +Act published his first report. Even two years later women were still +to be found in considerable numbers underground. Progress nevertheless +was being yearly made—through the reports on safety and ventilation of +special scientific commissioners (including Lyell, Faraday, Playfair), +by the action of associations of miners, by spread of knowledge of +the dangers of mining, and not least, by the recurrence of appalling +accidents which ever increasingly shocked the public conscience—came +the first tentative measure for general safety in coal mines—the Act +of 1855<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> In 1854 the Select Committee on Accidents had reported, +adopting among other recommendations a suggestion of the Inspectors for +legislative extension of the practice of several colliery owners, of +framing special safety rules for working in mines. The Act, in addition +to specifying seven general rules binding on owners and agents of +collieries for safety, relating to: (1) adequate ventilation to dilute +and render harmless noxious gases; (2) fencing of disused shafts; (3) +fencing of pumping pits when not at work; (4) secure lining of shafts; +(5) proper means of signalling; (6) indicator and break for machine +raising or lowering persons; (7) proper gauges and valve for steam +boiler, provided for the framing and enforcement of special rules, +to be submitted by owners for approval of the Secretary of State, at +every colliery. These special rules, when established, were to have +the force of law both for owners and miners, but were enforceable only +by penalty in the case of owners, by penalty or imprisonment with or +without hard labour (maximum three months) in the case of miners. This +latter distinction occasioned considerable bitterness at the time, but +the provision which was most generally criticised was the elaborate one +for arbitration in case of objection on the part of the owner to any +alteration or addition to special rules made by the Secretary of State. +Within twenty-seven days the owner had power to nominate three or more +“practical mining engineers or other competent persons of experience +in the district,” not “interested in or employed in the management of +... the colliery,” and the Secretary of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> State might appoint “one or +more” such persons “to determine the matter in difference.” In case +of the owner not exercising this power within the time specified, +arbitration could be organised on lines very similar to those provided +by the Factory Act of 1844, with the difference that in the case of +special rules in mines one of the parties to the arbitration was the +Secretary of State instead of the inspector. In the framing of special +rules following on this Act, it was common for groups of collieries +working under similar conditions to adopt one set of special rules, +but sometimes individual owners drew up their own special rules, and +occasionally attempted to introduce remarkably irrelevant matter, such +as attendance at “Divine Service at least once on the Lord’s Day,” for +the regulation of the conduct of miners.</p> + +<p>Five years later the law relating to mines was extended, and in some +ways strengthened, several disastrous accidents and explosions, +entailing loss in the aggregate of thousands of lives, having in the +meanwhile occurred. At several of the inquests strong evidence was +given of incompetent management and neglect of rules in addition to +disregard of inspectors’ suggestions for improvement of ventilation +in the interests of safety; in one case the coroner’s jury returned +a verdict of manslaughter against the manager, the overman, and the +fireman of the colliery, though this was subsequently followed by +acquittal at the assizes. The Act of 1860 touched on several new +points, besides extending the law to include ironstone mines; wages and +education sections were first introduced, but a demand for certificated +managers of coal mines was not met until 1872. The chief advances in +the direction of increased safety were, by extension of the general +rules to include provision for places of refuge on engine planes, +use of covers overhead in lowering or raising persons in every pit, +fencing of fly-wheels of every engine, maintenance of boreholes to +prevent inundations, by empowering an inspector to propose additional +safeguards for dangers not covered by any rules (but in case of +objection by the owner, the matter was to go to arbitration); by +raising the age of those entrusted with charge of steam engines to +eighteen years.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the course of factory legislation continued to +illustrate the strength of the original motive—rescue of young +workers and women in textile factories from monstrously long hours +and overwork—rather than intelligent and steady assimilation by the +community of the evidence of need of special control<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> of drainage, +ventilation, use of deleterious substances, and other matters affecting +health in a large number of non-textile industries. Such evidence was +first strikingly presented by the Report of the Commission on Mines +and Manufactures, published in 1843, but later in greater detail as +regards the injurious industries of lucifer match and pottery making in +the Report of the Children’s Employment Commission of 1862. A long and +fierce battle had to be waged over the form and degree of limitation of +hours in textile works before the gradual extension of the principle +of regulation could begin and proceed from trade to trade. It was in +the Act of 1864, which added the largest number of these, including +earthenware and lucifer match works, that the fruit of the labours of +expert commissioners began to appear in explicitly sanitary measures, +applicable to all classes of factories under the Acts.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> In this +Act we first find the idea of ventilation applied in order to render +harmless “gases, dust, or other impurities generated in the course of +manufacture that may be injurious to health.” And here we find the +first fleeting attempt to introduce the “special rules” system from the +Mines Acts, on the employers’ initiative, but without the arbitration +clauses. Manufacturers were empowered to draw up special rules binding +on workers, after approval by the Secretary of State, “for compelling +the observance ... of the conditions necessary to ensure the required +degree of cleanliness and ventilation, and to annex to any breach +of such rules a penalty not exceeding one pound.” These powers were +extended to many other trades, including indiarubber works, letterpress +printing works, blast furnaces, and iron mills, by the Act of 1867, +and were soon unfavourably reported on by inspectors, as throwing too +heavy a burden on the workers, “the onus of being a principal under the +Act,” to use Mr Baker’s words. In 1868 he reported that special rules +were in force in most of the iron works in his district, which gave +the employer “power over his workpeople who sub-employ in his works,” +by holding them responsible for various sections of the Acts relating +to employment of young persons; a purpose which we can now readily see +to have been foreign to the general intention of such legislation. +By the Act of 1871 penalties for breach of these rules were made +recoverable by summary proceedings, but the provisions for framing such +rules disappeared when the law was consolidated by the Act of 1878. +The Workshop<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> Regulation Act of 1867, amended in 1870, practically +completed the application of the general law to all workplaces in which +manual labour was exercised for gain, in the making or finishing of +articles or parts of articles for sale. The “Sanitary Act” of 1866 +had provided for cleanliness, ventilation to remove injurious gases +and dust, and for freedom from overcrowding in any workplace not +under the operation of any of these Acts. The Factory Acts of 1864 +and 1867 prohibited the taking of meals in certain workrooms where +dangerous processes are carried on, <i>e.g.</i>, lucifer match making, +earthenware dipping, china scouring, glass-making (mixing, grinding, +cutting, polishing), and the application of power to the extraction of +injurious dusts was furthered by introduction of provision for a “fan +or other mechanical means,” approved from time to time by the Secretary +of State, in case of grinding, glazing, polishing on a wheel, or “any +other process in which dust is generated or inhaled by the workmen to +an injurious extent.” The Act of 1878, in consolidating all previous +Factory and Workshop Acts, re-cast some special safety provisions +(for example, those relating to prohibition of certain workrooms for +meals), in such a form as to empower the Secretary of State to extend +the prohibition to other industries, a power which was exercised in +a considerable number of industries. Employment of young workers was +also prohibited in certain dangerous processes, and power was taken +to extend such prohibition. Nothing was done, however, at the time of +this great measure—which was primarily for better administration of +existing provisions, and was accompanied, on the recommendation of +the Commissioners of 1875, by a thorough reorganisation and extension +of the inspectorate—towards securing more detailed regulation of +methods and conditions of working in dangerous trades, in spite of a +recommendation to that effect by Mr Redgrave. The first decisive step +in that direction was taken in 1883 in the case of one of the most +deadly of lead industries, the manufacture of white lead, whose effects +had been recorded for centuries, and in France had been the object of +special inquiry followed by regulation early in the century under the +direction of the <i>Conseil de Salubrité</i>. It is rather remarkable +to read in a report of the Chief Inspector, 1882, that although +“employment in dangerous occupations has on several occasions been +brought under the notice of the legislature, until recently special +attention has not been drawn to the manufacture of white lead.”<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> +Now, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span> the evils pressed for remedy, and the “Mines Acts as to +general precautions and special rules” were adopted as a “precedent” to +be applied to white lead works.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<p>Before touching further on this new departure and tracing out its +sequel, a brief reference must be made to the course of Mines +legislation since 1860. While political conditions had been +unfavourable to additional legislation for some time after the Act of +that year, the conditions in the coal industry had been developing +steadily, both as regards extent and methods of getting mineral on +the one hand, and as regards association amongst miners on the other, +in such a way as to make a complete law possible when it inevitably +came. Scientific knowledge as to mechanical means of ventilation and +other provisions for safety became at the same time incomparably +wider spread. Greatly increased public discussion brought out far +more clearly the objects and desires both of masters and men, and +the determination of the latter to obtain certificated and competent +management, extension of the system of “general” safety rules, +improvement of the method of forming “special rules,” and increased +inspection, had its effect in the consolidating and amending Act of +1872. The number of general rules was more than doubled, matters +formerly left to the chances of special rules were permanently +transferred to the general law, which now included compulsory use of +safety lamps where needed, regulation of use of explosives in blasting, +securing of roofs and sides, daily examination of the state of the +mine, facilities for inspection by representatives of the miners. +Special rules became more clearly defined as intended for the guidance, +safety, and proper discipline of the miners at work, and they might +only be transmitted for the Secretary of State’s approval after they +had been posted in the mine for two weeks with a notice that objections +to them might be sent by any person employed to the inspector of the +district. Wilful neglect or contravention of any provision of a kind +likely to endanger safety became punishable, in the case of employers +as well as miners, by imprisonment with hard labour. The machinery +of arbitration on any questions of safety under the Acts was made +considerably clearer. In all these matters<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> the great advance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> was +by way of development of previous ideas. The entirely new departure +lay in the six sections relating to daily control, and supervision of +every mine by a manager holding a certificate of competency from the +Secretary of State, after examination by a board of examiners appointed +by the latter, power being retained to the Secretary of State to cause +inquiry, if necessary, later into the competency of the holder of +the certificate, cancellation or suspension of the certificate being +possible in case of proved unfitness. There is little room for surprise +that so great an advance in the law should have given widespread +satisfaction to the miners, and that for a considerable time efforts +of their associations were directed to securing vigorous enforcement +rather than extension of the law. In the same year the question of +health and safety in Metalliferous Mines<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> received its first +treatment in a separate code (which remains in force to the present +time), of similar scope to the Coal Mines Act. A Royal Commission had +been appointed in 1862, and had reported in 1864. The great excess of +mortality and sickness among metalliferous miners, “mainly attributable +to the imperfect ventilation of the mines” and inhalation of gritty +particles, to excessive physical exertion in climbing up and down +ladders of great length, to the great changes of temperature, and +exposure to wet, were brought out in the report and made the subject +of recommendations. It was also shown that accidents were of frequent +occurrence from falls from ladders, falls of the rock or stuff, +carelessness in blasting, defective gear, and sudden irruptions of +foul air and water. The method of regulation adopted for Metalliferous +Mines, by general rules for safety, special rules for conduct and +guidance of miners, and the requirements as to notice of accidents, +coroners’ inquiries, fencing of abandoned mines, being similar to those +for Coal Mines, details are unnecessary for the purpose of the present +essay. In 1881 the Coal Mines Acts were strengthened in regard to the +use of explosives underground, in 1886 the Secretary of State was +empowered to direct a formal investigation of any explosion or accident +and of its causes and circumstances to be held (a provision embodied by +reference in the Factory Acts in 1895). In 1887 the Coal and Ironstone +Mines Acts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> were again consolidated with amendments strengthening the +already existing provisions. By General Rule 4 more stringent provision +for inspection of working parts of mines before commencing and during +shifts, and the distinction between mines in which inflammable gas +had been found within the preceding twelve months and those in which +it had not, disappeared. By Rules 8, 9, 10, 11, construction and use +of safety lamps became much more detailed and stringent than in the +former Rule 7, which they replaced. By Rule 24 the age of competent +male persons in charge of machinery for raising and lowering persons at +the mine was raised to twenty-two. By Rule 34 provision of ambulances +or stretchers with splints and bandages ready for immediate use at the +mine became compulsory. Other main provisions of the Act strengthened +were those relating to distance and height of communications between +the two shafts required in mines; daily personal supervision of the +mine by the certificated manager; notice of opening or abandoning +seams. Arbitration on special rules and other matters was modified so +that while the qualification of being a practical mining engineer was +retained for the two representative arbitrators, the umpire, if any, is +bound to be a county court judge, a police or stipendiary magistrate, a +recorder of a borough, or a registrar of a county court.</p> + +<p>Turning again to the Factory and Workshop Act of 1883, which forms +the first distinct attempt to regulate a dangerous manufacturing +industry, we find, in its unamended form, a remarkable parallel to +the method of mines regulation, not merely in the requirement that +every occupier of a white lead factory shall frame and submit for +approval to the Secretary of State special rules<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> which have been +affixed in the factory with a notice to the workers of their power to +send objections to the Chief Inspector; but also in the prescribing +of six general conditions for obtaining a certificate to carry on the +dangerous industry. These include provision for ventilation of stoves +and stacks, means of maintaining personal cleanliness, and proper room +for meals. The special rules, however, were not in the original statute +liable to any process of arbitration, merely to full consideration +by the Secretary of State, who had power to make modifications after +hearing the occupiers’ objections, if any, to his modifications.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> +This procedure was considerably modified when by the Act of 1891 +provision was made for establishment of special rules in any industry +(not being a domestic industry) certified by the Secretary of State +to be dangerous or injurious to health, or dangerous to life or limb. +Then the initiative in drafting the “special rules or requiring the +adoption of such special measures as appear to the Chief Inspector to +be reasonably practicable, and to meet the necessities of the case” +was transferred from the occupier to the Factory Department, but a +counterbalancing force was provided by addition of the arbitration +clauses wherever the occupier persisted in objections to the proposed +special rules, and the Secretary of State could not see the way to +accepting modifications asked for by the occupier. At the same time the +share of the worker in framing the rules, by his legal right to make +objections before they were established, entirely disappeared. It was +not until the Act of 1895 that this loss was imperfectly compensated, +by a right to representation on the arbitration on conditions +prescribed by the arbitrators which was then secured to workmen +interested, or any class of them. In 1896, in the Mines Acts that +privilege was superadded to the other. The general tenor of the Factory +Act of 1891, following as it did on the important work of the House of +Lords’ Committee on the Sweating System, and the Berlin International +Conference, was one of development of sanitary organisation, +particularly with regard to workshops, and of closer regulation of +dangerous and injurious trades. It had been preceded in 1889 by an Act +with special reference (like the Act of 1883) to a single class of +factories, in this case the cotton cloth factories, in which excessive +heat and humidity produced by artificial means seriously affected +the health and comfort of operatives. The Act not only limited the +temperature of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, but +also provided for tests and records of the same, and fixed a standard +minimum volume of fresh air, 600 cubic feet, to be admitted in every +hour for every person employed. Power was retained for the Secretary +of State to modify by order the maximum limit of humidity of the +atmosphere at any given temperature, and a short Act of two sections in +1897 extended this power to other measures for the protection of health +recommended by a Departmental Committee appointed to inquire into the +working of the Act of 1889. Without doubt, the most important measures +adopted under this Act in 1898 were those tending to purify the air of +workrooms by prescribing a CO<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> standard of ventilation (“during working +hours in no part of the Cotton Cloth Factory shall the proportion of +carbonic acid in the air be greater than nine volumes of carbonic acid +to every ten thousand volumes of air”), and by prohibiting use of +impure water for production of artificial humidity. One other point of +historical interest in connection with the Act of 1889 must be touched +on. It contained a general provision enabling an inspector, where he +considered that dust was inhaled by the workers to an injurious extent, +to serve a notice on the occupier of the factory to adopt mechanical +or other means for its removal, but subjecting the notice in case +of objection by the occupier to the same process of arbitration as +the notice of fencing for dangerous machinery provided in the Act of +1844. In both cases the power of the employer to send the notice to +arbitration was repealed by the Act of 1891, and, consequently, the +ordinary procedure for the inspector to enforce such notices was by +establishment of the evidence in support of his requirement in the +ordinary courts. For the first time some provision was made in 1891 for +means of escape in case of fire in factories and workshops. Certifying +surgeons were now called upon to report annually as to the persons +inspected and the results of inspection.</p> + +<p>On the Act of 1891 followed a period of greatly increased +administrative activity with the new powers to initiate detailed +regulation for promotion of special hygiene in factory and workshop +life. No fewer than sixteen trades, including the majority of those +referred to in the reports of Royal Commissioners and special medical +experts of the earlier and middle parts of the century, were certified, +under sections, by the Secretary of State, as dangerous or injurious +within four years of the passing of the Act.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The Act of 1895, +extending greatly in several directions the sanitary control of +industrial life, followed on this period of increased activity, after +the Royal Commission on Labour had reported on the results of its wide +survey of industrial conditions, after two important Departmental +Committees had reported on lead and phosphorus industries, and after +two successive annual reports had embodied reports and recommendations +from the women inspectors who in 1893 were first added by the Home +Office to the staff of factory inspectors. In the year in which this +Act came into force, medical knowledge was established<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> as a guiding +factor in the permanent administration of the Department. Probably no +more important step towards control of use of poisonous substances +in manufacture has been taken than that contained in the provision +for reports to the Chief Inspector from every medical practitioner +attending in certain cases of poisoning contracted in any factory or +workshop. Complementary to this is an extension of the province of +certifying surgeons; it included now not only examination of workers +under sixteen, but also the duty of inquiry and report in certain +cases of industrial disease and accident, and, under special rules, +where required, periodical re-examination of workers. In the general +provisions of the Act appear for the first time the questions of +reasonable temperature, requirement of lavatories where poisonous +substances are used, formerly only touched by special rules; it +became possible by order of a court of summary jurisdiction to secure +prohibition of use of dangerous structures or a dangerous machine +until the necessary steps had been taken to remove the danger by the +occupier of the factory or workshop. The field of factory regulation +was extended by the inclusion of certain conditions of health and +safety in “laundries,” and of general and special conditions of safety +in every dock, wharf, quay, and warehouse. In the special rules it +became possible for the Secretary of State, subject to the award +of arbitrators if objection were raised, to introduce provisions +prohibiting or limiting employment of any classes of persons in the +industries scheduled as dangerous, a power which has been exercised in +the case of white lead works (prohibition of women’s employment in the +most dangerous processes), vulcanising of indiarubber by bisulphide of +carbon (limitation of hours of adults), and lead smelting works (limit +of spells in cleaning flues).</p> + +<p>A few words must be said about the dangerous industry of quarrying +in open quarries (as distinct from underground quarries under the +Metalliferous Mines Act). These were nominally under the Factory Acts +by section 93 of 1878, but it was not until special rules could be +introduced under the Act of 1891 that any practical steps could be +taken at all to enforce the particular measures of safety applicable +to the conditions. These proved inadequate, and in 1894, on the +recommendations of a Special Committee appointed in 1893 to inquire +into the whole matter, a special Quarries Act was passed which, while +retaining those provisions of the Factory Acts that were suitable, such +as fencing and regulation of employment, applied also those provisions +of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> Metalliferous Mines Acts which from the nature of the industry +rendered them better adapted for control of its peculiar dangers; at +the same time the administration passed to the Mines Department, and +in a few years it was reported that special rules for safety had been +established in over 2000 quarries with satisfactory results.</p> + +<p>Much remains to be said of the methods of regulation of injurious and +dangerous industries since 1896;<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> of the steps taken by inquiries +and action of the permanent staff, with its increasingly expert +character; of inquiries by Departmental Committees and by specially +appointed advisers on scientific and technical aspects of processes; +of endeavours, successful and unsuccessful, to frame and carry through +special rules without resort to arbitration to meet the risks to +the life and health of whole classes of workers; of the results of +arbitration in two of the most injurious industries, manufacture of +earthenware and china, and of lucifer matches, where white or yellow +phosphorus is used. All this, however, belongs so much to current +history and controversy that its true meaning and tendency can best +be brought out later, and perhaps by a more detached observer. At +the very time when the proofs of this sketch leave my hands, an +important Bill is passing to report stage in the House of Commons +from the Grand Committee on Trade, where opinion has been shown to be +practically unanimous in regard to the substitution of a better method +of establishing special rules for the precarious and clumsy method of +arbitration; power has been taken to prohibit, limit, or control use +of any material or process in industry; and, where fruitful extension +has been made of the principle of legislating, for details in matters +of health by means of departmental orders. Enough has, I trust, been +said to illustrate the rise and growth in the last hundred years of the +still new ideas of the claim of the industrial worker in a civilised +country to reasonable, practical measures to secure his immunity from +needless suffering, of the claim of the community that the profits of +manufacture shall not be bought at the expense of the life and health +of citizens, in whose individual well-being the true wealth of the +community lies.</p> + +<p class="smcap p-min r2">Adelaide M. Anderson.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER III<br> +<span class="subhed">REGULATION OF INJURIOUS OR DANGEROUS OCCUPATIONS IN FACTORIES +AND WORKSHOPS IN SOME OF THE CHIEF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.</span></h2></div> + +<p>In the historical sketch of the development in England of factory and +workshop hygiene, I have endeavoured to indicate the groundwork on +which special regulations for dangers arising out of the nature or +the organisation of particular processes rest. Comprehension of the +meaning of regulations for industrial health in other countries would +be greatly increased for the student of this branch of comparative +legislation and administration, if there were knowledge of the +historical development of these institutions not only in one but in all +the countries touched on. But then, equally so would there be gain in +acquiring practical administrative experience in all those countries. +Although both kinds of knowledge are not equally impracticable of +attainment by one individual, the limits of space and time in such a +chapter as this prohibit any attempt to enter on either field so far as +details are concerned, and it is only possible to take the absolutely +necessary step of entering a warning against over-estimation of the +value of comparative surveys of systems of factory law and schemes of +administration which are not followed by further research. With a view +to such further research I trust that the slight survey attempted here +may be of value.</p> + +<p>While fully appreciating the need of supplementing study of the law +relating to factory hygiene in any country by reference to the system +of local government and the law relating to public health, I am +compelled by the limits already touched on to concentrate attention on +the one branch of law—factory legislation proper.</p> + +<p>England stands in a special position, with its own qualities and own +defects. Having entered long before most other European countries on +the path of control of employment in factories owing to the earlier +need of such regulation, and having admittedly also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> led the way in +the task of building up a complete and precise sanitary code for +regulation of public health, England has shown in the later stages +of the part of the work which touches industry too little interest +in the later efforts, on different lines of other countries. This +slowness is traceable in part to the same causes as those which have +retarded in England the general study of comparative legislation and +administration, of which foremost, no doubt, stands the necessity of +developing on national lines our own safeguards, yet it seems probable +that the country which in a singular degree stimulated European +progress in Public Health by the justly famous “Report on the Sanitary +Condition of the Labouring Population,” 1838, and its immediate +fruits, has latterly retarded its own progress in industrial hygiene +by too close an adherence to its own methods. However this may be, +it is clear that whereas Continental thinkers have already begun to +utter warnings as to the limits of the value of comparative study of +labour legislation, we in England are still waiting for sufficient +material and accurate information on which to base any comparisons at +all. Even for those who have time to do little more than mould their +opinions by reading the daily and weekly papers, still more for those +who desire to devote more time to these subjects, it would be well if +we had continually accessible, in convenient form, current documents +which would enable us to estimate more exactly what we have to learn +from other countries, and what are the ideas applied there which are +capable of application here under different circumstances of social +and administrative tradition and legislative groundwork.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> And to +understand any one branch of factory legislation, even the sanitary, +engineering, and medical side of prevention of industrial diseases and +accidents, knowledge must be acquired of other sides, the economic one +of limitation of hours and times of work, and protection of workers in +making their contract, no less than the social side of propriety of +arrangements in the workplace, and direct or indirect protection of +women, home life, and children’s training. The time has come, however, +when there is a new readiness for the interchange of ideas between this +country and others on the question of general provision for sanitation +and special regulation for dangerous, unhealthy, and injurious +occupations. As I have said elsewhere, “with the rise and development +of new methods and even entire industries in new places, old and new +dangers and diseases are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> rapidly becoming clearer. The international +interest in applying science at an equal pace to the development and to +the sanitation of injurious industries is at once more equal and more +urgent than in the indirectly hygienic questions of hours and holidays +for industrial workers. At the same time the difficulties of regulation +are far less prominently economic, legal or social, and more especially +questions for treatment by expert scientific advisers.”</p> + +<p>In order to estimate with an approach to accuracy the value of special +measures adopted in other countries, it is necessary to obtain some +idea of the ordinary scope of factory legislation, and of the degree +in which the laws are made operative by methods of administration, and +by sanctions attached to contraventions. The regulations for ordinary +health and safety, which “at first blush” bear considerable resemblance +to each other, are found on closer examination to have widely differing +effectiveness, owing perhaps in one case to lack of precise definition +or to special limitation of the class of workplaces covered; in another +to the powers conferred both on local and on central authorities to +sanction exceptions either to the Industrial Code, or orders made +under it; in another to local variations in economic organisation of +industries affected. For example, on the first point, more cases of +disputed application of the code, which contains no <i>definition</i> +of the term “factory,” have in Germany come before the courts than +in England, and in Germany the special restrictions as regards hours +and health for women and young workers apply only in “factories.” The +various decisions, on particular instances, of the Supreme Court lay +stress now on one feature, now on another, of what is understood as a +factory, such as numbers employed, size of the building, subdivision +of labour, active personal share of the employer in the processes. +Application of mechanical power to manufacture by machinery generally +brings a workplace under the scope of the factory regulations, but +power is retained for the Federal Council to exempt even from this +rule any special undertaking. The Austrian Industrial Code does define +the term “factory,” but very much on the lines threshed out by the +decisions of the German <i>Reichsgericht</i>. In both these countries +there is much less control of conditions of labour in workshops than +in factories, although Austria makes rather less distinction than +Germany between the two. Whereas England distinguishes these two +classes of workplace only by relegating general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> sanitary control of +the workshops to the local authority, not by differing requirements, +France makes none of the distinction between factory and workshop which +in one form or another is found in other European countries. In both +these countries the general protection of the law covers alike factory +and workshop employé; in Germany the Code has not gone further than +to empower the Federal Council to extend the factory regulations, if +cause should be found, to workshops. “Domestic workshops” are entirely +exempt from regulation of labour in Germany and Austria. England +stands alone in defining limits in domestic workshops for the labour +of children and young persons, but hitherto has not taken the power of +applying special sanitary regulation,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> which both France and Belgium +possess, for protection against dangerous or unhealthy occupations +carried on in them. From even so brief a review of the classes of +workplaces covered, it easily appears how in the past in some countries +the domestic workshops in dangerous industries, <i>e.g.</i>, lucifer +match making (unknown except in factories in England), have furnished a +disproportionate number of victims of industrial disease.</p> + +<p>While the first question necessarily is, what are the workplaces +covered by the regulations? the second and equally important is, what +is the system of inspection? In most countries, as in England, the +institution of a special inspectorate has followed, not accompanied, +the enactment of measures of protection, even though in some countries +the idea of sanitary regulation has preceded limitation of hours for +women and minors. In Belgium, Holland, and Sweden the institution dates +from 1888–9; in Switzerland, and some of the German States, beginning +with Prussia, it dates from 1878; in Austria, from about 1887; France, +from 1874; Denmark, 1873. About 1892 to 1893 both France and Belgium +undertook the reorganisation of their inspectorate, which corresponds +to the thorough reconstruction that in England followed the Royal +Commission on Factory Legislation in 1876.</p> + +<p>In several of these countries, all of which had originally to some +extent looked to the far earlier example and experience of England in +enforcement of the law, the important step was taken, considerably +in advance of England, of bringing into the factory service medical, +engineering, and chemical expert<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> knowledge. No doubt in England, the +delay in this matter is directly traceable to the character stamped +on the institution by the educational, moral, and social origin of +our Factory Acts, and to the very recent beginnings of development +(1883–1891) of a special basis of factory hygiene. The delay in England +was probably further increased by the introduction (referred to in my +historical sketch) of tentative investigations of industrial diseases +under the ægis of an entirely separate Government Department, concerned +with local government and administration of the law relating to public +health. This delay as compared with Germany was, however, more than +compensated, when the Act of 1891 had introduced special means of +control of injurious trades, by the centralised, organised character +of the English inspectorate. Although the German Federal Council can +make regulations for injurious industries throughout the Empire which +over-ride special state or local rules, still each state has hitherto +appointed its own inspectors, and when appointed these inspectors in +order to enforce the rules must ordinarily report infringements to the +local police authority, who may or may not always take action. Thus +in Germany uniformity of administration in such matters outside the +boundary of any state, so far as it depends on centralised supervision, +can hardly be looked for. Much more closely knit is the Austrian +inspectorate, with its chief inspector, who has some expert advisers +on his staff, and power himself to take part in final decisions on +cases brought up, on appeal, to the industrial authority of third and +final instance at the Ministry of the Interior. Only in Austria, so far +as I know, is it obligatory in fixing a penalty for a contravention +to take into account both the amount of advantage the offender might +expect from the infringement and the amount of harm that the worker +may suffer. The latter consideration would be weightiest in questions +of health and safety, and since the fines have to be paid into local +provident funds for workers, would correspond to the penal compensation +in case of injury through neglect to fence machinery possible under +English law. Medical and chemical reports are less prominent in the +Austrian inspectorate than the German, and it has been distinctly laid +down that the inspectors are not so much engineering and sanitary +experts as a special institution for the protection of labour; since +1876 the supervision of dangerous and unhealthy industries has been +one of the functions of the provincial authorities for public health. +Although in France the inspectorate has been organised on lines, so far +as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> territorial divisions are concerned, similar to those in England, +<i>i.e.</i>, with district and superintending inspectors, it is without +a chief inspector, and works under the general supervision of a +commission (<i>Commission supérieure du Travail dans l’Industrie</i>). +This system has been declared by one of the oldest superintending or +divisional inspectors to work most unsatisfactorily in the matter +of control of dangerous industries where the great need is that the +circumstances not of a locality, but the country as a whole, should be +considered by a chief having under his directions both expert officials +and an organised staff. The special expert character of the central +Belgian inspectorate is determined by the fact that the earliest +inspectors were appointed (1889) under the law relating to sanitation +and safety in dangerous or unhealthy industries, and not under the +law limiting hours of labour for women and children. The latter were +first appointed in 1891, and the whole service organised as one in +1895. Of the Scandinavian countries Denmark has had the most definitely +constituted inspectorate, but here the central authority has hitherto +been divided (as it was before 1876 in England) between two principal +inspectors. This is now altered. An Act which came into force on 1st +January 1902, not only amends and strengthens the law relating to +factories, but also centralises the control by providing for a single +chief or director with two expert secretaries, one trained in economic +questions, the other in technical questions. Of the remaining European +countries Hungary possesses an organised and centralised inspectorate +of the English type. In Russia control of the methods of inspectors +is by a system of Provincial Boards under the supreme supervision of +the Chief Factory and Mining Board, presided over by the Minister of +Finance, who places some of the principal inspectors on the Board.</p> + +<p>I may turn from the field of application of the laws and methods +of organising inspection to the methods of securing <i>general</i> +sanitary conditions and security in workplaces. England stands alone in +both delegating certain sanitary powers to local authorities, and at +the same time retaining power to the Government inspectors to intervene +in these matters in case of default of the local authority, and yet +we have nothing quite comparable to the powers of health authorities +in Belgium, Germany, and Austria, to lay down in certificates of +authorisation for large numbers of workplaces, conditions aimed at +securing the health of the workers as well as the public health. In +some cases, particularly in Belgium, this power extends<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> beyond the +trades here classed as noxious or offensive, and includes amongst +many trades recognised as injurious to workers even laundries, one +of the last of the great manual industries to be regulated in this +country. Quite early in the nineteenth century we find laundries +appearing in French lists of noxious or offensive trades under two +classes, (<i>a</i>) as requiring authorisation for establishment near +dwellings, (<i>b</i>) as requiring internal supervision on account of +decomposing soap and water. In Germany and Austria, lists of trades +subject to preliminary authorisation are shorter than in Belgium, but +there is nothing in other countries equivalent to the absolute duty +placed upon German local authorities, apart from all initiative of +numerous Government inspectors, to visit every industrial establishment +where protected persons are employed at least once in six months, in +order to apply the provisions of the industrial code in all matters +relating to safety, sanitation, and propriety of arrangements. Further, +we have in England nothing comparable to the powers of the separate +State Authorities in Germany to call in the advice of the Accident +Assurance Associations under the Accident Insurance Laws in order to +restrict hours of labour in dangerous occupations, or to carry into +effect the general requirements of the Code relating to safety and +health. In general, in comparing special rules against dangers in +industry as between England and Germany, due weight must be given +to the consideration that for many years in Germany there has been +insurance for workers both against accident and sickness; also it must +be remembered that the Civil Code lays a positive obligation on every +master to secure for his servants arrangements for health, safety, +and morality in their employment such as are also required in the +Industrial Code. We are, moreover, in Austria and Germany reviewing +countries in which traces of the old guild organisation of industry +survive both in law and fact, and the industrial codes, while defining +the duties of employers to workers, expressly require obedience and +fidelity from the worker to his employer. Discipline thus is a far +easier matter in a German than an English workplace, a factor of very +considerable importance in regulation of dangerous trades.</p> + +<p>It would not be difficult to demonstrate in tabular form that England +and Germany stand easily first among the European countries in respect +of detailed attempts to regulate unhealthy industries by special +Government rules, but it must suffice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span> presently to set forth the +trades so regulated in these two, while touching on some of the salient +features of special rules in other countries. First, however, it must +be indicated how the various countries stand to each other in such +general matters as ventilation and lighting of workrooms, temperature, +provision of meal rooms, cloak rooms, lavatories, drinking water, +arrangements for sanitary accommodation, reporting and prevention of +accidents.</p> + +<p>As regards <i>ventilation</i>, until the Bill of 1901 to amend the +Factory Acts was introduced by the Government, England stood almost +alone in requiring removal of air from workrooms <i>only</i> so far +as injurious dust, gases, and vapours arose from the manufacturing +process. The laws of Germany, Austria, and Belgium recognised much +earlier the need of ample ventilation in a workroom, quite apart from +the special question of removal of poisonous or injurious products of +manufacture, although for those too sufficient provision had been made. +In Belgium, general ventilation of workrooms was one of the special +conditions of authorisation of unhealthy trades under a decree of 1886, +but in 1894 it was particularly laid down for all workshops that means +of securing renewal of the air equal to at least 30 cubic metres per +hour per worker should be provided, and that where unhealthy processes +were carried on, the removal should be equal to 60 cubic metres. “The +inlets for fresh air and outlets for vitiated air shall be so placed +as to cause no inconvenience to workers.” On this followed the further +provisions for exhaust ventilation for steam, gases, and dust. A French +decree of the same year is rather less exacting in the matter of +general ventilation, but more precise as to the measures necessary for +removing or preventing injurious dusts, gases, and steam. In Austria +and Germany, in addition to the general proviso that workrooms are to +be maintained in such a condition as to secure the health of workers, +both general ventilation and special provision for removing dust and +fumes are required. These requirements are of much earlier date than +the French and German decrees referred to. General ventilation and +removal of dust from workrooms are required in Hungary by the law of +1893, and will be in Denmark by the law to come into force in 1902.</p> + +<p>As regards <i>lighting</i> of workrooms, a condition of health almost +as important as ventilation, several of the more important industrial +countries have provisions, although England has hitherto left the +matter untouched. Germany by section 128, and Austria by section 74, +of their respective industrial codes recognise sufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> light as +an essential condition of health in factories. In France provision is +made for proper lighting of workrooms and also of passages, staircases, +and other accessory parts of factories and workshops. In Belgium and +Denmark lighting has hitherto been required as a measure of safety, +not of health. On the other hand, the important sanitary question of +<i>temperature</i> is more carefully provided for by the general law +now in England than in the codes of other countries.</p> + +<p>Suitable dining-rooms, which can only be required in dangerous +industries under special rules in England, may by the German code be +ordered wherever it seems desirable by the local authority, who may +also require that they shall be heated in cold weather. In France, +although it is laid down that all workrooms must be cleared, and +the air entirely renewed during meal hours, the law is silent as +regards provision of meal rooms; consequently, as in certain cases in +England, inspectors report difficulties in enforcing the evacuation +of workrooms during meal hours. It is frankly admitted in the latest +annual report that the law has hitherto only been strictly applied +where the nature of the manufacturing process makes the restriction +essential for protection of the health of the worker: mostly in trades +classed in this country as injurious. The Belgian law does not in this +matter go quite so far as the French, the restriction applying only to +rooms in which poisonous substances are handled. Suitable lavatories, +cloakrooms, and drinking water are required in all factories and +workshops in France by the decree of 1894, a requirement going far +beyond those of other countries, for example Germany, where provision +of lavatories and cloakrooms depend on their being required by the +nature of the work, and where a detailed order must be made to that +effect by the police authority for specified classes of workplaces. As +in the case of meals in workrooms, it appears from the official reports +that in France the provision of washing appliances is enforced only +in chemical works, workplaces where poisonous substances are handled, +rag-sorting shops, tobacco factories, and a few other classes of +workplace, where the nature of the work makes it important that such +protection should be given.</p> + +<p>The French and the Belgian laws are as yet the only ones which attempt +to define precisely a standard, independent of local conditions, +for sufficient and suitable sanitary conveniences. The German code +makes a general requirement as to sufficiency and suitability, having +regard to number and sex of workers, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span> leaves details to police +regulation. In Belgium the number must be one convenience at least for +every twenty-five workers, in France for every fifty workers, and in +neither country may there be direct communication with workrooms. It +is clearly stated in inspectors’ reports that in France the conditions +in sanitary respects are far from being fully enforced, although the +general limit of one in fifty is not infringed. These two countries +again have general provision for the very important matters of drainage +of floors and frequent cleansing of workrooms, and prompt removal from +them of organic matter. “The floor shall be cleansed, thoroughly, at +least once a day before or after the period of employment,” in the +French decree of 1893, is a provision which appears to be well enforced +and is applicable to all industries. The inspectors are specially +instructed to draw attention to the hygienic value of a cleansing which +takes place before the entry of workers. The sanitary value of such a +practice, whether in dusty, poisonous, or ordinary workshops, cannot +possibly be overrated.</p> + +<p>Glancing for a moment at general regulations to protect women and young +workers, as distinct from adult workers, two points only can be touched +on, protection of young workers against overstrain, and women from +accidents and from too early employment after childbirth. The brevity +of this article makes it impossible to compare in detail the limits +of age for child labour in the different countries, but some special +safeguards under the French law cannot be passed by: (<i>a</i>) careful +detailed regulation of the weights that may be pushed, lifted, carried +by girls and boys under eighteen years of age; (<i>b</i>) prohibition +of employment of girls under sixteen at machines driven by treadles; +(<i>c</i>) prohibition of employment of young workers in a large number +of processes scheduled as unhealthy; (<i>d</i>) cleaning of machinery +in motion is prohibited not only for young workers but also for +women. The German Industrial Code especially insists on the peculiar +responsibility of employers to take every possible step to protect +young workers from risks of all kinds.</p> + +<p>The limitations as regards employment of women after childbirth may be +briefly summarised as follows:—</p> + +<p><i>Belgium.</i>—“Women must not be employed in industry within four +weeks after childbirth” (sect. 5 of Law of 5th December 1889).</p> + +<p><i>Switzerland.</i>—“A total absence from employment in factories of +women during eight weeks before and after childirth must be observed, +and on their return to work proof must be tendered of an absence +since birth of the child of at least six weeks” (section<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> 15 of the +Federal Law of 23rd March 1877). An order of the Federal Council, 1897, +indicates a further abstinence from employment before confinement +(the length of time unspecified) in certain dangerous occupations, +<i>e.g.</i>, in processes in which fumes of white phosphorus are +produced; or in manipulation of lead or lead products; or where mercury +or sulphuric acid are used; in dry cleaning works; in indiarubber +works; any processes involving lifting or carrying heavy weights, or +risk of violent shocks. As the limit of the period is undefined, and +means of enforcing the prohibition unspecified, it is difficult to see +how the regulation does more than outline an excellent theoretical +protection.</p> + +<p><i>Holland.</i>—“Women must not be employed in factories or workshops +within four weeks after childbirth” (Law of 5th May 1889).</p> + +<p><i>Denmark.</i>—“Women must not be employed within four weeks of +childbirth except on production of a medical certificate showing that +the mother’s employment will not be injurious to herself or the child” +(Law of 1st July 1901).</p> + +<p><i>Germany.</i>—The Industrial Code contains the same absolute +prohibition of employment during four weeks as the Dutch law, but +extends it to six weeks if a medical certificate cannot be produced +approving employment at the end of four weeks.</p> + +<p><i>Austria.</i>—The Industrial Code lays down the same prohibition as +the Dutch law.</p> + +<p><i>Spain</i>, by a law of 13th March 1900, prohibits employment of +women within three weeks of childbirth, but lays a further obligation +on employers to allow one hour at least in the ordinary period of +employment (for which there must be no deduction from wages) to nursing +mothers to nurse their infants. This hour may be divided into two +separate absences of half-an-hour, and may be fixed at pleasure by the +mother, whose only obligation is to notify the times she chooses to the +overlooker.</p> + +<p>Turning to <i>accidents</i> and their prevention in factory and +workshop employment, it is probable that only in Germany and Austria, +through the operation of the long-established insurance laws, is there +anything approaching the completeness of information with regard to +occurrence and causes of accidents secured in England by the duty of +reporting so precisely defined in the Factory Acts. On the other hand, +through the operation of the same insurance laws, the fencing and other +precautions against occurrence of accidents, necessarily tend to be +far completer than in any country where this motive has only recently +arisen (as in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> France and England). It is indeed expressly stated in +the last annual report of the French inspectors, that the statistics +of accidents are very far from indicating the real state of affairs, +and that it cannot be known until the law of employers’ liability for +accidents, of 1898, has come fully into operation. Possibly to the +admittedly ineffectual control by Government in France of the causes +and prevention of accidents is due the formation and steady growth +of Employers’ Associations with the object of reducing industrial +accidents by careful fencing and organisation of work. Details as +to methods adopted in the various countries for guarding machinery +and reducing risk of accidents would be too elaborate and technical +for this article. So far as the various laws, distinguished from +administrative regulation, are concerned, none contain so complete +a series of provisions as the English Factory Acts, though Belgian +and French decrees contain some excellent safeguards. In Germany, +as can be readily verified by reference to any volume of Government +inspectors’ reports, much of the detailed work of enforcing use of +safeguards is done by the Trade Accident Associations, often acting in +co-operation with the State inspectors. Not only are rules relating +to safeguards—for example, the elaborate ones in aerated water +works—drawn up by the Trade Associations, but they are enforceable +by penalty both on employers and employed after they have been duly +authorised by the Imperial Insurance Office. Employers neglecting the +rules may be condemned to pay double their ordinary contribution to the +Trade Association, and the fines imposed on workers are payable to the +Sick Insurance Fund.</p> + +<p>Turning now to governmental regulation of specially unhealthy or +injurious occupations by more closely applied and more easily amended +rules than are possible in a general code, I must revert again to +the observation made above, that only in England and Germany can a +clear comparison be made of “special rules”; this applies both to the +method of formulating such rules, and to the number and variety of +trades so regulated. Other countries have in their general factory +law powers to make somewhat similar regulation, but have relied in a +greater degree on control of injurious occupations by local authorities +concerned with the law relating to public health, or have endeavoured, +especially in France, to lay down in a single administrative decree +general requirements as to exhaust ventilation for dust and fumes, +washing appliances, meal-rooms, etc., which would be likely to cover +the special risks in many industries.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> In Belgium, where special rules +for safety of workers in dangerous industries (such as manufacture +of lucifer matches by means of white or yellow phosphorus) have been +drawn up, both in pursuance of the general law regulating factories +(1889) and of the laws relating to noxious industries, under control +of local authorities, there is an increasing tendency for sanitary +regulation of workplaces to pass into the control of the central +factory inspectors.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> There we find in the decree of 1894, relating +to general precautions in unhealthy industries, very similar provisions +to those in the French decree of the same year; but the Belgian decree +is declared in its preamble to be a codification of the conditions +liable to be attached to certificates of authorisation by the local +authorities, whereas in the French decree we clearly find the first +step in an attempt to apply the general law of 1893, relating to +hygiene in factories and workshops. An exceedingly interesting +commentary on the incomplete and unsatisfactory effect of this latter +method is found in the summary to the annual report of the French +inspectors for 1899. I gave a translation of the terms of the decree +in my annual report for 1894 to the Chief Inspector of Factories, and +need not repeat them here. The difficulties since complained of in +France are twofold—(<i>a</i>) judicial, as to interpretation in the +courts of some of the exceedingly vague terms employed, (<i>b</i>) +technical, owing to the inappropriateness in some of the industries +of rules which are admirable in others. There is a growing demand, +likely to be met after completion of current investigations in various +unhealthy industries, for more detailed and precise rules, applicable +to special processes or to classes or allied groups of industries. +Such special rules were clearly originally intended to be the outcome +of the law on hygiene, 1893, but in only one case, the manufacture +of emerald or Schweinfurth green, have special rules binding both on +employers and workers been applied (decree of 29th June 1895) to the +peculiar risks of the processes. “Does that mean,” says the official +report of 1900, “that it is only in this branch of manufacture that +the need for special protection of workers against the injurious +effects of the processes has appeared? No. The Government have had +under consideration a certain number of draft rules for application +to particular industries ... for example, industries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span> in which lead +and lead compounds, mercury, arsenic, or arsenious acid, and varnishes +with an alcoholic base are used.” In the meantime the result of their +considerations has been that draft rules for electric accumulator +works, vulcanisation of india rubber, laundries (against danger from +infectious diseases), horn and woollen factories, handling of foreign +hides and skins, were referred to the Committee of Public Hygiene, for +an opinion to guide the Minister of Commerce and Industry before he +finally issues the decrees, embodying the rules. It appeared, however, +that the statutory powers of this Committee do not go beyond the +framing of recommendations applicable to industries in general, and the +Minister of Commerce and Industry appointed, therefore, in December +1900 a special Dangerous Trades Committee, composed of nine members, +under the Presidency of M. le Docteur Napias, Member of the <i>Académie +de Médecine</i>. The aim in selecting the members of the Committee +was to secure the technical and scientific knowledge necessary for +preparation of special rules suitable to particular classes of +industry, processes, or modes of working. In addition to expert +members such as M. Bouquet, M. Fontaine, and Professors of Chemistry, +Economics, and Representatives of Employers and Employed, four other +members may be appointed for the special technical considerations +belonging to each trade or class of work to be regulated.</p> + +<p>As regards poisonous processes, in all but the deadliest, where the +frequency and severity of illness (as, <i>e.g.</i>, amongst white +lead workers) long ago led to inquiry followed by special local +precautions, inquiry must be greatly handicapped in France, as it has +been in Germany, by the lack of complete statistics of industrial +poisoning such as have been secured in England. In no other country +has the step been taken of laying both on the occupier of a factory or +workshop and on every medical practitioner the duty of reporting to +a chief inspector of factories, or the central authority, individual +cases of industrial poisoning. The lack of information would possibly +have been earlier felt in all its seriousness in both France and +Germany had there been the centralised responsibility that followed +the appointment of a single chief inspector in England. Although in +France the attention of the Minister of Commerce and Industry has been +repeatedly drawn to the effects of lead poisoning in potteries, and +special precautions are recognised as necessary, it is difficult, as Dr +Oliver pointed out in his report of 1899 to the Home Secretary,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> “to +estimate the amount of lead poisoning that occurs in the potteries in +France,” owing to the incompleteness of statistics. In Germany, where +considerable information can be obtained in some districts, through +the records kept under the Sickness Insurance Laws, the incompleteness +and uncertain character of the information supplied is the subject of +frequent report by the factory inspectors. In the Potsdam district, +where there are innumerable glazed-tile stove factories, great service +was done by the action of a sick fund doctor, who reported that in the +dipping department nearly every worker suffered, more or less, from +lead poisoning. Energetic precautionary measures were taken by the +local authority, and great improvement in health of workers was soon +reported by the doctor. In other districts, on the other hand, comments +are frequent from the inspectors on the lack of effective assistance +from sick funds and their doctors in tracing the origin of industrial +diseases.</p> + +<p>In spite of this defectiveness in statistics of industrial disease, +it is with the German Imperial Regulations (Orders of the Federal +Council made in pursuance of section 120 of the Industrial Code) +that the English method of regulating dangerous trades can be best +compared.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Some years before it was possible in England under +section 8 of the Factory Act of 1891 to schedule as dangerous or +injurious any process, machinery, or particular description of manual +labour in a factory or workshop, the Federal Council of the German +Empire, or the central authority in any one of the Federal States, was +empowered to draw up special rules to guard against risks of injury +to life, health or limbs of workers, and to limit hours of adults as +well as of minors. Such rules, bearing date 1888 and 1889, are still +in force. This power was strengthened by an amendment in 1891 to the +Industrial Code, applying to protected persons, which empowered the +Federal Council to forbid entirely the employment of women or young +workers, or to make it dependent on very stringent conditions in +occupations dangerous to health or morality. At no time has there been +under the German Code a power reserved to employers, similar to that +in force in the English law until 1901, of compelling such objections +as they can sustain to proposed rules to be settled by arbitration. +It has been repeatedly remarked by competent observers that special +hygiene in German factories, particularly chemical factories, has far +surpassed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> the standards obtaining until recently in England. This is +not surprising when the greater facilities in Germany for giving effect +by administrative measures to expert recommendations are remembered; +but the readiness of workers to submit to regulations, to which I have +referred already, is certainly a factor of importance. It is remarkable +that, in spite of the difference, more or less stringent special rules +have been established in twenty-four classes of unhealthy industries +in England, as compared with fifteen similar sets of rules in Germany; +it must be observed that in some of the latter more than one class of +works is included, as, for example, in the special rules of January +1899, which cover both horsehair spinneries and brushmaking works.</p> + +<p>It is of interest to compare as follows the classes of industries +included, and the date of the regulations:—</p> + +<p class="center sm p1">SPECIAL RULES FOR INJURIOUS OCCUPATIONS.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">England.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="chn"></td> + <td class="ctr1">Industry or Process.</td> + <td class="ctr1">Date of<br>Schedule.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">1</td> + <td class="cht">Bichromate works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">2</td> + <td class="cht">Bottling of aerated water,</td> + <td class="ctr">1896</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">3</td> + <td class="cht">Brass and alloy mixing and casting,</td> + <td class="ctr">1896</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">4</td> + <td class="cht">Bricks, glazing of, by lead,</td> + <td class="ctr">1898</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">5</td> + <td class="cht">Chemical works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">6</td> + <td class="cht">Earthenware and china, 1892 &</td> + <td class="ctr">1898</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">7</td> + <td class="cht">Enamelling of iron plates,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">8</td> + <td class="cht">Electric accumulator works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1894</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">9</td> + <td class="cht">Explosive works in which dinitrobenzole is used,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">10</td> + <td class="cht">Flax spinning and weaving,</td> + <td class="ctr">1894</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">11</td> + <td class="cht">Lead (red and orange) works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1894</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">12</td> + <td class="cht">Lead (white) works, 1883 &</td> + <td class="ctr">1893</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">13</td> + <td class="cht">Lead (yellow) works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">14</td> + <td class="cht">Lead smelting works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1894</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">15</td> + <td class="cht">Lead, yellow chromate of,</td> + <td class="ctr">1895</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">16</td> + <td class="cht">Lucifer match factories,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">17</td> + <td class="cht">Paint and colour works, and extraction of arsenic,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">18</td> + <td class="cht">Skins and hides, sorting,</td> + <td class="ctr">1898</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">19</td> + <td class="cht">Tinning and enamelling of iron hollow ware,</td> + <td class="ctr">1894</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">20</td> + <td class="cht">Tinning and enamelling of metal ware,</td> + <td class="ctr">1894</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">21</td> + <td class="cht">Transfers (lithographic) for decoration of china, etc.,</td> + <td class="ctr">1898</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">22</td> + <td class="cht">Vulcanising of indiarubber,</td> + <td class="ctr">1896</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">23</td> + <td class="cht">Wool sorting,</td> + <td class="ctr">1896</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">24</td> + <td class="cht">Wool combing,</td> + <td class="ctr">1899</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p class="smcap center">Germany.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="chn"></td> + <td class="ctr1">Industry or Process.</td> + <td class="ctr1">Date of<br>Schedule.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">1</td> + <td class="cht">Basic slag works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1899</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">2</td> + <td class="cht">Bichromate works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1897</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">3</td> + <td class="cht">Brick works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">4</td> + <td class="cht">Brushmaking works and horsehair spinning,</td> + <td class="ctr">1899</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">5</td> + <td class="cht">Cigar factories,</td> + <td class="ctr">1893</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">6</td> + <td class="cht">Chicory works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">7</td> + <td class="cht">Electric accumulator works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1898</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">8</td> + <td class="cht">Glassworks,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">9</td> + <td class="cht">Hackling and preparing rooms in textile factories,</td> + <td class="ctr">1893</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">10</td> + <td class="cht">Lead, colour and acetate of lead works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1893</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">11</td> + <td class="cht">Letterpress printing works,</td> + <td class="ctr">1897</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">12</td> + <td class="cht">Lucifer match works, 1884 &</td> + <td class="ctr">1893</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">13</td> + <td class="cht">Sugar refineries,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">14</td> + <td class="cht">Vulcanising of indiarubber,</td> + <td class="ctr">1888</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chn">15</td> + <td class="cht">Wire-drawing mills,</td> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p> + +<p>It must not, however, be forgotten that some dangers for which no +apparent provision is made in the list of German rules are to some +extent covered by other means—for example, mercurial poisoning among +thermometer makers by rules of the Accident Insurance Associations, or +earthenware works by regulations of local authorities or by action of +separate State authorities.</p> + +<p>On first comparison of the two sets of special rules in detail, it +would appear that whereas white lead works, earthenware works, and +indiarubber works, are far more stringently regulated in England +than in Germany, other industries, for example, electric accumulator +works, letterpress printing works, are subject to closer control +than any here. In the German rules for electric accumulator works +we find prohibition of employment of women and girls, limitation of +hours for men, detailed conditions as to construction and cleansing +of premises and floors, in addition to the more common regulations +for baths, lavatories, medical examination, sick registers; whereas +in the English rules there are only provisions for baths, lavatories, +respirators, and gloves, no restrictions on employment beyond the +ordinary factory limits, and no medical examination. It must be noted +that the enforcement of these rules does not rest solely in the hands +of the Government inspector, and that before action is possible, +the matter must be referred to the local police authority, whose +powers in Germany, however, are considerable. The special rules for +letterpress printing works are so interesting and typical that I append +a translation herewith for comparison with similar English regulations. +It seems clear that some of the rules are directed as much against +propagation of tubercular disease as against risks of lead poisoning.</p> + +<p>In closing this brief survey, reference must not be omitted to the +experiment that has been made in three European countries—Switzerland, +Holland, and Belgium—of limiting in a single instance (in the +interests of the health of workers) the use of a poisonous material in +industry. I refer to the use of white phosphorus in the manufacture of +lucifer matches. In Switzerland and Holland the use of the material in +this industry has been prohibited; in Belgium its use has been limited +to a maximum of 8 per cent. in the paste.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Adelaide M. Anderson.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span></p> + + +<p class="smcap center p1">Appendix to Chapter III.</p> + +<p>Order of the Federal Council of July 31, 1897, regulating Letterpress +Printing Works and Type Foundries in pursuance of section 120<i>e</i> +of the Industrial Code.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I. In rooms in which persons are employed in setting up type +or manufacture of type or stereotype plates the following +provisions apply:</p> + +<p>1. The floor of workrooms must not be sunk deeper than half +a metre (1.64 feet) below the ground. Exceptions may only be +granted by the higher administrative authority where hygienic +conditions are secured by a dry area and ample means of lighting +and ventilating the rooms.</p> + +<p>Attics may only be used as workrooms, if the roof is underdone +with lath and plaster.</p> + +<p>2. In workrooms in which the manufacture of type or stereotype +plates is carried on the number of persons must not exceed such +as would allow at least 15 cubic metres of air space (529.31 +cubic feet) to each. In the rooms in which persons are employed +only in other processes there must be at least 12 cubic metres +of air space (423.450 cubic feet) to each person.</p> + +<p>In cases of exceptional temporary pressure the higher +administrative authority may, on the application of the +employer, permit a larger number in the workrooms for at the +most 30 days in the year, but not more than will allow 10 cubic +metres of air space (352.87 cubic feet) for each person.</p> + +<p>3. The rooms must be at least 2.90 metres (8.528 feet) in height +where a minimum 15 cubic metres are allowed for each person, in +other cases at least 3 metres (9.84 feet in height).</p> + +<p>The rooms must be provided with windows which are sufficient +in number and size to let in ample light for every part of the +work. The windows must be so constructed that they will open and +admit of complete renewal of air in workrooms.</p> + +<p>Workrooms with sloping roof must have an average height equal to +the measurements given in the first paragraph of this section.</p> + +<p>4. The rooms must be laid with a close fitting impervious +floor which can be cleared of dust by moist methods. Wooden +floors must be smoothly planed, and boards fitted to prevent +penetration of moisture.</p> + +<p>All walls and ceilings must, if they are not of a smooth +washable surface or painted in oil, be limewashed once at least +a year. If the walls and ceilings are of a smooth washable +surface or painted in oil, they must be washed at least once a +year, and the oil paint must, if varnished, be removed once in +ten years, and if not varnished, once in five years.</p> + +<p>The compositors’ shelves and stands for type boxes must be +either closely ranged round the room on the floor so that no +dust can collect underneath, or be fitted with long legs so that +the floor can be easily cleaned of dust underneath.</p> + +<p>5. The workrooms must be cleared and thoroughly aired once at +least a day, and during the working hours means must be taken to +secure constant ventilation.</p> + +<p>6. The melting vessel for type or stereotype metal must be +covered with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> hood provided with exhaust ventilator or chimney +with sufficient draught to draw the fumes to the outer air.</p> + +<p>Typefounding and melting may only be carried on in rooms +separate from other processes.</p> + +<p>7. The rooms and fittings, particularly the walls, cornices, +and stands for type, must be thoroughly cleansed twice a year +at least. The floors must be washed or rubbed over with a damp +cloth so as to remove dust, once a day at least.</p> + +<p>8. The type boxes must be cleansed before they are put in use, +and again as often as necessary, but not less than twice at +least in the year.</p> + +<p>The boxes may only be dusted out with a bellows in the open air, +and this work may not be done by young persons.</p> + +<p>9. In every workroom spittoons filled with water, and one at +least for every five persons, must be provided. Workers are +forbidden to spit upon the floor.</p> + +<p>10. Sufficient washing appliances with soap, and at least one +towel a week for each worker, must be provided as near as +possible to the work for compositors, cutters, and polishers.</p> + +<p>One wash-hand basin must be provided for every five workers, +with an ample supply of water laid on.</p> + +<p>The employer must make strict provision for the use of the +washing appliances by workers before every meal, and before +leaving the works.</p> + +<p>11. Clothes put off during working hours must either be kept +outside the workroom, or hung up in cupboards, with closely +fitting doors or curtains, which are so shut or drawn as to +prevent penetration of dust.</p> + +<p>12. Artificial means of lighting which tend to raise the +temperature of the rooms must be so arranged or provided with +counteracting measures, that the heat of the workrooms shall not +be unduly raised.</p> + +<p>13. The employer must draw up rules binding on the workers, +which will ensure the full observance of the provisions in +sections 8, 9, 10, and 11.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>II. A notice must be affixed, and a copy sent to the Local +Police Authority, showing: (<i>a</i>) the length, height, and +breadth of the rooms; (<i>b</i>) the air space in cubic measure; +(<i>c</i>) the number of workers permitted in each room.</p> + +<p>A copy of rules 1 to 13 must be affixed where it can be easily +read by all persons affected.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>III. Provides for the method of permitting the exceptions named +above in sections 2 and 3, and makes it a condition of reduction +in cubic air space for each person employed as typefounder or +compositor, that there shall be adequate mechanical ventilation +for regulating temperature and carrying off products of +combustion from workrooms.</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV<br> +<span class="subhed">PRINCIPLES OF PROSPECTIVE LEGISLATION FOR DANGEROUS TRADES</span></h2></div> + +<p class="center smaller p1">“Quot manus atteruntur ut unus niteat articulus.”—<span class="smcap">Pliny.</span></p> + +<p class="r2 smaller p-min"><i>Natural History</i>, Book II., chap. lxiii.</p> + + +<p>He who attempts to deal with the future of industrial legislation is +confronted at the outset by two obstacles. The one is inherent in +most endeavours which relate to prospective law-making. The barque +which sets forth into the sea of futurity should, if its voyage is to +terminate in the safe anchorage of a fair haven, steer clear of those +currents which only too easily carry it upon the shoals and quicksands +of controversial politics. Once launched, it is scarcely possible to +avoid stranding upon the sterile shore of party. And even a successful +cruise must bring it perilously near the Scylla and Charybdis of +government and opposition. The effort of this chapter will be to steer +as even a course as possible between these opposing forces.</p> + +<p>The second difficulty is more of a particular than general nature: +particular to the subject under consideration. A study of what has gone +before, especially of the historical chapter preceding this, must force +the conclusion that what has up to now been achieved seems to have been +more the result of accident, or of some extraneous agitating forces, +than of any carefully considered or preconceived plan. How piecemeal +the work has been, and how intricate a fabric! Upon what lines can so +patchy a structure be developed? Upon what principle applicable to +the whole code can our industrial legislation, already a congeries of +partially connected details, proceed?</p> + +<p>Students of the British Constitution will be tempted to draw an analogy +from their favourite example; and indeed there is much at first sight +in common between the histories of the Factory Acts and the British +Constitution. The structure of each is compounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> of small accretions, +contributed by what seemed the necessity of the moment. But in the one +case, in spite of the seemingly haphazard nature of the work, judged by +the manner in which it has been performed, the British Constitution is +firmly established upon a solid foundation, the independent blocks have +fitted well into their time-assigned places, and have become welded +together into a sound, cohesive whole in the process Mr Walter Bagehot +has admirably called “the cake of custom.” How far has this been the +case with the Factory Acts? Certain warring elements have gradually +become adjusted; incongruous items have in certain cases been made to +harmonise. The best example of this is to be found in the Consolidating +Act of 1878, by which many inconsistencies were corrected. But even +this admirable piece of work left the door open to the recreation of +the incongruities and anomalies. In many cases the loopholes have been +but too freely utilised, and exemptions and exceptions have been widely +extended. These have largely tended to weaken the law and to create +confusion.</p> + +<p>This want of homogeneity in the base work suggests problems of +procedure difficult of solution. In view of the danger that any weighty +superstructure would threaten foundations thus composed, it might be +urged that our first care should be to remodel the foundations that the +base may be secure. Such a course would involve the inevitable risk of +disturbing what is already firmly rooted, and the true answer is that +only a few reforms in the foundation work are required. These reforms, +successfully executed, would produce a basis upon which the most +elaborate fabric might rest secure.</p> + +<p>A glance at the general nature of the work, which has been ably +described, reveals the fundamental doctrine that protection is +necessary, protection of the wage earner against cruelty or harsh +treatment, against fraud, against accident, against poisoning, even +against himself. There is a small and rapidly diminishing school of +thinkers, who hold that any protective law is wrong unless it be +applied equally to men and women. But as men and women are not equally +subject to the same risks and dangers, it is idle to argue that they +can be treated in the same way. Those who are sceptical of the value +of protective law would do well to remember that it was during the +heyday of the Manchester School, when freedom of action, and of trade, +and non-interference generally were at the zenith of their popularity, +that some of the earliest Factory Acts were passed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> into law. If the +necessity for the regulation of the labour of women and children was +recognised at a time when such restrictions were eminently repugnant +to the public mind, that necessity must have been great indeed. Is +it suggested by the opponents of protective measures, that although +such a necessity did exist in the past it has been dealt with and no +longer exists? The facts go to show that the need continues, and even +increases, with the volume of trade.</p> + +<p>Statistics make it abundantly clear that there is much sickness and +mortality engendered by industrial occupations, and that a large +proportion of this is preventable. The method of prevention is the +subject which has to be considered, and before doing so, it is +desirable for a moment to refer to the historical chapter preceding +this. There it is shown that there is a multitude of injunctions laid +upon manufacturers in the form of rules known as “special rules.” The +imposition of these rules is limited to such trades as are certified +by the Secretary of State to be dangerous or injurious. The rules +are all imposed with one end in view, the safety of the worker, and +though they deal with an infinity of matters, the cleanliness of the +operative is one of the objects most commonly designed. To effect this +many forms of words have been drafted and are at present in use. In +these varying forms the duty of providing and maintaining the means for +cleanliness is laid upon the manufacturer, and the duty of availing +himself of those means is laid upon the operative. Not only does this +injunction vary in form in different trades, but different codes +embracing different standards are found in separate factories in the +same trade. It will be asked how did this come about? How could a sane +legislature or an administration outside Bedlam permit one law for the +good employer and another for the less sensitive in conscience, though +more sensitive in pocket? How could such a system creep into any code +of law? As a matter of fact, it is the creation of that hysterical +fear of compulsion, that nervous concern for the liberty of the +subject, which has carried its mischievous influence into many spheres +of activity. The plea that the employers’ grievances should be heard +has gradually developed into an argument that each employer should +be allowed to object, and objecting, he has eventually, by a process +called “arbitration,” been enabled to procure a law to his own liking.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span></p> + +<p>It is scarcely necessary to demonstrate the great inconvenience +and injustice which arise from such a system. Two men carry on the +same trade; two standards of efficiency are demanded by the law. +One manufacturer is required to set up and keep in good repair an +apparatus, which is as nearly perfect as human ingenuity can devise. +The other, perhaps sceptical of the advantages of such an apparatus, or +more often for the sole reason that he objects to the cost and trouble +of erecting it, is permitted to provide something less efficient. This +system, happily described as “the creation of industrial Alsatians,” is +open to five obvious objections: (1) As between the two employers it is +a substantial injustice; (2) it is not less unjust to the operative, +compelled in his need to accept worse conditions than his comrade; (3) +it puts a premium upon resistance, in that the objecting employer is +rewarded; (4) it imperils the dignity of the law; and lastly, (5) it +embarrasses those who administer it.</p> + +<p>The situation then demands redress. How can this best be effected? +Two reforms, one already indicated, suggest themselves as most ripe +for decision. The first is the consolidation of the special rules and +the direct enactment of such of them as are common to all or many of +the dangerous trades. Of this class consideration has already been +given to washing appliances. Such other matters as the provision of +a dining-room, the prohibition of taking meals in dusty workplaces, +the provision and maintenance of mechanical apparatus for withdrawing +fumes, gases, or dust, the prohibition of certain classes of persons +from working in certain places and processes, might each and all be +embodied in the general Acts with specific reference to particular +industries. And indeed they do find a place in the general Acts, +but owing sometimes to capriciousness of reference and sometimes to +vagueness in form, their inclusion has failed to effect that simplicity +and uniformity in the law which is so much to be desired. By such a +consolidation the multiplication of codes of special rules would be +avoided, and even in some cases their elimination would be secured. But +not only so: an immense gain would result from the uniformity which +could be achieved. If the sporadic and capricious incidence of these +obligations could be abolished, the gain would be indeed enormous.</p> + +<p>Not less simple is the reform which is called for in the employer’s +power of objection and the system of arbitration. The working of +the existing system has long been condemned. Nobody<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> in the House +of Commons is found to defend it; and yet, like other friendless +doctrines, such as that of “common employment” in the law of Employers’ +Liability, it has lived into the twentieth century. Last year an +attempt was made to alter the law. Although this attempt would have +been a step in advance of the present situation, it was so slight a +step that it was not greeted with enthusiasm by those for whose benefit +it was intended. The proposal was to substitute a system of reference +for that of arbitration. Some advantages were claimed for this proposal +in that uniformity would be secured. But the uniformity would have been +at the expense of a thorough and stringent code of rules, which might +have been acceptable to some of the employers. The referee’s court +would have inevitably toned the rules down to suit the objectors. Evil +as is the existing system, no alteration would be a gain which, while +it purchased uniformity at such a cost and amended the procedure to so +trifling an extent, postponed a radical and effective change to the +Greek Kalends.</p> + +<p>Full inquiry into the alleged dangers of a trade and full hearing of +the manufacturers’ case are carefully designed by the present system. +This design might well be satisfied, these effects be yet retained, +and without revolutionary change additional advantages be secured; +the advantages of a decision of the Secretary of State, unjeopardised +either by arbitration or by reference, given after consultation not +only with employers but with workpeople, and subject only to the +control of Parliament. Legal provision should be made for full inquiry +(such as it is now the practice to make by departmental committees) +into the special conditions of the trade alleged to be dangerous; +if, on the conclusion of the inquiry, regulation by Special Rules +be recommended, and the Secretary of State certify the trade to be +dangerous, he should issue to the manufacturers, and by public notice +in the factories or workshops to the workpeople, a copy of the rules he +proposes to make. The manufacturers and workpeople should be entitled +to make objection in writing to the rules, or any of them, within one +month of the receipt of such notice. Then the Secretary of State, in +consultation with the Chief Inspector of Factories and the recommenders +of the rules, should consider any objections so made, and the rules +as drawn up after such consideration should be laid on the Table of +both Houses for forty days, and have the force of law if during that +period no objection to them be raised. It might often be desirable +that the rules should be considered individually by Parliament, and +provision for such consideration should be made.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> Under this scheme the +clumsiness and delay now inevitable would be averted, and with proper +safeguards for his interest being retained the manufacturers’ power of +rejection would be transferred to Parliament.</p> + +<p>Other reforms in the regulation of dangerous trades demand mention. It +is true of most poisonous substances in use in dangerous trades that +adults whose constitution is fairly established can resist their danger +more easily than can young persons. This is especially true of lead, +whose insidious character has often been dwelt upon by scientists and +statesmen; the inevitableness of its action is now recognised, and +wherever risk of poisoning by this agency is established, there are +to be found regulations and restrictions of a more or less effective +nature. But it is also true of other substances, the absorption of +which is injurious, and in all cases where much dust is generated, as +in the manufacture of flax or hemp, or in trades where steam is given +off in considerable volume, the labour of persons of immature years +should be prohibited. This would be one reform.</p> + +<p>Again, there are other trades in which the degree of danger is +peculiarly influenced by the continuity of the exposure to it. Such, +for example, is the use of inflammable paints, where continuous +employment during the normal period of five hours inflicts injury +appreciably in excess of that caused by exposure of the same +duration but broken in its continuity. Shortened spells of work were +recommended by the Dangerous Trades Committee in the indiarubber trade, +where carbon bisulphide is used, and in the painting of ships with +inflammable paints. The special rules applying to indiarubber works +embodied this recommendation, and there should be no great difficulty +in extending the principle to other trades where it is obvious that the +danger of employment is increased by long periods of exposure to these +deleterious influences. Such trades as bronzing in lithographic works, +in wallpaper, and in paper-staining works would greatly benefit by such +a provision.</p> + +<p>Another reform was recommended by the Dangerous Trades Committee, which +made its final report in 1899. All officials who have had occasion and +opportunity to investigate the subject are convinced that many deaths +occur which are primarily due to some industrial occupation, but are +never so classified or reported. Diseases of occupation are so numerous +and varied in character, and liable to disclose themselves in such +diverse symptoms, that the initial cause of illness is often lost sight +of, or still oftener never discovered. It consequently arises that +the statistics of illness and death from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> industrial causes are most +imperfect. Any improvement in the manner of obtaining such statistics +and eventually of striking at the <i>causa causans</i> would be +valuable. All cases of death where the person has worked in a certified +dangerous trade, or in a trade to which any of the consolidated special +rules are applicable, within a prescribed period before death, should +be reported to the coroner, who would, if he thought fit, conduct an +inquiry into the circumstances of the case.</p> + +<p>No chapter dealing with the future government of dangerous trades +would be complete without an appeal for drastic and thorough measures. +Loose wording in the rules, or, still worse, small omissions, may +involve mischief out of all proportion to their apparent significance +or to the value of the compromise effected. Numerous instances of the +injury caused by the admission of small concessions to protesting +manufacturers could be given. Possibly none is more striking than that +of the bottling of aerated waters. Conducted under proper conditions +there is no reason why the operatives should be subject to any but +unimportant and minor casualties, but conducted as it often is, grave +accidents occur with a persistent and alarming regularity. Many cases +of persons losing their eyesight, and even cases of death, from +injuries received by the bursting of bottles could be quoted. The rules +as originally outlined by the Dangerous Trades Committee contained +provisions for the protection of all persons engaged in the labelling +of bottles, but in the rules as finally issued to and accepted by +the manufacturers, persons engaged in labelling bottles standing in +cases were exempted from the safeguards. From this simple omission, +many accidents and much suffering have resulted. One is tempted to +ask how, in the first place, this apparently small precaution was +omitted, and when its importance was discovered, why the defect was +not remedied. The answer to the first question is probably that the +manufacturers demurred as to its necessity, upon which for the sake +of peace and economy of time and temper their view was adopted. This +is but a surmise. The explanation of the subsequent inaction requires +no surmise. After the danger had been established, Sir Matthew White +Ridley, in answer to a question upon the occurrence of one of these +accidents, said in the House of Commons:—“I have not the power at +pleasure to make or alter special rules. They must be settled either +by arrangement with the employers or by arbitration, and in the +present case I cannot regard the occurrence of a single accident,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span> +much as I regret it, as sufficient reason for re-opening a question +which has just been settled, after long and difficult negotiations.” +From this answer the importance of thoroughness in translating the +recommendations of committees into special rules becomes obvious.</p> + +<p>Nor is it sufficient to hope that by persuasion or agreement with +employers rules suggested by the Factory Department or the Secretary of +State will be effectually carried out. In some cases they may be, in +others they will not. The same unfortunate results proceed from such +a course as are to be traced to the existing system of arbitration. +It has been shown how that system is unjust both to employers and +workpeople, how it encourages the careless and irresponsible employer, +how it derogates from the dignity of the law and embarrasses its +administrators. This is true of persuasion.</p> + +<p>As in human nature there is every gradation of sensitiveness of +conscience, so must there be in the factory, if reliance be placed +on the forces of moral suasion alone, a corresponding gradation of +conditions from excellence and thoroughness to indifference and +neglect. Uniformity in these matters is an urgent necessity; and +uniformity is incompatible with the substitution of persuasion for +compulsory powers.</p> + +<p>Let thoroughness, then, be the watchword of those whose prerogative it +is to frame these protective measures. Let the loopholes for escape +from the provisions of the rules be closed up; let the channels for +contracting out of just obligations be carefully dammed; and do not +let small pretexts of irksomeness, or the employer’s scepticism, or +the manager’s contempt, or the workpeople’s want of care, weigh in the +balance for a moment against the health, the well-being, and the lives +of masses of working men and women.</p> + +<p>For a strong Government and a humane House of Commons, the few reforms +indicated would be but a light undertaking. They would put no undue +strain upon the executive or the legislature; and they would, directly +and indirectly, prevent a large amount of suffering, now patiently +borne by a lowly and an inarticulate portion of the community. If +simplicity, uniformity, and thoroughness be established in the +government of the trades which carry grave risk to those engaged in +them, the national conscience will be relieved of an oppressive burden, +sometimes perhaps but dimly realised, but always real, and assuredly +its removal will enhance the security and confidence with which this +generation entrusts to its heirs the great destinies of our race.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The year 1901 has witnessed the efforts of the +Government and the House of Commons to amend and consolidate the +law relating to Factories and Workshops. In this effort, so far as +dangerous trades are concerned, certain changes have been effected. +There is a prohibition of eating meals in factories and workshops where +lead, arsenic, or other poisonous substance is so used as to cause +dust or fumes. Power, too, is granted to the Secretary of State to +prohibit, limit, or control the use of any material or process; but +although he had not this power before, he could practically exercise +it under section 28 of the Act of 1895. Electrical generating works, +and those railways which connect factories with each other and the +main lines, are now brought within the law for certain purposes; and +dangerous trades conducted in domestic factories or workshops can now +be regulated.</p> + +<p>But the most important alteration is that which transfers the +responsibility for the special rules from an arbitrator or umpire +to the Secretary of State. Under the new law the Secretary of State +may frame regulations, and if they are not accepted, modified, or +withdrawn, he must (unless the objection to them is withdrawn, or +is, in his opinion, frivolous) order a public inquiry to be held by +“a competent person.” The Chief Inspector, and any person affected +by the draft rules, may appear at the inquiry either in person or by +counsel, solicitor, or agent. This inquiry will take the place of the +present arbitration, and the person holding the inquiry has, unlike the +arbitrator or umpire, no power of adjudication. He will report to the +Secretary of State, who is not bound to adopt his recommendations. The +responsibility for the rules will rest with the Secretary of State, +subject only to the control of Parliament (the rules will lie on the +table for forty days), and in this lies the main advance effected. This +advance may, however, prove more theoretical than practical, for it +is unlikely that the Secretary of State will reject the advice of the +person whom he has specially selected to advise him. The Government +insisted on retaining the competent person, in spite of the contention +of the reformers that reliance should be placed in the Committee of +Inquiry, in whose minds all the circumstances and evidence taken would +still be fresh, and in the Secretary of State’s permanent official +advisers.</p> + +<p>After full credit has been given for the transference of the final +responsibility, the question arises: Are the two main defects of the +present system remedied? Can uniformity be said to have been achieved, +when we find that the new regulations “may provide for the exemption +of any specified class of factories or workshops either<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> absolutely +or subject to conditions”? And is it satisfactory that we should +have still with us, in the form of the “competent person,” in one of +the most important advisory positions in the State, “the man in the +street,” “the irresponsible outsider” so properly described by Mr +Ritchie in his introductory speech on 28th March 1901?</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">H. J. Tennant.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER V<br> +<span class="subhed">INFANT MORTALITY AND FACTORY LABOUR</span></h2></div> + +<h3>I</h3> + +<p>“What is not good for the bee-hive cannot be good for the bee.” A +better appreciation of this truth and there had been less cause for +this chapter. But in so grave a degree is a demonstrated danger to the +race tolerated in the pursuit of an imagined profit to the individual, +that it cannot be impertinent to recall the general truth and to point +its specific application.</p> + +<p>That there is danger to the race in the engagement in factory life +of the mothers of young children, should be beyond challenge: always +danger to the child, often danger to the mother; and sacrifice of +infant life, failure of infant promise follow, have followed, and must +follow, as surely as leaves fall to frost. Statistics abound, but +for the most part they have received their lot of Bluebook burial; +and the purpose of this article is, in the main, to rescue from the +obscurity of the past its array of facts and its store of warnings. +Upon the statistical evidence of the present there is less need to +dwell. Dr Reid, in his admirable chapter, has dealt fully with the +striking results of an inquiry conducted by him as Medical Officer to +the Staffordshire County Council; and an inquiry instituted throughout +England, upon similar lines, by the Parliamentary Bills Committee of +the British Medical Association, supported, Dr Reid tells us, “in a +remarkable way the conclusions drawn from the Staffordshire figures.” +These are the Staffordshire figures:—</p> + + +<p class="center p1"><i>Deaths of Children under 1 year in Three Classes of Artisan Towns in +Staffordshire per 1000 births.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr smcap">Class I.</td> + <td class="ctr smcap">Class II.</td> + <td class="ctr smcap">Class III.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr">Many Women<br>engaged in work.</td> + <td class="ctr">Fewer Women<br>engaged in work.</td> + <td class="ctr">Practically no Women<br>engaged in work.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">10 years (1881–90)</td> + <td class="ctr">195</td> + <td class="ctr">166</td> + <td class="ctr">152</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"> 9 years (1891–99)</td> + <td class="ctr">210</td> + <td class="ctr">177</td> + <td class="ctr">168<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p> + +<p>At all moments they are figures to command concern, at this moment +they compel alarm. On the one hand is the infant death*-rate steadily +rising, on the other the birth-rate steadily falling;<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and to the +rising death-rate maternal neglect gives impetus, while the State +inattentively takes note. But though statistical speech is eloquent of +death, it says nothing of withering injury to life; nothing of injury +to the mother who, herself affected in health, produces less fitting +children; nothing of those children who escape death to endure life, +crippled in body and in mind, drugged and starved in infancy, neglected +in childhood. What dare we ask of their womanhood and their manhood? +What service of citizenship have we any right to demand, any reason to +expect? We must seek our answer from within our reformatories and our +asylums, from our hospitals, our workhouses, and our prisons. For the +feeble in body and dwarfed in mind there is no room in the struggle for +industrial supremacy. Their drifting place is among criminals, in the +lowest ranks of industry, or in the homes of charity.</p> + +<p>Every deadly industry has its octogenarian; and so, too, under this +system there are those who escape, or escape at least its greatest +evils of physical and mental disability. For the girl-children full +escape seems impossible. Victims in their ignorance of home, they +become vehicles to perpetuate the system; without knowledge of the +sacred, the helpful, even the elementary elements of home life, they +in their turn, in their own married life, seek mill employment as +did their mothers before them. It is, in fact, the only occupation +they know. Baking, washing, sewing, are dead arts; and in these +children of mothers, “to a grievous extent denaturalised towards their +offspring,”<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> the deepest forces of nature seem asleep. So from +generation to generation the service of the mother to her child is +entrusted to a stranger, whose introduction as substitute housewife, +substitute mother is not without its cost. The net gain is sometimes +in money a few shillings: in influence and training there is always +loss; even in money sometimes loss. In evidence given to the Royal +Labour Commission, a Yorkshire employer quotes a case “in which the +woman drew 10s. a-week in wages, and paid 12s. a-week for the care of +her home.”<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The case may indeed be exceptional, but an abundance of +other cases may be found where the actual gain in money is but slight. +The companion to this picture of the mother in the factory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> and the +paid stranger in the home, is that of the mother drudge who, neglecting +her duty to her children, placing it perhaps in pathetically inadequate +child hands, yet tries to fulfil it to her home. She may have worked +in the factory from six in the morning to six or eight in the evening; +but worker in the factory, she is worker too in the home. For her the +day is never done, and through her youth of unending labour she is +hastening to old age. There are advocates of such freedom to labour who +can be convinced of hardship to the mother, who yet claim benefit for +the child. Better far, they urge, the mother’s laboured addition to the +family fund than scanty meals; home care and influence are necessary +enough, but without bread what are they?</p> + +<p>To this argument the answer comes from homes bread-starved during the +cotton famine in Lancashire, during the great depression of trade in +Coventry, and during the siege of Paris. “During the Lancashire cotton +famine, while privation increased the actual death-rate, the infant +death-rate was greatly lessened owing to mothers being compelled to +suckle their infants. During the siege of Paris also, while the general +mortality was doubled, the infant mortality fell 40 per cent. from +similar causes.”<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> And, writing of the effect in Coventry of the +prostration of trade in 1861, the Registrar-General says:—“The care of +the mothers of Coventry has, it would seem, counteracted some of the +effects of privation, so that neglect of their homes by mothers at work +in factories is apparently more fatal than starvation.”</p> + +<p>In the comparative figures given by the Registrar-General for the ten +years (1859–68), the reduced infant mortality during the three cotton +famine years (1862–64) is strikingly shown.</p> + + +<p class="center p1"><i>Deaths of Infants under 1 year of age per 1000 Births in Lancashire, +and in the whole of England and Wales, 1859–68.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr2">Year.</td> + <td class="ctr2">Lancashire.</td> + <td class="ctr2">England and Wales.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1859</td> + <td class="ctr">176</td> + <td class="ctr">153</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1860</td> + <td class="ctr">169</td> + <td class="ctr">148</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1861</td> + <td class="ctr">184</td> + <td class="ctr">153</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1862</td> + <td class="ctr">168</td> + <td class="ctr">142</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1863</td> + <td class="ctr">171</td> + <td class="ctr">149</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1864</td> + <td class="ctr">174</td> + <td class="ctr">153</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1865</td> + <td class="ctr">189</td> + <td class="ctr">160</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1866</td> + <td class="ctr">200</td> + <td class="ctr">160</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1867</td> + <td class="ctr">185</td> + <td class="ctr">153</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1868</td> + <td class="ctr">187</td> + <td class="ctr">155</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span></p> + +<p>The Registrar of Little Bolton held that the decrease of deaths was +mainly due to a greater amount of domestic superintendence, and other +registrars united in similar conclusions. The slight rise in 1863 and +1864 was apparently due to the prevalence of smallpox, scarlatina, +typhus, and measles, caused by overcrowding in workhouses and bad +sanitary conditions.</p> + +<p>Comparison between privation and maternal care on the one hand, and +good cheer and maternal neglect on the other, to the advantage of the +meaner diet and the greater care must, as the Registrar-General admits, +be within limits. Under the stress of absolute starvation, no mother +could provide nourishment for her child. But the obviousness of the +limitation cannot diminish the significance of facts, and evidence, +official evidence of convincing weight and appealing eloquence is, if +we look for it, at our hand. It is easy to realise in its light, why +the mother, even though poorly fed herself, is a better mother than the +mother who earns a certain keep-money for her child.</p> + +<p>Sir John Simon,<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> writing in 1897 of the inquiries conducted between +1859 and 1872 by the Medical Department of the Privy Council, of which +he was Medical Officer, says of one:—“In addition to showing on a +very large scale those sanitary wrongs of certain sorts of industry, +we had also shown as an industrial influence of very wide operation, +that in proportion as adult women were taking part in factory labour or +in agriculture, the mortality of their infants rapidly increased; that +in various registration districts, which had such employment in them, +the district death-rate of infants under one year of age had been from +two and a quarter to three times as high as in our standard districts; +and that in some of the districts more than a few of the infants were +dying of ill-treatment which was almost murderous.” Considering the +subject in greater detail, in his fourth report to the Privy Council, +he recalls the report<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> made to the General Board of Health in 1858, +in which he drew attention to the fact that in different districts +of England there were enormous differences of infantile mortality: +“Such differences, that children in some districts die at perhaps four +or five times the rate of children in other districts.” These wide +differences of death-rate he attributed “to the varying prevalence +of two local causes:—first, to differences of degree in <i>common +sanitary defects of residence</i>; ... and secondly, to <i>occupational +differences</i> among the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span> inhabitants; there being certain large towns +where women are greatly engaged in branches of industry away from home; +where, consequently, the home is ill kept; where the children are +little looked after; and where infants who should be at the breast are +improperly fed or starved, or have their cries of hunger and distress +quieted by those various fatal opiates which are in such request at the +centres of our manufacturing industry.” An inquiry was conducted by Dr +Greenhow into the second of these influences, and commenting upon his +report, Sir John Simon says: “It gives a very sad picture of suffering +and demoralisation, caused by the present circumstances of female +employment in factories. It corroborates very exactly the opinion above +expressed as to the probable causes of the high mortality of infants +in places of female factory occupation. And it shows that, while +the infants perish under the neglect and mismanagement which their +mothers’ occupation implies, the mothers become to a grievous extent +denaturalised towards their offspring.”</p> + +<p>The following quotations, Sir John Simon continues, tell the main +facts of the case:—“Factory women soon return to labour after their +confinement. The longest time mentioned as the average period of their +absence from work in consequence of child-bearing was five or six +weeks; many women among the highest class of operatives in Birmingham +acknowledged to having generally returned to work at the expiration +of a month.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>... Mothers employed in factories are, save during the +dinner-hours, absent from home all day long, and the care of their +infants during their absence is entrusted either to young children, to +hired nurse-girls, sometimes not more than eight or ten years of age, +or perhaps more commonly to elderly women, who eke out a livelihood +by taking infants to nurse. Young girls, aged seven or eight years, +are frequently removed from school for the purpose of taking charge of +younger children while the mother is absent at work, and are sometimes +said to return, on the death of the child, evidently rather pleased +that this event has released them from their toil.... Pap, made of +bread and water, and sweetened with sugar or treacle, is the sort of +nourishment usually given during the mother’s absence, even to infants +of a very tender age; and in several instances, little children not +more than six or seven years old were seen preparing and feeding babies +with this food, which in such cases consisted only of lumps of bread +floating in sweetened water.... Illness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> is the natural consequence of +this unnatural mode of feeding infants.... Children who are healthy at +birth rapidly dwindle under this system of mismanagement, fall into +bad health, and become uneasy, restless, and fractious. To remedy +the illness caused by mismanagement various domestic medicines are +administered, more particularly some kind of opiate such as Godfrey’s +cordial or laudanum. Wine, gin, peppermint, and other stimulants are +often given, for the purpose, as alleged, of relieving flatulence, the +actual effect being, however, rather to stupify the child. The quantity +of opiates sold for the purpose of being administered to infants in +some of the manufacturing towns is very large.... Indeed, there seems +to be no doubt that the habitual administering of opiates to infants +must be included among the causes of a high infantile mortality in +certain manufacturing towns, not only on account of an overdose being +given, but also because infants kept in a state of continual narcotism +will be thereby rendered disinclined for food, and be but imperfectly +nourished.... Parents who thus entrust the management of their children +so largely to strangers become more or less careless and indifferent +about them, and as many of these children die, the mothers become +familiarised with the fact, and speak of the deaths of their children +with a degree of nonchalance rarely met with among women who devote +themselves mainly to the care of their offspring.... Abundant proof of +the large mortality among the children of female factory operatives +was obtained during the inquiry. An operative of the better class in +Birmingham reported that he collects money for the expenses attendant +on the deaths of children among the workers in a factory where 150 +women were employed, and that he believed ten out of every twelve +children born to the married women in this factory died within a few +months after birth. Many married women were questioned, as opportunity +served, in the several factories visited regarding their families, +the number of children they had borne, the number that survived, and +the manner in which they were brought up. The evidence of these women +tallied exactly with that of other persons.... It was frequently found +that two-thirds or three-fourths of the children borne to these women +had died in infancy.” In his report, which appears in the Appendix,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> +Dr Greenhow continues: “And on the other hand, it was remarkable how, +in other instances, the majority of the children were reared when the +mothers did not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> work in factories, or discontinued doing so whilst +nursing, or when the infant’s supplementary food consisted partly or +chiefly of milk.” In the same report Dr Greenhow states that “all the +medical men who gave evidence on the subject of the present inquiry, +besides several clergymen, ladies who are accustomed to visit the +poorer classes at their dwellings, scripture readers, relieving +officers, and other persons who have paid attention to the subject, +unhesitatingly expressed an opinion that the system under which the +mothers of young children are employed at factories and workshops away +from home is a fruitful cause of infantile sickness and mortality.”</p> + +<p>Among the most interesting figures in the report are those which relate +to the sale of Godfrey’s cordial. It appears that in Coventry alone +at least 12,000 doses weekly were administered, and “even a larger +quantity of opiate, in proportion to the population, is said to be sold +in Nottingham than in Coventry.” In conclusion, Dr Greenhow reports: +“The results of the inquiry may be stated as follows:—</p> + +<p>“<i>1st.</i> The infantile death-rate bears no definite relation to the +general death-rate, but their comparative proportions to each other +vary in different districts.</p> + +<p>“<i>2nd.</i> The infantile death-rate bears the largest proportion to +the general death-rate in districts where the infantile population +is specially exposed to unwholesome influences, as in Coventry, +Nottingham, and other manufacturing towns.</p> + +<p>“<i>3rd.</i> The unwholesome influences to which infants are exposed +in the manufacturing towns comprised in the present inquiry may be +attributed mainly to the industrial employment of the married women, +which leads them to consign the tendance of their infants at a very +early age to young children or strangers.</p> + +<p>“<i>4th.</i> That infants thus deprived of the mother’s care are +habitually fed on diet ill adapted to their digestive powers, and +are very frequently drugged with opiates, in order to allay the +fractiousness arising from the illness induced by improper food.</p> + +<p>“<i>5th.</i> That infants in manufacturing towns where women are much +engaged in factory labour are likewise exposed to other causes of +sickness, proceeding from the ignorance or carelessness of the mothers +or nurses, such as deficiency of exercise, and exposure to inclement +weather.”</p> + +<p>There is constant reference in public inquiries to the excessive use +of opiates. Mr Ernest Hart, giving evidence in 1871 before the Select +Committee on the Protection of Infant Life, says:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span></p> + +<p>“... We wish also to take measures to prevent the habitual drugging of +children in those day-nurseries. You will get evidence easily from the +manufacturing districts that opiates are sold by gallons by druggists +there. The sale of opiates for that purpose forms a very large part of +the trade of many of the druggists in those districts.” Later, Dr Lyon +Playfair (afterwards Lord Playfair), a member of the same Committee, +in examining a witness, refers to “the evidence of three druggists +in Deansgate, who state that they supply 1260 families per week with +opiates,” and to the experience of “Mr Ransome, a distinguished surgeon +who lived in Manchester, ... that out of the children who attended his +dispensary, about one-half he found to be drugged with opiates.”</p> + +<p>Mr Curgenven, another surgeon witness before the Committee, speaking of +the high death-rate among insured children, says:—</p> + +<p>“... They know that if they put their children out with their +neighbours, as it is said, to be nursed, brought up by hand, while they +are at work in the factories, there is very great chance that they will +die, and therefore they calculate that the sum which they receive from +the burial club will more than cover the expense of the burial. And +the deaths amongst the children of the operatives in the manufacturing +towns amount to about 40 to 56 per cent., because they are left by +their mothers at an early age, when they are only a few weeks old, and +are placed in the hands of women to be brought up. They are drugged +frequently with Godfrey’s cordial and other opiates to keep them quiet. +They are fed upon bread and water with very little milk, so that they +are half-starved. The consequence is that more than half of them die.”</p> + +<p>And again:—“... The infantile mortality has decreased so far as +the mothers were enabled to remain at home to nurse their children. +It is only when they are employed in the factories, away from their +homes, leaving their children to be brought up by hand by their kind +neighbours, that they die.”</p> + +<p>Turning to another inquiry, we find Mr Foulkes, a certifying surgeon, +giving evidence before the Factory and Workshops Acts Commission of +1875, and pleading for a prohibition upon the return of mothers to +their employment within six months of their confinement. “... Many +of the women are at work within a month after they are confined; the +result is that the child is left at home, and it is invariably fed +upon the same thing, bread, water, and sugar, and the children dwindle +away, and that has a great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> deal to do with the infant mortality of the +place. What is done with the children in this district generally when +the mothers are at work? They are often left with the other children; +there is no provision made, and they are very badly treated and sadly +neglected....”</p> + +<p>Before the same Commission, Mr Baker, first a surgeon in practice at +Leeds and then joint chief of the Factory Department with Mr Redgrave, +gives it as his experience that “very considerable mischief arises with +women going to work, not only to the mother, but also to the child.” +He is then asked by the Chairman Sir James Fergusson: “We may take it +for granted that it is not theoretically desirable that women should +go to daily work immediately after confinement, leaving the child all +day to somebody else; but, practically speaking, do you think from +your experience of this matter, that if Parliament interfered with it, +it could be enforced with uniformity and without hardship?” And his +answer is: “Yes, I think it might. I think that by the visitation of +certifying surgeons it might be enforced decently, and delicately, and +sufficiently, so as to make it very useful.”</p> + +<p>One more reference to Sir John Simon shall almost close this array of +quotations from buried reports. In this last instance the inquiry was +conducted in agricultural districts:—</p> + +<p>“The discovery that an enormous infantile mortality was prevailing in +several purely agricultural districts, suggested at first sight that +perhaps in these districts some third<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> sort of destructive influence +was at work. The result of this new inquiry, however, has been to show +that the monstrous infantine death-rate of the examined agricultural +districts depends only on the fact that there has been introduced +into those districts the influence which has already been recognised +as enormously fatal to the infants of manufacturing populations—the +influence of the <i>employment of adult women</i>. ‘The opinions’ +(says Dr Hunter) ‘of about seventy medical practitioners, with those +of other gentlemen acquainted with the condition of the poor, were +obtained. With wonderful accord, the cause of the mortality was traced +by nearly all these well-qualified witnesses to the bringing of the +land under tillage—that is, to the cause which has banished malaria +and has substituted a fertile though unsightly garden for the winter +marshes and summer pastures of fifty or a hundred years ago. It was +generally thought that the infants no longer received any injury from +soil,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> climate, or malarious influences, but that a more fatal enemy +had been introduced by the employment of the mothers in the field.’ On +this agricultural employment of women there follow identically the same +results as have already been traced to result from the employment of +women in manufacture.”</p> + +<p>This, then, is the finding of skilled inquirers, the teaching of half +a century’s statistics: that, for the child, the employment of the +mother in the field is “a more fatal enemy” than malaria; and her +employment in the factory, “apparently more fatal than starvation.” +And what is our answering record of effort? A pathetic capacity for +inquiry. Not certainly because we lack facts, or because the need for +action has passed; for, on the contrary, it becomes cumulatively more +acute. In Dundee, for example, in 1881, 19.4 per cent. of married +women were employed in its mills and factories; in 1891, 24 per cent. +were so employed, and the infantile death-rate rises accordingly. In +the following table, prepared by Dr Templeman, Dundee’s able medical +officer of health, this death-rate can be seen for a period of +twenty-eight years:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr2"></td> + <td class="ctr2">Average General<br>Death-rate.</td> + <td class="ctr2">Death-rate of<br>Children.</td> + <td class="ctr2">Infantile<br>Death-rate.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1860–69</td> + <td class="cht">30.4 per 1000</td> + <td class="ctr">Not ascertained</td> + <td class="ctr">Not ascertained</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1870–79</td> + <td class="cht">25  „</td> + <td class="ctr">81 per 1000</td> + <td class="ctr">153 per 1000 births</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1880–89</td> + <td class="cht">22.2  „</td> + <td class="ctr">63  „</td> + <td class="ctr">155  „ „</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1890–97</td> + <td class="cht">20.8  „</td> + <td class="ctr">68  „</td> + <td class="ctr">176  „ „</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>First among the causes Dr Templeman puts “Industrial Conditions:” +first, too, this recognition should be in the conscience of the +parent, in the conscience of the employer, in the conscience of the +State. Of all who are responsible, the State has least acknowledged +the responsibility. The examples may be rare, it is true, of parents +who make sacrifices themselves that their homes and children may have +benefit, but yet there are examples. The efforts of employers of +labour may, too, be rare, but still they are appreciable, notably in +Yorkshire; more frequent are the efforts of philanthropy: there is one +effort by the State;<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> not to save the life of the child, for that +admittedly it does not do, one effort, barely calculable in its result, +to protect the health of the mother.</p> + +<p>All credit to those who, singly as employers, or collectively as +philanthropists, have endeavoured to save life and preserve efficiency +for the nation. But such effort of necessity is ineffective. It +can never be complete, and the abstention of a few mill owners in +a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> district is sufficient to annul the effort of the majority. The +helplessness of such a position was so strongly felt by one mill owner +in Yorkshire, that his rule prohibiting the employment of married women +was abandoned: “Other mills being open to married women, the rule +failed to serve the purpose for which it had been designed—that of +keeping the women at home.”<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>The attempt of philanthropy to establish day nurseries, discouraging +as it has been, would even in apparent success serve but as a prop to +an evil system, as an anæsthetic to the manufacturer’s conscience. It +can but alleviate, it cannot cure; and its condemnation many years +ago, for the involved exposure of the infant to unsuitable hours +and inclement weather, holds equal force to-day. Better than the +drug-nursery, but bad in itself, for the most excellently managed +crèche might well provoke the situation described by Dr Greenhow, in +Coventry<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>:—“Women being obliged to attend at the factory at an +early hour are always hurried in the morning, and may be seen on their +way to the mills, hastening along the street with their children only +half dressed, carrying the remainder of their clothes, and their food +for the day, to be left with the person who has charge of the child +during its mother’s absence; and this ofttimes on a cold winter’s +morning in the midst of sleet or snow.”</p> + +<p>Widows without children of earning age may, as part of their burden, +be forced to imperil the welfare of their infants in one direction +while they seek it in another. And here philanthropy has just scope, +for, save in exceptional cases, the crèche is the only practicable +form of aid to the mother. Better, then, this care of her infant than +its abandonment to a child, itself a candidate for the nursery, or to +the elderly woman who confesses unfitness for all other employments. +But this is the smallest section of the whole. In its widest aspect +it is not a question for the make-shift, though devoted, benevolence +of philanthropy; it is a problem for the State in its responsibility +to the nation. What are the terrors that lie in its handling? The +dread of a barrier raised before the freedom of employment: the fear +that the prohibition of employment within say six, or even three, +months after childbirth might embarrass a large class in its endeavour +to earn a living. But the freedom to labour is no sacred right when +its exercise involves injury to others; it is not even so held when +it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> clearly threatens injury to ourselves. The worker in a dangerous +trade is suspended from employment on the verdict of the certifying +surgeon during such period as he considers to be necessary: in certain +departments in a white-lead factory the employment of women and girls +is altogether prohibited. There is therefore no inviolate right. Is +there in this case necessity? What is the motive-power which drives +the mothers of young children into factories? Commonly, ignorance of +home duties, and the consequent unattractiveness of the home; the +companionship of factory life, where the companionship of children has +no meaning; often, fashion; least often, true poverty. There is poverty +in Glasgow and in Paisley, as in Dundee, but its cure is not felt to +lie in the employment of mothers. The father accepts the obligation of +breadwinner; he is ashamed that his wife should work outside his home. +“If a Glasgow lad wearies o’ work, he must marry a Dundee lassie.” +There poverty conjures excuse, and a man is not ashamed to claim his +wife before her time in the hospital is over, that she may come out and +earn his bread. Exceptional, it must be hoped, are such cases, but at +least the system which breeds them is not, and what some towns claim as +a necessity, others will not tolerate, in their rejection disproving +the need.</p> + +<p>Within the space of this chapter it has been impossible to consider +arguments to which place would otherwise have properly been given. +It is left only to suggest a comparison of the possible evils which +lie in action, and the certain evils which have come of inaction. The +principle of regulation is already accepted in our laws, and in the +laws of other countries, as Miss Anderson’s deeply-interesting chapter +shows; it but needs extension to render it effective. The State holds +the scales: difficulties on the one side, not light it is true; but +on the other, forces weighted already with accomplished evil, charged +with greater evil to come: on the one side, the fancied interests of +the individual; on the other, the deepest interests of the nation. “It +cannot be too distinctly recognised,” says Sir John Simon, “that a high +local mortality of children must almost necessarily denote a high local +prevalence of those causes which determine the degeneration of the +race.”</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">May Tennant.</p> + + +<h3>II</h3> + +<p>Although a steady decline has taken place in the general mortality of +the country coincident with, and, no doubt, in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> main, consequent +upon sanitary progress, it cannot be said that the infant mortality +has diminished in like proportion, and among the many factors which +contribute to the maintenance of a lamentably high death-rate among +infants, not the least important is improper feeding, the result of +ignorance on the part of mothers. If by some means the simple fact +could be brought home to mothers that milk, and preferably human milk, +is the only permissible diet for infants, the natural instincts of +motherhood would prevail in the majority of cases, and thousands of +otherwise healthy infants who do not now survive the first few months +of life would reach an age when greater license in diet is permissible, +and the chances of living are immensely greater. But, in a humanitarian +sense, the saving of life which would thus be effected is of small +moment when compared with the mitigation of the pain and misery which +infants now have to suffer, and which has to be borne, not only by +those whom death ultimately relieves, but by the still larger number +who manage to survive the ordeal, and who thus have to suffer for a +longer period.</p> + +<p>From inquiries made some years ago, Dr Hope of Liverpool came to the +conclusion that among the artisan classes in that town upwards of 50 +per cent. of infants during the first three months of life are entirely +breast-fed, 35 per cent. are reared on other food in addition to +breast-milk, and 15 per cent. are entirely artificially fed. Analysing +upon this basis a large number of deaths from diarrhœa, he found that +for every death attributed to that cause among entirely breast-fed +infants under three months’ old, 15 occurred among the mixed class, +and that for every death which occurred among the breast-fed and mixed +class combined, 22 occurred among the entirely artificially fed class. +He also found that among infants aged from three to six months, for +every death from diarrhœa among the partially breast-fed, 6 occurred +among the entirely artificially fed class. Other observers who have +devoted attention to this matter bear out Dr Hope’s conclusions, and +it is a well-known fact that in countries where artificial feeding of +infants is largely practised, the mortality is very high compared with +other countries where natural feeding prevails.</p> + +<p>Now the practice as regards the feeding of infants varies in different +districts according to circumstances which will presently be referred +to, and no one can dispute the fact that, other things being equal, +infants reared for the first few months entirely on breast-milk have a +far better chance of survival than either of the other two classes. No +doubt this is very largely due to the gross<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> ignorance which prevails, +especially among the artisan classes, as to the only permissible +substitutes for breast-milk; but we must deal with circumstances as +we find them, and, up to the present at any rate, our efforts to +bring about a better order of things have proved unavailing. When +we ultimately succeed, as we must do, in getting the teaching of +elementary hygiene introduced as a compulsory subject in all elementary +schools, the more rational feeding of future generations of infants +must follow as a natural consequence, and then, even if the proportion +of breast-fed infants is not increased, the difference in the +death-rates among the different classes (entirely breast-fed, partially +breast-fed, and entirely artificially fed) will be greatly lessened, +for the artificial food administered will more nearly approach nature’s +requirements.</p> + +<p>From what has been said, it follows that if from any cause the +proportion of entirely artificially fed infants in a district were +abnormally large, in the absence of any counteracting influences the +infantile death-rate of the district would compare unfavourably with +that of other districts in which circumstances did not prevail which +disturbed what may be called the normal grouping of the children +according to the methods of feeding. If, for example, taking Dr Hope’s +figures, instead of 15 per cent. only of the infants under three months +being entirely artificially fed, the number, from disturbing causes, +more nearly approached say 85 per cent., the remaining 15 per cent. +only being either partly or entirely breast-fed, it would certainly +be surprising if the effect were not apparent in a greatly-increased +mortality among infants.</p> + +<p>Some twelve years ago, when, in my capacity as County Medical Officer, +I first had occasion, among other duties, to inquire into the mortality +returns of the various districts in Staffordshire, I was greatly +impressed by a very marked dissimilarity in the infant mortality of +the two groups of populous artisan towns, one in the north and the +other in the south of the county, a dissimilarity which I subsequently +found could not be accounted for by any apparent difference in the +sanitary surroundings of the northern and southern towns. In view of +the fact, however, that, generally speaking, the trades carried on +in the southern group of towns did not afford much employment for +women, whereas in the northern group the conditions in this respect +were different, it occurred to me that in this was to be found the +explanation of the high infant mortality of the northern compared with +the southern towns. In order to test the accuracy of this conclusion, +with the help of the District Medical Officers of Health, and from +information obtained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> from manufacturers regarding the proportion of +married women workers, I classified the purely artisan towns in the +county into three groups, and obtained the infant mortality figures for +previous years, in order to allow of more reliable conclusions being +drawn. Since then I have continued to record the figures according +to the same plan annually, and I have now records covering a period +of 20 years, and relating to artisan towns only, with a mean total +population of about 529,000. One may fairly claim, allowing that the +home conditions in the towns in question, in other respects, apart from +the proportion of artificially-fed infants, are practically identical, +that records from such a large population and for so long a period +may legitimately be used for our purpose from a statistical point of +view, provided care is exercised in the classification of the towns in +accordance with the number of young married women workers employed away +from home, and who are thus prevented from suckling their children.</p> + +<p>In the classification of the towns it was found impossible to arrive at +the actual number of married women workers, but one was able to divide +them into three groups, as follows:—</p> + +<p> +(1) Many Married Women Workers. +(2) A good number of Married Women Workers. +(3) Practically no Married Women Workers. +</p> + +<p>Adopting this classification, the figures of infant mortality in the +different groups of towns are set forth in the following table:—</p> + + +<p class="p1 center"><i>Deaths in Children under One Year per Thousand Births in Three +Classes of Artisan Towns in Staffordshire.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr2"></td> + <td class="ctr2 smcap">Class I.</td> + <td class="ctr2 smcap">Class II.</td> + <td class="ctr2 smcap">Class III.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr"></td> + <td class="ctr">Many Women<br>engaged in work.</td> + <td class="ctr">Fewer Women<br>engaged in work.</td> + <td class="ctr">Practically no Women<br>engaged in work.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">10 Years (1881–90)</td> + <td class="ctr">195</td> + <td class="ctr">166</td> + <td class="ctr">152</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">10 Years (1891–1900)</td> + <td class="ctr">211</td> + <td class="ctr">177</td> + <td class="ctr">167</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The figures speak for themselves, and it will be noticed that while +there has been a general increase in the infant death-rate, practically +the same relative proportion has been maintained between the three +groups of towns.</p> + +<p>As the outcome of a paper I read before the Public Health Section +of the British Medical Association, at the Annual Meeting held at +Nottingham in 1892, the question was taken up by the Parliamentary +Bills Committee, with a view to securing some legislative remedy, and +an inquiry was instituted throughout England on similar lines to the +Staffordshire inquiry. Returns<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> were thus obtained from a large number +of artisan towns, and these returns bore out in a remarkable way the +conclusions drawn from the Staffordshire figures.</p> + +<p>It appears, then, to be a fact that the State is permitting a +practice to be followed which is directly responsible for the deaths +of thousands of infants annually. Deliberate cruelty on the part of +parents is a punishable offence, and in a strict sense starvation comes +within this category; it does not seem to matter, however, what sort of +food is provided, so long as, theoretically, some provision is made for +the care of the infant during the absence of the mother. Possibly, in +many cases, owing to ignorance and other causes, the infant might not +receive any better care at home, but there, at least, the natural food +would be available, and in the majority of instances it would be given. +It is true we cannot legislate as to how mothers shall feed their +infants, but surely it is not too much to ask that the legislature +shall not allow any deliberate disregard of parental responsibilities.</p> + +<p>The law at present does provide some amount of protection, by making it +illegal for a mother to return to work under one month after the birth +of her child; but although this restriction is valuable from the point +of view of the mother’s health, it can hardly benefit the child, for, +if factory work is to be engaged in after a month’s interval only, it +is not likely that the mother will commence suckling her child. The +period of restriction should undoubtedly be extended, and the shortest +serviceable time is probably three months. The probability is that if +such an extension of time limit were enforced the mother would suckle +her child until she returned to work, and thus the most precarious +period in the life of the child would be tided over, and its chances of +survival would be considerably increased.</p> + +<p>In many cases the wife—it may be from choice, or because of +improvident habits on the part of the husband—goes to work, while at +the same time the husband is earning ample wages. In Lancashire it is +common for a man to receive 25s. a week while his wife earns from 15s. +to 20s., and in Staffordshire, when the potting trade is ordinarily +prosperous, the weekly wages of a man and his wife amount to 30s. and +12s. respectively. These figures represent a fair average, but many of +the men workers receive much higher wages.</p> + +<p>In seeking for a solution of the question, we may learn something from +other countries. In Switzerland, for example, a period of absence from +work of eight weeks is enforced on mothers, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> time to be counted +from two weeks before confinement; and in Germany, by a process of +compulsory assurance, the working woman, while prevented from working +owing to childbirth, receives a sum equal to half her ordinary daily +wages. In the former case the period, for reasons already given, is not +long enough, and the latter expedient could hardly be made applicable +to economic conditions in this country. However, a way out of the +difficulty ought to be found, and it would seem that it should be +sought for in the direction of State control.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">George Reid.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER VI<br> +<span class="subhed">CHILD LABOUR</span></h2></div> + +<p>The half-time system is dying. The age of the full-timer in the mill +or factory is being steadily raised. But as long as poverty exists +children must feel the pinch of it. They must help also to bear the +burdens of their parents, and share their anxieties and cares. One +would be very wrong, however, in supposing that the most anxious and +harassed parents and children are to be found at the bottom of the +social ladder. At the bottom of the social ladder will be found little +care and much movement—a <i>tourbillon</i> of change—marriages, +accidents, tragedies, crimes, all succeeding each other pell-mell, and +obliterating one another. The parents and the children of the slums are +occupied, not with thoughts of to-morrow, but with thoughts of to-day. +Here, for example, is a large Board School in a slum district of a +big northern city. It is difficult for the head teacher to keep the +register, for large numbers of children are always flowing through the +school like a shoal of mackerel on a tide. Families arrive, and encamp +in the fair ground close by, or find shelter in the poor lodging houses +of the neighbourhood. The children attend school for a short time, +pick up a smattering of the three R’s., and then disappear. There are +of course regular residents, and the children of such people are much +better attenders. But they have this in common with their migratory +neighbours, that their lives are varied by exciting and gruesome +events, which they do not take to heart too seriously. A certain +unfortunate mother of ten loses several of her children in succession. +Then suddenly her husband, who is a drunkard, falls down some steps and +is killed. There is a tragic gathering of friends at the house on the +eve of the funeral. A few months later the widow marries again. But the +second husband turns out to be a scamp. She leaves him and takes refuge +with a married daughter. The children change homes, take the ups and +downs of their rocky life, and attend school pretty regularly. Some +children are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span> deserted, and go into neighbours’ homes. The strong ties +of kinship are dispensed with; and other ties, equally strong, for the +hour at least, take their place.</p> + +<p>Apart from the family drama, the children have their own struggles and +adventures. They have to help to earn the living. In some families a +child is the breadwinner. In many, children are important co-helpers +with the parents. How does a child earn money? In provincial towns, +also in London, the newspaper offices are responsible for a great deal +of out-of-door child labour. A crowd of boys rush every afternoon to +the “offices.” Some of these children are already employers of labour. +They engage a smaller or less lucky comrade to deliver some of the +papers, and pay him twopence or threepence, according to his success. +They—the small employers—may earn 6s. per week and even more at +times. Besides the newsboys there are the errand boys, and those who +help shopkeepers. These form a large contingent of the children’s army +of labour. And so, alas! do the vagrant sellers of chips, flowers, +etc., who have to cultivate the beggar’s as well as the vendor’s art. +At a Conference in April 1900 between the School Board and Board +of Guardians of Bradford, a return was presented showing that 91 +children—84 of whom were of school age—were found begging and hawking +in the streets in the course of three evenings of December 1899.</p> + +<p>The domestic toilers in such a district as that which we are now +considering would be mainly nurses. Little cooking and less washing +is done in some of the homes. There are no regular meals, no regular +duties, and the elder children are useful therefore mainly in taking +charge of the younger ones, or earning pence in the street. Taking +their roving habits into account, it is strange to learn that such +children suffer from lack of proper exercise. Yet such is the case. +About a year ago Dr Kerr, the medical adviser of the Bradford School +Board, made an examination of the children attending a school situated +in an “insanitary area.” He found that nearly all the children were +ill-nourished. And this ill-nutrition was not simply the result of +insufficient food. “Lack of exercise,” he writes, “has a very large +share in it. And the exercise required is not careful gymnastics, but +coarse work, such as running round the playground.”</p> + +<p>There are many kinds of physical exercise, just as there are many kinds +of food, and one order of exercise does not take the place of another. +Moreover, the same kinds of movements,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> executed under different +conditions, have quite different effects. This is the important fact +which is lost sight of by those who declare that the child can rest +from the labours of the school by engaging in the labours of the mill. +It is ignored also, or forgotten, by those rural educationists who +believe that six hours of weeding or potato-picking mean the same thing +for a child as six hours of free play. But the fact remains that work +does not take the place of play, not even when that work is very easy, +and involves walking or running. Here in this school of the slum, +“careful gymnastics” are not required. And we may safely add that +running about the streets, and the carrying of milk-cans and babies, +are not required. For the children have had a good deal of this kind +of physical exercise, and are suffering, nevertheless, from defective +circulation and want of muscular tone. Only movements that imply the +removal of tension from the nervous system are required. There is +no real substitute for such free, natural movements in any factory, +schoolroom, nor even we may add in any gymnasium in the world.</p> + +<p>Let us turn from those whom we may call the “casuals” of the +child-labour world, to the State-recognised little toilers who work +in factories or mills. These form still a large contingent of the +child-labour world, numbering as they do over a hundred thousand +children, one-third of whom work in Lancashire cotton-mills. A goodly +proportion, too, work in Yorkshire, the seat of the woollen and worsted +trades. The rate of decline of the half-time system among factory and +non-factory child-workers may be seen from the following figures, +compiled in Bradford.</p> + +<p>Number of half-time cases in Bradford in each year for the past twelve +years:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Factory.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Non-Factory.<br>Domestic Errand<br>Boys, etc.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Total granted in<br>each year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Number on<br>School Roll.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1889</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.194</td> + <td class="ctrr">679</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.873</td> + <td class="ctrr">7.046</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1890</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.567</td> + <td class="ctrr">575</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.142</td> + <td class="ctrr">6.490</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1891</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.129</td> + <td class="ctrr">708</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.837</td> + <td class="ctrr">6.151</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1892</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.838</td> + <td class="ctrr">728</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.566</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.624</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1893</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.653</td> + <td class="ctrr">540</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.193</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.097</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.434</td> + <td class="ctrr">655</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.089</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.178</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.887</td> + <td class="ctrr">580</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.467</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.309</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.509</td> + <td class="ctrr">306</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.815</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.276</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.451</td> + <td class="ctrr">250</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.701</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.564</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.329</td> + <td class="ctrr">314</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.643</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.211</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.187</td> + <td class="ctrr">193</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.380</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.869</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1900</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.444</td> + <td class="ctrrb">129</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.573</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.198</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span></p> + +<p>The half-time system is dying fast in some towns, more slowly in +others—but it is passing away even in Lancashire. No one appears to be +more indifferent than the masters. It is not even fair to say that the +masters are indifferent, for many of them have tried to hasten the end. +And yet forty or fifty years ago the masters, as a class (there were, +of course, honourable exceptions) opposed the raising of the age. Even +ten years ago some masters showed concern when it was proposed to raise +the age of half-timers to eleven. “Younger children,” they said, “have +special aptitudes which the elder ones have lost.” The wails of regret +came usually from masters who could remember long bye-gone days. “Ah!” +they cried, letting their thoughts drift back into the dim past, “when +the children came to us very young, say at five or six years old, a +great deal was possible that has since become quite impossible! It is +of no use to speak of that now.” No, it is of no use to speak of it, +since the age had been raised, and raised again. And with every rise +the commercial value of the child in the labour world has diminished. +And now you may hear a manager say, “The child who comes at twelve +years old is more dexterous than the one who comes at thirteen,” but +the masters are evidently of opinion that so far as they are concerned +the matter is no longer worthy of discussion. That the children come a +year earlier or later makes little difference when the minimum age is +raised to twelve.</p> + +<p>The masters’ claim that the younger children had special aptitude, +undoubtedly rests not upon fiction but upon fact. Every physiologist +knows that the various sensory centres of the brain are plastic in +early childhood, and that this period of plasticity is very short. +It begins to wane already in the seventh year. Previous to this age, +however, every human being is in a peculiarly receptive and responsive +state. So that, during the first six or seven years “a great many +things,” as the silk manufacturers said, “are possible.” For example, +the sense of touch may be developed within very narrow limits, and +complex and specialised movements may be learned so well that they +become automatic. This can be done. It can be done only at great cost. +(Probably the employers did not know the actual cost.) It implies the +atrophy of many cells, the impoverishment of the whole life. It is +a kind of psychic mutilation. But it can be done, and it has to be +done quickly, since the spring tide of opportunity soon wanes. Alas! +for the old adage, “It is never too late to mend.” The mending, and +making, and altering time is over for a great many people at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> +age of eight, and of this employers were well aware, thanks to their +opportunities for observation and experiment. So as the age of the +half-timer was raised the masters’ interest in him declined, and +the latter-day champion of the half-time system stepped forward in +the person of <i>the half-timer’s own father</i>,—his father, not +his widowed mother. For the “poor widow,” who looms so large in the +consciousness of controversialists on the half-time question, is seen +and known wonderfully little in the school attendance rooms, where +applications for half-time are considered. The applicants belong very +largely to the better class of working people. Mechanics, engineers, +railwaymen, overlookers, and, now and again, a mill operative. Of +course these various trades represent a great variety of wages. Some +applicants earn but £1 per week, or even less, and out of this support +a large family. But many earn from 30s. to £2 or £3 per week. Indeed, +men with £4 and upwards per week coming in have been known to apply, +though these are exceptional cases. It is certain that the average +working-man champion of child-labour to-day is not a thriftless, +irresponsible person. He is, very often, a man with money in the bank, +with ambitions and views of his own, also with a will of his own, and +a strong Trades organisation behind him, through which he can express +that will. Neither is he a person lacking in parental susceptibility +and ambition. It is almost impossible to overrate the influence which +custom has on sentient beings. The caterpillars of the Bombyx Hesperus +feed in a state of nature on the leaves of the <i>café diable</i>. Yet +Darwin found that certain caterpillars of the Bombyx family, having +been reared on another variety, refused to touch the leaves of <i>café +diable</i>. They preferred to die of hunger. Thus caterpillars can +become, in a sense, unnatural. Kindhearted people, too, may follow a +course of conduct with their own offspring which appears monstrous to +the stranger. In certain districts where child-labour is a tradition +and custom, the very idea of associating it with inhumanity does not +occur to the people. “Why, they mun be all clean off their heads,” +cried a Yorkshireman, who had been hearing of poor parents who sent +their sons to school till they were fifteen or sixteen years old. He +had gone to “t’ miln” at seven, and it seemed to him that all “workin’ +foaks” children should do the same.</p> + +<p>It is not then to the parent you must go in order to learn what +the effect of half-time is on the young. Nor need you turn with +very confident hopes to the statistician. It is, indeed, a little +discouraging<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> to reflect how little the statistician can help us in +establishing the most obvious ill effects of child-labour. The effect +of half-time exemption a little while ago was to filter off a number +of mentally sharp children who passed their standards rapidly and were +ready to go to work at eleven. These bright children were a continual +stumbling-block to the statistician. For example, it was proposed to +test the vision of the half-timers and other children with a view to +finding out the effect of the mill life on this important sense. Now +the stupidest boys and girls are those who have most defective visual +acuity. They are also the deafest.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> And the bright children who +went to the mill at eleven, are, of course, the children gifted with +the keenest senses. By the time these bright young half-timers had got +to full time, the duller ones came on as half-timers, and by their +transference appeared to increase the percentage of defective vision +with age in half-timers and diminish it among the non-half-timers. Thus +defective vision apparently increased with the age of half-timers, +only because those kept back by defective brain or eyes alone were +half-timers at the age of twelve. This is but one example of the great +difficulty of collecting reliable evidence to establish even the most +reasonable assumption.</p> + +<p>But it is hardly an “assumption” that children suffer in England +through half-time labour, and unregulated toil out of school hours. You +cannot put tired eyes, pallid cheeks, and languid little limbs into +statistics, and yet when you see them they are more convincing than +figures. And in many schools you can receive this kind of evidence. +The younger children who work out of school hours have undoubtedly the +worst time of it. They come to school looking dull and heavy-eyed. Some +are irritable and restless, others so languid that they appear almost +oblivious of everything around them. “It seems as if they haven’t the +force to work through the school day,” said a young master in a school +of very poor children. “They may be bright enough children, but they +haven’t the strength to show it.”</p> + +<p>The factory half-timers are doubtless more fortunate than the younger +casuals; for the former have arrived at an age when many of the +critical turnings of child life have been passed. And yet the child +of twelve no sooner enters a mill than the teacher<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> begins to see a +deplorable change in him. He loses interest in his school work, his +manners become rougher. Manners are forms of mental expression, so the +teacher may presage from this fact alone a certain decline of brain +power. But there are many other indications of decline. The other day a +teacher showed me the copy-books of children who had been at the mill +<i>for one week</i>, and allowed me to compare these with the work done +by the same children while they were whole-day scholars. As full-day +scholars they all did creditable work. Their sums were correct, their +writing good, and books were kept perfectly clean. Yet in the course +of one week the progress of months seemed to be cancelled: for the +half-timers’ sums were all marked with a “W.” The writing was careless, +the pages soiled and blotted. The children had changed and their work +had changed. Their achievements had slipped from their grasp as a +waggon slips back when driver and horse are arrested suddenly on a +steep hill.</p> + +<p>Indeed, though the factory child suffers less in some ways than the +“casual,” he appears to be under certain great disadvantages from +which the latter is exempt. Ask any master of an elementary school +and he will tell you that the characteristic of the factory child is +<i>dulness</i>. The casual is not dull. Not at all, he is glad to talk +to-you about his “business,” and the chances of his work-a-day life in +the street. Not so the young factory hand. After the first fortnight in +the mill he is a disillusioned person. He does not want to talk about +his work or his prospects. He loses interest not only in others but in +himself.</p> + +<p>What is the secret of this subtle change? Why does the factory boy +of twelve become so torpid? It is because in the mill growth and +development are <i>arrested</i>. At the age of twelve a boy or girl +is still a child, not an adult. It is true he has passed already +through certain stages of growth, but the whole period of growth +and development has not come to an end. His sensory organs are as +acute, rather more acute, indeed, than a full-grown man’s, and yet +in the matter of sight and hearing he is inferior. It is through +<i>psychic</i> development that the full harvest of the sensory and +motor powers is reaped. This is why, at the age of twelve, if growth +is to continue, the boy or girl should enter an atmosphere of varied +mental interests and activities. The richer the forces of human life +the more intricate will be the means by which they can be put into +operation. The mill does not provide an atmosphere in which the new +order of human development <i>due</i> at this hour can take place. +“Still the mill-child is not always dull,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span> you will say, “sometimes +he is very noisy.” Yes, at “loosing time” the mill-yard and streets +ring with loud talk and laughter. But the noise itself proves the same +thing as the torpor of the mill child. In the jostling and shouting of +the youth or mill girl the scientist sees not a vice but a reaction. +In the desire for alcohol, the feverish love of betting and gambling, +we behold the revolt of nascent human powers. These human powers, so +varied and so subtle, are dammed up all day long, without possibility +of exercise or escape. So the wild torrent of life surges free at +last round the mill-gates, and escapes in the voice and glance of the +excited lads who learn to love gambling and betting to the despair of +good people. “A weak or insensible limb is certain of rough usage,” +said Donaldson, for, obeying a natural instinct, its owner will insist +on having a sensation through it. If the whole nature is dwarfed or +blunted, only violent pleasures can be appreciated.</p> + +<p>It is said that the poor “have no room to live”; what is even as +serious—they have no time to grow. As long as such is the case +we may be sure that, despite all the efforts of educationists and +philanthropists, there will be a great many undeveloped persons. +Meantime the scientist advances, taking account of all, and stating +all fearlessly. Year by year the processes of growth and development +become clearer, and the conditions of human progress more defined. +And although we cannot at once remove even the more obvious causes of +arrested development and weakness, yet it must be evident to all that +the future belongs to the nations who permit and enable their children +to come to full human stature.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Margaret M’Millan.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER VII<br> +<span class="subhed">HOME-WORK</span></h2></div> + +<p>There is perhaps no section of industrial life regarding which so much +misconception prevails as out-work, or, as it is popularly called, +home-work.</p> + +<p>To many persons the name home-work is synonymous with the idyllic term +cottage industries, and this again calls up the picture of the model +villager in the model village. The clean and tidy widow, so dear to +the heart of the philanthropist and of the district visitor, is the +favourite type. She dwells in an ivy-clad cottage surrounded by all +the accessories of highly picturesque poverty, the kettle sings on her +well-burnished hob, and geraniums bloom perennially on her window sill.</p> + +<p>How does this picture compare with the grim realities of home-work in +our city slums? We shall see from the cases which I quote further on, +and which have been revealed by the investigations of the Scottish +Council for Women’s Trades, and the Women’s Industrial Council of +London.</p> + +<p>The reason why the popular conception of home-work has lagged so far +behind actual fact is, that this is practically the No Man’s Land of +the industrial world. Here treads not the foot of the labour agitator, +for the home-workers are composed largely of “casuals”—dreary +phantoms, who come and go, whence and whither no man can tell, and no +organising secretary of any trade union, however enterprising, would +waste time or effort in inducing them to join its ranks. Each worker is +a sort of industrial Ishmael, working only for his or her own hand.</p> + +<p>Nor has the home-worker been much better off in respect of Government +protection. For while the factory and workshop hand has had the +conditions of her work regulated by law, the home-worker has been +treated as a step-child by the State, and has been left outside the +protecting pale of the Factory Acts.</p> + +<p>Apart from the points of starvation wages and excessive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> hours, one of +the main facts brought out by recent investigations into home-work is +the grave danger to the health of both the worker and the community at +large arising from the making of garments, etc., in disease-infected +and otherwise insanitary houses, and public opinion has been gradually +ripening to the conclusion that legal regulation of some kind is +necessary as a protection to public health. Further, it is beginning +to be recognised that the application to out-work of the laws that +regulate labour in the factory is a perfectly reasonable and logical +extension, as out-work, in the modern expression of it, is practically +an extension of factory work, or it may be more properly described as +its back-wash. Out-workers are employed mainly on the surplusage of +the factory orders—the unskilled, poorly paid work that the workshop +hand rejects, or that the pressure of a big order prevents her wholly +overtaking. The low degree of skill required for the most part, and the +consequent low earnings, have their inevitable result in placing this +section of the industry in the hands of the very class of workers whose +conditions most need supervision and control.</p> + +<p>Previous to the passing of the Factory and Workshop Act of 1891, some +agitation with respect to the conditions of home-work had begun to make +itself felt, and in recognition of this a provision was made in that +Act giving the Secretary of State power to require employers to keep +lists of all the out-workers they employed. These lists were to be open +to the inspection of the Factory Inspector and the Sanitary Inspector. +This was carried a step further by the Act of 1895, in which it was +decreed that copies of these lists should be sent twice a year to the +Factory Inspector. But while the latter may visit the homes of the +out-workers, he has no power to remedy any defects he may find there; +all he can do is to report insanitary conditions to the Local Sanitary +Authority; except, of course, in the case of out-workers who employ +others to help them, and whose premises thus become a workshop within +the meaning of the Factory and Workshop Acts, and are accordingly +subject to their provisions. But these after all form a comparatively +limited class; consequently the great majority of out-workers are left +entirely outside the scope of these Acts.</p> + +<p>The following cases will convey some idea of the actual conditions +under which out-work is carried on:—</p> + +<p>1. Is the wife of a labourer, who is sick and in the infirmary; works +from twelve to sixteen hours per day finishing trousers;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> is paid 4½d. +and 5d. per pair; earns 2s. per day; supplies thread and twist, which +cost about 8d. per week; works in a very untidy, dirty kitchen. Has no +time to clean up except once a week. Children carry the work to the +workshop.</p> + +<p>2. Is a widow living alone; finishes trousers; is paid 2¼d. and 2½d. +per pair; earns 9½d. per day of nine and ten hours, and provides +thread, which costs about 9½d. a week. Her earnings are supplemented by +2s. 6d. a week from the parish.</p> + +<p>3. Married woman, husband out of work; finishes shirts; is paid 2½d. +per dozen, and earns about 7½d. per day of eighteen hours; supplies +thread, which costs about 8d. per week. When work is brisk she can earn +4s. 8d. a week by getting up at three and four in the morning.</p> + +<p>4. Is the wife of a bricklayer; she works eight to nine hours a day +making matchboxes; is paid 2¼d. per gross, and earns about 1s. 4d. a +day. A girl of eight out of school hours helps the mother, who has to +supply paste and hemp, which costs about 6d. a week.</p> + +<p>5. Is the wife of a porter; works ten to twelve hours a day making +matchboxes; earns 1s. 3¾d. per day, and her little boy, who is four +years old, helps her by folding the paper after it is pasted over the +cardboard.</p> + +<p>6. Is a married woman; makes bead trimming; is paid ¾d. to 1¼d. per +yard, and earns from 1s. to 1s. 6d. per day, working twelve to fifteen +hours. Little boy of eight helps out of school hours.</p> + +<p>7. Two girls work at fur-pulling eleven hours a day, and earn about 8s. +6d. per week each. Three girls sleep in workroom in one filthy bed. +Elder girl said her chest was bad, but she was accustomed to this.</p> + +<p>8. Is the wife of a labourer in irregular employment; finishes shirts, +and works from 5 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> to 11 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>; is paid 2½d. to +5d. per dozen; pays about 1d. out of every 1s. earned for thread. The +highest wage she ever earned was 4s. 10d. a week, “working late and +early.” The eldest girl does the housework. House in filthy condition; +work piled upon the floor.</p> + +<p>9. Two single women living together, the daughters of a city missionary +deceased; work about ten hours a day finishing children’s shirts and +making pinafores, and earn from 4s. to 6s. per week each. On the day +visited, one had worked seven hours and had made 7d. Her wages-book +for ten consecutive weeks showed 2s. 4d., 4s. 4d., 5s. 8d. (week and +half),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span> 7s. ½d., 3s. 1½d., 3s., 2s. 3d., 3s. 9d., 3s. 1d., and 5s. +House, attic room, beautifully clean, rent 8s. per month.</p> + +<p>10. Is the wife of a labourer irregularly employed; has three young +children; “makes shirts throughout and finishes them,” earns 5s. to 6s. +per week, working twelve to fourteen hours per day. She pays 1s. 6d. +per week for machine, and 4d. per six dozen for thread. Occupies house +of two rooms, very dirty and almost destitute of furniture.</p> + +<p>11. Is a widow; lives in one-roomed house, which is very dirty; +“finishes” woollen shirts; is paid from 2½d. to 6d. per dozen, +according to the amount of work put upon the garments. Her average +earnings are from 5s. to 6s. per week. Two children were lying ill in +the room, and were covered up with the shirts on which the mother was +employed; she could not tell what was the matter.</p> + +<p>12. Is the wife of a surfaceman earning 16s. a week; makes aprons, +pinafores, and chemises, and earns about 5s. per week. She is in +delicate health; has had eight children, only one of whom now survives.</p> + +<p>And so on, through this dreary tale “of poverty, hunger, and dirt.”</p> + +<p>The evidence collected in respect to out-work by expert investigators +in these and other cases seems to prove conclusively that it is usually +accompanied by very low wages, inordinately long and irregular hours, +and distressingly insanitary conditions. With the matter of wages +British legislators have not yet seen fit to deal directly, and it is +obvious that any regulation of hours for work carried on by workers in +their own homes would be extremely difficult to enforce. What remains +is the sanitary condition of the house and of the worker. And there is +the double ground for interference here, in that the making of clothing +and other articles for public use in insanitary dwellings is not only a +danger to the workers themselves, but also to the public generally.</p> + +<p>How does the law on this point at present stand? Perhaps the most +important legislation we have had dealing with out-work is to be found +in sections 5 and 6 of the Factory Act of 1895, which contain the +following provisions:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See. 5. (1) “If an inspector gives notice in writing to the +occupier of a factory or workshop, or to any contractor employed +by any such occupier, that any place in which work is carried +on for the purpose of or in connection with the business of the +factory or workshop is injurious or dangerous to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> health +of the persons employed therein, then, if the occupier or +contractor after the expiration of one month from receipt of the +notice gives out work to be done in that place, and the place +is found by the court having cognizance of the case to be so +injurious or dangerous, he shall be liable on summary conviction +to a fine not exceeding ten pounds.</p> + +<p>(2) “This section shall apply in the case of the occupier of any +place from which any work is given out as if that place were a +workshop.</p> + +<p>(3) “Provided that this section shall not apply except in the +case of persons employed in such classes of work, and in the +case of persons giving out employment and employed within +such areas, as may from time to time be specified by the +Secretary of State by order made in accordance with section 65 +of the principal Act, and no such order shall be made except +with respect to an area where, by reason of the number and +distribution of the population or the conditions under which +work is carried on, there are special risks of injury or danger +to the health of the persons employed and of the district.</p> + +<p>Sec. 6. “If any occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry or +of any place from which any work is given out, or any contractor +employed by any such occupier causes or allows wearing apparel +to be made, cleaned, or repaired in any dwelling-house +or building occupied therewith, whilst any inmate of the +dwelling-house is suffering from scarlet fever or smallpox, +then, unless he proves that he was not aware of the existence +of the illness in the dwelling-house, and could not reasonably +have been expected to become aware of it, he shall be liable to +a fine not exceeding ten pounds.”</p> +</div> + +<p>I have no doubt sub-section 1 of section 5 might have gone a long +way to improve the sanitary conditions under which out-workers are +employed, and reduce the danger to the public, had it not been for +the restriction imposed by sub-section 3, which makes it practically +inoperative.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the many overcrowded and insanitary districts in our +large cities, I am not aware that a single area has been specified to +which the section should apply. The reason for this will probably be +found in the difficulty to prove the existence of “special risks of +injury or danger to the health of the persons employed <i>and</i> of +the district.” And in any case the month’s notice to be given would +simply mean that by a system of removing—which would be nothing +unusual with the class of workers concerned—the purpose of the Act +could be successfully evaded.</p> + +<p>It would seem to be the desire of the legislature to place all +responsibility for compliance with the law upon the employer, or the +person giving out the work, but it stops short at providing him with +the means of ascertaining whether the law is being complied with.</p> + +<p>The limited space at my disposal will not allow me to deal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span> with the +many economic issues involved in the question of out-work. I can only +make a brief reference to its possible effect on wages.</p> + +<p>Many of the more intelligent workers in the factories and workshops +speak very strongly against it on the ground that the long and +irregular hours tend surely, if indirectly, to lower wages, and +workshop hands in some cases, even where the total earnings were very +low, have on principle refrained from taking work home to finish after +the workshop hours, through fear of thus producing an artificial +standard of wages. Out-workers are often used as a lever for reducing +rates of wages. They are not restricted by any law to a specified +number of hours per day as in factories, and they are often found +working from early morning till late at night. With the help of some +other members of the family, a fair wage may be earned, in consequence +of which the employer is inclined to make comparisons which show the +factory hands at a disadvantage. Subsequently rates are reduced for +everybody.</p> + +<p>It may be interesting to note that a large number of out-workers met +with during these inquiries were in receipt of parochial relief, +although they were working full time for their employers. Attention +has been directed to this subject from time to time in the official +reports of the Factory Department, and various suggestions have been +put forward as to the best methods for the efficient regulation of +home-work; but sooner or later the Government will be obliged to deal +with this question, and as the matter will therefore be in the hands of +the Home Office it would be unwise of me to anticipate the manner in +which they might treat the subject.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">A. Ballantyne.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br> +<span class="subhed">THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF WORK AND FATIGUE</span></h2></div> + +<p>There is a limit to man’s power of doing work. This varies in different +individuals. In an ordinary way work is conducive to health, and +even under abnormal circumstances work is often the main factor that +tends to prolong life. Mental not less than physical occupation has +been known to raise men and women above worries that otherwise would +have crushed them and lifted them above the depressing influences of +an incurable malady. In itself work is a good thing. It is when we +come to consider the effects of overwork and fatigue in an age when +all is hurry and excitement, when every one is pressed, and work is +undertaken under such unhealthy conditions as exist in some overheated, +overcrowded, and ill-ventilated factories, that one of the worst sides +of excessive toil is seen. In order to understand more fully the evils +of overwork and fatigue, physical and mental, let us learn something of +the physiological conditions under which muscular work is performed.</p> + +<p>We are frequently reminded that the human body resembles a +steam-engine. From the circulation within the body of the absorbed +products obtained from digested food are evolved those chemical and +mechanical forces which direct all work, physical and mental. The +human body differs from the steam-engine in being able to transform +some of the food products into living tissue, whereby during work it +calls upon its stored-up energy and loses weight. Human life can only +be supported by oxygen and the ingestion of foods of vegetable or +animal origin. In the internal laboratory of the human body chemical +changes are continually taking place, resulting in the formation of +such waste products as carbonic acid, water, and urea. These have to +be removed by the lungs, the kidneys, and skin. A pure atmosphere, +healthy surroundings, and an adequate supply of water and proper +food, are therefore required in order to introduce into the system +the ordinary necessaries of life. Health can only be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> maintained by a +normal functional activity of the emunctories, whereby waste products +are eliminated.</p> + +<p>All organs when in a state of greater functional activity than usual +draw to them, by a kind of automatic arrangement of the nervous system, +a larger supply of blood. The demand upon the muscles of the labourer +is met by an increased flow of blood at the time, therefore, when most +required, and when changes within his muscular system are most active. +In a similar fashion, a quickening of the cerebral circulation occurs +during the processes of thinking and mental attention. We are, however, +at this particular part of our inquiry concerned rather with that +large army of workers, men, women, and young persons, who are either +day or weekly wage earners, whose life is one of hard toil, and who in +reaching home of an evening are frequently tired out with the day’s +labour. Work while physiologically making for health may, if pushed too +far so as to induce fatigue, ultimately unfit the individual for his +allotted task.</p> + +<p>By means of an instrument known as the <i>ergograph</i>, physiologists +can estimate the amount of muscular work done. We can thus learn +something of the laws of muscular activity and of fatigue in man. +Work is only done by muscle when it is contracting. By means of the +ergograph we can register the character, the frequency, and rhythm +of these contractions, and estimate the weight of a load lifted, or +the amount of work accomplished, in a given time. In addition to the +physical work accomplished, heat is also generated within the muscle, +and certain waste products are formed which escape by the veins and +lymphatics. A healthy fresh muscle responds practically at once to +an electrical stimulus, but when it has been over stimulated so that +the individual muscular contractions follow each other too rapidly, +the tissue becomes fatigued and no longer responds to the induction +shocks. The ergograph shows us the manner in which we become fatigued. +Professor Mosso, of Turin University, found that the instrument +registers very much the same results in the same people over a period +of years, allowing for certain minor modifications depending upon +the conditions of the organism, the state of health at the time, +diet, sleep, and the amount of intellectual fatigue present at the +moment. We are all familiar with the influence of volition upon +muscular contraction. By a strong effort of will we can force our +jaded muscles still to accomplish work, but in doing so we often add +to the muscular tiredness a sense of brain fatigue as well. There<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> +is a marked difference in the character and amount of work done by +muscles that have been gradually trained compared with that done by +those not so prepared. Professor Aducco found that at the end of a +month, after having practised a few hours daily with the ergograph, +he could perform twice the amount of muscular work than he could at +the commencement. A moderate amount of work, physical and mental, is +attended by a feeling of pleasurable satisfaction. It is when work is +carried too far, and when a man’s daily labour becomes too hard, or +makes lengthened and unusual demands upon his strength, that there is +experienced a sense of extreme weariness and fatigue. When a muscle has +become fatigued its irritability is lessened. It no longer contracts +with the same vigour, less energy is set free, and the muscle relaxes +and regains its original form less quickly. Under any circumstances +energy is only liberated at the expense of the nutriment stored up +within the muscle and the oxygen absorbed from the blood. A process +akin to oxidation takes place within the muscle during its contraction +whereby waste products are formed that act as poisons to the muscle +protoplasm. Muscle is only capable of doing work so long as energy +holding explosive compounds are formed within it and the waste products +are excreted.</p> + +<p>What, then, causes fatigue? Since during muscular contraction oxygen +is absorbed, and carbonic acid and other waste materials are formed, +fatigue might in the first instance be considered as dependent upon +processes of a chemical nature, and be due to the non-removal of the +harmful substances formed by muscle when doing work. That fatigue is +largely the result of this is shown by passing some simple saline +solution through the blood-vessels of a limb removed from a recently +killed animal, and where the muscles of the limb have been thrown into +a state of fatigue by excessive stimulation. As the liquid percolates +through the muscles and washes out the waste products, fatigue +disappears, and the muscular contractions on stimulation become again +as vigorous as they were before. Over-use of muscles obliges us to +breathe more frequently. By increased frequency of respiration the +temperature of the body is lowered owing to evaporation of water from +the interior of the lungs. Add to this the cooling influence of the air +inspired, for it is of lower temperature than that within the lung. +Respiration too is the medium through which we throw off the excess +of carbonic acid from the blood. As long ago as 1845, Helmholtz, a +German physiologist, demonstrated that when a muscle is in a state of +repose it contains very few substances that are soluble in alcohol.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> +For the sake of comparison we shall name this amount 1. In fatigued +muscle the quantity of these soluble substances rises to 1.3. Healthy +muscle in repose has an alkaline chemical reaction, fatigued muscle +is acid. Some of the substances formed during muscular contraction +possess distinctly poisonous properties and are toxic to the individual +himself. While fatigue is induced by local conditions in the muscles, +the sense of tiredness which we experience is the result of general +rather than local causes. During the course of a long walk, or a day’s +hard toil, the muscles are constantly forming waste products which it +is the function of the internal organs to throw out of the system. It +is not deprivation of food, for example, that is the cause of fatigue, +although it may be contributory. The real cause is the circulation +in the blood of fatigue products. These act upon the nerve-endings +in muscle and paralyse them, and they also act upon certain portions +of our brain, and create the sense of fatigue. Ranke made an aqueous +extract of fatigued but otherwise healthy muscle, and taking the +poisonous substances he injected them into a living muscle that had +been removed from a recently killed animal, with the result that its +power of doing work at once diminished. Were it not for the watchful +activity of our emunctory organs, <i>e.g.</i>, the liver, kidneys, +skin, and bowels, the human body would soon be poisoned by the toxic +substances formed within the system. The sensation of fatigue is due +to the temporary retention of these harmful substances. The blood of a +fatigued animal is more poisonous than that of a healthy one which has +been in a state of quietude for some time previously. When some of this +blood is injected into a healthy animal, it induces the phenomena of +fatigue. If, for example, the blood of a fatigued dog is injected into +a healthy one, the receiving dog will shortly afterwards show signs +of fatigue, creep into a corner and go to sleep. The effect of hard +work upon the blood is also shown in a diminution of its hæmoglobin +or colouring matter. When we are mentally tired, it would seem as +if the sensation of fatigue was located in or depended upon certain +conditions of particular portions of our brain, for if we change the +subject of meditation or take up some game that requires even a great +amount of thought, <i>e.g.</i>, chess, the sensation of tiredness often +disappears. It is difficult to prove whether brain or muscular work +is the more fatiguing. It depends upon the training, the occupation, +and constitution of the individual. The personal element is a factor +in fatigue that cannot be ignored. <i>Prima facie</i>, owing to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> nerve +tissue being the more highly organised, this circumstance suggests +that the brain would be the more easily fatigued. Against that must +be placed the fact that the muscles form a much larger portion of the +body by weight than the nervous system, and consequently within them +must be formed a much larger amount of poisonous waste material. Some +people we know are more easily tired than others, both mentally and +physically. There is for each person apparently a definite rate of +muscular contraction essential to the amount of work accomplished in +a given time. If this is true for the muscular, it is none the less +so for the nervous system. People who have inherited a weak nervous +system become readily exhausted, even with very little work, and +they recuperate slowly. They are said to suffer from neurasthenia, +or nerve weakness. In addition to muscular work being accompanied by +the production of toxic substances, it should be remembered that the +individual is perhaps standing all day at work in a heated factory, +and as a consequence of the fatigue the circulation becomes languid, +and his feet swell. Muscle can after all do only a limited amount of +work, and in order to recover from fatigue there must be a period +of repose or relaxation. This raises the question of the number of +hours per day a man should work, also the length of the break for the +mid-day meal. On the Continent the mid-day break is in some factories +longer than it is in this country, but the work is carried on further +into the evening. It is admitted that in iron works and factories, +where the hours of labour have been unusually long, say ten and eleven +hours, the work done in the latter part of the day is not so good as +that done in the forenoon, and managers say that where the experiment +has been tried, the men have turned out in eight hours an amount of +work equal to what was previously done in nine. The problem can only +be solved by experience. It is right to mention that fatigue does not +always, or necessarily, depend upon the amount of work done. A good +deal depends on the state of the body at the time. We know that good +work can never be done by a tired brain or fatigued muscles, and that +the amount of work accomplished is always greater where the limit of +exhaustion has never been reached. If we are tired and feel that we +have to make a fresh spurt to accomplish something, the end, it is +true, may be gained, but it is by using up a certain amount of reserve +force stored away in our muscles, and by making an additional demand +upon our nervous system. The physical fact of muscular fatigue has its +psychical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> counterpart in the sensation of tiredness. When muscular +work is light and of short duration there may be only a sense of +weight, but if the labour has been hard there may be a sensation of +actual pain which continues for a time. Intellectual work when carried +on too long and without sufficient recreation, interferes with the +innervation of the heart and blood-vessels. In cerebral fatigue there +are often languor, or its opposite restlessness; the pulse may be small +and excitable; the head hot, the feet cold, and there may be noises +complained of in the head. The nervous control of the blood-vessels +is destroyed, so that while the extremities are cold and their +blood-vessels small and contracted, those of the brain may be dilated +and overfilled. Protracted brain work is followed by irritability +of temper, by inability to concentrate the attention and to reason +out problems. It becomes an effort to think. There is headache, for +the brain is, in a similar manner to the muscles, affected by the +circulation through it of waste products. These at first, like alcohol, +may stimulate and excite the brain, but they end by paralysing it. It +is an interesting fact that while the brain is particularly sensitive +to the action upon it of poisonous substances and of an altered +circulation, as seen, <i>e.g.</i>, in bilious headache, the headache of +kidney disease, plumbism, etc., the surface of the brain is insensitive +to touch, as is demonstrated in cases of injury to the skull where +the brain is protruding. The brain can be gently touched without any +sensation being experienced; if there is any at all, it is certainly +not one of pain; any effects that follow are the result of pressure. +While insensitive to a great extent to touch, the surface of the brain +will respond to an electrical stimulus. Levy (<i>British Medical +Journal</i>, 13th September 1900), after stimulating the motor areas +of an animal’s brain by electricity, found that fatigue was rapidly +induced, and when this occurred, that the brain failed to respond to +fresh stimulation until after a period of rest. When interruptedly +stimulated, so that there are periods of rest, the brain does not +become readily fatigued, but is rendered capable of expending a greater +amount of energy.</p> + +<p>Hodge (<i>Journal of Morphology</i>, 1892) has studied the effects +of work upon nerve structures. He found after prolonged electrical +stimulation of spinal nerves certain structural alterations in the +cells of the ganglion on their posterior root. When the nerves were +over-stimulated the cells became shrunken, their protoplasm crenated +and vacuolated. The amount of shrinkage was proportional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> to the length +of stimulation, <i>e.g.</i>, if it was continued for—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht"> 1 hour</td> + <td class="cht">there was</td> + <td class="cht">22 per cent.</td> + <td class="brckt" rowspan="4"><img src="images/big_right_bracket.png" +alt="big right bracket" style="height: 5em; padding:0 1em 0 1.5em;"></td> + <td class="ctr" rowspan="4">Shrinkage in volume<br>of the nuclei of the<br> +stimulated cells.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">2.5 hours</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht">21 „</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"> 5 „</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht">24 „</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">10 „</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht">44 „</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Hodge’s experiments demonstrate that there is a relation between the +amount of structural change in nerves and the length of time during +which the stimulus has been applied. The influence of rest in restoring +the cells to their normal size was equally apparent. In order to +determine how far these changes were really dependent upon work, Hodge +examined the nerve-cells of birds and bees after a day’s work and after +a night’s rest. At the beginning of the day, when the animal had rested +over night, the nerve-cells were found to be large and turgid, and with +prominent nuclei, but after a day’s work, the contents of the cells +were vacuolated and shrunken, and their nuclei altered in shape.</p> + +<p>Dr Guido Guerrini (<i>Lancet</i>, 21st October 1899, and 10th November +1900) confirms the statement just made, that as a result of fatigue +the nerve centres exhibit certain alterations of structure. Beyond +being more vascular than usual, a fatigued brain does not exhibit +anything special to the naked eye. Guerrini caused dogs to run a +certain mileage every day, but it was not until they had covered a +distance varying from 22 to 61 miles that they appeared fatigued. On +examining their brain microscopically, he found the lymphatic spaces +around the cells distended, the chromatin network of the brain-cells +changed, and the pigment disintegrated, while the protoplasm exhibited +numerous vacuoles, the outline of the nucleus was irregular, and its +contents vacuolated. These changes were always proportional to the +amount of fatigue undergone by the animal, and were most pronounced +in those parts of the brain known as the motor areas, <i>i.e.</i>, +those which innervate the muscles. The cause of these alterations of +structure in nerve-cells in fatigue is the circulation in the blood of +waste products formed during work. The presence of this waste material +in the blood not only creates a sense of fatigue, but so alters the +structure of nerve-cells that they require a lengthened period of +repose before they become quite recuperated. Additional changes were +found by Guerrini in the liver and kidneys. On examining these organs +in fatigued dogs, he found that there were changes in the cells of the +convoluted tubules of the kidney, and in the loops of Henle. The cells +were observed to be larger and more brittle than in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span> health, so that +they readily disintegrated and filled the tubules with <i>débris</i>, +in the midst of which the liberated nuclei could be seen. The liver +cells too were found to be enlarged, and the seat of cloudy swelling, +which is always one of the earliest indications of pathological change +occurring in cell protoplasm.</p> + +<p>In considering the question of work and fatigue, there are in addition +certain other factors that cannot be ignored, for example: (1) the +social conditions in operation upon the individual at birth, and +during his upbringing; (2) habits such as the use of alcohol; (3) the +atmosphere in which his work is carried on; and (4) the nature of his +employment, and the number of hours per day spent at it.</p> + +<p>Roughly speaking, the working classes may be divided into artisans, the +majority of whom make good wages, are well housed, well clad, and well +fed; and into labourers, who do unskilled work, whose occupation is +irregular, and who, when out of work, are not well fed.</p> + +<p>To some even of the regularly employed labouring classes, when the +family is large and the wages small, or where work is interrupted on +account of recurrent ill-health, life is a hardship, and the children +are occasionally more or less deprived of their proper food; while +in the case of the textile industries where women are employed in +the factories, the infants, bereft of maternal attention and proper +nutriment, necessarily suffer. The children born in the alleys of our +large towns cannot, as they grow to manhood, be possessed of that +well-developed bodily frame required to fit them for undertaking +hard muscular work. The offspring of parents, both of whom work in +textile or jute factories, are inferior in size and general physique +to children born under healthy surroundings and under more normal +conditions. When these grow up and enter the factory as half-timers, +their rate of growth lags far behind that of children of their own +age who still remain at school. The trend of civilisation is for +hard manual labour to be more and more replaced by machinery in all +industries. By some social economists, however, as we shall see later +on, this is not always regarded as an unmixed benefit. When a child +commences work and earns a weekly wage he is to that extent more able +to procure the additional food his growing frame requires. From this +point of view the object is good; and if only the physical labour is +gradually undertaken, is not too long, and is tempered to the strength +of the juvenile worker, the training, like the muscular exercises +alluded to in the earlier part of this paper, may be beneficial than +otherwise. It is not always thus, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> with children who go into +factories. Children brought from the country, and with good physique +to start with, will be found after two years’ work in a mill in a +large town to exhibit a smaller rate of growth than those who engage +in outdoor work. The children of the poorer classes commence life at a +great disadvantage compared with those of the well-to-do. There is more +sickness, and the death-rate among them is higher, owing very largely +to bad feeding, exposure, and neglect. Pagliani found as a consequence +of women continuing to do hard muscular work when <i>enceinte</i>, +and commencing their industrial duties again too soon after their +confinement, even though giving their infants the breast, that the +children were of shorter stature and of feebler force than those not +similarly treated. A fairly reliable test of the effect of severe +manual labour upon children in Continental countries is seen in the +large number of conscripts rejected from military service on account of +some physical disqualification. In no place perhaps more than in Sicily +are the harmful effects of fatigue and exhaustion on young people +so apparent. An excessive proportion of the conscripts who had been +in their earlier years engaged in carrying heavy baskets of sulphur +out of the mines near Catania are found to be physically feeble, +ill-developed, and unfit for military service. Is a similar condition +of things, although to a minor degree, not taking place in our own +country? The standard of height and of chest measurement required of +recruits is not rising but falling. The improper feeding, bad housing, +imperfect clothing, and absence of pure air in the home, which are the +lot of an increasing number of the poorer working classes, are not the +conditions that favour the development of such healthy labouring people +as are required to enable us as an industrial community to compete with +other nations, perhaps more favourably circumstanced. The point is, +whether in this respect other nations do not come under the same ban as +ourselves.</p> + +<p>After work there must be relaxation, in order that an opportunity may +be given for the muscles to recuperate, and for waste products to +be removed. For working men, physical rest and recreation, sleeping +in good air amid healthy surroundings, are desiderata, and yet how +few there be who find these. With the toil of the day over, home +reached and supper finished, there is little in the immediate dingy +surroundings that is attractive, and so the working men saunter out to +the nearest street corner to converse with their comrades, or adjourn +to a public-house, where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> in an overheated bar and ill-ventilated +rooms the remaining hours of the evening are spent. Nor is the married +working woman much better off, so far as rest is concerned, for after +her day’s work in the factory she attempts to overtake, often unaided, +her neglected maternal and domestic duties. It is desirable that +healthy recreation for our working classes should be provided to a +greater extent than it is. In this matter employers could do a great +deal. The proper housing of the working classes is even a greater need. +How can the poorer working men have good health, good morals, and be +long lived, when they do not have in their homes and surroundings those +conditions that enable them, during periods of relaxation, to sleep +well, and to eliminate by their lungs and skin the waste materials +formed during toil. After all, we are each of us, physically and +mentally, very much what the circumstances of life make us. Personal, +not less than national character, is partly moulded by external +surroundings.</p> + +<p>The habits of the poorer working classes, too, as regards alcohol +are not without their bearing upon this important question. It is a +subject, therefore, upon which there should be some definite expression +of opinion, especially since both at home and abroad there is a belief +that alcohol is a necessity for the working classes. This matter has +been recently brought to the front in France by the socialist leader, +M. Fournière, in an address delivered to working men, the gist of +whose argument is, that alcohol is a hydrocarbon, capable of supplying +during combustion within the body the necessary elements for muscular +work, and that therefore it is a food. Among foods of the hydrocarbon +type Fournière places alcohol in the first rank. He maintains that +the insufficient food of the workman imposes upon him the necessity +for alcohol; his hard work creates a desire for it. Alcoholism as a +social infirmity is therefore regarded as a direct consequence of the +excessive demands made upon the muscular system by present-day labour. +This is dangerous teaching to working men, and cannot be allowed to +pass unchallenged. The insufficient food of the working man is in many +instances the result of his small wages and uncertainty of employment, +but it is a monstrous evil for any political leader to recommend him to +spend more of his wages upon drink. Money purchases less alcohol than +food; besides, what is spent upon alcohol is consumed by the individual +himself, leaving less of the wages, therefore, to be spent on food for +his wife and family. It is pandering to selfishness, and the teaching +tends to encourage the idea that what a man produces by his labour he +has a sole right<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span> to spend upon himself, leaving to Society the care +of those who are naturally his own. But quite apart from this side of +the question, what is the teaching of physiology?<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> It can be shown +that the administration of alcohol in more than moderate doses is +followed by a diminution of muscular energy, which fresh doses of the +stimulant do not readily compensate; that to the period of excitement +there succeeds one of depression, so that in a given time the amount +of work accomplished under alcohol is less than that done without +it. I think I may safely say that no literary man ever did his best +work under the influence of alcohol. In moderate quantities alcohol +stimulates the brain for a brief period, and quickens the flow of +ideas, but this is followed by a reaction of depression. In a paper +read before the Académie des Sciences, January 1901, M. A. Chauveau +detailed the results of his experiments upon alcohol and muscular work. +He set himself this problem: how far a man who works and whose blood +is saturated with alcohol obtains from the combustion of alcohol the +energy necessary for the functional activity of his muscles? In order +to estimate this he measured the “respiratory quotient,” that is to +say, the relation existing between the volume of carbonic acid excreted +and the amount of oxygen absorbed. His conclusions are drawn mostly +from dogs. In an ordinary way meat and sugar were administered to these +animals, and subsequently for 84 grammes of sugar 48 of alcohol were +substituted. Under the normal feeding the mean respiratory quotient +was 0.963, but during the period of the administration of alcohol +it only reached 0.922. Chauveau proved by this and other means that +alcohol is not utilised as potential energy either for the execution +of physiological functions acting together in a state of repose or for +muscular work during states of activity. In substituting alcohol for +sugar he found in a given time—(1) a diminution of muscular work; (2) +loss of body weight, and (3) increased expenditure of energy relative +to the amount of work accomplished. We are familiar with the fact of +the large quantities of stout consumed by the London dock labourers, +who, either as the result of experience or imagination, have come to +look upon malt liquor as a necessity and as a food. Without denying the +fact of stout in small quantities when taken with food supplementing, +through its hydrocarbons and the sugar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> it contains, muscular energy, +it can only to a limited extent contribute to those combustion +processes from which the muscular system derives the necessary energy +for its functional activity. Reverting for the moment to Chauveau’s +experiments, it was found that during the period of normal feeding a +dog ran a distance of 23.924 kilometres every day in two hours, and +that its weight increased 1.245 kilos.; but during an equal length of +time when it was taking alcohol instead of sugar, the distance coursed +in the two hours daily was only 18.666 kilometres, and its weight fell +115 grammes. It is true that we cannot apply <i>in toto</i> the results +of this experiment to man, but they are not without their meaning. +Sugar is a well recognised muscle food. The experiment shows us that +in dogs, when alcohol is substituted for sugar, the result is not to +the advantage of the individual. There is a diminution in the amount +of work done. More than this, alcohol tends, and the more impure it is +the greater the tendency, to load the blood with harmful substances, +and to induce pathological changes in such of the eliminating organs +of the body as the liver and kidneys. Even admitting that it may +contribute to the production of muscular energy, it imposes upon these +organs a greater burden than a proportional quantity of food, and thus +it happens that as a consequence of the circulation within the body of +the toxic substances formed in muscle during work and of those derived +from alcohol, also the fact that alcohol checks the power of the liver +and kidneys to throw off the toxic material circulating in the blood, +there are induced at an early age in working men who are intemperate, +pathological changes in the liver, kidneys, and nervous system, +structural alterations which play a very large part in the causation of +the high death-rate of the poorer working classes.</p> + +<p>In considering the question of fatigue of working people we must not +overlook the nature of their employment, the rooms in which the labour +is carried on, and the number of hours daily spent in work. When the +air in a factory is close, and is not renewed frequently enough, +there is an impediment to the escape of carbonic acid from the lungs, +and when the air is overheated and moist, the natural cooling of the +body through respiration cannot occur. Labour carried on under these +conditions entails an additional tax upon the strength of the workers +and burdens their system with impurities. We live in an age that +creates, because there is a demand for, labour-saving machinery. The +introduction of steam has revolutionised industry. Manufacturers keep +increasing their production and throwing goods in larger quantity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> +and at lower price upon the market. Machinery acts with unerring +uniformity. At times so simple is its mechanism that a child can almost +guide it, yet how exacting are its demands. While machinery has in +some senses lightened the burden of human toil, it has not diminished +fatigue in man. All through the hours of work in a factory the hum of +the wheels never ceases. Requiring constant attention, to stop the +machinery running is to lose money, and so men and women are obliged +to wrestle with the forces of steam and mechanical ingenuity. While +the machinery pursues its relentless course and is insensitive to +fatigue, human beings are conscious, especially towards the end of the +day, that the competition is unequal, for their muscles are becoming +tired and their brains jaded. In many factories the system of double +shifts allows the work to be carried on by night as well as by day. +It is not urged that where double shifts of men are employed and the +work conducted in well-ventilated factories, the shifts alternating +every fortnight (night being the ordained period for man’s rest) with +no Sunday labour and Saturday afternoons off, that the double shift +system is necessarily prejudicial to health. But what shall we say +of double shifts that practically never know of any interruption? A +short while ago I visited a large iron works on the Continent where +steel rails were being made. By means of a day and night shift the +work went on continuously. On the occasion of my second visit to the +works at eleven o’clock at night I met with a strange sight. The men +were working almost naked; they were only wearing loose, coarse cotton +garments like shortened nightdresses, and even in these they were +bathed in perspiration. As they flitted about in the darkness, lit up +by the lurid glare of the furnaces, they looked more like demons than +men. For nearly seven years had the furnaces been going almost without +cessation. From the first day of one year to the commencement of that +following, Sunday, Saturday, and Christmas Day, the men had worked +their particular shift, never knowing what twenty-four hours’ respite +from labour was unless when off ill. The company pensioned the men +when they were too ill or too old to work, and gave them a house with +a small garden and pasturage for a cow; but what availed these when +the best years of the workmen’s lives had flown and the enfeebling +influences of old age had fallen upon them? The men were old at the +age of forty, and many of them were broken down in health. It is the +continuous demands made by machinery that are so trying, there being +no time left for relaxation. Presentday<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span> factory labour is too much a +competition of sensitive human nerve and muscle against insensitive +iron, and yet, apart from an appropriate shortening of the hours of +labour, it is difficult to see how this can be remedied. The greater +the number of hours machinery runs per day the larger is the output for +the manufacturer, but the feebler are the human limbs that guide it. To +the machine time is nothing; to the human being, each hour that passes +beyond a well-defined limit means increasing fatigue and exhaustion. +There are some social economists, Marx among others, who maintain that +while machinery has diminished the price of products it has made the +lot of the worker worse, since by disregarding human strength it has +introduced into factories a larger number of women, thereby reducing +wages and diminishing the number of men required; so that, while there +has followed a diminution in the number of hours of employment, the +tension when at work is greater, and the output larger, thus resulting +in more work being done. Machinery, too, by obliging man to do and to +keep at one particular detail of work, is reducing him to a mere unit, +and causing him to be ignorant of the other processes of manufacture, +and to be less and less the handy man of an age now all but past. It +remains to be seen how far this enforced relegation of man’s labour to +the production of one particular product is for his own ultimate good +and that of Society.</p> + +<p>There is, it seems to me, too great a tendency even on the part of +working men themselves to insist upon uniformity in regard to the +number of hours they shall be employed. This is seen in the attempt to +nationalise an eight hours’ day for coal-miners, when it is known that +in Northumberland and Durham they do not work eight hours from bank to +bank. There are local and social conditions that cannot be ignored, and +before which the leaders of working men must bow. As regards dangerous +trades, it goes without saying that the number of hours spent daily +in a factory should be fewer than in healthy trades or in outdoor +occupations; and a similar remark applies to those industries in which +the work is hard and makes severe demands upon the muscular system of +the labourers. It was surely never meant that work should be other +than invigorating to man, and educive of all that is best within him. +Healthy persons, therefore, should work to keep healthy; those who +do not work, miss one of the greatest charms of life and stimuli to +health. Fatigue is not due to work but to overwork, and excess of every +kind is injurious.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER IX<br> +<span class="subhed">MORTALITY OF OCCUPATIONS</span></h2></div> + +<p>Having undertaken, at the invitation of the editor of the present +work, to contribute a section on the mortality of occupations, I think +it just to him and to my readers to premise that inasmuch as the +results of the forthcoming census cannot possibly be available for a +considerable time to come, the statistical <i>data</i> on which I shall +have to base my present observations must inevitably be those which +were collected some years ago for the purposes of the second volume +of my previous work.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> And, seeing that those <i>data</i> were to a +large extent exhausted in the preparation of the work referred to, it +follows that I can offer comparatively little that is actually new in +the remarks which I am now about to submit. The best that I can hope to +accomplish is to select from the mass of statistical matter that was +compiled for my larger work such particulars as may seem appropriate +for the present article, adding from time to time such explanatory +comments as a careful review of my previous book may show to be +desirable.</p> + +<p>Before entering on a discussion of the special subject with which the +present essay is concerned, it may be well to offer a few preliminary +remarks on the variations of mortality in general, as affected by +conditions other than those of occupation, and in different parts of +the country.</p> + +<p>In a paper read before the Royal Society in 1859, my distinguished +predecessor, Dr Farr, produced evidence to show that in sixty-three +of the registration areas of England and Wales, which he designated +“Healthy Districts,” the death-rate in 1845–50 did not exceed 17 per +1000 persons living. Improvement in the health conditions of England +and Wales has now made it practicable to establish a higher standard +for healthy districts: for whereas in 1845–50 less than 6 per cent. of +the total population<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span> lived in localities where the death-rate was 17 +per 1000, we are now able to state that in the years 1881–90 not less +than 25 per cent. of the people lived in districts where the death-rate +ruled below 17 per 1000, including a proportion of 4.5 per cent. in +districts where the death-rate did not reach 15 per 1000. At the same +period the general death-rate of England and Wales was 19 per 1000 +living: about one-fourth part of the English population experienced +a death-rate of from 12 to 16 per 1000, one-half were subject to +death-rates ranging from 16 to 22 per 1000, whilst one-fourth part +of the population experienced death-rates varying from 22 to as many +as 36 per 1000 living, or more than double the rate obtaining in the +healthy districts. It is not of course suggested that these enormous +differences of mortality are to be accounted for exclusively by +circumstances of locality, or even by circumstances of occupation +and locality combined. The true causes of excessive local mortality +are for the most part well known to the sanitary authorities who are +responsible for the health and well-being of the communities among whom +such unfavourable conditions prevail; in any case, these causes cannot +be specially discussed here.</p> + +<p>The foregoing remarks, with respect to fluctuations in general +mortality, may have little obvious bearing on the subject in hand, +namely, the mortality of occupations. But I adduce them in order +to assist in explaining what will be further emphasised later +on, <i>i.e.</i>, the fact that even in the same industry the +workers in various places experience wide differences in their +mortality—differences which can only be accounted for on the theory +that conditions of environment determine, to a greater degree than is +usually believed, whether the mortality of a given industry shall be +favourable or the reverse.</p> + +<p>In connection with each of the last four census enumerations, and with +the aid of the death registers for the several intercensal periods, +attempts have been made to ascertain the influence of occupation on +the health and vitality of the people. The results have been published +in successive “Decennial Supplements,” and to these works reference +must be made on points of detail. The earlier investigations of Dr +Farr, which were based on the census populations and the deaths in 1861 +and 1871, were limited to the mortality from all causes incidental to +men engaged in certain well-defined occupations—account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> being taken +only incidentally of the diseases to which that mortality was due. +This omission, however, was supplied by Dr Ogle in the third Decennial +Supplement, which dealt with occupational mortality in 1880–2. On +that occasion Dr Ogle undertook the laborious task of abstracting and +analysing large numbers of deaths in combination with ages, causes, +and occupations, and thus succeeded in preparing the valuable series +of tables concerning “causes of death in different occupations” which +illustrate his work.</p> + +<p>For the last decennial supplement I am myself responsible. In Part +II. of that work the calculations were based on the population, as +enumerated at the census of 1891, and the deaths registered in the +three years 1890–2. Details of age, occupation, and cause of death, +with respect to every male over fifteen years of age who had died +during these three years, were abstracted from the registers and +entered on separate slips of paper: these slips, more than half a +million in number, were then examined by specially selected clerks, who +had been employed in classifying occupations for the census reports, +and each slip was distinctively marked with the heading under which the +occupation should fall.</p> + +<p>In the course of the work it speedily became apparent that the +mortality of men employed in the several occupations is seriously +affected by the surroundings in which they work, and, as before +mentioned, these surroundings vary considerably, even for the same +occupation, in different parts of the country. In order to ascertain, +if possible, the extent to which the mortality of certain occupations +was modified by these conditions, the following plan was pursued: the +slips belonging severally to London, and to certain groups of districts +the populations of which are mainly engaged either in industrial, in +agricultural, or in mining pursuits, were counted separately from +those belonging to the remaining parts of England and Wales, and the +mortality of the same occupations was ascertained in each of these +areas.</p> + +<p>The group of <i>Industrial Districts</i> was constituted as +follows—The county of Lancaster was selected as the seat of the cotton +industry; the towns of Huddersfield, Halifax, and Bradford, as that of +the woollen industry; Wolverhampton, Birmingham, Leeds, and Sheffield, +as that of the iron and steel industry; and Leicester as concerned in +the manufacture of boots and hosiery.</p> + +<p>The <i>Agricultural Group</i> contained all those counties of England<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> +and Wales in which at least one-third of the occupied males over ten +years of age were returned at the census as farmers and farm labourers; +to these were added parts of counties in which, after exclusion of +some of their principal towns, a like proportion of the population was +found to consist of farmers and their labourers. In order to avoid +possible confusion, as between different grades of labourers, it may +be mentioned that all those who were described simply as “labourers” +in these agricultural districts have been reckoned here as “farm +labourers.” For comparison of the mortality among <i>coal miners</i> +in different parts of the country, separate statistics for this +industry were compiled for the following six local areas: (1) Durham +and Northumberland, (2) Lancashire, (3) The West Riding of Yorkshire, +(4) Derbyshire and Northamptonshire, (5) Staffordshire, and (6) +Monmouthshire with South Wales.</p> + +<p>The extracts from the death-register were limited, for the purpose +of my Decennial Supplement, to facts concerning males aged fifteen +years and upwards. Hitherto no attempt has been made to deal with the +occupational mortality of females. The uncertainty attaching to the +statement of occupations in the case of females has been urged as a +reason against such an attempt. Much importance has also been held to +attach to the fact that only 38 per cent. of the women aged between +fifteen and sixty-five years were returned at the census as following +any definite occupation, whereas 94 per cent. of the men at the same +ages were so returned. Having regard, however, to the vastly increased +attention which is now devoted to female industries, especially those +which are carried on under the control of the Factory Acts, it is +much to be desired that the mortality of the more important of these +industries, at any rate, should be subjected to careful statistical +investigation at the earliest possible opportunity.</p> + +<p>The choice of an occupation by a labouring man is not always, nor is +it mainly, determined by personal caprice. It is matter of common +observation, that in industries of the more laborious type, such as +those of railway navvy, engine fitter, boiler maker, blacksmith, etc., +only men in the prime of life, or of more than average physique, are to +be found. The operatives in these industries are selected men, quite +as much so as are soldiers or sailors, but the process of selection +is a different one. They can continue their arduous toil only so long +as their bodily strength remains at its best: and when, from sickness +or from advancing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span> age this gives way, they are forced to relinquish +their labour. They then either turn to some employment which makes less +exacting demands on their energy, or else fall out of the ranks of +definite employment entirely, and descend to the sad lot of those who +are described as of no settled occupation. It follows, therefore, that +the men in actual work in the laborious occupations above mentioned +enjoy a special advantage over the workers in less arduous trades; and +their mortality, although high in spite of that advantage, appears +far lower than it would do if every individual could be traced from +the time of his entry on the occupation to the end of life. But what +of the men who, after trial of a laborious calling, perhaps for the +best years of their lives, are forced by ill-health or other infirmity +to relinquish it? Very many of these will be found struggling to eke +out a living either as cab-drivers, omnibus guards, or messengers, +and being for the most part broken down in health as well as careworn +and ill-nourished, they must further increase the already high +apparent mortality of these workers. Failing this, they will go to +swell the ranks of the classes indefinitely known as costermongers, +dock labourers, street sellers, hawkers, and general labourers, or +less fortunate still, they will drift into the yet lower grade of the +unoccupied, whose terrible mortality I shall shortly have to describe.</p> + +<p>The mortality prevailing in a given industry from time to time can +only be regarded as, at best, a rough measure of the healthfulness +of that industry. The reason for this will be explained presently. +It is, however, beyond question that when the public mind becomes +sufficiently appreciative of the economic value of human life, and of +the wastefulness of ill-health, to demand a registration of sickness +corresponding with that which is now in force with regard to mortality, +we shall be in a position to measure with a near approach to accuracy +the amount of damage done by the several industries to the health and +vitality of the workers, although it may not be practicable to suggest +in all cases a remedy for the waste and the suffering so caused.</p> + +<p>Meantime it is desirable to indicate briefly some of the chief reasons +which detract from the value of mortality statistics as <i>criteria</i> +of the healthfulness of occupations. And first with regard to the data +concerning the living in the various industries. It might seem at first +sight a simple matter to sort out the units of an industrial community<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> +according to their occupations as stated in the census schedules: but +even a superficial study of the experience of those responsible for the +conduct of past censuses will show that even this initial process is, +in reality, a highly complex and difficult one.</p> + +<p>The number of names of more or less distinct avocations in England is +enormous; at the last census it was about 12,000, but at the present +time it is probably far greater than this. The vast additions that have +accrued to our nomenclature of occupations is due in a great measure to +the circumstance that new branches of industry have sprung up amongst +us in recent years, and that with advancing times, old trade processes +have undergone more and more minute subdivision. Nevertheless a large +number of more or less obsolete names are still of necessity retained +in the list of occupations, for the guidance of the abstractors, +although many of those in current use are scarcely more than ephemeral +nick-names, which are of but rare occurrence in the schedules.</p> + +<p>In recent years the industries of the English people have come to +be very minutely subdivided, each group of workers in the several +subdivisions being known by a special name; and what is worse, the +same name frequently indicates one thing in the north of England, and +another thing in the south. Nay, more, it frequently happens that +these arbitrary names give no clue whatever to the character of the +industry to which they are assigned. Perhaps the most serious and +perplexing difficulty met with in connection with classification is the +fact that very frequently one and the same name is used to indicate +totally dissimilar occupations. Thus, for example, the term joiner in +some places is used to designate a carpenter, but in others it means a +maker of lace. By clothier is sometimes meant a cloth-maker, in others +it stands for a dealer in clothes. By jobber is understood in some +cases merely an artisan, whilst in others it takes a more definite +meaning in connection with the exchange of money (stockjobber). A +drummer is either a soldier or a blacksmith’s striker. A miller is +either a dealer in corn or a stone mason. An engineer may be either +a maker or a driver of machinery. A placer may be either a potter or +an iron manufacturer. In the above-mentioned cases the confusion is +only between two occupations, but there are other instances far more +numerous and much more troublesome, in which one particular name is +used in common for a similar process in a considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> number of +different trades. For instance, there are spinners, weavers, warpers, +winders, etc., alike in cotton, silk, wool, and flax factories, and +when an operative is returned under one or other of these names, +without further distinction, it is impossible to decide to which +of the several manufactures he ought to be assigned. Nor is the +worker necessarily to be blamed for this; for he, failing to see the +importance of precision, and perhaps ignorant of the use in other +industries of a designation similar to his own, not unnaturally returns +himself under some such familiar heading, without further question. +Nevertheless it will readily be understood that the existence in the +returns of such indefinite headings as “miner,” “labourer,” “artisan,” +makes it difficult to estimate the precise number of workers in any +industry, if, indeed, it does not in certain cases seriously reduce the +value of such estimates. Fortunately, however, the numbers of workers +thus vaguely returned at the census are small when compared with the +enormously greater aggregates of those employed in the more important +industries, and whose exact occupations are definitely known: so that, +with respect to these principal industries, at any rate, the numbers +can be ascertained with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes.</p> + +<p>Thus far a few of the difficulties and possible errors connected +with the returns of the living in the several industries having been +considered, we now come to speak of the other factor of relative +mortality, viz., the deaths occurring in the several occupations, +and their classification according to age and probable cause. The +difficulties encountered in relation to estimates of population have +already been shown to be considerable; and yet they are not only +fewer in number, but also less serious than those we shall now have +to notice. The vagueness with which occupations are too often stated +in the schedules has already been referred to, but unfortunately even +greater vagueness is discoverable in the death returns. In proof of +this the large group of men, some six hundred thousand in number, who +are designated “agricultural labourers,” may be taken as a case in +point. In the census returns of the living these men are doubtless +correctly described, but in the death registers they are in many cases +entered simply as “labourers,” without qualification of any kind. +Consequently there is danger lest these men, who for the most part +are remarkably healthy, sober, and well-conducted, should be confused +with “general labourers,” a sadly unhealthy, degenerate set<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span> of men, +whose occupation is uncertain, who live from hand to mouth, and whose +mortality is nearly double that of agricultural labourers. Coal miners, +again, are a class of workers who are likely to be differently entered +in the census returns on the one hand, and in the death registers +on the other. In consequence of the very commendable efforts which +are made to secure accurate returns of the living at each census, it +is probable that for the most part miners are classified accurately +according to the mineral in which they work, but in the death registers +coal miners and iron miners, tin miners and copper miners, are alike in +many cases classed simply as “miners,” without further distinction, and +thus much uncertainty results as to the exact class of workers to which +a particular death should be assigned.</p> + +<p>In his Decennial Supplement for the period 1871–80, Dr Ogle dealt with +this subject very thoroughly; and inasmuch as his opinion is deserving +of great weight, I make no apology for quoting here the following +extract from that work. Speaking of the difficulties which occasion +flaws in the calculations of occupational mortality, he says:—“There +are many trades and occupations which require a considerable standard +of muscular strength and vigour to be maintained by those who follow +them; such occupations, for instance, as those of a blacksmith, of +a miner, and the like; and so soon as from any cause the health and +strength of a man fall below this standard, he must of necessity give +up the occupation, and either take to some lighter form of labour, +or, if his health be too much impaired for this, retire altogether +from work. And even in those industries where no excessive amount +of muscular strength is required, there must nevertheless be always +a certain time beyond which continuance in the business becomes an +impossibility. The weaker individuals, and those whose health is +failing them, are thus being drafted out of each industrial occupation, +and especially out of those which require much vigour; and the +consequence is that the death-rates in these latter occupations are +unfairly lowered, as compared with the death-rate in occupations of +an easier character, and still more, as compared with the death-rates +among those persons who are returned as having no occupation at all. A +very considerable proportion of those who are forced to give up harder +labour take to odd jobs of a more or less indefinite character, and +are returned both in the census schedule and eventually in the death +registers as general labourers, as messengers, or as costermongers, +street sellers, etc.; and thus it comes about that the death-rates of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> +general labourers, of messengers, and of street sellers ... appear to +be of appalling magnitude, as also do those of persons returned as +of no occupation. Under these headings, however, are comprised the +broken-down and the crippled, who have fallen out of the ranks from all +the various industries, as well as those who have been throughout life +debarred, by natural infirmities or other causes, from following any +definite occupation. Another very serious flaw in these death-rates, +when taken as measures of the relative healthiness of different +industries, is due to the fact that these several industries do not +start on equal terms as regards the vitality of those who follow them. +A weakling will hardly adopt the trade of a blacksmith, a miner, or a +railway navvy, but will preferentially take to some lighter occupation, +such as that of a tailor, a weaver, or a shopman. This defect in the +death-rate gives an unfair advantage to such industries as demand much +strength or activity in those that follow them. Such industries are in +fact carried on by a body of comparatively picked men; stronger in the +beginning, and maintained at a high level by the continual drafting out +of those whose strength falls below the mark.”</p> + +<p>In comparing the mortality of occupations at different and perhaps +remote periods of time, it is important to ascertain whether any +epidemic or pandemic diseases have been seriously prevalent among +the general population during either of the periods compared; for in +that case considerable allowance will have to be made for this fact, +if anything like accuracy of result is aimed at. Thus, for example, +in any comparison that may be instituted between the mortality of +1891 and that of 1881, it is necessary to take into account the +far-reaching effects of the influenza epidemic which exceptionally +and with great severity prevailed throughout the more recent period. +It is unquestionable that the fatality of diseases not only of the +respiratory but of the nervous and circulatory systems also was +seriously increased by this complication, and that the value of any +comparison between the mortality statistics of the two periods has been +considerably diminished as a consequence.</p> + +<p>The foregoing are a few of the more important defects which are +unavoidably present in the data from which comparative statistics of +occupational mortality are prepared. They are serious and far-reaching. +In using such statistics as a means of distinguishing between different +industries with respect to their healthfulness, it is necessary to +recognise the existence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> of these defects, and to make suitable +allowances for them. Nevertheless when this has been done, it is beyond +question that the rates of mortality furnish reliable measures of the +healthfulness of different occupations, especially of those in which +the number of workers is sufficient to furnish trustworthy rates, and +the period of investigation is adequate for the purpose.</p> + +<p>Dr Farr has indicated the period of life between the twenty-fifth and +the sixty-fifth year as that in which “the influence of profession is +most felt.” Dr Ogle, in his Decennial Supplement to the 45th Report, +adopted the same view, supporting it by the argument, that in the +earlier periods the effect of occupation is not as yet fully developed: +and that the last age period (sixty-five and upwards) is that which is +more especially affected by the retirement from the industry of such +men as have become too weakly to follow it. My own inquiries having +tended to confirm these opinions, I have retained in my recent work the +same interval, namely, that of the forty years between the twenty-sixth +and sixty-sixth birthdays, as marking the period of life during which +the effects of occupation are most conspicuous. In the majority of +industries this is generally held to be the term of years which most +accurately corresponds with the period of man’s greatest capacity for +effective labour. There are, however, several occupations in which this +is not so. Instances may readily be adduced of occupations in which the +actual task of bread-winning both begins and ends at an earlier age +than it does in most other industries; so that it would be impossible +to specify any limit of age which should apply equally well to all +occupations in this respect. Inasmuch, however, as it is necessary for +our present purpose to select some one interval for general adoption, +the age twenty-five to sixty-five is that which has been adopted as the +“main working period of life” in the following pages.</p> + +<p>The mortality of any given occupation is influenced very decidedly by +“the age and sex distribution” of the workers. The examples following +will show how great is this influence: the figures indicate the rates +of mortality in each thousand males living in groups of ages: (1) among +men in general, (2) among farmers as a class (see table on next page).</p> + +<p>From this table it will be seen that the mortality of farmers is below +that of males in general at every age-group, and that from the first +stage of life to the last it averages from 50 to 60 per cent. of the +mortality of males generally. If, however, the total deaths of farmers +above fifteen years be calculated on the total<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> number of farmers +living above fifteen years, and without further distinction of age, the +mortality of farmers would be represented</p> + + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Ages<br>(Years).</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">General Male<br>Population.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Farmers.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Mortality of Farmers to that of Males<br> +generally, the latter taken as 100.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">15–20</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 4.14</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 1.30</td> + <td class="ctrr">31</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">20–25</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 5.55</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 2.40</td> + <td class="ctrr">43</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">25–35</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 7.67</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 4.29</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">35–45</td> + <td class="ctrr">13.01</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 7.03</td> + <td class="ctrr">54</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">45–55</td> + <td class="ctrr">21.37</td> + <td class="ctrr">11.20</td> + <td class="ctrr">52</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">55–65</td> + <td class="ctrr">39.01</td> + <td class="ctrr">23.97</td> + <td class="ctrr">61</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">65 and upwards</td> + <td class="ctrrb">103.53</td> + <td class="ctrrb">87.81</td> + <td class="ctrrb">88</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>by a rate of 19.58 per 1000, or 0.84 per 1000 above that of males +in the aggregate. It therefore appears that although farmers do not +die so fast as other men at each of the age-groups here specified, +nevertheless farmers in the aggregate, <i>i.e.</i>, without distinction +of age, die faster than other men. This apparent contradiction will, +however, be explained when the differences in age constitution are +taken into account between farmers on the one hand and males in the +aggregate on the other. Reference to the census report will show that +there are nearly three-fourths as many farmers above sixty-five years +old, when the mortality is 88 per 1000, as there are at ages between +twenty-five and fifty-five, when it is only 4½ per 1000: whilst +among the male population generally the number living at ages above +sixty-five years, when the mortality exceeds 103 per 1000, is less than +one-third of the number between twenty-five and thirty-five, when it +does not exceed 8 per 1000. From the foregoing example, then, which is +by no means a solitary one, it is clear that crude rates of mortality, +<i>i.e.</i>, rates computed without reference to age differences of +population, are untrustworthy as a means of comparing one occupation +with another on the score either of health or of longevity.</p> + +<p>In dealing with the occupational mortality of 1880–2, Dr Ogle adopted +the plan of “deaths in standard population,” which fairly represents +the mortality of a given occupation as compared with the general +mortality. The same plan has been followed (<i>mutatis mutandis</i>) +in the present work. It may be thus explained. The standard population +here used is the number of men between the ages of twenty-five and +sixty-five years in the population of England and Wales, amongst whom +1000 deaths would occur in a single year; the population in 1891 +and the deaths in 1890–2 being taken as the basis. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> comparative +mortality figure, therefore, is the number of deaths that would occur +in a year, according to the death-rates ascertained for a given +occupation among 61,215 men of standard age constitution: it represents +very fairly the mortality in the given occupation as compared with that +among males generally.</p> + +<p>Out of 61,215 men aged from twenty-five to sixty-five at the census of +1891 there were enumerated:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr"></td> + <td class="ctr">22,586</td> + <td class="ctr">at the age-group</td> + <td class="ctr">25–35 years</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr"></td> + <td class="ctr">17,418</td> + <td class="ctr"> „  „</td> + <td class="ctr">35–45 „</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr"></td> + <td class="ctr">12,885</td> + <td class="ctr"> „  „</td> + <td class="ctr">45–55 „</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">and</td> + <td class="ctr">8,326</td> + <td class="ctr"> „  „</td> + <td class="ctr">55–65 „</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In order to ascertain the number of deaths that would occur among +61,215 men engaged in a particular industry, all that is necessary is +to apply to these four totals the corresponding rates of mortality +occurring in that industry: the resulting sum of deaths will be the +comparative mortality figure for that industry; and if the calculated +deaths in each of the four age-groups be distributed proportionally +according to the causes of death in such age-group, the parts of the +comparative mortality figure that are due to the several causes will +be obtained. By means of the tables which follow in the letterpress, +and which have been prepared according to this principle, the mortality +of men engaged in the stated occupations may be studied. I now proceed +to illustrate, by means of a particular example, the manner in which +dissimilar rates may be used for the purpose of comparing the mortality +of men engaged in different occupations. In my larger work it was +shown that in the three years 1890–2 there occurred among gardeners +and nurserymen, between the ages before mentioned, 3462 deaths out +of 339,225 years of life. If the age constitution among gardeners +had been the same as that among the general English male population, +the mortality of 61,215 males taken (1) from among the general male +population, and (2) from among gardeners, would stand as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Age in years.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">General Male Population.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Gardeners and Nurserymen.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrb">Numbers<br>Living.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Deaths.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Mortality<br>per 1000.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Mortality<br>per 1000.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Deaths.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">25–35</td> + <td class="ctrr">22,586</td> + <td class="ctrr">173</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 7.67</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 4.14</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 94</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">35–45</td> + <td class="ctrr">17,418</td> + <td class="ctrr">227</td> + <td class="ctrr">13.01</td> + <td class="ctrr"> 6.59</td> + <td class="ctrr">115</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">45–55</td> + <td class="ctrr">12,885</td> + <td class="ctrr">275</td> + <td class="ctrr">21.37</td> + <td class="ctrr">11.63</td> + <td class="ctrr">150</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">55–65</td> + <td class="ctrrb"> 8,326</td> + <td class="ctrrb">325</td> + <td class="ctrrb">39.01</td> + <td class="ctrrb">23.29</td> + <td class="ctrrb">194</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">25–65</td> + <td class="ctrrb">61,215</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1000</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">553</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span></p> + +<p>The true ratio of mortality among gardeners to that among the general +male population is thus seen to be 553 to 1000, and this may be +expressed by designating 553 the “comparative mortality figure” for +gardeners.</p> + +<p><i>Unhealthy Trades.</i>—A simple and rational classification was +that of the late Dr Guy, the accomplished physician of King’s College +Hospital, by which occupations were divided into (1) indoor, and (2) +outdoor. It is matter of common knowledge, at least among medical men, +that outdoor occupations are, for the most part, more healthful than +indoor; which is tantamount to the statement that a life of labour in +the open air, in spite of the danger of exposure to inclement weather, +is more conducive to health and longevity than is indoor labour, with +its ordinary (though by no means necessary) concomitants of foul air, +sedentary habits, and want of exercise.</p> + +<p>Having ventured to estimate, with the sole assistance of mortality +statistics, the amount of damage to health, as well as of waste of +life, which is encountered by workmen of different grades, as a result +of their employment, it is of course necessary, <i>in limine</i>, to +determine the maladies whose inordinate fatality is to be regarded as +evidence that mischief has resulted from any particular trade process. +The organs which are affected, not only earliest, but also most +seriously, by dusty air and by air which is organically impure, are the +lungs: and we naturally look to these organs as being those which will +probably exhibit the chief indications of injury. Here, however, we +are met by an initial difficulty. Unfortunately, the returns of death, +as registered, do not in all cases furnish the means of discriminating +between the various kinds of ailment. For example, medical experience +shows that under circumstances frequently existing, especially amongst +the poor, it is difficult to distinguish accurately between one form +of lung disease and another, and there is reason to believe that a +considerable number of deaths actually caused by simple inflammatory +diseases of the lungs and air passages are erroneously returned in +the registers, and consequently in the classified tables, as due +to tubercular phthisis. In remote parts of the country, where the +populations are for the most part ill-provided with medical attendance, +it is the fashion to attribute to what is locally termed “consumption” +or “decline,” all cases of illness that are accompanied by cough, +expectoration, or shortness of breath. It must, however, be remembered +that deaths are not in all cases certified as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> cause by medical men: +many of them are attested by coroners, and a certain proportion are +registered without certificate of any kind. This is exceptionally the +case in certain parts of Wales, where the mortality <i>ascribed</i> +to phthisis is very high, and where the proportion of persons who die +without medical attendance is likewise excessive.</p> + +<p>Having regard to the tendency which not infrequently exists to confuse +tubercular with non-tubercular affections of the lungs, it is probable +that the most reliable evidence derivable from the registers as to +the evil effects, on the one hand of irritating atmospheric dust, and +on the other of organically contaminated air, will be attained by the +adoption of the late Dr Headlam Greenhow’s plan, which was to include +the deaths from phthisis under the same heading with those of the +respiratory system. This plan has accordingly been adopted here, and in +the following tables the order of occupations has been determined by +their combined mortality from these diseases. The mortality figures, +however, from phthisis as well as those from other lung diseases are +separately shown in the tables.</p> + +<p>In my larger work on occupational mortality the varying incidence of +phthisis and of respiratory diseases among certain classes of workers, +in different localities, was treated of in considerable detail. I must +here revert somewhat briefly to this subject, in order to explain what +follows at a later stage. In the work referred to I showed that among +<i>occupied males</i> as a class between the ages of twenty-five and +sixty-five the mortality figure from respiratory diseases exceeds that +from phthisis by about one-fifth part: among <i>unoccupied males</i>, +on the contrary, the mortality from phthisis greatly exceeds that from +respiratory diseases. The main causes of this difference are probably: +(1) that occupied males who are attacked by phthisis are especially +prone to drift into the unoccupied class; and (2) that certain portions +of the unoccupied class—the insane, for example—suffer a very high +mortality from phthisis. The normally prevailing excess of mortality +from respiratory diseases over that from phthisis does not obtain among +occupied males in all parts of the country. In the industrial districts +that excess is very clearly marked, but London and the agricultural +districts are exceptions to the rule, their mortality from phthisis +being greater than that from respiratory diseases. In London the +mortality from respiratory diseases is high, but that attributed to +phthisis is higher still; in the agricultural districts, on the other +hand, the mortality ascribed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> to phthisis is low, but that ascribed to +respiratory diseases is still lower. Turning to the separate groups +of occupations, it appears that about one-third part of these groups, +containing about the same proportion of the occupied male population +at ages above fifteen years, differ from occupied males generally, in +this respect, that they encounter higher mortality from phthisis than +they do from respiratory diseases. This third part of the occupational +groups may be arranged in two sections: the first section comprising +those occupations which deviate from the general rule because of a +special tendency among the workers to succumb to phthisis; the second +section comprising those occupations which deviate from the rule for +the reason that the workers enjoy unusual immunity from death by +respiratory diseases.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The first section may be subdivided thus:—</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>a</i>) Occupations which are carried on in close and +confined air—commercial clerks, bookbinders, tailors, and +tin-miners afford examples of this kind.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>b</i>) Occupations in which excessive mortality +from phthisis appears to be associated with alcoholic +intemperance—as in the case of law-clerks, inn-servants, and +costermongers.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The second section may be subdivided as follows:—</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>c</i>) Occupations in which relative immunity from +respiratory mortality appears to depend on the circumstance +that the workers are protected from inclemency of the +weather—instances of this kind are furnished by barristers, +school-masters, and domestic servants.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>d</i>) Healthy outdoor occupations characterised by +low mortality from both descriptions of lung disease—this +sub-section consists of farmers and labourers in agricultural +districts, and of gardeners; it is probable, however, that the +excess of mortality from phthisis above that from respiratory +diseases among these workers is, wholly or in part, only +apparent.</p> +</div> + +<p>The above remarks must be understood to apply only to such occupations +as <i>depart</i> from the rule, which is that the mortality from +respiratory diseases exceeds that from phthisis. Among the occupations +which <i>conform</i> to this rule, there are some in which either +impure or dust-laden air is one of the conditions of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> working; and +there are others in which either alcoholic excess or exposure to +weather is accompanied by enormous mortality from respiratory diseases. +On the other hand, there are also included some occupations in which +the workers experience low mortality from respiratory diseases, and +still lower mortality from phthisis.</p> + +<p>With respect to the standard by which the healthfulness of the several +industries is to be determined, only a few words are necessary. The +standard should be a high, but for obvious reasons it should be +an attainable one, and the men composing it should be of a class +not widely different from that of those with whom they are placed +in comparison. The men engaged in agricultural pursuits form a +group numbering more than a million, and consisting of farmers, +graziers, gardeners, and farm labourers. They are for the most part +a hard-working and healthy body of men, who spend the greater part +of their time in the open air of the country: they may therefore be +considered typical of that section of the population which suffers +injury in the least degree from the inhalation either of dust-laden +air or of air contaminated by organic effluvia. For these reasons +agriculturists have been chosen as the class with which the occupations +now to be specified shall be compared, so as to render appreciable the +serious waste of life which is still experienced by the workers in +certain selected occupations.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER X<br> +<span class="subhed">DUST-PRODUCING OCCUPATIONS</span></h2></div> + +<p>That the constant inhalation of dust as a necessary condition of +daily labour results sooner or later in the appearance of grave and +characteristic lesions which lead to premature breakdown and death +among the workers, is matter of common medical experience. Through the +instrumentality of the Factory Department the conditions of labour in +these industries have recently been greatly improved: this has been +achieved by the general introduction of ventilating fans and of other +expedients for preventing the inhalation of irritating particles by +the operatives. Nevertheless the returns of mortality still show that +several of these occupations produce a terrible amount of suffering and +disablement, whilst they unquestionably shorten the lives of those who +follow them.</p> + +<p>In the subjoined table will be found a list of those industries in +which the labourers suffer exceptionally from the presence of dusty +particles or other irritating matters in the air of the apartments +in which their work is carried on. In this table the mortality of +the several dust-producing occupations is contrasted with that of +agriculturists, who have been shown to suffer from the effects of dust +to a less degree than any other workers. It is not asserted or believed +that the whole of the difference between the respiratory mortality of +certain unhealthy trades and that of this more favoured class is to +be accounted for by dust irritation alone. There are almost certainly +present other contributory factors also, the effects of which it would +be difficult to show separately: nevertheless, there is no doubt that +an atmosphere constantly charged with mechanical impurities of this +kind is the main cause of the excessive mortality indicated in the +table.</p> + +<p>The aggregate death-rate from tubercular phthisis and diseases of the +respiratory system is shown in this table, as also are the figures +relating to each affection separately. Columns 3 and 4 give the +combined mortality from these diseases among the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> several classes of +workers in comparison with that of agriculturists. In the fourth column +the mortality of the latter is taken as 100 and that of the other +workers is shown proportionally to that figure.</p> + +<p class="center p1">Comparative Mortality from Specified Causes in certain Dusty +Occupations.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Occupation.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">Comparative<br>Mortality<br>Figure<br>(all Causes).</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Phthisis and Diseases of<br>Respiratory System.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Mortality Figure.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrb">Mortality<br>Figure.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Ratio.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Diseases of<br>Respiratory<br>System.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Diseases of<br>Circulatory<br>System.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Agriculturist</td> + <td class="rightr">602</td> + <td class="rightr">221</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + <td class="rightr">106</td> + <td class="rightr">115</td> + <td class="rightr">88</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Potter, Earthenware manufacturer</td> + <td class="rightr">1702</td> + <td class="rightr">1001</td> + <td class="rightr">453</td> + <td class="rightr">333</td> + <td class="rightr">668</td> + <td class="rightr">227</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cutler</td> + <td class="rightr">1516</td> + <td class="rightr">900</td> + <td class="rightr">407</td> + <td class="rightr">382</td> + <td class="rightr">518</td> + <td class="rightr">167</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">File-maker</td> + <td class="rightr">1810</td> + <td class="rightr">825</td> + <td class="rightr">373</td> + <td class="rightr">402</td> + <td class="rightr">423</td> + <td class="rightr">204</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Glass-maker</td> + <td class="rightr">1487</td> + <td class="rightr">740</td> + <td class="rightr">335</td> + <td class="rightr">295</td> + <td class="rightr">445</td> + <td class="rightr">157</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Copper-worker</td> + <td class="rightr">1381</td> + <td class="rightr">700</td> + <td class="rightr">317</td> + <td class="rightr">294</td> + <td class="rightr">406</td> + <td class="rightr">186</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Gunsmith</td> + <td class="rightr">1228</td> + <td class="rightr">649</td> + <td class="rightr">294</td> + <td class="rightr">324</td> + <td class="rightr">325</td> + <td class="rightr">153</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Iron and Steel manufacturer</td> + <td class="rightr">1301</td> + <td class="rightr">645</td> + <td class="rightr">292</td> + <td class="rightr">195</td> + <td class="rightr">450</td> + <td class="rightr">162</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Zinc-worker</td> + <td class="rightr">1198</td> + <td class="rightr">587</td> + <td class="rightr">266</td> + <td class="rightr">240</td> + <td class="rightr">347</td> + <td class="rightr">126</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Stone-quarrier</td> + <td class="rightr">1176</td> + <td class="rightr">576</td> + <td class="rightr">261</td> + <td class="rightr">269</td> + <td class="rightr">307</td> + <td class="rightr">137</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Brass-worker</td> + <td class="rightr">1088</td> + <td class="rightr">552</td> + <td class="rightr">250</td> + <td class="rightr">279</td> + <td class="rightr">273</td> + <td class="rightr">126</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Chimney sweep</td> + <td class="rightr">1311</td> + <td class="rightr">551</td> + <td class="rightr">249</td> + <td class="rightr">260</td> + <td class="rightr">291</td> + <td class="rightr">142</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Lead-worker</td> + <td class="rightr">1783</td> + <td class="rightr">545</td> + <td class="rightr">247</td> + <td class="rightr">148</td> + <td class="rightr">397</td> + <td class="rightr">272</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cotton manufacturer</td> + <td class="rightr">1141</td> + <td class="rightr">540</td> + <td class="rightr">244</td> + <td class="rightr">202</td> + <td class="rightr">338</td> + <td class="rightr">152</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cooper and wood turner</td> + <td class="rightr">1088</td> + <td class="rightr">526</td> + <td class="rightr">238</td> + <td class="rightr">250</td> + <td class="rightr">276</td> + <td class="rightr">137</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Rope-maker</td> + <td class="rightr">928</td> + <td class="rightr">486</td> + <td class="rightr">220</td> + <td class="rightr">219</td> + <td class="rightr">267</td> + <td class="rightr">118</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Bricklayer, mason</td> + <td class="rightr">1001</td> + <td class="rightr">476</td> + <td class="rightr">215</td> + <td class="rightr">225</td> + <td class="rightr">251</td> + <td class="rightr">130</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Carpet manufacturer</td> + <td class="rightr">873</td> + <td class="rightr">471</td> + <td class="rightr">213</td> + <td class="rightr">226</td> + <td class="rightr">245</td> + <td class="rightr">87</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Tin-worker</td> + <td class="rightr">994</td> + <td class="rightr">451</td> + <td class="rightr">204</td> + <td class="rightr">217</td> + <td class="rightr">234</td> + <td class="rightr">124</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Wool manufacturer</td> + <td class="rightr">991</td> + <td class="rightr">447</td> + <td class="rightr">202</td> + <td class="rightr">191</td> + <td class="rightr">256</td> + <td class="rightr">131</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Locksmith</td> + <td class="rightr">925</td> + <td class="rightr">428</td> + <td class="rightr">194</td> + <td class="rightr">223</td> + <td class="rightr">205</td> + <td class="rightr">104</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Blacksmith</td> + <td class="rightr">914</td> + <td class="rightr">392</td> + <td class="rightr">177</td> + <td class="rightr">159</td> + <td class="rightr">233</td> + <td class="rightr">136</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Baker, confectioner</td> + <td class="rightrb">920</td> + <td class="rightrb">392</td> + <td class="rightrb">177</td> + <td class="rightrb">185</td> + <td class="rightrb">207</td> + <td class="rightrb">130</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It thus appears that there are 22 industries in each of which the +mortality from tubercular phthisis and respiratory diseases together +is more than double that of agriculturists; and further, that these 22 +occupations include 8 (giving employment to more than 100,000 men) in +which the total mortality from these diseases ranges from three times +to as much as four and a half times that of the agricultural class.</p> + +<p><i>Potter, Earthenware, China Manufacture.</i>—“The earthenware +manufacture is one of the unhealthiest trades in the country. At +the age of joining it is low: but the mortality after the age of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> +thirty-five approaches double the average: it is excessively high; +it exceeds the mortality of publicans. What can be done to save the +men dying so fast in the potteries and engaged in one of our most +useful manufactures?” Thus wrote Dr Farr in 1871, with regard to the +pottery manufacture of that day. And Dr Ogle, writing ten years later, +confirmed this statement, adding that the mortality of these workers at +all ages from twenty-five to sixty-five had increased since 1871. He +further stated that at that time (namely, in 1881) their comparative +mortality figure was no less than 1742, which was only exceeded by +the figures for costermongers, Cornish miners, and inn and hotel +servants. In the three-year period 1890–92 things had only slightly +improved: the mortality in this occupation from all causes remaining +almost unchanged; and although phthisis claimed fewer victims than in +1881, lead poisoning had become more than twice as fatal since the +previous record, and diseases of the circulatory and urinary systems +had seriously increased in fatality. The excessive mortality of these +workers is mainly due to phthisis and diseases of the lungs and heart. +Of their entire mortality figure (1706) from all causes, not less than +1001 is contributed by phthisis and other diseases of the lungs. The +mortality of potters from bronchitis is more than four times as high, +and that from other respiratory diseases is three times as high as the +mortality of occupied males in the aggregate.</p> + +<p>Potters succumb to non-tubercular disease of the lungs much more +rapidly than they do to tubercular phthisis; and it is certain that +much of the so-called potters’ phthisis ought properly to be termed +cirrhosis of the lung. Deaths from this affection should never be +included under the head of phthisis, which term is now restricted, by +universal consent, to the tubercular malady of that name.</p> + +<p>The mortality figure of potters from lead poisoning is 17, and comes +next to that of plumbers, as fourth highest in the list of industries +liable to plumbism. The mortality figures, due to diseases of the +nervous and urinary systems, in these two occupations, exceed the +standard for occupied males by 54 and 50 per cent. respectively.</p> + +<p>The term “potter” is a very comprehensive one, and is ordinarily +understood to mean any workman employed in a pottery. But Dr Arlidge, +the author of the best essay of modern times on the ailments of this +class of workers, has shown how widely the operations in pottery +manufacture differ from one another in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> their effect upon health. +Speaking of the manufacture of earthenware generally he says: “This +manufacture stands foremost among those wherein the employment is +distinctly chargeable with the production of disease; and the principal +materials to which its unenviable character is due are the clays and +the flint used in it. However, these minerals are not the only agents +that render the fictile trade one so highly injurious to health, +for lead also is largely used for glazing and colour-making, and +is a frequent cause of plumbism among the artisans. Again, it is a +manufacture having many departments, between several of which no common +characters can be said to exist. This holds good of the two principal +departments, viz., (1) the making of the articles from potter’s clay; +and (2) their ornamentation by painting and gilding. They are often +spoken of as the “clay” and the “finishing” departments. It is with the +former that we are in the first instance concerned, because in it the +production of dust ... is pre-eminently the cause of disease.”<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p><i>Cutlers, Scissors-makers.</i>—The mortality among cutlers is +enormous; at all ages it is very high, but at ages beyond thirty-five +years it exceeds the standard among occupied males generally by from 64 +to 72 per cent. The comparative mortality figure for cutlers at ages +from twenty-five to sixty-five years is 1516, which is higher than the +average of other occupations by 59 per cent. Cutlers, although in this +respect they have an advantage over potters, are nevertheless among the +occupations which suffer excessively from “pulmonary” disease. Their +mortality figure for phthisis is 382, and for respiratory diseases is +518, against 106 and 115 respectively, the figures for agriculturists. +Taking these diseases together, cutlers sustain a mortality in excess +of that of other occupations by 122 per cent. It has been shown by Dr +Headlam Greenhow and others that the great mortality among cutlers and +grinders arises from the irritation caused by the mechanical particles +produced during the process of manufacture, and received into the lungs +with the air of respiration.</p> + +<p>Cutlers suffer slightly from lead poisoning; their mortality from this +cause being represented by 3. The occurrence of lead poisoning among +cutlers is a novel feature in the mortality returns for 1890–92, Dr +Ogle having found no deaths from that cause in the sample of these +workers examined by him in preparing his supplement for 1881. In the +mortality figures for diseases of the urinary system there is, among +cutlers, an excess of 37 per cent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> as compared with the standard +among occupied males. From diseases of the nervous system the excess +of mortality among these workers is 11 per cent. Taking together the +mortality ascribed to alcoholism and to liver disease as a rough +measure of the mischief caused by intemperance, there is a slight +excess among these workers as compared with the standard.</p> + +<p>Since the previous record the mortality among cutlers has increased; +and this not only at the higher ages, as appears to have been the rule +in most other occupations, but also among men under forty-five years of +age. Their mortality attributed directly to alcoholism, which had been +much below the average in 1881, has risen above the average in 1891, +but there has been no corresponding increase under the head of liver +diseases. Since the former period the mortality of cutlers from heart +disease has increased by 58 per cent., from lung diseases other than +phthisis by 38 per cent., and from tubercular phthisis by 9 per cent.</p> + +<p><i>File-cutters.</i>—Judged by their general death-rate, file-cutters +are the least healthy men included in our list of occupations, +with the exception of publicans (in certain districts) and of dock +labourers—their comparative figure being 1810, or three times as high +as that of agriculturists. As compared with the standard mortality of +occupied males, that of file-cutters is in excess by not less than 90 +per cent. At each of the age-groups of the working period of life the +mortality among file-cutters is appalling, and this is especially the +case at ages above thirty-five years, when the death-rate exceeds the +average by from 93 to 110 per cent.</p> + +<p>As with cutlers, so with file-cutters—their great mortality appears +to depend on the irritation caused by particles of stone or of metal +which find their way into the air passages with the respired air. Dr +Headlam Greenhow, writing so long ago as 1858, stated that file-cutters +owe their enormous mortality from lead poisoning to the circumstance +that the files are cut on blocks of lead: their mortality figure for +plumbism, in 1890–2, was no less than 75!</p> + +<p>Diseases of the urinary system cause a mortality among file-cutters +which is above the average by 154 per cent., and diseases of the +nervous system a mortality in excess by 159 per cent.</p> + +<p>Intemperance does not seem to be especially rife among file-cutters, +but they are addicted to suicide in about double the normal proportion.</p> + +<p>The comparative mortality figure of file-cutters has increased +considerably since 1871: the increase being relatively greatest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> since +1881. At the age-group 45–65 the increase in the death-rate has been +steady throughout the entire period of twenty years, but at ages under +forty-five, although between 1871 and 1881 there had been a fall in the +death-rate, this has been followed since the latter year by a rise of +considerably greater amount.</p> + +<p>The mortality from tubercular phthisis, which had been 407 in 1881, has +still further increased to 414 in 1891. According to recent experience, +file-cutters die from diseases of the circulatory and respiratory +systems even more rapidly than they did in 1881.</p> + +<p><i>Glassmakers.</i>—The making, blowing, and engraving of glass +occupies a prominent place among unhealthy trades, for several reasons. +In the first place, the workers are exposed to extreme variations of +temperature—in some processes, that of glassblowing especially, the +operatives are constantly exposed to the intense heat of the furnace, +as well as to that which radiates from the pots of molten glass which +they are engaged in blowing. The intense heat and profuse sweating +naturally induce painful thirst, which the workmen evidently allay by +excessive drinking: this is shown by the fact that their mortality from +alcoholism and from nervous disorders is nearly double that experienced +by operatives in other trades. In the next place, glass-makers are +subject to plumbism, their mortality figure attributed to this cause +being no less than 12, or sixth highest in the list of industries +subject to this complaint. According to Dr Arlidge, who has contributed +much valuable information on this subject, it is in the cutting and +engraving of glass that the operatives are exposed to contact with +lead. In these processes “putty powder,” which is a compound of +lead and tin, is constantly used, and as the men are careless as to +ventilation and cleanliness, often taking their food with unwashed +hands, it is easy to understand how lead finds its way into the system.</p> + +<p>The comparative mortality figure for glass-makers is 1487, and is, +therefore, in excess of the average by 56 per cent. Phthisis and +diseases of the respiratory system are especially fatal to workmen in +this industry, and they suffer more severely than other occupied males +from diseases of the circulatory, digestive, and urinary systems, as +well as from cancer. Since 1881 the mortality of glass-workers has +increased considerably, and this is true of the younger as well as the +older workers in this industry.</p> + +<p><i>Copper-workers.</i>—As the number of operatives engaged in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span> +working of copper is small (scarcely exceeding 8000), only general +remarks can be made concerning their health.</p> + +<p>At all ages the mortality of copper-workers exceeds that of other +occupations; their comparative mortality figure is 1381; it is +therefore considerably above that of metal-workers generally, and is +also above the standard for occupied males in the aggregate by 45 +per cent. That copper-smelting is an injurious occupation is proved +by the pallid, sickly appearance of the workers. It has been noticed +by Dr Arlidge, as a result of personal experience, that the hair of +copper-smelters (especially where this was originally fair or white) +becomes much discoloured; but this discoloration is caused, not by +absorption of the metal, but simply by adhesion of copper particles to +the hair. Nevertheless, he thinks that cupreous salts do eventually +find their way into the circulation, and when this is the case the +characteristic symptoms of colic, vomiting, and purging with extreme +prostration are produced. A greenish or purplish red line is also +noticed in the gums, in the same position as that which is occupied by +the blue line in cases of lead poisoning. The operations of filing, +turning, and polishing of copper are especially injurious to the +workmen, and like other dust-inhaling processes, lead to fatal results +by interference with the respiratory functions—lung diseases being +much more common among these operatives than the average, whilst +their mortality from pulmonary phthisis is in excess by 59 per cent. +Copper-workers die much more rapidly than other operatives from +diseases of the circulatory, digestive, and urinary systems, their +mortality from all these forms of disease being greatly in excess of +the average among workers in metals generally.</p> + +<p><i>Iron and Steel Workers.</i>—At the census of 1891, more than +200,000 workers in iron and steel, above the age of fifteen years, were +enumerated, but the number had <i>decreased</i> since the preceding +census by 2 per cent. The labour of iron and steel working is heavy +and exhausting. The operatives, whether at the blast furnaces or +at the rolling mills, whether puddlers or moulders, are exposed to +intense heat, as well as to great vicissitudes of weather, for most of +their work is done in the open air, or at any rate in outdoor sheds +unprotected from cold and draughts. The men are for the most part +sturdy and of powerful build: the arduous nature of their occupation +making it impossible for any but the most vigorous to follow it. In +spite of these natural advantages, however, statistics show that iron +and steel workers are by no means so healthy and long-lived as they +ought to be.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p> + +<p>The death-rates of these operatives are higher than the corresponding +rates among occupied males generally, and also higher than the rates +of other metal workers, at all stages of life up to sixty-five years. +They have a comparative mortality figure of 1301, which is higher than +that of occupied males, as a standard, by 37 per cent. Iron-workers +suffer more severely than do other occupied males from influenza and +from diseases of the nervous, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and +urinary systems; their mortality figure from diseases of the lungs +being more than double the standard figure, and that from phthisis also +greatly exceeding the average.</p> + +<p>Since 1881 there has been a considerable increase in the mortality of +iron and steel workers: the increase has affected both divisions of the +working period of life, but has been far the greatest among men over +the age of forty-five years.</p> + +<p><i>Zinc-workers.</i>—The number of men engaged in this industry is +small, although it has increased by 50 per cent. within the last +decennium. Nevertheless, the vital statistics of zinc-workers are +important, as showing excessive mortality from all the diseases +enumerated in the table on page 135. The evidence is conflicting as to +the evolution of noxious matter during the process of extracting zinc +from the ore; but the workmen are exposed to great heat, and to the +inhalation of irritating particles, in consequence of which they are +said to suffer exceptionally from digestive and respiratory troubles. +Zinc is coming more and more into use in the process of galvanising +sheet-iron, so as to protect it from rust; and in this operation +the workmen are exposed to the fumes of sal-ammoniac and to other +substances which are said to produce a form of nervous derangement that +is apparently peculiar to this process.</p> + +<p>Zinc-workers are subject to a mortality considerably above the average. +Their comparative mortality figure is 1198, and at ages beyond middle +life they die more rapidly than occupied males generally. Their +mortality from respiratory diseases and pulmonary consumption together +is more than double the standard figure, and they die faster than the +average from diseases of the circulatory system.</p> + +<p><i>Lead-workers.</i>—The occupation of lead-working is pursued by but +very few in this country; only about 2000 men above the age of fifteen +years having been thus returned at the census of 1891, and even this +number is rapidly decreasing. But the injurious effects of lead-working +are by no means limited to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> operatives designated lead-workers in +the census returns. In the list of one hundred occupations prepared +for my larger work on occupational mortality, not fewer than thirteen +were selected as showing unmistakable evidence of plumbism. These +occupations are as follows (the figures represent the comparative +mortality figures from lead poisoning in the several trades)—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Lead-worker</td> + <td class="right">211</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">File-maker</td> + <td class="right">75</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Plumber</td> + <td class="right">21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Painter and Glazier</td> + <td class="right">18</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Potter</td> + <td class="right">17</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Glass-maker</td> + <td class="right">12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Copper-worker</td> + <td class="right">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Coach-maker</td> + <td class="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Gasfitter, Locksmith</td> + <td class="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Lead-maker</td> + <td class="right">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Printer</td> + <td class="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Cutter</td> + <td class="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Wool manufacturer</td> + <td class="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Occupied males</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The above occupations are arranged in order according to their +mortality from lead poisoning, as shown in the tables. A little +consideration, however, will show that these figures represent but +very imperfectly the <i>relative damage</i> sustained by the several +operatives as a result of their occupations. If, for the sake of +example, we compare the mortality figure of lead-workers with that +of potters, it would appear, by the table, that the former workers +die from plumbism more than twelve times as rapidly as do the latter. +But, on closer examination, we find that whilst the whole body of +lead-workers are constantly in contact with lead as a necessary +condition of labour, not more than a twelfth part of the potters +are so circumstanced. It is the dippers and the glost-placers among +potters who are the chief, if not the only, serious sufferers from lead +poisoning; but as these workers are not distinguished in the census +returns from other potters, their deaths are distributed over the whole +class of potters, and thus a false impression is conveyed as to the +amount of mischief done by absorption of lead, in those branches of the +industry where the workers are actually exposed to contact with this +metal. Again, when the figures for painters and glaziers are compared +with the figure for file-cutters, a great disparity becomes evident; +the file-cutters suffering apparently more than four times as severely +from plumbism as do the painters and glaziers. But on inquiry, we find +that whilst, on the one hand, file-cutters handle lead continuously +in the course of their work, on the other hand, painters and glaziers +are by no means so constantly exposed to this danger—much of their +time being spent on labour which does not involve contact with lead, +or inhalation of particles or fumes of that metal. If the death-rates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> +attending those processes in the occupation of potters and of painters +which are continuously subject to lead poisoning could be separately +ascertained, there is no reason to doubt that they would show results +quite as unsatisfactory as those experienced by lead-workers.</p> + +<p>Although lead-working is known to be a very unhealthy trade, it is +evidently impossible to deduce from the vital statistics of only +2000 workers more than very general conclusions. Speaking generally, +however, the mortality returns warrant the statement that, in the main +working period of life, these operatives sustain a mortality which +is about 90 per cent. above that of other workers, on the average. +Their comparative mortality figure from all causes is no less than +1783, and is therefore nearly three times that of agriculturists. Of +the total deaths occurring among lead-workers, one-third are from +“pulmonary disease,” <i>i.e.</i>, from tubercular phthisis and diseases +of the respiratory system taken together, and one-eighth are from +lead poisoning. As compared with the standard for occupied males, the +mortality among lead-workers is excessive from diseases of the urinary, +nervous, circulatory, and digestive systems, in addition to the causes +above specified.</p> + +<p><i>Stone-Quarriers.</i>—The aggregate of men above the age of fifteen +years returned under this heading, at the last census, amounted to +nearly 50,000, but the numbers had decreased by about 3 per cent. since +the previous enumeration. The comparative mortality figure of quarrymen +is 1176, which, as compared with the figure for occupied males, is in +excess by 25 per cent. At all stages in the working period of life +the death-rate of these labourers exceeds that of other occupations +in the aggregate. As stone-quarrying is an outdoor industry, and +consequently the workers are not exposed to the unhealthy conditions +of sedentary work, the vital statistics of this class should obviously +be compared with those of agriculturists, rather than with those of +males of all occupations. So compared, we find that stone-quarriers +experience a mortality from all causes which is little short of double +the standard figure. From respiratory diseases and also from tubercular +phthisis, their mortality is at least two and a half times as high as +the standard, and from diseases of the circulatory system they die +faster than agriculturists by 50 per cent. At ages between twenty-five +and forty-five years the mortality of stone-quarriers has fluctuated +considerably during the last twenty years; but at ages from forty-five +to sixty-five<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> it has steadily increased throughout that period. Since +1881 the increase has been principally under the head of pulmonary +and circulatory diseases. During the same interval the mortality of +quarriers from phthisis and also from digestive diseases, as well as +that from alcoholism and from diseases of the liver, has decreased +considerably, and so likewise has their liability to fatal accident.</p> + +<p><i>Brass-workers.</i>—At the 1891 census there were enumerated 33,000 +persons over fifteen years of age under the head of brass-workers, +braziers, etc., the number having increased since the previous +enumeration by little short of one-third.</p> + +<p>If death returns alone be relied on, there is little in the mortality +of brass-workers that does not apply equally to other allied +industries; but from the investigations of Dr Headlam Greenhow in 1858, +and more recently those of Dr Simon and Dr Hogben of Birmingham, we +learn that brass-workers suffer very seriously from ailments which +are not experienced by the workers in copper or in zinc, the chief +metals of which brass is an alloy. The disease to which these workers +are exceptionally subject is known locally as “brassfounders’ ague,” +which, according to Greenhow and some other authorities, is caused +by the inhalation of oxide of zinc, whilst others of equal repute +attribute it to copper poisoning. That brass-workers are exposed to +conditions inimical to health is fully recognised by employers and +employed alike, who agree in describing the trade as a most unhealthy +one. Dr R. Simon (in a thesis for his degree at Cambridge) says that +brass-workers rarely attain old age, and that formerly provident sick +societies either altogether refused to enrol them in their lists, or +accepted them as members at greatly increased rates. The workers who +deal with molten metal—the founders, the mixers, and the casters—are +those who are exceptionally liable to “ague.” The “mixers,” who bring +together the two metals, suffer most severely. The copper is first +molten, and the zinc is then added to it. When the metals come into +contact the zinc deflagrates, and some of it, combining with oxygen, +flies off in dense white clouds of oxide of zinc. This, of course, is +of necessity inhaled by the operatives who, experiencing discomfort +from the process, tightness of the chest, and other respiratory +troubles, attempt to avoid it by covering the mouth and nostrils with a +handkerchief.</p> + +<p>Although, as has been previously stated, the deaths registered afford +little evidence of the exceptional unhealthiness of brass-workers +as compared with the workers in other metals, nevertheless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> we find +that they sustain a mortality from “phthisis” which is in excess +of that of “occupied males” by 50 per cent., whilst they die more +rapidly than the average from diseases of the nervous, urinary, and +respiratory systems. Brass-workers as a class are, like copper-makers, +pallid, ill-nourished, and unhealthy-looking: they suffer from anæmia, +dyspepsia, constipation, colic, and other digestive troubles. Happily, +however, these symptoms do not permanently injure their health, for on +changing their occupation, as they commonly do, for a less unhealthy +one, the above symptoms rapidly subside, and their usual health is soon +restored.</p> + +<p><i>Gunsmiths.</i>—The only remaining metal-workers in the list whose +mortality exceeds the average for the class are the gunsmiths. Their +comparative mortality figure is 1228, and is exactly 100 in excess of +that of metal workers in the aggregate. Gunsmiths die faster than the +average of metal-workers at ages from twenty-five to forty-five, but +less rapidly both before and after that period of life.</p> + +<p>On reference to the extended tables in my larger work, it will be +found that gunsmiths die from alcoholism about two and a half times +as fast as do other workers in metal. Most of the processes in which +gunsmiths engage are of an unhealthy nature, and the workers are +exposed to the harmful effects of metallic and flinty dusts which +set up in the lungs very similar disorders to those which have been +noticed in connection with the Sheffield “grinding” trades. This +industry demands expert workmanship and high finish, especially in the +later processes, and involves a great deal of filing and polishing of +metal, and these operations are frequently carried on in workshops +which are ill-ventilated and otherwise unsuited for the purpose. As +a consequence, the mortality of gunsmiths from phthisis (much of +which is probably fibroid) stands at 324 against 206, the figure for +metal-workers generally, and 185, the standard figure for all occupied +males. From other diseases of the respiratory system and from diseases +of the heart, gunsmiths sustain a mortality which exceeds the standard +for occupied males by 47, and by 21 per cent., respectively. During +the last twenty years, and especially during the more recent half of +that period, the mortality of gunsmiths has increased considerably, and +this is true whether we consider their mortality during the earlier or +during the later half of the main working period of life.</p> + +<p><i>Chimney Sweeps, Soot Merchants.</i>—Recent statistics agree<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> +with those of earlier records in attributing to this industry a very +unsatisfactory position in the scale of health. Compared with those of +other occupations, the death-rates of chimney sweeps are excessive at +all ages below the sixty-fifth year. Their comparative mortality figure +amounts to 1311, and is therefore higher than the standard by more than +one-third part.</p> + +<p>Chimney sweeps are, by the nature of their calling, much exposed to the +inhalation of particles of soot and of other irritating matters which +seriously affect the respiratory functions. They die more rapidly than +the average from pulmonary tuberculosis, and from other diseases of +the lungs, as well as from diseases of the heart and urinary organs. +Their mortality from suicide is also more than double the average, +and their figure for intemperance is more than four and a half times +that of occupied males generally. But it is in regard to their extreme +liability to malignant disease that chimney sweeps are deserving of +special consideration. Their mortality from different forms of cancer +amounts to 156 as compared with 44, the figure for occupied males in +the aggregate. In the list on p. 135 there is no other occupation in +which the ravages of cancer at all approach those to which chimney +sweeps are subject. Of the 512 deaths from all causes among chimney +sweeps, as many as 61, or about 1 in 8, were from cancer, and 18 of the +61 were returned as from chimney sweeps’ cancer. Of these 61 deaths 3 +were ascribed to sarcoma, and the rest to carcinoma or other forms of +malignant disease. In the course of the last twenty years the mortality +of these workers has decreased considerably. Between 1871 and 1881 +their mortality figure, modified for purposes of comparison, had fallen +by 11 per cent., the fall in the death-rate having been common to both +divisions of the main working period of life, but much greater at ages +under than at ages over forty-five years. In the interval between the +two last censuses, on the contrary, the fall has been greater at ages +above forty-five years. Although chimney sweeps still die from cancer +in enormous over-proportion, there has happily been a great abatement +in their fatality from this disease since the previous record. In +1880–82 the mortality figure had been 290, whilst in 1890–92 the +figure, modified to allow of comparison, was 157, showing a reduction +of nearly half within that interval.</p> + +<p><i>Textile workers.</i>—In the accompanying list there still remain +several dust-producing occupations in which the mortality from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> +pulmonary diseases is in excess of the average, notwithstanding that +the workers are not exposed to the action of metallic irritants. Of +these there are four which may be taken to represent the textile +trades—viz., the manufacture of cotton, wool, rope, and carpets—in +all of which the mortality figure from respiratory diseases is not +only vastly in excess of the figure for agriculturists, but is also +considerably above that of other occupied males. Among textile workers, +cotton operatives (especially those of Lancashire) are the most +unhealthy. Their mortality figure from all causes is higher than that +of occupied males generally, by from 20 to 23[A] per cent., whilst +from diseases of the respiratory system exclusive of phthisis, their +mortality is in excess by proportions varying from 53 to 65<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> per +cent. The workers in cotton mills suffer severely from the presence, +in the air, of “fluff” and “flue” that escapes from the cotton, +especially in the preparation of the yarn. The amount of this and the +degree of irritation to which it gives rise when inspired, varies with +the quality of the material used; inferior and brittle cotton, being +more liable to breakage in the course of manufacture, gives off more +dust than do the finer kinds, and requires for its successful working +a warmer and moister air. The workers in the lower-class cottons +therefore suffer more seriously in health, and require more perfect +arrangements for ventilation than do those who deal with materials of +higher quality. Cotton spinners have to work all the year round in a +very warm and humid atmosphere, and accordingly suffer from debility +and exhaustion caused by profuse sweating. The temperature and moisture +of the sheds are maintained at a high standard both night and day, in +order to prevent brittleness in the cotton fibres, and as a consequence +the operatives become peculiarly sensitive to chills, brought about, +perhaps, by injudicious exposure to draughts. From personal experience +in Manchester, for a period of twenty-five years, I can testify that +these workers are exceptionally liable to acute rheumatism, and this +statement may be confirmed by reference to the mortality tables in my +larger work, which show that the mortality of cotton spinners from +this disease exceeds the average by not less than 70 per cent. The +operation of “sizing,” preparatory to the weaving of cotton, introduces +a new element of danger. The size contains, in addition to flour or +farina, a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> large proportion of china clay, which finds its way +into the air passages, and there produces its well-known mischief. It +is pleasant to record that cotton operatives do not add to the evils +of their occupation by undue recourse to alcohol: their mortality from +intemperance being below the average by 23 per cent.</p> + +<p><i>Wool, Worsted Manufacturers.</i>—Wool-workers suffer much less +severely from their occupation than do cotton operatives. In the +weaving of woollen materials, a lower and drier temperature is required +than in the case of cotton-weaving, and the mischief caused by +“sizing” with china clay and other irritants has no place in woollen +manufacture. Nevertheless, in certain of the processes, especially +where inferior foreign wools are manufactured, a good deal of dust +is disengaged, and this produces its ill-effect on the lungs of the +workers. It is also in connection with dirty or blood-stained foreign +wools that the majority of cases of anthrax or wool-sorters’ disease +have been observed from time to time, which have been the subject of +inquiry in past years by the Medical Department of the Local Government +Board.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of notice that wool-sorters are even more careless as +regards exposure to cold and draughts than are even cotton workers, +and their mortality from rheumatic fever is much higher, being double +that experienced by agriculturists as a class. Wool-workers have a +comparative mortality figure from all causes, which is somewhat above +the average for occupied males generally, but is below that of other +textile trades. Workers in wool appear to be remarkably free from +intemperance, their mortality figure being less than one-fourth of the +average. From diseases of the digestive system other than the liver, +wool-workers die half as fast again as do occupied males generally, +whilst from diseases of the nervous, respiratory, and urinary systems, +as well as from cancer, the mortality of these workers is from 10 to 22 +per cent. in excess of that standard.</p> + +<p><i>Other Workers in Dusty Trades.</i>—The accompanying list includes +a few industries, the workers in which have not yet been alluded to as +regards their health: such as the rope-makers, carpet-makers, coopers, +bricklayers, bakers, etc. These industries, although not remarkable for +the production of other serious forms of illness, have this feature +in common, that being essentially dust-producing processes, they one +and all induce among the workers excessive suffering from pulmonary +affections. Although the mortality of these workers from phthisis and +other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> lung diseases is considerably below that of metal-workers, +nevertheless it is in every case inordinately high, exceeding the +mortality of agriculturists by proportions varying from 77 to 120 per +cent.</p> + + +<p>EFFECTS OF BREATHING FOUL AIR.</p> + +<p>In my larger work on occupational mortality, detailed vital statistics +are given respecting those workers whose occupation is not in itself +necessarily unhealthy, but who are the victims of unwholesome +conditions of labour, either self-inflicted, or else caused by the +ignorance or the parsimony of persons in authority. The evils here +alluded to are the result partly of the accumulation of respiratory +and other impurities in the air breathed, from neglect of suitable +methods of ventilation, and partly of the cramped posture adopted in +certain cases (notably by tailors and shoemakers) in their sedentary +indoor labour. Considerations of space preclude the insertion here of +a complete list of these occupations; but in the following table a +selection has been made of those industries in which the workers are +liable, in the greatest degree, to damage from the inhalation of foul +air in the course of their employment. For each of these occupations +the figures indicating the mortality from phthisis and from diseases +of the respiratory and circulatory systems are separately shown, and +in another column the combined mortality of the several occupations +from the first two of these forms of disease is compared with that +of agriculturists, the latter being taken as 100. The occupations +have been arranged in the descending order of their mortality from +tubercular phthisis and respiratory diseases together.</p> + +<p class="center p1">Comparative Mortality from several causes in certain unhealthy +occupations.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Occupation.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">Comparative<br>Mortality<br> +Figure<br>(all Causes).</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Phthisis and Diseases<br>of<br> +Respiratory Organs.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Mortality Figure.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Mortality<br>Figure.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Ratio.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Respiratory<br>Diseases.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Circulatory<br>Diseases.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl"><b>Agriculturists</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>602</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>221</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>100</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>106</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>115</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>88</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Bookbinder</td> + <td class="rightr">1060</td> + <td class="rightr">543</td> + <td class="rightr">246</td> + <td class="rightr">325</td> + <td class="rightr">218</td> + <td class="rightr">115</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Printer</td> + <td class="rightr">1096</td> + <td class="rightr">540</td> + <td class="rightr">244</td> + <td class="rightr">326</td> + <td class="rightr">214</td> + <td class="rightr">133</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Musician</td> + <td class="rightr">1214</td> + <td class="rightr">522</td> + <td class="rightr">236</td> + <td class="rightr">322</td> + <td class="rightr">200</td> + <td class="rightr">191</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Hatter</td> + <td class="rightr">1109</td> + <td class="rightr">511</td> + <td class="rightr">231</td> + <td class="rightr">301</td> + <td class="rightr">210</td> + <td class="rightr">141</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Hairdresser</td> + <td class="rightr">1099</td> + <td class="rightr">489</td> + <td class="rightr">221</td> + <td class="rightr">276</td> + <td class="rightr">213</td> + <td class="rightr">179</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Tailor</td> + <td class="rightr">989</td> + <td class="rightr">466</td> + <td class="rightr">211</td> + <td class="rightr">271</td> + <td class="rightr">195</td> + <td class="rightr">121</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Draper</td> + <td class="rightr">1014</td> + <td class="rightr">441</td> + <td class="rightr">200</td> + <td class="rightr">260</td> + <td class="rightr">181</td> + <td class="rightr">135</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Shoemaker</td> + <td class="rightrb">920</td> + <td class="rightrb">437</td> + <td class="rightrb">198</td> + <td class="rightrb">256</td> + <td class="rightrb">181</td> + <td class="rightrb">121</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p> + +<p>From this table it will be seen that, roughly speaking, the combined +mortality from phthisis and respiratory diseases varies from twice to +two and a half times that of agriculturists. It may further be stated +(although the figures are not given in the table) that the workers in +four of the above-mentioned occupations die from these diseases alone +more rapidly than farmers in the agricultural districts die from all +causes put together. Contrary to the experience of two-thirds of the +occupied male population of England and Wales, tubercular phthisis +is more fatal than are diseases of the respiratory organs other than +phthisis, to all the workers in the table, except agriculturists.</p> + +<p><i>Bookbinders, Printers.</i>—Writing in 1881 of the sanitary +condition of these workers, Dr Ogle speaks of both of them in common as +“carrying on their industries under notoriously unhealthy conditions, +in ill-ventilated rooms, and in an atmosphere unduly heated by engines, +stoves, and flaring gas-lights.” The decline in the death-rates, as +compared with the earlier records, he attributes to the improvements +effected by the Factory Inspectors since these trades came under their +supervision. Further on he writes, with respect to their mortality: +“Excepting costermongers ... and those industries in which the workman +is exposed to the inhalation of dusts, such as file-makers, potters, +and Cornish miners, there is no industry in the table in which the +mortality from phthisis approaches to that of printers.” “As for +bookbinders,” he writes, “so far as can be judged from the 77 deaths of +which the causes are recorded, in this industry also the high mortality +is due to phthisis, for of the 77 deaths no less than 30 were caused by +this disease.”<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> + +<p>In both of these trades the conditions of work have still further +improved under the supervision of H.M. Factory Inspectors since the +above was written. Taking <i>bookbinders</i> first—The returns +show that their death-rates are still considerably above those of +agriculturists, and, indeed, above those of other occupied males at +most of the ages in the working period of life, their comparative +mortality figure being above the firstnamed standard by 76 per cent. +Bookbinders still die very rapidly from pulmonary consumption, their +mortality figure from that disease being no less than 325, or more than +three times as high as that of agriculturists. Their mortality from +cancer and from diseases of the respiratory, circulatory, and urinary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span> +systems also shows excess. Bookbinders are more addicted to suicide +than are agriculturists, in the proportion of 26 to 10. Ever since +1871 the mortality of bookbinders has steadily decreased, and there +has been a fall in the death-rates at ages under as well as above the +forty-fifth year.</p> + +<p><i>Printers</i> experience a death-rate at the various age-groups which +is above the standard at all the age-groups dealt with in the table. +Their mortality figure is 1096, as against 953 for all occupied males, +and 602 for agriculturists. Like bookbinders, printers die very rapidly +from phthisis, and probably for a similar reason—namely, because of +the excessively unhealthy conditions under which their work is carried +on—their mortality from diseases of the respiratory organs other +than phthisis is, however, below the average, but from diseases of +the nervous, circulatory, digestive, and urinary systems it is above +the average. Printers suffer only about one-third as much from fatal +accident as do other workers, but they are somewhat more addicted to +suicide. Their mortality figure from lead poisoning is represented by +3. In the course of the last twenty years the mortality of printers +from all causes together has decreased considerably. Both the age +divisions in the main work time of life have shared in the fall, but in +unequal proportions. As compared with that of 1881, the mortality of +these workers from alcoholism in 1891 has fully trebled, and that from +suicide has more than doubled. The most important decrease occurs in +the case of phthisis, the mortality from which has fallen, since 1891, +by one-sixth part of the former rate.</p> + +<p><i>Musicians.</i>—The mortality of the class of men who, by a +euphemism, are styled “musicians,” is very high. At all ages in the +working period of life it greatly exceeds that of agriculturists, and +also exceeds that of the working population in the aggregate. Their +comparative mortality figure amounts to 1214, or more than double the +figure for agriculturists, and is about one-third part in excess of +that of occupied males generally. Compared with both these standards, +musicians die more rapidly from alcoholism and from diseases of the +liver. Their mortality figure from phthisis is enormous, amounting to +not less than 322, or fully three times that of agriculturists, and +almost double that of male workers in the aggregate.</p> + +<p>In addition to the above, musicians sustain very heavy mortality from +diseases of the nervous, circulatory, digestive, and urinary systems, +and their mortality figure from suicide is 23, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span> compared with +10 for agriculturists and 14 for other occupied males. From these +statistics it is certain that many of those who are included in this +class are sadly addicted to intemperance, whilst others suffer from +want of the bare necessaries of life. “It must be remembered,” writes +Dr Ogle in 1881, with reference to the mortality of this class, “that +under this heading are comprised all sorts and conditions of men, and +that a large portion of them are organ-grinders, ballad-singers, and +street musicians generally, many of whom are of intemperate habits, +and exposed by their mode of life to cold and want, while no few have +merely taken to the occupation as a refuge, after their health has +broken down in more regular occupations.”</p> + +<p>Within the last twenty years the mortality of musicians has declined +very considerably, both at the earlier and at the later ages. Their +comparative mortality figure in 1891 was lower than it had been in 1871 +by more than one-fifth part: nevertheless, their vital statistics still +continue to be very unsatisfactory, and their nomadic habits are a +serious hindrance to improvement.</p> + +<p><i>Hatters.</i>—As compared with agriculturists, the mortality of +hatters is enormously greater at all stages of the working period of +life, and their comparative mortality figure from all causes is in +excess of that standard by 84 per cent. At ages under thirty-five +years, hatters experience a death-rate which barely exceeds the +average among occupied males, but at each subsequent age-group their +mortality is greatly in excess. As far as we know there is little in +the employment of hat-makers which of necessity acts prejudicially to +their health. Their work, however, like that of too many other trades, +is frequently carried on in overcrowded and ill-ventilated apartments, +and the men suffer accordingly. Thus we find from the tables that +hatters die from tubercular phthisis about three times as rapidly +as do agriculturists, and that their mortality from this complaint +considerably exceeds the average in other occupations. Hatters appear +to be much addicted to intemperance, their mortality figure from +alcoholism, and also from liver disease, showing serious excess. +Their mortality from suicide stands at 28, as compared with 10 for +agriculturists and 14 for other occupied males. Among hatters under the +age of forty-five years there has been a decline in mortality within +the last twenty years, but at ages from forty-five to sixty-five there +has been but little change.</p> + +<p><i>Hairdressers.</i>—The mortality of hairdressers is higher +than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> that of other occupied males at each of the age-groups of +the working period; it is, consequently, greatly in excess of that +of agriculturists. Their mortality figure from all causes at ages +twenty-five to sixty-five is 1099, and, therefore, exceeds that of the +standard last mentioned by 82 per cent. The life of a hair-dresser is +for the most part a town, or at least a village, life; the work being +carried on indoors for long hours together, in an atmosphere heated +and polluted by gas. In addition to this, the occupation is a dusty +one, and the men are exposed to the effects of particles of hair and +other irritants which find their way into the lungs. Their mortality +figure from alcoholism, liver diseases, and gout, as well as from +pulmonary tuberculosis, shows serious excess; it therefore appears +that hairdressers, as was the case in 1881 also, are still excessively +addicted to intemperance. They fall victims to suicide almost as +rapidly as do even the least fortunate workers included in the list of +occupations. Hairdressers experienced almost the same rate of general +mortality at the census periods of 1871 and 1881, but since the latter +year there has been a fall in their mortality to the extent of about +one-seventh part.</p> + +<p><i>Tailors.</i>—The occupation of tailors is a typically sedentary +one. The men work for the most part in overcrowded, ill-ventilated, +and overheated rooms, and consequently suffer in general physique and +appearance, as well as in health. In recent years the introduction +of machinery, whilst in some respects an advantage, has produced +its counterbalancing ill-effects by rendering it possible for any +man or woman who can work a sewing machine to take the place of the +regularly skilled tailor, and thus to depreciate the market value of +his labour. In consequence of this the tailor and his family are only +too frequently reduced to great poverty, if not to a state approaching +starvation. The mortality of tailors at the several age-groups does +not greatly differ from that of other occupied males. Tailors die more +rapidly than agriculturists at ages between twenty-five and sixty-five, +but at ages below and above these limits their mortality does not +greatly exceed this standard.</p> + +<p>Although in past times tailors have been considered an intemperate +class, the figures for 1890–92 lend little support to that opinion. +Their mortality figure from alcoholism as well as from liver disease +scarcely differs from that of occupied males generally, although, of +course, it considerably exceeds the low figure of agriculturists.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span></p> + +<p>The mortality of tailors from tubercular phthisis is greatly in excess +of that of other occupied males, and is more than two and a half times +as high as the mortality of agriculturists; it is also worth mention +that they die more rapidly than other workers from diseases of the +nervous system. On the other hand their mortality from influenza and +from diseases of the respiratory organs, and of the heart, is in each +case below the average. During the last twenty years there has been a +notable increase in the mortality of tailors at ages from forty-five +to sixty-five years, and an equally notable decrease at ages from +twenty-five to forty-five. Although the mortality directly ascribed to +alcoholism is now slightly higher than it was in 1881, nevertheless the +mortality from diseases of the liver and other digestive organs has +undergone a more than equivalent reduction, so that the total mischief +caused by intemperance has probably decreased since 1881. The mortality +of tailors from gout as well as from phthisis, and from diseases of the +nervous system, has fallen since the same year.</p> + +<p><i>Drapers, Manchester Warehousemen.</i>—The large body of men +included under this heading appear to enjoy but poor health, when +allowance is made for the fact that the greater part of them are under +twenty-five years of age. Drapers and Manchester warehousemen, who are +here grouped together because of the similarity of their occupation +and mode of life, are credited with a mortality which is higher than +that of any other occupation save one in the category of shopkeepers. +Their comparative mortality figure from all causes is 1014, which, as +compared with that of agriculturists, is in excess by 68 per cent. +Even when compared with the low standard of “occupied males,” drapers +are subject to a mortality which is considerably above the average. +Confinement in close, ill-ventilated shops for very long hours +together, and an almost exclusively indoor life, is the unlucky fate of +these workers. They are exposed to the heat and fumes of gas and cotton +“fluff” and dust which escapes from the bales of goods in process of +sale, and their health suffers accordingly. Their death-rate from +tubercular phthisis exceeds that of other occupations by not less than +41 per cent., and is more than two and a half times as high as that +of agriculturists; but the fact previously mentioned, that drapers’ +assistants are for the most part youths or young men, may account to +some extent for their exceptional liability to this scourge. Drapers +die faster than the average from influenza, rheumatic fever, and +diabetes, as well as from alcoholism, diseases of the liver and nervous +system, and from suicide. During the main working<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> period of life, the +mortality of drapers has decreased somewhat since the earliest record. +In the first twenty years of this period, <i>i.e.</i>, from twenty-five +to forty-five years of age, their death-rate has fallen considerably +since 1871; whilst at ages from forty-five to sixty-five years, +although it had fallen between 1871 and 1881, it has since returned to +its former level. Since 1881 the mortality of drapers from all causes +has increased by 18 per cent. Between 1881 and 1891 their mortality +from phthisis remained stationary, whilst that from other lung disease +and heart disease showed a considerable increase. Their mortality from +suicide has increased threefold since 1881, and that from alcoholism +has increased by nearly two-thirds.</p> + +<p><i>Shoemakers.</i>—Although the contrary is generally held to be the +fact, shoemakers are shown by the figures now at our disposal to enjoy +a degree of health which is at least equal to that of the average +working man.</p> + +<p>As the occupation of shoemaking is an indoor one, involving sedentary +labour for many hours together, in closely confined and ill-ventilated +apartments, the workers suffer inordinately from those ailments which +are commonly associated with such environment. Up to the thirty-fifth +year of age shoemakers die faster than other occupied males, but more +slowly at later ages. Compared with agriculturists the mortality of +shoemakers at all ages is in excess by 53 per cent.</p> + +<p>Shoemakers die much less rapidly than the average from lung diseases +(except phthisis) as well as from accident, and their mortality from +intemperance is remarkably low. Cancer and pulmonary consumption, +however, play sad havoc among shoemakers, their mortality from the +first-mentioned disease being in excess of the average by 14 per cent., +and from the last-mentioned, by 38 per cent. Throughout the three +decennia, commencing with 1861, the mortality of shoemakers above the +age of forty-five years has steadily increased, whilst below that age +it has steadily decreased; the balance showing a slight increase in the +total mortality figure. Under the head of alcoholism their mortality +has increased since the earlier record, although that from liver +disease has decreased. Shoemakers die as rapidly as ever from pulmonary +consumption, and more rapidly than ever from diseases of the lungs +and heart. Their mortality from diseases of the nervous system has, +however, shown a decided improvement, and they are at the present time +less addicted to suicide than was formerly the case.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p> + + +<p>THE MINING INDUSTRY.</p> + +<p>At the census of 1891 more than half a million men above the age of +fifteen years were returned as miners, their number having increased +since the previous census by more than a fourth part. As the proportion +is still probably increasing, we may safely calculate that at the +present time one in every 17 males between the ages of twenty-five and +sixty-five years is a miner. In round numbers it may be stated that of +the 524,000 miners in England and Wales, 482,000 work in coal, 18,000 +in ironstone, 9000 in tin, 6000 in lead, 2000 in other minerals, and +1000 in copper; whilst the remaining 6000 are classed under the head +of “mine service.” With a few noteworthy exceptions, miners are not, +as a whole, an unhealthy body of men, but from the nature of their +employment they are necessarily more exposed than are other workers to +certain forms of violent death. The various groups of miners, however, +have, of course, this feature in common, that most of their time, for +a great part of their life, is spent underground. Accordingly their +work is carried on under conditions of heat, moisture, etc., which are +exceptionally artificial, and for this reason it is desirable that +their mortality should be studied with especial care. The following +table shows the death-rates of miners at several ages, compared with +the corresponding rates of occupied males. The figures in each column +represent proportions of the standard figure, the latter taken in each +case at 100.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">15—</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">20—</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">25—</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">35—</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">45—</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">55—</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">65 and<br>upwards</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl" colspan="2">Occupied Males.</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + <td class="rightr">100</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2"><b>Mining Industry</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>148</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>112</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>87</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>78</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>95</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>121</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>147</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Coal miner</td> + <td class="rightr">150</td> + <td class="rightr">111</td> + <td class="rightr">86</td> + <td class="rightr">77</td> + <td class="rightr">94</td> + <td class="rightr">119</td> + <td class="rightr">143</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" rowspan="6">Coal<br>Miners</td> + <td class="chtr">Durham and Northumberland</td> + <td class="rightr">154</td> + <td class="rightr">111</td> + <td class="rightr">75</td> + <td class="rightr">66</td> + <td class="rightr">79</td> + <td class="rightr">97</td> + <td class="rightr">152</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Lancashire</td> + <td class="rightr">163</td> + <td class="rightr">107</td> + <td class="rightr">88</td> + <td class="rightr">94</td> + <td class="rightr">110</td> + <td class="rightr">140</td> + <td class="rightr">150</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">West Riding</td> + <td class="rightr">115</td> + <td class="rightr">92</td> + <td class="rightr">76</td> + <td class="rightr">77</td> + <td class="rightr">89</td> + <td class="rightr">126</td> + <td class="rightr">138</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Derby and Notts</td> + <td class="rightr">93</td> + <td class="rightr">68</td> + <td class="rightr">69</td> + <td class="rightr">59</td> + <td class="rightr">73</td> + <td class="rightr">96</td> + <td class="rightr">118</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Staffordshire</td> + <td class="rightr">95</td> + <td class="rightr">109</td> + <td class="rightr">82</td> + <td class="rightr">70</td> + <td class="rightr">95</td> + <td class="rightr">135</td> + <td class="rightr">180</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Monmouth and Wales</td> + <td class="rightr">227</td> + <td class="rightr">141</td> + <td class="rightr">118</td> + <td class="rightr">97</td> + <td class="rightr">117</td> + <td class="rightr">140</td> + <td class="rightr">129</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Ironstone miner</td> + <td class="rightr">134</td> + <td class="rightr">90</td> + <td class="rightr">82</td> + <td class="rightr">66</td> + <td class="rightr">83</td> + <td class="rightr">91</td> + <td class="rightr">144</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">|Copper miner</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">158</td> + <td class="rightr">129</td> + <td class="rightr">146</td> + <td class="rightr">118</td> + <td class="rightr">127</td> + <td class="rightr">170</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Tin miner</td> + <td class="rightr">116</td> + <td class="rightr">139</td> + <td class="rightr">111</td> + <td class="rightr">115</td> + <td class="rightr">161</td> + <td class="rightr">180</td> + <td class="rightr">178</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Lead miner</td> + <td class="rightr">118</td> + <td class="rightr">127</td> + <td class="rightr">130</td> + <td class="rightr">109</td> + <td class="rightr">116</td> + <td class="rightr">182</td> + <td class="rightr">240</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl" colspan="2">Mine service</td> + <td class="rightrb">127</td> + <td class="rightrb">264</td> + <td class="rightrb">129</td> + <td class="rightrb">98</td> + <td class="rightrb">95</td> + <td class="rightrb">113</td> + <td class="rightrb">155</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The table shows that at ages from fifteen to twenty, and from twenty to +twenty-five, as well as at both the age-groups above fifty-five<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> years, +miners in the aggregate die more rapidly than do other occupied males, +whilst at intervening ages they die less rapidly. Miners, however, are +a picked class of men in a more especial sense than are the toilers in +most other industries. Their labour is so arduous that those only who +possess exceptional physical endurance are able to continue it, and +this may account for the fact that when they are barely past the prime +of life many of them become enfeebled, and subject to a mortality which +is considerably in excess of that incidental to other occupations.</p> + +<p>On attempting to trace the causes of mortality in the various groups +of miners, and to compare those industries, in this respect, with +one another and with other occupations, it readily appears that a +large, though very inconstant, proportion of the total mortality is +contributed by “accident.” It is accordingly desirable to isolate +this factor, so that we may arrive at a fair judgment as to the loss +of life by disease alone occurring amongst these workers in their +several fields of labour. This has been done in the following table, +where the comparative mortality of the various groups of miners is +given (<i>a</i>) from all causes except accident, (<i>b</i>) from +certain prevalent diseases, (<i>c</i>) from accident or violence, and +(<i>d</i>) from disease and accident together.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">All Causes<br>except<br>Accidents.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Alcoholism.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Liver<br>Diseases.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Respiratory<br>Diseases.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Bright’s<br>Diseases.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Accident.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Disease and<br>Accident<br>together.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2"><b>Mining Industry</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>800</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>4</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>18</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>109</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>267</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>19</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>135</b></td> + <td class="rightr"><b>935</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Coal miners</td> + <td class="rightr">784</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + <td class="rightr">17</td> + <td class="rightr">97</td> + <td class="rightr">269</td> + <td class="rightr">18</td> + <td class="rightr">141</td> + <td class="rightr">925</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" rowspan="6">Coal<br>Miners</td> + <td class="chtr">Durham & Northumberland</td> + <td class="rightr">678</td> + <td class="rightr">5</td> + <td class="rightr">23</td> + <td class="rightr">94</td> + <td class="rightr">156</td> + <td class="rightr">15</td> + <td class="rightr">96</td> + <td class="rightr">774</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Lancashire</td> + <td class="rightr">914</td> + <td class="rightr">5</td> + <td class="rightr">17</td> + <td class="rightr">102</td> + <td class="rightr">389</td> + <td class="rightr">17</td> + <td class="rightr">155</td> + <td class="rightr">1069</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">West Riding</td> + <td class="rightr">798</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + <td class="rightr">16</td> + <td class="rightr">123</td> + <td class="rightr">288</td> + <td class="rightr">16</td> + <td class="rightr">114</td> + <td class="rightr">912</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Derby and Notts</td> + <td class="rightr">638</td> + <td class="rightr">2</td> + <td class="rightr">18</td> + <td class="rightr">69</td> + <td class="rightr">159</td> + <td class="rightr">8</td> + <td class="rightr">89</td> + <td class="rightr">727</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Staffordshire</td> + <td class="rightr">817</td> + <td class="rightr">2</td> + <td class="rightr">8</td> + <td class="rightr">83</td> + <td class="rightr">319</td> + <td class="rightr">22</td> + <td class="rightr">135</td> + <td class="rightr">952</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtr">Monmouth and Wales</td> + <td class="rightr">902</td> + <td class="rightr">7</td> + <td class="rightr">16</td> + <td class="rightr">107</td> + <td class="rightr">345</td> + <td class="rightr">27</td> + <td class="rightr">243</td> + <td class="rightr">1145</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Ironstone miners</td> + <td class="rightr">688</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + <td class="rightr">20</td> + <td class="rightr">90</td> + <td class="rightr">204</td> + <td class="rightr">15</td> + <td class="rightr">86</td> + <td class="rightr">774</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Copper miners</td> + <td class="rightr">1195</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">28</td> + <td class="rightr">331</td> + <td class="rightr">347</td> + <td class="rightr">68</td> + <td class="rightr">35</td> + <td class="rightr">1230</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Tin miners</td> + <td class="rightr">1361</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + <td class="rightr">28</td> + <td class="rightr">508</td> + <td class="rightr">377</td> + <td class="rightr">29</td> + <td class="rightr">48</td> + <td class="rightr">1409</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Lead miners</td> + <td class="rightr">1267</td> + <td class="rightr">5</td> + <td class="rightr">34</td> + <td class="rightr">380</td> + <td class="rightr">325</td> + <td class="rightr">33</td> + <td class="rightr">43</td> + <td class="rightr">1310</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Mine service</td> + <td class="rightr">946</td> + <td class="rightr">6</td> + <td class="rightr">42</td> + <td class="rightr">114</td> + <td class="rightr">216</td> + <td class="rightr">20</td> + <td class="rightr">75</td> + <td class="rightr">1021</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl" colspan="2">Farm labourer</td> + <td class="rightr">590</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + <td class="rightr">13</td> + <td class="rightr">115</td> + <td class="rightr">129</td> + <td class="rightr">12</td> + <td class="rightr">42</td> + <td class="rightr">632</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl" colspan="2">Occupied males</td> + <td class="rightrb">897</td> + <td class="rightrb">13</td> + <td class="rightrb">27</td> + <td class="rightrb">185</td> + <td class="rightrb">221</td> + <td class="rightrb">27</td> + <td class="rightrb">56</td> + <td class="rightrb">953</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>This table shows that miners, as a class, are a temperate body of men; +their mortality directly attributed to alcoholism being less than +one-third, and that from liver disease being only two-thirds,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> of that +of occupied males generally. In this respect they scarcely differ from +farm labourers; their mortality from alcoholism is the same, and that +from liver disease is only slightly higher.</p> + +<p>Miners, as a class, suffer less than other occupied males from +phthisis, as well as from cancer and diabetes, their mortality from the +first-mentioned disease being below the average by 41 per cent., from +the second by 16 per cent., and from the last by 29 per cent. Among +miners, diseases of the nervous, circulatory, and urinary systems are +less fatal than the average, but, with few exceptions, respiratory +diseases are more fatal.</p> + +<p><i>Coal Miners.</i>—As a class, colliers compare favourably with men +in most other occupations on the score of health. During the first +thirty years of the main working period of life their mortality is +substantially lower than is the mortality in other industries, although +at ages under twenty and over fifty-five they die faster than the +average.</p> + +<p>The excessive mortality of colliers under twenty years of age may be +accounted for by the fact that from 40 to 50 per cent. of the total +deaths are due to violence, caused by the waggons and “tubs” in which +coals are conveyed from the underground workings to the shafts. This +form of accident falls mainly to the lot of the younger and less +experienced colliers who are employed in “tramming” and “hurrying” the +coals. When their mortality from accident is deducted, the residual +death-rate of colliers under twenty years of age does not greatly +differ from the average.</p> + +<p>The comparative mortality figure of colliers, without distinction of +age, from all causes including accidents, averages 925; but whilst on +the one hand it does not exceed 727 among the colliers of Derbyshire +and Nottingham, and 774 among those of Durham and Northumberland, on +the other hand it ranges upwards to 1069 among colliers in Lancashire +and 1145 in Monmouthshire and South Wales.</p> + +<p>It is not easy to explain why it is that colliers in the several +coalfields, working as they do in the same material, and spending an +equal portion of the day underground, should differ so widely from +one another in their mortality. For example, on reference to the +accompanying table we see, with regard to miners under twenty years +of age, that whilst on the one hand, among colliers in the counties +of Derby and Nottingham, and also in Stafford, the mortality is lower +than among “occupied males” by 7 and 5 per cent. respectively; on the +other hand, among colliers in Durham<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> and Northumberland, the mortality +exceeds that standard by 54 per cent., in Lancashire by 63 per cent., +and in Monmouthshire and South Wales by not less than 127 per cent. +Again, in the counties of Derby and Nottingham colliers between their +fifty-fifth and sixty-fifth years die less rapidly than the average +by 4 per cent., but colliers of the same age in Staffordshire die +more rapidly than the average by 35 per cent., and in Lancashire and +Monmouthshire more rapidly by 40 per cent.</p> + +<p>Various theories have been advanced to account for the great disparity +just alluded to in the local death-rates among colliers. In the first +place, we know that coal-pits differ greatly in geological character, +in depth, in the grittiness or dustiness of the rock which has to be +worked in order to get at the coal, in the amount and composition +of gas present, in the quantity of water permeating the strata, in +the thickness of the coal seams, in the temperature of the workings; +and last, but most important, in the perfection or otherwise of the +ventilation of the coal-pit. Again, it is known that the habits and +consequently the health and comfort of coal miners vary extremely +according as the colliery is situate in a country district, or, as is +frequently the case especially in the Lancashire coalfields, in what is +practically an urban district, perhaps bordering on a large town. These +variations in the circumstances of life are certainly sufficient to +account for wide differences in the health and longevity of coal miners.</p> + +<p>Aged colliers, wherever they are employed, sustain a mortality which +is considerably in excess of the standard; yet even among them the +mortality varies greatly with locality. For whereas in the counties of +Derby and Nottingham the mortality of colliers aged sixty-five years +and upwards exceeds that of occupied males by 18 per cent., the excess +amounts to 50 per cent. in Lancashire, 52 per cent. in Durham and +Northumberland, and 80 per cent. in Staffordshire.</p> + +<p>In the list of principal causes of death amongst colliers there are two +diseases which have been the subject of exceptional comment, both in +this country and abroad—namely, pulmonary phthisis on the one hand, +and ordinary inflammatory diseases of the lung on the other. Almost all +writers on the subject, whether in recent or in earlier years, agree +in attributing to colliers an unusually low mortality from tubercular, +and a correspondingly high mortality from non-tubercular, disease of +the lungs. The accompanying table, which gives statistics for the years +1890–92, confirms the general opinion. Thus, taking coal miners in the +aggregate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> we find that their mortality ascribed to phthisis is only +about half of that to which other occupied males are subject, whilst +their mortality from respiratory diseases exceeds the same standard +by 21 per cent. If we take farm labourers as a standard by which the +mortality of colliers should be judged, we find that whilst colliers +suffer from fatal phthisis in the proportion of 97 as against 115 for +farm labourers, colliers die rather more than twice as rapidly from +diseases of the respiratory system other than phthisis. Although, as +has already been stated, colliers as a class enjoy special immunity +from pulmonary phthisis, nevertheless the disease prevails amongst +them very unequally. The highest mortality figures from phthisis +among colliers are 123 in the West Riding of Yorkshire and 107 in +Monmouthshire, whilst the figures do not exceed 83 in Staffordshire and +69 in Derbyshire. In no English county does the mortality of colliers +from phthisis even approach 185, which is the figure for occupied males +in the aggregate.</p> + +<p>In the West Riding of Yorkshire the mortality of colliers from phthisis +has increased since 1881 by one-fifth part; but in other counties it +has decreased by proportions in some cases as high as one-third of its +former amount. Non-tubercular diseases of the lungs are excessively +fatal to the colliers of Monmouthshire and South Wales, and still more +so to those of Lancashire, where the mortality from these diseases is +76 per cent. above that of occupied males generally, and is more than +double of what it is among the colliers of Northumberland, Durham, +Derby, and Nottingham. These diseases have very considerably increased +in fatality since 1881 in all the coalfields of England: the increase +being equal to two-thirds of the former amount among the colliers of +Lancashire, and to more than one-half among those of the West Riding +of Yorkshire. Colliers nowhere appear to readily fall victims to +intemperance. In Derby and Nottingham, as well as in Staffordshire, +the colliers are especially free from that vice, their mortality from +alcoholism being only half the low figure for colliers generally. Even +in Monmouthshire and South Wales, where the figure for alcoholism is +the highest, only 7 of the colliers die of this disease for every +13 that die from it in other occupations. Since 1881 the mortality +due to intemperance has slightly increased among the coal miners of +Lancashire, but has decreased in all other counties respecting which +comparison is possible.</p> + +<p><i>Ironstone mining.</i>—This is one of the industries that are +declining in this country. Miners of ironstone numbered barely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span> 18,000 +at the last census, and were fewer by nearly one-third part than at +the census of 1881. More than half of these workers are to be found +in the counties of Cumberland and York, and about an eighth part more +are scattered over the counties of Stafford and Northampton. Speaking +generally, iron-workers are a healthy body of men. They experience +rates of mortality which are lower than those of “occupied males” at +all periods of life between twenty years and sixty-five, and also +lower than the rates for coal miners at the same ages. Both ironstone +miners and colliers, however, suffer a much higher mortality than other +workers at ages under twenty and over fifty-five years; the reason for +this has not as yet been satisfactorily explained. It has been shown +by Dr Ogle and other writers that the vital statistics of ironstone +miners bear a general resemblance to those of coal miners. Recent +investigations confirm this statement thus far, that in both cases +the mortality from tubercular phthisis and from all other diseases +except those of the respiratory system are below the average, and even +this reservation does not apply to the statistics of 1890–2. Their +comparative mortality figure from all causes is 774, and therefore +considerably below that of coal miners in the aggregate. From disease +alone (excluding accident) their mortality is slightly higher than that +of colliers in Northumberland and Durham, but they suffer somewhat less +severely from accident. Ironstone miners are a temperate body of men, +their mortality figure from alcoholism being practically the same as +that of colliers.</p> + +<p>The extended tables of causes of death in my larger work show that +ironstone miners suffer more severely than the average from influenza +and from accident, but that under all other headings their mortality is +below that of other occupations.</p> + +<p>As compared with miners generally, the only diseases which show an +excess among these workers are influenza, cancer, diseases of the +liver, and suicide. Since 1881, the mortality of ironstone miners +has decreased; but, as in the case of many other occupations, the +improvement is limited to the lower ages, the rate having slightly +increased at ages above forty-five years. Since 1881 the mortality of +ironstone miners from alcoholism has decreased by more than half. There +has also been a substantial decrease in their mortality from pulmonary +consumption, and a slight decrease in that from other diseases of +the lungs and air passages. Diseases of the nervous, circulatory, +digestive, and urinary systems are, however, more fatal than formerly +amongst these workers, and they are now more addicted than they were to +suicide.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span></p> + +<p><i>Copper Miners.</i>—The number of men engaged in this industry is +so small that it is scarcely safe to express an opinion as to their +healthiness or otherwise, especially when, as in the present case, the +period covered by the statistics does not exceed three years. At the +last census scarcely more than 1000 copper miners above fifteen years +were enumerated, their number having dwindled to less than a third part +of what it had been at the preceding census.</p> + +<p>If one may hazard an opinion from so small a number of deaths, it +would appear that copper miners are an unhealthy body of men: their +comparative mortality figure is 1230, or 295 above that of miners in +the aggregate. Pulmonary consumption and other lung diseases appear to +be very destructive to these workers, and the survivors certainly do +wisely in endeavouring to find a healthier field for their labour by +emigrating to other and more prosperous regions. At the next census +it is probable that the copper-mining industry in England will have +practically ceased to exist.</p> + +<p><i>Tin Miners.</i>—This is another unhealthy occupation; it is limited +almost exclusively to the counties of Devon and Cornwall. The miners +of tin at the last census numbered rather fewer than 10,000, and as +the deaths in the course of three years did not exceed 336 in all, no +very detailed observations on their mortality would be profitable. In +consequence of the very general emigration of tin miners in recent +years to South Africa and elsewhere, the age constitution of tin miners +as a class has become exceedingly abnormal. Adults in the prime of +life having left their homes in search of more profitable work abroad, +the tin miners who are left at home are the least robust and healthy +of their tribe, and this fact has a considerable effect on their +mortality. Reference to the table on page 156 shows that tin miners +sustain rates of mortality which are excessive at all ages. Their +comparative mortality figure is 1409, or nearly half as high again as +the average. Tin miners die two and three-quarter times as fast from +phthisis, and one and three-quarter times as fast from other lung +diseases as do occupied males generally; their mortality from cancer +and from diseases of the nervous and urinary systems is also in excess +of the average.</p> + + +<h3>MORTALITY OF UNOCCUPIED AND OCCUPIED MEN.</h3> + +<p>In my previous work on occupational mortality, the death-rates of +unoccupied men were compared, in considerable detail,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> with those of +men following various occupations, in different parts of the country. +A brief summary of what was then advanced at much greater length may +fitly close the present section.</p> + +<p>At the census of 1891 the number of unoccupied males living between +the ages of twenty-five and sixty-five years was returned as 208,857. +Of these, 35 per cent. were classed as “retired from business,” 6 per +cent. as pensioners, and 23 per cent. as “living on their own means,” +whilst 21 per cent. were referred to the class of “unoccupied persons,” +including an unknown proportion of paupers and prisoners. Careful +investigation of the facts leads to the surmise that somewhere between +one-third and one-half of the unoccupied males, as above defined, +experience a mortality which probably does not exceed that of occupied +males at the same ages. If this be so, it follows that the mortality of +the remaining two-thirds, or one-half, as the case may be, must greatly +exceed even the high rates of unoccupied males in the aggregate. In the +following table the rates of unoccupied males are contrasted with those +of occupied males at the several stages of life.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Age-<br>Groups.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Occupied<br>Males.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Unoccupied<br>Males.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">“Unoccupied” Rates<br>per cent. of<br>“Occupied” Rates.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">15–20</td> + <td class="rightr">2.55</td> + <td class="rightr">35.86</td> + <td class="right1r">1406</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">20–25</td> + <td class="rightr">5.07</td> + <td class="rightr">29.58</td> + <td class="right1r">583</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">25–35</td> + <td class="rightr">7.29</td> + <td class="rightr">27.05</td> + <td class="right1r">371</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">35–45</td> + <td class="rightr">12.43</td> + <td class="rightr">35.71</td> + <td class="right1r">287</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">45–55</td> + <td class="rightr">20.66</td> + <td class="rightr">37.77</td> + <td class="right1r">183</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">55–65</td> + <td class="rightr">36.66</td> + <td class="rightr">59.44</td> + <td class="right1r">162</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Over 65 years</td> + <td class="rightrb">102.32</td> + <td class="rightrb">105.86</td> + <td class="right1rb">103</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The comparative mortality figures of occupied and of unoccupied males +between twenty-five and sixty-five years of age are 953 and 2215 +respectively. In other words, the number of males of definite age +constitution, within these limits, that would give 1000 deaths among +the general population, and 679 deaths in the healthy districts, would +give 953 deaths among occupied, and 2215 among unoccupied, males. The +comparative mortality figure of unoccupied males, therefore, exceeds +that of occupied males by 132 per cent. The following table shows the +chief causes of death that go to make up the comparative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> mortality +figures for occupied males and unoccupied males respectively.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Cause of Death.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Occupied<br>Males.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Unoccupied<br>Males.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Excess of Mortality<br>of Unoccupied over<br>Occupied Males.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">All Causes</td> + <td class="rightr">953</td> + <td class="rightr">2215</td> + <td class="right1r">1262</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Diseases of Nervous System</td> + <td class="rightr">82</td> + <td class="rightr">630</td> + <td class="right1r">548</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Phthisis</td> + <td class="rightr">185</td> + <td class="rightr">448</td> + <td class="right1r">263</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Diseases of Heart</td> + <td class="rightr">126</td> + <td class="rightr">240</td> + <td class="right1r">114</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Influenza and Respiratory Diseases</td> + <td class="rightr">254</td> + <td class="rightr">350</td> + <td class="right1r">96</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cancer</td> + <td class="rightr">44</td> + <td class="rightr">96</td> + <td class="right1r">52</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Diseases of Urinary Organs</td> + <td class="rightr">41</td> + <td class="rightr">82</td> + <td class="right1r">41</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Alcoholism and Liver Diseases</td> + <td class="rightr">40</td> + <td class="rightr">76</td> + <td class="right1r">36</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Accidents, including Lead Poisoning</td> + <td class="rightr">57</td> + <td class="rightr">81</td> + <td class="right1r">24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Suicide</td> + <td class="rightrb">14</td> + <td class="rightrb">28</td> + <td class="right1rb">14</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It thus appears that nearly two-thirds of the enormous excess in +the mortality of unoccupied as compared with occupied men is due +either to diseases of the nervous system, or to phthisis. The heavy +mortality from both these diseases would appear to partly depend on +the circumstance that the unoccupied class includes a large proportion +of insane persons who are exceptionally prone to phthisis. Among other +causes of death, diseases of the heart account for 114, and influenza +(with respiratory diseases) accounts for 96 of the excess in the +mortality figure of unoccupied men.</p> + +<p>The mortality attributed to cancer is double, and that attributed to +intemperance and liver disease, to diseases of the urinary system, and +to suicide, is about double as heavy among the unoccupied as it is +among the occupied class. The excess of mortality from accident among +unoccupied males possibly results from the addition to their ranks of +men who, having been permanently disabled whilst at work, drift into +the unoccupied class, and finally die from their injuries.</p> + +<p>At the census of 1891 London contained 1,230,010 occupied males aged +fifteen years and upwards, while the industrial districts contained +1,833,295, and the agricultural districts contained 1,246,156 at the +same ages. More than half of the occupied males in England and Wales +are therefore included in these three sections of the population.</p> + +<p>The mortality of <i>occupied males</i> exhibits very wide variations +in different parts of the country. These variations are exemplified<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> +severally by London, by the group of districts representing Industrial +England, and by the areas representing Agricultural England.</p> + +<p>At each of the seven age-groups, between fifteen and sixty-five years, +the highest death-rates occur in the industrial, and the lowest in the +agricultural, districts, London occupying an intermediate position.</p> + +<p>The comparative mortality figure among occupied males, at ages from +twenty-five to sixty-five years, is 1147 in London, 1248 in the +industrial districts, and 687 in the agricultural districts; these +figures being respectively 20 per cent. above, 31 per cent. above, and +28 per cent. below, the figure for all occupied males.</p> + +<p>Phthisis and respiratory diseases are more fatal than any other causes +of death to occupied males, both in London and in the industrial +districts. In London these two headings contributed almost equally to +the mortality figure. The industrial districts, on the other hand, show +less mortality than does London from phthisis, but the difference is +more than made up by the heavy death-roll from respiratory diseases. +In the agricultural districts the mortality figure for phthisis is +less than half of that of London, and the figure for respiratory +diseases is still lower. After due correction for age constitution, +these two classes of disease in the aggregate cause 48 per cent. of the +total mortality among occupied males in London, 47 per cent. in the +industrial districts, and 36 per cent. in the agricultural districts, +against 43 per cent. for all occupied males within the same age limits.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">John Tatham.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XI<br> +<span class="subhed">THE DISEASES OF SOLDIERS AT HOME AND ABROAD</span></h2></div> + +<p>The soldier is liable, like other members of the community, to various +diseases due to his occupation and surroundings, although at the +present day the hygienic conditions of barracks and military duties are +so carefully supervised that he is, when on home service, placed under +much more favourable circumstances than men of his own class in civil +life. It is, therefore, somewhat disappointing to find that under these +circumstances, knowing soldiers to be more or less picked men, they are +not, judging from tables of mortality, more healthy than their civilian +brethren of the same age. It is a matter of common observation that the +army ages a man quickly; the old soldier of a regiment, who is looked +upon more or less as a privileged individual, and generally given some +sort of employment which relieves him from “sentry go” and the more +arduous duties of his profession, is seldom over forty years of age, +and ought to be therefore at his best; but partly from the monotony of +his existence, and partly from excessive smoking, drinking, and night +duty, the private of twenty years’ service is, as a rule, a worn-out +machine, his mental faculties blunted, and his body, if not the seat of +actual disease, aged and almost useless. These effects are still more +marked when a man, as is generally the case, has spent a great part of +his service abroad, for to the effects of hot climates and the diseases +incidental thereto must be added, in a greatly enhanced degree, the +enforced ennui and idleness which are the bane of the soldier’s +existence in all stations in times of peace, and especially in the +tropics. We all know how much more likely we are to rust out than wear +out, and the enforced idleness which the soldier, especially in the +infantry, has to encounter, leads to sluggishness of the functions of +the body, while in many, drunkenness, increased smoking and debauchery, +exercise an injurious influence upon health, apart altogether from +the actual diseases to which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> they may give rise. An old soldier, for +these reasons, can seldom eat his rations, and his system seems to be +in that receptive condition that he readily falls a victim to epidemic +disease prevalent in the neighbourhood, and this the more owing to his +tendency to haunt the lowest and most insanitary parts of the town near +which he may be quartered. This is seen more particularly abroad, where +the native quarters are in marked contrast to the clean and sanitary +military cantonments, so that medical officers have come to regard it +as almost certain that the soldiers will soon suffer when an epidemic +breaks out among the civil population. Statistics prove that the longer +soldiers serve, the greater is the proportional mortality among them.</p> + +<p>After these preliminary remarks we will proceed to discuss the peculiar +health conditions under which soldiers exist, and their effects as +regards their duties, habits, surroundings, and dress: firstly, at +home; secondly, abroad, with special reference to hot climates, both +dry and damp, and the diseases from which they suffer in such climates; +thirdly, the special dangers to health incidental to active service.</p> + +<p>The peculiar conditions of military as contrasted with civil life are +that the soldier must perforce (in most cases) remain unmarried, that +his daily wants are all provided for by the State, so that his pay, +though small, is practically all pocket money, which may, if he is +so inclined, be all spent on drink and debauchery; that his personal +liberty is a good deal restricted, tending to irritability and low +spirits in many temperaments; that he has no privacy, living as he does +in rooms common to him and many others; that he has to dress in clothes +in which hygienic principles are sometimes overruled by the necessity +for ornamentation and smartness; and that his duties frequently entail +great exposure to varieties of temperature and loss of sleep.</p> + +<p>As regards the first of these points, it is known from statistics +that married men, as a rule, live longer than the unmarried, apart +altogether from the dangers of venereal diseases. This is not difficult +to understand, seeing that the married man has more solid comforts, +and is not tempted to spend his evenings abroad, also that he has +that incentive to steady work and moderation in all things which +the celibate has not. Again, the average soldier has undoubtedly +more pocket money than the average civilian of his class; he has no +incentive to save; he is tempted by numerous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> companions of both +sexes to excess of all kinds, and spends most of his evenings abroad, +consuming more drink and tobacco than is good for him. Vanity and +desire to be smart frequently cause him to dress in garments much too +thin for the state of the weather. Discipline has, no doubt, a very +depressing effect upon the health of some men. Restraint and the petty +tyranny of superiors exercise a bad effect upon their spirits, causing +loss of sleep, and often leading to drinking. In spite of the great +improvement in the treatment of the men which has been effected in our +army in recent years, suicides are still too common, though not nearly +so frequent as formerly, or as they are in other armies.</p> + +<p>As regards the herding together of men in barrack rooms, this is an +evil which is almost unavoidable without great increase of expense, but +if it could be altered it would certainly make the army more attractive +to the better class of men. Formerly there was great overcrowding and +consequent sickness, but at the present day, in almost all barracks, +each man has at least 600 cubic feet of space, a larger amount than men +of that class usually enjoy in civil life. Before the need for fresh +air was so fully recognised as it is now, there was great mortality in +the army from chest complaints, especially from consumption, as also +in the navy; but now the regulations are very strict, the number of +men to be accommodated in each room, so as to give each his 600 cubic +feet, is painted on the barrack-room doors, and any overcrowding, +beyond the regulated numbers, must be reported upon and explained by +the officers, regimental and medical. The public are now, generally +speaking, fully alive to the need for fresh air and ventilation, but +disregard of the necessity is still a very fertile cause of disease +in civil life, especially when to lack of fresh air is added the fact +that such air as there is is laden with dust or other solid matter, +as in mines or workshops. In former years the large amount of lung +disease in the army and navy was in exact proportion to the amount of +overcrowding, but now the soldier and the sailor do not suffer more +from these diseases than do the civil population. In the first ten +years of the late Queen’s reign, the deaths from lung diseases in the +army per 1000 of strength were at the rate of 7.82, but in 1898 there +were only 2.5 cases per 1000 admitted to hospital, of whom a very small +proportion died, the majority being invalided or cured. Apropos of this +I need only remark that the latest plan of treating consumptives is to +keep them day and night in the open air. Cold fresh air is no longer so +much dreaded as formerly. That it is not the cause of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> consumption can +be abundantly proved from army statistics. From these statistics one +may learn how, in the old days of overcrowding, pulmonary consumption +was much more prevalent among the troops serving in the delightful +climate of the West Indies than in England, or in Canada, owing to +the scandalous manner in which the barracks in those islands used to +be kept overfilled. Now, except when yellow fever appears and carries +off the men, the West Indian station is the healthiest quarter of the +British army, not excepting even the home stations.</p> + +<p>As regards the dress of the soldier, there was formerly in the +army a good deal of disease of the heart and great blood-vessels. +This was undoubtedly caused by restriction to the circulation from +tight clothing, and from the pressure on the chest of the straps +which supported the knapsack and accoutrements. At the present day +the tendency is to do away with everything tight: the stock has +disappeared, the tunic is made to fit more loosely, and the weight to +be carried is so arranged that there is no pressure on the chest. The +dress for hard work is made of light material, serge or drill, allowing +free transpiration from the skin, and even the stick-up collar of the +tunic is being done away with, at all events for the campaigning dress, +and is being replaced by a turned-down collar, as may be noticed in +pictures of officers on active service in South Africa. One wonders +that any men survived the active service in India in the old days of +the tightly-fitting, thick cloth clothes, insufficient head-dress, and +straps supporting the knapsack and ammunition pouches crossing over the +chest. The fighting at the Alma was in full-dress uniform, and there +is no doubt that there was a great deal of unnecessary suffering and +mortality from this cause. Instinct and common sense alike urge against +doing hard work and long marches in tight clothes, which overstrain +the heart. We still hear every now and then of serious consequences, +both in England and on the Continent, from holding fatiguing field +days in hot weather. Doubtless we must attribute part of the trouble +to excessive smoking and drinking. “Soldier’s irritable heart” is +attributed to the uniform and to men having to stand for long periods +in a constrained attitude; but I am disposed to blame beer and tobacco +for part of the mischief: tobacco especially, I believe to be a cause +of heart trouble among soldiers, though many authorities doubt it, +seeing that Continental soldiers smoke more than ours do and suffer +less. Our men, however, as a rule, smoke and chew much stronger tobacco +than other people; they indulge in it in the early<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span> morning on an +empty stomach, and at all other times, and I have known a man who was +anxious to be invalided out of the army produce the most marked cardiac +symptoms by the surreptitious use of strong cake tobacco. The men of +the navy, who have always had a looser and more workmanlike dress than +the army men, do not suffer to the same extent from heart troubles. +Such complaints are more prevalent in that corps of the army which +has the hardest work and the tightest clothes, viz., the Artillery. +With more rational ideas prevailing at the present time, the amount +of heart complaint has diminished, and there is now proportionally +only one-third the amount which existed about the time of the Indian +Mutiny. In making this statement we must, however, bear in mind that +our soldiers are younger than the men of those days, and in such the +effects of these diseases are less likely to manifest themselves. +However, there is no doubt that not only in respect of cardiac, but +of all other maladies, the army is much healthier than it used to be +since reforms in dress and the general treatment of the soldier have +been instituted. Old medical officers say that they never see the same +class of diseases they used to. Walks round military burial-grounds, +especially abroad, tell terrible tales of mortality among troops in +former years. In the “Happy Valley” in Hong Kong may be seen a monument +erected to over 500 men of one regiment who perished there from disease.</p> + +<p>Of the duties of the soldier that have a prejudicial effect upon his +health, the most injurious is night guard. The medical authorities are +charged to make representations to the authorities whenever in their +opinion the turn of men for this duty is becoming so frequent as to be +liable to cause illness. To the civilian mind it may seem a trifle that +each man should come on guard not oftener than say once in five days, +but when we consider the long hours of monotonous standing or walking +about in the cold and darkness, perhaps too in rain, which this duty +entails, one can understand how this prematurely ages the soldier, and +can sympathise with the latter’s ambition to get a billet which gives +him all his nights “in bed.” This is altogether apart from the great +risks of inflammation of the lungs or rheumatic fever caught in this +way, especially as the intervals of “sentry go” are, in the winter, +usually spent in a superheated guardroom, from which the soldier passes +to his cold and solitary vigil. I have known among cavalry in cold +weather an immense amount of sickness caused by the men, after getting +very hot while grooming their horses in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> hot stables, leading them +out to water in their shirt sleeves. Either from lack of time, desire +to save their clothes, carelessness or reluctance to appear “molly +coddles,” the neglect to put on their jackets frequently resulted in +attacks of pneumonia, quinsy, etc., etc., which the distribution of +woollen jerseys subsequently did much to prevent. Those who imagine +that soldiers lead a lazy life little realise how hard a young cavalry +or horse artillery soldier has to work before he becomes master of his +craft. What with learning to use his weapons, his drill, riding and the +care of his horse, clothes, and accoutrements, the recruit, if not well +fed and cared for, is very prone to break down under hardships.</p> + +<p>To turn now to causes of sickness among soldiers abroad. This is so +largely a consideration of the whole question of the effect of hot +climates on the European constitution, that I can only briefly treat of +it here. The first points to note are that, owing to the impossibility +of the troops working in the sun, and to the provision of native +servants to do many of the things which the soldier does himself at +home, the men have much more spare time; the climate causes a great +craving for drink, and the great activity of the skin renders the +system more liable to sudden chills. It is a curious and remarkable +fact that whereas most severe illnesses at home are due to chest +troubles, the abdomen is that part of the body which suffers most +severely in the tropics; hence it has been well said that tropical +disease generally “hits below the belt.”</p> + +<p>Let us consider first the conditions of life in a hot, dry climate, +such as Egypt and India in the warm weather, and next, in a moist +climate like Ceylon or the West Coast of Africa. The great difference +between Egypt and India is in that in the former the nights are +comparatively cool owing to the rapid radiation of heat from the sand +as soon as the sun goes down in the cloudless sky, while in Northern +India in hot weather, the nights are almost as hot as the days. Only +those who have had experience can realise the power of the sun in +those climates; to go out into the sunlight without a hat, even for a +few minutes, is to be struck down, or to get a splitting headache for +the remainder of the day; the skin is burned, and the lips cracked by +the hot wind, so that even when driving at midnight one turns away +his face as from the open door of a furnace; while to sleep, except +under a constantly waving punkah, is almost an impossibility for most +Europeans. Bungalows are kept closed up to exclude the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> hot wind except +at one or two windows, where it is allowed to enter through grass +mats kept constantly saturated with water. The air is only changed by +throwing the house open for an hour or so at dead of night, after which +all openings are again closed so as to bottle up, as it were, a supply +of comparatively cool air before sunrise. Hence exercise in the open +air is an impossibility except before sunrise and after sunset. In the +military stations in India soldiers can be seen sitting all night about +the cantonments, unable to sleep in their beds on account of the heat +of the barrack bungalows, which, like all buildings, retain the heat of +the sun far into the night. When we think of the effect of such a life +on the private soldiers, without a taste for reading or other resources +within themselves, can we wonder that their health suffers, and their +spirits become depressed, or that the raging thirst such heat engenders +should lead to drinking? If the temptation to indulge in alcohol be +yielded to, the liver, already in an irritable condition from the +heat, and from the digestion of a diet of meat much too heating for +the climate, soon becomes congested, or even suppurates; or the nerve +centres which control the temperature of the body, already over-worked, +break down completely, and heat apoplexy supervenes. It is a remarkable +fact that a temperate man rarely suffers from heat apoplexy, for the +body in health can adapt itself to enormously high temperatures. On the +other hand, I have been much struck by the distress caused by the heat +among beer-drinking soldiers, compared with the immunity experienced +by the more temperate officer, doing the same work on a march. The +measures to mitigate the effects of such a climate are to get as much +exercise as possible during the comparatively cool hours of the morning +and evening, and to be as much in the open air as possible at night; to +have a diet as cooling as possible—fruit, vegetables, fish, etc. (all +of which are unfortunately very difficult to procure at that season), +and to try to interest the men with books, lectures, and indoor +occupations, such as woodcarving, bootmaking, etc. Also to let them +have plenty of temperance drinks—tea, lemon juice, etc., etc. Sleeping +in the open air is the pleasantest at these times, but unfortunately +sudden storms are apt to arise in the night which cause annoying +breaks in one’s rest, and again one has to retire indoors at break +of day, just when the air is coolest and sleep most refreshing. The +alternative is to sleep under a punkah indoors, but the punkah-pulling +in soldiers’ barracks is frequently most unsatisfactory, and the broken +rest from the heat and mosquitoes is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> serious cause of deterioration +of health in the soldier. To the educated officer with books, and +perhaps music and painting to while away the long, hot hours, the +life in the hot weather is not unpleasant, dinner is not taken till +perhaps 9 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, and social intercourse passes the time till +long past midnight, then a few hours of sleep in the coolest time of +the twenty-four hours, supplemented by a siesta in the daytime. All +open-air work is over by 9 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> The more closely the life of +the soldier is made to resemble that of his officers, the better will +be his health. A word of warning is necessary about the swimming-bath, +which, though it gives the most delightful form of exercise, is +somewhat dangerous, for the bath being generally under cover, the water +is much colder than the outer air, and lengthened immersion is very +apt to cause liver and other internal congestions, the commencement of +grave tropical disease.</p> + +<p>Contrast with the above description that of a moist, hot climate. +The air, instead of being hot and dry, is ladened with moisture, the +slightest exertion causes profuse perspiration, which renders all the +garments damp and clinging; the moisture of the atmosphere renders +evaporation from the body and consequent lowering of the temperature +much slower; there is experienced a total lack of energy, but as there +is no hot wind, the houses can be kept open all day long; there are +frequent showers, and vegetation is abundant, and affords plenty of +shade for those who care to remain out-of-doors all day. There is +not, therefore, in a climate like this the same amount of confinement +indoors, but the constant heat and perspiration are very enervating, +and soon lead to marked pallor in Europeans. The great danger in such a +climate is from the damp clothing; the skin being so active is full of +blood, and a sudden cooling from sitting in a draught in damp clothes +drives the blood to the internal organs, causing congestion of the +liver and spleen, dysentery, etc. To avoid this it is most important +always to wear flannel next the skin and to change after exercise. +By doing this the risks of such a climate are much mitigated. In two +years in Ceylon I never had a day’s illness, and the good health of +the army in the Ashanti expedition of 1895–96 must in a great measure +be attributed to making the men carry a dry shirt on the march, into +which they changed at once on arriving at the halting place. The +most important disease of those climates is malaria, due to a minute +organism in the blood, now proved to be generally communicated by the +bites of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> mosquitoes. The obvious preventatives are to avoid being +bitten by mosquitoes, to destroy the breeding places of these insects +by draining the pools in which their larvæ develop, to avoid going out +at night, when these insects are most active, and to keep them off by +mosquito curtains. Smearing the exposed parts of the body with carbolic +oil will repel these pests. There is no reason why soldiers in tropical +barracks should not be supplied with mosquito curtains, when it is +not hot enough to demand the use of punkahs, which also keep off the +insects; and I have no doubt this will be done in all feverish stations +as the result of recent teaching.</p> + +<p>In sleeping under a punkah, and in fact at all times in the tropics, +where the individual retires to bed bathed in perspiration, one of the +best means of avoiding chill of the abdominal organs is to wear a long +silk scarf (kummerbund) or a flannel “cholera belt” round the body.</p> + +<p>One of the older theories about malaria was that it was due to some +miasma arising from the ground, and especially from ground which +had been recently disturbed. However erroneous this idea may be in +theory, in practice many instances are on record of its apparent +truth. I can never forget the results of sending men to a so-called +sanitorium which had been made in the far East by levelling the top of +a mountain and building barracks thereon. Almost every man who went +got an attack of malarial fever, and this is in accordance with the +experience and superstition of the Chinese. They say that the “Fung +Shui,” or genius loci, of a place is a dragon who lives in the ground, +and if you disturb the soil you irritate him, with the result that he +avenges himself by spreading fever among his aggressors. Therefore the +soil about barracks and encampments should be disturbed as little as +possible, and all shallow pools of water should be drained or treated +with a small quantity of paraffin oil to kill the larvæ of mosquitoes.</p> + +<p>Other scourges of the tropics which cause sickness and mortality among +our soldiers are liver disease and dysentery (generally due to chill +as above described); and those diseases due to contaminated water, +<i>e.g.</i>, enteric or typhoid fever, cholera, and some forms of +dysentery. This is so large a subject that I cannot say more on it than +to indicate that the germs of the disease may, while almost invariably +matured in water, be taken into the system with milk, water, or food, +and the best precautions are rigid prevention of adulteration of the +milk (to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> secured, if necessary, by having the cows milked before a +responsible European), boiling suspected drinking water, and the most +perfect cleanliness in the preparation of all food. Notwithstanding +the greatest care and expenditure in obtaining the best water for our +large Indian stations, enteric fever seems rather to increase than +diminish, but that is due, I fear, to the carelessness of the soldiers +in drinking from contaminated sources in the bazaars, or in their walks +abroad. The well-water of India and the native made aerated waters are +almost invariably open to suspicion, and ordinary filters are, I fear, +only a delusion and a snare. I am acquainted with at least one terrible +outbreak of cholera distinctly traced to the use of filters. The +bacterial filters of Berkfeld and Pasteur-Chamberland are reliable, but +are so difficult to work and keep in order that it is much better to +trust to boiling the water. In a tropical climate, when soldiers on the +march acquire an intense thirst, it is practically impossible to make +them wait till water can be boiled and cooled before quenching their +thirst, and we have had recently a terrible example of the effects of +foul drinking water in the outbreak of enteric fever among our troops +in South Africa. My own practice in India when out shooting was to +carry boiled water or cold tea, but to slake my thirst as much as +possible by sucking a lemon or lime, a practice which most travellers +and (generally) soldiers also could follow with advantage. Another use +of these fruits is to squeeze a little of the juice into water which +is not above suspicion, as it is known that acids kill the germs of +cholera, and also possibly of enteric fever. I may add that limes are +very abundant and cheap in most tropical climates, and could generally +be served out to the troops.</p> + +<p>I have already stated that heat apoplexy is most likely to attack those +addicted to alcoholic excess, and is not likely to be prevalent among +temperate men in the airy dwellings of Europeans in the tropics; but +any great overcrowding, such as occurred in the Black Hole of Calcutta, +would be likely to cause fearful mortality. Great and sustained +exertion in the hot sun of Egypt or India might cause heat apoplexy +or sunstroke in the most temperate. It is marvellous, however, what +an amount of exercise temperate men can take when “pig-sticking,” for +instance, in the hottest weather in India, with impunity.</p> + +<p>The Europeans in India, who live in roomy and clean dwellings, suffer +remarkably little from the plague, which is now<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> threatening our +shores, but has so far not obtained a foothold owing to rigid sanitary +precautions.</p> + +<p>A very troublesome complaint among soldiers in the tropics is “Dhobie +itch,” a form of ringworm locating itself under the arms and between +the legs, where the skin is always moist from perspiration. In one +regiment I had charge of, about 75 per cent. of the men had it, causing +a considerable amount of suffering and inefficiency. The disease is +spread by inoculation from dirty clothes, or such as have been washed +in impure water, and the best preventative is the use of clean and +frequently changed underwear.</p> + +<p>By the adoption of the measures above indicated it is possible for +Europeans to enjoy good health in the tropics, but in war it is +impossible to observe many of these precautions. It is well known +that in all climates the ravages of disease are infinitely more fatal +than the weapons of the enemy. The existence of hostilities, with the +hard work and privations thereby entailed, usually puts all health +considerations into the background. In the Crimean war three times +as many of our men died of sickness as at the hands of the Russians, +and the proportion will be found even greater in the present war in +South Africa, in spite of the deadly accuracy of modern weapons and of +the fact that the theatre of operations is one of the most salubrious +regions in the world. And it is not difficult to understand why this +should be so when we reflect upon what active service means—the +prolonged and intense exertion, the loss of rest, deficiency of food, +which at the best is coarse, unpalatable, and badly cooked—in a word, +starvation; the bad water, the fouling of the camping grounds by the +excreta of thousands of men and animals, the heat by day and the cold +by night, the clothes alternately saturated by perspiration and frozen +by the bitter night wind, also the clothes becoming dirty and infested +by vermin owing to their wearers being unable to change them for weeks. +In the stress of campaigning men have become ill from want of time and +opportunity to secure the daily evacuation of the bowels, which is so +necessary to health. These are a few of the conditions incidental to +active service, and when we reflect it is not difficult to understand +that not only are there many diseases induced by campaigning proper, +but that if a man have one weak point about him, such hardships are +bound to find it out. We have only to glance at the casualty lists +published in the newspapers every morning, to see how various are +the causes of death among our men at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> front. So well is this +recognised that every man is medically examined before going on active +service, and all with any defect of constitution are rejected. Here +I may incidentally remark that the prevention of venereal diseases +in the army is a matter of national importance, for the men who are +thereby unfitted to endure the privation of a campaign are many, and +all reasonable measures for the prevention of such diseases should +therefore have the support of patriotic people.</p> + +<p>It is well known that excessive fatigue alone will cause a feverish +condition of the body, leading to weakness and loss of appetite, +and when that is induced the body is in a favourable condition for +the reception of the germs of specific diseases. Service conditions +obviously predispose to such diseases as pneumonia, rheumatism, quinsy, +frost-bite, etc., etc., and in hot countries to heat apoplexy and +sunstroke.</p> + +<p>The commonest specific diseases of campaigns are dysentery, enteric +fever, cholera, and malarial fevers. Dysentery has always been the +great scourge of armies in the field in almost all climates, and the +causes may be briefly summed up as bad food, bad air, bad water, and +chills. The unwholesome food may cause disease in two ways: owing to +its coarseness and being badly cooked, it may give rise to inflammation +and irritation of the bowels, or it may be deficient in those still +imperfectly understood constituents which are necessary to prevent +scurvy. It is unnecessary to dilate further on the food question, the +points of which are obvious, but as regards scorbutic dysentery I may +say that it is very liable to appear among soldiers in the field, and +our authorities endeavour to ward it off by giving, whenever possible, +rations of fruit, vegetables, jam, and lime juice. As regards bad air, +the condition of camping-grounds whereon large numbers of men and +animals have lived even for a few days must be seen to be realised, and +when to that is added the stench of dead bodies of men, horses, and +cattle, as on a battlefield, it can be easily understood how frequently +the air which men have to breathe on active service must be such as +to give rise to bowel complaints. Again, in some countries where our +troops have to operate, such as in the West African jungles, the air +reeks with the smell of decaying vegetation in the stagnant depths of +the primeval forest, and such air is most unwholesome.</p> + +<p>Bad water is the principal cause of dysentery, but whether a man can +acquire true dysentery thus, unless the water has been fouled by the +discharges of a previous case of the disease, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span> not quite certain. +Generally, such fouling is not difficult to establish. The drinking +of water in which are immersed the rotting carcases of men and +animals, and other nameless abominations—such water as our soldiers +drunk at Paardeberg—is, as might naturally be expected, likely to +cause diarrhœa running into dysentery, especially when all the other +causes of that disease exist also. Chill I hold to be an exceedingly +common cause of dysentery, having contracted the disease myself from +that cause alone after leaving the tropics. It is most important to +avoid sudden cooling of the surface of the abdomen by changing into +dry flannels immediately on halting, and keeping that region warm, +especially at night, by a thick woollen or silk covering. Unfortunately +such precautions are generally impracticable on active service.</p> + +<p>Enteric or typhoid fever has only been recognised as a distinct disease +apart from typhus fever since the researches of Sir Wm. Jenner in the +late Queen’s reign, and therefore, whether it used formerly to be as +great a scourge in the past as it is now, it is impossible to say. At +the present day it is without doubt by far the most fatal disease to +which our soldiers are liable either in peace or war, and experience in +Egypt, India, and South Africa, where it seems to become more and more +fatal in spite of all that science can do to check it, almost causes us +to despair.</p> + +<p>Protective inoculation on the same principle as vaccination is the +latest plan, tried extensively in South Africa, but the reports to +hand so far do not show that it has had any marked success as a +preventative, though it is hoped that it will prove to mitigate the +severity of the attack. The disease is most prevalent and fatal among +young men, which is a strong argument against the employment of very +young soldiers; but on the other hand many middle-aged men, whose +deaths the country is even now deploring, have lately succumbed. There +is little doubt that in England and other temperate climates this +disease is almost invariably due to bad water, but in India and other +very dry climates, where it has continued to spread in spite of the +most rigid precautions, the opinion is gaining ground that the germs +may often be spread by the wind carrying them about into food and drink +from the dry excreta of previous sufferers, deposited on the ground. +Flies also are suspected of bringing about the same effect. Even in +India and South Africa, however, it is remarkable how often epidemics +are associated with contaminated water—for instance, Paardeberg and +Bloemfontein (where the enemy cut off the regular water<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> supply), +and when one has had experience of the way in which the ground is +fouled by the natives of Africa and India, there is little wonder +that the water supply suffers. It seems certain that people can drink +sewage contaminated water with comparative impunity, but the germs of +enteric once admitted into the water, an epidemic is almost certain. +The Hindoos always wash their buttocks after defecation, and hence +generally perform that act near water, and in the hills in India often +when I have been tempted to drink from an apparently pure mountain +stream, I have noticed, just in time, the evidence of this disgusting +practice. Again natives generally build their huts near a water supply, +and hence nearly every rivulet is contaminated. In a hot country it is +therefore most difficult to prevent men quenching their raging thirst +with obviously polluted water. The Boers are reported to be very filthy +in their habits, and as enteric fever is rife among them, it is not +difficult for us to understand how so many of our men have contracted +the disease in such a thirsty land, where I am informed even doctors, +well aware of the risks, could not resist the temptation of drinking +the dirty water by the roadside. The only safeguard with suspicious +water is to boil it; filters only give a false sense of security, but +wells can be purified with Condy’s fluid and acids, and of course rain +water, if carefully collected and stored, or a stream, if guarded from +its source, may be trusted, as also wells sunk at the time by the Royal +Engineers. Many observers think that enteric fever may be caused by +excessive fatigue and exposure to the sun, with absorption of poisons +from the bowels, especially if they are overloaded with decomposing +excreta due to constipation from heat, hard work, unwholesome food, +and want of time and opportunity to secure a regular evacuation. In +the navy, where condensed water is largely used for drinking purposes, +enteric fever is rare, except when contracted ashore; but as soldiers +cannot, as a rule, be supplied with condensed water, we must rely on +the above precautions as regards water, cleanliness in the preparation +of food, care in the disposal of excreta (and it is important to +remember that enteric urine is as dangerous as stools), and constant +supervision of natives and camp followers.</p> + +<p>Cholera is like enteric fever, generally a water-borne disease, and +much the same remarks apply to both. On active service, tea, coffee, +and cocoa should be drunk in preference to water, as far as time and +the supply of fuel will allow, and all drinking water should, if +possible, be boiled. When green cocoanuts can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> be procured each will +furnish nearly a pint of deliciously cool and perfectly wholesome +“milk.”</p> + +<p>I have said enough to show what a vital point the water question is +on active service, how the health of an army in the field is largely +dependent upon obtaining pure drinking water; and while all officers, +regimental and medical, must never weary in their endeavours to secure +such a supply, the men themselves ought to be instructed and exhorted +to exercise the necessary vigilance and self-restraint, and, if +necessary, punished when they fail to do so.</p> + +<p>Malaria is always a great danger to soldiers on active service, not +only in tropical regions, but also at times in our own latitudes, as +was seen in the Walcheren Expedition. Though our theories as to the +cause of the disease have lately been altered by the discovery as to +the agency of mosquitoes in disseminating it, the old rules of not +disturbing the ground, sleeping on raised platforms (as was done in the +Ashanti Expedition of 1895–96), avoiding the neighbourhood of marshes +and jungly ravines, preventing chill by changing into dry flannels on +halting, never starting off in the morning without a cup of cocoa or +something of that kind, and taking a daily dose of quinine, should +on account of their proved utility still be followed. To keep off +mosquitoes in the absence of curtains and punkahs, the face and other +exposed parts of the body should be smeared with carbolic oil.</p> + +<p>Sunstroke and heat apoplexy are causes of mortality on active service, +and even at home in hot weather we have had lamentable results from +overworking our soldiers in improper clothing and head-dresses. The +obvious precautions are, the avoidance of overcrowding and overloading +the men, the wearing of a suitable head-dress, loose porous clothing, +the provision of plenty of non-alcoholic drinks, and marching in as +open order as possible, so as to give every man enough fresh air. The +greatest precaution of all, viz., avoidance of work in the sun, cannot, +of course, be generally adopted on active service.</p> + +<p>Sore and tender feet cause a great deal of inefficiency on active +service, though our army boots are generally very good, with plenty of +room and low heels, but a less rigid sole would be an improvement. The +socks should be woollen and not too thin or loose, the feet should be +kept clean and well soaped immediately before putting on the sock, and +blisters should be carefully treated.</p> + +<p>Many of the above suggestions may appear incapable of being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span> carried +out in the stress and hurry of active service, but, of course, anything +which will prevent disease contrives “a double debt to pay”; it keeps +the men in the fighting ranks, and prevents their becoming not only +useless but a burden and trouble to their healthy comrades. Every +soldier is said to cost the country about £150 before he can be placed +in the field as efficient, therefore sickness entails very heavy +pecuniary loss to the country, and all reasonable precautions will +ever receive the earnest attention and support of capable leaders. In +fact, without due regard to many of them it would be impossible in some +countries for white men to remain in the field at all, and the Ashanti +Expeditions of 1873 and 1895 have well been called “doctors’ wars.”</p> + +<p>In conclusion, if my remarks have given rise to the impression that +the soldier is a drunken or unreliable creature, such is far from +my intention. He only presents, and that in a degree mitigated by +discipline and respect for authority, the faults of his class. My +experience of the average working man, which is large, is that the +majority cannot refrain from drinking so long as they have money +in their pockets, regardless of the consequences to themselves and +their families, and that to offer a man drink is their ordinary way +of showing kindness and good-fellowship; while their general want of +self-restraint is very disappointing, considering the educational +advantages they have enjoyed compared with their fathers.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">J. R. Dodd.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XII<br> +<span class="subhed">HEALTH IN THE MARINE SERVICE</span></h2></div> + +<p>Although from time to time there have been energetic workers in the +cause of marine sanitation, there is probably no other department in +which the great advances in hygiene have produced so little good result.</p> + +<p>It must be conceded at the outset that the seamen’s lot is by no means +an enviable one, and that his sanitary environment falls considerably +short of modern requirements. Legislation is slow, and the lack of +knowledge by the public of the requirements of the Mercantile Marine +is no doubt in great measure responsible for this. At a first glance +it might naturally be supposed that a life at sea was a healthy one; +living in fresh air, and removed from the unhealthy conditions of +large towns, it might be expected that the general health of seamen +would bear favourable comparison with the corresponding class of the +community on shore. But there is another side to this picture. In the +first place there is practically always <i>local</i> overcrowding +on board ship, and in dealing with this question the hands of port +sanitary authorities and their officers are tied by the Shipping Acts. +By the Merchant Shipping Act, the minimum space allowed per head is +only 72 cubic feet, and in this space a man has not only to sleep, but +to feed and live when not engaged on duty. It has been contended that +inasmuch as one-half of the crew is always at work, the forecastle +provides double this amount of space. But this is entirely a fallacy, +for while half the men are always off duty, there is practically +continuous occupation, and therefore no opportunity of opening doors, +skylights, and other ventilators, to admit of free perflation. Another +serious difficulty to contend with is the presence of moisture. Nearly +all forecastles are badly ventilated, and the greatly increased use of +steel and iron in modern vessels leads to the condensation of moisture, +or “sweating” due to change of temperature. It is no uncommon thing to +find the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> bunks and bedding in the crew’s quarters saturated with water +from this cause.</p> + +<p>While it can scarcely be stated that any special diseases are +associated with the sailor’s calling, there are undoubtedly many which +are caused by the conditions under which he performs his duty. His +work is intermittent, consequently his intervals of rest, broken by +sudden and severe exertion, throw undue and violent strain upon the +circulatory and respiratory organs. In steam vessels the changes of +climate are rapid, and their influence trying to the system. In spite +of all the improved methods of storing and preserving food for long +periods, there is still much to be desired both in the actual dietary +of the sailor, and still more in the rough and inefficient manner in +which it is cooked for him. The loss of life from drowning and other +accidents connected with casualties to the vessel is large. Again, +the habits of the seaman must be taken into account. From the mere +fact of his being for long periods confined on shipboard, without +any amusements except those provided by his fellows, it is perhaps +not surprising that on arrival in port he should give way to full +indulgence in pleasure. Unfortunately, moreover, the parts of sea towns +frequented by sailors are generally the lowest, and the temptations of +the worst kind. This explains the frequency of alcoholism and venereal +disease among our Mercantile Marine, and in addition the tendency to +contract the diseases to be met with in such localities.</p> + +<p>The principal diseases to which seamen are liable are:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">1. Those due to the special character of their employment, +such as aneurism, emphysema, hernia, and heart disease, and in +steam-ships, heat apoplexy (stokers).</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">2. Those due to their habits, viz., venereal disease and +alcoholism.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">3. Diseases of climate, liver disease, malaria, yellow fever, +dysentery, cholera, plague, etc.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">4. Diseases influenced mainly by immediate environment and +insanitary conditions, such as rheumatism, phthisis, bronchitis, +and various forms of lung disease, under which must also be +included scurvy and beriberi.</p> +</div> + +<p>There is unfortunately no reliable record of sickness in the Mercantile +Marine.</p> + +<p>The returns of the Board of Trade show the mortality rate from all +causes in 1898–99 to have been 9.60 per 1000 in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> Merchant Service, +while the corresponding rate in the Royal Navy was, for the year 1899, +4.91 per 1000, or practically one-half.</p> + +<p>The returns of the Mercantile Marine show that of the 9.6 per 1000, 7.4 +were from injury, and 2.2 from disease; the 4.91 per 1000 of the Royal +Navy being made up of 3.56 from disease, and 1.35 from injury.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the disease and accident mortality incidence +in sailing-vessels as compared with steam-vessels.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">1898.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Sailing.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Steam.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Total.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Percentage.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Wrecks and Casualties</td> + <td class="rightr">425</td> + <td class="rightr">607</td> + <td class="rightr">1032</td> + <td class="right2r">.58</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Accidents other than Wrecks and Casualties</td> + <td class="rightr">129</td> + <td class="rightr">157</td> + <td class="rightr">286</td> + <td class="right2r">.16</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Disease</td> + <td class="rightrb">149</td> + <td class="rightrb">249</td> + <td class="rightrb">398</td> + <td class="right2rb">.22</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1rbl">Total</td> + <td class="rightrb">703</td> + <td class="rightrb">1013</td> + <td class="rightrb">1716</td> + <td class="right2rb">.96</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>1. <i>Diseases due to Employment.</i>—The violent exertions called +for at times of emergency fully account for the frequency of heart +disease, especially of cardiac hypertrophy, and also of hernia, while +the occurrence of aneurism may be assigned to the same cause, though +doubtless greatly aided by the influence of syphilis. With the large +increase in size of sailing-vessels and the consequent introduction of +labour-saving appliances, this class of disease is showing a decided +tendency to decrease.</p> + +<p>Injuries are more common on sailing-vessels than on steam-ships, owing +to the greater amount of work aloft, and the more laborious efforts +involved in working the sails.</p> + +<p>The “heat stroke” of stokers requires special notice. It is far more +common in vessels of the Merchant Service than in those of the Royal +Navy. Stokeholds in the navy are better ventilated, and forced draught, +if necessary, tends to a freer supply of air. The “fireman’s frenzy” +appears to be caused by the continued high temperature, coupled with +insufficient ventilation, and often associated with alcoholism. Much +can be done to diminish heat stroke by due attention to the ventilation +of stokeholds and confined spaces in connection with them. The utmost +advantage should be taken of the up-draught caused by the heat of the +furnaces to remove foul and vitiated air. Men engaged in this class of +work should be freely supplied with oatmeal water, as this is the most +wholesome method of replacing the large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> quantities of fluid lost by +perspiration. The same class of men are, moreover, specially liable +to diseases of the eye caused by the glare of the furnaces, and the +constant irritation produced by particles of coal and dust.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Diseases caused by the Habits of Seamen.</i>—Of these the two +most common are alcoholism and the various forms of venereal disease. +The irregularity of a sailor’s life, especially in these days of rapid +transport, sufficiently explain without justifying his failings. A man +whose home life is interrupted by voyages across the sea, who is thrown +upon his own resources in foreign ports, and who is from the nature +of his calling almost of necessity confined to the shipping quarters +(invariably the lowest) of the towns he reaches, is not unlikely to +seek for amusement where it is most easily obtained, and wine, women, +and music occupy a considerable part of his spare time under such +circumstances. Much has been done by the Board of Trade and voluntary +associations to protect the sailor, by taking care of his money when +first paid off (when the temptation to squander it is strongest), and +enabling him to draw it at his own home, by arranging for his being +sent by rail to his destination, by protecting him from “crimps” and +unauthorised agents, and by providing Sailors’ Homes, where he can live +at a reasonable cost, without being plundered by unscrupulous persons, +but there is still much to be desired in this direction.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Diseases of Climate.</i>—To a great extent these can scarcely +be avoided. Seamen suffer much from tropical diseases. No doubt their +careless habits and unwillingness to take reasonable precautions in +unhealthy climates are in some measure responsible for this. Simple +rules for the preservation of health, greater care in dieting, and, +above all, limitation of indulgence in alcohol, would be of undoubted +value, and a recent suggestion to afford information on such subjects +to seamen through the medium of Sailors’ Institutes and Homes would +doubtless lead to good results. Diarrhœa, so common a disease in hot +climates, is mainly caused by the ingestion of improper articles of +food and drink. Seamen do not realise the importance of the source +and purity of drinking water. One common cause of this disease is the +carriage of water in casks and tanks on deck, or in places where it is +easily affected by the temperature of the sun. Any simple arrangement +for reducing by evaporation or other method the temperature of the +water supply has considerable effect in this direction. Dysentery, so +far as prevention is concerned, can be guarded against in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> same +manner as diarrhœa—water, however, being the main agent in causation. +Cholera, yellow fever, and plague call for no special comment. Where +these diseases are known to exist, shipmasters should be careful to +warn their crews as to the danger, and explain how best to avoid them. +Men should be kept on board as much as possible during the stay of the +vessel in an infected port, and especially should they be required to +return at night. A careful watch should be kept for any suspicious +sickness, and medical advice sought at an early stage of any illness. +The sanitary condition of the vessel itself must be the special care +of the master. Malaria, now known to be due to a specific organism, +conveyed by means of the bite of a species of mosquito, is much under +the control of the master of a vessel, who should prevent his crew from +remaining on shore in a malarial country during the night, or in the +evening, when special danger exists.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Diseases due to Insanitary Conditions and Environment</i> form a +long and important series. These are essentially the diseases which can +be controlled, if not altogether prevented.</p> + +<p>Rheumatism and its allies are mainly due to cold and exposure, and +still more to the difficulty of obtaining dry clothing on board ship, +and the constantly wet condition of bedding, etc., from the sweating +of iron vessels. These causes can be avoided. The condensation can be +prevented by the universal use of sheathing over iron decks and of +a non-conducting lining over and around bunks, the proper provision +of heating stoves, and the free ventilation of forecastles. There is +further no reason (especially in steam-vessels) for not providing +facilities for dry clothing, and preventing it being taken into the +sleeping bunks. These two precautions, together with the free use of +woollen underclothing, would tend to greatly reduce the “sailors’ +curse,” rheumatism. Lung diseases are very common, and are caused +chiefly by the close aggregation of men in confined and ill-ventilated +quarters. The difficulty of the system of watches prevents the proper +airing of a forecastle, and men coming off duty enter an atmosphere +already fouled and polluted by those who have previously occupied +it. The cubic space per head should be largely augmented. The Royal +Commission on Labour has recommended that 120 cubic feet should be the +minimum, and bearing in mind the special difficulties, this would seem +to be a moderate figure. The present 72 cubic feet is ridiculously +inadequate, and only remains the legal minimum by reason of the +proverbial ignorant conservatism of the sailor.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span></p> + +<p>Scurvy happily, under ordinary circumstances, is almost unknown in +its acute form. During the last twenty years our ideas as to its +causation have undergone considerable change, and it is no longer +possible to assert that the one essential for its production is the +use of salt meat, and the absence of vegetable food. In one of the +recent Arctic expeditions, owing to the loss of all the stores, the +crew lived for more than twelve months exclusively on fresh meat, and +no symptoms of scurvy made their appearance. There is little doubt that +the condition of the blood producing the symptoms we call scurvy is +caused by the ingestion of food in an incipient stage of decomposition, +although a free supply of natural vegetable acids will tend to delay +its appearance. Slight manifestations of scurvy are still common +among sailors, and there is one point of great practical importance +in connection with this. More care is required in the examination +of tinned meats, the date of packing should in all cases be stamped +or indelibly marked upon the tin, and those tins that are found on +examination to be in any degree defective, should be destroyed under +official supervision, and not be allowed to pass into the hands of +unscrupulous dealers.</p> + +<p>Beriberi is a common disease among certain natives on board ship. +The disease has the habit of remaining dormant in a vessel, also +of recurring from time to time when conditions for its development +are favourable. Though it has been ascribed at different times to +malarial influences, to a deficiency of nitrogenous food, and to a +definite microbe, these explanations have failed to satisfy all the +requirements of the conditions under which it appears. Manson believes +that it is due to a toxine, produced by a saprophyte living outside the +body, and that as the soil or ship becomes infected, man is poisoned +therefrom. It occurs invariably on board ship in connection with moist, +overcrowded, and heated forecastles, where ventilation is deficient, +and may therefore in this sense be said to be a disease caused by +want of sanitation. Further, as favouring this view is the fact that +patients removed to hygienic surroundings, and properly fed, rapidly +recover. To prevent beriberi all that is necessary is to keep a vessel +clean and dry; to see that there is no accumulation of bilge water or +foul matter under the flooring of the crew’s quarters, and that these +are properly ventilated and not overcrowded.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> + +<p>Enteric fever is undoubtedly the most common disease to which seamen +are liable. Thus in the port of London, out of 791 cases of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> infectious +disease occurring on board ship from 1895 to June 1900, no fewer than +290 were enteric fever. The figures are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Cases of<br>Enteric Fever.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. of Cases<br>of Infectious<br>Diseases.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Percentage<br>of<br>Enteric Fever.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">1895</td> + <td class="right2r">31</td> + <td class="right2r">129</td> + <td class="right2r">24.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">1896</td> + <td class="right2r">53</td> + <td class="right2r">145</td> + <td class="right2r">35.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">1897</td> + <td class="right2r">54</td> + <td class="right2r">179</td> + <td class="right2r">30.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">1898</td> + <td class="right2r">55</td> + <td class="right2r">121</td> + <td class="right2r">45.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">1899</td> + <td class="right2r">66</td> + <td class="right2r">160</td> + <td class="right2r">41.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">1900 (6 months only)</td> + <td class="right2rb">114</td> + <td class="right2rb">187</td> + <td class="right2rb">60.31</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1rbl">Total</td> + <td class="right2rb">373</td> + <td class="right2rb">921</td> + <td class="right2rb">40.49</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The large proportion during 1900 is due to the number of cases brought +from South Africa.</p> + +<p>The causes of the large number of cases of enteric fever are three:—</p> + +<p>1. The congregation of seamen in the unhealthy quarters of foreign +ports.</p> + +<p>2. Want of care in the selection of sources of water supply.</p> + +<p>3. Improper methods of carriage and storage of water.</p> + +<p>Most of the infected or dangerous sources of water supply are known, +and great benefit would result if consuls and other representatives of +this country abroad were instructed to warn shipmasters of the special +danger. Water should always be stored on board ship in galvanised +iron water tanks, which should be carried in such places that they +can be easily reached for cleaning purposes. They should be provided +with large manholes so situated that where possible natural light can +penetrate to the bottom of the tanks when the covers are removed. They +should be periodically emptied, cleaned, and coated with a cement wash.</p> + +<p>Lastly must be mentioned the digestive troubles so common in seamen. +The insufficient and monotonous dietary is of itself sufficient to +cause this, and when one further considers the unsatisfactory way +in which such food is ofttimes cooked, it will be at once seen how +serious a matter this may become. There is no compulsory diet scale, +nor theoretically is it wise that there should be. It is felt that if +such were laid down by law it would speedily become a minimum beyond +which the owner or master would not care to go. The Merchant Shipping +Act requires that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span> a diet scale shall be produced when men are engaged, +and shall form an essential part of the contract, any departure from +which shall constitute a breach of the agreement on the part of the +employer. Several improvements on the old scale (still usually in +vogue) have been made, but in practice these are scarcely ever adopted. +In the present day there are far better opportunities for giving men +fresh meat and vegetables, while the use of preserved foods should +obviate to a large extent the necessity for salt meat. It can be +clearly shown that a reasonable dietary can be provided at a less cost +than the antiquated one generally in use, while the advantages from the +improved health of the crews and the consequent increased discipline +and work are beyond dispute. But even if the dietary be good, the +cooking is generally bad. Here legislation is needed. At the present +time the master and certain other officers of a ship are required to +hold certificates, granted after training and examination, and it is +equally necessary that in the case of the cook, some definite standard +of knowledge of the work he undertakes should be required before +appointment. In the majority of cases a man is rated as “cook” because +he so describes himself, or has acted in a similar capacity before. +There is no difficulty in organising a system of instruction and +examination for ships’ cooks in large centres, and the result of such +would be to the advantage of shipowners as regards economy of food, as +well as increased efficiency on the part of their crews. This work has +already been initiated in several ports, notably London, Liverpool, +North Shields, and Glasgow, but the question still demands the most +careful attention.</p> + +<p>Much ill-health and disease would be avoided if more care were +exercised in the selection of men for the Mercantile Marine. The +Merchant Shipping Act (sect. 10) provides for the medical inspection +of seamen if required, but as a matter of fact, this provision is +practically a dead letter, and men are allowed to “sign on” without any +inquiry as to their physical fitness for their occupation.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">W. Collingridge.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIII<br> +<span class="subhed">RAILWAYS</span></h2></div> + +<p>There is not much to be said respecting the nature of the injuries +sustained by those at work on railways. The occupation cannot be +described as unhealthy. A very large proportion of the work is done in +the open air, and the normal lives of the men appear in every way up to +the average.</p> + +<p>The accidents that occur are mainly what would be called surgical. +A large proportion consists of crushed hands and fingers. Instead, +therefore, of entering into details respecting the character of these +injuries and the manner in which they are received, it will be more +useful to give a short account of the progress of legislation in +respect to accidents upon railways.</p> + +<p>The Mines and Factories Acts had their origin in the desire to preserve +children from overwork and bodily injury. The protection thus accorded +was gradually extended to women. The next stage was the inclusion of +men in many of the factory provisions, and finally the Acts which had +originally been intended only for the protection of health began to +be timidly and cautiously extended to other and wider objects. But +the movement for the prevention of accidents on railways commenced by +aiming at the safety of passengers, and it was only in the last year +of the nineteenth century that railway servants were included in the +category of protected trades. Limits of space prevent my attempting +to trace the movement in detail, nor indeed is it necessary. I shall +therefore only mention certain epochs which have marked its progress.</p> + +<p>As most people are aware, the railway movement began about the year +1830, the year Huskisson was killed, and proceeded until in 1840, +there were nearly 1000 miles of railways in the United Kingdom. But +about this time the importance of railways became so recognised that +in 1840 they were placed under Government supervision. In 1841 a Bill +was brought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> into Parliament to give the Board of Trade powers to issue +regulations for the prevention of accidents upon railways, and referred +to a Special Committee, presided over by Lord Seymour, and with Sir +Robert Peel, Sir James Graham, and others as members.</p> + +<p>The arguments for and against the proposal were exactly the same as +they have always been upon the subject of State interference in matters +of trade. On the one hand, the Board of Trade Inspector-General, Sir +Frederick Smith, contended that the power was necessary. The railway +companies said that by interfering with the responsibility of railway +officials more harm than good would be done. Those who are acquainted +with the general trend of public opinion upon factory questions in +those days will not be surprised to learn that the proposal was +considered likely to “disturb the amicable spirit which then existed +between the Board of Trade and the railway companies,” and “to engender +on the part of the railway companies a desire of concealment and +feelings of jealousy which would not otherwise arise.” The Committee +therefore limited its recommendations to empowering the Board of Trade +to suggest improvements. These recommendations were carried into +effect by an Act known as Lord Seymour’s Act, which provided for the +appointment of inspectors of railways, the reporting of accidents, and +the punishment of engine-drivers, guards, porters, or other servants +of the company who were guilty of negligence. It was urged against the +railway companies that expense was no object where life was concerned; +to which Mr Brunel, the celebrated engineer, retorted on behalf of +the railway companies by asking why the Government did not have a +large force of men on the Serpentine when it was frozen, to prevent +accidents to skaters. He submitted that in considering the question +of safety it might be considered as a question of cost also. On the +other hand, it is interesting to note that George Stephenson considered +it would be advantageous that the Board of Trade should have power +to make regulations. Coming from such a man, himself a large railway +proprietor, the opinion is of great weight.</p> + +<p>The next time the question came before Parliament was in 1857, during +Lord Derby’s administration, when the matter was referred to a Select +Committee. The Committee was against interference with railway +companies, except as regards the times of trains, with respect to which +they thought that the public<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span> should have some means of obtaining +prompt and cheap redress in the recovery of penalties in every case of +want of punctuality. They also made a few minor recommendations. The +subject was again discussed by a Royal Commission appointed in 1865. +But the times were not ripe for the adoption of State interference. +The <i>laissez faire</i> system was in full force, and the Committee +recommended that the railway companies should not be interfered with. +Meantime the management of the railway companies seems steadily to +have deteriorated. The year 1872 was a year of considerable commercial +activity, marked by a great rise in the price of coal, and by an +increase in the number of railway accidents. In those days it was +estimated that several railway accidents to trains took place every +week, sometimes as many as four were reported on a single morning. +In fact, as stated in the Annual Register for 11th September 1872, +“Railway accidents are now becoming of such frequent occurrence that, +unless a number of people are killed or seriously injured, no notice is +taken of them.” The number of accidents to individuals was also very +great. In that year no less than 1145 persons were reported killed, and +3038 were injured. Some of the accidents, too, were of an appalling +character. At Wigan in August 1873 a portion of a railway carriage, +with a lady in it, was hurled over a wall and through the slated roof +of a foundry. The rest of the carriage was smashed to pieces.</p> + +<p>In order to secure more precise returns of accidents by checking +those made by the railway companies, it was provided in the Railways +Regulation Act of 1873 that coroners should make returns to the +Secretary of State of all deaths occurring on railways.</p> + +<p>The public feeling which these accidents excited led to the +appointment of another Royal Commission in 1874, during Mr Disraeli’s +administration. It was presided over by the Duke of Buckingham. The +Committee sat for three years and heard evidence at great length. They +ended by recommending that the Board of Trade should have power to +make requirements as to siding and station accommodation, and as to +defects in rolling stock, permanent way, and works. They declined to +recommend that general powers should be given to the Board of Trade to +make general changes calculated to secure the safety of the railway +servants, but they thought that servants ought to receive compensation +for injuries in all cases of negligence of the companies’ officials, +but not for the negligence of their fellow-servants.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span></p> + +<p>In the evidence that was given it seems to have been admitted that +overwork was not universal or even general on railway lines, but a good +many remarkable instances of overwork were adduced. Thus Captain Tyler, +a Board of Trade Inspecting Officer, gave evidence that at Wakefield in +1864, a man had been regularly on duty as a signalman 25 hours a day +every third week, and 37 hours every thirteenth week. The man had made +this arrangement in order to get extra time off duty; and in another +case, in 1874, a signalman had actually averaged 17 hours work a day +regularly.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the witnesses complained of the couplings as a fruitful +source of danger. Captain Tyler recommended automatic couplings as then +used in America.</p> + +<p>The next Act of importance regarding accidents upon railways was that +passed in 1889, when Sir Michael Hicks-Beach was President of the Board +of Trade. The principal objects of the Act were to secure the adoption +of the block system of running trains, to cause points and signals +to be interlocked, and to enforce the use of an improved brake. The +principal object of the Bill was to promote the safety of passengers; +there was a clause dealing with automatic couplings, but the clause was +ultimately withdrawn from the Act.</p> + +<p>During all these years, however, repeated recommendations were made by +the Board of Trade officials to the railway companies to adopt various +means of saving life. The companies were not obdurate or unreasonable; +in particular instances and small points they repeatedly gave way +and adopted suggestions. But in the main they declined to introduce +automatic couplings, or other life-saving appliances on a large scale. +Their refusal was based chiefly on the ground of expense; but they also +defended their action on the ground that the proposed appliances were +not suitable or practicable, and that if adopted they would not produce +beneficial results.</p> + +<p>Before narrating the next steps which were made in the direction of +securing safety when Mr Ritchie became President of the Board of Trade, +it will be of use to examine in outline the condition of railway +service as regards accidents, and the means by which the number of +deaths and other injuries is ascertained. Reports of accidents on +railways exist from the year 1848 onwards; but in forms which render +them very difficult to compare with accidents in more recent times. It +was not until the passing of the Regulation of Railways Act of 1871 +that the reporting of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> accidents was placed on its present footing. By +section 6 of that Act it was provided that accidents should be reported +to the Board of Trade, in such form and with such particulars as the +Board of Trade should prescribe. In earlier years the reporting of +accidents was not very systematically done, and in 1872 the inspector +reported that “accidents to servants do not appear in many cases to +have been reported by certain of the railway companies; and their +numbers would, if the whole truth could be ascertained, be very +considerably increased.” Moreover, no uniform standard of injury was +prescribed, so that various companies adopted various standards of +reporting. Some reported all accidents, even trivial ones; others +reported only the serious ones. But in the year 1895 an order of the +Board of Trade was made during the permanent Secretaryship of Sir +Courtenay Boyle, by which the standard of accident to be reported was +assimilated to the standard already in force for the reporting of +accidents in factories and workshops, namely, that all fatal accidents +should be reported, and all non-fatal, whenever they incapacitated a +man from work for five hours on any one of three days next after the +accident. The advantage of this order was that it at once established +a basis of comparison between the dangers of work in factories and in +railways. But there is ground for thinking that the standard was a +little low. A trifling finger cut may prevent a man from working in +some trades for an afternoon. The reporting of every trivial accident +tends also to obscure the graver ones, and in some cases to make +dangerous trades appear less dangerous than they really relatively +are. In any case, however, it is desirable to have one standard of +reporting, and it is a matter for regret that there is no standard of +reporting non-fatal accidents in mines, so that it is still impossible +to compare mines with factories or railways as to the non-fatal +accidents that occur in them.</p> + +<p>The numbers of persons employed on railways largely increases from year +to year. Returns of these numbers are now furnished every three years. +We have therefore not at hand the means of working out the percentage +of accidents in every year exactly; but without the danger of grave +inaccuracy we may assume that the increase in the numbers employed is +uniform during each period of three years, and thus we may by a process +of proportion arrive very nearly at the numbers of men employed at any +particular period. On looking at the figures for any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> year, say for +the year 1898, we find them set out in two tables, one showing those +due to the movement of trains and vehicles, the other to those which +occurred otherwise than by moving trains. They are divided up so as +to show 41 different occupations of the persons killed and injured. +From these tables we find that, in 1898, 522 railway servants were +killed and 12,826 injured, out of a total of 534,000. This would give +1 in 1000 killed, and 24 in 1000 injured each year. When we reflect +that this figure is about the same as the numbers killed and injured +in mines, it might perhaps be argued that the figures are not very +large, for it must be admitted that service on railways must always be +considered rather a dangerous occupation. But an analysis of the risks +to various branches of railway labour dispels this illusion.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> For +in these figures are reckoned numbers of men whose duties are not of +a manual character, such as 53,000 clerks, who hardly ever meet with +death or accident except from causes common to the whole community. +Besides, about 70,000 mechanics are employed in building engines +and locomotives, and work in factories, which are under the Home +Department, and, strictly speaking, are not railway servants at all.</p> + +<p>In railway service there are three occupations which from the number +of accidents reported appear to present special dangers, namely, +plate-laying and repairing of lines, shunting and managing goods +trains. When plate-layers (of whom there are 63,000) sustain an +accident, it is generally by being run over, and in more than one case +out of every three they are killed outright. Out of every thousand +2 yearly meet their death, and 3 are injured. Of goods guards and +brakesmen, nearly 15,000 in number, 3 out of 1000 are yearly killed, +and 48 of 1000 are injured. But the business of a shunter presents the +gravest dangers. The number of shunters is 9244, and with the exception +of the calling of a seaman it is the most perilous trade known. For +no less than 5 men are yearly killed and 66 are injured out of every +1000 employed. And from this it follows that if the average duration +of a man’s service be from the age of twenty to forty, the balance of +probability is against his leaving the trade without a violent death +or injury. This is not satisfactory. It has been pointed out that this +yearly death risk of 5 in 1000 per annum is greater on the average +than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> that to which soldiers are exposed, taking one year with another, +and war with peace. This is probably true, but the risk is far less +than that of soldiers in a campaign. It has been estimated that the +year’s loss from October 1899 to October 1900, of the troops serving in +South Africa, has been 19 per thousand privates, and 72 per thousand +officers killed, in addition to 30 per cent. of officers and privates +who have died of disease. Thus of the officers engaged about 1 in 10 +has died, and of the men 1 in 20.</p> + +<p>But any figures of deaths due to accidents in industry are too large if +they are preventable, and it is too much that in ten years a railway +servant should run the same risk as a private in a year of a campaign.</p> + +<p>The work of shunting is necessary to rearrange, or, as it is called, +to marshal the trains. At a large goods depôt a number of trains laden +with trucks come in destined for various localities. The trains have +to be dissected, and all the trucks resorted, and made up into fresh +trains to be sent off in various directions. Hence, therefore, it is +necessary for an engine to draw the waggons on to a line of rails, and +then to shunt or direct them on to sidings in different directions in +order to sort them into their right places. This involves the coupling +and uncoupling of the waggons. Passenger waggons have a screw coupling +by means of which they are screwed up together, so that the buffers +press firmly together, and thus jolting is avoided. But goods waggons +have no such luxurious appliances, nor have they in all cases spring +buffers. The coupling is simply a ring hitched into a hook at the end +of a three-link chain, and on the starting or stopping of a goods train +any one may hear the succession of slams with which the waggons clash +together. When it is necessary to shunt, an engine pulls the waggons +along to the place where they are to be detached. While the tension +is on, of course, it would be impossible to unhook, therefore the +engine stops suddenly. For an instant the waggons by their momentum +go forward, bumping up against the engine and one another. For that +instant, and until the rebound takes place, the hooks are free, and a +skilful man, generally with a pole, and but rarely running in between +the waggons, neatly slips the ring off the hook. This is all done +while the waggons are in motion, so that he has to run alongside the +train, skipping over the signal wires and hopping over the cross rails, +keeping his eye always on the coupling, and sometimes encumbered with +a pole in one hand, and at night with a lamp<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> in the other. If he does +not look out he may fall between the wheels, or be run down by the +engine. And while engaged in his work express and other trains come +tearing down the main line, exposing every one to the risk of being run +over. Therefore in all goods sidings it is desirable in the interests +of safety that the through traffic should be as small as possible, that +there should be plenty of room between the lines of rails, that wires +and other obstacles should be boarded over where possible, and that +there should be a good light at night. But many sidings are greatly +crowded; the work has to be got through rapidly, and accidents are +the result. On the other hand, in the private sidings of collieries +operations are leisurely; no express trains come along the line, there +is no night labour, and consequently the accidents are very few. In +America until lately the means of coupling waggons were more imperfect +than those in England; many accidents therefore occurred, and the +trains frequently broke asunder.</p> + +<p>In order to expedite work and promote safety, experiments were made +in 1868 with automatic couplings which should close like a snap-lock. +American waggons differ from those in use in England, in that they +are longer and larger, and have a central buffer. In 1874 the public +attention was called to the great number of railway accidents, and in +the more civilised states, such as Massachusetts, a movement arose for +the compulsory employment of automatic couplings. Finally a coupling +was devised, very like a hand with the fingers bent, and a hinge at +the knuckles. When two waggons were brought together the hand caught +automatically into a similar hand on another waggon, and could be +released by withdrawing a pin. At first these couplings were badly +made; gradually, however, they improved, and are now on the fair road +to perfection. They were gradually introduced upon one railway after +another. The rich eastern States took the lead, the wild west was more +slow; but curiously in proportion as the couplings were adopted, so +did railway accidents become less. It would be wrong to conclude that +therefore the whole of the diminution of accidents was due to the +adoption of couplings. But it is a fair inference from the state of +railway management in the east and west of America to conclude that +with careful management and State-imposed regulations, accidents can be +very materially reduced.</p> + +<p>This was the state of the problem in 1898, in which year Mr Ritchie, +then President of the Board of Trade, determined to make an effort +in favour of safety. For this purpose he commissioned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> Mr Hopwood, +the Assistant Secretary of the Railway Department, to visit America +and examine the system of coupling there in use, and its effects +in preventing accidents. In December 1898 Mr Hopwood presented his +memorandum. He says (quoting the <i>Railway Times</i>), “Our Railway +Companies’ Association still lacks the moral force, to say nothing +of the initiation which characterises its sister body across the +Atlantic.... This view fairly reflects the opinion I formed that the +progress made in the United States is greatly due to the fact that the +American Association has taken great trouble, and the railroads have +not spared expense in order to give a trial to promising inventors,” +and he concludes by recommending that Parliament should be asked +for powers to be given to the Board of Trade to order the use of a +suitable coupling. In accordance with the recommendations in this very +able report, the President of the Board of Trade introduced a Bill +providing for the compulsory use of steam brakes for engines, and +automatic couplings for carriages and waggons, also brakes on both +sides of waggons, and labels on both sides of waggons, but giving to +the companies two years and five years respectively to introduce these +improvements.</p> + +<p>The Bill was introduced by Mr Ritchie on 27th February 1899. He said, +“I am afraid that whatever we do, a number of accidents amongst railway +servants will continue to happen. They are engaged in extremely +dangerous operations, and necessarily many accidents must and will +continue to occur. But, sir, if it is possible by legislation or +otherwise to take means to reduce the number of accidents, I think +it is the bounden duty of Parliament to take those means.” Of course +this announcement caused considerable agitation in the railway world, +and on 16th March a deputation of the private waggon owners of the +United Kingdom pressed upon the President of the Board of Trade the +necessity for further inquiry. Mr Ritchie endeavoured to meet the +current of opposition which his proposals had aroused, by offering +to make it clear that the portion of the Bill dealing with automatic +couplings should not come into operation until a satisfactory coupling +was found, but he ultimately decided to withdraw the Bill and refer +the whole question to a Royal Commission. He determined, however, that +the inquiry should be an effective one, and therefore he enlarged +its scope, and referred to the Commission not merely the question of +coupling, but the whole question of accidents to railway servants +and the means of preventing them. This action had very important<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> +consequences, as will presently be seen. He selected as Chairman +Lord James of Hereford, who had already done excellent work as the +mutually-accepted arbitrator in various disputes between capital and +labour, and whose disinterestedness and fairness could be relied on. +The Commission was composed of members of the House of Lords and +Commons, representatives of the railway companies, private waggon +owners, and railway servants, experts and Government officials. It +was supposed in some quarters that the question had been comfortably +shelved for at least three or four years. But the Chairman took a very +different view of the position. With almost unexampled energy, he +assembled the first meeting on 16th June 1899, a fortnight after the +warrant appointing the Commission had been signed. The last witness was +heard on 3rd August, and the report was presented to Her late Majesty +the Queen on 20th January 1900.</p> + +<p>From the very mixed character of the Commission, it might have been +expected that views would differ, and that it would have been difficult +to draw a report that would be signed both by the railway companies’ +representatives and by the representatives of the men. But the report +was unanimous, and what was more remarkable still, it went far beyond +the proposals of Mr Ritchie for couplings, and dealt not only with +these, but proposed a means of preventing all accidents whatever. The +principle that lay at the whole root of the report was the assimilation +of means to prevent railway accidents to those already adapted for the +prevention of similar accidents in factories and mines.</p> + +<p>In the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1860, a procedure had been adopted +of special rules in mines. The rules were to be agreed upon by the +Secretary of State and the mine owners. If they could not agree, then +arbitrators were to be named who were finally to settle them. This +procedure was adopted in all successive Acts relating to coal mines. +Being found useful, it was adopted into the Factory Acts in 1891 in +all cases of specially dangerous trades, among others the cases of +industries where lead poisoning, phosphorus poisoning, and other +dangers are experienced. But by the Factories Act, 1901, an order of +the Secretary of State, after hearing the parties, is now substituted +for arbitration.</p> + +<p>When the Royal Commission sat, the first question that arose was +whether the accidents to railway servants were so numerous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span> as to +constitute it a dangerous trade. Figures soon settled this point, and +appear from the following table:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Description of Labour.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Killed from all<br>Causes per<br>1000 employed.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Injured from all<br>Causes per<br>1000 employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Railway Servants in general, excluding Contractors’ Men, Clerks, and Mechanics</td> + <td class="right1r">1.24</td> + <td class="right1r">31.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Goods Guards and Brakesmen</td> + <td class="right1r">2.92</td> + <td class="right1r">61.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Permanent-way Men or Platelayers</td> + <td class="right1r">1.9 </td> + <td class="right1r">16.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Shunters</td> + <td class="right1r">5.08</td> + <td class="right1r">78.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Men Porters (railways)</td> + <td class="right1r">1.15</td> + <td class="right1r">63.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Seamen (merchant service)</td> + <td class="right1r">5.2 </td> + <td class="right1r">Not known.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Coal Miners (underground)</td> + <td class="right1r">1.37</td> + <td class="right1r">No figures available<br>for purpose<br>of comparison.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Coal Miners (surface)</td> + <td class="right1r">0.92</td> + <td class="right1r">Ditto</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Metalliferous Mines (underground)</td> + <td class="right1r">1.34</td> + <td class="right1r">Ditto</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Metalliferous Mines (surface)</td> + <td class="right1r">0.43</td> + <td class="right1r">Ditto</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Factories—Textile (males)</td> + <td class="right1r">0.1 </td> + <td class="right1r">6.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">  „   Textile (females)</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="right1r">2.7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">  „   Non-textile (males)</td> + <td class="right1r">0.2 </td> + <td class="right1r">13.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">  „   Non-textile (females)</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="right1r">2.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">  „   Extraction of Metals (males)</td> + <td class="right1r">1.1 </td> + <td class="right1r">16.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">  „   Shipbuilding (males)</td> + <td class="right1r">0.5 </td> + <td class="right1r">39.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">  „   Dock Labourers</td> + <td class="right1rb">1.4 </td> + <td class="right1rb">57.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>From this it will be seen that while on the average work on railways is +almost as dangerous as mining, yet where particular branches of it are +considered, such as shunting, it is far more dangerous, and those who +advocated a policy of non-interference found it impossible to explain +their position consistently with the admission of the expediency of +the existing factory and mine laws. It is impossible to put the matter +more clearly than in the following short interrogation of one of the +principal witnesses on behalf of the railway companies by the Chairman.</p> + +<p>Q. 6374. Do you approve of a dangerous trade being inspected?—Yes. +All dangerous trades?—Yes. For instance, merchant-shipping?—Yes. +Mines?—Yes. Factories?—Yes. Textile and non-textile?—Yes. Machine +shops on your railway?—Yes. The witness, however, contended that +the case of railways was different from that of mines and factories, +because railways were more amenable to public opinion.</p> + +<p>Another witness who held these views was compelled to admit that the +force of public opinion had not on all lines secured punctuality of +trains. On the other hand, an argument was brought forward by Mr Gibb, +the General Manager<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> of the North Eastern Railway Company, which +deserves attention, because it exhibits a phenomenon that is frequently +observed in industries. By a table he showed that the accidents on +railways since 1872 had been decreasing in a ratio almost as fast as +the decrease in mining and factory accidents. At first sight this would +appear to show that accidents decrease as fast without legislation as +with it. But it must be remembered that the Mines and Factories Acts +had been some years in operation, and had already before this date +effected their principal results, and that the accidents were far +fewer than in the dangerous branches of railway service. Moreover, the +reports of previous Royal Commissions on Railways had been followed by +legislation, and by increased vigilance on the part of the companies. +It was proved also that this decrease had not taken place in the +dangerous branches, and that the number of deaths of men engaged in +shunting had actually increased.</p> + +<p>The position taken up by the railway companies deserves attention. +Their representatives were confronted with a vista of increased +wages, increased cost of coal, and a fall in profits. It was asking +much to expect them to apply the knife to their own throats and vote +that restrictions should be imposed upon them. As a rule, although we +all believe in the necessity of compelling others to do right, few +people can be brought to believe that it is needful that the same +principle should be applied to themselves. And yet, to the everlasting +credit of the railway companies, it must be said that as soon as they +were convinced that a case for intervention had been made out, they +acquiesced in it. And the waggon owners, although the accidents on +private lines were exceedingly few, withdrew their objections. In the +result a report was unanimously signed, recommending that in the case +of all dangerous trades of railway service the Board of Trade should +have power to propose regulations which in case of dispute were to be +settled by the Railway Commissioners.</p> + +<p>The question of the possibility of automatic couplings was discussed +before the Commission. If it had been fully gone into, the question +would have taken years to consider, and, without experiments, no +conclusions could ever have been arrived at. But with great tact +Lord James determined that unimportant issues should be eliminated. +He referred the question to a strong subcommittee, and before the +Commission had gone far it was seen that it was quite possible to deal +practically with railway accidents, without first determining whether +or no there was a practical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span> automatic coupling. No definite opinion on +this question was expressed by the Commission.</p> + +<p>To give effect to these recommendations Mr Ritchie introduced a Bill +into the House of Commons. It was taken charge of by Lord James of +Hereford in the House of Lords, and with some amendments it passed +both Houses without opposition. The effect of this Bill is to bring +dangerous processes on railways under regulations similar to those +which can be made in the case of dangerous processes in factories and +mines. No particular operations are specified; there are powers to meet +all dangers as they arise. It is too much to say that this Bill will +not need amendment, but it must be a source of satisfaction to the late +President of the Board of Trade and his officials to have inaugurated, +and successfully carried through with the unanimous consent of all +interested parties, a scheme of legislation which brings railway labour +within the circle of protected industries, and which establishes +a fundamental principle so wide as probably to dispense with the +necessity for further legislation upon the subject for many years.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Henry Cunynghame.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIV<br> +<span class="subhed">SAFE-GUARDING OF MACHINERY</span></h2></div> + +<p>Amidst the variety of dangers which attend those who are employed in +factories none occupies so prominent a position as that arising from +machinery moved by mechanical power; others, such, for instance, as +periodical outbreaks of industrial poisoning or the occurrence of +disastrous explosions, may from time to time attract public attention +more vividly, but we have only to refer to the statistics issued +annually by the Home Office to perceive how ever present and ever +recurrent are the risks incurred by factory workers from machinery. +From these statistics it appears that during the year 1899 there +occurred in factories 301 fatal and 19,321 non-fatal accidents, all +attributable to machinery moved by mechanical power. Beyond, however, +stating that the numbers are the highest yet recorded in any one year, +no useful purpose would be served by comparison with former years, or +by inquiry as to the reasons of the increase in spite of legislative +and executive requirements for safe-guarding. The Factory and Workshop +Act of 1895 introduced such an entirely new element by the inclusion +of every dock, wharf, warehouse, laundry, etc., in the definition of +the term “factory,” that any comparison would be entirely misleading, +whilst the facilities afforded in recent years by the introduction of, +and improvements in, gas engines have added largely to the number of +small factories using mechanical power, and therefore to the number +of persons brought into direct contact with machinery. The statistics +quoted are, however, in themselves sufficient to establish the +importance of the subject of safeguards and the prevention of accidents.</p> + +<p>In searching for the causes of such a large number of annually +occurring accidents they are found to be various, but after +enumerating several, such as carelessness on the part of operatives, +unsuitable clothing, insufficient lighting, etc., there remains a very +considerable proportion directly attributable to the absence of proper +safeguards. It is with this cause that this paper proposes chiefly to +deal.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span></p> + +<p>With a view to prevention of such a distressing number of accidents, +Parliament has, from time to time, passed enactments requiring certain +steps to be taken for safe-guarding machinery, and the appointment +of Inspectors has been made for the purpose of seeing that these +provisions are duly carried out. Much, however, still remains to be +done, not only through further legislation, but also by enforcing the +requirements of the law as it at present stands. The latter course at +first sight might appear to be feasible enough, but in reality it is +a Herculean task, as difficult to accomplish as the destruction of +the many-headed hydra of ancient fable, and is due to the fact that +as fast as the requirements of the law are insisted upon and carried +out in the case of machinery already existing in factories, so fast +do makers of machinery send out new machines in a similarly defective +condition. If the desired finality is to be arrived at, it must be by +pressure brought to bear upon machine makers. At present machinery does +not come within the provisions of the law as to safety till it is in +actual use, when the attention of the user is perhaps first drawn to +its defects by the occurrence of an accident. Much, no doubt, could be +done were purchasers in all cases to insist on due regard being paid +to this point by makers, but experience shows that this is done in +very few instances. Whilst some parts of prime movers and mill-gearing +must necessarily be fenced after being placed in position, there is +no reason whatever why the effectual guarding of cog-wheels, the +countersinking of set-screws, the provision of loose pulleys and strap +forks, and the substitution of plate wheels for exposed arm wheels, +which are all intrinsic parts of machines, absolutely necessary for +ordinary safety, should not be dealt with in the first instance by +makers who can provide more effective and neater guards at a much less +cost than the user.</p> + +<p>The subject of safe-guarding machinery is such a wide one that it will +be impossible, within the limits of this paper, to do more than briefly +touch upon the more salient points which naturally present themselves +to one accustomed to inquire into the causes of machinery accidents. +For this purpose it will be most convenient to deal with machinery +under the four following headings:—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>1. Prime movers.</li> + <li>2. Mill-gearing and belts.</li> + <li>3. Machines for manufacturing purposes.</li> + <li>4. Hoists and other lifting tackle.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>Each of these divisions is separately dealt with by the provisions of +the Factory Acts, but it should be pointed out that whereas belts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span> have +herein been coupled with mill-gearing, yet by Section 37 of the Factory +Act of 1891, all “driving straps and bands” are expressly included +in the term “machinery” and are therefore subject to the provisions +laid down for the third division.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> They are, however, so intimately +connected with mill-gearing as more properly to belong to that class, +and they will therefore be more conveniently dealt with in connection +with mill-gearing, between which and the machine tools themselves they +are the connecting link.</p> + +<p><i>Prime Movers.</i>—Prime movers are of various kinds, consisting +of heat engines, such as steam, gas, and oil engines, electric and +hydraulic motors, water-wheels, turbines, and wind-mills. Of these, +those most commonly found in factories are steam and gas engines. The +provisions of the Factory Acts as to safe-guarding prime movers are +absolute. No matter what its position, every part of an engine moved by +mechanical power is required to be securely fenced, and such fencing +must be constantly maintained. Thus:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10.—“Every fly-wheel directly connected +with the steam, water, or other mechanical power, whether in the +engine-house or not, and every part of any water-wheel or engine +worked by any such power, shall be securely fenced.”</p> + +<p>“Every wheel-race, not otherwise secured, shall be securely +fenced close to the edge of the wheel-race.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Such absolute provisions, if strictly carried out, should be amply +sufficient to prevent almost all accidents arising from prime movers; +but the danger lies in the fencing being in the first instance +insufficient, or not properly and constantly maintained, in accordance +with Sec. 10 (<i>d</i>) of the Factory Act of 1901. Accidents caused by +prime movers are, of course, restricted in number, partly owing to the +fact that they are usually in the sole charge of one man, and partly +because, in the case of steam engines at least, they are generally +placed in a house or compartment set apart for them, but it will be +noted that the words “whether in the engine-house or not” are expressly +used for the protection of the engine attendant himself.</p> + +<p>Occupiers of factories, owing to their absolute obligation to fence +securely every part of a prime mover, and to their liabilities for +any neglect to do so, should be specially careful to see that the law +is fully carried out before an engine is put into use;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> whilst no +exception should be tolerated for a moment by those whose duty it is to +enforce the requirements of the law.</p> + +<p>The necessity of fencing being thus absolutely enjoined for every +portion of a prime mover, the only point that remains is as to what +constitutes secure fencing. Types of engines, however, are of so +various a character, and the local surroundings so distinct, that it +must suffice for the purposes of this paper to point out what parts of +an engine are most liable to cause accidents, and, generally, the most +approved steps which should be taken for their prevention.</p> + +<p><i>Steam Engines.</i>—As regards steam engines, all parts on the floor +or platform level, such as fly-wheels and fly-wheel pits, crank and +crank-pits, crank shafts, connecting rods, cross-heads, etc., should be +securely fenced by means of rail fencing, whilst in the case of large +vertical or beam engines, all stairs, platforms, and stagings should +be efficiently guarded in similar manner. The fencing adopted should +consist of double rails, the upper one being not less than 3 feet in +height, whilst in many instances a skirting board 5 to 6 inches in +depth should be added; single rails are either so high that persons may +slip under them, or so low that they may fall over them. Care should +also be taken that no railing be placed within a foot of the moving +parts, the placing of such rails too close thereto being a source of +great danger; whilst, on the other hand, the practice of leaving so +much space between any moving part and the guard as to allow of a +passage between them is equally to be condemned; moreover, the keeping +of oil-cans, tools, etc., or the hanging up of clothes within the space +fenced in accordance with statutory obligations should be absolutely +forbidden. Other parts of steam engines requiring fencing which may +be mentioned are piston rods prolonged through the end covers of +cylinders, governor balls encroaching on a passage, and pinion wheels +operating the governors.</p> + +<p><i>Gas and Oil Engines.</i>—The use of prime movers of the gas engine +type has enormously increased of late years, adding greatly to the +number of small factories as distinct from workshops. The safe-guarding +of these, though they are relatively much smaller than the generality +of steam engines, is none the less essential, for whereas the latter +are usually placed in an engine-house specially built and separated +from the factory itself, the former are in numerous instances placed +within the factory, in some cases with a wooden compartment erected +round them, and in others with nothing but the statutory fencing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span> +separating them from the rest of the works. Where these compartments +are large enough, similar railing to that described above for steam +engines will be found sufficient, but in many instances they are so +confined as to necessitate more complete fencing in order to comply +with the requirements of the Acts as to fencing securely any fly-wheel, +whether in the engine-house or not.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p207"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p207.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Strong’s “Standard Guard” for engine +fly-wheels.</p> + </div> + +<p>Wherever possible gas engines should be placed in a room set apart for +them, so as to be isolated from the approach of unauthorised persons; +those situated in the machine room of a factory are not only a source +of danger to those employed therein, but so contaminate the atmosphere +as to necessitate the provision of a fan to remove the fumes. In many +cases, owing to the confined space of the engine compartment, or to +the fact that the fly-wheel is in an exposed position facing into the +machine room, a complete wire-work guard should be provided; these can +be made either to slide, swing, or to be lifted so as to suit local +surroundings; an illustration of such guards is shown in Fig. 1. Shaft +ends projecting into passages should be fitted with metal caps so as +to avoid the danger of clothing being caught. The common practice of +starting a gas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> engine by hand, by pulling round the fly-wheel, is also +attended with risk, but this can be avoided by the use of a starting +handle, Fig. 2.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p208" style="max-width: 499px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p208.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Safety starting-gear for gas and oil +engines. The gear can be attached to either end of the shaft.</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Other Prime Movers.</i>—Very similar rail-fencing to that described +above for steam and gas engines may be applied in the case of other +prime movers where electricity or water provide the moving power. As +regards water-wheels, it should be noted that, although situated in a +wheel-house, the same obligation to guard securely prevails as in the +case of a steam engine, and in every instance the wheel-race must be +fenced close to its edge.</p> + +<p>As for turbines and wind-mills, the most dangerous parts requiring to +be fenced will be found to be toothed gearing and shafting.</p> + +<p><i>Electrical Generators.</i>—The special risks attendant on +electrical generators from shocks scarcely perhaps come within the +scope of this paper. Ordinary rail-fencing may be relied upon for +protection of moving parts, though the railings should be made of some +non-conducting material such as wood.</p> + +<p><i>Mill-Gearing.</i>—Mill-gearing is defined by Section 156 of the +Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, as comprehending—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 156.—“Every shaft, whether upright, +oblique, or horizontal, and every wheel, drum, or pulley, by +which the motion of the first moving power is communicated to +any machine appertaining to a manufacturing process.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The provisions of the Factory Acts bearing on mill-gearing enact that:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (<i>c</i>).—“Every part of the +mill-gearing shall either be securely fenced, or be in such a +position, or of such construction, as to be equally safe to +every person employed or working in the factory, as it would be +if it were securely fenced.”</p> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 13 (3).—“The cleaning of mill-gearing +whilst in motion is, moreover, prohibited for women, young +persons, and children.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Accidents caused by mill-gearing and belts are not only amongst the +most numerous, but certainly amongst the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> serious of all those to +which persons employed in factories are subject, and yet nearly all +such may be avoided by strict observance of the precautions proposed to +be set forth herein.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p209a" style="max-width: 357px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p209a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Coupling with dangerous projecting +bolt-heads.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p209b" style="max-width: 362px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p209b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Safety Coupling with countersunk +bolt-heads.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p209c" style="max-width: 280px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p209c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Collar with dangerous projecting +set-screw.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p209d" style="max-width: 237px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p209d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Collar with countersunk set-screw.</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Mill-Gearing.</i>—First, as to construction and position, whilst +the distance between the bearings which support a shaft must vary +with the weight of the shaft and pulleys, and tension of the belts, +it should never exceed 13 feet, and in order to comply with the +requirement of the law quoted above, both shafting and pulleys should, +wherever possible, be not less than 7 feet above the floor, otherwise +the obligation to fence prevails. Shafting of considerable length is +composed of separate parts connected by couplings. These couplings +should always be near a pedestal and not in the middle of a span, +and should invariably present a perfectly smooth surface, free from +bolts or screws, which are liable to catch the clothes of workmen—the +old-fashioned couplings with projecting heads of bolts and screws +(Fig. 3) are the worst possible form; there are many kinds without any +projections whatever (Fig. 4). Ends of keys fixing the pulleys or bevel +wheels on to the shafting should either be cut off or protected by a +key cover. All set-screws fastening collars to the shafting should be +countersunk (Figs. 5 and 6). In fact it should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> be an absolute rule +that projections of every kind should be removed from shafting. The +dangers of shafting, however, do not cease with projections: it is an +established fact that perfectly smooth shafting is highly dangerous; +should the shaft be greasy or his clothing damp, a workman may be +caught by a perfectly smooth shaft. That being so, no one should +ever be allowed to come into direct contact with shafting in motion: +cleaning or lubricating should only be done when it is at a standstill.</p> + +<p><i>Access to Shafting.</i>—Where shafting is of the requisite height +named above, no further protection is required round the shafting +itself, but seeing that it is necessary at times to reach it, proper +and secure means of access should be provided. This can be done either +by a service platform, when the shafting is very high, or by ladders +adapted for the purpose. A service platform, whilst providing easy +access to shafting, should keep the attendant at a safe distance from +it, and at the same time guard against his falling. With a view to this +it should be provided with a hand-rail not less than 3 feet in height, +and a skirting board of 5 to 6 inches in depth to stop the foot in case +of slipping. Ladders should invariably be supplied with hooks at the +upper ends and spikes at the lower, the latter where the nature of the +flooring permits. In no case, however, should an attendant be allowed +to fix a ladder against a wall so as to place himself between the +shafting and the wall.</p> + +<p><i>Fencing of Low Shafting, etc.</i>—Where, however, shafting and +pulleys are not of the desired height above the floor, the obligation +to fence both arises. When shafting is near the floor it should be +completely covered by a sheet-iron or wooden casing, and the pulleys +fenced so as to afford a safe passage for workmen by either stepping +over the casing or crossing it by means of steps according to the +height from the floor. Shafting from 3 to 6 feet above the floor +should be protected by a secure rail preventing access to it except +by passages so arranged and boarded as to prevent any contact with +the shafting. Vertical shafts should in every case be surrounded by a +sheet-iron or wooden sheath firmly fixed.</p> + +<p><i>Pulleys.</i>—Whenever driving pulleys are so situated that a +workman has reason to pass near them, they should be securely fenced +by means of boards or metallic netting, and it is desirable to fill up +the pulleys with a disc of wood or sheet-iron fastened to the arms by +means of screws. Loose pulleys should not be placed on the shafting +itself; lest they grip the shaft and carry the belts round with them, +but should be mounted independently.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p> + +<p><i>Driving Belts.</i>—Driving belts are a constant source of +accidents. When a belt has been thrown off its pulley it should never +be allowed to rest upon the shaft; when in that position it is liable +to be wound rapidly round the shaft, carrying with it anything with +which it comes into contact. This danger is easily avoided by means +of a belt rest or hook fixed according to available surroundings. +Another fruitful source of accidents through belting is the method in +which they are joined; one should always be selected which presents +no projections capable of catching clothing or dealing severe blows. +Accidents have frequently occurred in both ways; hence the necessity of +avoiding all projections on belting.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping of Belts.</i>—Accidents constantly occur during the +shipping of belts. Workmen should be absolutely forbidden to put a +belt on to a pulley by hand whilst the shaft is in motion at its full +speed. It should be stopped altogether, or at least be greatly reduced +in speed, in which latter case a man should be ready to complete the +stoppage at once in case of danger occurring.</p> + +<p><i>Belt Poles.</i>—Where it is desired to avoid stoppage of the engine +or shafting, belts should in all cases where possible be put on to +the pulleys by means of a belt pole. It should be carefully borne in +mind, however, that a short belt pole is in itself a source of danger, +owing to its liability to deal a severe blow in case of the pin of the +pole becoming in any way entangled; fatal accidents have occurred in +this way, and therefore it is most important that the length of the +pole should be nearly equal to the distance of the shafting from the +floor, thus forcing the workman to hold it at his side instead of in +front of him. In cases where, for some reason or other, a belt pole +cannot be used, the necessity of stopping the shafting in order to put +on the belt by hand may be avoided by means of an appliance termed a +belt shipper, of which there are a number of types, and which enable +a workman to ship a belt with the shafting in motion whilst he is +standing on the floor.</p> + +<p><i>Protection of Belts.</i>—Owing to the danger arising from clothing +being caught by belts, it is desirable in many cases to protect them; +thus belts passing through floors should in all cases be surrounded +with a casing of wood; oblique or horizontal belts should be protected +by a railing preventing access to them, or by a trough below the belt +securely fixed; the same remarks will apply to driving ropes, whilst +the splicings of the latter should be frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span> examined, owing to +their liability to break and cause serious accidents in falling.</p> + +<p><i>Bevel Wheels.</i>—Bevel wheels on shafting should be encased with +sheet-iron cover, with one of its faces opening for purposes of oiling.</p> + +<p><i>Means of Stopping Machinery.</i>—Many of the most serious accidents +through mill-gearing and belts might be avoided if means existed for +stopping the machinery quickly. When it is necessary to go to the +engine-house to warn the engine driver to stop the engine, the mischief +is done before this can be effected; some means, therefore, should be +at hand to stop the machinery at once. In choice of the method by which +disconnection is to be accomplished, preference should be given to one +which brings it into play from many parts of the factory by mechanical +or electrical means, whilst in some cases a brake acting upon a special +pulley is provided and brought into play at the same time by the same +means. The stoppage of the engine or the disconnection of the main +shaft is attended by the disadvantage of stopping the whole of the +machinery in the factory, and it is better, therefore, to disconnect +each driving shaft individually, thus stopping the machinery in one +room only. The disconnecting arrangements which are open to selection +are numerous, but mainly consist of two classes, viz., toothed and +friction clutches; of these preference may be given to friction +clutches for various reasons.</p> + +<p>Lastly, with regard to mill-gearing, its care should be entrusted to +special and experienced men, and no one else should be allowed to +interfere with it. Attendants should, as far as possible, only approach +it when it is at a standstill, and their clothing should invariably +consist of tight-fitting jackets or jerseys, with nothing whatever +loose about them.</p> + +<p><i>Machine Tools.</i>—Having thus disposed of the two first main +branches of our subject, viz., prime movers which supply the motive +power, and mill-gearing and belts which transmit it, it remains for us +to deal with the vast number of machines to which the motive power is +communicated and by which the manufacturing processes are carried out. +These are so numerous that it would be useless to attempt to deal with +them individually in this paper. It will, however, be possible to set +forth certain rules which should invariably be observed in order to +minimise the risks which at present unnecessarily present themselves to +those whose duty it is to attend to machine tools. Whilst the danger +of accidents from prime movers and mill-gearing is greatly restricted +owing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span> to the fact that they are, or ought invariably to be, in the +sole charge of a limited number of experienced persons, the machines +themselves are attended to by large numbers of men, women, young +persons, and even children. There is, therefore, the greater necessity +for taking every precaution possible to prevent the occurrence of +accident thereby.</p> + +<p>The provisions of the Factory Acts with regard to machine tools are as +follows:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (<i>c</i>).—“All dangerous parts of +the machinery shall either be securely fenced, or be in such a +position, or of such construction as to be equally safe to every +person employed or working in the factory, as it would be if it +were securely fenced.”</p> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (<i>d</i>).—“All fencing shall be +constantly maintained in an efficient state whilst the parts +required to be fenced are in motion or use.”</p> +</div> + +<p>By these provisions it will be observed that machine tools are placed +on the same footing as mill-gearing, but with the additional precaution +that—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 13.—“A child shall not be allowed to +clean any part of the machinery in a factory while the same is +in motion by the aid of steam, water, or other mechanical power.”</p> +</div> + +<p>In connection with this latter provision it is important to notice +that in the case of Pearson <i>v.</i> Belgian Mills Co., (1896), 1 Q. +B. 244, it was held that the words “the same” in the section, refer to +the machinery as a whole, whether fixed or in motion, and not merely +to such parts of it as are in motion; the employment, therefore, of a +child to clean the fixed part of machinery in motion constitutes an +infringement of the Act.</p> + +<p>Further enactments for safety in connection with machines are that—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 12 (3).—“A child, young person, or +woman shall not be allowed to work between the fixed and +traversing part of any self-acting machine while the machine is +in motion by the action of steam, water, or other mechanical +power.”</p> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 12 (1).—“In a factory erected after the +commencement of 1896, the traversing carriage of any self-acting +machine shall not be allowed to run out within a distance of +eighteen inches from any fixed structure, not being part of the +machine, if the space over which it so runs out is a space over +which any person is liable to pass, whether in the course of his +employment or otherwise.”</p> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 12 (2).—“A person employed in a factory +shall not be allowed to be in the space between the fixed +and traversing portions of a self-acting machine, unless the +machine is stopped with the traversing portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span> on the outward +run, but for the purpose of this provision the space in front +of a self-acting machine shall not be included in the space +aforesaid.”</p> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 156.—“The expression ‘machinery’ shall +include any driving ‘strap or band,’ which are therefore subject +to the same provisions as to safety as mill-gearing and machine +tools.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The Acts also give powers to deal with dangerous machinery or parts +thereof:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 17 (1).—“By application to a Court +of Summary Jurisdiction for an order prohibiting the use of a +machine dangerous to life or limb until it is duly repaired or +altered.”</p> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 13 (2).—“By notifying it as dangerous, +in which case it becomes illegal for young persons to clean such +parts in motion.”</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Fencing of Dangerous Machinery.</i>—With respect to the fencing +of machinery in a factory, the importance of the words “all dangerous +parts of the machinery,” which were superadded by Sect. 6 (2) of +the Factory Act of 1891 to Sect. 5 (3) of the Act of 1878, should +be carefully noted. Formerly there was absolute obligation to fence +only in respect of prime movers and mill-gearing, whilst in the case +of other machinery which an inspector considered dangerous, he was +required by Sect. 6 of the 1878 Act to serve notice to fence on an +occupier, who was empowered, if he thought fit, to have the matter +determined by arbitration. Now the obligation to fence extends to +all dangerous parts of the machinery, and the question whether it +is dangerous or not has to be decided by the Court in each case. In +connection with this it should be noticed that in the case of Hindle v. +Birtwistle (1897) the Court of Queen’s Bench held that the enactment +applies to all machinery from which, in the ordinary course of working, +danger may arise by reason of carelessness on the part of the workmen, +or of external causes. It should therefore be sufficient, in order to +prove the dangerous character of any part of a machine, to show that +accidents are frequently caused thereby.</p> + +<p>In propounding certain rules for safety, which should be carefully +carried out in the construction of all machines, it may be pointed out +that these are not based upon mere opinion, but on the experience and +statistics of many years.</p> + +<p><i>Set-screws.</i>—It has been one of the most pernicious habits of +almost all machine makers in this country to send out their machinery +bristling with projecting set-screws, etc., which are not only +unsightly, but also the frequent source of accidents through catching +clothing. They are often situated either on or in close proximity +to shafts, spindles, collars, or cog-wheels,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span> whereby the dangers +attendant on these are greatly enhanced. Hence our first rule, which +should be absolute respecting all machinery, should be: (1) <i>No +projections shall be allowed on anything that revolves.</i> There are +various methods of avoiding such projections by countersinking or +otherwise, of which illustrations are given above (Figs. 7 to 9).</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p215a" style="max-width: 290px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p215a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Shows a safe form of set-screw +(<i>s</i>), which is deeply recessed, and can only be adjusted by a box +key (<i>k</i>).</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p215b" style="max-width: 245px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p215b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—For use with screwdriver.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p215c" style="max-width: 572px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p215c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Halstead’s Patent Unbreakable +Square-hole Solid-ended Grub Screw. For use with square-ended key, +similar to railway carriage key.</p> + </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p216a" style="max-width: 611px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p216a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Incomplete guards for spur wheels. +(The points of danger are marked A, A and B, B respectively.)</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p216b" style="max-width: 608px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p216b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Spur wheels with suitable guards (G, +G). (The arms of wheels may be covered with discs if needed).</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Toothed Wheels.</i>—Toothed wheels are probably the cause of more +accidents than any other portion of a machine, and their protection +has been and is still sadly neglected. They are frequently sent out +by makers either with no guard whatever, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> with such an inefficient +guard as only to partially cover the wheels, thereby doubling the +danger to be met by forming two points of junction between the wheels +and the guard instead of one only presented by the wheels themselves +(Figs. 10 to 12). Our second rule should therefore be: (2) <i>All +toothed wheels shall be so effectually covered as to leave no danger +between the guard and the wheels.</i></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p217a" style="max-width: 505px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p217a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Shows a good form of guard (D, D) to +cover bevel wheels (E, E).</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Shaft or Spindle Ends.</i>—Machine makers frequently leave +projecting shafts or spindles at each side of a machine so as to allow +of choice in the arrangement of pulleys. These are frequently a source +of serious accidents, and our third rule should be: (3) <i>All exposed +shaft ends shall be securely covered.</i> This can easily and simply +be done by means of a metal cap fitting sufficiently close to revolve +with the shaft, but which will instantly stop on clothing, etc., being +caught by it (Fig. 13).</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p217b" style="max-width: 272px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p217b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Shows a method of covering shaft ends +with a sheet-metal cap (G).</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Loose Pulleys and Strap Forks.</i>—Most machines are now supplied +by makers with loose pulleys and strap forks, but exceptions can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> be +found, more especially in the manufacture of cotton, in the case of +carding engines and drawing frames; on the former, though loose pulleys +are invariably supplied, strap forks are in most instances absent, +thus necessitating the moving of the belt from one pulley to the other +by hand or by a stick, a very dangerous proceeding, causing frequent +accidents. The most dangerous point is where the belt first touches the +driving pulley, and this is guarded where a well-arranged strap fork +is provided. In the case of drawing frames both loose pulley and strap +fork have generally been omitted, with the result that the undershaft +cannot be stopped for cleaning without throwing the belt off by hand, +causing additional danger in replacing the belt on the pulley. Our +fourth rule, therefore, should be: (4) <i>Loose pulleys and strap forks +shall be provided for all machines.</i></p> + +<p><i>Plate Wheels.</i>—Arm wheels running at high speed are frequently +the cause of accidents. Such are specially found in the balance wheels +of power looms, the rim pulleys of self-acting mules, and the speed +wheels of platen printing machines. These wheels can in almost all +cases be made safe, and our last rule should be: (5) <i>Plate wheels +or wheels filled in shall be substituted, wherever possible, for arm +wheels running at high speed</i> (Fig. 22).</p> + +<p>Each of these rules relate to intrinsic parts of the machines, and +should therefore be dealt with by the makers themselves, who can +carry them out with little or no extra cost at the time of making. +Unfortunately, however, it has been in many instances the practice to +have one type of machine for the home, and another for the foreign +market, the latter with much more efficient guards, owing to the +stricter laws which prevail in certain countries as to the occurrence +of accidents.</p> + +<p><i>Hoists.</i>—We now come to the last head of our subject, viz., the +safe-guarding of hoists and other lifting tackle. The requirements of +the Factory Act as to these are absolute.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (<i>a</i>).—“Every hoist or teagle +shall be securely fenced.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The importance of this enactment may be gathered from the fact that in +1899 there occurred 27 fatal and 315 non-fatal accidents from hoists +alone, whilst other lifting tackle was responsible for 66 fatal and +1497 non-fatal. Parliament has fully recognised<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span> the dangers arising +from this class of machinery by the omission, in the Factory Act of +1891, of the limitation contained in the Act of 1878, “near to which +any person is liable to pass or be employed,” thus placing hoists on +precisely the same footing as prime movers, the fencing of which, as +shown above, is absolutely compulsory.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p219" style="max-width: 272px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p219.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Knowles’ Improved Safety Hoist.</p> + </div> + +<p>Cage hoists are most frequently found in factories, and in these the +cage should invariably be roofed over, whilst each side of the cage +should be cased in, except that used for exit, thus avoiding danger +from anything falling down the hoist-way, and also from projecting +obstacles therein. On each floor the hoist-way should be guarded by +doors not less than 5½ to 6 feet in height. The single bar or chain +which used so frequently to be found is a constant source of danger +from persons looking down the well and being trapped between the bar +and the bottom of the cage. Falls down the hoist-way through absence +of any protecting gate, through the latter being carelessly left open, +or owing to the cage being moved to another floor without warning, +frequently occur. For perfect safety hoists should be in the sole +charge of a special attendant, whose duty it should be to travel with +the cage, opening or shutting the doors at each landing as required, +the fastenings of which should be accessible only from the inside. +Otherwise, automatic gates may be used, so adjusted as to open on the +arrival at, and close on the departure of the cage from, each landing; +it should not be practicable to open these from the outside, and where +there is not sufficient headway for a gate six feet in height, it may +be made to telescope.</p> + +<p>There are several patent hoists which answer to this description +in greater or less degree, but we must content ourselves here with +an illustration and description of one of the best methods of +safe-guarding hoists, viz., by means of the Knowles safety locking gear +for cage hoists (Fig. 14).</p> + +<p>Careful attention should be paid to the gear for suspending the cage, +in order to prevent accidents from the breaking of the ropes and the +precipitation of the cage to the bottom of the hoist-way. For greater +safety two wire ropes should be used, which should be periodically +and systematically examined. Some one of the various safety gears +for arresting the fall of the cage should also be adopted; in this +connection we give an illustration (Fig. 15) of “Morgan’s patent safety +catches,” which sustain the cage in case of the hoisting ropes breaking +through some mishap. In the matter of safe-guarding hoists, also, we +are far behind other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span> countries where the law compels employers to +provide safety catches and doors for every cage hoist.</p> + +<p><i>Teagles.</i>—Hoisting of goods is often performed by means of a +teagle either outside the buildings of the factory, or inside through +openings in the floors. In the latter case these openings in each floor +should be securely railed; whilst in the former the attendant should +invariably be supplied with a safety belt, strong enough to suspend +him in the air should he fall. In case, however, of an outside teagle, +the dangerous and laborious work of swinging the goods into the room +can be avoided by the use of a self-landing and delivering hoist (Fig. +16), which will not only lift goods off the lorry and take them into +the room, but will also pick them up inside the room, travel with them +outside the doorway, and lower them on to the lorry.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p221"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p221.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Morgan’s Patent Safety Catch.</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Cranes, Winches, etc.</i>—Although the Factory Acts deal +specifically only with “hoists” and “teagles,” yet the numerous +accidents mentioned above as attributable to other lifting tackle, +plainly point to the urgent need for safeguards, and care in its use. +The provisions of the Acts as to hoists are of long standing, and were +enacted when the term “factory” did not embrace every dock, wharf, +quay, warehouse, and building in course of erection. Great care, +however, should be taken to securely fence all bevel wheels of cranes, +winches, etc., and periodical examination of all chains, ropes, etc., +should be strictly carried out. It should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span> remembered that steam +cranes partake of the nature of the two first divisions of our subject, +viz., engines and mill-gearing.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p222"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p222.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Wadsworth’s Self-Landing and +Delivering Hoist.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p223a" style="max-width: 474px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p223a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Self-acting Mules. Guards for +the drawing-out band, and pulley at the out end of frame. Shows +unsatisfactory guard (A).</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p223b" style="max-width: 446px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p223b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Shows a guard which completely covers +the band round pulley (C, D).</p> + </div> + +<p>In the preceding pages some pains have been taken to set forth certain +regulations which should equally apply to all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> machinery. It has been +shown that the provisions of the law as to fencing prime movers and +hoists are absolute, and equally so those applying to mill-gearing +unless it be in such a position and of such construction as to be +equally safe, as if it were fenced, whilst the machines by which the +manufacturing processes are carried out are dealt with by means of the +general instruction that “all dangerous parts of the machinery shall be +securely fenced,” subject to the same reservation as to position and +construction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span> as in the case of mill-gearing. Except in the instances +of grinding in tenement factories, chaff-cutting machines, and perhaps +it may be added, of self-acting machines, the law has not yet entered +into any details as to safe-guarding machine tools. Apart, however, +from general rules applicable to all, there remain certain machine +tools which, owing to the nature of their construction and use, are +peculiarly liable to the occurrence of accidents. For these special +guards are necessary, and their invention and use have been spurred on +by the liabilities of employers under the Compensation Acts. It would +not be possible here to illustrate a tithe of these machines and the +most approved guards invented for them, but it is proposed to select +a few machines which are shown by statistics to be the most frequent +cause of accidents, and the means by which these accidents may, in part +at any rate, be obviated.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p224" style="max-width: 266px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p224.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Self-acting Mules. +Elevation—Foot-guard for carriage wheels. The guard (G) is fixed to +the bracket (B), and surrounds the wheel (W) at a slight distance above +the slip or rail (S).</p> + </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span></p> + +<p><i>Self-acting Mules.</i>—Dealing first with our great textile +industries, and specially with that of cotton, it will be found that by +far the greatest number of accidents occurs in the mule-rooms. Owing to +the complicated nature of their construction no one illustration could +exhibit all the necessary guards for self-acting mules, but an analysis +of the accidents caused by them shows that the parts which are the most +fruitful source of injuries to workers are:—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>1. Scroll or draw bands and pulleys.</li> + <li>2. Carriage wheels and slips.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>For the first, incomplete and approved guards are shown in Figs. 17 +and 18; whilst for the second, two types of guards in common use are +illustrated in Figs. 19 to 21.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p225a" style="max-width: 750px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p225a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Hargreave’s Mule Carriage Wheel +Guard.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p225b" style="max-width: 329px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p225b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Hargreave’s Mule Carriage Wheel +Guard.</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Looms.</i>—Next to mules, power looms are the most frequent cause +of accidents in a cotton mill. These present an excellent specimen of +the dangerous character of exposed arm wheels running at high speed +alluded to above. An illustration of safeguards for the ends of looms +will be found in Fig. 22. During 1899 flying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span> shuttles were the cause +of 1 fatal and 161 non-fatal accidents. Shuttle guards, of which an +example is given in Fig. 23, are either<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> rigid or semi-automatic, but +in either case great care has to be taken that they are not fixed too +high on the slay cap.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p226a" style="max-width: 298px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p226a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center smcap">Fig. 22.</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">FRONT</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">Balance Wheel removed, showing guard over spur wheels.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p226b" style="max-width: 250px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p226b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center">SIDE</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">Spur Wheels guarded at intake side.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p226c" style="max-width: 297px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p226c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center">FRONT</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">Balance Wheel (Plate Wheel) in position, guarding +the crank and tappet wheels (toothed).</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p227a" style="max-width: 466px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p227a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center smcap">Fig. 23</p> + </div> + +<p>Turning to non-textile machinery, probably no three classes of machine +tools show so large an array of accidents as:—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>1. Circular saws.</li> + <li>2. Planing machines.</li> + <li>3. Power presses.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>Each of these classes present dangers peculiar to itself, and therefore +needs special safeguards.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p227b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p227b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Elvatka Guard.</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Circular Saws.</i>—Circular saws during the year 1899 were +responsible for 1289 accidents, of which 9 proved fatal. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> purposes +for which they are used are so various that no one universal guard +is practicable, but in all cases a riving knife should be provided +at the back of the saw, whilst as much of the top and front should +also be covered as circumstances will permit. Figures 24 to 27 show +illustrations of a few guards which appear best to fulfil these +requirements.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p228a"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p228a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Longmore’s Guard.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p228b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p228b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Victor Guard.</p> + </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p229a"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p229a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Campbell and Greenwood’s Guard.</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Planing Machines.</i>—Accidents through planing machines are of +frequent occurrence. They are often of such a severe nature that no +planing machine should be permitted to be used without an efficient +guard, of which an illustration is given in Fig. 28.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p229b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p229b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Woodhouse and Mitchell’s Guard.</p> + </div> + +<p><i>Power Presses.</i> Power presses like circular saws are put to so +many uses that various forms of guards are needed to suit the variety +of work. They are usually put into motion in one of two ways: either +the plunger is released by means of a foot treadle or by a hand lever. +Of these the latter naturally presents the fewest elements of danger, +owing to the necessary position of one hand whilst using the lever. +Additional safety has recently been imparted by the introduction of +machines furnished not only with hand levers, but also fitted with +slides obviating any necessity for either hand to approach the die.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span></p> + +<p>Fig. 29 illustrates an approved guard for an ordinary tin stamping or +cutting press.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p230"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p230.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Power Presses.</p> + </div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span></p> + +<h3>ADDENDA.</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—<span class="smcap">Description of Knowles’s Improved Safety +Hoist.</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The rod A, which extends the full depth of the hoist well, is +attached at its upper end to the lever B, the latter carrying +the lever C with the stop or projection D, which drops into +the toothed rim S on the side of the starting pulley E, and +locks the hoist when a door is open, as in Fig. 1. Each door +is provided with the lever H, mounted on the centre I, one end +being coupled to the rod A by the arm K and rod L, the other +end being fitted with the bolt or draw-bar X. To the lever C is +attached the hook T extending over the lever B, by which the +stop or projection D, on the lever C, is lifted out of gear with +the tooth rim S in making an upward movement, caused by dropping +the bolt or draw-bar X. When the lever B drops, by the action +of opening one of the doors, the stop or projection D on the C +is pressed or forced into the toothed rim S by the spring V, as +shown in Fig. 2. This apparatus operates as follows:—When the +attendant desires to work the hoist, he simply closes the door +and drops the bolt or draw-bar X into the hole or slot N in +the threshold O, which lifts the levers B and C by the upward +movement of the rod A, and moves the stop or projection D from +the toothed rim S, as in Fig. 3, at which point it remains +until one of the levers H is operated from the inside by the +attendant, when it is locked, as shown in Fig. 2. When the stop +or projection D is removed from the toothed rim S, the starting +band or chain P is at liberty to be operated in the requisite +direction at will. To prevent the hoist being started when a +door is open, the lever H is latched into the catch or fixing R. +It is impossible to start the hoist until the attendant has both +closed and bolted the doors.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center p1"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—<span class="smcap">Morgan’s Patent Safety Catch.</span> (An improved +safety gear for colliery cages, hoists, lifts, etc.)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>To sustain the Cage, in case through any mishap the Hoisting +Ropes break.</i>—In the arrangements of these catches, two +strong steel colliery rods are stretched from top to bottom of +the hoist well, and the cage is fitted with two or more cams, +across the face of which grooves are made to correspond with the +strands of the steel guides.</p> + +<p>The cams are fitted in a steel casing, through which the guides +pass, so that should the hoisting ropes break, the steel guides +are at once gripped by the cams, which hold the cage suspended.</p> +</div> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">H. S. Richmond.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XV<br> +<span class="subhed">AGRICULTURE; HORSES; CATTLE</span></h2></div> + +<h3><i>Agriculture</i></h3> + + +<p>(1) <i>Labourers.</i>—The manifold occupations included under the +general term of tilling the soil, exercises a beneficial effect on +the husbandman as regards mere length of days, for he often lives far +beyond the allotted span, although he rarely comes to the end of his +career a hale and hearty old man. His operations are carried out for +the most part in the open air, leisurely, and in a greater or less +degree of isolation. His condition, therefore, has its drawbacks as +well as its advantages. As one of the oldest occupations of mankind +it has been very largely adopted as a means of gaining a livelihood, +and, until recently, the supply of farm labourers has exceeded the +demand. It is badly paid; the farmer, at least in England, has many +anxieties, disappointments and losses in his crops and stock; the +labourer receives but small wages, and has perforce to put up with +scanty living and poor accommodation. The living is made worse by the +ignorance of cooking and domestic economy, which is so general amongst +the wives and daughters of the labouring class. Field work begins early +in the morning, and leads to exposure in all weathers. It is usually so +monotonous, that it is unattractive to the better intellects amongst +the lower orders; it is sometimes very hard, as during hay-making and +harvest, and it is occasionally dangerous, as in hedging and ditching.</p> + +<p>“Rheumatic” affections are foremost amongst the bodily ills of field +workers, not often as acute rheumatism, but rather in some of the +protean forms which affect the connective tissues. Osteo-arthritis, +sciatica, lumbago, and valvular heart lesions are commonly met with. +Indeed, the rheumatic affections of old age have been known for so +long a time that Scapula, in his great lexicon, says, with doubtful, +though picturesque, etymology, “Γέρων, the Greek word for an old +man, has been derived by some παρὰ τὸ εἰς γῆν<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span> ὁρᾷν, because old men +by their stooping look towards the earth; though others, with more +probability, derive it from the same stem as Γέρας, on account of the +reverence due to age.” The etymology, whether right or wrong, draws +attention to the stooping habit which is typically a senile kyphosis, +though it is accentuated by occupation, and is found early in middle +life in agricultural labourers, as often as in tailors, cobblers, +clerks, Swiss mountain porters, and, latterly, in some bicyclists. True +senile kyphosis or stooping arises from simple weakness and wasting +of the tissues, with absorption of the intervertebral discs, and is +not necessarily due to rheumatism. But amongst agricultural labourers, +it is usually associated with osteoarthritic changes, which tend to +unite the individual vertebræ by bridges of bone, whilst it thickens +the spines and hardens the ligaments. The stage of anchylosis is often +preceded by a period of inflammatory softening, which leads to more or +less deformity of the vertebral column, for lateral curvature is nearly +as common as the forward stoop to which the name kyphosis is given.</p> + +<p>The same factors of hard manual labour, often in constrained attitudes +and under unfavourable conditions of weather, produce other “rheumatic” +affections, such as pains in the limbs, aching in the bones and +stiffness in the joints, which disturb the comfort without lessening +materially the wage-earning power of the rural population. No one can +have attended the local fair or feast without noticing the peculiar +shuffling walk, and the knock-knee of the ploughboy, the results +respectively of flatfoot and over-growth, aided by badly fitting, +uncouth boots, and a habit of walking over uneven surfaces.</p> + +<p>The palmar fascia of the hand often becomes contracted—Dupuytren’s +contraction—a condition whose cause is unknown, though it has +been variously attributed to such predisposing causes as gout and +rheumatism, or to habits and occupations necessitating pressure in +the palm and flexion of the fingers, as in digging. The contraction +usually begins in that portion of the fascia which is continued on +to the sheath of the flexor tendon of the little finger, afterwards +attacking the portion extending to the ring finger, and sometimes +the remaining fingers. The fingers are thereby flexed and drawn down +towards the palm, with which they may even be fixed in contact. This +form of contraction may be distinguished from that due to a contracted +tendon, by the puckering of the skin in consequence of its adhesion +to the fascia, and by the contracting band bifurcating to be inserted +upon either side of the flexor tendon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span> whilst the contracted tendon is +placed centrally, and can be traced under the annular ligament.</p> + +<p>The kindness of the late Dr Tinley, and Dr Granger at Whitby, and of +my brother-in-law Mr G. H. Fosbroke, the County Medical Officer of +Worcestershire, has lately allowed me to examine the death returns +of two typically rural districts. The chief causes of death are +bronchitis, including pneumonia and pleurisy; heart disease, a very +vague term covering a multitude of pathological conditions; and +phthisis. The deaths from bronchitis and heart disease, in a period of +ten years, are nearly equal in number, whilst those from phthisis were +only half as many as either of the other two.</p> + +<p>Typhoid fever is endemic in many districts, owing to the improper +disposal of excrement, and from the use of polluted water in surface +wells.</p> + +<p>Some of the older countrymen living in the fen districts east of +Cambridge still take opium regularly to keep off ague, and I have a +working hypothesis that these same dwellers in districts which were +once highly malarious are now more subject to cancer than persons who +live in towns where the soil is drier and insects are fewer. Be this +as it may, however, gardeners and those who have to handle soot in the +course of their work are liable to develop epitheliomatous ulcers of +the hand and wrist more often than those who are free from such source +of local irritation.</p> + +<p>Lunacy is increasing markedly amongst the rural population in some +parts of the country, and notably in Ireland. This is probably due +to the tide of emigration carrying away the more highly endowed and +enterprising, whilst it leaves the old and those who are enfeebled in +body and mind.</p> + +<p>Agricultural labourers do not, on the whole, fare very badly. Even with +low wages and bad sanitary surroundings, the social condition of the +English farm hand compares most favourably with that of the peasantry +in many European countries. The absence of the three great diseases +epidemic amongst those who are reduced to the lowest depths of misery +by chronic starvation, is a proof of this superior position. The three +diseases are ergotism from the use of spurred rye; pellagra due to bad +maize; and lathyrism caused by the consumption of the chick-pea.</p> + +<p>Ergotism is rife amongst the rye-eating inhabitants of Germany, +Bohemia, Sweden, Russia, and the central provinces of France. It occurs +especially after rainy seasons, and the bread<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span> made from the diseased +rye is violet in colour, and of a disagreeable taste and smell. It is +usually badly made and badly baked. The symptoms of ergot poisoning +are either acute or chronic. The acute form begins with giddiness, +headache, lassitude, and disturbances of sight and hearing, which have +led to its being called “ergot intoxication.” The chronic poisoning is +ushered in with symptoms of ergot intoxication, but the later stages +are either convulsive or gangrenous. The convulsive form is marked by +intermittent clonic spasms of the limbs, with dilatation of the pupil, +delirium, and coma, which soon ends in death, without any appearance +of gangrene. The mortification in the gangrenous form is preceded by +pain in the part, with intolerable “creeping” feelings, followed by +diminished sensibility, which ends in dry gangrene, and finally in +separation of the affected tissues. The patients suffer occasionally +from vomiting of blood, or from passing blood in the urine, the +bleeding being as difficult to arrest as in hæmophilia.</p> + +<p>Pellagra from the consumption of bad maize, truly known as the +<i>malattia della miseria</i>, is epidemic in parts of France, Spain, +Italy, Africa, and Brazil. It requires for its full manifestation +a most wretched peasantry. Pellagra is characterised by headache, +depression of spirits, sleeplessness, cramps, palsies, giddiness, and +dyspepsia. There are vague but often severe pains in the spine and +joints, and there is a skin eruption, which begins in April or May, +and goes from bad to worse, until it begins to improve in July or +August. The eruption is an erythema of the parts exposed to the sun. +The skin becomes swollen and tense, with petechiæ and bullæ, which +leave indolent ulcers when they break. The attacks recur in the spring +of each year, until in time the skin becomes thickened and of a light +sepia colour. The nervous symptoms culminate in a settled melancholia. +The spinal cord appears to be definitely affected both in ergotism and +pellagra, the posterior columns suffering chiefly in ergot poisoning, +the lateral columns in pellagra.</p> + +<p>Lathyrism results from the use of the chick-pea (<i>Lathyrus +sativus</i>, <i>cicer</i>, or <i>clymenum</i>) as an article of diet. +Like ergotism and pellagra, it is associated with extremely wretched +conditions of life, and has been observed in France, in the Abruzzi, +at Allahabad, and in other parts of India. Oxen, horses, pigs, and +geese are attacked as well as men. The symptoms point to an affection +of the lower part of the spinal cord, and are manifested by a sudden +inability to use the legs in the ordinary manner.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> The legs are so +stiff that when the patient walks he is obliged to throw his body into +a succession of curves, so that he describes a screw or figure of eight +as he proceeds. There is much hyperæsthesia of the lower extremities, +which may be followed by loss of sensation, though the patient +complains of the same tingling sensations as are felt in ergotism. The +onset is usually sudden, and is coincident with the advent of cold +weather, but the symptoms take four or five weeks to reach a maximum.</p> + +<p>The increasing use of machinery in ploughing, reaping, threshing, and +other farming operations leads necessarily to a greater number of +machine accidents than was formerly the case when labour was abundant +and machines were few. Even small farmers now possess a chaff-cutter, +and injuries to the hands and arms produced by its cog-wheels are +correspondingly frequent. Much more serious injuries are caused by +the large threshing and reaping machines, which are sometimes tended +by unskilled persons, as they are often let out on hire. Overstrain +from the lifting of loads in awkward positions during harvest is no +uncommon cause of hernia in those who are otherwise predisposed to this +condition. Poisoned wounds of the hand, and penetrating wounds of the +eye, are often sustained in the occupation of hedging and ditching, a +form of labour which is also the cause of rheumatism. Occasionally, +too, an agricultural labourer presents himself with a viper bite, for +vipers are still indigenous in several parts of England. He complains +of a burning pain at the part bitten, the limb swells and becomes +discoloured within an hour or two, there is great prostration marked +by sweating, vomiting, feeble pulse, and restlessness. The more acute +symptoms usually pass off in the course of twelve to twenty-four +hours, but in unhealthy persons the swelling increases; there may be +suppuration, and the bite then ends in a severe attack of inflammation +of the tissues, known as cellulitis.</p> + +<p>In like manner stings from bees, wasps, hornets, and gnats, which +are usually of small importance, may become serious, either from the +bad condition of the patient’s health, or from the position of the +sting, as when the mouth or conjunctiva is affected. A tolerance is +established for bee-stings and gnat-bites, as is shown by the very +slight reaction which takes place in bee-keepers and the inhabitants of +mosquito countries, as compared with the sufferings of a town-bred man +who is stung by either of these insects.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span></p> + +<p>In mushroom-poisoning the poisonous constituent is muscarin, a +nitrogenous body allied to cholin. It causes vomiting, diarrhœa, +and prostration, with convulsions and contraction of the pupil. +Death may occur from syncope and failure of respiration, but such an +ending is rare, except in children, because the vomiting promotes the +evacuation of the poison. Atropin is the physiological antidote, and +a subcutaneous injection of as much as ¹⁄₃₀ to ¹⁄₁₆ of a grain may be +given hypodermically, whilst diffusible stimulants are administered by +the mouth.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Gardeners</i> appear to suffer from many of the affections +common to farm-labourers, except that as they receive higher wages +they are better clothed, better fed, and better housed, and are thus +able to withstand climatic changes more successfully. It is said, on +the other hand, that gardeners are somewhat more liable to phthisis. +Their work in hothouses causes them to catch cold more easily, and may +thus increase any predisposition to infection by the tubercle bacillus. +The handling of such plants as the <i>Primula obconica</i> sometimes +produces a very troublesome erythema of the skin, whilst constant +contact with fresh soil allows greater opportunities of contracting +tetanus.</p> + +<p>The Museum of St Bartholomew’s Hospital contains an interesting +specimen, showing that the epitheliomatous form of cancer sometimes +follows the irritation produced by gardening. The specimen consists +of the hand and part of the forearm removed on account of a growth +covering nearly half the surface of the skin. The growth is warty, very +vascular, superficially ulcerated, and with an everted sinuous edge. +It bears a close resemblance to an ulcerated cancer of the scrotum in +chimney sweepers. The patient was forty-nine years old. Five years +before the amputation of his hand he was employed as a gardener in +strewing soot over the ground for several mornings in succession; +a warty growth then formed, and it increased and ulcerated in the +spring of both the following years, whilst he was similarly employed. +After this, though he was no longer in contact with soot, the disease +increased until the limb was removed. He recovered completely after the +operation. The case is related by Sir James Earle in his edition of +Percivall Pott’s works.</p> + +<p>Dupuytren’s contraction of the palmar fascia is by no means uncommon +in gouty and rheumatic gardeners as they become advanced in years. It +is best treated by dissecting out the contracted bands, if this can +be done without suppuration, the resulting scar being afterwards kept +supple by daily massage.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Horses.</i></h3> + +<p>(3) <i>Ostlers, Stablemen, and Cartmen.</i>—This class of men, from +their close attendance in stables, necessarily contract the diseases +which are transmissible from horses to ourselves. Foremost amongst +these diseases are glanders and farcy, of which I have seen several +cases in veterinary students; and tetanus, whose bacillus is said to +live in the horse’s intestines.</p> + +<p>Glanders, in its acute or generalised pyæmic form known as farcy, +attacks grooms, ostlers, coachmen, knackers, and veterinary surgeons, +because they are brought into contact with diseased animals. It has +also been seen as a result of accidental infection in the pathological +laboratory during the preparation of mallein; in surgeons who have +operated upon glandered patients, and even in washerwomen who have +washed the clothes of those affected.</p> + +<p>Glanders occurs in an acute form which kills in eight to fifteen days, +and a chronic form said to last as long as eleven years.</p> + +<p>Acute glanders in man has an incubation period of three to eight days, +though the symptoms are occasionally delayed for three weeks, or they +may appear within twenty-four hours, and suppuration may occur at the +end of the second day. The patient complains of a general feeling of +ill-health with headache, and such vague pains in the muscles and +joints as lead him to think that he is about to have acute rheumatism. +The symptoms increase in severity, and there is often sufficient +gastro-intestinal disturbance associated with deafness and stupor to +lead to an erroneous diagnosis of typhoid fever. The pulse is full and +soft, beating 90 to 100 in a minute; the skin is dry; the mouth foul, +and epistaxis is frequent. Swellings—“the farcy buds”—soon appear in +the intermuscular planes near the joints on both sides of the body. The +swellings are at first hard, but they quickly soften, point, burst, and +leave large foul ulcers, which eventually contract into sinuses if the +patient survive. The case may then be looked upon as one of chronic +pyæmia, especially as rigors are numerous and severe, but all doubt as +to the true nature of the disease is set at rest when the face becomes +affected. The skin over the nose is reddened and swollen, whilst the +mucous membrane is injected and discharges a fœtid secretion, clear +at first, but soon becoming yellow, purulent, viscid, and finally +blood-stained. Ulceration of the nasal mucous membrane occurs less +frequently in man than in the horse. The conjunctivæ are often affected +in a manner similar to the nasal mucous membrane, and the inflammatory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span> +condition spreads to the pharynx, palate, and glottis. Dyspnœa, with +pleuritic pain, may be a marked symptom of the disease, extensive +gangrene may occur, and death follows.</p> + +<p>Glanders is generally inoculated through a wound or abrasion, but +the bacilli are able to penetrate to the uninjured lymphatics of the +skin by way of the hair follicles, and in the case of two veterinary +students who have been under my care the infection was directly +traceable to their being sneezed over by a glandered horse they were +examining. If a wound be the seat of infection it may heal, but in a +day or two it becomes swollen and painful, an eruption of vesicles +often appears round it, and the lymphatics become swollen and painful, +though the glands are rarely affected. The skin, in some cases of +farcy, shows erythematous patches like those of erysipelas or erythema +nodosum. The patches become pustular or phlyctenular, or a pustular +rash without umbilication may first be noticed. The latter form of rash +is said to be of very grave significance, for recovery seldom if ever +takes place when it makes its appearance.</p> + +<p>Glanders affects many animals besides horses, mules, and donkeys. +It has been seen in lions, leopards, tigers, and bears in various +menageries; field-mice, guinea-pigs, and hedgehogs are highly +susceptible. Infection may result not only from direct contact with the +sick animal and its nasal discharge, but also from the pus, saliva, and +milk. Food and drink may convey bacilli directly into the alimentary +canal, which is thus affected primarily, the nasal mucous membrane +becoming involved as part of a secondary process.</p> + +<p>Chronic glanders may last for years, the patient suffering from acute +but intermittent attacks of fever, in one of which he may die, or from +which he may wholly recover. The skin in these cases is often the part +chiefly affected. It becomes swollen and œdematous, with nodules, which +only appear in one part and break down into indolent ulcers. The ulcers +heal and leave scars which, with the destruction of the septum of the +nose and the ulceration of the pharynx and soft palate, sometimes raise +a suspicion of syphilis.</p> + +<p>The disease depends upon the presence of the bacillus mallei and +the toxic substances produced during its growth. The bacillus may +be isolated from the abscesses, blood, enlarged skin follicles, and +the ulcers. They are more easily recognised in properly stained +“smear preparations” than in sections, and are readily cultivated +in three to five days on acid potato media at a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span> temperature of 35° +to 37° C. as a brownish, moderately thick and opaque growth. The +active principle of the growth is “mallein,” which can be obtained +as a syrupy fluid. Mallein injected into a glandered animal produces +an inflammatory swelling at the seat of inoculation. The tumour is +tense, painful, and very extensive. The lymphatics from the seat of +inoculation to the neighbouring lymphatic glands become inflamed, and +are painful, swollen, and sinuous. The local tumour increases in size +for twenty-four to thirty-six hours, but does not suppurate unless +septic organisms have been introduced at the time of the inoculation. +It subsides slowly in eight to ten days. Inoculation is followed by +a general reaction, which appears within eight hours of the time +of injection, reaches a maximum in ten to twelve hours, and lasts +twenty-four hours. The animal shivers and sometimes has well-marked +convulsions. The test is a very valuable one for latent glanders in +horses, and as mallein diluted with ten times its volume of a ½ per +cent. solution of carbolic acid preserves its qualities unimpaired +for many months, it is now largely used in all parts of the world. A +healthy horse either does not respond at all to a much larger dose +of mallein than will affect a sick animal, or else a small swelling +appears at the seat of inoculation, which only lasts for twenty-four +hours. Glandered men, in the few cases where it has been employed, show +the same reaction to mallein as glandered horses. The Straus test is +also valuable in the diagnosis of glanders. It consists in diluting the +suspected secretion with sterile water, which is then injected into the +peritoneal cavity, and beneath the skin of male guinea-pigs. The testes +appear to swell two or three days after the injection, and the animal +dies in four to fifteen days with acute inflammation of the tunica +vaginalis, the testicles and epididymis being only rarely affected.</p> + +<p>Acute farcy is very fatal, but 50 to 60 per cent. of the patients +affected with chronic farcy recover. The treatment at present is +most unsatisfactory. Stimulants and tonics must be given liberally. +Every abscess must be opened and disinfected as soon as possible, and +benzoate of soda may be administered in drachm doses three or four +times a day. In chronic cases marked improvement is said to have taken +place after the continued injection of mallein in doses of ¹⁄₂₀ to ¹⁄₁₅ +c.c. at intervals of two or three days.</p> + +<p>Tetanus, often called lockjaw, is due to the poison produced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> by +certain bacilli, which were first isolated by Kitasato, Tizzoni, +and Cattani, in 1889. The micro-organisms are delicate threads with +somewhat rounded ends, which reproduce by sporing. When the bacilli are +about to spore one end becomes enlarged, and the organism resembles a +pin or a drumstick. The spores are extremely tenacious of life, they +resist the effect of high temperatures for an unusual length of time, +they survive a temporary immersion in strong antiseptic solutions, and +they have been known to retain their vitality for more than twelve +months if they are protected from light and air. The parent bacilli are +widely distributed in garden earth, in dust, and in the excrement of +animals, especially in those of the horse, for this animal seems to be +their natural host. They have been found, therefore, in stables and in +manured fields, and they have the power of growing outside the body.</p> + +<p>During their growth the bacilli produce a powerful poison, which +is formed so slowly that it may take two or three weeks to produce +its full effects. This poison is formed at the seat of inoculation, +for the bacilli do not seem to travel far from the place where they +are introduced, and it is generated more rapidly and abundantly in +suppurating than in aseptic wounds. It produces its effect by a +definite action upon the nervous system, and probably travels through +the circulation, though there is still some doubt whether it does not +reach the spinal cord by way of the nerves, so definite are some of +its early effects. Tetanic symptoms can be produced by the inoculation +of toxins, which have been purified of bacilli, and mice appear to be +especially susceptible to the disease thus produced.</p> + +<p>It will be clear from what has been said that tetanus is by no means +rare. It may ensue from a wound at any part of the body, the wound +varying in severity from a total crush to a slight abrasion which +has passed unnoticed, and the case is then looked upon as one of +spontaneous origin. It is especially frequent after injuries of parts +which are usually dirty, and is consequently somewhat more common after +wounds of the hands and feet. Though gardeners, horse keepers, and +agricultural labourers often suffer, I have repeatedly seen cases in +people who have been run over, and inoculated with the foul mud of an +ill-kept London street. Horses, sheep, and cattle are also liable to +infection. But on the whole tetanus has become less frequent, since an +attempt has been made to keep wounds aseptic, or at any rate to shorten +the process of suppuration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span></p> + +<p>The onset of the disease is usually marked by a feeling of general +uneasiness and depression, unless the wound is too severe to allow +of this manifestation. The first symptoms usually consist of a +feeling of stiffness or soreness about the jaws and throat, with +some tonic contraction of the platysma-myoides, causing the <i>risus +sardonicus</i>, which is particularly well marked when the patient is +asked to protrude the tongue. Spasms of greater or less severity then +occur in the voluntary muscles, the pain varying greatly in different +patients, though it is usually less than that of ordinary cramp. The +muscles, especially those of the abdominal wall, are in a state of +persistent tension in the intervals between the attacks, the tension +being reduced to a minimum during sleep or anæsthesia produced by +artificial means. The intellect remains undisturbed unless there is +much fever. Death takes place from exhaustion as early as the third +day in acute cases, but it is often postponed for a fortnight or three +weeks.</p> + +<p>The prognosis seems to vary with the rapidity of onset, for the +mortality is great when the incubation is under ten days, whilst nearly +half the patients recover if the symptoms do not appear for more than a +fortnight after the injury.</p> + +<p>The treatment is largely prophylactic. A wound contracted under +suspicious circumstances, as when other cases of tetanus have occurred +in the same village or stable, should be immediately rendered aseptic +by a process of thorough cleansing. This is preferable to the use +of the actual cautery, which leads to suppuration, and thus tends +to increase the growth of the bacillus. When the initial symptoms +appear, the injured part must be removed, as the wound is a local +factory for the production of the nerve poison. Doses of antitoxin +must be administered by hypodermic injection, and I prefer to do this +by injecting it deeply into the gluteal muscles rather than into the +brain or subarachnoid space, as is now the custom. The maximum dose +of Tizzoni’s antitoxin is 40 c.c., which is equivalent to 2,500,000 +units. This large dose may be given at once, 5 c.c. injections being +afterwards given two or three times a day until the tonic contraction +of the muscles has disappeared. The antitoxin appears to cure the +slighter cases, and it produces a temporary relief in the most severe, +but all the severe cases I have seen have died in spite of treatment.</p> + +<p>Hydrophobia, the rabies of animals, is another form of poison acting +upon the spinal cord, to which huntsmen and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> stablemen are peculiarly +liable from the nature of their occupations. The pathology of the +disease, however, is much less clearly understood than in the case of +tetanus. Dogs, foxes, wolves, and cats; horses, cows, and deer, may +contract rabies and transmit it to man by the saliva, or more rarely by +the milk; whilst monkeys, rabbits, and guinea-pigs are susceptible to +infection. The latent period appears to vary enormously, as its limits +have been given as fourteen days to five years, though the ordinary +incubation period seems to be from three to six weeks, the length of +time depending upon the ease with which the poison reaches the nerve +sheaths, and passes along them to the nerve centres in the medulla and +upper part of the spinal cord. There is no doubt, however, that the +poison of rabies can be absorbed from the uninjured mucous membranes of +the body, especially from the conjunctivæ and the nasal mucous membrane.</p> + +<p>In the cases which I have seen the symptoms have been preceded by two +or three days of mental agitation and apprehension without apparent +cause. Hiccough and difficulty in swallowing were the earliest signs +of the disease, and these slight symptoms of undue reflex irritability +gradually increased until the whole body became convulsed, the +patient’s sufferings being increased by the viscid saliva, which he has +attempted in vain to expectorate. Death took place suddenly either from +cardiac failure or from spasm of the glottis.</p> + +<p>The Pasteur treatment offers the best chance of a cure to a person who +has been inoculated with rabies. Its success depends upon the fact +that the spinal cord of a rabbit dying of rabies contains the poison, +which becomes progressively less virulent after death, if the cord +be protected from decomposition by exposure to pure dry air, until +on the fifteenth day it is harmless, and a solution of the cord may +be injected into a susceptible animal without producing any effect. +Successive inoculations of an animal already infected show that it is +possible to establish a condition of complete tolerance, even for a +strong dose of the poison previously introduced, though the process +of inoculation has not been begun until five days or longer after the +bite. The Pasteur treatment at the present time consists of a series +of simple inoculations lasting fifteen days, during which emulsions +from cords of fourteen to three days’ desiccation are injected in doses +of 3 to 2 c.c. at a time under the skin of the abdomen. There is also +an “intensive”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> method, for more serious cases, such as the bite of +a mad wolf, or when the wounds have been on the face. In this method +the number of injections which are usually spread over five days is +compressed into three days, the whole duration of the treatment being +twenty-one days, a fresh series of injections being recommenced on the +fourteenth day. Certain modifications of Pasteur’s method have been +adopted, notably the use of an antirabic serum from the dog, prepared +by Babes of Bucharest, and an attenuated vaccine by a process of peptic +digestion, recommended by Tizzoni and Centanni.</p> + +<p>As anthrax or charbon, sometimes known as splenic fever or malignant +pustule, is considered elsewhere in this work, it is only necessary +to state that the disease is due to the <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>, +which is readily communicated from domestic animals to man. It is met +with in the following classes: (1) those who come into contact with +living animals suffering from anthrax, as drovers, shepherds, farmers, +farriers, and veterinary surgeons; (2) those who touch the carcasses +of animals that have died of anthrax, as knackers, slaughterers, and +others; (3) those who handle the offal, skins, hoofs, horns, hair, +wools, and other derivatives from such diseased animals, as tanners, +fell-mongers, wool-workers, hair-workers, horn-workers, rag-sorters, +plasterers, furriers, felt-workers, brush-workers, mattress-makers, and +so forth; (4) in those who have a less direct connection with infective +materials; as, for instance, those who live in the neighbourhood of +such manufactories or occupations, for the disease may be carried by +animals and insects; (5) anthrax has been transmitted from person to +person by accidental contact, and may be contracted at a post-mortem +examination upon a patient or animal who has died of the disease. +There is some reason for supposing that small meat-eaters are more +susceptible to anthrax than those who are accustomed to much animal +food.</p> + +<p>Influenza has long been known to occur in horses, and in several +epidemics the disease has been observed to spread from these animals to +their attendants. Mr Youatt first pointed out that influenza attacked +horses in very local epidemics, so that the majority of horses on +one side of a yard might be attacked, whilst there was not a single +sick horse on the other side. These prevalences and exceptions are +altogether unaccountable, but the probability of the disease is in +tenfold ratio to the number of horses inhabiting a stable. Two or three +shut up in a comparatively close stable would escape,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span> and out of +thirty distributed through ten or fifteen little stables, not one would +be affected. But in a stable containing ten or twelve horses, although +proportionately larger and better ventilated, the disease would +assuredly appear, and when it enters one of the largest stables almost +every horse is affected. Horsekeepers may also suffer from horsepox or +“grease,” a specific eruption transmissible from the horse to man, of +which further details are given at page 246.</p> + +<p>Much riding early in life may produce a condition of knock-knee or +bowed legs quite apart from rickets. Later in life, the tendon of the +adductor longus muscle at its point of origin below the spine of the +pubes, and more rarely the tendon of the adductor magnus, may become +partially calcified, leading to the condition known as “cavalryman’s +leg,” whilst the calcified portion is known as “rider’s bone.” A wrench +or sprain of the adductors, “rider’s sprain,” is not an uncommon +accident in the hunting-field. It leads to a very troublesome form of +chronic inflammation, which may quite prevent riding exercise, and has +proved the starting-point of a “rider’s bone.” “Rider’s bursæ” are +described as occurring in the fold of the groin and on the inner side +of the knee. They are probably enlargements of the ilio-psoas bursa or +of the bursæ situated between the semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus +tendons, or beneath the inner head of the gastrocnemius muscle, but I +have never seen cases of either occurring in riders, though they are +common enough in tuberculous patients. Popliteal aneurism is said to be +somewhat more common in jockeys and grooms than in other persons, and +these occupations lead also to an increased liability to fractures and +dislocations.</p> + + +<h3><i>Cattle.</i></h3> + +<p>(4) <i>Butchers, Slaughterers, and Tanners.</i>—Butchers and +slaughterers suffer from an undue tendency to diseases of the throat +and chest, because their occupation, at any rate in London, entails +very early rising to attend market, their shops are usually quite open, +and they are some of the few tradesmen who still cry their wares. +Their wounds are very likely to become poisoned, and as they are often +overfed and gross in habit, erysipelas is a common sequel of slight +injuries. Many porters from the Metropolitan Meat Market apply annually +at St Bartholomew’s Hospital for the relief of hernia and ruptured +muscles, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span> they attribute to the strains produced by carrying +heavy carcasses and to slipping on greasy pavements. The hospital +practice seems also to contain a considerable proportion of cases of +aneurism amongst the same class of men.</p> + +<p>It is said that the habit of eating tiny bits of raw meat from the +chopping block sometimes causes butchers to become infected with +the various parasitic worms, which can be transmitted in this way. +Their meat-eating and beer-drinking habits, coupled with a sedentary +occupation, must be held accountable for their obesity and for the +frequency with which they suffer from gout.</p> + +<p>I do not know whether tanners are liable to any special diseases except +anthrax, but in the business of leather-dressing which is carried on in +connection with tanning, the various eruptions produced by aniline dyes +are not uncommon, and there is some danger of arsenical poisoning from +the use of orpiment.</p> + +<p>(5) <i>Cowmen and Dairymaids.</i>—Cowmen and dairymaids in those +counties where they are brought into direct contact with cows +as milkmaids, are liable to several diseases by reason of their +occupations. Foremost amongst these, and of the greatest historical +interest, is vaccinia or cowpox, though it is quite a rare complaint in +English dairy farms.</p> + +<p>Vaccinia is a specific disorder occurring in epidemics amongst bovine +animals. It is transmissible to the goat, dog, ass, camel, rabbit, +guinea-pig, monkey, and with greater difficulty to the sheep. It +is characterised in the cow by a local eruption almost exclusively +confined to the udder and teats. The eruption passes through the +successive stages of papule, vesicle, and pustule, the number of pocks +always being few, and there is considerable constitutional disturbance. +The lymph from the vesicles of a cow suffering from pox is sometimes +inoculated on the hands of the milkers, when inflamed spots appear more +particularly about the joints and tips of the fingers. The spots become +vesicular, with a swollen, hard, and inflamed base. The axillary glands +become inflamed, and the disorder is attended with some constitutional +disturbance. An analogous condition in the horse is called “grease” +or horsepox, and inoculation of the horse with cowpox will produce +“grease.” Cowpox in bovine animals and “grease” in horses can also be +produced by inoculation with human smallpox. Both “grease” and cowpox +are transmissible to man by inoculation, both diseases render him to +a certain extent immune to smallpox, and both render him less liable +to a second attack of cowpox or horsepox. It appears<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span> therefore that +smallpox, cowpox, and horsepox are very closely allied to each other. +They may be identical, the features being modified by transmission +through different animals, or they may be descended from a common +disease which was more akin to cowpox than smallpox.</p> + +<p>Tuberculosis is so common a disease in cows that it is no wonder if +phthisis in their attendants sometimes derives its origin from a +diseased animal. The disease, however, is much more often carried by +the milk, and it is therefore a wise precaution to boil every drop +of cow’s milk for three minutes before it is given to a child or to +one who is predisposed to consumption. I have seen local tuberculosis +of the skin in one or two cases contracted by veterinary surgeons in +the course of their duties. Free excision of the affected part has +always been followed by prompt healing, and I have never known of any +generalisation.</p> + +<p>Diphtheria is sometimes carried by milk, the infection being derived +either by accidental contamination or from the cow itself. The symptoms +of diphtheria in the cow are those of “chapped teats,” viz., rise of +temperature and an eruption on the udder and teats. The eruption begins +as vesicles, which pass rapidly into pustules, scabs, or ulcers. When +the disease is transmitted in this manner the cream and skim milk +appear to be more dangerous than the new milk, probably because the +organisms have a longer time to grow. Pigeons, turkeys, and cats have +also been credited with the power of conveying diphtheria, and in the +case of cats the accusation is proved.</p> + +<p>There is good reason, too, for thinking that cows suffer from scarlet +fever, and that the disease is transmitted by their milk, for in no +other way is it possible to account for local epidemics of scarlet +fever which have been traced to large dairy farms.</p> + +<p>Cows certainly suffer from ringworm, and the tinea is transferred to +those who lean their heads against them in the act of milking.</p> + +<p>Foot and mouth disease is highly contagious amongst ruminants and pigs. +It has often been transmitted to man, usually by the milk of cows +suffering from the disease, sometimes by the butter, but most often +by direct contact with diseased beasts. Milkmaids, cowmen, shepherds, +and veterinary surgeons are thus especially liable to infection. The +disease, as it occurs in man, is ushered in by rigors, diarrhœa, and +some rise of temperature. On the second or third day a vesicular +eruption appears on the gums and tongue, and it may also occur on +the fingers or other seat of inoculation.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span> Fortunately the disease +as it occurs in man is not serious, and recovery usually takes place +spontaneously in the course of a fortnight.</p> + +<p>Actinomycosis.—This disease is sometimes derived by inoculation +from cattle affected with the fungus, but it comes more often from +infected grain. The symptoms are those of a chronic abscess affecting +the skin, mucous membranes, or viscera, especially the lungs, liver, +and ileo-cæcal portion of the intestine, where it is liable to be +mistaken for appendicitis. It appears on the skin in the form of +numerous globular masses, which are soft and spongy, and have an +indurated erythematous base. Pus which contains the yellow granules +characteristic of the disease exudes from the ulcerating points. The +disease runs a very chronic course, which is shortened, and the patient +cured by enormous doses of iodide of potassium. Doses of a drachm may +be given three or four times a day, and the patient not only shows no +symptoms of iodism, but improves markedly in general health.</p> + +<p>(6) <i>Shepherds</i> suffer by reason of their occupation in two ways. +They are of necessity closely associated with dogs, and are thus more +liable to hydatids and rabies, whilst from the sheep they obtain +flukes, and in the process of dipping they may suffer from arsenical +poisoning.</p> + +<p>A hydatid is the asexual and cystic form of the <i>Tænia +echinococcus</i>, a small tapeworm consisting of three segments, found +in the intestines of dogs and wolves. The fertilised ova are swallowed +with impure water or with uncooked vegetables, like lettuce and +watercress, fouled by the excreta of infected dogs. The hydatid cyst +develops slowly in any part of the human body. It is most common in +the liver and intermuscular connective tissues, but it is not unusual +to find a hydatid cyst in the lungs, kidneys, pelvis, and brain, and +I have seen specimens in which the vertebræ and os innominatum were +involved. The symptoms are very obscure, and are usually dependent upon +the amount of pressure exercised by the tumour. There is sometimes a +characteristic hydatid thrill, but its absence does not invalidate the +diagnosis. For practical purposes the cyst is composed of two layers, +an external or adventitious covering formed by irritation from the +tissues of the host, and the soft and white but tough internal cyst, +filled with a limpid fluid, containing the characteristic hooklets. +The inner lining of this cyst develops daughter cysts by a process of +budding, though it is sometimes sterile.</p> + +<p>The treatment is essentially surgical. Whenever it is possible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span> the +tumour should be freely exposed, the fibrous cyst opened, the fluid +contents removed, and the whole endocyst withdrawn. The edges of the +ectocyst may then be sutured, and the external wound closed if union +by first intention can be practically guaranteed. But if there is any +doubt as to the probability of securing asepsis it is better to free +the edges of the outer cyst from its attachment to the surrounding +organs, and then suture it to the sides of the external opening without +including the skin. The cavity usually has to be plugged after the +removal of a hydatid from the liver.</p> + +<p>It is not supposed that the liver fluke, or <i>Distoma hepaticum</i>, +is transmitted from the sheep to man, as is the hydatid from the +dog to the man, but it is probable that the shepherd has become +the involuntary host of the distoma in the same way as the sheep, +by drinking water containing the amphibious snail (<i>Limnæus +trunculatus</i>), which is the true intermediate host of the liver +fluke in the sheep. This trematode worm has been found in subcutaneous +abscesses more often than in the human liver. The treatment, when +possible, consists in opening the abscess and thoroughly scraping out +its contents, for they show a great tendency to refill.</p> + +<p><i>Pig-keepers.</i>—It does not appear that pig-keepers suffer from +any particular diseases by reason of their occupation. It is possible +that where only a few animals are kept and are afterwards eaten by +the owners there may be some increased liability to trichiniasis, +which is an inflammatory state of the voluntary muscles due to the +irritation produced by the presence of the nematode worm, <i>Trichina +spiralis</i>. I recently saw a young lady who was suffering from a +chronic trichinosis. She had numerous hard masses beneath the skin of +her legs, which were locally irritable when they first appeared, though +they soon ceased to give trouble. At first it was thought that the +tumours were multiple fibromata, but on cutting one out and submitting +it to microscopic examination it was found to contain encapsuled +trichinæ.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">D’Arcy Power.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVI<br> +<span class="subhed">ELECTRIC GENERATING WORKS</span></h2></div> + +<p>This article is simply an attempt to apply expert knowledge to the +practical purpose of safe-guarding those employed in electrical works. +The writer was a member of the Home Office Committee on Dangerous +Trades, and of necessity much that now appears is a repetition of what +was presented by that Committee in its Second Interim Report in 1897. +It is satisfactory to record that many of the suggestions offered by +the Committee have been accepted without hesitation and acted upon.</p> + +<p>The generation and distribution of electrical energy, so far as it +relates to the health and safety of the workers, may be considered +under the following heads:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The risk of shock by accidentally coming in contact with +conductors at high pressure, whether in generating or transformer +stations.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The fencing of all mill-gearing and machinery used for the +conversion of mechanical into electrical energy.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The health of the operatives.</p> + +<p>Before dealing with these specific points it may be desirable to +state in general terms what is meant by “generating and transformer +stations.” A generating station is a place in which, by the aid of +steam, gas, water, or other source of power, mechanism is used for +driving dynamos, which are machines for converting mechanical into +electrical energy, whether for producing light, driving machinery, +running railways, tramcars; for depositing metals, plating, welding, +heating, etc., etc., or for charging storage batteries.</p> + +<p>Transformer stations vary in size from buildings of considerable +proportions to mere cellars, or even boxes too small for entry. In such +places are found appliances for the conversion of small current at +high pressure to large current at low pressure, or <i>vice versâ</i>. +Stationary transformers are used for alternating currents, while rotary +converters or transformers, requiring more room and attention, are +necessary for direct currents.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p> + +<p>To appreciate the risks hereafter described, a statement in the most +elementary terms now follows, showing how mechanism can produce the +foregoing results.</p> + +<p>A conductor of electricity, <i>e.g.</i>, a piece of copper wire made +to traverse a magnetic field (that is, the space between the poles +of a magnet), has an electro-motive force, or difference of electric +pressure, set up in its ends, which depends upon its length in the +field, its velocity, and the strength of the field, being in fact +proportionate to the product of these three. As the movement cannot +continue in a limited field in one direction indefinitely, it must be +reversed, thus causing a reversal in the electrical state of the ends. +If the ends slide on stationary conductors, these too will share the +electrical state of the ends, and alternating current will pass between +these stationary conductors if they are joined by a conducting wire. +This current will be greater as the difference of pressure is greater +and as the electrical resistance of the conducting circuit is less. +In order to increase the effect of a moving conductor, its length may +be increased by suitable windings, the arrangement of which, however, +cannot be described in these pages. The effectiveness, moreover, is +enormously increased by winding over a laminated iron core, which +greatly increases the magnetic force. If, instead of connecting the +ends to sliding contact rings from which an alternating current is +taken off by stationary contact brushes, the ends of a number of coils +are joined to a series of insulated commutator bars, it is possible by +suitable connections so to arrange that all the coils remain in action +and that the points of the commutator rubbed by the fixed conducting +brushes do not change in their electrical pressure, so that a direct +(<i>i.e.</i>, non-alternating) current is the result. This is desirable +for arc lighting, and is essential for charging batteries and generally +for effecting chemical change.</p> + +<p>Dynamos of many forms are made. Sometimes the field magnets revolve, +the armature being stationary, but usually the reverse is the case. +In some machines there are two poles only, in others, many. The main +principle, however, is the same in all.</p> + +<p>When the direction of the current is not commutated, it will, in +consequence of the rapid revolution of the armature, alternate or +change its direction very frequently, 100 alternations in a second +being not uncommon. The currents produced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span> may be classed as low +pressure, high pressure, and extra high pressure. Currents at low +pressure distributed from generating stations are invariably direct. +High pressure currents are distributed either as direct or alternating. +One, if not more, extra high pressure station in Great Britain supplies +alternating current.</p> + +<p>Opinions differ as to the pressure at which these currents become +dangerous. The recommendation made by the Committee before referred +to was to the effect that currents should be considered dangerous at +700 volts direct, and 350 alternating; and that all metal conductors +carrying a current equal to or greater than this should be deemed to +be at high pressure. It is from currents at high pressure that we may +expect special danger to life from shocks caused by parts of the body +coming in contact with conductors differing considerably in pressure, +not necessarily metal conductors, for one contact may be with earth, +especially if the ground is damp. American experts have laid down that +the pressure which may be relied upon to cause death is 1500 volts. +According to this standard, the Home Office Committee would appear to +have erred on the side of extreme caution. Subsequent events, however, +have proved that this is hardly the case. Possibilities fore-shadowed +in section 19 of its report have almost literally been realised in a +large factory at Bradford, where a lad, aged nineteen, engaged in doing +repairs, came in contact with a frame of an arc lamp. He was working +in a warm cellar, his boots were damp, and, unhappily, he stood upon +an earthed metal plate. The frame of the lamp accidentally touched +formed part of the circuit. A leakage from the positive brush to the +dynamo-frame, which was earthed, created a short circuit between the +frame of the dynamo and the frame of the lamp, the man forming a part +of the circuit. A direct current, of 250 volts only, passed through +his feet, probably through his heart, causing death. It is much to +be regretted that artificial respiration, as recommended by eminent +authorities and described in the report of the Committee, was not +attempted. An article published in <i>Nature</i> of 23rd August 1900, +gives in detail a description of experiments carried out by Professor +H. F. Weber, of the Zurich Polytechnic, to decide what pressure is +dangerous on electric railways with overhead trolley wires. These +experiments were undertaken owing to a dissension,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span> between a firm +of electrical engineers and the Baden authorities, as to the proper +pressure to be used for two electric railways to be worked by the +3-phase alternating current. The details showing the physiological +effects on the human body are highly interesting, Professor Weber +allowing himself to be the medium of the experiments, and constituting +himself the measuring instrument. Two series of experiments were made. +In the first, a person seized the two bare leads with both hands +simultaneously, or both of the leads fell upon a bare part of the human +body. In the second, a bare part of a person standing on the railway, +or on a car, came into contact with one of the leads. Professor Weber +draws the following conclusions:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A simultaneous touching of both of the poles of an alternating +current circuit is dangerous as soon as the pressure exceeds 100 +volts; and since it is impossible to set one’s self free, the +case must be regarded as fatal whenever immediate help is not at +hand.”</p> +</div> + +<p>“These results,” continues the article, “are consistent with several +disasters which have happened in practical life.</p> + +<p>“In 1896, in Horgen (Switzerland), a man, to prevent himself falling +from a ladder, seized with both his hands two non-insulated leads with +a P.D. of 240 volts between them, and was immediately killed. In a mine +in Silesia, a workman seized in the same manner some non-insulated +leads and was killed, on account of his being unable to release them, +the P.D. being 300 volts. In the Electric Central Station in Olten, +a workman, desirous of proving to his companions that a pressure of +500 volts was quite safe, seized both of the leads and was killed +instantly. From this it is obvious that the general opinion of a +pressure of 500 volts not being dangerous does not hold good, the limit +being much lower. In spite of the great number of disasters which have +already happened, the danger does not seem to have been generally +appreciated, and workmen and erectors are often seen to deal with leads +and apparatus of relatively high pressures in the most careless manner. +That disasters have not taken place oftener may be due to the fact that +in most cases help has been readily at hand.”</p> + +<p>In the second series of experiments the person is supposed to stand on +one of the poles itself, namely, the earth, being rather well insulated +by means of his shoes. In this case the conclusion arrived at is that—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“To touch one of the poles is not dangerous as long as the +pressure does<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> not exceed about 1000 volts; the intense +stinging which appears at the first slight touching serves as +a protection against the danger, for the hand is instinctively +drawn back rapidly.</p> + +<p>“The main result of these experiments is, then, that all +pressures between 100 and 1000 volts must be regarded as equally +dangerous, and consequently there is no reason for not using the +higher pressures between 500 and 1000 volts, especially as they +lead to greater economy in the working of the electric railway. +Further, there is only a very little chance of the passengers +or other persons coming into contact with both of the leads. To +this danger the employés only are exposed, and being generally +people with some electric training, they are acquainted with the +danger, and may be supposed to be sufficiently careful.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is of interest to note that the authorities, after the +investigation, decided upon allowing a working pressure of 750 volts. +Both series of experiments relate to alternating currents.</p> + +<p>There is perhaps no better method of impressing upon people the dangers +of electric shock than by stating briefly, as under, some of the fatal +accidents that have happened during the last few years in electrical +stations, factories, and other places in the United Kingdom. Fatalities +in transformer stations will be separately noticed. The voltages in +most cases were from 2000 to 2400; in one case 1000, and in another (a +high pressure station) 10,000:—</p> + +<p>1. Touching exposed terminals when manipulating a switch at a +generating station.</p> + +<p>2. Accidentally grasping an insufficiently protected volt meter wire.</p> + +<p>3. When up a ladder in a central station, deceased accidentally came in +contact with a highly charged metal conductor.</p> + +<p>4. When oiling the bearing of an alternating machine, and using a metal +can, the can came in contact with a highly charged conductor. Deceased +had one hand on a metal rail intended for the protection of the +machinery. The current passed through the metal can, through his body, +and thence to earth.</p> + +<p>5. When doing repairs at the back of a switch at a central station, +deceased accidentally touched two metallic connections varying greatly +in pressure.</p> + +<p>6. When a workman was carrying an iron ladder in a factory the ladder +touched a highly charged conductor in an arc lamp circuit, the current +passing to earth through the body of deceased.</p> + +<p>7. Whilst performing test operations at an electrical station.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p> + +<p>8. An operative was putting some capping on a casing in an electric +lighting works. Inadvertently he drove a screw through the insulation +of a cable then “dead.” The current was turned on. The operative +touched the screw head and at the same time an adjacent water-pipe. The +current passed from the screw through his body and the water-pipe to +earth. (A brother of this man was killed in a transformer chamber.)</p> + +<p>9. An operative, when at work in a factory, accidentally stumbled, and +seized hold of a wire stay supporting a pole of an arc lamp. There must +have been a defect in the insulation, and this stay was highly charged, +the man being killed instantaneously.</p> + +<p>10. When covering wires leading to a switch, deceased fell across the +terminals of one of the machines.</p> + +<p>11. By accidentally touching a synchronising switch in a generating +station when doing repairs. The current passed through deceased’s body +to an iron column that he happened to be touching at the same time.</p> + +<p>12. A boy employed in a large steel factory accidentally came in +contact with the frame of an arc lamp lowered for the purpose of +recarbonising.</p> + +<p>13. An operative employed in ironworks accidentally touched a wire used +for raising and lowering an electric arc lamp. He was found on his back +in a weighing-cabin. Another workman thought that he was in a fit, and +went to his assistance. Both men received fatal shocks.</p> + +<p>14. At an extra high pressure generating station an operative was found +dead on the floor. Medical evidence tended to show the difficulty of +stating with certainty whether the man died from shock or from heart +disease. The coroner’s jury, however, found that death was due to +asphyxia produced by electric shock.</p> + +<p>Our attention may now be turned to fatalities in transformer stations, +or boxes in which alternating currents at high pressure are converted +to large currents at low pressure. A dangerous pressure is found in +the main conductors, this being reduced by causing induced current in +the consumer’s circuit, the strength depending upon the proportion of +the windings in the primary and the secondary circuits, the secondary +being in no way metallically connected with the high pressure main. +Under these circumstances, and under normal conditions, the safety of +the consumer should be secured. That, unhappily, cannot be said so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span> far +as relates to the workers, whose duties take them near the transforming +apparatus. It is undesirable to give names, places, or dates, but the +following brief summary of fatal accidents that have happened during +recent years in transformer stations may be relied upon as being +generally accurate. Many non-fatal accidents have happened, but these +are not noticed.</p> + +<p>1. Attempting to assist a servant of an electrical company, who was +working in a cellar on the consumer’s premises, and who received a +severe but not fatal shock.</p> + +<p>2. Killed when pulling back the slack of a main wire in a street +surface-box.</p> + +<p>3. Accidental contact with undischarged and unfenced omnibus bar in +high pressure distributing station.</p> + +<p>4. A second accident of the same kind as the last foregoing, and at the +same station.</p> + +<p>5. Killed when dusting a high pressure fuse in a cellar transformer.</p> + +<p>6. Contact with dangerously placed terminals at a transformer chamber +in a cellar.</p> + +<p>7. Accidentally touching a high pressure terminal when cleaning or +repairing in a street transformer chamber.</p> + +<p>8. Touching a highly charged transformer frame in a street chamber. +Defective insulation in the main conductor led to leakage and to the +frame becoming highly charged.</p> + +<p>9. When descending by an iron ladder to a street transformer chamber, +the operative came in contact with a highly charged frame of a +transformer.</p> + +<p>10. Two workmen were removing a transformer from a corporation +sub-station. They accidentally put on a wrong switch. The exposed ends +of the cable, which were in contact with the transformer frame, caused +the frame to become highly charged. Two men touching the frame were +killed, others were seriously injured.</p> + +<p>11. A workman, when making a connection in a corporation sub-station, +came in contact with the bared ends of a highly charged cable.</p> + +<p>12. Killed by grasping an imperfectly insulated connection in a street +transformer pit.</p> + +<p>Such accidents are not confined to operatives. The following are known +to have been due to electric shock. At Bournemouth, ’bus horses outside +a hotel fell down dead. At Norwich, dogs that passed a certain spot +uttered an unearthly howl. At Hartlepool<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> an overhead wire broke, +killing a horse. Two cabmen who came to the rescue received severe +shocks. The <i>Matin</i> of 27th January 1897 describes how two horses +were suddenly struck down by the current from a subterranean cable used +for running an electrical tram. In Dublin a gentleman was standing +close to an electric lamp in the street, which he states paralysed +him, causing him to fall “like a lump of lead.” Others going to his +assistance received shocks similar to those of the two cabmen at +Hartlepool. The <i>Melbourne Argus</i> records a fatality to a young +man who climbed a pole supporting a heavily charged wire, which he +touched. “This,” says the <i>Argus</i>, “is not the first terrible +accident which has happened in connection with the lighting of the city +and suburbs. At the Richmond works of the New Australian Electric Light +Company, whose wires were concerned in Saturday’s fatality, a workman +or overseer was killed instantaneously through touching a “live” wire. +Another, who was engaged in the A. U. Alcock works in the city was +more fortunate. He seized a wire with one hand to prevent himself from +falling, and was so seriously shocked by the current that he could +not let go. Another workman, observing his predicament, cut the wire, +and he fell to the ground. A third and even more remarkable case than +the others occurred some time ago in Russell Street. There had been a +violent storm, and a post carrying electric lighting wires had been +blown to the ground. In the fall some of the wires broke and trailed +across the footway. A pedestrian idly picked up the end of one of the +broken wires. In a moment he was kicking and plunging upon the ground, +unable to release his hold of the wire. Another pedestrian, who saw +the accident, and who recognised that it was a struggle with death, +hastened to the rescue, and attempted with all his strength and both +his hands to drag the first man into safety. His good heart cost him +his life.”</p> + +<p>Enough has been said to show that a shock, whether from a direct or an +alternating current at high pressure, is highly dangerous to life, many +authorities being of opinion that the alternating is the more deadly +current of the two.</p> + +<p>Where a direct current is transformed, it is done by mechanical +appliances. The risks to operatives in such a case include those that +are incurred where machinery is left unguarded; but in dealing with +alternating currents no mechanism is used, and the risk is confined +to the danger from shock. The cases quoted show, better than detailed +explanations, the manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span> in which these shocks are received, and it +cannot be out of place to urge the importance of insisting on all known +precautionary measures for the protection of those whose duties take +them into transformer stations. The number of such places increases +year by year, and they are likely to increase to a greater extent in +these days, when induction motors, driven by alternating currents, +are so rapidly coming in favour for running machinery in factories. +Modern science has shown that the alternating current can be used in +this manner, and that by substituting the alternating for the direct +current, power may be economically conveyed for considerable distances, +the advantages of the alternating current being the ready conversion of +high to low pressure, and hence the saving of copper in the conducting +wires, the further saving of the cost of brushes and commutators, +whilst the absence of “sparking” lessens the risk of fire, and the +non-handling of brushes, etc., reduces the danger of shock. These +advantages were referred to and summarised in the report of Mr Bremner +Davis, reproduced in the Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for +the year 1898.</p> + +<p>Science has not yet explained what is the mystic force known as +“electricity.” Its effects, however, are known. How the human system is +affected by contact with a conductor charged with electricity at high +pressure has been fully considered by eminent scientific men, such as +Drs D’Arsonval, Goelet, Hedley, and Lewis Jones, to whom the public +are indebted for suggestions on which were based the excellent rules +published by the <i>Electrical Review</i>, for dealing with apparent +death from electric shock. A copy of these suggestions is appended, and +one should be found and understood in all places where electricity is +used.</p> + +<p>The highly interesting question as to how death from electric shock +is caused, is ably dealt with by Professor Thomas Oliver, who in +an article published in the <i>British Medical Journal</i> of 15th +January 1898, placed the public in possession of knowledge gained by +experiments and long and careful study. He believes that electricity +kills either by suddenly arresting respiration, or by stopping the +heart’s action. A series of experiments carried out by him showed +that in most instances the effect of the electric shock was felt +principally by the heart. This organ immediately ceased to beat where +very high pressure currents were used, whilst breathing might continue +a few minutes longer. Within the last few months, Drs Prevost and +Battelli, of the Geneva University, have instituted a fresh series +of experiments, and they have found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> that whether the direct or the +alternating current is used, death comes, practically speaking, in +the manner stated by Dr Oliver, viz., by paralysis of the heart. Dogs +were in this way immediately killed, and yet the breathing continued +for a few minutes afterwards. When fairly high voltages were employed, +<i>e.g.</i> 550 volts, these experimenters found that the heart was +suddenly arrested by one shock, and that, while the breathing was +at the same time suspended for a few seconds, respiration gradually +returned in a feeble and superficial manner, and soon finally ceased.</p> + +<p>After all, the main question is, how to avoid death from electricity; +and the obvious reply is, avoid shock. This is no simple matter, but +to some extent a solution is found in the recommendations made by the +Home Office Committee, which were largely based upon the opinions of +Professor C. V. Boys (a member of the Committee), and other eminent +electricians. These recommendations are here reproduced in appendix +form. In the light, however, of fresh experience showing that an +artisan working in a factory was killed by direct current at 250 volts, +prudence may hereafter suggest that precautions should be taken in +places where the voltage is lower than that named by the report.</p> + +<p>The operatives engaged in electrical works do not appear to be subject +to any exceptional risks so far as health is concerned; but those +who work where plates for storage-batteries are manufactured, or who +subsequently manipulate the plates, are liable to suffer from plumbism. +Special Rules founded upon the recommendations of the Home Office +Committee appointed in 1893, and known as the “White Lead Committee,” +were issued by the Home Office. These apply to electric accumulator +works, and require the provision of bath and lavatory accommodation, +hot and cold water, soap, brushes, towels, respirators, and overall +suits for persons employed in mixing dry red lead and dry litharge, and +gloves and aprons for persons engaged in “rubbing,” that is, rubbing +red lead into the interstices of the lead plates.</p> + +<p>Rooms in which accumulator batteries are found are always +well-ventilated, preventing any undue accumulation of oxygen and +hydrogen gas given off during the charging process, but in electric +launches or tramcars, where the accumulator cells are shut up in +confined spaces, dangerous explosions have taken place.</p> + +<p>So far as the fencing of machinery and mill-gearing used in the +generation of electricity is concerned, common sense points to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span> +precautions being taken, such as are required in all factories. All +dangerous mill-gearing, such as cranks and fly-wheels of engines, +shafting, wheels, drums, pulleys, etc., for communicating the first +moving power to the machines, should be securely fenced. In doing this, +however, special care should be observed lest in removing one source +of danger another may be created. In ordinary factories fencing-rails +are almost universally of metal. These rails in generating stations +should be of wood or other insulating material; for should, perchance, +an operative make an accidental contact with metal at high pressure in +the circuit, at the same time touching any part of a metal rail, the +current would pass through his body to earth, always assuming that the +rails are not sufficiently insulated from the earth. Such accidents +have happened, and are liable to occur again, to men engaged in oiling +bearings, adjusting brushes, cleaning commutators, collector-rings, +etc., the risk of course being increased should any defect in +insulation cause the current to run to frame. Terrible fatalities +due to unfenced machinery have occurred in generating stations, as +in other works, none more painful perhaps than one that happened to +an engine-driver at an Electric Supply Company’s works, who, when +examining bearings, fell into some part of the machinery driven by a +7000 horse-power engine, and was torn to pieces.</p> + +<p>As time goes on, there appears to be a fuller realisation of the +dangers incurred, and it is not too much to expect that those in +positions of responsibility will heartily co-operate with public +officials in taking precautions suggested by prudence and common sense.</p> + + +<h3>APPENDIX I.</h3> + +<p>The following recommendations were made by the Dangerous Trades +Committee of the Home Office. For the purposes of these regulations +a station where the direct current generated is at 700 volts or any +higher number, or where the alternating current generated is at 350 +volts or any higher number, shall be considered a “high pressure +station,” and all metal conductors, whether they be on the dynamos, +the switchboard, the mains, or any other part of the station carrying +a current at a pressure equal to or greater than that above mentioned, +shall be deemed to be at “high pressure.”</p> + +<p>The Committee recommend that the following regulations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span> should be +applied in all those cases mentioned in paragraph 1 where electricity +at high pressure is in use. It is not intended that they should be +applied to low pressure systems:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. The frames and bed plates of all generating machines shall be +efficiently connected to earth.</p> + +<p>2. The rails fencing dynamos, or other generating machines, +shall be made of wood or other non-conducting material.</p> + +<p>3. All terminals, collecting brushes, main connectors, parts of +dynamos, motors or other appliances, to which neither Regulation +No. (6) nor No. (7) applies, shall be so placed, covered, or +fenced with non-conducting materials, that no person can touch +accidentally, either with his body, clothing, or any conducting +tool, two parts differing from each other by an amount which +constitutes a high pressure. This rule is to be read in +connection with No. 4.</p> + +<p>4. The floors of all places where it would be possible to make +connection with metal at high pressure shall be covered with +an insulating mat of suitable material and kept in a state of +efficient insulation.</p> + +<p>5. The material use for wiping or cleaning the commutator strips +or collector rings of dynamos, motors, or rotary converters of +any form shall be applied by means of an insulating handle.</p> + +<p>6. In switchrooms and on the front of switchboards, the main +switches, main fuses, main terminals, omnibus bars, and all +other metallic parts shall be insulated or arranged in such +manner as to render it impossible for any person by accident or +inadvertence to touch them.</p> + +<p>7. The backs of all switchboards shall be kept closed, except +for the purpose of alterations or repairs. When such work +has to be carried on either at the back or at the front of +switchboards, the following regulations shall apply:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot1"> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>a</i>) No person except a skilled electrician, or a +workman under his personal and immediate supervision, +shall be employed when any part is at high pressure.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>b</i>) No extensive or serious repairs shall be +executed upon metal which is at high pressure.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>c</i>) Where the alterations or repairs are not of +an extensive or serious character, all metallic parts at +high pressure shall be covered with an insulating cap or +protected by some form of insulating covering, only one +part, or several at the same pressure, to be exposed at +any one time.</p> +</div> + +<p>8. All switchboards erected after the application of these Rules +shall have, at the back, a clear space of at least four feet. +This space shall not be utilised as a store room or lumber room, +or be obstructed in any manner.</p> + +<p>9. Any person at work upon a cable or portion of the mains under +high pressure shall wear indiarubber gloves on both hands.</p> + +<p>10. All aerial high pressure conductors in factories or +workshops shall either be insulated over their entire length, +and supported at such frequent intervals that, in the event +of breakage, they shall not come within reach at places where +persons are liable to pass or to be employed, or shall be so +placed and arranged as to comply with the requirements relating +to such wires in streets enjoined by the Board of Trade.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span></p> + +<p>11. The gloves shall be supplied by the occupier, and it shall +be the duty of the manager to see that they are in a proper +state of repair, and are worn by the workpeople.</p> + +<p>12. No examinations, repairs, or alterations necessitating the +handling of mains, wires, machines, or other apparatus, shall be +carried on except in cases of urgent necessity while such parts +are under high pressure, and all such work shall be done under +the personal supervision of an electrical engineer or competent +manager or foreman.</p> + +<p>13. Where operations are being conducted upon mains from which +the current has been cut off, the switch shall be locked and +precautions taken that it shall not be unlocked except by the +person in charge of the station on his being satisfied that the +danger is at an end.</p> + +<p>14. Every vessel used for lubricating purposes shall be so +constructed that it cannot act as a conductor between the hand +and anything touched.</p> + +<p>15. Metal transformer boxes shall be efficiently connected to +earth, and so constructed that in the event of “running to +frame” the earth connection will not be broken by the removal of +the fuse box or any other part of the box.</p> + +<p>16. Transformer cases, iron ladders, and all permanent metallic +parts contained within the transformer chamber, and not forming +part of the electric circuit, shall be metallically connected +together.</p> + +<p>17. All holes in transformer cases, through which high pressure +conductors pass, shall be lined or bushed with suitable and +effective non-conducting material.</p> + +<p>18. All high pressure connections within a transformer chamber +shall be so protected with insulating material that it shall be +impossible to touch them.</p> + +<p>19. Switches which can be conveniently operated from the outside +for cutting off both the high and low pressure connections of +the transformers shall be fitted in all transformer chambers +erected after the application of these Rules, and in all +existing chambers, unless it is proved to the satisfaction +of Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Factories that such an +arrangement would be attended by special difficulty.</p> + +<p>20. Each post or support where series arc lighting is employed +shall be provided with means for completely disconnecting the +arc lamps from the mains, without disturbing the action of the +other lamps.</p> + +<p>21. All persons engaged in electrical works shall be made fully +aware of the dangerous parts of the machinery, cables, and their +connections, and shall be practically instructed in methods of +artificial respiration—that known as Sylvester’s is both simple +and efficacious. Rules for artificial respiration, and for the +restoration of persons apparently killed or injured, shall at +all times be kept affixed in the station. All persons engaged +in the works shall thoroughly understand these rules and be +capable of putting them into practice. In the event of a person +being rendered unconscious by an electric shock, artificial +respiration shall, on the careful removal of the body from its +electrical contact, be at once resorted to, and a qualified +medical man immediately summoned.</p> + +<p>22. All accidents occurring in generating stations or +transformer chambers shall be notified according to the +provision of section 18 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1895.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>The Committee feel that any set of special rules framed for +the safety of the workpeople in this industry must imperfectly +realise their object if a specially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> qualified person be not +retained to advise the Secretary of State or Her Majesty’s Chief +Inspector of Factories on matters requiring technical knowledge +of electricity.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="smcap">H. J. Tennant.</li> + <li class="smcap">May Tennant.</li> + <li class="smcap">Thomas Oliver, M.D.</li> + <li class="smcap">C. V. Boys.</li> + <li class="smcap">H. P. Smith.</li> +</ul> +</div> +</div> + + +<h3>APPENDIX II.</h3> + +<p><i>The “Electrical Review’s” Suggestions for dealing with Apparent +Death from Electric Shock.</i></p> + +<p>The following suggestions are based on the recommendations of Drs +D’Arsonval, Goelet, Hedley, and Lewis Jones, for the treatment of +persons apparently killed by electricity:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Apparent Death.</i>—In many cases where persons receive +electric shocks, death is only apparent, and animation may be +restored if efforts at resuscitation are not too long delayed.</p> + +<p><i>Method of Resuscitation.</i>—The method of resuscitation +resorted to should be that known as artificial respiration.</p> + +<p>Efforts to induce respiration should not be relaxed until +breathing is fully and normally restored, or until it is +absolutely certain that life is extinct.</p> + +<p><i>Danger of Seizing the Victim’s Body.</i>—If the accident has +been due to contact with a “live” or faulty cable, the injured +person may retain a grasp of it. When the injured person retains +his hold of the cable it is dangerous to seize any part of him, +even the parts of the body covered by clothes.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> + +<p>Perspiration may make the clothes damp and render them good +conductors, especially under the armpits, which would be the +part most likely to be seized.</p> + +<p>In such a case the person who goes to the assistance of the +victim should protect his hands, whenever possible, with +indiarubber gloves.</p> + +<p>Where gloves are not available, a thick layer of dry rags might +be used to cover the hands, or a coat or any other garment, if +made into a thick pad, might be used when pulling the victim +away from the cable or machinery.</p> + +<p><i>Send for a Medical Man at once.</i>—No time should be lost +in sending for a qualified medical man, but in the meantime the +following efforts should be made to restore animation.</p> + +<p><i>How to Place the Body.</i>—The body should be at once placed +upon the back and the clothes loosened. A roll made of a coat +or anything else convenient should then be placed under the +shoulders. It should be sufficiently large to prop up the spine +so that the head drops backward (see Fig. 30).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p264"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p264.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center smcap">Fig. 30.</p> + </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p265"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p265.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center smcap">Fig. 31.</p> + </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Position of the Operator.</i>—The operator should kneel +behind the subject’s head, in the manner shown in the +illustrations. He should then grasp the elbows and draw them +well over the head, so as to bring them almost together above +it, and hold them there for two or three seconds. Then he should +carry them down to the sides and front of the chest, firmly +compressing the chest by throwing his weight upon the arms.</p> + +<p>After two or three seconds the arms should be again carried +above the head, and the operation repeated at the rate of about +16 times per minute.</p> + +<p><i>Additional Means of Resuscitation.</i>—In addition to the +foregoing, if there be an assistant at hand, the tongue should +be seized by a cloth or handkerchief and drawn forcibly out +during the act of inspiration, <i>i.e.</i>, when the arms are +extended above the head; when the arms are brought down, the +tongue should be allowed to recede. This operation should be +repeated with the same regularity as the movement of the arms.</p> + +<p><i>Stimulants to be Avoided.</i>—According to Dr Hedley the +efforts of the bystanders to pour stimulants down the throat of +the victim should be resisted until a medical man arrives.</p> + +<p><i>Necessity of Deliberation.</i>—It should be borne in mind +that to be successful the foregoing operations should be carried +out deliberately and methodically. There should be no haste, but +the operations should be executed vigorously.</p> + +<p>In many respects the treatment suggested above is similar to the +method of treating apparent death by drowning.</p> +</div> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Hamilton P. Smith.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVII<br> +<span class="subhed">DUST AS A CAUSE OF OCCUPATION DISEASE</span></h2></div> + +<h3><i>General View of the Subject.</i></h3> + + +<p>Were it not for dust, fume, or gas, there would be little or no disease +due to occupation except such as might be caused by infection, the +breathing of air poisoned by the emanations of fellow-workmen and +exposure to cold after working in overheated rooms. Dust plays such +a prominent part in the causation of occupation disease that I have +thought it advisable to discuss the subject in a general way <i>apart +from</i> the various industries detailed by separate writers. The +harmful effects of dusty trades have long been known. As far back as +the end of the seventeenth century, Ramazini, who was the Professor +of Medicine in Modena, and subsequently at Padua, had drawn attention +to this subject. He showed in his treatise, the <i>Diseases of +Artificers</i>, how ill-health was caused by the inhalation of subtle +particles that were offensive to human nature, and its aggravation by +the unnatural postures of the body assumed in certain occupations. He +also pleaded for the introduction of such contrivances as would lead to +the safety of the workmen and the necessity for their being medically +inspected. In these senses, therefore, he was the pioneer of the State +Medicine of our time.</p> + +<p>Apart from anything inherently poisonous in the dust that is given +off in a particular trade, dust itself, mechanically speaking, is +prejudicial to health. A considerable length of our respiratory +passages is lined with a layer of ciliated epithelial cells, +<i>i.e.</i>, cells from the free end of which project numerous +hair-like processes that execute a rhythmic bending movement, like +a field of wheat when a current of wind passes over it, and whose +function it is, owing to the cilia actively bending in an outward +direction, to prevent dust getting into the lungs, and to favour its +expulsion should it have gained access to the smaller bronchial tubes. +Nature, anticipating that dust would be drawn into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span> lungs in +inspiration, has therefore provided this means for making its access as +difficult as possible, and of effecting its removal when the breathing +of the dust is intermittent. When animals are exposed for a period to a +sooty atmosphere and are subsequently killed, their lungs are found to +be perfectly black, but if other animals, after similar exposure, are +allowed freedom in the open air, the lungs after death exhibit few dark +patches. One of the effects of recurrent inflammation of the bronchial +tubes is to bring about detachment and removal of this ciliated +epithelium, and with its disappearance an important safeguard to the +lungs is lost.</p> + +<p>Dust affects the body by being deposited upon the skin, hair, eyelids, +and the oro-nasal passages. Through the mouth and nose it is aspirated +into the lungs during respiration, or it reaches the alimentary canal +through the saliva or with the food.</p> + +<p>When the skin becomes affected through an individual working at a dusty +trade, the lesions thus caused are called <i>dermatoconioses</i>, +similar affections of the lungs constitute <i>pneumoconioses</i>, +while those of the gastro-intestinal tract are known as +<i>enteroconioses</i>. Although the intestine, as in plumbism, is +one of the most important and frequent channels by which industrial +poisoning occurs, yet, pathologically speaking, the lesions of this +canal are the least definite.</p> + +<p>So far as <i>dermatoconioses</i> or inflammatory affections of the skin +are concerned, it is mostly in industries in which dry dust is given +off that these are met with, as, for example, in dry bronzing, but +certain fumes also cause them, as is seen in the smelting of antimony. +No portion of the skin is free from the possible contamination by +dust, but it is upon the hair, beard, eyelids, under the nails, upon +the lips, and inside the nostrils, upon any uncovered part of the body +when the individual is at work, or where the clothing loosely meets +the skin, also in such flexures of the body as the armpits and the +groins, and where the garters fix the stockings, that the effects of +dust are mostly observed upon the skin. When the factory is warm, or +the work heavy, and the individual perspires freely, the dust mingling +with the products given off by the humid skin either falls off in +muddy drops of sweat, or it cakes and forms crusts. As a consequence, +there is a variety of lesions, <i>e.g.</i>, simple irritation or +itchiness, known as pruritus; inflammation or erythema proceeding to +eczema; or, as in the case of antimony smelters, vesicles that become +pustular, and in arsenic grinders, ulceration. Since dust <span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span>that +of itself is harmless can induce disorders by mechanically blocking +the pores of the skin and the excretory ducts of glands, so, too, can +harmful dusts act, but they produce in addition certain irritating +and poisonous effects proper to the peculiar character of the dust. +Some dusts are crystalline or sharp-pointed, and penetrate readily and +deeply, while others have a distinct caustic action, and erode or eat +away the tissues, as is the case with the bichromate compounds. Some +forms of dust again are composed of soft particles that of themselves +inflict little local damage, and only become harmful like flour in +forming plugs; while attached to some forms of animal products, such +as horsehair used in brushmaking, are micro-organisms that become +a source of danger. It is unnecessary to mention the various skin +affections or <i>dermatoconioses</i> produced by dust. They are all +more or less the result of inflammation. In many of the erythematous +forms of skin eruption the redness of the skin may simply be the result +of the mechanical action of the dust, or the dust may be absorbed. +One consequence of local irritation may be the formation of vesicles. +Sometimes the itchiness becomes so great that scratching is resorted +to and there follows eczema. Where the vesicles become pustular, +this is generally due to the action of metallic poisons of an acrid +character, or to poisons of an animal nature, as in anthrax. Ulceration +of the skin, on the other hand, is the result of such caustic action +as that induced by arsenic and the chrome compounds. The accompanying +Photographs show various forms of dermatitis that occur in flax +spinners, also of diseases of the finger nails in hide dressers. They +are introduced here not as illustrating the harmful effects of dust, +for they occur in the wet processes of an industry, but as indicating +what is meant by the term <i>dermatoconioses</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p268a_a" style="max-width: 331px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p268a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Mild form of Dermatitis in Flax +spinner (moist method); girl aged 16. Three years’ service in Factory. (Dr Glibert).</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p268a_b" style="max-width: 312px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p268a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Medium degree of Dermatitis in Flax spinner (moist +method); woman aged 33. Eighteen years’ service in Factory. (Dr +Glibert).</p> + <p class="p0 center smcap">Skin Diseases of Flax Spinners.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p268c_a" style="max-width: 350px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p268c_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Severe form of Dermatitis in Flax spinner +(moist method); woman aged 19. Eight years’ service in Factory. +The small punched-out looking sore on thumb resembles what is +known to medical men as “Specific” ulceration, but it is in no +ways connected with it. (Dr Glibert).</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p268c_b" style="max-width: 301px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p268c_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Severe form of Dermatitis in Flax spinner +(moist method); woman aged 19. Eight years’ service in Factory. +Observe special round callosity on ulnar side of hand, an +affection first pointed out by Dr Van Eecloo of Lille. (Dr +Glibert).</p> + <p class="p0 center smcap">Skin Diseases of Flax Spinners.</p> + </div> + + +<h3><i>Skin Diseases of Flax Workers.</i></h3> + +<p>It is through the kindness of Dr Glibert, Medical Inspector, Labour +Office, Belgium, that I am able to show in the accompanying Photographs +these particular lesions of the skin. The four Photographs in which the +palmar surface of the hand is shown, are taken from flax workers. They +indicate varying degrees of erosion, due to the frequent contact of +the hands of the female worker with the irritating materials contained +in the liquid used for spinning. At the commencement of the malady, +as is well shown in the Photographs, the lesion is limited to an +exfoliation of the epidermis, and this is not accompanied either<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span> by +pain, pruritus, or functional trouble of any kind. Later on the dermis +itself, or true skin, becomes involved at certain places, usually very +few, and at these spots there exists considerable irritation, also a +sensation of painful pricking, especially pronounced after working, +and when the wounds are brought into contact with the air. As a rule, +the malady does not proceed beyond this stage, but in some rather rare +cases, met with mostly during severe weather, the ulceration tends to +pass into the deeper tissues of the skin, and to assume an appearance +which, to an unskilled observer, recalls the lesions met with in +syphilis. There is nothing, however, in the flax workers’ dermatitis +to confirm this suspicion. It is necessary to remark that there is +never produced erythema, the formation of vesicles or a vesico-pustular +eruption, and still less the glossy and bright appearance of the skin +of the hand observed in eczema of a lichenoid character. Dr Glibert +has frequently met with this form of eczema, to which Dr Leloir and +his pupil Lefèbvre have drawn attention, but the ulcerative type of +dermatitis indicated in the accompanying Photographs is absolutely +distinct from these, and must not be confounded with them. It is only +right to mention that although dermatitis has been observed in Belgian +flax spinners, Belfast operatives similarly employed do not, according +to Dr Purdon, suffer.</p> + + +<h3><i>Diseases of Nails in Furriers.</i></h3> + +<p>The two Photographs showing the back of the hands of workmen who scrape +rabbit and hares’ skins used in the manufacture of artificial furs +exhibit an affection of the nails, to which Dr Glibert of the Belgian +Labour Office drew attention in the Annual Report of the Inspection +of Labour, 1896. The work of separating the layer of aponeurosis, +which occurs on the under surface of the hide, causes in the dresser a +special disease of the nails of the fingers. The groove under the nail +becomes deeper, the nail is subsequently detached from the finger and +falls off, either by some peculiar pathological process unaccompanied +by ulceration, or by one of an inflammatory nature akin to what occurs +in whitlow. The malady may attack all the fingers of the two hands, +but it seizes by preference the thumb, the middle and ring fingers of +the right hand. It is a common affection in fur-pullers in Belgium. Dr +Glibert is the only writer I know who has described it. Of 22 workmen +whom he examined, it was present in 18. He regards the lesion as +distinctly microbic.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p270a_a" style="max-width: 319px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p270a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Disease of Finger Nails in Hide +dressers. Man, aged 35. Fifteen years’ service. (Dr Glibert).</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p270a_b" style="max-width: 327px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p270a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Severe type of disease of Finger Nails in a Hide +dresser. Man, aged 49. Twenty years’ service. (Dr Glibert).</p> + <p class="p0 center smcap">Disease of Finger Nails in Furriers.</p> + </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Lung Diseases due to Dust.</i></h3> + +<p>In pneumoconiosis the lung is altered in structure as the result of +irritation caused by inhaled dust. A healthy lung is composed of loose +spongy tissue, through which run in all directions the bronchial tubes +and their fine ramifications (see Fig. 38). The essential part of the +lung is made up of alveoli or air-cells, like the meshes of a net. +Just as an ordinary net is made of strands of cord, so are the walls +of the pulmonary alveoli formed of delicate lines of connective and +elastic tissue, in which run capillary blood-vessels. The partitions +thus formed are coated on both sides by a layer of flattened epithelial +cells. It is this loose and almost uncovered condition of the pulmonary +capillaries that allows of the rapid interchange of gases between +the blood circulating in the alveolar walls and the air in the lung +during respiration. Nature has placed certain obstacles in the way of +particles of dust gaining easy access to the lungs, to wit, the narrow +openings of the nostrils, the mucus secreted by the lining membrane of +the nose, and of the trachea and bronchi; the narrow chink between the +larynx and trachea known as the vocal chords, the ciliated epithelium +already described, and a mechanical difficulty generally; so that while +even with forced inspiration it is not easy for dust to be carried into +the lungs, yet the fact remains that where an individual is working +in the dusty atmosphere of a factory for several hours a day, week +after week, particles of dust ultimately find their way into the finer +bronchi, and subsequently into the pulmonary tissue itself. It is the +repeated working in a dusty atmosphere that causes the trouble. A +good deal depends, too, upon the character of the dust. Certain fine +dusts, such, for example, as flour, may for a time be arrested in the +mucus secreted by the respiratory passages, and be expectorated; while +others, such as white lead, become dissolved in the alkaline mucus, are +absorbed into the system, and thus induce constitutional poisoning. +Fine fluffy material, like that given off from cotton and flax, can +reach the lung, while sharp-pointed particles of metallic dust wound +the epithelial lining of the smaller bronchi and penetrate into their +walls, or they destroy the protecting layer of epithelium, and reach +the alveoli either directly or indirectly through the lymphatics. These +particles set up irritation in the lung, followed by a very marked +increase of its fibro-connective tissue, which encroaches upon the +spongy structure of the lung and destroys its aerating function. In +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span> coal-miner’s lung, for example, there can be observed small masses +of cells deeply laden with carbon particles surrounded by a hardened +zone of altered lung, numerous black streaks underneath the pleura or +covering of the lungs, ink-like dots in the walls of the small bronchi, +and enlargement with pigmentation of the bronchial glands. The special +pathological changes in the lungs in the various pneumoconioses are +peribronchitis, and a great increase of the fibro-connective tissue, +whereby the lung becomes converted into a hard and almost solid organ, +incapable of carrying on the work of respiration. Hence are explained +the difficulty and shortness of breath in people thus affected with +what is called fibrosis of the lung. On examining microscopically a +portion of lung that has undergone this change, there can be seen +imbedded in the thickened fibrous tissue, particles of grit which +exactly correspond in shape and size with those found on examining +the dust removed from the mine in which the person works, or from the +factory, in the case of steel-grinders’ lung. The identity of the +particles of grit in the lung and those in the dust of the factory +can be additionally confirmed by chemical examination. Such, in a few +words, is the effect upon the lung caused by inhalation of the dust +generated in a dusty occupation. The newly formed fibro-connective +tissue is of low vitality, and is badly supplied with blood-vessels, +and yet it goes on increasing and encroaching more and more upon the +lung tissue, which it replaces. Although it seldom tends to break down, +the consolidated tissue notwithstanding shrinks, the chest becomes +smaller, cough more harassing, and emaciation progressive. The affected +workman is regarded as the victim of consumption, but the disease +is not necessarily <i>tuberculous</i>. Under these circumstances, +where a lung has become altered in structure and its vital resistance +diminished, it becomes an easy matter for true tuberculosis, as the +result of its specific bacillus, to be grafted on to a pneumoconiosis, +or dust lung disease. In people who have worked in a thick atmosphere +there is therefore found a form of consumption due to the inhalation +of dust, and another the result of the tubercle bacillus, but in +old-standing cases the two are generally found combined. The tendency +of modern pathology is to look upon all pulmonary phthisis or +consumption as tuberculous, but the fact remains that phthisis can be +caused by dust. Pneumoconiosis differs from the tuberculous type of +lung disease in being more amenable to treatment in the early stage, +also in the fact that while both lungs are affected, it is the bases +rather than the apices that suffer. If the workman, for example, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span>leaves his dusty employment, especially in the early stages of his +illness, the malady may be arrested. Usually the march of the disease +in this form is slower than the tubercular. It is an old idea, yet +one that many seek to palm off as modern, that pulmonary consumption +is an infective disease. In factories where many persons are at work, +there are almost sure to be some who are tuberculous, and who cough and +expectorate upon the floor. The expectoration dries, is trodden under +foot, and, mingling with the dust, it rises into the atmosphere and is +inhaled. Infection from consumptive fellow-workers must therefore play +a part in the propagation of industrial phthisis, but the bulk of such +cases do not assume the character of the occupation form of fibrotic +phthisis to which we have just alluded, and which is known to occur +frequently in men employed in dusty trades conducted in the open air, +<i>e.g.</i>, in masons and French millstone builders, in whom infection +is less likely to prevail, and where the breathing of close and impure +air can play no part.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p272a_a" style="max-width: 298px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p272a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—Human Lung in health.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p272a_b" style="max-width: 299px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p272a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—Lead Miner’s Lung. × 70 diameters. (T. O.)</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p272a_c" style="max-width: 301px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p272a_c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Steel Grinder’s Lung. × 70 diameters. (T. O.)</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p272a_d" style="max-width: 300px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p272a_d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—Coal Miner’s Lung. × 70 diameters. +(T. O.)</p> + </div> + +<p>There are four recognised types of pneumoconioses or industrial lung +disease: (1) <i>Chalicosis</i> or <i>silicosis</i>, due to stone dust +and siliceous material, as in masons’ phthisis; (2) <i>siderosis</i>, +due to metallic dust; (3) <i>anthracosis</i> or coal-miners’ phthisis; +and (4) <i>byssinosis</i>, caused by inhalation of cotton particles.</p> + + +<h3><i>Gastro-intestinal Lesions.</i></h3> + +<p>The <i>enteroconioses</i> or gastro-intestinal lesions induced by dust +are less well-defined pathological entities than the affections of +the skin and lungs, and yet they play an important part in poisoning +by such metallic dusts as lead, arsenic, and mercury. Apart from such +symptoms as vomiting, diarrhœa, and colic; which these cause, there +are the well-marked physical signs of poisoning present in the gums, +as, for example, the “blue line” in plumbism, and the loose teeth and +ulcerated gums in mercurial poisoning.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>The attention of the reader is directed to the accompanying series of +Microphotographs as illustrations of some of the forms of dust seen +through the microscope, to which workpeople in various trades are +exposed. Apart from the poisonous character of any particular kind of +dust, <i>e.g.</i>, that of lead and arsenic, the presence of chemical +irritants inherent in the dust itself as in bichromate compounds, and +the clinging of micro-organisms to such animal products as horsehair +and wool, there is an opinion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span> entertained by pathologists that the +actual form of the particle of dust and its hardness are responsible +for much of the damage inflicted upon the lungs of workmen engaged in +dusty trades. Mineral and metallic particles of dust are hard and often +sharp-pointed. Theoretically, therefore, it is expected of them that +when they reach the lining membrane of the respiratory passages they +will inflict greater damage than particles of dust that are softer and +rounder. How far pathological experience supports this expectation I am +not prepared to say. The dust that is given off in various occupations +may be mineral, metallic, vegetable, or animal. I have reproduced some +Microphotographs taken from Dr Migerka’s monograph, <i>Staubarten in +Wort und Bild</i>, Vienna, 1895, and have added a few taken by Dr R. +A. Bolam and myself, of dust from various industries, supplied by H.M. +Inspectors of Factories. Some of these Microphotographs may be briefly +described:—</p> + +<p>Fig. 42, <i>cement</i> dust. Under the microscope are seen a few +sharp-edged little plates and amorphous masses like small clumps. The +particles are not of themselves so dangerous as might at first sight +appear. Although cement workers suffer from pulmonary disease, they +do not do so to the great extent that might be expected. Probably +the harmful effects are largely due to the hygroscopic character of +the particles and their alkaline reaction. Hirt gives the following +percentage statistics of diseases for comparison:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Bronchial Catarrh.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Emphysema.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Pneumonia.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Porcelain Makers</td> + <td class="ctrr">16</td> + <td class="ctrr">15</td> + <td class="ctrr">4</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Masons</td> + <td class="ctrr">12.9</td> + <td class="ctrr">10.4</td> + <td class="ctrr">6.5</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Cement Makers</td> + <td class="ctrrb">8 to 10</td> + <td class="ctrrb">15 to 17</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">4</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Comparing Figs. 43 and 44, <i>sandstone</i> and <i>granite</i>, it +will be observed that the granite dust is lightish-grey in colour, +with black specks, and contains numerous flat, transparent splinters +of quartz. Sandstone dust, on the other hand, is a finer powder, it is +yellowish, and equal in colour throughout; it is rather an amorphous +powder; in some samples a few sharp-edged plates of quartz can be seen. +From microscopical appearances it might be assumed that granite dust +would be very much more hurtful to the workmen than sandstone, and yet, +according to Arlidge, <i>Diseases of Occupations</i>, p. 303, who made +special inquiries into <span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>this subject, the workmen employed around +Aberdeen in the cutting, dressing, and polishing of granite, are seldom +the victims of pulmonary disease attributable to their occupation. This +circumstance may be due to the igneous character of the rock, and the +small quantity of dust that is thrown off, especially in the act of +chiselling. Besides, as the particles of dust are of considerable size, +they would, if inhaled, be caught in the upper part of the respiratory +passages, and therefore not have the opportunity of inflicting damage +upon the lung. The fact remains that while Aberdeen granite workers +suffer from chronic bronchitis, they are remarkably free from the +pulmonary fibrosis to which stone masons and French millstone builders +are liable.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p274a_a"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p274a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Cement.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p274a_b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p274a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Sandstone.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p274a_c"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p274a_c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—Granite.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p274a_d" style="max-width: 350px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p274a_d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Lead Dust from Printing Shop, and +Type casting.</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">Microphotographs of Dusts developed in Dusty Trades. The first twenty +are reproductions after Migerka: the last six after Bolam and Oliver.</p> + </div> + +<p>In Fig. 45, <i>lead</i> dust, as obtained from a printer’s shop, the +particles are seen to vary in size and form. The particles are for the +most part round, and not unusually sharp. This dust is not harmful on +account of its form so much as dangerous through being absorbed into +the blood. The dust that is given off in <i>file-making</i> contains +particles of iron as well as lead and charcoal (see p. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>), and this +is productive of a large amount of pulmonary disease in men and women +engaged in this trade. But with file-cutters as with printers and +typographers generally, the unhealthy and close workrooms in which +they follow their avocation are to some extent also responsible for +the lung diseases. As bearing upon this subject, the annual reports of +Benefit Societies are not without interest. The reports of the Benefit +Societies of the printers and type-casters of Vienna, from 1889–1892, +give the following percentage of illnesses:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Typists.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Printers.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Casters.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Assistant<br>Workers.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Female<br>Printers.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Female<br>Casters.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Tuberculosis</td> + <td class="rightr">2.8</td> + <td class="rightr">1.7</td> + <td class="rightr">1.6</td> + <td class="rightr">1.5</td> + <td class="rightr">1.7</td> + <td class="rightr">2.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Diseases of Respiratory Organs</td> + <td class="rightr">11.4</td> + <td class="rightr">7.5</td> + <td class="rightr">10.8</td> + <td class="rightr">7.5</td> + <td class="rightr">9.0</td> + <td class="rightr">11.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Disorders, etc., of Digestive Organs</td> + <td class="rightrb">7.5</td> + <td class="rightrb">5.1</td> + <td class="rightrb">7.1</td> + <td class="rightrb">4.0</td> + <td class="rightrb">8.5</td> + <td class="rightrb">18.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It is the typist and caster who suffer most from diseases of the +respiratory organs, while among the printers and their assistants, the +average is just above the normal. So far as diseases of the digestive +organs are concerned, the printers suffer less than the others, +but there is a preponderating amount of sickness among the females +in nearly all branches of the industry. When the amount of general +sickness in these trades is examined, it is found that the averages +of total sickness are as follows: typists, 44.7; male casters,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span> 41.2; +female casters, 91.2; while printers are only 27.9, and assistants +28.5. These remarks are introduced here to emphasise the fact that in +the printing trades it is not alone the dust that is injurious, but the +lead poisoning which it causes, and they also strengthen an opinion +expressed in other parts of this book, viz., that females are more +liable to plumbism than males, as the following figures also show. The +percentage of plumbism in male casters in Vienna is 8 per cent.; in +female casters it is 22.7 per cent.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 47, dust developed during <i>needle-grinding</i>, the particles +of dust are frequently hook-like in appearance and sharp-edged. Lying +among these are also observed particles of quartz with edges that are +more or less sharp.</p> + +<p>Fig. 48 represents dust from <i>mother-of-pearl grinding</i>. Hirt +regarded this trade as extremely dangerous. He found that 15 to 16 per +cent. of the men engaged in this trade died from phthisis. According +to Guggenbauer, turners of mother-of-pearl are said to suffer from a +peculiar affection of the bones (osteomyelitis) owing to absorption of +carbonate of lime from particles of the shell that have been inhaled. +It is said that obscure rheumatic-like pains subsequently occur, and +that the bones ulcerate. I have visited mother-of-pearl grinding shops +in Sheffield and interrogated the workers there, but have been unable +to find any evidence to support Guggenbauer’s contention. The grinding +in Sheffield is done by the wet process, and none of the men seem to +suffer in the manner alluded to.</p> + +<p><i>Flax dust</i>, Fig. 50, is injurious to the worker. It contains +mineral particles, vegetable cells, and broken stalks—so too does +<i>hemp</i>, Fig. 51. In the teasing and spinning of <i>cotton</i>, +Fig. 53, there is a considerable amount of dust raised in which +fine fibres of cotton are found, <i>Jute</i>, Fig. 52, shows +vegetable fibres which are often torn and ragged, and therefore +with difficulty detached from the bronchial mucous membrane. In +the figures representing dust obtained from <i>felt-making</i>, +<i>fur-brushing</i>, and <i>rag-cleaning</i>, may be observed various +forms of hairs and vegetable structures, with numerous foreign +particles adherent to and encircling them. Some of these particles +are of animal origin and may carry micro-organisms. The dust obtained +during <i>wheat-cleaning</i>, Fig. 61, contains pointed vegetable hairs +and numerous particles of organic and inorganic material, and would, if +inhaled, be particularly irritating to the bronchial mucous membrane.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276a_a"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Gilchrist-Thomas Slag.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276a_b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Needle Grinding.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276a_c"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276a_c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Mother-of-Pearl.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276a_d"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276a_d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Sawdust.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276c_a"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276c_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—Flax.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276c_b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276c_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Hemp.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276c_c"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276c_c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Jute.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276c_d"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276c_d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Cotton.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276e_a"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276e_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Silk.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276e_b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276e_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Horn.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276e_c"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276e_c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Ivory.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276e_d"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276e_d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Felt Manufacture.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276g_a"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276g_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Dust from Fur Brushing Machine.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276g_b"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276g_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Dust from Rag Cleaning.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276g_c"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276g_c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Bone Meal.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276g_d"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276g_d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Dust from Wheat Cleaning.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276i_a" style="max-width: 297px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276i_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Ordinary Slag. Consett Iron Works.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276i_b" style="max-width: 305px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276i_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Basic Slag. North Eastern +Steel Works, Middlesbrough.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276i_c" style="max-width: 299px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276i_c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—Ganister. Messrs Grayson, +Lowood & Co., Middlesbrough.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276i_d" style="max-width: 296px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276i_d.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Dust from Fork Grinding +on dry stone. Sheffield.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276i_e" style="max-width: 297px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276i_e.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Powdered Flint. Earthenware +Works, Stoke-on-Trent.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p276i_f" style="max-width: 303px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p276i_f.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Glaze cleaned off Ware. +Stoke-on-Trent.</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">Microphotographs of Dusts, high-power. (T. Oliver and R. A. Bolam).</p> + </div> + +<p>It is a well-known fact that some forms of basic slag are more +injurious than others. From a microscopical examination of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span>various dusts sent to me by Commander Hamilton Smith and +Mr H. J. Wilson, H.M. Inspectors of Factories, and others (see +Microphotographs, Figs. 62–67, by Dr Bolam and myself), I do not find +sufficient evidence, judging by its appearance alone, to explain +why one kind of basic slag manure is so very much more harmful than +another. There may be chemical as well as physical causes at work in +the production of pathological changes in the bronchial mucous membrane +of those who work in basic slag. Some slags, for example, contain +larger quantities of lime than others.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII<br> +<span class="subhed">DUST WOMEN</span></h2></div> + +<p>Many readers are probably not aware that there is such a recognised +employment for women as the sifting and sorting of the refuse of our +houses. Any one wishing to observe how this work is carried on can +see it daily in the dust-yards and wharves of London. In these places +there are women who are actually spending their lives handling all +the obnoxious waste that a great city produces. Dust-carts bring +load after load of refuse to the yards. The drivers tip the contents +of the carts before the women, who are drawn up in line and whose +duty it is to sieve and sift this refuse, and then to sort into the +different baskets that are standing close by, such things as rags, +bones, string, cork, boots, paper, coal, broken glass, etc. It is a +dirty and dusty occupation, and as a rule the women have their clothing +covered and permeated by the dust, and their hair laden with it too, +notwithstanding the handkerchief or shawl that covers their head. +Wrapped with a piece of old sacking round their skirts and cloth bands +round their legs, they lean over their work and inhale the unsavoury +dust that has gone forth from the houses and the shops of the city. In +one sense it is fortunate that this unpleasant operation is conducted +in the open air, for therein to a large extent lies the comparative +harmlessness of the employment. From time to time the hands of the +women get cut by broken glass, and there is incurred the risk of +festering wounds and the danger of blood poisoning.</p> + +<p>The story of dust women is told by Miss Emily Hobhouse in the +<i>Economic Journal</i>, September 1900, p. 411, from whose interesting +report I have drawn largely for the information supplied in this +article. Miss Hobhouse naturally raises the question as to how far the +sifting and sorting of refuse is a fitting and sanitary employment +for women. Theoretically it cannot be a pleasant one, considering +what the refuse may and does contain, and yet from the organic and +inorganic materials, the dead and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span> dying organised heaps that leave +our houses as refuse, these women pick out certain things that are +sent to manufacturers and reappear for sale in the form of glue, soap, +bottles, and paper, while even such a thing as broken glass is rescued, +transported to Sweden, and comes back to this country in the form of +emery paper for polishing steel.</p> + +<p>The employment of dust women is dwindling, and must perforce disappear +owing to the multiplication of destructors, the expense of dealing +with the ever-increasing refuse by means of sifters and sorters, and +the growth of public opinion, which is certainly opposed to regarding +this work as a proper employment for women. It is a well-known fact +that if a woman takes to refuse picking early in life she becomes +almost utterly unfit for any other employment. At the present time +the destructors do much of the work that has hitherto been done by +men and women, but these furnaces can only destroy certain things in +the refuse, and consequently leave a residue that has still to be +got rid of. The question of removing the increasing amount of refuse +from London and our large towns is a difficult one to solve. It has +an economic side which cannot be ignored. In some of the vestries of +London the clinker and fine ash that are removed from the destructor +are converted into mortar, and the steam that is generated by the +destructor is used for driving the machinery for grinding the mortar +and clinker. It has been ascertained by sanitary engineers that town +refuse has about ⅑ the heating power of coal, and that in a large city +like London it can be destroyed for 2s. 5d. per ton, a less sum than it +costs to barge it away. Some of the Boards of Works dispose entirely of +their refuse by destructors, while others only do so partially; some +again have their own yards or wharves, but not in all of them are women +employed. Twenty-six of the vestries let out the work to contractors, +many of whom, on account of the cheaper labour, employ women. In London +alone there are at least 300 women employed as dust sorters. The wages +given by the vestries, and the conditions of labour found under them, +are much superior to those under contractors. The vestries pay the +women 15s. a week, each day’s work, except Saturday, extending from 5 +o’clock <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> to 5 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, but 7s. to 8s. a week is all +that can be obtained from the contractors. The broken-down appearance +of the women who work for contractors, and who are sweated beyond all +bounds, causes them to compare most unfavourably with the dust sorters +for the vestries.</p> + +<p>The evidence obtained from officials, contractors, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> women +themselves rather went to show that the general health of the men and +women working in the dust-yards was good. Owing to being so much in the +open air the women seemed hale and well-coloured, and they contrasted +most favourably with those who were working in the factories or at +home. Occasionally such troubles occur among them as sore throat, +ophthalmia or “blight,” poisoned wounds, and among the elderly women +recurrent attacks of cold on the chest, due to exposure to severe +weather and the wet. On the whole, however, it would seem as if the +open air life agreed with the women. In some of the yards the sifting +is done by machinery, and the women only do the sorting. In these yards +the women complain of finding it hard to keep pace with the machinery +and of having to lift too heavy loads.</p> + +<p>Under all circumstances dust-sorting is dirty and disagreeable work. +It is generally undertaken by women of the lowest class. The only zest +that is given to the occupation is the prospect of finding money. +Occasionally a copper, silver, or gold coin is found, and in most of +the yards the money belongs to the finder. Such a piece of good luck, +however, seldom benefits the individual, for it is made the excuse +for a drunken spree that often lasts for days. The work is hard and +exposed. It not only unfits women for other employment, but even for +the ordinary duties of housewife and motherhood. It destroys the +best instincts of maternity. The work takes the mother away from her +children, who are consequently ill-tended and often die from neglect. +Although several children may be born of these women, in many instances +none of them live beyond a few months, not by the employment affecting +the children through the mother, but because maternal duties are +totally disregarded. For these reasons, therefore, it is scarcely +desirable work for women under thirty years of age. It is with dust +women as with many of the laundry women in London; they form a class by +themselves, and so the work becomes more or less hereditary.</p> + +<p>As to the occupation being unsanitary, medical opinion is divided. Dr +Thomas of Limehouse does not think it increases the death-rate, and +Dr Dudfield reports that he has not observed any bad effects upon the +health of the women. On the other hand, Dr Priestley states that while +he has not observed any actual injury to health from the sorting of +refuse, he thinks there cannot be any doubt that the trade is dangerous +to health, and on this ground he recommends its discontinuance. +The occupation is one which theoretically might be expected to be +prejudicial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span> to health, and yet experience indicates that the women +become hardened to the work and immune to its possible evil effects. +It is an undesirable employment for women all the same. If it is to +continue, it ought to be brought under the supervision of the Factory +Department of the Home Office, and as the conditions of labour under a +private contract system are in this instance worse than when conducted +and controlled by municipal authorities, Vestries or Boards of Health +should retain the management of dust-yards in their own hands.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIX<br> +<span class="subhed">LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS</span></h2></div> + +<p>Of all the metals employed in the arts and industries, none lends +itself to such general applicability as lead. In its metallic state it +is so plastic that it can be readily moulded. It forms compounds which +for colour and persistence have enduring properties superior to most of +the metals. There are few articles of manufacture that have not been +directly or indirectly brought into contact with lead, and in many of +the newer industries the association is extremely close. The census for +1891 showed that there were 132,010 persons employed in lead processes. +Of these, 123,829 were painters, 2431 workers in leaden goods, and +5750 were lead-miners. If we add to these the numbers employed in the +potteries, electric accumulator works, etc., it will be at once seen +that a very large proportion of the artisan class is brought into +contact with lead. It is this wide use of the metal, the extremely +poisonous character of its compounds, and the peculiarly subtle manner +in which they act upon the human organism, that make lead a dangerous +substance. Besides, it is frequently present in the water, the aërated +beverages, and the wine we drink; the food we eat may be contaminated +by having been cooked in common earthenware or in cheap enamelled pots, +or by tinning as in canned goods. The acid juices of fruits or foods +may dissolve out the lead in the solder. The clothing we wear may have +been dyed by lead compounds, and thus not only industrially but in our +domestic and personal lives we are daily running the risk of plumbism.</p> + + +<h3><i>Lead-mining and the Health and Surroundings of the Miner.</i></h3> + +<p>Professor Louis, in his article on Mining, p. 538, has briefly alluded +to lead-mining. As in the following pages the subject of lead generally +is dealt with, I feel that the reader will have a fuller grasp of all +the points relating to lead and its history, if I slightly amplify +what he has said by throwing a little side-light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> upon the medical and +social aspects of the lead-miner’s life. Lead-mining in this country +is an extremely old industry. Bars of pig-lead have been found in +Derbyshire stamped with the imperial arms of Rome, indicating that the +Romans worked our mines and smelted the ore. Since 1401 lead-mining +has been carried on in the North of England, and has given employment +to many families in the remote dales of Cumberland and Durham. It +was formerly a source of very great wealth, but the mines have been +gradually closing, owing to the importation of cheaper lead and of ores +richer in silver than those that exist in this country. To-day it is +rather a decaying than a prosperous industry. At present only 15,000 +tons of lead are melted annually on Tyneside. Most of it is foreign +pig-lead. During 1895 there were 250,000 tons of ore converted into +pig-lead in this country. It is perhaps more to the poverty of silver +in the native ore than to the cost of production of the raw material +that the diminished output of recent years is to be ascribed. It hardly +pays the proprietor to extract the silver when it is present in small +quantity. English pig-lead contains a very small percentage of silver, +seldom more than from 8 to 10 ounces to the ton. Foreign ores vary +as regards the amount of silver held. In Spanish ore there may be as +much silver as 40 to 80 ounces to the ton, and in Greek 80 ounces. +Australian ores show very great variations. In some of the veins the +ore contains 60 ounces to the ton, while in other samples there may be +500 ounces or even more.</p> + +<p>So far as lead-mining in the North is concerned, the methods adopted +for obtaining the ore are antiquated. Owners are apparently afraid to +risk money in the enterprise, and as a consequence the means by which +lead is mined are much inferior to those for getting coal. Lead mines, +too, are not under the same Government regulations as collieries. Their +ventilation is bad, the roadways are ill kept, and the mines are often +damp, while the means of descent into, and ascent from, the mines, +by a series of ladders, are arduous for the workers. So far as the +mining of the ore is concerned, there is in this country practically +no risk to the miner from lead poisoning, for he is dealing with +almost a pure ore, viz., galena, which is a sulphide. Metallic lead +is harmless compared with its compounds, the oxide and carbonate. It +is this circumstance that explains why lead-miners at Broken Hill in +Australia suffer so severely from colic and convulsions, while their +confreres in England escape. The ore at Brocken Hill is very largely a +carbonate. The English lead-miner runs the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span> ordinary risks to life and +limb from accidents, and in a special manner his health is endangered +by pulmonary consumption and rheumatism, largely the result of exposure +when returning from work heated and fatigued, also of the barrack +system in vogue in certain places for housing the miners.</p> + +<p>There is not much lead-mining carried on in France, but where it is +there is freedom from plumbism among the miners as in our own country, +with the exception of an outbreak of colic that occurred among the +men who were working in the veins at Asprières (Aveyron), where the +mineral was found, like the Australian ore, to be composed mostly of +<i>cerusite</i> or carbonate of lead. It is to a similar condition of +the ore in the lead mines of Sierra de Gador that are attributed the +400 to 500 cases of colic annually observed by Dr Bayer among 12,000 +miners—a malady to which the crushing of the cerusite in the dry state +no doubt very largely contributes. (<i>Poisons Industriels</i>, Paris, +1901, p. 14.)</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p284a" style="max-width: 750px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p284a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—<span class="smcap">A Lead Mine.</span> Large building +on right is the lodging for the Miners; lower part of building is +occupied as a stable. Top of shaft seen high up on left; lower down, +the “level” or drift with hauling machinery.</p> + </div> + +<p>The dales of Durham in which lead-mining is carried on are sparsely +populated: they are bleak, and swept by cold winds for the greater +part of the year. In many instances the miners live a considerable +distance from their work, and as railways have not yet penetrated into +these remote corners of England, the men have to cover the ground on +foot. Lead-miners are brought very little into touch with the outer +world. They form a class by themselves, and cling with affection to +their homes on the hillsides: they closely intermarry, and thus form +not only one family socially but industrially as well. Their wages +are small, seldom more than ten to twelve shillings a week, and yet, +unless compelled through sheer necessity to renounce their badly paid +and not too healthy occupation, they will not leave the district for +the more lucrative work of coal-mining. As a class they are thrifty, +intelligent, temperate, and religious. They are not long-lived. +Pulmonary phthisis is extremely prevalent among lead-miners. In close +proximity to some of the mines large “lodging shops” or “barracks” +have been erected, where many of the workmen stay during the week. In +one district, Dr William Robinson of Sunderland, formerly of Stanhope, +found that 166 miners occupied one of these shops during three or +four days and nights in the week. Often the barracks are in a filthy +condition, for they are badly kept. As the sleeping accommodation is +limited, the bedrooms are crowded to excess. In one room, 16 feet by +13½ and 9¾, there were 20 miners accommodated, <i>i.e.</i>, at the rate +of 124 cubic feet of air per man, while the model regulations of the +Local Government Board require not <span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>less than 400. Most of the rooms +have no fireplaces: the windows are fixed, and consequently there is no +means of ventilation. As large numbers of men have to be accommodated, +the beds are crowded together in two tiers 3 feet 6 inches from each +other, so that there is barely space to pass between them. Since the +rooms are occupied by different sets of miners working alternate +shifts, the beds are hardly cooled before being again occupied, while +in consequence of the air of the rooms not being renewed, the stench +is overpowering. Bad as the sleeping accommodation is, the day rooms +are not any better. The closet accommodation, too, is scanty and often +badly placed. In his lodgings as well as at his work many a lead-miner +is exposed to the influence of very unwholesome atmospheric conditions, +the results of which are seen in his deteriorated constitution and +diminished resistance to disease. The air of the lodging-shops is +heavy with the effluvia from the bodies of their occupants. Sooner or +later lead-miners suffer from asthma and pulmonary catarrh, the end +of which is often tubercular consumption, and as the men expectorate +upon the floors of the sleeping-room, the tubercle bacilli find in +the badly-lit and ill-ventilated rooms the conditions which favour +their multiplication. In this manner, and apart from his work, the +lead-miner is brought under the influence of the microbe of pulmonary +phthisis. The excessive amount of carbonic dioxide in the mines, the +unconsumed products given off by the burning candles and those given +off by explosion of gunpowder, render the atmosphere of the mine for +the greater part of the twenty-four hours unhealthy. By the workman +who lives a few miles from the mines, and who has to walk home across +a bleak and wind-swept moor, tired and heated after a hard day’s +work and wearing wet clothes, colds on the chest are readily caught +and not readily got rid of. Out of these repeated pulmonary catarrhs +consumption is prone to develop. Commencing work in the open air as a +crusher and washer of ore, the son of a lead-miner—for the occupation +is largely hereditary—will for health compare most favourably with +any young artisan, but he has only to work a few years in the mine +when he becomes short-winded. Once this defect is induced it gradually +increases, and so at the age of forty to forty-five the lead-miner is +old for his years: an asthmatic, he is the subject of wheezing cough +and expectoration, and is often obliged to give up work entirely before +the age of fifty. Life, however, may be prolonged for years, for +the summer months bring abatement of the symptoms; the improvement, +however, is only temporary, for the cold winds of winter and spring +again light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span> up the chest affection. Since in the mine the air is +dusty, and the worker inhales particles of grit, pathological changes +in the lungs are established similar to those mentioned in the chapter +on Dust and Disease. The lung of one lead-miner that I have is almost +solid from excess of fibrous tissue, and it feels as hard as stone, see +Fig. 39. On microscopical examination the alveolar structure of the +lung is found to be replaced by dense fibro-connective tissue. In the +expectoration of some of the lead-miners I have found tubercle bacilli. +The pulmonary disease of lead-miners, therefore, like that of workers +in dusty trades, may be either a simple form of fibrotic phthisis due +to inhalation of grit, or it may be a truly tubercular lesion grafted +on to the less formidable fibrosis. The average age at death of +lead-miners is about fifty. Nearly 50 per cent. of them die from chest +diseases. In the dales around Stanhope, in the county of Durham, the +death-rate from phthisis among a secluded population of lead-miners was +4.7, while in another part of the same Union composed of farmers it was +only 0.6.</p> + + +<h3><i>Lead-smelting.</i></h3> + +<p>While the miners in this country do not suffer from lead poisoning, the +same cannot be said of the men who smelt the ore. I have seen several +smelters die from plumbism. In a few instances I have witnessed son +after son in a family thus carried off before the age of thirty. The +fume that escapes from the flue of the smelting shop contains oxide +and sulphate of lead, and it is the inhalation of this that causes +plumbism. Usually the lead fume is conducted into a long flue, 5 feet +high and 3 feet wide; in some places the flue is carried up the side +of a hill for a mile or two before it terminates in the chimney. +This allows of the deposition from the fume of some of the oxide and +sulphate of lead which is recoverable. At one large smelting works +which I visited along with my colleagues on the White Lead Commission, +we found that recovery of the deposited lead by men entering the flues +was attended by such serious symptoms that we recommended two hours +at a stretch as the maximum time for men to work in cleaning out the +flues. Twenty cases of plumbism in lead-smelters were reported to the +Home Office in 1900.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p286a" style="max-width: 750px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p286a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—<span class="smcap">Other View of Lead Mine.</span> +Crushing Machinery, etc., in shadow; Washing Troughs, Sluices, +“Sludges” in foreground.</p> + </div> + +<p>Although British galena contains usually but a very small quantity of +silver, this can be profitably extracted when present in the ratio +of even 2 of silver to 1000 of lead. Frequently the amount of silver +present in foreign ores is so large that manufacturers prefer to +extract the more valuable metal only. Desilvering of lead ore is +generally carried out by the Pattinson process, introduced in 1829. +Until that date silver was not extracted from galena. The ore had to +be converted into an oxide in order to separate the silver, and the +oxide resmelted to recover the lead, but unless the lead contained 8 +to 11 ounces of silver to the ton it did not pay to extract it. While +its removal has increased the production of silver, its extraction is +by some authorities believed to have improved the quality of the lead. +On the other hand it is stated that lead pipes made from desilverised +ore are, when used for conveying drinking water into our houses, found +to be too soft. They are more readily acted upon by water, and become +consequently a more frequent cause of plumbism than the harder pipes +made from British galena, from which the silver has not been extracted. +The introduction of the Pattinson process has caused silver extraction +to become a special industry. The process depends upon the formation of +an eutectic alloy of silver and lead.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> It is unnecessary to describe +the Pattinson process, since it is detailed in all text-books on +metallurgy and chemistry. Suffice it to say that the <i>desilvering</i> +plant usually contains five pots made of cast iron and set in masonry, +and by a series of melting and skimming, cooling and transferring +the separated silver and lead to a series of pots in succession, +all the silver, practically speaking, can be removed from the lead. +Although I have frequently examined men engaged in desilvering lead +I have rarely found them the subjects of plumbism. Two cases of lead +poisoning were reported to the Home Office in 1900 as having occurred +in silver-smelters.</p> + + +<h3><i>Red Lead</i>; <i>Lead Oxide</i>; <i>Litharge</i>; <i>Massicot</i>; +<i>Minium</i>.</h3> + +<p>Lead oxide, the yellow and red, is got by melting metallic lead in a +furnace exposed to atmospheric air. By means of a long iron rabble +a workman keeps raking the molten liquid so that it is brought into +intimate contact with the oxygen of the air. When removed from the +furnace and cooled, the product assumes a red or yellowish colour +according to the amount of oxygen it contains, and is known as the +red oxide of lead and minium, or as massicot. During the operation of +melting and raking the lead a certain amount of fume escapes from the +open mouth of the furnace. The fume ought to be removed by a strong<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span> +upward draught through a hooded chimney. Where this is not done and the +men approach too near the mouth of the furnace, fume is inhaled, with +the result that the workmen suffer from plumbism. A fairly large number +of red-lead makers become anæmic and suffer from colic and wrist-drop. +Great as is the risk run by the red-lead worker through inhaling the +fumes from the molten metal, it is less than that incurred during the +crushing and packing of the finished product. The substitution of +mechanical agitation of the molten lead in the furnace for that done +by hand by the workman would diminish the danger, since it would allow +the doors of the furnace to be closed, except during the charging of +the interior. The packing of casks with red lead should be conducted +in closed spaces provided with a hood and such means as will create an +effective draught. The workmen ought to wear overalls, have frequent +baths, and be inspected at least every fortnight by a doctor. Men can +work longer in red than in white lead without losing their health. +There is no truth in the statement that they are <i>absolutely</i> +free from the severer forms of plumbism. As a rule, I have found the +symptoms of lead poisoning in massicot makers on the average milder +than those observed in white-lead workers; but the result depends upon +the proximity and length of exposure to lead compounds rather than +upon the particular nature of the compound itself—always, of course, +remembering that the more soluble the lead compound the greater the +danger. Some physicians have had quite other experience. Layet, for +example, in a paper read before the Congress of Hygiene at Turin, 1880, +stated that minium is more dangerous than white lead, and that the form +of poisoning is just as severe, if not more so. He had found red-lead +makers more liable to what is known as encephalopathy, <i>i.e.</i>, the +cerebral type of Saturnism, than white-lead workers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p288a" style="max-width: 354px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p288a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—A “Blue” Bed in a White Lead Factory, +showing tan in lowest part, and resting on it rows of earthenware pots +containing acetic acid. Resting upon the pots in left hand corner can +be seen thin sheets of metallic lead.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p288c" style="max-width: 750px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p288c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Female carrying Basins filled with +Washed White Lead from Vat to Stoves.</p> + </div> + + +<h3><i>White Lead</i>; <i>Carbonate of Lead</i> (<i>Céruse</i>, Fr.)</h3> + +<p>All the soluble salts of lead are capable of inducing plumbism, and +of these the carbonate is perhaps the most prolific cause of lead +poisoning. In Britain most of the white lead of commerce is made by the +<i>old Dutch</i> process. Thin sheets of metallic lead (wickets) are +taken to the stacks or blue beds. The floor of the stack is covered +by a layer of tan, and on the tan is arranged a series of earthenware +pots containing dilute acetic acid. Upon the pots <span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span>are placed the +sheets of lead. Boards are laid over these, and thus the first layer +is formed. Tan is thickly strewn over the boards, and when this has +reached a sufficient thickness, other rows of pots partially filled +with dilute acetic acid and covered over by thin sheets of lead are +arranged on the tan, and the whole is covered over by boards. This +second layer is followed by others similarly constructed, until by a +succession of tiers the ceiling is reached, when the doorway is built +up by boards and kept closed for a period varying from ten to fifteen +weeks, during which the conversion of blue into white lead by corrosion +takes place. The stacks are ventilated by means of a shaft at each +corner. Once the “blue” beds are made up and the doorway closed, the +tan begins to get warm and evolve carbonic acid. In consequence of this +heat the acetic acid becomes volatilised, and through the interaction +between the lead and acetic acid on the one hand, and the carbonic acid +on the other, chemical changes of a nature not thoroughly understood +occur, which ultimately end in the production of the basic carbonate of +lead, or what is popularly known as white lead. When this conversion +is believed by the manufacturer to have taken place, the stack is +opened. It is then no longer spoken of as a “blue” but as a “white” +bed. Workpeople enter the white bed to strip it of the corroded lead. +What was originally placed in the blue bed as a thin layer of metallic +lead has become converted, if the corrosion has been satisfactory, into +a much thicker plate made up of a white crisp incrustation of lead +carbonate, which often conceals from view very thin pieces of unaltered +metallic lead. In stripping the white lead off the unchanged metal a +considerable amount of dust is given off, the inhalation of which was +previously much more frequently a cause of plumbism in the workpeople +than now, owing to the fact that present regulations require that the +white beds must be watered by means of a “rose.” The carbonate and +unaltered lead removed from the white beds used formerly to be taken +direct to the rollers, crushed and washed, so as to separate the two. +After washing, the white lead is placed in earthenware vessels and +taken to the stoves to be dried. The emptying or drawing of stoves has +been the cause of a larger number of severe and fatal cases of lead +poisoning than any other department in a white lead factory. Until 1898 +the filling and emptying of stoves was very largely done by women, +young and middle-aged, but the work was found to be so detrimental to +female life that the White Lead Commission recommended that no woman +or girl should be allowed to work in the stoves. I have known young +women die<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span> from plumbism within three months after entering a white +lead factory and working in the stoves. It takes from three to five +days for the white lead to become thoroughly dried in the old form +of stoves, after which it is packed into casks. Since the White Lead +Commission published its Report there have been many improvements in +stoves. There are many now in use which will tend still to diminish +plumbism. In some factories wagons ladened with basins of moist +white lead are run on rails into the drying chamber, while in others +the white lead is made to fall mechanically on to a series of large +revolving discs in a closed chamber heated by air. Packing is often a +dusty and dangerous process if it is not conducted in a confined space +ventilated by a shaft and fan. The white lead is mixed with oil and +converted into paint. When visiting the white lead works in Paris of +Messrs Expert-Besançon et Cie., a short while ago, I found that while +the old Dutch method of manufacture was in use there was an immunity +from plumbism among the employés that created a favourable impression +upon me. That freedom I found was in the main due to the following +circumstances: (1) no female labour was employed; (2) stoving was +practically done away with; (3) the white lead was taken direct from +the stacks to the rollers, where it was crushed and washed; then (4) +passed through a series of rollers and mixed with oil, which gradually +displaced the water,<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> so that a perfectly finished paint escaped +from the last roller, practically free from, or containing only a very +small percentage of water, and was passed automatically into casks, +thus abolishing some of the dusty and dangerous processes as well as +the handling of the white lead; (5) careful personal supervision of the +workers, and attention to cleanliness; (6) regular medical inspection; +and (7) alternation of employment. I reported to the Secretary of State +upon these facts, with the result that they were laid before the white +lead manufacturers of this country, many of whom adopted in a modified +form the practice observed in Besançon’s works. English makers have +since then informed me that it not only saves labour and therefore +cheapens production (the product itself not suffering in quality), but +has materially diminished the number of cases of lead poisoning in +their factories.</p> + +<p>White lead can be made by other methods. In what is known as the +<i>chamber</i> process strips of lead are suspended over parallel bars +in a chamber, which is heated by steam, and into which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span>carbonic +acid is passed, while acetic acid is present in pans on the floor. +The result is the same, viz., formation of white lead by a process of +corrosion, only the conversion is much more rapid, being four or five +weeks as against the ten to fifteen required by the stack process. +The subsequent treatment of the white lead is the same in both cases. +Much of the white lead manufactured in Germany is made by the chamber +process, and in that country emptying the chamber is regarded as +dangerous to health.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p290a" style="max-width: 317px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p290a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Interior of Stove for drying White +Lead.</p> + </div> + +<p>By the old Dutch process an excellent and very pure white lead is no +doubt produced. The drawbacks to the method are that it is tedious, +and that some parts of the process are extremely dusty, and therefore +dangerous. There have been various attempts to manufacture lead +carbonate by quicker methods, and of these the method of obtaining +white lead by the action of acetic acid and glycerine upon the red +oxide may be mentioned. In it the first step consists in reducing +metallic lead to litharge by placing pig-lead in a furnace and allowing +a jet of steam to play upon the vapour of the molten metal. The lead +oxide is subsequently crushed into a fine powder. This, as I saw it, +can be a very dusty and dangerous process. The red oxide is placed in +large revolving barrels along with acetic acid and glycerine, and the +churning is allowed to go on for about two hours. A greenish-white +liquid is the result, and this is allowed to escape from the barrels +into storage vats, from which it is conveyed into large cylinders +called <i>carbonators</i>. Into these carbonating tanks carbonic +dioxide obtained from burning coke and lime is conveyed, and the +gas is allowed to bubble through the mass for about an hour, when +carbonate or white lead is formed. After running off the supernatant +liquid, the deposited lead carbonate is removed through pipes to the +<i>presses</i>, where it is washed and any acetate that may cling to +it is removed. After this it is taken to the stoves, into which it is +run on a series of long narrow wagons, the workmen not entering the +stove at all. By the third day it is sufficiently dried to be ready for +packing or mixing with oil to make paint. This method of manufacture is +known as the <i>precipitation</i> process. In it there is no handling +of the white lead until it reaches the presses. The dangerous parts of +the process are: (1) the grinding of the lead oxide: this is dusty; +(2) the pressing: in this the men handle the white lead, and as a +consequence I have observed in young workmen marked anæmia, tremor +of muscles, colic, and the presence of a deep blue line on the gums; +and (3) filling the barrels with the finished white lead, when danger +arises from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span> inhalation of dust. In some works ammonia is substituted +for glycerine. Conducted as an experiment, white lead manufactured on +the lines just detailed is extremely satisfactory, but financially it +is not very successful. Although the precipitation process is more +rapid it is more costly, and as a consequence factory after factory +which has adopted this method has been obliged to close.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of white lead by the <i>Bischof</i> process the +first stage consists, after converting metallic lead into litharge, +in the reduction of the litharge to suboxide in gas-tight cylinders +by means of water gas at a temperature of about 300° C. The suboxide +is moistened in mechanical mixers with water, and converted into +hydrate. By means of carbonic acid, dilute acetic acid and glycerine, +the hydrate is converted into white lead in a gas-tight apparatus, and +after separation of the liquid and washing of the sludge, the aqueous +white lead is mixed with oil by mechanical means, and becoming thus +ordinary white lead paint, it is packed ready for the market. No female +labour is employed in the factory. The manufacture of white lead by +the Bischof process at the time of writing is still to a large extent +experimental, but it gives promise of commercial success. As the work +is done by machinery, and is for the most part wet, there is no dust +given off. The only possible unhealthy part of the process I observed +was the mixing of the suboxide of lead with water, but where this is +done mechanically, as I presume it can be in chambers provided with +ventilating shafts, all danger can be averted.</p> + +<p>In white lead factories the dangerous processes are emptying the +white beds, washing the incompletely converted metallic lead plates, +crushing, grinding, sifting, filling the pots with white lead for the +stoves, emptying the stoves and packing the barrels with the dry white +lead. It is the continual absorption into the body of very minute +quantities of lead compounds either by the pulmonary or digestive tract +that causes plumbism. The skin, too, offers another channel by which +it may enter the system. Although it is usually in the form of dust +that lead enters the body, it can also enter it in the form of fume, +and possibly, too, mixed with steam in which the particles of lead are +either dissolved or suspended.</p> + +<p>Lead carbonate is an extremely fine white powder, and is largely sought +after as a pigment by house painters, by plumbers for searing joints, +and by pottery manufacturers for making the glazes in which the ware is +dipped. As a pigment it is said by a large number of house decorators +to be superior to any other.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span> There is a decided preference in the +trade, too, for that made by the stack process. It always commands a +higher price, the reason being that it is believed to have much greater +covering power than white lead made by some of the other processes. +On account of white lead being such a dangerous product, both in its +manufacture and manipulation, the question of finding a suitable +substitute has often been raised. This subject was carefully gone into +by the White Lead Committee a few years ago.</p> + +<p>Zinc white, for example, was recommended, but the opinion come to was +that while zinc oxide was practically free from the dangers incidental +to lead carbonate, and answered well for internal decoration, for +covering purposes and endurance in all kinds of weather there was no +pigment equal to white lead. It is this widespread belief among house +painters generally that makes white lead such a valuable commercial +product.</p> + +<p>The question of finding a substitute for white lead has not been +confined to Britain alone. One hundred and twenty years ago, Courtois +presented to the Academy of Dijon some zinc white, which was +remarkable on account of its permanence, and in 1783 Guyton de Morveau +recommended, from hygienic motives and on account of its chemical +properties, zinc oxide for lead carbonate. Ten years ago a small +representative committee reported to the Commission des Logements +Insalubres of the city of Paris upon zinc white as a likely substitute. +As far back as 1849 the Minister of Public Works ordered that all the +Government buildings in France were to be painted with zinc oxide +instead of lead carbonate, and although in 1852 the Minister of the +Interior followed with a similar request to the various prefects, +the resolution remained a dead letter. It was indicated to a fresh +committee, appointed in 1891, that from an economic and industrial +point of view, zinc white was inferior to white lead, that it had +no great covering power, little durability, that it cost more, and +that therefore the painting of State buildings by it would entail an +unjustifiable expense. Some persons, on the other hand, held the belief +that zinc white possessed just as good covering properties, so long as +it was mixed with a larger proportion of oil and less of turpentine, +and that the painter gave a sufficient amount of attention to his +work so as to make the coating flat, also that it was not so readily +blackened by sulphurous vapours. As for the increased expense, it was +to be remembered that if zinc white costs more, it is also less heavy, +and therefore weight for weight gives a larger body of material. The +Commission, taking into consideration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span> the hygiene of dwellings, the +health of the workers, and the interest of landlords, and having the +choice of two substances before it, of which one is almost harmless, +and the other a strong poison, adopted the following resolutions: (1) +the employment of zinc white to the exclusion of white lead will be +specified in all the orders for painting; (2) the Commission renews the +wish expressed in 1880 in regard to the exclusion of white lead in all +public works. No special action followed these recommendations. Within +the last few months the question has again been raised in France, and +on this occasion more vigorously than before. The operative painters +met in congress, and passed resolutions denouncing the use of lead in +the manufacture of paint, and demanding that the law for compensation +for accidents should be extended to include cases of plumbism. To the +painters’ representatives the Minister of Commerce, at a personal +interview, while admitting that the law on accidents was imperfect, +stated that it was too soon to hope for its amendment. He undertook to +do all he could to enforce the decree of 1849, that no more lead should +be employed in painting and decorating State buildings. In France zinc +sulphide, oxysulphide, and oxide have all been tried as substitutes +for white lead, but although there is a belief that these can replace +lead carbonate, there is an unwillingness on the part of architects +and house-painters to discontinue the use of lead. In Britain +other chemical compounds in addition to the above have been tried, +<i>e.g.</i> sulphate of barium, but although this is a beautifully +white substance, it does not mix so well with oil nor has it the +covering power of white lead. The surface of the object painted can be +seen through the coating of barium sulphate, a circumstance probably +due to the fact that the barium salt exists in a more highly developed +crystalline form than the lead compound.</p> + +<p>In March 1901 the Comité Consultatif d’Hygiène of France reported upon +this subject<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> that the manufacture of white lead has become less and +less the harmful industry it was owing to the Expert-Besançon process +of grinding and mixing the white lead in water, with the subsequent +addition of oil as it passes through the rollers, careful medical +examination of the workmen employed, and the removal from the works +of those who seem to be susceptible to plumbism, or are inclined to +the free use of alcohol. The Committee of Hygiene recognises that +in house painters, want of cleanliness, also the excessive use of +alcohol and absinthe, are responsible for much of the lead poisoning, +and therefore,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> since it is impossible to regulate and control the +habits of these men, they ought to be provided with paints which do +not contain such an injurious substance as white lead. In zinc white +the committee is of opinion that a proper substitute can be found for +lead for most purposes. Many architects and builders still object to +the use of zinc white, but there are many, on the other hand, who claim +for it the same advantages as regards covering power and endurance, +and who maintain that when exposed to sulphuretted vapour it forms a +sulphide which is white compared with the black sulphide similarly +obtained from lead. The zinc coating dries more slowly, and there is +therefore some loss of time; the work of laying on, too, may be a +little more difficult, and for polishing purposes zinc mastics do not +harden so well. Zinc is not so good in calico-printing as white lead. +There are some things therefore, the committee admits, that lead may +be better for than zinc. It is also admitted that even zinc oxide may +be accidentally contaminated by small quantities of arsenic and lead, +also that it is slightly more expensive—for example, it costs 0.0152 +franc more for each metre of work done. The committee concludes its +report by stating that both in the manufacture of zinc white and in its +application as a paint it is free from the dangers incidental to lead, +and therefore it is worthy of a lengthened trial as forming the basis +of colours for house painting, since there is a considerable amount of +educated opinion to show that it can be substituted for white lead. +The French Government is asked to set the example by having the public +buildings painted with oxide of zinc.</p> + +<p>No industry, unless, perhaps, it be that of pottery manufacture, has +caused so much plumbism as the manufacture of white lead, and yet in +none has strict attention to regulations and personal hygiene been so +productive of good as in these two industries.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> The bulk of the +work is unskilled labour. In Newcastle and neighbourhood, until the +last three years, most of the work in the dangerous processes was +performed by women who led rather a casual life, and who took to the +trade as a last resource, owing to the idleness, illness, or death of +their parents or husbands. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span> were mostly of the poorest class, +and were often ill-fed and ill-clad. After a few weeks or, at the +most, a few months of pretty regular employment in a lead factory, +particularly if much of the time was spent in stripping the white +beds or emptying the stoves, young women would suffer severely from +plumbism. As already stated, I have known young women who were strong +and healthy when they entered a white lead factory, die from Saturnine +poisoning within three months. In one instance a young woman had, to my +knowledge, only worked forty days, spread over a period of nine weeks, +when she succumbed to lead poisoning. I am firmly convinced that women, +especially young women, are much more susceptible to plumbism than +men. The predisposition to lead poisoning is in both sexes doubtless +spread over all periods of life, but so far as occupation exposure to +lead is concerned, my opinion is (1) that women are more susceptible +than men; (2) that while female liability is greatest between the ages +of eighteen and twenty-three years, that of men is later; and (3) +that while females rapidly break down in health under the influence +of lead, men can work a longer time in the factory without suffering, +their resistance apparently being greater. In addition to a sexual +predisposition to plumbism there is also an individual and a family +tendency as well. It is difficult to explain this susceptibility of +certain persons to lead poisoning. As to the fact, however, there is no +doubt. It is partly a constitutional, and it may be partly a temporary +and accidental condition. We find illustrations of constitutional +predisposition to certain maladies in the greater liability of some +people, for instance, to contract infectious diseases than others, +in the readiness, for example, with which they catch typhoid fever +and suffer severely from it. We have similar illustrations of the +influence of age in the early years of adult life being those in which +enteric fever is most severe. As<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span> an indication of how susceptibility +to plumbism may be accidentally and temporarily developed, I would +instance the influence of poverty, which, by preventing the purchase +of wholesome and abundant food, allows the gastric juice probably to +dissolve out more of the lead that has been swallowed. No doubt much +of the greater prevalence of plumbism hitherto observed in women who +have worked in white lead factories is to be explained by the fact +that they have until recently worked in larger numbers than the men in +the dangerous processes, for since June 1898, the date in which the +Home Office required that male should replace female labour in these +processes, the number of cases of plumbism in the men has increased, +and correspondingly decreased among the women. Taking for example +my own district, the number of cases of plumbism notified to the +Home Office from Newcastle-upon-Tyne for the two six months’ periods +preceding and succeeding June 1898, the date of the displacement of +female by male labour, is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht3" rowspan="5">1st December 1897 to 31st May 1898</td> + <td class="ctr smcap" colspan="2">Notifications.</td> + <td class="ctr smcap" colspan="2">Fatal Cases.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctr">Females.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">19</td> + <td class="ctr">66</td> + <td class="ctr">1</td> + <td class="ctr">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="brckt ctr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + <td class="brckt ctr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr" colspan="2">85</td> + <td class="ctr" colspan="2">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht3" rowspan="3">1st June to 30th November 1898</td> + <td class="ctr">82</td> + <td class="ctr">12</td> + <td class="ctr">0</td> + <td class="ctr">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="brckt ctr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + <td class="brckt ctr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr" colspan="2">94</td> + <td class="ctr" colspan="2">2</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Between January and October 1898, Dr M. Legge states that there were +received at the Home Office from certifying surgeons, 192 reports of +plumbism. Of these the stoves supplied 76 patients and the white beds +31. The ages of the workers being—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr3">Under 20 yrs.</td> + <td class="ctr3">20 to 30.</td> + <td class="ctr3">30 to 40.</td> + <td class="ctr3">40 to 50.</td> + <td class="ctr3">50 to 60.</td> + <td class="ctr3">Over 60 yrs.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">7</td> + <td class="ctr">84</td> + <td class="ctr">58</td> + <td class="ctr">24</td> + <td class="ctr">15</td> + <td class="ctr">1</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In three instances the patients had worked less than one week in the +factory. In four-fifths of the total cases the lead poisoning took +the form of colic, in the remaining one-fifth paralysis and cerebral +symptoms.</p> + +<p>Next to the susceptibility of women generally, and of young women +in particular, I would say that all young adult life offers less +resistance to plumbism than mature and middle age. In the House of +Commons, 17th February 1898, the Home Secretary stated that there had +been 37 cases of lead poisoning in factories and lead works among boys +under eighteen years of age which had proved fatal.</p> + +<p>Looking back upon the tables just presented, it will be observed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span> that +when males undertake the work hitherto discharged by females in white +lead factories they develop plumbism in a ratio which might raise +doubt in the mind of the reader as to the susceptibility of women to +plumbism being greater than that of men. Admitting for the moment that +the susceptibility is equal in the two sexes, and the fact, too, that +in both the illness may be severe, still I unhesitatingly assert that +in the main the symptoms are neither so severe in men, nor does the +malady run so rapidly to a fatal termination as it does in women. In a +word, females contract lead poisoning more readily, the symptoms are +usually more acute, they suffer more severely, and they succumb to it +more quickly than males. In women acute lead poisoning is more prone +to assume the cerebral type than in men. We have, it is true, only the +experience of the last three years to enable us to form an opinion as +to the abolition of female labour in the dangerous processes of white +lead manufacture having been a wise recommendation on the part of the +White Lead Commission, but limited as the time is, the records of the +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Royal Infirmary are not devoid of interest on this +point.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">LEAD POISONING.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>In-patients admitted into Royal Infirmary, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Total.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Recoveries.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Deaths.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Remaining<br>on Books.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1892</td> + <td class="ctrr">44</td> + <td class="ctrr">15</td> + <td class="ctrr">27</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1893</td> + <td class="ctrr">32</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">25</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894</td> + <td class="ctrr">31</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">20</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">35</td> + <td class="ctrr">11</td> + <td class="ctrr">18</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">38</td> + <td class="ctrr">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">22</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">21</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">22</td> + <td class="ctrr">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrr">20</td> + <td class="ctrr">19</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1900</td> + <td class="ctrrb">14</td> + <td class="ctrrb">14</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="center">It will be observed that the number of deaths is equal for the +two sexes.</p> +</div> + +<p>A decade ago the Newcastle Infirmary wards were scarcely ever clear +of a case or two of lead poisoning. At present weeks or months may +pass without one being in the wards. Beyond male labour having been +substituted for that of females in the dangerous processes in the +factories, and the circumstance that men are believed to do more work +than women, I am not aware that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> there has been any reduction<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> in +the number of people engaged in white lead manufacture on Tyneside that +will explain the smaller number of cases of plumbism coming into the +Infirmary, nor beyond the workhouses is there any other institution in +this neighbourhood, other than the Royal Infirmary, to which patients +suffering from plumbism could go. During 1898, the year in which men +exchanged places with the women in the dangerous departments in white +lead factories, the number of cases of plumbism admitted into the +Infirmary was slightly greater than for one or two of the previous +years, a circumstance possibly explained by the greater irregularity +of work on the part both of the men and women, and the fact that the +men were of a casual class and had not become accustomed to the work. +Immediately after the abolition of female labour, not only is there +observed a marked fall in the number of female admissions, but there +is this astonishing feature, that while during 1900 only 14 cases, +all males, were admitted, for the first time in the history of the +Newcastle Infirmary within our memory a whole year passed without +even one female being received. During the last three years, as also +during 1893–1894, no death from acute lead poisoning took place in +the Infirmary. There has been, too, a remarkable absence lately in +the Newcastle daily press of announcements of coroner’s inquests +having been held upon fatal cases of lead poisoning in the district +compared with what there was a few years ago. Nothing could be stronger +testimony to the wisdom of the Home Office in having enforced the +recommendations than these facts. Although the manufacturers at the +time strongly resisted the recommendation of the White Lead Committee, +I believe they now<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> admit that it was a proper step, also that work +under the present system is better done than formerly, and that there +is less sickness among the employés. The difficulty of substituting +male for female labour, which manufacturers anticipated and which was +their principal objection, has not been realised; the men do more +work, and therefore the cost of production has not been increased, +although wages have been higher; the men, too, are more cleanly. +Improved methods of manufacture and diminished handling of products +have doubtless contributed also to this satisfactory result. As the men +have come to recognise the dangerous character of their occupation, +and have made up their minds to follow it until they can get something +better, they have become more careful, and therefore suffer less in +proportion from plumbism. Casual work and irregularity of employment +certainly play a not unimportant part in causing lead poisoning. The +casual labourer is often ignorant and careless. As these pages are +passing through the press, a man who had been stripping a white bed in +a factory on Tyneside was found eating food with hands unwashed and +covered with dust, while his face and beard showed only too plainly +the presence of the same material. He stated that he had not been +informed of any danger, and that no regulations had been read out to +him. How easily, therefore, lead poisoning may be caused and almost as +easily prevented. Dr Morison Legge found that of 1463 persons employed +off and on in white lead works, the incidence of lead poisoning was 6 +per cent. of the average number regularly employed, and in those with +casual employment 39 per cent. Taking the whole number of hands passing +through white lead factories in a year, the difference between these +two, however, is less marked than at first appears, the numbers being +5 per cent. for the employed and 8.3 for the casual workers. Out of +thirteen factories with regular employment four of them had no cases of +plumbism to report at all, even although in one of these factories 110 +persons were employed, whereas from two factories in which there was a +large amount of casual employment 50 cases of plumbism were reported. +The reasons why casual hands suffer more than those regularly employed +are to be found in their carelessness and want of personal cleanliness, +intemperate habits as regards alcohol, tobacco-chewing when at work, +and unwillingness to wear respirators. During 1900 there were reported +to the Home Office 356 cases of plumbism in white lead workers, but Dr +Legge says, if two firms, one in Newcastle and the other in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span> London, +were excluded from the 18 firms, the total would fall to 175.</p> + +<p>I have dwelt at considerable length on female labour and casual +employment in lead works, and I hope have shown that the abolition +of women’s work in white lead factories has been followed by marked +improvement both in the conditions of labour and in the reduced +number of cases of plumbism. Female labour, however, is still very +largely employed in other trades where lead compounds are used. It +may therefore be expected that I should offer some explanation of +the attitude I have assumed in regard to this important industrial +question. Where the two sexes are as far as possible equally exposed to +the influence of lead, women probably suffer more rapidly, certainly +more severely than men. To a certain extent the reason is to be found +in the fact that lead exercises an injurious influence upon the +reproductive functions of women. It deranges menstruation. Usually +there is an excessive loss at the monthly periods, which causes women +to become anæmic; in a few instances, on the other hand, the loss is +scanty. It is upon pregnant women that the metal exercises its worst +effects. The ecbolic or abortifacient action of lead is beyond dispute. +It is knowledge of this fact that has caused women of the lower classes +when pregnant to resort to diachylon pills, which contain a small +quantity of lead, for the purpose of producing miscarriage. When a +white lead worker becomes pregnant it is almost impossible for her to +go to the end of term if she continues to follow her employment. As a +rule she mis*-carries, but if, perchance, she goes to term, the child +is either born dead, or dies shortly after birth from convulsions. In +the liver and kidneys of still-born children of female lead workers +that I submitted to Professor Bedson for chemical analysis, there were +found minute quantities of lead. Chemical analysis, therefore, confirms +clinical experience as regards the cause of death in these children. +As to the injurious influence of lead upon maternity I shall give a +few illustrations taken from my own and others’ experience. Mrs H., +aged thirty-five, worked in a white lead factory for six years, before +which she had four children born at full time. Since going to the lead +works she has had nine miscarriages in succession and no living child. +Mrs M., aged thirty, has had seven children and three miscarriages. +The last two children were born and all the miscarriages took place +after entering the lead factory. Mrs F. has had three miscarriages +since taking up lead work. Mrs K., aged thirty-four, had four<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span> living +children before going into the lead factory, and two living children +afterwards. Still following her occupation, she had six miscarriages +in succession, became the subject of plumbism, and was under my care +in the Infirmary for a few months on account of colic and paralysis; +she made a good recovery, but did not return to the lead factory; next +pregnancy she went to term and had a living child, which survived. If +additional medical testimony were required to support the opinion I +have put forward as to the pernicious influence of lead upon maternity, +it is to be found in that of M. Constantin Paul, a French physician, +who has published in detail his experience of 15 pregnancies of 4 +women working in a type foundry. Ten of these pregnancies ended in +abortion, 2 in premature labour, 1 in a still-birth, and 1 in a living +child, who died a few hours after birth. In another series the facts +are just as instructive. Five women before working in lead had borne +9 children without one abortion. After exposure to lead there was a +total of 36 pregnancies. Of these, 26 ended in abortion, 1 in premature +labour, 2 in still-births, while 5 of the children born at full time +died within one year after birth. Constantin Paul, grouping together a +large number of pregnancies, viz., 123, found that of these, 64 ended +in abortion, 4 in premature confinement, 5 children were born dead, +and 20 of the infants died within the first twelve months. Of 1000 +pregnancies reported by Tardien, 609 ended in abortion (<i>Poisons +Industriels</i>, Office du Travail, Paris 1901, p. 5). In the potteries +Miss Paterson and Miss Deane, two of H.M. Inspectors of Factories,<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> +found that “out of the 77 married women reported as suffering from +lead poisoning during this period (the year ended 31st March 1897) +15 have been childless and have had no miscarriages; 8 have had 21 +still-born children, 35 have had 90 miscarriages, and of these, 15 +have had no child born; 36 have had 101 living children, of whom 61 +are still alive, the great majority of the 40 who are dead succumbed +to convulsions in infancy.” Dr J. F. Arlidge,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> Certifying Surgeon +for Stoke, has published his experience of 239 married women working in +lead processes in the china and earthenware industry. Of the children +born before the mothers worked in lead 40.4 per cent. died. Of each +100 pregnancies there were 7.0 miscarriages, while, during or after +lead employment, of the children born only 36.5 per cent. died, and +the percentage of miscarriages was 11.8. Of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span> 239 women there were +71 who had had no children prior to working in lead. These 71 women +had subsequently 302 children (of whom 114 died) and 38 miscarriages; +that is, for every 100 children born 37.7 died, and 11.1 of every 100 +pregnancies resulted in miscarriage. Dr J. F. Arlidge’s statistics +show that in female pottery workers employed in lead processes the +percentage of miscarriages is higher than in those engaged in other +departments, but neither is this nor the death-rate of children born +under these circumstances so great as M. Paul, Tardien, and I have +found.</p> + +<p>If lead exercises a prejudicial effect upon the reproductive powers of +women it is also capable, although to a less degree, of diminishing the +virility of men. Children of female lead workers almost invariably die +of convulsions shortly after birth or during the first twelve months. +If a child is the offspring of parents, both of whom are lead workers, +it is puny and ill-nourished, and is either born dead, or dies a few +hours after birth. The power of lead not only to kill the offspring +but to destroy for the time being the child-bearing powers of woman +is remarkable, and it is this circumstance, along with the fact that +women suffer more readily and severely from lead poisoning, that are +the main arguments for keeping them out of the dangerous processes +in any industry in which lead compounds are used. It is through the +intermediary of the temporary structure known as the “after-birth” +that the poison is transmitted to the fœtus <i>in utero</i>. Roques +(<i>Mouvement Medical</i>, 1872), is of opinion that a mother working +in lead conveys through her milk to the child she is suckling the +metallic poison, and that there is produced a slow and progressive +deterioration of the infant’s constitution. Prof. Bedson has analysed +for me the milk of suckling lead workers without finding any trace of +lead therein. Whether or not lead is only occasionally present in the +mammary secretion, it is undesirable that women who have an infant at +the breast should work in the dangerous processes.</p> + +<p>Lead is a subtle poison. Most of its salts have in small doses no +unpleasant taste nor odour, they are very soluble, and they produce +their baneful effects sometimes in such an insidious manner that the +health of the operative becomes so gradually undermined that he is +often precipitated into a serious illness without any warning. In +most instances, however, there are prodromata, for lead causes colic +or severe pain in the abdomen. Usually this is one of the earliest +symptoms to cause a lead worker to seek medical advice, while in +others, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span> just mentioned, there is such a gradual deterioration +of health that it is not until the system is thoroughly impregnated +with lead and pathological changes have been established in the +internal organs that the individual comes for relief. Lead poisoning +is widespread owing to the large number of industries into which +lead in some form or other enters, and the accidental contamination +of our food and drink. The metal gains an entrance into the system +through the respiratory passages, the digestive canal, and very +occasionally through the skin. It has been demonstrated clinically +that the injection of acetate of lead up the nostril has resulted +in the absorption of the salt by the nasal mucous membrane, and the +production of paralysis. How far very fine white lead dust falling +upon the eyelids may be dissolved in the lachrymal secretion and be +absorbed, I am not at present in a position to state. Inhaled as +impalpable dust, it is drawn into the respiratory passages, where it is +dissolved and passes into the blood, or it is suspended in the saliva +in the mouth and swallowed. On reaching the stomach it is acted upon by +the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, converted into a soluble +salt, and absorbed. Elsewhere<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> I have given in detail a series of +experiments showing the solubility of white lead in the juices of +different parts of the digestive tract, which, while confirming, at +the same time explains the important fact already known to managers of +white lead factories, viz., the great danger of employés commencing +work in the factory in the morning without having breakfasted. As lead +is a direct poison to the system, nature does her best to eliminate it +by the fæces and through the kidneys.</p> + +<p>The symptoms of plumbism are manifold. Usually easy of recognition, +they are sometimes so obscure as to render the malady difficult +of detection even by a careful physician. One of the earliest +signs is pallor of the countenance. There is developed a degree of +anæmia which gradually increases until the features become altered +and expressionless, a form of bloodlessness which since it is +characteristic of lead poisoning, is spoken of as Saturnine cachexia. +This becomes very pronounced, so that it is easy to recognise lead +workers by sight. A few weeks’ work will transform a healthy-looking, +florid young woman or man into a pallid and listless individual. During +the time that pallor is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span> developing, the individual often complains of +a disagreeable metallic taste in the mouth, especially on rising in +the morning, and of a distaste for food, so that he proceeds to his +work in the morning without breaking his fast. There is no more certain +way of courting plumbism than for any one to work in a factory where +lead compounds are handled without having food in his stomach. This +is a fact which the digestive experiments alluded to in my Gulstonian +Lectures have placed beyond all question. It was therefore not only a +humane action, but it was a wise step, from a white lead manufacturer’s +point of view, when the employers gave a free breakfast to their +hands before beginning work each morning in the factory, and it was a +short-sighted policy that led them to abandon it.</p> + +<p>Two forms of lead poisoning are met with, the <i>acute</i> and +<i>chronic</i>. It is with lead as with many other poisons. One +individual may work for several months or years without suffering, +while another may succumb to its harmful influence in as many weeks. +The manufacture of white lead is one of the industries that will not +allow of familiarity breeding contempt. The most careful worker may +suffer, so too may the oldest who has passed unscathed for years. +Alcoholic excess predisposes to plumbism. Why colic is such a common +and early symptom of Saturnine poisoning is because the alimentary +canal is one of the principal channels by which lead enters the +system, and lead is known to have a special affinity for muscular +fibre and nerve tissue, and to induce spasm. Colic is often attended +by vomiting and by obstinate constipation. The pain is of varying +degrees of severity. Sometimes it is so mild that the individual is +able to follow his occupation but in discomfort. At other times it +is so severe that he rolls about in agony, and is with difficulty +kept in bed. Occasionally relieved by pressure of the hand upon the +abdomen, it is under other circumstances often aggravated by it. The +pulse is slow, small, and feeble during the attack, although at times +it is found to be hard and showing high tension. In severe colic the +individual is collapsed—the face wears an anxious expression—there +is sleeplessness, and the function of the kidneys is seriously +impaired. Notwithstanding the severe nature of the pain in lead colic +and the general derangement of internal functions, the symptoms by +degrees yield to treatment. After recovery most of those who have +been ill return too early to their employment. One attack of plumbism +unfortunately predisposes to another. On examining the mouth of a lead +worker there is usually to be seen a bluish line along<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span> the margin of +the gums close to the teeth. The gums are ulcerated, and in the case +of old lead workers they are retracted, and thus expose a considerable +length of the fang. Although a valuable help in diagnosis, the presence +of the blue line on the gums must not be regarded as an indication +that the individual possessing it is at the time suffering from lead +poisoning, for the line may be present for months without there being +either any complaint or any symptom of ill-health. It tells the tale +that the individual has been exposed to lead, and that the metal is +present in his system, so that when associated with certain other signs +and symptoms the presence of the blue line on the gums clenches the +diagnosis of plumbism. The line itself is due to a deposit of sulphide +of lead in the epithelial cells of the gum or in the large connective +tissue cells present along the ulcerated edges. The blue line is met +with under two different circumstances. It may be observed on the sound +gums of white lead workers who have recently entered a factory, and who +have been employed for a few hours in emptying a stove. If the mouth is +rinsed with water it disappears, a circumstance which shows that this +line is simply a deposit of lead on and not in the gum. The other is +much more permanent: it persists for months despite the use of mouth +washes and the administration of medicine internally. I know of no +mouth wash, tooth paste, or drug that is capable of removing the blue +line from the gum under from eight to twelve weeks.</p> + +<p>It is upon the nervous system that the worst effects of lead are +seen. Usually after having experienced one or more attacks of colic, +but sometimes without these, a lead worker suddenly or gradually +loses power in his hands and fingers. His hands become paralysed, +hang powerless by his side, and the patient is said to be suffering +from “wrist drop.” This renders him unable to feed or dress himself. +Both hands are usually affected, but not in equal degree. Bilateral +paralysis is always suggestive of some form of metallic poisoning. In +“wrist drop” the extensor muscles of the fingers and wrists rapidly +waste. As a rule the affection is painless, but in some instances the +loss of power is preceded by muscular tenderness. The muscles of the +shoulders and upper arm, too, may be affected, or the weakness affects +the muscles of the foot, and causes “ankle drop.” When the malady is +of a more pronounced type the muscles of the trunk become paralysed. +In this form the individual is perfectly helpless: he lies like a +log, unable to turn or move himself in bed, and for the time being +his condition is usually one of danger. It is characteristic of lead +paralysis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span> even in such minor forms as “wrist drop,” that it not only +completely unfits the individual to earn his living, but to attend to +his own personal wants. The paralysis is slow to disappear even when +medicine, massage, and electricity are used.</p> + +<p>One of the worst forms of acute plumbism is what is known as acute lead +<i>encephalopathy</i>, and to this women seem to be more predisposed +than men. A female lead worker has perhaps been observed by her friends +to have been getting paler and paler, and to have lost her appetite. +She complains on getting up in the morning of severe headache which +prevents her taking food, but notwithstanding these she goes to work, +and is probably not more than an hour or two in the lead factory when +she is seen to fall on the floor in convulsions. She is unconscious, +and the convulsions come and go. In this condition she is taken home or +to an infirmary, where within the next two days she dies, never having +regained consciousness; or by the third day consciousness returns, but +she keeps moaning on account of severe pain in her head. It is now +noticed that she is blind; she loathes her food and is often sick. +Recovery is slow. The power of vision may be gradually restored, or it +remains permanently lost, and thus it happens that, at a comparatively +early age, a young woman who has only worked in the dangerous +processes of a white lead factory for a few weeks or months, and who +has suffered from acute encephalopathy, not only swims for her life +during the seizure, but may be rendered permanently blind, and thereby +completely unable ever afterwards to earn her living. In the form +of lead encephalopathy that I have just portrayed, there is usually +some premonitory headache before the individual is struck down in +convulsions, but in not a few instances the warning is of another kind, +and of such a nature that it may be overlooked even by experienced +medical men. I refer to symptoms of hysteria occurring unexpectedly +in a young female lead worker. The patient does not seem ill. There +is rather an exaltation than depression of her mental faculties and +her feelings, and yet out of what appears to be ordinary hysteria the +patient may pass into a state of coma, with or without convulsions, +and die within three or four days. Under any circumstance it is a very +fine line that divides functional from organic disease of the brain, +and in lead poisoning this is particularly the case. To <i>toxic +hysteria</i>, therefore, which often masks a deeper malady and is apt +to throw both the friends of the patient and the medical attendant +off their guard, I attach considerable importance as a premonition of +acute lead encephalopathy. We have seen that after recovery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span> from acute +encephalopathy a patient may remain temporarily or permanently blind, +and there may or may not be paralysis, but in some instances the mind +is so shattered by the illness that complete consciousness is never +regained. The patient passes into a state of acute mania, which is +usually fatal, or the symptoms are subacute, recovery is incomplete, +and the individual passes the remainder of his or her days in an asylum.</p> + +<p>The question of insanity in lead workers has been very ably dealt with +by Dr Robert Jones,<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> the Medical Superintendent of the London County +Asylum, Claybury, Essex. Taking the proportion of 1 lead worker, in the +broad sense of the word, to every 58 of the adult population, there +ought to be in Claybury 18 male patients belonging to that class. As +a matter of fact, however, out of 1050 males in the asylum, there are +35 who have been lead workers, plumbers, painters, and glaziers, but +excluding pottery workers and miners. In examining the histories of +3500 male patients admitted into Claybury, Dr Jones found that of these +133 were artisans, who in their trade had possibly become impregnated +with lead; their occupation was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Painters</td> + <td class="right">75</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Decorators</td> + <td class="right">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Plumbers</td> + <td class="right">18</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Gasfitters</td> + <td class="right">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Labourers in lead works</td> + <td class="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Grainers</td> + <td class="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Gasmeter Makers</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Colour Grinder</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">File Cutter</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Tea Lead Roller</td> + <td class="rightb">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="rightbd">133</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Of these, 19 had signs of lead poisoning upon admission, such as +paralysis, colic, and blue line on gums, while in 22 there was a +history of convulsions (encephalopathy), headache, giddiness, and +paralysis. Of the 133 cases the following is the analysis of their +mental condition:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Mania</td> + <td class="right">37</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Melancholia</td> + <td class="right">33</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Dementia</td> + <td class="right">19</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Dementia with Epilepsy</td> + <td class="right">10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Dementia with General Paralysis</td> + <td class="right">24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">(?) General Paralysis</td> + <td class="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Alcoholic Mania</td> + <td class="rightb">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="rightbd">133</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span></p> + +<p>“The proportion of general paralytics among these possible lead cases +is 18 per cent.: the average yearly percentage of general paralytics +to the total average number of male patients admitted into asylums for +the five years 1893–97 was 13.1, and it appears to me there is a strong +presumptive evidence that lead may be a factor in the cause of general +paralysis of the insane.” Elsewhere<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> I have drawn attention to the +association of lead poisoning and general paralysis, and indicated that +as there is in the plumbic form a larger percentage of recoveries than +in general paralysis proper, the probability is that the malady is not +exactly of the same nature, but is rather a pseudo-general paralysis. +Dr Jones summarises his conclusions thus: (1) that lead poisoning is +a contributory factor to insanity; (2) that the mental symptoms may +be grouped among one or other of the following varieties: (<i>a</i>) +toxæmia, with sensory disturbances, which tend to get well; (<i>b</i>) +hallucinations of sight and hearing, usually chronic and irrecoverable; +(<i>c</i>) general paralysis with tremors, increased knee-jerks, +inco-ordination, listlessness, and dementia, which tend to get well.</p> + +<p>So far I have depicted the acute rather than the chronic form of lead +poisoning. There still remains that form in which the individual, +after having been exposed for a lengthened period to the influence of +lead, and having experienced one or more attacks of colic, indicating +that his system is becoming impregnated with lead, is never well; he +is profoundly anæmic, is the subject of frequent headache, imperfect +vision, and incomplete wrist drop. Albumen is present in the urine, +and there is a slight degree of dropsy of the face, hands, and feet, +physical signs that point with these just mentioned to structural +alterations having occurred in the kidneys, liver, heart, and +blood-vessels, retina, and nervous system. Life drags on from day to +day, only to end in a lingering illness, or it is brought to a sudden +close either by uræmic convulsions, or in consequence of rupture of a +blood-vessel in the brain. At the post-mortem examination in chronic +cases the kidneys and liver are found to be hard and their secreting +structure replaced by a low form of connective tissue, while in acute +lead encephalopathy the brain may be dry on its surface and retracted, +on section hard and dry, or watery and pale, the blood-vessels being +congested. On microscopic examination very delicate changes have +been found in some of the large nerve-cells of the brain and spinal +cord, and also in the structure of the liver and kidneys. What, then, +is the cause of death in acute lead encephalopathy?<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span> In most of my +own fatal cases, lead was detected in the liver, kidneys, muscles, +and brain, etc. To the fact that lead has been found in the brain, +and has probably formed some complex chemical compound with it, may +be attributed the convulsive seizures, insanity, and possibly, too, +death. At the most it has always been a very minute quantity of lead +that has been found in the brain after death. In one of my patients +Professor Bedson found on chemical analysis only O.779 grain in a +brain and cerebellum that together weighed 51.5 ounces: while from +another brain and cerebellum that weighed 48 ounces, he obtained only +0.634 grain of lead. From another brain Professor Bedson removed 4.04 +milligrammes of lead, while in a case reported by Mr Wynter Blyth +there were 99.7 milligrammes of sulphate of lead found in the brain +and 17.4 in the cerebellum. A brain whose nerve-cells have become +poisoned by lead cannot functionate as in health, but as in some of the +rapidly fatal cases of encephalopathy, occurring in young female lead +workers hitherto healthy, no trace of the metal was detected in the +brain on careful chemical examination, death must have been caused by +some other circumstance than the hypothetical presence of lead in the +brain. The human body is a laboratory, wherein even in health animal +products are hourly being formed, and which if retained in the system +would poison the individual. Were it not for the activity of such +eliminating organs as the kidneys and bowels, life would be constantly +menaced by this auto-intoxication. Lead in some people rapidly induces +structural changes in the liver and kidneys, or it quickly interferes +with the functional activity of these organs, so that poisonous +materials generated by the individual himself are not removed. It is +the circulation of these in the system and their action upon the brain, +aided probably by the presence of a soluble compound of lead in the +blood, that is the cause of the convulsions and death in some cases of +acute lead encephalopathy. Occasionally lead workers are admitted into +hospital suffering from convulsions and delirium, which are not due to +lead, or at any rate to lead alone. In many of these cases there is +a strong alcoholic history, that it is difficult to say how much is +due to lead and how much to alcohol. Alcohol we know predisposes to +plumbism.</p> + + +<h3><i>Treatment—Preventive and Curative.</i></h3> + +<p>Of precautionary measures requiring mention I would allude to the +avoidance of excess of all kinds on the part of the workpeople,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span> +including the use of alcohol; to the need of nutritious food, plenty +of milk, and the avoidance of acid fruits; attention to personal +cleanliness as secured by frequent washing, change of working clothes, +good ventilation of the workrooms, and the wearing of respirators.</p> + +<p>A year ago, M. Armand Gautier presented to the Prefect of Police in +Paris a report in which he showed that in Paris alone there were +upwards of 30,000 persons exposed to the fumes, dust, and combinations +of lead, and that the hospital treatment of the working people whose +illness was due to lead poisoning cost the municipality a very large +amount of money every year. In an earlier report presented to the +Council d’Hygiène, and dealing with the admissions into the hospitals +between 1870–80, he showed that this expense corresponded to a +residence of 11,140 days in these institutions. In 1881 the French +Government appointed a Commission to inquire into the prevalence of +lead poisoning, and to draw out regulations. The enforcement of the +rules was followed by a decided improvement in the number of cases. +From 1881 to 1883 the number of patients fell from 552 to 421, and the +number of days spent by patients in the hospitals fell one-half. This +satisfactory decrease, however, was not maintained, despite the fact +that the Clichy white lead works, which used to contribute nearly 50 +per cent. of lead cases, was closed, and new methods of production +had been introduced. So far as white lead works are concerned, there +is not the least doubt that the substitution of the moist for the dry +method of dealing with lead carbonate materially diminished the amount +of ill-health among the workpeople, and yet, while this improvement +was taking place, the number of cases of plumbism rose all over Paris, +owing to an increase in the amount of lead used in other trades, which +had not attended to hygienic requirements. The number of fatal cases +also of lead poisoning in Paris rose. Of 552 patients ill between 1877 +and 1880, 5 died; of 248 ill between 1887 and 1889, 16 died; of 302 ill +between 1890 and 1893, died; while of 314 ill between 1894 and 1897, 17 +died. The fact therefore remains that since 1881, when fresh and more +stringent regulations for French white lead workers were introduced, +the number of patients suffering from lead poisoning, and dying from +it, in Paris, has risen. The explanation of this anomaly is to be found +in the fact that the victims of plumbism are no longer supplied by the +white lead works in the same proportion as formerly, but that they +come from other industries that have not yet been brought under the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> +regulations. Of these industries house painting has contributed the +largest number of patients. This trade, along with colour grinding, +supplied no less than 223 patients during the years 1894 to 1898. The +proof that improvement in methods of manufacture, <i>e.g.</i> the +substitution of the wet for the dry method, has been satisfactory, is +shown by the fact that before the introduction of the regulations of +1881, white lead operatives occupied the second line on the list of +dangerous trades, to-day they occupy the sixth. It is in consequence of +the increasing prevalence of Saturnine poisoning in house painters that +the agitation at present going on in Paris against the use of white +lead as a pigment, and alluded to in previous pages, has reached such +dimensions.</p> + +<p>A few years ago the white lead works at Clichy furnished for a long +period nearly one-half of the cases of plumbism admitted into the +hospitals of Paris. Demolition of this factory was followed by a rapid +diminution in the number of cases of lead poisoning seeking admission. +This circumstance shows that in some factories the conditions under +which the work is carried on are more unhealthy than in others. On +Tyneside we are not without a similar experience. There are some white +lead works in which there is always more plumbism than in others, and +the explanation is that either the works are older and the ventilation +worse, or that the general management is in some way or other not so +good. It is the same class, often the same people, who work in all the +factories, for they occasionally migrate from one to another, and yet +there remains the undesirable fact of a larger amount of sickness among +the hands in some of the works than in others. As an illustration, +take for example the lead-poisoned patients admitted into the Royal +Infirmary, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, from October 1890 to March 1893—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Factory <i>A</i></td> + <td class="right">52 cases.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">  „  <i>B</i></td> + <td class="right">15  „ </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">  „  <i>C</i></td> + <td class="right">8  „ </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">  „  <i>D</i></td> + <td class="right">5  „ </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">  „  <i>E</i></td> + <td class="rightb">...  „ </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="rightbd">88  „ </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Of 88 patients, one factory, not the largest, supplied nearly +two-thirds of the total admissions. As illustrating the preventableness +of industrial white lead poisoning, it is worth mentioning that in one +of the largest and best conducted factories in the Newcastle district, +there has only been one fatal case of lead<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span> poisoning within the last +twenty years, and since the enforcement by the Home Office of the +recommendations of the White Lead Committee, the factory that sent 52 +out of the 88 cases stated in the preceding table to the Infirmary in +two and a half years, at present scarcely sends one patient per annum. +Lead-poisoned females are now practically never met with in Newcastle, +and male patients are becoming every year rarer. As long ago as 1849, +Combe proposed that instead of washing, then drying the white lead in +stoves, and subsequently packing it in barrels for sale, it would be +safer from a worker’s point of view, since it would rid the atmosphere +of dust, if the lead carbonate on its removal from the white beds were +ground and washed at once in water, then forced to travel through a +series of rollers and washers into oil under rollers. The oil displaces +the water, and as a consequence the white lead escapes from the last +roller as finished paint.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> In order to obtain the white lead as +a paint, the soft paste as it comes from the grinding stones, and +which contains 15 to 20 per cent. of water, can be at once mixed and +incorporated as it passes through the rollers with increasing fractions +of 10 per cent. of oil. The water is thus gradually eliminated from +the paste, so that the product as it escapes from the last roller +contains hardly 1 per cent. of water, can be packed, and is ready for +the market. Mr T. H. Leathart of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who has adopted +this method in his works,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> informs me that the paint is, practically +speaking, free from water, there being not even .5 per cent. of it in +the finished product. By the adoption of this method of manufacture +there has not only been a saving of labour, but better health among +the workmen, owing to the absence of dust. This small change in the +method of manufacture has had a wonderful influence on health. The +grinding and packing of all dry white lead should be conducted in +hermetically-sealed compartments. Even to this there is the drawback +that as time goes on, owing to the vibration of the machinery, the +joints of the wood and iron become loose and the dust escapes. The +defect, however, can be easily remedied.</p> + +<p>In 1899 the Chief Inspector of Factories issued special rules for white +lead works, which were an advance upon those of previous years, and +which have undoubtedly diminished plumbism in this industry. It is +unnecessary to reproduce these rules here, but the main points included +in them are that plans for new works or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> structural alteration of +old factories must be submitted to the Chief Inspector of Factories; +white beds must be watered when being emptied; drying stoves are to be +ventilated, and no person is allowed to draw a Dutch stove on more than +two days in any week; no women are allowed to work in the white beds, +rollers, washbecks or stoves, or in any place where dry white lead is +packed, or in other work exposing her to white lead dust; there must be +weekly medical examination of every person employed in a lead process, +with suspension in the case of illness, and medical re-examination +before returning to work; suitable respirators, overalls, and +head-coverings must be provided by the occupiers; adequate washing +appliances are required, with cessation of work ten minutes before each +meal-time and the end of the day’s work for the purpose of washing. +The duties of persons employed are similarly defined, and any person +obtaining employment under an assumed name or on any false pretence is +liable to a penalty. It is enacted, too, (Factory and Workshop Act, +1891, sections 9 and 11) that the rules shall be kept posted up in +conspicuous places in the factory, so that they can be conveniently +read by the persons employed. Any person who is bound to observe the +rules and fails to do so, or acts in contravention of them, is liable +to a penalty. In such cases the occupier also is liable to a penalty +unless he proves that he has taken all reasonable means by publishing, +and to the best of his power, enforcing the rules, to prevent +contravention or non-compliance. To extreme temperance in the use of +alcohol, and to a weekly or fortnightly alternation of employment for +the workpeople in the factory, I attach great importance as preventive +agents.</p> + +<p>A sanitary drink has to be provided for the workers by the employers. +It is usually composed of Epsom salts and lemon juice, or some other +acid, dissolved in water. The provision of an acidulated drink for +persons employed in white lead works is a subject to which the members +of the White Lead Commission gave considerable attention, but I +candidly confess that the Committee never attached any great importance +to it as a means of preventing plumbism. The theory upon which its +administration is based is that the sanitary drink converts any lead +which may have been swallowed into the rather insoluble sulphate, +and that thereby the risk of plumbism is diminished. When the drink +contains a slight excess of acid, then instead of being a safeguard +it may become the reverse. Besides, after all, lead sulphate is not +very much less insoluble in gastric juice than lead carbonate, and +the men who go to the barrel to obtain the sanitary drink are not +careful enough to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span> rub their moustache clean before drinking. Within +limits, when carefully prepared and not too acid, the sanitary drink +possesses certain advantages on account of its being a mild aperient, +but beyond this it is only doubtfully a preventive. The workpeople +should be given to understand that there is no real antidote to lead +poisoning, and that they must be constantly on their guard against it. +Personal cleanliness is, I repeat, of the greatest importance. Such +drinks as the acid lemonade just described, milk and coffee, etc., +however useful they may be of themselves, cannot altogether prevent +lead poisoning, and it is unwise therefore to allow the workpeople to +shelter themselves under this belief.</p> + +<p><i>Curative.</i>—During the attack of colic, warm applications to the +abdomen, and the administration of a mild aperient, such as magnesium +sulphate or castor oil, especially if there is constipation, and +there is the prospect of the medicine being retained on the stomach. +Occasionally a warm bath may be called for, or if pain is severe, the +administration of a hypodermic injection of morphia. In milder cases, +or when the immediate urgency of the colic has passed away, iodide of +potassium is a good eliminant, but the internal administration of this +drug in plumbism requires caution, since it may dissolve out lead that +has been deposited in the tissues, flush the blood with a soluble lead +salt, and thereby aggravate, and often dangerously too, the symptoms of +lead poisoning. For paralysis the internal administration of iodide of +potassium with nux vomica, and the use of massage will, in most cases, +succeed, but recovery is usually slow and often incomplete. Electricity +gives encouraging results, and as practised in the manner suggested +by Dr Lewis Jones (see p. <a href="#Page_375">375</a>), has been productive of a great amount +of good. For acute lead encephalopathy the subcutaneous injection of +pilocarpine and the inhalation of nitrite of amyl have in my hands +answered well. Bleeding, and the injection of large quantities (about +500 centimetres) of an artificial serum made from sulphate of soda, 5 +grammes; common salt, 1 gramme; corrosive sublimate, 0.05 gramme; and +distilled water, 200 centimetres, under the skin of the abdomen, is +a line of treatment that finds favour with many French physicians. I +need scarcely add that lead poisoning is too serious a malady for its +treatment to be undertaken by the laity without the advice of a doctor.</p> + + +<h3><i>Chromate of Lead; Dye Works.</i></h3> + +<p>The use of chrome dyes has been followed by lead poisoning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span> which in +a few instances has ended fatally. Chrome dyeing by means of lead +compounds was one of the unhealthy occupations relegated by the Home +Secretary to the Dangerous Trades Committee for its opinion. The dye +is obtained by mixing a solution of bichromate of soda or potass with +sugar of lead, or by acting upon lead carbonate with a solution of +bichromate of soda or potass. In the Final Report of the Dangerous +Trades Committee, p. 26, it is stated how the different colours may +be got. To obtain <i>deep orange colour</i>, hanks of yarn are dipped +first in a solution of lime, and then in a solution of brown sugar of +lead; the dip is again repeated, and after this the hanks are dipped +in bichromate of potass or soda, and finally they are boiled in lime +water. For <i>yellow chrome</i> colour the treatment is similar, with +the exception that the goods are not boiled in lime water, but washed +in dilute hydrochloric acid. To obtain <i>chrome lemon</i> colour, the +yarn is dipped first in an alkaline lead solution, then in bichromate +of soda, and subsequently washed in cold water. <i>Green chrome</i> +is got by dipping the lemon-stained yarn in an indigo bath. In all of +these processes the bichromate of soda acts upon the lead and produces +a chromate. This forms not so much a dye as a coloured coating on the +surface of the fibre of the yarn. In the process of dyeing no risk to +health is incurred by the workpeople. The danger commences when the +goods have become dried and the coloured dust of chromate of lead is +given off, as may be seen in the noddling and bundling departments of +a factory. In several large dye works, both in England and Scotland, I +have seen the girls who handle and pull the yarn covered with yellow +dust, found them anæmic, complaining of headache, and showing a +well-marked blue line on their gums, while several of them complained +that they had suffered from colic, and been off work through it for +a time. In some instances more serious symptoms developed. A fatal +termination is not unknown. The contents of the stomach when vomited +often exhibit the same colour as the yarn the girls handle. In one mill +there was quite an epidemic of lead poisoning among the women owing +to some of them, on account of the cold weather, having stopped the +running of the fan. As a consequence the atmosphere of the carding-room +became impregnated with yellow dust, and many of the girls became +ill, one of them dying from unmistakable lead poisoning. When the fan +was re-started all the illness disappeared. Improved ventilation puts +an end to poisoning in chrome dye works. The dust-laden air ought to +be drawn down and away from the workers. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span> dyeing of cotton, +lead compounds are similarly used, but an effort is being made to +supplant these by aniline and vegetable dyes. Whether aniline colours +are capable of entirely taking the place of lead chromate under all +circumstances of climate, etc., still remains to be seen. The opinions +of manufacturers are divided upon the point of aniline dyed goods +standing exposure to the sun like those coloured by lead chromate. +Some maintain that the colours are not so permanent. The subject is +therefore not yet ripe for the expression of an absolute opinion. +Another danger to which workers in chrome dyeing works are exposed, is +the occurrence of chrome holes or scars on the hands of the men who +work with the bichromate solution. Perforation of the septum of the +nose does not occur.</p> + + +<h3><i>Calico Printing.</i></h3> + +<p>This subject may be conveniently discussed with that immediately +preceding. The pattern is printed on the cotton cloth in lead salts. +The cloth is then passed through a solution of bichromate of soda. Only +the letters or portions of the pattern that have been printed in lead +retain the chrome colour. There is no risk to the operative in the +process of printing. The danger resides rather in the dust given off in +the drying-room, to which the cloth is taken. Here, owing to the heat +of the room and the handling of the calico, a certain amount of dust +may be present. The question of aniline substitutes for lead has been +discussed by manufacturers, but among them there is no unanimity upon +the matter, especially in those engaged in the export trade. In indigo +blue dye works where the calico is printed with copper sulphate and +lead acetate, the men may suffer as much from the copper as the lead.</p> + + +<h3><i>Enamelling of Iron Plates and Hollow Ware.</i></h3> + +<p>The enamelling of iron plates is an industry which is mostly confined +to Birmingham and Wolverhampton and their immediate neighbourhood. +Enamelled iron plates are used for advertising purposes, for announcing +the names of railway stations, etc. The process of manufacture consists +in first cleansing the iron plate, smearing it with gum-water, and +sifting a fine dust on to it, or in allowing to trickle over it powder +suspended in water. The powder may contain as much as 25 per cent. of +lead, or in some instances no lead at all. The plate having been coated +in one of these ways is placed in a furnace and exposed to an intense +heat.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span> On removal it is seen on cooling to have received its first +coat of enamel. In order to obtain the required red, blue, or brown +colours the plate is subsequently swilled. The colours are put on at +first roughly with a broad brush, and then a finer one so as to get +an even surface, after which it is smoothed by a camel’s hair brush. +The plate thus swilled is allowed to dry on hot pipes at a moderate +temperature. The process up to this stage is wet, and therefore not +dangerous, besides the lead compounds used are often fritted, and these +are known to be very insoluble. It is in the subsequent treatment +known as stencilling that the danger commences. This part of the work +is generally done by women, who by means of a nail-brush rub off +the colour on the surface of the plate which is exposed through the +openings cut in the stencil, and which correspond to the alphabetical +letters, etc., of the advertisement. This is a very dusty process. The +atmosphere of the workroom becomes thick from the coloured particles +of dust given off from the plate, and these fall upon the hair and +clothing of the workpeople. There is often a large percentage of +lead in the dust, so that when this is inhaled for several hours, +during each working day in the week, it becomes a cause of plumbism +occasionally of a severe character, and running to a fatal termination.</p> + +<p>Brushing-off through the stencil is usually performed over perforated +tables down which there is a strong draught, but if the aspirating +force is weak the dust rises and impregnates the atmosphere, so that it +is almost impossible to see across the workroom. After the plate has +been stencilled it is again placed in the furnace, and the processes +of swilling, drying, stencilling, and firing are repeated according to +the kind of colours required in the advertisement. These processes may +be repeated as many as eight or nine times. Red and other compounds of +lead are largely used for enamelling, and may be present to the extent +of from 25 to 33 per cent. Formerly arsenic was also used, but such +serious consequences followed that its employment has been discontinued.</p> + +<p>In this industry, as in white lead works, it is the young female +operatives who are the most susceptible to plumbism. A few years +ago there was a great amount of ill-health among the hands owing to +imperfect ventilation of the workrooms. The White Lead Committee +recommended that there should be a medical inspection of all the +workers once a month, and that no girl under 20 years of age should +be employed as a brusher-off in the stencilling process; that no +female should be employed without medical testimony as to her fitness +for the work, experience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span> having shown that anæmic, scrofulous, and +ill-nourished persons are more predisposed to plumbism than those that +are healthy; that after an illness of any kind a medical certificate +should be furnished. The Committee would have been glad if the +employers could have seen their way to give half a pint of milk every +forenoon to each of the workers, for experience has shown, both in this +country and abroad, that milk is to some extent a prophylactic against +plumbism. Dr Morison Legge,<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> in his report upon the enamelling of +iron plates, says that for last year only 10 cases of lead poisoning +occurred in 689 persons engaged in the dangerous processes. He +attributes the fact of the cases being few to the periodic medical +examination, the removal of dust by fans, and the encouraging efforts +which are being made by large firms to substitute other things for lead.</p> + +<p><i>Tinning and enamelling of the hollow ware</i> used for culinary +and domestic purposes is an industry confined for the most part to +Wolverhampton, Bilston, and Dudley. The iron kettle or saucepan about +to be tinned is first cleaned or prepared by being swilled in a mixture +of dilute hydrochloric acid and chloride of zinc. The process of +<i>tinning</i> consists in dipping the utensil into a trough containing +molten tin and lead in the proportion sometimes of 60 per cent. of +metallic lead and 40 of tin. Owing to tin being the more expensive +metal, the cheaper ware is often dipped in a composition of 70 per +cent. of lead and 30 of tin. The dangers incidental to tinned hollow +ware are twofold: first, if the workman who dips the utensil in the +molten lead is not careful, cleanly, and temperate as regards the use +of alcohol, he may suffer from lead poisoning; and secondly, the poorer +working classes, who buy the cheaper ware, which has been nominally +tinned but is in reality leaded, also run the risk of becoming poisoned +by the food either having become contaminated by lead in the act of +cooking or subsequently. When the cauldrons containing the molten +metal, into which the workman plunges the pans, etc., are hooded, the +fumes are not so readily inhaled. It is a common belief among these men +that the poison enters the system when they are wiping off the metal +from the hot sauce-pans, etc., by means of tow. In the white enamelling +of iron hollow ware many manufacturers are now using a leadless glaze +with every promise of success.</p> + +<p>The enamelling of copper letters or tablets is shown by Dr Legge to be +a source of plumbism. Four cases were reported to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span> the Home Office in +1900. The danger occurs during the “brushing on” and “wooling off” of +a black enamel powder, which was found to contain as much as 67.0 per +cent. of lead.</p> + + +<h3><i>Electric Accumulator Works and Lead Poisoning.</i></h3> + +<p>The manufacture of electric accumulators for telegraph and telephone +purposes and for motor cars has become a very important industry, and +is likely to become still more important as time goes on. There is one +process in the manufacture which is distinctly dangerous. The workmen +who rub the red lead, made into a paste by means of dilute sulphuric +acid, on to embossed or perforated plates occasionally suffer from +plumbism. When the plate leaves the workman its interstices look as +if they were filled with red clay. Both sides of the plate have to +be treated by the workman, whose hands are generally covered with +indiarubber gloves. During the mixing of the dry red lead or litharge +with the dilute sulphuric acid a considerable amount of dust is +created. The indiarubber gloves which are worn by the men who fill the +perforations in the plates with the lead paste become in time thin and +worn, or they get torn, and as a result certain parts of the hands +of the men become coated with the red composition. By this means, as +the work entails a considerable amount of friction, lead poisoning +may readily occur. In visiting electric accumulator works, I found +several of the workmen, especially the younger men, extremely pale, and +suffering from headache; some of them had been laid off with colic, and +they presented a well-marked blue line on their gums.</p> + +<p>The colic of electricians is not a new disease. In one electric +accumulator works in La Hague in 1894, there occurred 37 cases of +plumbism in 252 male workers; and in another factory in Wiesbaden +12 cases of lead poisoning occurred in 90 workers. Of 30 patients +suffering from lead colic admitted into the Hospital Bichât, Paris, +during 1899, Talamon says more than one-half were electricians, the +remainder being made up of painters, plumbers, and typographers. So +prevalent had lead poisoning become in Germany that the Imperial +Health Office directed an inquiry<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> to be made into the conditions +of labour in electric accumulator works. In consequence of this, +special rules were issued, and as these now govern the industry in +Germany, it will not be out of place if I quote at some length from the +Report, a translation of which has been kindly placed in my hands by Dr +Morison Legge.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span> The information embodied in the Report was collected +by a circular letter of the Chancellor, and deals with the extent of +the manufacture of accumulators and the dangers of working. From one +factory alone the following particulars were received as to the special +incidence of plumbism in particular processes.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Occupation.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Number<br>Employed.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Number of<br>Cases of Lead<br>Poisoning.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Casting</td> + <td class="right2r">30</td> + <td class="right1r">3</td> + <td class="rightr">10.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Pasting</td> + <td class="right2r">30</td> + <td class="right1r">9</td> + <td class="rightr">30.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Soldering</td> + <td class="right2r">16</td> + <td class="right1r">6</td> + <td class="rightr">37.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Trimming</td> + <td class="right2r">30</td> + <td class="right1r">4</td> + <td class="rightr">13.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Plumbing</td> + <td class="right2r">30</td> + <td class="right1r">9</td> + <td class="rightr">30.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Section Building</td> + <td class="right2rb">60</td> + <td class="right1rb">5</td> + <td class="rightrb">8.3</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>As regards remedial measures, special attention was directed to: (1) +casting and preparation of the plate; (2) mixing the paste; (3) actual +pasting; (4) the drying and building into batteries of the various +segments; (5) forming and changing plates. As regards these various +headings the information gathered is as follows:—</p> + +<p>(1) Ordinary lead, often containing a trace of antimony, is used for +casting the plates. From the surface of the lead in the melting pots +fume rises (oxide of lead), so that it is recommended to have the +melting pots arranged that they can be provided with an efficient hood +and shaft leading either into the open air or into a chimney. The need +for these precautions lies in the fact that not only are the fumes +of lead and antimony harmful when inhaled, but commercial lead often +contains traces of arsenic, varying from 0.1 to 7.9 per cent.</p> + +<p>(2) Litharge and red lead are used for making the paste, and as these +come to the works in casks, the dry material is transferred from the +cask to the worker’s bench by means of a shovel or trowel. Dust thus +becomes scattered about in all directions. It is, therefore, desirable +to have the floor of the workrooms moistened and swept daily. The +mixing of the red lead and sulphuric acid should be done in a closed +chamber or under an exhaust shaft.</p> + +<p>(3) As regards the wearing of gloves by the men who paste the plates, +reference is made to the difficulty of keeping the gloves in good +repair. The same difficulty, as I have already mentioned, occurs in +Britain. In some of the electric accumulator works the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span> gloves worn are +too short. The dry red lead occasionally gets inside the gloves, and as +these tend to keep the hands hot and cause them to perspire, plumbism +is rather encouraged than prevented, or skin eruptions develop. In +order to avoid, therefore, as far as possible absorption of lead by +the skin, two alternatives are put forward by the German Committee of +Enquiry: (<i>a</i>) the work is not to exceed eight hours a day, to be +broken by a pause of at least one and a half hours; or (<i>b</i>) there +is to be one six-hours’ spell of work in the day. The Committee is in +favour of the latter. Respirators for the men engaged in pasting are +not considered necessary.</p> + +<p>(4) In building up the batteries by means of solder, ordinary solder is +not used, but a very pure lead instead, in order that the connections +made between the plates may not be affected when they are subsequently +exposed to the acid. To bind these plates together by solder, the heat +from an oxygen or hydrogen blow-pipe flame is used, but frequently the +temperature reaches a height sufficient to cause volatilisation of the +lead, and statistics show that persons engaged in this occupation run a +considerable risk of lead poisoning.</p> + +<p>(5) Opinions were found to differ as to the effect of the dilute +sulphuric acid vapour in the formation-room upon the workers. There was +said to be medical testimony as to its good effects upon workpeople, +who are the subjects of chronic bronchitis. Reference is made to the +difficulty of providing fans for ventilation of these rooms owing to +the deleterious action of the acid upon the metal contained in the fan, +and yet some form of artificial ventilation is necessary.</p> + +<p>The method adopted in the factory of determining the presence of lead +in the air was the simple one of suspending, at the level of the +worker’s head, a sheet of blotting paper, 100 centimetres square, +previously moistened. Subsequent treatment with dilute acid and +exposure to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen showed whether lead was +present or not.</p> + + +<h3><i>Motor Cars.</i></h3> + +<p>In Paris, motor cars are much more in evidence than in this country. +There are very few in London compared with the French capital. +Dr Proust has reported four cases of lead poisoning in Paris, in +women aged eighteen, nineteen, twenty-five, and thirty-nine years +respectively, whose work consisted in coating with oxide of lead small +leaden rods, and fixing them in position. All of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span> these women entered +the electrical department of motor car manufactories in good health. At +the end of six weeks to two months they had colic, loss of appetite, +constipation, and abdominal pain of such severity that they had to be +taken to the hospital, and detained there under treatment for more than +a fortnight. In one patient the symptoms of plumbism returned shortly +after resuming work. With the dangerous nature of the occupation the +employers were quite familiar. They not only paid a doctor to visit +the works once a week to examine the workers, but they were in the +habit of giving to the female workers honey and sulphur, iron pills, +and half a litre of milk daily. Ample provision was made for washing; +tooth-brushes were provided, also sulphur baths once a fortnight, and +yet, notwithstanding these precautions, four of the women quickly +developed symptoms of lead poisoning.</p> + + +<h3><i>Electric Tramways.</i></h3> + +<p>An accident of rather a peculiar character occurred on 8th Oct. 1901, +on a tramway car in Paris. I state the facts for what they are worth. +During the course of the evening, nearly a dozen of the travellers were +suddenly seized with violent pains in the abdomen and by syncope, and +were obliged to be treated at a chemist’s shop <i>en route</i>. On an +inquiry being instituted, the opinion was expressed that the symptoms +were due to poisoning caused by fumes given off by sulphuric acid +acting upon the lead in the electric accumulators.</p> + + +<h3><i>Recommendations.</i></h3> + +<p>It is evident that as electricity will be the motor power of the +future and will be turned into numerous channels of application, the +number of electric accumulator works in Britain is sure to increase. +The necessity for putting into force several of the recommendations +mentioned in these pages is almost sure to arise. So far as the hygiene +of the works is concerned, the same rules ought to apply to them as are +now in force in red lead works.</p> + + +<h3><i>Soldering.</i></h3> + +<p>Common solder is an alloy of tin and lead, equal parts. Fine solder is +composed of 2 parts of tin and 1 of lead; coarse solder, of 2 of lead +and 1 of tin. The extensive consumption of tinned meats and fruits +is responsible for some cases of plumbism,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span> owing to the acid juices +dissolving some of the lead out of the solder, but workmen who solder, +<i>e.g.</i> tinkers, have been known to suffer from paralysis of the +muscles of the fingers and hands, owing to volatilisation of the lead +and inhalation of the fume.</p> + + +<h3><i>Typefounding</i>; <i>Printing</i>; <i>Typesetting</i>; +<i>Linotyping</i>.</h3> + +<p>Type metal is an alloy of lead with ⅓ to ¼ of antimony. The antimony +is added to harden the alloy, for lead is a soft metal. Occasionally +small quantities of tin and copper are added, so that the alloy may +be composed of 70 parts of lead, 18 of antimony, 10 of tin, and 2 of +copper.</p> + +<p>We have already dealt with the smelting of lead ore and the melting +of pig-lead. The smelting of antimony ore is not attended with such +serious risks to health as is the case with lead. One of the largest +antimony works in this country is on Tyneside. I have had the privilege +of visiting the works and of examining the workmen. The raw ore +or sulphide comes from Japan. It is smelted with iron filings. No +constitutional bad effects were noticeable in the men who smelt the +ore. To some extent this freedom from illness may be due to the fact +that the men are not closely exposed to the fume, and that, owing to +good ventilation, the fumes were quickly got rid of. The only trouble +the workmen seemed to experience, and it was more of a complaint than +an illness, is that as the work is hot they perspire freely, and the +skin in consequence becomes extremely irritable and itchy. An eruption +appears on the skin. This at first shows itself as a crop of vesicles, +which ultimately become pustular. Formerly more than now it was a +medical practice in the treatment of disease to apply an ointment +composed of tartrate of antimony to the skin in order to bring out a +pustular eruption, which acted as a counter irritant. Knowing this to +be the local action of antimony, it is easy to understand, therefore, +the development of the skin eruption spoken of as “pox” upon the neck +and upper part of the abdomen in antimony workers. Eulenburg says that +exposure to the fumes of oxide of antimony is followed by pains in the +region of the bladder and urethra, and by impotence in the male. My +experience does not confirm this statement. Several of the men looked +rather pale, probably as the result of exposure to the heat, and a +few of them had suffered from gastro-intestinal pains like colic, +usually relieved by taking a dose of Epsom salts. A case of industrial +antimony poisoning is published in the Report of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span> Chief Inspector +of Factories for 1900, p. 332. It is that of a man who had worked as +an extractor of the metal, and who in consequence of having inhaled +the fumes suffered from paroxysmal attacks of difficulty of breathing +without any physical signs of disease in his lungs. He complained of +a sense of constriction in his chest, nausea, a metallic taste in +his mouth, backache, weakness in the muscles of his legs, profuse +perspiration, headache, and dimness of vision.</p> + +<p>It is, however, not so much with antimony as with the presence of lead +in the printers’ type that we are here concerned. Printers’ colic was +a much more common malady two or three decades ago than now. It is due +to handling the type, and to the dust that is given off. Typefounders +also suffer from plumbism, but in not a few cases the illness has been +caused by the workpeople eating their food without previously washing +their hands. Printers as a class are often pale and unhealthy looking. +Much of this may be due to the fact that they work in overheated +rooms for long spells at a time, and have late hours. H.M. Medical +Inspector of Factories reports that during 1900 there were 17 cases of +lead poisoning in printers. One of the patients died. Ten of the men +were compositors, 4 were linotypists, and 2 stereotypers. Dr Stühler, +of Berlin, taking his statistics from the reports of sick benefit +societies, states that of 3000 printers in Berlin 313 were annually +sick from lead colic, <i>i.e.</i>, about 10.4 per cent. of printers’ +compositors suffer from plumbism, either by absorption through the +skin, caused by handling the type that has become oxidised during +wear, or by swallowing the dust through eating with unwashed hands. +Fromm discusses this subject, and alludes to the analyses of dust of +printing-houses made by Stumpf, who found that it contained often as +much as 14.43 per cent. of lead. In a report recently presented to +the German Board of Health, Faber states that he found in the dust +collected from the floor 11.51 per cent. of lead: that the dust taken +from a shelf in the room contained 6.59 per cent. of lead, while dust +collected in the gangway between the desks in the composing room of a +newspaper office contained 4.7 per cent. of lead. In analysing the air +of printing shops Keygi<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> found that the dust contained from 10 to +15 per cent. of lead, which came from the wear of the type. Inhalation +of the dust of the oxidised metal in all probability, therefore, +plays a very important part in the causation of plumbism in printers’ +compositors. During 1900, printing was in Britain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span> responsible for 17 +cases of lead poisoning. In 2 of the cases there were symptoms of lead +encephalopathy, one of which proved fatal, and in another there was +paralysis. Ten of the patients were compositors and 4 were linotypists.</p> + +<p>It has to be borne in mind that compositors do a great deal of their +work in an artificial light. As they are obliged to handle type very +freely, the skin on the inner aspect of the last phalanx of the +right thumb, forefinger, and midfinger occasionally becomes thick +and hard, also the skin of the last phalanx of the left thumb, and +the interdigital eminences of the left hand. According to Choquet, +typographers suffer from two distinct maladies, one directly due to +the mechanical nature of their work, and the other attributable to +the medium in which that work is carried on. Standing on their feet +for long spells at a time, they run the risk of developing varicose +veins, and as the rooms are either too brilliantly lighted, or the +reverse, to affections of eyesight. Older compositors frequently show +a trembling of the right hand, due to fatigue caused by grasping and +distributing the type, but in producing this tremor plumbism no doubt +plays a part. Analogous to writers’ palsy, the tremor is sometimes +so persistent that it obliges the individual to renounce his work. +The channels by which lead dust effects an entrance into the system +are the buccal and nasal mucous membranes, the skin, the respiratory +passages, and the alimentary canal. So slight are the initial troubles +of the typographer, that for a time they are unperceived. Acute +plumbism does not occur among compositors, it is always chronic. By +degrees the individual begins to look pale; the skin becomes greyish +and exhibits a slightly jaundiced tint; the appetite, too, fails, and +digestion becomes weak, and obstinate constipation occurs. A blue line, +if sought for, will be seen in the gums, and there is complaint of an +unpleasant metallic taste in the mouth. The breath becomes fetid, and +motor and sensory troubles develop, especially at those parts that have +been brought into the closest contact with the type. Often commencing +with a sense of fatigue in the muscles, the paresis proceeds to motor +paralysis. In female typographers excessive menstrual losses, such as +are known to occur in female white lead workers, have been noted.</p> + +<p>Whatever tends to interfere with the elimination of lead from the +system encourages necessarily the development of plumbism. Alcohol +has this tendency. It is said that if the skin of a compositor gets +broken, the wound heals slowly and is apt to become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span> erysipelatous, +but I have not observed this. Some typographers are more susceptible +to plumbism than others. It is largely a question of well or ill +ventilated workrooms, and of personal resistance. Tanquerel found in +France that the ages between thirty and forty years gave the largest +amount of ill health, and that in the hot seasons of the year most +cases occurred. Dr Motais, who is a member of the Departmental Council +of Hygiene of Paris, in an address recently delivered at a conference +of typographers, recited a story of animal life which had been told +to him by some of the printers themselves. For twenty years these men +had tried to keep cats in the workrooms. The animals were well fed; +they received plenty of milk. For a time all would go well with them, +and then the same train of symptoms would invariably develop; the eyes +would lose their healthy lustre, the limbs become paralysed, and the +animals die, presenting the same cerebral symptoms as are observed in +the acute lead encephalopathy of man.</p> + +<p><i>Precautions.</i>—Printing houses should be so situated that +free currents of air can get to them, and not, as at present is too +frequently the case, shut in by other buildings. Plenty of daylight +and, if possible, sunlight are very desirable; daylight if introduced +by one side should enter preferably on the left of the compositor, +so that no shadow is thrown upon the case that contains his type. +Light coming in from the roof obviates all this. So far as artificial +lighting of the rooms is concerned, there is an opinion that the +electric light is more hurtful than gas, and gas again more harmful +than lamps. There should be tinted shades on the gas or lamps, green +externally, white internally. The workroom should be well ventilated +and without draughts; any dust generated should as far as possible be +removed by fans. The type boxes should be kept clean and the floors +periodically watered. By young compositors long hours ought to be +avoided. No food should be eaten in the workrooms. Compositors should +never do any work fasting, and should avoid smoking when at work. +Excesses of all kinds ought to be avoided, particularly the immoderate +use of alcohol. Milk should be freely taken. On the occurrence of +colic, the individual should at once give up his work and be medically +treated. Washing the hands and rinsing the mouth before eating are +absolutely required, also a bath once a week, and the wearing of +overalls when at work.</p> + +<p>It is an old opinion attributed to the French physicians Tanquerel +and Pidoux, that there exists an antagonism between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span> plumbism and +pulmonary tuberculosis. Facts so far as applied to compositors do not +support this statement, hence the desirability of printing houses +receiving plenty of sunlight, and of the undesirability of persons +who are bronchitic or susceptible to lung diseases being allowed to +work in printing houses, unless they are careful of how they dispose +of their expectoration. One of the great foes of the printer is +pulmonary phthisis. Much of this is undoubtedly preventible, since the +disease is encouraged by the unhealthy conditions under which the work +is carried on. Smith<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> found that the mortality from consumption +was 60 per cent. greater than in most of the other trades. Of 799 +deaths published by the London Society of Compositors for ten years, +1880–1889 inclusive, Arlidge found phthisis as the cause of death in +296, bronchitis and asthma in 85, pneumonia and pleurisy together were +responsible for 67 deaths, paralysis and apoplexy for 61, and Bright’s +disease for 21. Pulmonary phthisis caused 37 per cent. of the deaths. +The largest number of deaths occurred between the ages of thirty and +forty years. Since the statistics given by Dr Arlidge are more than +ten years old, and as tabulated are not comparable with the general +death-rate all over the country of persons between twenty to sixty-five +years of age, I communicated with the Secretaries of the Typographical +Association, also the London Society of Compositors, for their annual +reports, from which I am able through the kind assistance of Dr Henry +Armstrong, the Medical Officer of Health for Newcastle-on-Tyne, and his +clerk, Mr Gillinder, to supply more recent information, as indicated in +the following table (pp. <a href="#Page_329">329–330</a>).</p> + +<p>These statistics unfortunately are not exactly comparable: the time +periods are not the same for all three. This is unavoidable, owing to +the census returns for later periods not having been published while I +write. They are, however, not without value, for they strengthen the +suspicion of greater liability of the printer to pulmonary disease.</p> + +<p>The figures underlined in column 12 indicate the increased tuberculosis +mortality rate of the two associations as compared with the whole of +England and Wales. In column 11 it will be observed that in the Society +of Compositors there is an increase in tubercular disease, but not +great, over the corresponding rate for the entire country. It may be +therefore taken as a fact that printers are more liable to tubercular +consumption than men engaged in most other trades. In the half-yearly +Report of the Typographical Association ending December 1900, there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span> +is a list of 74 deaths for the half-year in the Society, whose members +number 16,179. Of these 74 deaths, 32 were caused by pulmonary disease, +and of these 32 deaths, 22 were caused by tubercular disease, mostly +pulmonary phthisis. There is an opinion, but it is erroneous, that +smoking tobacco or chewing it is more or less a protection against +plumbism, because the men expectorate; but apart from the fact of +spitting being a dirty practice, the habit of expectorating upon a +printer’s floor is to be discouraged, especially if the workman has a +cough and is the subject of lung disease, for it is largely by means of +the sputa thrown upon the floor and becoming dried that the bacilli of +tubercle disseminate pulmonary consumption.</p> + +<p class="center p1"><i>MORTALITY TABLES OF TYPOGRAPHICAL ASS0C.</i></p> + + +<p class="center sm">TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. of<br>Members.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb smcap" colspan="6">Deaths from</td> + <td class="ctrtrb smcap" colspan="2">Total Deaths from</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Death-rate per<br>1000 Members.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrrb">All<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Bronchitis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Pneumonia.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Consumption.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Tuberculosis,<br>etc.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lung Diseases,<br>including<br>Bronchitis,<br>Pneumonia,<br> +Phthisis, etc.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Tuberculosis,<br>including<br>Phthisis, and<br> +all other forms.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Per<br>col. 9.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Per<br>col. 10.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894.  <b>1</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>2</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>3</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>4</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>5</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>6</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>7</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>8</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>9</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>10</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>11</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>12</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Half-year ended June 30</td> + <td class="ctrr">12,417</td> + <td class="ctrr">61</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">21</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">30</td> + <td class="ctrr">23</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"> „    „  Dec. 29</td> + <td class="ctrrb">12,544</td> + <td class="ctrrb">46</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2</td> + <td class="ctrrb">11</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">15</td> + <td class="ctrrb">12</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Whole year</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">12,480<br>(average)</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">107</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">9</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">32</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">...</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">45</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">35</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.6</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">2.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Half-year ended June 29</td> + <td class="ctrr">13,378</td> + <td class="ctrr">78</td> + <td class="ctrr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">9</td> + <td class="ctrr">23</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">38</td> + <td class="ctrr">29</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"> „    „  Dec. 28</td> + <td class="ctrrb">13,593</td> + <td class="ctrrb">65</td> + <td class="ctrrb">6</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5</td> + <td class="ctrrb">16</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">27</td> + <td class="ctrrb">19</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Whole year</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">13,485<br>(average)</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">143</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">12</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">14</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">39</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">...</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">9</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">65</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">48</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4.8</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Half-year ended June 27</td> + <td class="ctrr">13,673</td> + <td class="ctrr">75</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">17</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">29</td> + <td class="ctrr">19</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"> „    „  Dec. 26</td> + <td class="ctrrb">13,906</td> + <td class="ctrrb">68</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2</td> + <td class="ctrrb">8</td> + <td class="ctrrb">26</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">36</td> + <td class="ctrrb">27</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Whole year</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">13,784<br>(average)</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">143</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">7</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">15</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">43</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">...</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">65</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">46</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4.7</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Half-year ended June 26</td> + <td class="ctrr">13,862</td> + <td class="ctrr">82</td> + <td class="ctrr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">8</td> + <td class="ctrr">19</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">4</td> + <td class="ctrr">33</td> + <td class="ctrr">23</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"> „    „  Dec. 25</td> + <td class="ctrrb">14,405</td> + <td class="ctrrb">54</td> + <td class="ctrrb">4</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2</td> + <td class="ctrrb">21</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">27</td> + <td class="ctrrb">22</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Whole year</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">14,133<br>(average)</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">136</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">10</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">10</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">40</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">...</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">5</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">60</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">45</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4.2</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.2<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Half-year ended June 25</td> + <td class="ctrr">14,602</td> + <td class="ctrr">77</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">22</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">30</td> + <td class="ctrr">24</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"> „    „  Dec. 31</td> + <td class="ctrrb">15,075</td> + <td class="ctrrb">69</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">19</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">25</td> + <td class="ctrrb">20</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Whole year</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">14,838<br>(average)</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">146</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">10</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">41</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">...</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">55</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">44</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.7</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1899.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Half-year ended June 24</td> + <td class="ctrr">15,393</td> + <td class="ctrr">78</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">23</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">26</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"> „    „  Dec. 30</td> + <td class="ctrrb">15,854</td> + <td class="ctrrb">99</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2</td> + <td class="ctrrb">13</td> + <td class="ctrrb">39</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">4</td> + <td class="ctrrb">54</td> + <td class="ctrrb">43</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + <td class="ctrrb">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Whole year</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">15,623<br>(average)</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">177</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">9</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">19</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">62</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">...</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">7</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">90</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">69</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">5.8</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl" colspan="10">Average for 6 years</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4.5</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl" colspan="12">LONDON SOCIETY OF COMPOSITORS.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Year 1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">10,780</td> + <td class="ctrr">126</td> + <td class="ctrr">13</td> + <td class="ctrr">10</td> + <td class="ctrr">33</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">11</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">44</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.2</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"> „ 1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">11,079</td> + <td class="ctrr">141</td> + <td class="ctrr">10</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">40</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">11</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">51</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.0</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl"> „ 1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">11,415</td> + <td class="ctrrb">132</td> + <td class="ctrrb">11</td> + <td class="ctrrb">9</td> + <td class="ctrrb">28</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">7</td> + <td class="ctrrb">49</td> + <td class="ctrrb">35</td> + <td class="ctrrb">4.3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">3.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl" colspan="10">Average for 3 years</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4.8</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl" colspan="12"><span class="smcap">England and Wales.</span>—<i>Per 1000 Population (1881–90).</i></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl" colspan="10">Mean Annual Death-rate of male persons, 20–65 years of age</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">4.5</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">1.8</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span></p> + +<p>In thus expounding the subject of lead poisoning in printers, I have +rather drawn attention to dangers that were more common in the past +than exist at present, for, fortunately in this country at least, +plumbism among compositors is very much on the wane. It is seldom that +we meet with cases of printer’s colic in these days, owing very largely +to the change in the method of printing newspapers. Until recently +the printing of newspapers was done by ordinary type, the compositor +setting the type by touch and not by sight. He quickly picked out the +required letters, deftly inserting the nail of his thumb into the +groove on one side of the type. It was through these operations that +the skin of the fingers became thickened, and lead dust got under his +finger nails. Having set and printed the paper, he had to take up, +wash the type in lye, and subsequently distribute it, <i>i.e.</i>, put +each type back into its proper place. The distribution of the type +required even more care than the setting of it, for a type wrongly +distributed became a source of future trouble. Printing by hand type +is rapidly on the decline, and is being replaced by stereotyping and +linotyping. For newspaper printing there are now several fast printing +machines in existence. Stereotyping has made it possible to print from +a stamped cylinder without making direct use of the individual type. +Endless rolls of paper, too, feed the printing machines. As many as +10,000 thirty-two page periodicals can be thrown off in an hour, but by +perfecting the apparatus, as in Hoe’s machine, as many as 24,000 are +capable of being thrown off in an hour. It is in typesetting machines +with automatic distribution that the greatest progress has been +made. The Merganthaler linotype machine, which is used for newspaper +printing, produces and gathers in order successive bars of metal, each +of the required length and breadth of a line, and bearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span> on its upper +surface the type which prints the line. In the machine are small brass +matrices, representing the different letters, etc. When the operator +presses a finger-key on the board in front of him a single matrix +bearing the required letter falls out of the magazine, and is carried +to the assembling block, where the various matrices are set up, side by +side, in a line or row. Subsequently these are transported to the face +of a vertical mould wheel. Into the face of the mould molten type-metal +is pumped, and thus a slug or linotype is produced. As the formation of +the slugs is effected automatically, the operator does not handle the +metal, consequently plumbism is rare, only two cases of lead poisoning +in linotypists appearing in the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of +Factories for 1899, and four in 1900.</p> + +<p>The new methods of printing have certainly diminished the numbers +of cases of lead poisoning among printers, but the introduction of +linotyping is losing us, as a people, an art. No person contends that, +for finish, linotyped printing is equal to that obtained by hand-set +type. Except for book-printing, in which the letters stand out boldly +and clearly, and which as a trade is being relegated to a few towns, +stereotyping and linotyping are in our own country rapidly eliminating +typography. Since this is unavoidable, it is to be hoped that +linotyping will yet further improve, for badly-printed newspapers are +trying to the eyes. On the Continent most of the small newspapers are +still printed by hand-set type, and consequently lead poisoning among +printers is more prevalent there than here.</p> + +<p>Compositors working the linotype machine run little risk of lead +poisoning if they keep themselves and the workrooms clean. In +linotypists the danger is not in handling the metal, for the need of +doing this is rare; it is rather through inhalation of the fumes of +the molten lead or from oxidation of lead particles that are lying +about on the machine and floor. I have met with a few cases of colic +in linotypists, but the attacks of pain have been mild and much more +quickly got over than in compositors who use the ordinary type. In +some, too, I have observed some of the milder derangements of the +nervous system, mostly functional, that are the result of plumbism.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Plumbing.</i></h3> + +<p>Plumbers are not a long-lived class. They suffer from lead poisoning +in consequence of handling sheet-lead, pipes made from the same metal, +also from working with white lead. They often complain of a sweet +metallic taste in the mouth during the beating of the lead and the +application of solder.</p> + +<p>Gasfitters and plumbers run the risk of being poisoned also in another +manner, to which allusion may be incidentally made here. When making +the necessary connections between the pipes going into the houses and +the mains, the gas in the latter is not shut off on account of its +requirement by consumers. As a consequence of exposure to coal gas +escaping from the main pipes, the workmen occasionally become dizzy +and unconscious, lose their eyesight for several minutes, as well as +the muscular power of their limbs. They have to be removed by their +fellow-workmen, who often administer an emetic of salt and water when +consciousness has sufficiently returned to enable them to swallow. The +vomited matter smells strongly of coal gas. The symptoms are known as +“gassing” by the workmen. In some of the men who have thus suffered I +have found that complete muscular power had not returned to the limbs +three months after the accident, that the knee-jerks were exaggerated, +and that the patients were nervous and the subject of tremor. Albumen +or sugar may be temporarily present in the urine.</p> + + +<h3><i>House Painting.</i></h3> + +<p>House painting is a prolific cause of plumbism. Dr Stühler, of +Berlin, who obtained his facts from benefit societies, states that +of 3000 painters in Berlin 313 or 10.4 per cent. were annually off +work from the effects of lead poisoning. In Paris, Gautier found that +out of 14,000 painters and varnishers 250 on an average attended the +hospitals on account of plumbism, and that an equal number was treated +at home, making a total percentage of 3.5. Of late the admissions +into the hospitals of cases of lead poisoning have been increasing +notwithstanding the regulations issued by the French Government, and +the fact that the patients coming from white lead works have been +getting fewer. This circumstance is explained by other industries +sending more patients than formerly, and of these industries house +painting has contributed the largest number. During the years 1894–98 +this trade alone, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span> colour-grinding, contributed 223 patients, +while white lead works only sent 4, and the occupation of plumbing 22. +Of 86 fatal cases of lead poisoning in Paris during the five years +mentioned, 43 occurred in painters, 2 in plumbers, and only 1 in a +white lead worker. In consequence of the large amount of plumbism that +prevails among house painters in Paris, it is Gautier’s contention that +the occupation should be brought under closer Government supervision. +The same remark applies equally to the trade in our own country. Lead +poisoning among house painters is much more prevalent than people +imagine. Taking a few monthly reports at random, there were 12 cases of +plumbism in house painters (with 1 death) reported to the Home Office +during the month of June 1900; in the month of November 1900 there +were reported 11 cases of lead poisoning (including 2 deaths) among +house painters and plumbers, and in the following month 14 cases of +lead poisoning (including 4 deaths) in house painters and plumbers. +During 1900 there were 199 cases of lead poisoning in house painters +and plumbers reported to the Home Office. These figures show that if +Saturnine poisoning in house painting was notifiable, both it and +plumbing would be found to be trades that are the cause of a great +amount of sickness, of which at the present time we hear very little. +During the year 1899 upwards of 100 cases of lead poisoning were +notified, while from district registrars information was received of 18 +fatal cases of plumbism attributed to the occupation of house painting. +Notification of lead poisoning in house painters is not compulsorily +required by the Home Office. Cases of industrial lead poisoning, also +arsenic, phosphorus, mercury, and cases of anthrax, are obliged to be +reported to the Chief Inspector of Factories by the medical men who +attend the patients, and by employers, but an exception is made in +regard to house painting, one of the reasons being that as painters +pursue their avocation largely in the open air and in houses away from +the employer’s premises, it is difficult to say where the poisoning +was contracted. Industrial lead poisoning to be notifiable to the Home +Office must have occurred in places that are controlled by the Factory +and Workshop Acts. When a painter, who is following his occupation in +a factory or workshop and is engaged in grinding or mixing colours, +develops lead poisoning, the illness has to be notified. As the Act +stands at present, the Home Office cannot deal with certain forms of +industrial lead poisoning, nor have the factory inspectors power to +enforce improved conditions of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span> labour. In view of house painting being +ultimately brought under <i>Special Rules</i>, it is very desirable +that all cases of sickness in house painters and deaths from plumbism +should be reported. To the ordinary medical practitioner, who has been +informed that he must report all cases of occupational lead poisoning +coming under his care, it is embarrassing for him to draw a distinction +between lead poisoning caught by one man filling a barrel with dry +lead carbonate in a workroom, and another man who uses this as a paint +in decorating the interior of a house or shop, and yet while the +former is notifiable, the latter is not, although the same cause is in +operation in both. The sphere of Home Office influence ought therefore +to be extended so as to include house painting, and this might be done +under the Act that allows the Home Secretary on sufficient evidence to +schedule a trade as dangerous.</p> + +<p>There are several ways in which painters and colour-mixers become +the victims of lead poisoning. The men who grind or mix the colours +run the risk of inhaling the dust. Unless this process is carried on +either in closed spaces or in airy and well-ventilated rooms, the +atmosphere becomes thick and can only be cleared by means of a fan. +In this country there are, excluding house painters, upwards of 6000 +persons employed in the manufacture, mixing, and grinding of paints and +colours. Of 48 cases of plumbism that occurred among these persons in +1899, 30 were grinders and 7 of them packers.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of house painting, the pigments are generally +mixed with oil and a turpentine body. It has sometimes been thought +that the lead poisoning of painters is due to the inhalation of the +terebinthated vapour that rises from the painted surface. That this +is a possible source is shown by the outbreaks of “belly ache,” or +<i>colique sèche</i>, that occurred a few years ago in the Tropics, +and played sad havoc with the sailors of the French Navy. For a long +period the nature of the illness was not recognised. It was thought +by some to be a neurosis of the abdominal sympathetic nervous system, +and due to chill, while other physicians regarded it as a form of +malarial disease. Lefèvre, the Director of the Naval Sanitary Board +at Brest, ultimately gave it as his opinion that “the <i>colique +sèche</i> of the French Navy is nothing more than lead poisoning, +and the reason why colic was more frequent among French sailors than +those of other countries was due to the fact that lead entered more +into the construction of their ships of war. It formed the tanks for +holding the drinking water and the pipes for carrying the water; +it was present in the paint of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span> cabins, in the enamel of the +drinking-cups, and in the cooking utensils.” Out of this number of +possible causes some of the cases of <i>colique sèche</i> might have +been due to sleeping in cabins newly painted with lead compounds, +although drinking contaminated water would be the more probable cause. +A common cause of lead poisoning in house painters is inhalation of +the fume evolved during the burning-off of old paint. When engaged for +long at this kind of work the men complain of headache, nausea, and +occasionally have colicky pains in the abdomen. There is yet another +manner in which plumbism may develop, and this occurs in finer work, +where several coats of paint have to be applied. After what is called +laying-on of the prime colours and puttying with white lead comes the +flat colouring. When the coats of paint have become dry the workman +is obliged to use sandpaper to rub the surface flat. In doing this a +considerable amount of dust is given off which is rich in white lead. +It is inhalation of this dust that so frequently induces colic and +paralysis of the hands in house painters. Carelessness and ignorance +are frequently contributing causes. Men, while laying-on the white +paint with a flat knife, have often been observed using the hollow of +their left hand as a reservoir for the paint. If there is any erosion +of the skin, absorption of the poison is sure to follow. Layers-on are +an unhealthy class of men. In Paris alone there occurred 18 deaths +during the years 1898 and 1899 in a small union of 200 members, the +greatest age at death being 35 years.</p> + +<p>A fresh danger has been recently introduced into house painting. A few +months ago a house painter, aged 40, was admitted into the Newcastle +Infirmary suffering from extreme blueness of the face, lips, ears, +hands and fingers, and from colic. He had also a very blue line on +his gums. The illness was plumbism, but with something superadded. He +had been engaged in removing the varnish and paint from old Venetian +blinds, and had been using a dark brown liquid with a pungent, +penetrating odour, known in the trade as a special patent. During +the process of rubbing and swilling the blinds, and subsequently of +sandpapering them, a strong sickening odour arose, which caused him +to vomit and to have severe headache. The vapour, too, caused him to +become so drowsy that he would almost fall asleep. He would feel giddy, +but had no difficulty in walking, nor was his eyesight affected. The +man was pale as well as blue, he had a haggard expression, and there +was the most marked cyanosis possible. He had colic and constipation. +His internal organs were healthy, including the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span> kidneys. He had marked +tremor of both hands, but no paralysis. It was quite clear that there +was an acute intoxication of some kind or another, over and above lead +poisoning. Several examinations of the urine were made by Dr R. A. +Bolam, who had charge of the patient, with the view of establishing +the nature of the poison. The symptoms reminded me of those observed +in men who are employed in painting ships with quickly-drying spirit +paints. It was thought at first that the symptoms were due to the +presence of aniline oil in the “patent,” or of some chemical akin to +the pyridine group of compounds. The case is an illustration of the +danger incidental to the use of highly volatile, complex, and unstable +chemical compounds whose nature is not quite known, whose effects upon +the human body can only be learnt by experience, and which have for +their object, from a trade point of view, rapid execution of work.</p> + +<p>Painters of ships’ cabins suffer from plumbism as much if not more than +house painters, since they are often obliged to work in close, confined +spaces; so, too, do the painters of the back of mirrors, from using red +lead; also painters of agricultural implements, etc.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of mention that shipbuilders have found in the red oxide +of iron a cheaper and safer pigment for painting the outside of steel +plates than red lead.</p> + +<p>The question as to whether any comparatively harmless substitute for +white lead can be found for house painting is discussed at p. 293, +<i>q.v.</i></p> + + +<h3><i>Coach Painting.</i></h3> + +<p>Lead poisoning in coach and carriage painters is far from being rare. +In the painting of carriages there are often as many as eighteen coats +of paint and varnish applied. Frequently the work is done in rather +close and very ordinarily ventilated places. In Newcastle it is the +practice of large firms of coach makers to give a carriage three coats +of primary paint, six of filling up, three or four of oil colours, two +of varnish colour, <i>i.e.</i> oil and varnish mixed, and, finally, +about four coats of varnish. The colours used are white lead, dry and +ground in oil: lampblack, ultramarine, yellow chromes, zinc white, and +others known by particular names in the trade. “Driers” are also used, +such as sugar of lead and terebene. Coach painters become the subjects +of plumbism<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span> chiefly through inhaling the dust when sandpapering to +get a good surface. They suffer from colic and wrist-drop. Many of +the cases approach in severity the lead poisoning of file cutters. Dr +Morison Legge states that the percentage of chronic plumbism among +coach painters is greater than among file cutters.</p> + +<p>Several cases of plumbism have occurred in the painting of new +carriages, also in the breaking-up and burning of the wood of old +railway carriages. Thirty-four of the cases of plumbism reported during +1900 as having taken place in coachbuilders. occurred in men engaged in +railway shops.</p> + +<p>It is almost unnecessary to repeat that in all places where lead paints +are being handled and used, as in workshops, factories, ships and +dockyards, there should be adequate washing accommodation, with plenty +of soap, towels, and nail-brushes, and sufficient time ought to be +given to the men to wash before leaving work.</p> + + +<h3><i>Glass Polishing.</i></h3> + +<p>After glass and crystal have been cut they have to be polished. The +polishing is generally conducted on a revolving wheel or table made +of wood, and upon which water, containing rouge or putty powder in +suspension, is allowed to drip. When the article to be polished is a +plane surface, <i>e.g.</i> a mirror, the wheel is a horizontal one +revolving on a vertical axis. The water containing the rouge or putty +powder escapes by a narrow opening from a conical vessel placed above +the wheel. When finer work is required, <i>e.g.</i> the polishing of +wine-glasses, electric-light globes, etc., the water drops on to a hard +brush, which is attached to the external rim of a vertical wheel, from +four to six inches in diameter, running at a high speed and revolving +on a horizontal axis. For this kind of polishing putty powder alone is +used. In some factories the liquid putty powder is fed on to the brush +by a boy; in others the supply, as already mentioned, is automatic. +Several samples of putty powder were sent to the Dangerous Trades +Committee, and subjoined is the analysis of two of them:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr"></td> + <td class="ctr">A.</td> + <td class="ctr">B.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Oxide of tin</td> + <td class="ctr">29.72 per cent.</td> + <td class="ctr">28.96</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Oxide of lead</td> + <td class="ctr">70.28  „ </td> + <td class="ctr">68.07</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In the very free use of this putty powder, rich in lead, the clothes +and hands of the workers become bespattered by the thick<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span> spray thrown +off from the rapidly-revolving wheels. Putty powder administered to +animals in their food causes symptoms of Saturnine poisoning almost +as quickly as white lead. In the evidence given before the Dangerous +Trades Committee there was abundant proof of the extremely harmful +effects of the use of putty powder in glass polishing. Many of the +workers examined had suffered from colic, while others had been obliged +to give up their employment on account of paralysis of the fingers +and hands. It was ascertained that several of the male workers had +died from acute convulsive seizures due to poisoning by lead. Another +point to which attention was drawn was, that plumbism might develop in +workmen in a glass-polishing shop who were not engaged in the actual +process of polishing, and who had therefore not been directly brought +into contact with the putty powder. This was due to the dried liquid +on the floor becoming rubbed and trodden upon, rising as dust into the +atmosphere, and being inhaled by the workmen in the shop.</p> + +<p>Putty powder is a frequent cause of lead poisoning. The master +polishers have for years tried to find a substitute for it. In many +factories rouge is used. This is considered by many of the employers +to be innocuous. On analysing rouge powders for the Dangerous Trades +Committee, Professor Thorpe found that they contained commercial +oxide of tin: that in one powder 0.13 per cent. of arsenious acid was +present, and in another a trace of the same substance. Probably not +much danger would follow the use of rouge powders containing such a +mere trace of arsenic, but their employment would not be altogether +free from risk; besides, since it can be shown that the presence of +arsenic is not essential, then it ought to be eliminated altogether. +The difficulty in regard to the use of harmless rouge powders is rather +a technical or industrial question than medical. Do they answer the +purpose as well as putty powder? The Dangerous Trades Committee found +that opinions were much divided upon the point. Some of the glass +polishers stated that rouge did not give such a fine effect, and that +it took a longer time. On the whole, however, the results obtained have +been such as to encourage employers to adopt it more freely. Where +putty powder has been interdicted by the masters and only rouge used, +the health of the workmen has wonderfully improved.</p> + +<p>A few years ago M. Geroult proposed to the French glass polishers and +crystal manufacturers, metastannic acid as a partial substitute for the +putty powders that contained a large percentage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span> of lead, and which had +been the cause of several fatal cases of plumbism. The Academy awarded +the Montyon prize to Geroult for his discovery. For the last ten years +the new method has been followed in the glass works of Baccarat, and +has given the most satisfactory results. Dr Schmitt, the surgeon to +the works, says, that since 1891, the date of the substitution of the +new for the old method, there has not been one single case of lead +poisoning among the crystal cutters and glass polishers, nor an acute +attack of plumbism in those workers who had previously suffered from +lead poisoning. Formerly the putty powder contained 62 per cent. of +lead, but in that recommended by Geroult there is only 20 per cent., +and even with a smaller percentage of lead good manufacturing results +can be obtained.</p> + +<p>Glass polishing is one of those trades in which personal cleanliness +of the worker can do a very great deal to prevent plumbism, and, +knowing this, employers ought to provide ample washing accommodation +and appliances; overalls should be worn; no food should be taken into +or eaten in the workshop. All polishing should be conducted as far as +possible in semi-enclosed cupboards, with draught tubes and fans, and +the feeding of the wheels should be done automatically. There ought +also to be frequent periodical medical examination of the workers, +with power to suspend in case of signs of plumbism. These were the +recommendations of the Dangerous Trades Committee, and as one result +of their being put into practice the Medical Inspector of Factories, +in his Report for 1899, says he is satisfied that the introduction of +fans has materially diminished the danger of lead poisoning in the +process of glass polishing. It has, practically speaking, abolished +the bespattering of the workmen’s clothes and the splashing formerly +observed during glass polishing.</p> + + +<h3><i>File Cutting.</i></h3> + +<p>Hand file cutting, although still giving employment in this country to +a fairly large number of people, is generally stated to be a decaying +industry. This is controverted by Dr John Robertson, Medical Officer of +Health, Sheffield. It is, however, an unhealthy trade. In 1898 there +were 46 cases of lead poisoning reported in file cutters, in 1899 the +number was 41, and in 1900 there were 40 cases. The centre of the +industry is Sheffield, but the manufacture is carried on in London, +Glasgow, Rainhill, and Birmingham.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span> There are upwards of 2000 hand +file cutters in Sheffield alone. In the Annual Report on the health of +the City of Sheffield, 1900, it is stated that there are 2040 persons +engaged in 546 hand file cutting shops. Files can be cut both by hand +and by machinery, but as file cutting by machinery is usually carried +on in modern and well-ventilated factories, this method of manufacture +need not detain us, for it is a healthy occupation, there being no lead +used in the process. It is otherwise with hand file cutting. Seated on +a “stock,” the hand file cutter has in front of him a stone block, into +the centre of which a small piece of bar steel called a “stiddy” is +inserted, and on this stiddy is placed a piece of metallic lead, which +is called the “bed.” The file about to be cut is strapped on to the +bed. The lines that are seen on a file are made by means of a chisel +and hammer, each line representing a blow. The reason for using the +lead bed to strike the file upon is, that while there may be as little +recoil as possible, there shall yet be sufficient resistance to develop +the line in its entirety as a result of the blow given by the hammer +and chisel. As a consequence of constantly striking files of uniform +size a groove comes to be formed on the lead bed, into which succeeding +files easily fit. When he has cut one face of the file, the workman +rubs that side with charcoal, turns it over, and then proceeds to cut +the other side, after which both faces are briskly rubbed. The file +cutter grips the chisel between the index finger and thumb of the left +hand, and in order to get a good grip of the chisel, he often licks +his finger. A good deal of strain is experienced by the fingers in a +day’s work. The steel hammer used by a cutter generally weighs from +7½ to 9 lbs., and as each line on a file represents one stroke of the +hammer, and there are often on large files as many as 3800 lines, it +is estimated that in the course of one day a file cutter will lift a +weight equal to several tons. A Gateshead file cutter, who consulted me +recently, works with a hammer 7 lbs. in weight; he cuts files 16 inches +in length. Each file receives 1500 “bats,” and he makes one and a +quarter dozen of files daily, working eight to eight and a half hours. +In the course of a day’s work he lifts 157,500 lbs. weight.</p> + +<p>File cutting by hand is properly regarded as a dangerous industry. +Although it claims annually large numbers as the victims of plumbism, +it is difficult to say exactly in what form lead enters the system. +In Sheffield the work is for the most part carried on in small, +badly-ventilated, and overcrowded shops,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span> more like outhouses, often +situated in backyards or in the rear of dwellings, and not unfrequently +contiguous to privies. Of 546 hand file cutting shops, in only 48 was +there any means of ventilation provided, and in many of these “the +means of ventilation consisted of a brick taken out of the wall.” +Inside, the floor in nearly all of them is the bare earth, or bricks +badly placed together. The workers are closely packed together without +any consideration of the cubic space of the workroom. Hand file +cutters as a class are anything but cleanly. Possibly their sense of +indifference to dirt is largely the outcome of the long custom of +the men taking their meals in shops totally unprovided with washing +appliances. As a consequence of hammering and brushing the files, a +considerable amount of dust is created, some of which must be inhaled, +as the man or woman—for both sexes follow the occupation—bends +closely over the stock. In several samples of dust removed from +the stocks and rafters of the shops, lead<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> was found, the other +constituents of the dust being particles of iron, charcoal, and chalk. +File cutting is a sedentary occupation. In order to get as much light +as possible upon their work, the men sit close up to the window, but +they object to any part of the window being open on account of the cold +and draughts. Owing to the close and dusty atmosphere in which the work +is carried on, the general health of the file cutter becomes gradually +undermined. As a consequence of this diminished vital resistance, and +the practice of eating his food with unwashed hands, the licking of +his fingers when at work, and inhalation of dust, the file cutter, in +course of time, becomes the victim of lead poisoning. It is metallic +lead dust that is given off during the blows with the hammer and +chisel upon the file. Lead in this form is certainly much less harmful +than when in such a soluble combination as the oxide or carbonate, +but oxidation of the surface of the lead is constantly taking place, +thereby rendering the metal more or less absorbable.</p> + +<p>In addition to the ill-health caused by lead, pulmonary consumption +carries off a large number of file cutters. The men work in a stooping +position in overcrowded and ill-ventilated shops for long hours daily, +with the result that the trade occupies an unenviable position on +account of its mortality from phthisis. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span> is not, therefore, lead +<i>quâ</i> lead that is the sole danger, but the unhealthy conditions +under which the labour is carried on.</p> + +<p>In Sheffield, file cutting has received considerable attention from +members of the medical profession. Thirty years ago Dr J. C. Hall +denounced the trade as unhealthy, and demonstrated how, with such +simple means as the free use of soap and water, much of the suffering +and ill-health traceable to lead could be averted. Drs Sinclair White, +Porter, and Harvey Littlejohn have in recent times written upon the +evils of the trade from different standpoints. Notwithstanding all the +attention the subject has received, hand file cutting still remains +a most unhealthy industry. All the workers look anæmic. Many whom I +examined both in Sheffield and in Rainhill had suffered from colic; +several were completely disabled on account of paralysis of the +extensor muscles of the fingers and wrists. It is rather in the chronic +forms of plumbism, and in those persons in whom the kidneys become +affected and health breaks down, that the worst effects of file cutting +as an occupation are seen. Out of 100 file cutters examined by Dr +Sinclair White, 74 had a blue line on the gums, 28 had had lead colic, +and 20 paralysis of the wrists and fingers. The trade is characterised +by a high mortality, the figures being 316 against 123 for occupied +males in general.</p> + +<p>The possibility of finding a substitute for the lead bed upon which the +file is cut is, although not a new subject, one to which the Dangerous +Trades Committee gave considerable attention. It was felt that if +lead could be eliminated, the occupation would be rendered much less +harmful. It was ascertained that in Germany pads of paper had been +tried for small files, also that clay and sand encased in canvas, bars +of wood, copper, vulcanite, and various combinations of indiarubber +and gutta-percha had been tried, but each in turn discarded, owing to +its unsuitability as a bed. This is a field of inquiry that would well +repay any practical file cutter.</p> + +<p>File cutters may work at their trade for years without becoming ill. +Others again early suffer from colic, and the attacks of abdominal +pain keep recurring every few months. Gradually, or suddenly, in +those who have been thus afflicted, or even in those who have not had +colic, paralysis of the fingers and hands develops. The peculiarity +of file makers’ paralysis is, that while the extensor muscles of the +fingers and wrists may become affected, so as to constitute a veritable +“wrist-drop,” there is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span> observed more frequently paralysis with wasting +of the smaller muscles of the fingers and thumb. The loss of power is +usually confined to the fingers of the left hand. It is with the left +forefinger and thumb that the chisel is grasped, and as a consequence +of the workman holding the chisel in this position during a great +portion of the day, there is an amount of muscular strain experienced +which cannot but play a part in determining the paralysis and its +location. It is not the sole explanation, however, for the paralysis +also affects at times the muscles of the right hand of the file cutter. +This is the hammer hand that really does the hardest work, though not +of the same strained character.</p> + +<p>While it is to the fact of the work being conducted upon a lead +bed, and the want of personal cleanliness on the part of the file +cutter, that plumbism is mainly due, there are, as seen in Sheffield, +contributory causes in operation which tend to increase the harmfulness +of the occupation. One of these is, that file cutting is often a home +industry. The work is frequently carried on in the living room or +kitchen of a dwelling-house. Domestic and family duties come to be +disregarded by the mother, for she, no less than the other members +of the family, interruptedly lends a hand to increase the income of +the home. Readers of this paper are prepared to learn that work under +these circumstances is usually carried on in houses of the poorest +description, and that, as a consequence of the dangerous character +of the occupation, the unhealthy atmosphere of the workroom, and the +constitution of the workers having become undermined through poverty, +lead poisoning when it occurs is not only extremely severe, but may +affect those who are simply living in the house and not actually +engaged in file cutting at all. How to grapple satisfactorily with +this most unhealthy trade is one of the many difficult labour problems +that have been presented to the Home Office. Both for it and the +peculiar tenement conditions under which the industry is carried on in +Sheffield, fresh legislation is required.</p> + +<p>In file cutting shops generally, the air space ought to be extended +to 450 cubic feet at least for each person (it is 600 feet in cotton +factories); there should be greater distance between the stocks, say +4 feet; better ventilation; washing appliances, with plenty of soap, +water, towels, nail-brushes; wearing of overalls; periodic lime-washing +of the workshops; concrete, asphalt, or wooden floors, which can be +damped and swept<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span> regularly; prohibition of the taking of food into the +workshops; and in the event of new buildings being erected, submission +of the plans to the Home Office. For ventilation purposes Dr John +Robertson recommends an inlet of the type of a Sherringham valve.</p> + +<p>The report on the sickness experience of the Society of File Cutters +by Hand in Sheffield, by Mr Stuart Uttley, Secretary of the Federated +Trades Council, and which is published in the Fourth Interim Report of +the Dangerous Trades Committee, 1899, p. 21, shows the extent to which +file cutters are thrown off work every year through illness, including +lead poisoning. This Society does not contribute any sick benefit, +but during the illness of members their contributions to the Society +cease. In this way it is readily known how many members are off work. +The report deals with adult males only, and the dates chosen are 1891 +and 1896, two years when trade was good, when all the members were at +work, and malingering was practically beyond question. Out of 1092 +members in the Society in 1891, the claims for exemption on account of +sickness were equivalent to 1109 weeks, or a fraction of over one week +per man per year. It is not maintained that all the sickness was due +to plumbism. In 1896, 961 file cutters who were working in Sheffield +claimed 951 weeks’ exemption from payment of contributions on account +of sickness, or a fraction under one week each per man per year. +There were 36 cases of plumbism in file cutters notified in Sheffield +from July 1898 to June 1899, and of these 35 were men. A glance at Dr +Tatham’s tables of comparative mortality, in an earlier part of this +book, will show to what a large extent pulmonary consumption prevails +in file cutters.</p> + +<p>Dr Harvey Littlejohn found that in twelve years there occurred 91 +deaths from plumbism in Sheffield, and that of the 91 people who died, +56 were file cutters. These statistics, however, do not represent the +total number of deaths from lead poisoning. Plumbism is sometimes so +tardily developed, and the constitution of the workman so gradually +undermined, that as pathological changes are very slowly induced in +internal organs, such as the kidneys, an individual may die long +after he has given up working in lead, and the death be registered +as having been caused by chronic disease of the kidneys, which but +for lead poisoning would probably not have developed at all. It is +thus that many fatal cases of lead poisoning fail to be attributed to +their proper cause, owing to the fact that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span> as death is the result +of well-defined disease of internal organs, the connection of which +with plumbism is overlooked, the occupation of the patient is either +not inquired into or is completely ignored by the medical attendant. +It was with the view of minimising this error, and of bringing into +greater prominence the connection of lead poisoning with industrial +occupation, that the Dangerous Trades Committee suggested in its final +Report, 1899, p. 6, that if all deaths among workpeople who had been +employed at any time within three months immediately preceding death +in a trade in which Special Rules are established were compulsorily +reported to the coroner, many facts of intrinsic and statistical value +would be ascertained, and much light shed upon some of the occupations +that give rise to industrial disease. By this means much injury and +suffering might be mitigated at an earlier date than at present through +alteration of the conditions under which the particular industry +is carried on. Possibly six months would be better than the three +suggested in the above sentence. Usually lead poisoning is so slowly +and insidiously developed in file cutters, that the workpeople become +indifferent to the dangers, and yet when symptoms of plumbism occur +they can be very severe. Occasionally in female file cutters the malady +shows itself at an early date after exposure, and the symptoms are +those rather of the acute than the chronic form of plumbism.</p> + +<p>Since, doubtless, the tendency to plumbism in file cutters is favoured +by the nasty habit indulged in of licking their left thumb in order to +get a better grip of the chisel, the application of resin to the finger +has been recommended, but the suggestion does not appear to have met +with much approval. Allusion has been made at the commencement of this +article to the fact that it is only hand made file cutters who suffer +from lead poisoning. In the United States all file cutting is done by +machinery, and in that country plumbism among file cutters is unknown. +In Britain machine-made files are slowly supplanting those cut by hand, +but the customs of a trade die hard.</p> + + +<h3><i>Use of Lead in Potteries.</i></h3> + +<p>Staffordshire is the home of the pottery industry in this country. In +Stoke-on-Trent, Burslem, Hanley, Longton, Fenton, and Tunstall, the +trade is centred. These towns form what is called the “Potteries,” +a district of about ten miles in length and four in breadth. Here +nine-tenths of the earthenware produced in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span> the United Kingdom +are manufactured. The location of the manufacture of pottery in +Staffordshire is an illustration of how industries cling to particular +districts. At the present time none of the clay which is used in the +manufacture of the finer earthenware is found in the neighbourhood. +Originally there was plenty of coarse clay, and there is still +abundance of marl, which is used for making saggers and firebricks. +Coal, however, is abundant, and cheap fuel is an important item in the +manufacture of pottery. In the early part of the seventeenth century +there was a good supply of clay and fuel in the locality. The ware +produced at that time was made from yellow or red marl, glazed with +galena, or crushed raw lead ore brought from the Derbyshire mines; +but in 1680, common salt was substituted for galena in the glaze. The +articles produced were known as Crouch ware. It was in Burslem that +this ware was first made. In 1759, Wedgwood perfected the white cream +ware, and introduced many improvements into pottery, especially in +the manufacture of green, black Egyptian, and jasper wares. Although +England never outrivalled France and Germany, <i>e.g.</i> Sèvres +or Dresden, in the manufacture of soft china, yet she has produced +earthenware on a larger scale and supplied more of the world’s markets +than other pottery districts, and is still doing her utmost to maintain +her supremacy. In Staffordshire there is plenty of common clay, marl, +or fireclay which, as already mentioned, is useful for making saggers, +<i>i.e.</i> the large vessels in which earthenware is fired. The clays +necessary for making the finer earthenware and china are brought from +Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall. The clay or felspar used is, roughly +speaking, a silicate of alumina in combination with water, potass, +soda, lime, or iron. These ingredients act as fluxes on the silicate, +and therefore help its vitrification. For earthenware, two kinds of +clay may be used, the blue or ball clay and kaolin, but for porcelain +only kaolin. It is estimated that upwards of 70,000 tons of ball clay +are annually imported into the Potteries from the south of England. +Kaolin, the Chinese word for the clay out of which porcelain is made, +is in Staffordshire called China or Cornish clay, and is got from +granite rocks. Workmen mix this Cornish clay with water in a large +tank. The quartz, mica, and undissolved felspar sink to the bottom, +while the thick white water in which the fine particles of kaolin are +suspended is run off into another tank in which the kaolin is allowed +to become precipitated. The precipitate is subsequently removed, dried, +and exported from the south of England<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span> as a very fine white clay, +which contains more alumina but less iron than the untreated clay. Of +this material about 130,000 tons are sent to the Potteries every year. +In Staffordshire what is called Cornish stone is also used. This is a +kind of granite in which the felspar retains its alkaline elements, and +is also useful as a vitrifying agent. Ground flints, too, are employed +in the manufacture of earthenware. Ball clay forms the foundation of +earthenware; flint is simply the whitening material. The addition of +Cornish clay makes the body still whiter and less liable to break under +a heavy weight and changes of temperature, while Cornish stone renders +the ware more compact and of a closer texture. A mixture of these +substances when fired would not produce earthenware of a perfectly +white colour. The iron contained in them would impart a yellow tinge. +This is overcome by adding oxide of cobalt, which neutralises this +tendency so completely that white ware is produced.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to describe at any length the process of manufacture. +Once the ware is made it is gently dried by exposure to the ordinary +air; afterwards it is placed in saggers and fired in large cylindrical +ovens, slowly at first to prevent too sudden evaporation of moisture +and to prevent splitting. When the ware has undergone its first firing +it is known in the trade as <i>biscuit</i>. Common terra-cotta and +stoneware only require one firing, but for all English ware it is +necessary that it should be placed twice in the oven so as to get a +denser texture of the ware, also for the purpose of glazing, or that +process whereby the article is dipped in a liquid in which usually raw +or ground vitrified lead is suspended. If the ware is to remain white, +it is, after it has been biscuited, sent to the dipping department to +be glazed, and if it is to be decorated and sold as an inexpensive +ware it goes in addition to the printing shop, where by means of thin +paper transfers it receives the desired coloured impression. The more +expensive ware is painted by hand in the ordinary way by means of +small brushes. In underglazed colouring the decorated ware is placed +in a kiln and brought to a red heat so as to burn off the oil in the +colouring. The earliest glaze used in Staffordshire contained galena or +sulphide of lead. The materials used for glazes are the same as those +for the body, viz., silica as found in flint, and felspar, to which is +often added Cornish stone. These are called the hard materials, and +they are vitrified by such fluxes as oxide or carbonate of lead, borax +or boric acid, potash, soda, carbonate of lime and barytes. In the +Potteries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span> each manufacturer has his own receipt for glazes, and he +guards it with a conservatism that to outsiders seems unnecessary in +these days of advanced chemical research. The ingredients or the glaze +can be rendered very insoluble by vitrifying them in a reverbatory +furnace or crucible by exposure to an intense heat, whereby a compound +like green glass is obtained, which is called a <i>fritt</i>. This is +subsequently ground and mixed with water. Into this liquid the ware is +dipped, and having been biscuited, the porous ware rapidly absorbs the +water, leaving the solid particles of the glaze on the surface. Instead +of fritting the lead, many manufacturers until lately simply added raw +lead, <i>i.e.</i> white lead or carbonate, to the other ingredients in +the dipping tub, and it is owing to persistence in this practice that +lead poisoning has been so prevalent in the Potteries. After the ware +has been dipped in the glaze it is fired for a second time in a manner +similar to the first, only in smaller ovens, and with greater care, the +individual pieces being better separated from each other. On removal of +the ware from the oven it is ready for the market. In most factories +the ware, after having been dipped, is dried and <i>cleaned</i> by +women, <i>i.e.</i> the borders are scraped with a knife to remove any +surplus glaze. When this process of cleaning is conducted over a trough +that is aspirated there is very little dry glaze dust scattered about +the room, but if performed in a room without proper ventilation the +atmosphere becomes dusty and dangerous. Ware cleaning ought never to be +conducted in the same room as the dipping.</p> + +<p>What is called <i>porcelain</i> or <i>china</i> differs slightly from +earthenware. There are three kinds of porcelain: (1) that made from +kaolin and felspar, with the addition of quartz: this is manufactured +in Limoges in France; (2) soft porcelain, which was formerly made +at Sèvres, near Paris; and (3) English porcelain, which, like the +first, is made from kaolin and Cornish stone, but differs from it in +containing calcined bones. For hard porcelain, the glaze is made from +felspar, which contains a variable quantity of quartz, while in the +glaze used for the other two there is usually some silicate of lead and +borates, the presence of which allows of a lower temperature being used +for the biscuited ware. Thirty-five firms in the Potteries make china, +and 195 earthenware.</p> + +<p>The population of the Potteries and of the district immediately +round about is probably not less than a quarter of a million. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span> is +estimated that there are from 46,000 to 50,000 people working in the +Potteries, of whom 4703—viz., 3123 males and 1580 females—are engaged +in what might be called lead or dangerous processes. In his Annual +Reports the Chief Inspector of Factories shows that in 1898 there +were 457 cases of lead poisoning notified to the Home Office from the +Potteries, 249 in 1899, and 200 in 1900, whereas for the same periods +the following numbers were reported from all other trades combined, +excluding house painters, 1278, 1258, and 1058. The number of persons +working “in the lead” in the Potteries in July 1898 was 4703, and were +classified as follows:—</p> + + +<p class="center p1"><span class="smcap">Number of Persons</span> employed in Processes where Lead is used in +the manufacture of Earthenware and China, North Stafford District, July +1898.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Persons Employed.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Under 13.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">13 to 18.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Over 18.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>a</i>) Dippers</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">9</td> + <td class="rightr">15</td> + <td class="rightr">486</td> + <td class="rightr">66</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>b</i>) Dippers’ Assistants</td> + <td class="rightr">7</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">408</td> + <td class="rightr">49</td> + <td class="rightr">103</td> + <td class="rightr">58</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>c</i>) Ware Cleaners</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">15</td> + <td class="rightr">76</td> + <td class="rightr">90</td> + <td class="rightr">382</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>d</i>) Glost Placers</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">58</td> + <td class="rightr">8</td> + <td class="rightr">1747</td> + <td class="rightr">38</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>e</i>) Majolica Paintresses</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">62</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">233</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>f</i>) Ground Layers</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">9</td> + <td class="rightr">89</td> + <td class="rightr">373</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>g</i>) Colour Dusters</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">24</td> + <td class="rightr">7</td> + <td class="rightr">118</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>h</i>) Enamel Colour & Glaze Blowers</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">9</td> + <td class="rightr">12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">|(<i>i</i>) Other persons<br>coming in contact<br> +with lead, not<br>enumerated in the<br>foregoing list</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">19</td> + <td class="right3rb">13</td> + <td class="right3rb">76</td> + <td class="right3rb">44</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Totals</td> + <td class="rightrb">7</td> + <td class="rightrb">...</td> + <td class="rightrb">509</td> + <td class="rightrb">256</td> + <td class="rightrb">2607</td> + <td class="rightrb">1324</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table class="smaller p1"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Males</td> + <td class="right">3123</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Females</td> + <td class="rightb">1580</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Total</td> + <td class="rightbd">4703</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>At the date of the Report on the Use of Lead in Potteries, presented +by Professor Thorpe and myself to the Home Secretary (1899), the total +number of cases of lead poisoning in the Potteries during the previous +three years, <i>i.e.</i> since the Act of 1895, as to compulsory +notification, came into force, was:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Males</td> + <td class="right">478</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Females</td> + <td class="rightb">607</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Total</td> + <td class="rightbd">1085</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span></p> + +<p>These were distributed thus:—</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Number of Persons</span> reported as suffering from Lead Poisoning +during the years 1896, 1897, and 1898.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="4">1896.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="4">1897.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="4">1898.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">13 to 18.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Over 18.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">13 to 18.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Over 18.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">13 to 18.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Over 18.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr">M.</td> + <td class="ctrr">F.</td> + <td class="ctrr">M.</td> + <td class="ctrr">F.</td> + <td class="ctrr">M.</td> + <td class="ctrr">F.</td> + <td class="ctrr">M.</td> + <td class="ctrr">F.</td> + <td class="ctrr">M.</td> + <td class="ctrr">F.</td> + <td class="ctrr">M.</td> + <td class="ctrr">F.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Dippers</td> + <td class="right3r">3</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">50</td> + <td class="right3r">14</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">48</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">41</td> + <td class="right3r">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Dippers’ Assistants</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + <td class="right3r">6</td> + <td class="right3r">3</td> + <td class="right3r">12</td> + <td class="right3r">26</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">3</td> + <td class="right3r">8</td> + <td class="right3r">14</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">6</td> + <td class="right3r">17</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Ware Cleaners</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">3</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">54</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">66</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">3</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">55</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Glost Placers</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">57</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">53</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">48</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Majolica Paintresses</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">38</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">41</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">4</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">27</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Ground Layers</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">16</td> + <td class="right3r">34</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">15</td> + <td class="right3r">40</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">10</td> + <td class="right3r">45</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Colour Dusters</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">11</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">6</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Litho. Dusters, or<br>Cleaners in making<br>Litho. Transfers</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">10</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">11</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">8</td> + <td class="right3r">4</td> + <td class="right3r">10</td> + <td class="right3r">4</td> + <td class="right3r">8</td> + <td class="right3r">6</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Other persons coming in<br>contact with lead, not<br> +enumerated in the<br>foregoing list</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">1</td> + <td class="right3rb">10</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">2</td> + <td class="right3rb">25</td> + <td class="right3rb">5</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">22</td> + <td class="right3rb">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Totals</td> + <td class="right3rb">13</td> + <td class="right3rb">24</td> + <td class="right3rb">139</td> + <td class="right3rb">175</td> + <td class="right3rb">26</td> + <td class="right3rb">30</td> + <td class="right3rb">148</td> + <td class="right3rb">182</td> + <td class="right3rb">18</td> + <td class="right3rb">24</td> + <td class="right3rb">134</td> + <td class="right3rb">172</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table class="smaller p1"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Age.</td> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr">1896.</td> + <td class="ctr">1897.</td> + <td class="ctr">1898.</td> + <td class="ctr"></td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr" rowspan="2">13 to 18 years.</td> + <td class="cht">Males</td> + <td class="right">13</td> + <td class="right">26</td> + <td class="right">18</td> + <td class="ctr">=</td> + <td class="right">57</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Females</td> + <td class="right">24</td> + <td class="right">30</td> + <td class="right">24</td> + <td class="ctr">=</td> + <td class="right">78</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr" rowspan="2">Over 18</td> + <td class="cht">Males</td> + <td class="right">139</td> + <td class="right">148</td> + <td class="right">134</td> + <td class="ctr">=</td> + <td class="right">421</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Females</td> + <td class="right">175</td> + <td class="right">182</td> + <td class="right">172</td> + <td class="ctr">=</td> + <td class="right">529</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table class="smaller p1"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr" rowspan="2">Grand total in 3 years</td> + <td class="cht">Males</td> + <td class="right">478</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Females</td> + <td class="rightb">607</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr"></td> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="rightbd">1085</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center p1"><span class="smcap">Comparison</span> of Number of Persons “Working in Lead” in July +1898, with number of cases of Lead Poisoning reported in year 1898.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Workers.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="4">Lead Cases.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Dippers</td> + <td class="right3r">495</td> + <td class="right3r">81</td> + <td class="right3r">41</td> + <td class="right3r">8.2</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">8.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Dippers’ Assistants</td> + <td class="right3r">518</td> + <td class="right3r">107</td> + <td class="right3r">20</td> + <td class="right3r">3.9</td> + <td class="right3r">19</td> + <td class="right3r">17.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Ware Cleaners</td> + <td class="right3r">105</td> + <td class="right3r">458</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">1.0</td> + <td class="right3r">58</td> + <td class="right3r">12.7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Glost Placers</td> + <td class="right3r">1805</td> + <td class="right3r">46</td> + <td class="right3r">48</td> + <td class="right3r">2.6</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">2.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Majolica Paintresses</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">295</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">31</td> + <td class="right3r">10.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Ground Layers</td> + <td class="right3r">89</td> + <td class="right3r">382</td> + <td class="right3r">10</td> + <td class="right3r">11.3</td> + <td class="right3r">45</td> + <td class="right3r">11.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Colour Dusters and Litho. Dusters</td> + <td class="right3r">16</td> + <td class="right3r">154</td> + <td class="right3r">10</td> + <td class="right3r">62.5</td> + <td class="right3r">32</td> + <td class="right3r">20.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Other persons in contact<br>with lead</td> + <td class="right3rb">95</td> + <td class="right3rb">57</td> + <td class="right3rb">22</td> + <td class="right3rb">23.2</td> + <td class="right3rb">3</td> + <td class="right3rb">5.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Totals</td> + <td class="right3rb">3123</td> + <td class="right3rb">1580</td> + <td class="right3rb">152</td> + <td class="right3rb">4.9</td> + <td class="right3rb">196</td> + <td class="right3rb">12.4</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span></p> + +<p>These statistics were obtained for Professor Thorpe and myself by Mr +J. H. Walmsley, H.M. Inspector of Factories, Stoke-on-Trent, and are +reproduced from our Conjoint Report to the Home Secretary on Lead +Compounds in Pottery. From these figures it is seen that of the total +male workers 4.9 per cent. become “leaded,” whereas of the female +workers, who form the smaller body, the proportion is as high as 12.4 +per cent.; and if the official figures for 1897 had been taken, the +results, it is believed, would have been even higher. Before Professor +Thorpe and myself commenced our investigation of lead poisoning in the +Potteries, <i>Special Rules</i> had been issued by the Chief Inspector +of Factories in 1898, the good effects of which were already being felt +at the time of our visits to Staffordshire. From the Annual Report of +the Chief Inspector of Factories it appears that in 1900, 200 cases of +lead poisoning in the Potteries were reported, as against 249 notified +in 1899. Dr Morison Legge in alluding to this subject remarks that it +is natural to attribute the diminution partly to the new <i>Special +Rules</i> (1898), and to the fact that in some factories the use of +raw lead has been discontinued. The numbers of cases of both sexes in +1899 are much fewer than in 1898; but of the total persons, it is to +be noted that whereas females constituted 55.2 per cent. and males +45.8 per cent. during 1898, the reverse occurs in 1899, viz., 51.4 +per cent. males and 48.6 females. The alteration in sex distribution +among persons attacked is attributed by Dr Morison Legge to the medical +examination, in which adult males did not participate. It would appear, +too, that there is a diminution in the number of severe cases reported, +a circumstance which is also attributed to the medical examination. The +diminution is most observed among ground layers and colour dusters, but +not in ware cleaning or dipping operations.</p> + +<p>What are called the dangerous processes of pottery manufacture are +those in which the worker is brought into contact with lead. The +preceding tables show that from lead poisoning a very high percentage +of colour and litho-dusters suffer, also that dippers’ assistants, +ground layers, ware cleaners, majolica paintresses, and dippers run +a considerable risk from plumbism. There are fewer women than men +working as dippers, and in this department the incidence of plumbism +is nearly equal in the two sexes. With the exception of glost placing, +<i>i.e.</i> filling the ovens with the ware about to be fired, and +which is heavy labour and only fit for men, females predominate in +all the other departments. From these figures it is seen that males +who are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span> colour dusters suffer in much larger proportion from lead +poisoning than do females, but in nearly all the other processes it +will be observed that the percentage of lead poisoning is higher in +females than males. It is the lead processes that have justly caused +pottery manufacture to be regarded as one of the dangerous industries, +and whatever may be said to the contrary, women, especially young women +from seventeen to thirty years of age, and all <i>young</i> males +or females, are especially susceptible to plumbism. Lead poisoning +in pottery manufacture has for long been known, but neither had the +Home Office, nor employers and the public, any adequate idea of the +extent to which the evil prevailed until industrial plumbism became +notifiable. It was with the view of throwing light upon this subject +that the Secretary of State invited Professor Thorpe and myself, in +May 1898, to institute a special inquiry into the hygienic questions +involved in the use of lead in pottery processes, and to ascertain—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">(1) How far the danger may be diminished or removed by +substituting for the carbonate of lead ordinarily used, +either (<i>a</i>) one or other less soluble compound of lead, +<i>e.g.</i> a silicate; (<i>b</i>) leadless glaze.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(2) How far any substitutes found to be harmless or less +dangerous than the carbonate lend themselves to the varied +practical requirements of the manufacturer.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(3) What other preventive measures can be adopted.</p> +</div> + +<p>Professor Thorpe and myself, either singly or together, visited not +only the potteries in Staffordshire and in Scotland, but several of +the leading manufactories on the Continent, <i>e.g.</i> at Delft, La +Louvière, Maastricht, Copenhagen, Charlottenburg, Dresden, Limoges, +Choisy-le-Roi, etc., and our opinions and recommendations are +embodied in a Blue Book which was presented to the Home Secretary, +Sir Matthew White Ridley, in February 1899. These, it is to be hoped, +will ultimately form the basis of legislation for the trade in this +country. At present our recommendations have been challenged by the +manufacturers, and are the cause of considerable dispute between +the master potters of this country and the Home Office. I therefore +reproduce our recommendations:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">(1) That by far the greater amount of earthenware of the class +already specified, <i>i.e. white and cream-coloured ware</i>, +can be glazed without the use of lead in any form. It has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span> been +demonstrated, without the slightest doubt, that the ware so made +is in no respects inferior to that coated with lead glaze. There +seems no reason, therefore, why in the manufacture of this class +of goods the operatives should still continue to be exposed to +the evils which the use of lead entails.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(2) There are, however, certain branches of the pottery industry +in which it would be more difficult to dispense with the use +of lead compounds. But there is no reason why, in these cases, +the lead so employed should not be in the form of a fritted<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> +double silicate. Such a compound, if properly made, is but +slightly attacked by even strong hydrochloric, acetic, or lactic +acid. There can be little doubt that if lead must be used, the +employment of such a compound silicate—if its use could be +insured—would greatly diminish the evil of lead poisoning.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(3) The use of raw lead as an ingredient of glazing material, or +as an ingredient of colours which have to be subsequently fired, +should be absolutely prohibited.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(4) As it would be very difficult to ensure that an innocuous +lead glaze shall be employed, we are of opinion that young +persons and women should be excluded from employment as +dippers, dippers’ assistants, ware cleaners after dippers, and +glost placers in factories where lead glaze is used, and that +the adult male dippers, dippers’ assistants, ware cleaners, +and glost placers should be subjected to systematic medical +inspection.</p> +</div> + +<p>These were our recommendations, and while they received a considerable +amount of approval throughout the country, some of them, as might be +expected, have been the subject of hostile criticism on the part of +the pottery manufacturers. It should be borne in mind that a few years +previous to our inquiry a Committee appointed by Mr Asquith, then Home +Secretary, and composed of Mr S. W. May, H.M. Superintending Inspector +of Factories (Chairman), Dr John T. Arlidge, Mr W. D. Spanton, +F.R.C.S.E., Mr A. P. Laurie, M.A., Mr J. H. Walmsley, H.M. Inspector +of Factories, and Mr W. D. Cramp, H.M. Superintending Inspector of +Factories (Secretary),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span> had reported to the Secretary of State, and +made certain recommendations, including one specially by Mr Laurie, in +which it is suggested that the manufacturers should be circularised +from the Home Office to experiment with and test the uses and the +effect upon the health of the workpeople of glazes and colours in +which all the lead had been fritted; also the practicability of making +a glaze that would be harmless to those employed in the manufacture, +and at the same time would not injure the ware. It remains a cause +of disappointment that, considering the assistance rendered by the +1893 Committee, the pottery manufacturers did so little to introduce +the improvements that were recommended so as to minimize the evils +that were yearly increasing. Periodical medical examination of the +workers, male as well as female, they certainly encouraged, and they +admit that the result was beneficial. There is a feeling that, had +the manufacturers bestirred themselves a little more in the direction +of using properly fritted lead compounds instead of raw lead in the +glaze, and of again experimenting with leadless glazes to see what they +could accomplish, plumbism in pottery manufacture would have materially +diminished, our inquiry might not have been necessary, and certainly +the recommendations made by Professor Thorpe and myself would not have +been viewed, as they are by employers, in the light of a menace to the +industry and a check to its commercial prosperity.</p> + +<p>If there is one thing upon which the British public has made up its +mind in regard to some of the important labour and social questions of +to-day, it is, that there ought to be fewer cases of lead poisoning +in the manufacture of pottery generally, and that plumbism should +be practically abolished in the production of certain kinds of +earthenware. It would therefore be rather to the advantage of the +industry than otherwise, were the Staffordshire employers to meet +the wishes of the public in this respect, by making a greater effort +to produce ware dipped in leadless glaze. When the Home Secretary +published our recommendations, and stated to employers that it was his +intention to give effect to them, the pottery manufacturers assumed +an attitude partly of agreement and partly of disagreement. They at +once stated their willingness to discontinue the use of raw lead in +glazes; they asked for a lengthened period to test and experiment +with fritted lead, while in regard to leadless glazes they have taken +up the position which, up to the time of writing, may be regarded as +one of no compromise. The abolition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span> of raw lead, if carried out, +would mark a very important stage in the pottery manufacture of this +country, and of itself would do much to reduce the number of cases of +lead poisoning. The use of fritted lead compounds would also prove +helpful; but in order to obviate the risks of plumbism from the use of +these substances, the fritting of the lead compounds has to be done +carefully, for although less soluble than raw lead, yet plumbism has +followed their use. A simple silicate of lead possesses advantages +over the carbonate, both in its physical and mechanical characters; it +is, for example, less dusty and clammy than either white or red lead, +and is more easily removed from the skin by washing. Such an ordinary +silicate may contain as much as 70 per cent. of lead oxide, and 25 per +cent. of silica, with small quantities of alumina, lime, magnesia, and +alkalis, corresponding in fact to a crude mono-silicate, “and this +compound, which is generally understood as ‘fritted’ lead, is hardly +less soluble in acids than basic lead carbonate,” besides “glazes in +which the whole of the lead has been fritted as a properly compound +lead silicate—that is, fritted directly with the other components of +the glaze, so as to form a double silicate—have been found to possess +greater covering power than a glaze containing the same relative amount +of lead in the ‘raw’ state, with the further advantage of enhancing +the colour.” When the amount of silica is increased the fritt becomes +more innocuous, but there is a limit to which silica can be added to +litharge, so as to produce a homogeneous silicate. Even bisilicate of +lead is not wholly insoluble in acids. Professor Thorpe found in his +experiments, conducted in the Government Laboratory, that it was not +desirable the fritted lead should be a simple silicate, also that a +properly compounded double silicate could be made that would fulfil all +the requirements of the potter, and at the same time be practically +insoluble in acids. He suggested the following as a suitable +constituent of glaze, and as a compound that would be only slightly +attacked by hydrochloric acid, viz.—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Lead Monoxide</td> + <td class="right">22.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Alumina</td> + <td class="right">7.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Lime</td> + <td class="right">8.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Alkalis</td> + <td class="right">3.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Boracic acid</td> + <td class="right">3.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Silica</td> + <td class="rightb">54.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="right">100.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>This combination can be obtained by “fritting an intimate mixture of +litharge, flint, felspar, tincal, and chalk, or an intimate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span> mixture of +litharge, flint glass, borax, china clay, and ground flint; or, as is +done on the Continent, a portion of the flint may be replaced by white +sand, the colour if necessary being corrected by cobalt.” There is a +very strong feeling that in Staffordshire the pottery manufacturers +have been using more lead than is actually required to make a good +glaze. Lead has been used without proper discrimination. As to what +the amount of combined lead, calculated as oxide, which the glaze of +“glost” ware should contain, the opinion of even practical potters is +divided. It has been thought by some that 20 per cent. is required, +while others fix the limit at 10. Professor Thorpe found excellent +examples of lead-glazed ware in which the monoxide of lead did not +exceed 12 per cent. of the total weight of the glazing materials, +while on analysing some of the liquid taken from the dipping tubs in +the potteries, he found the amount varied from 13 to 24 per cent., +and even higher. If, therefore, the use of lead compounds is still to +be permitted, and, as has been shown, fritted lead in the form of a +simple silicate is not much less soluble than raw lead, it is apparent +that, with the view of preventing injurious consequences, their use +must be restricted and regulated. It was with this object that the Home +Office insisted upon all fritted lead compounds conforming to a certain +test of solubility, and it is around this point there is considerable +disagreement between the master potters and the Home Office. In a +Report on the “Use of Lead in the Manufacture of Pottery,” presented +to the Secretary of State by Professor Thorpe (1901), the Government +chemist deals, among other things, with the relation between the +composition and solubility of lead silicate, as shown in the following +table:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Fritts arranged in order of Increasing Solubility.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Oxide of Lead<br>dissolved by<br>0.25 per cent. of<br> +Hydrochloric Acid.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Percentage<br>Composition.<br>——<br>Oxide of Lead.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Preparation from Maastricht fritt (Belgium)</td> + <td class="ctrr">None.</td> + <td class="right2r">18.04</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Preparation from Boch’s fritt (Belgium)</td> + <td class="ctrr">Traces.</td> + <td class="right2r">21.83</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Boch’s fritt</td> + <td class="right1r">2.6</td> + <td class="right2r">22.44</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Ålmström’s fritt (Sweden)</td> + <td class="right1r">4.8</td> + <td class="right2r">44.06</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Maastricht fritt</td> + <td class="right1r">5.6</td> + <td class="right2r">18.97</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Owen’s glaze fritt</td> + <td class="right1r">6.6</td> + <td class="right2r">16.23</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Owen’s fritt</td> + <td class="right1r">23.8</td> + <td class="right2r">45.77</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Doulton’s fritt</td> + <td class="right1r">60.4</td> + <td class="right2r">37.92</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Owen’s lead silicate (No. 2 sample)</td> + <td class="right1rb">99.6</td> + <td class="right2rb">70.40</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>I have not reproduced in the table the percentage composition of +the other ingredients of the fritt, but it is maintained that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span> +solubility does not depend upon any of the constituents, nor does any +single base or acid increase or decrease continuously as the solubility +of the fritt increases. Although in a general sense the solubility +increases with the sum of monoxides present in the fritt, yet there is +no regular progression. The solubility, according to Thorpe, depends +upon the value of the ratio bases/acids which, judging from the results +obtained by him, should not exceed 1.45, or thereabouts, if the fritt +is to be practically insoluble in 0.25 per cent. hydrochloric acid and +be therefore safe. With the view of coming to some understanding upon +this question a conference was held between representatives of the +pottery industry and the Home Office on 31st October 1899. Two months +afterwards the Secretary of State intimated that it was his intention +to propose that after a certain interval a standard of insolubility +for fritted lead employed in glazes should be observed by the +manufacturers—the standard of insolubility being that the glaze should +not yield more than 2 per cent. of lead when acted upon by hydrochloric +acid, under certain conditions. Permission was granted to manufacturers +to submit specimens of fritted lead to Professor Thorpe, so that they +might have the necessary chemical assistance if wanted. Several samples +were received, and on examination it was found that they could contain +amounts of lead ranging from 24 to 53 per cent., and yet be capable of +conforming to the standard of solubility required by the Home Office, +although generally speaking they yielded slightly larger quantities +of lead oxide to dilute hydrochloric acid than the insoluble silicate +prepared from Continental fritts. In a short Report by Dr Thorpe, +dated 20th November 1900, are published directions for the fritting +of lead. The manufacturer, for example, “may, in the first place, +fritt together all the materials given in the receipts—that is in one +operation. If he chooses to take this course it would, as a matter of +economy, be preferable to substitute litharge, if not for the whole +of the raw lead, at least for the white lead. It seems absurd to pay +for the trouble of putting the carbonic acid and water into the white +lead, when these ingredients are expelled by the heat of the kiln. The +required alteration in the receipt may easily be calculated from the +fact that 1 lb. of litharge contains the same amount of lead oxide as +1.02 lb. of red lead or 1.18 lb. of white lead. Or the manufacturer may +make up his fritt by commingling two other fritts. Thus he may fritt +together borax, stone and flint, and fritt also the lead oxide, flint +and stone, each in such proportions that the two when mixed with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span> the +whiting and china clay form a composition containing 18 per cent. of +lead oxide.” It was urged by the manufacturers that the 2 per cent. +solubility of lead in a glaze would be materially affected by the +degree of fineness to which the fritt might be ground, but experiments +showed that while within limits increased solubility of the fritt and +fineness of grinding were concurrent, yet this question was rather +of an academic nature, and had no practical bearing upon the use of +fritted lead compounds in pottery. In our Conjoint Report, dated 1889, +when discussing the amount of combined lead that might be allowed in +glazes, we stated as the opinion of practical potters that it should be +from 10 to 20 per cent. We ourselves suggested 12 per cent. Subsequent +experience and experiment convinced Professor Thorpe that 12 per cent. +is higher than is actually necessary in earthenware and china glaze. +Nor does he regard the limit of 2 per cent. of solubility as too hard +or stringent a requirement. The manufacturers pressed the Home Office +to raise the limit to 5 per cent., but to do this in the face of +existing evils was far from helping the object that the Home Office +had in view. The stamping out of lead poisoning in pottery manufacture +is a most desirable object, and one all must wish to see accomplished +without, if possible, any injury to the trade. “If the limit is raised, +as suggested, to 5 per cent., it means that the lead in an ordinary +earthenware or china glaze, as at present used, may be so soluble +that one-third of it may be extracted by very dilute acid at ordinary +temperatures in one hour.” More than that, to raise the limit to 5 per +cent. would be to throw away all the result of the experience that has +been gained by experiments conducted over a period of three years, and +would tend to perpetuate the evils that at present exist.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> + +<p>No matter in what form lead is used for glazing pottery, there is +always a risk of plumbism. The French pottery manufacturers employ +for enamelling purposes a glaze the principal ingredient of which is +<i>calcine</i>—an alloy of 15 to 20 parts of tin, and 100 parts of +lead. An ordinary composition for white glaze for table ware is—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Calcine</td> + <td class="right">44</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Minium (lead oxide)</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Decize sand</td> + <td class="right">44</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Sea salt</td> + <td class="right">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Soda</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Yellow and green coloured enamels are got by adding to the white<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span> glaze +a quantity of antimoniate of lead, but for other colours no lead is +used. (<i>Poisons Industriels</i>, Office du Travail, Paris, 1901, p. +45.)</p> + +<p>Since the publication of the Report on Pottery Manufacture in 1899, +by Professor Thorpe and myself, in which we recommended the use +of leadless glazes for cream and white ware, electrical fittings, +sanitary ware, etc., attempts have been made to place leadless glazed +earthenware and china on the market. Commercially the thing can be +done. The Worcester Porcelain Company, also Messrs Mortlock, Maling & +Sons, and others, are willing to supply china finished with a glaze +quite free from lead. The Coalport China Company state that they have +used a leadless glaze for the past eighty years, and that they have +never had a case of lead poisoning in their works. Messrs Maling & +Sons, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, regularly produce a large amount of ware +dipped in leadless glaze, particularly jam-pots.</p> + +<p>In France a circular issued by the Minister of the Interior, and +bearing date 19th June 1878, interdicts the manufacture and sale of +pottery, either of French or foreign manufacture, glazed by means of +oxide of lead which has been incompletely fritted, and which gives up +readily oxide of lead to feeble acids. I am not in a position to say +how far this has been given effect to.</p> + +<p>In potteries where red or brown ware is used plumbism is not unknown. +It has generally been traced to the use of red lead. Occasionally lead +poisoning from red earthenware potteries, mostly in the form of wrist +drop, has come under my notice at the Newcastle Infirmary. Some of +the cases have been drawn directly from the immediate district, while +others have come from Sunderland. With the view of diminishing plumbism +in the manufacture of red and brown earthenware, Professor Thorpe +suggested that where employers decline to use fritted lead, on the +ground of expense, there would be no practical hardship in adopting the +use of ground blue lead or galena, <i>i.e.</i> the native ore, instead +of red or white lead. It is cheap, but it requires to be ground. The +drawback to it is that it gives off sulphur fumes when fired, but the +amount of sulphur oxides given off is small to that formed in the +combustion of the coal in the oven. It gives a faint yellow or brownish +tinge to the glaze, but this does not seem to be objectionable. In +visiting potteries in Holland, I found one firm in Gouda which used +ground galena for glazing this kind of ware. They had not only every +reason to be satisfied with the results, but in the factory plumbism +was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span> unknown. Several decades ago galena was similarly used in +Staffordshire.</p> + +<p>I have dwelt at considerable length upon the question of fritting +lead compounds and the use of leadless glazes, both in defence of the +attitude which Professor Thorpe and myself have assumed, and to show +the reasonableness of our recommendations.</p> + +<p>If our recommendations were adopted they would certainly make for +better health of the operatives engaged in pottery manufacture. At +the time of writing they have not been adopted. Some months ago a +statement was issued by a joint committee representing 283 of the 579 +manufacturers coming under the Special Rules, challenging our Report. +The manufacturers say that it is impossible to glaze the greater part +of their ware without lead, and that serious injury will be done to +the trade if a radical measure of so sweeping a character is enforced +without giving sufficient time to test the products so treated. +Employers maintain that from a trade point of view existing regulations +are hard enough. They suggest that there should be an extension of the +medical examination of all operatives engaged in lead processes quite +irrespective of age or sex. The Home Secretary subsequently indicated +to the manufacturers the steps he proposed to take with the view of +protecting workers from lead poisoning in china and earthenware, +viz.—(1) relaxation of the Special Rules for factories or processes in +which no lead is used; (2) medical examination of male workers in lead +processes; (3) use of fritted lead—six months being allowed before +this becomes compulsory; (4) fixing of standard of safety in fritts as +regards solubility in acids.</p> + +<p>There is everything to show that within the last three or four years +the conditions of labour in the Potteries have materially improved, +and that there has been a distinct diminution in the number of cases +of lead poisoning. The operation of the Special Rules, the periodical +medical examinations, and a more restricted use of raw lead have +largely contributed to this satisfactory result. A return of cases +of lead poisoning reported under the Act 1895, occurring in the +manufacture of earthenware and china from 1st January 1899 to 31st +December 1900, and presented to the House of Commons by Mr Jesse +Collings, 27th February 1901, conveys information upon this particular +point. During the year 1899 there were in the Potteries 129 persons +suspended from work on account of lead poisoning, and in the following +year 95. In 1899, 34 of the 129 persons were ware cleaners, 29 worked +in the dipping house, 26 were majolica paintresses, ground layers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span> +formed 14 of the total, and 10 were colour dusters, while for 1900 +the numbers were respectively 20, 42, 8, 6, 13. The districts of +Hanley, Burslem, Tunstall, and Stoke include practically the whole +of the North Staffordshire Potteries, where about 46,000 persons are +at present employed in the manufacture of china and earthenware, and +of whom 4700 are employed in lead processes. Taking, therefore, the +cases of lead poisoning in the Potteries for the last four years, +they run as follows: in 1897, 446; in 1898, 457; in 1899, 249; and in +1900, 200.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Allowing a margin on either side for discrepancies and +incompleteness in the statistics, these figures at once show how in a +trade that has hitherto been regarded as dangerous the conditions of +labour can be materially improved, with a very marked gain in health +to the workers. These encouraging results are, it is hoped, only a +forecast of others yet to come.</p> + +<p>There is considerable discrepancy in the returns of lead poisoning in +the Potteries, due to the source from which the statistics have been +obtained, and the manner in which the cases have been notified. All +the statistics concur in showing a declension of plumbism. From an +article in the <i>Times</i>, 24th September 1901, the following has +been taken:—“That lead poisoning has rapidly diminished among potters +and increased among other trades is proved by the following table of +cases reported in the last four years, and compiled from the <i>Labour +Gazette</i> and other official sources.”</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr3"></td> + <td class="ctr3">Potters.</td> + <td class="ctr">Other Trades.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr3">1897</td> + <td class="ctr3">469</td> + <td class="right">745</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr3"></td> + <td class="ctr3"></td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr3">1898</td> + <td class="ctr3">463</td> + <td class="right">954</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr3">1899</td> + <td class="ctr3">249</td> + <td class="right">1009</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr3">1900</td> + <td class="ctr3">200</td> + <td class="right">1057</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be thus observed that there has been a progressive diminution +in the number of cases of lead poisoning in the pottery trade, a +diminution that is still proceeding, judging from the returns of the +first half of the year 1901. The cases reported for the six months, +January-June, in the last four years are:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr3">1898</td> + <td class="ctr3">1899</td> + <td class="ctr3">1900</td> + <td class="ctr3">1901</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr3">200</td> + <td class="ctr3">165</td> + <td class="ctr3">110</td> + <td class="ctr3">59</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>“In the course of three years the amount of lead poisoning has been +reduced to one-fourth of that reported in 1898.” The manufacturers +attribute this result to the monthly medical examination of women and +young persons brought into contact with lead.</p> + +<p>An accidental delay in the passage of these pages through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span> the +press allows me to add a further note upon the attitude of the Home +Office and the pottery manufacturers in regard to the use of fritted +lead compounds, the suggested standard solubility, and the use of +leadless glazes, and thus to bring up to date the history of this +important trade inquiry, probably the last of the large industrial +conflicts that will be submitted to arbitration. The questions at +issue between the Home Office and the manufacturers were referred +to arbitration, Lord James of Hereford being chosen as umpire. The +Court sat at Stoke-on-Trent on 7th November 1901, and subsequent +days. Mr Chester Jones acted as arbitrator for the Home Office, and +Mr Llewellyn for the manufacturers; the counsel being, Mr Cripps, +K.C., and Mr H. Sutton, for the Home Office; Mr Fletcher Moulton, +K.C., for the manufacturers; and Mr Colefax for the operatives. +Evidence was given by Professor Thorpe, Mr Wilton Rix; Dr Wilkin, +director of large potteries, Dresden; Mr Alström, of the Rorstrand +Potteries, Stockholm; Dr T. M. Legge; Miss A. M. Anderson, Principal +Lady Inspector of Factories; and myself, on behalf of the Home Office. +The principal points urged were: the possibility of using leadless +glazes for certain kinds of ware; the greater safety of fritted lead +compounds over raw lead; the greater freedom of Continental potteries +from plumbism, where most, if not all, of the lead was fritted, than +is the case in Staffordshire; and, in a general way, the better +structural arrangements in Continental potteries than in those at home. +On behalf of the manufacturers, Messrs W. H. Grindley, G. E. Meakin, +H. J. Johnson, J. L. Whittaker, and J. Sherwin gave evidence. It was +admitted by the witnesses on both sides that there had been since the +introduction of the Special Rules 1898 a very notable decline in the +number of cases of plumbism in Staffordshire, and that towards this +happy circumstance better ventilation, greater personal cleanliness +on the part of the workpeople, and systematic medical examination had +doubtless contributed. The main part of the inquiry centred round +the subject of fritting the lead for the glaze. It was demonstrated +by Professor Thorpe that excellent results could be obtained by the +use of vitrified lead, which was soluble to the extent of only 2 per +cent. in .25 per cent. of hydrochloric acid. The manufacturers having +previously intimated to the Home Office their willingness to accept a +5 per cent. standard solubility as the test of lead in their glazes, +wished to recede from this position, and at the time the Court was +sitting, claimed the right not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[364]</span> to be bound by this or any other test +of solubility. In fact, it was admitted that many of the manufacturers +had returned to the use of 30 to 40 per cent. of raw lead in their +glazes. As to the greater safety in the use of fritted lead compounds +of the low solubility insisted upon by Professor Thorpe there can be +no question. There never will be absolute safety so long as lead in +any form is used; a 2 per cent. soluble fritted lead compound must +be much less harmful if swallowed than one containing lead which has +a solubility of 5 per cent. or more.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> My contention, like that of +Professor Thorpe, was that the .25 per cent. of hydrochloric test was +not at all a hard one; that while this was the amount of hydrochloric +acid present in the gastric juice, the test proposed was not so severe +as that which would be carried on in the human stomach, where there was +a higher temperature, greater agitation, and therefore better admixture +of the contents.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary here to reproduce the evidence in detail either for +or against the recommendations of the Home Office, which were based +upon the Thorpe-Oliver Report; but I may mention one or two additional +facts. While the Court was sitting, a male dipper of 20 years’ +experience, and who had never been ill, requested permission of Lord +James to give evidence. This was gladly complied with. The evidence +tendered was directed against the proposed monthly examination of males +employed in lead processes. The operative simply wished to assert +his right to work in lead even if he was the subject of plumbism, to +express his unwillingness to submit to periodical medical examination, +and to state that he objected to be bound by the arbitrary order of +the certifying surgeon either for temporary or permanent suspension. +In a word, he stated that he and his comrades knew the risks of their +calling, and they were prepared to take them. He appealed against the +application of all official restraint, which he regarded as of too +coercive a character. When<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span> working men, in whose interests well-meant +efforts are being made to render their occupation more healthy, +prefer to court death and to throw their wives and families upon the +ratepayers rather than forego the loss of a few weeks’ wages so that +they may regain their health, the difficulty of bringing into line the +many conflicting forces is at once apparent.</p> + +<p>To the fritting of lead compounds the manufacturers raised many +objections. It was stated that, quite apart from the expense, their use +was impracticable. Mr W. H. Grindley of Tunstall stated that he had +tried fritted lead, but had relinquished it, as its use had involved +him in a financial loss of some hundreds of pounds in a few weeks. Mr +Henry J. Johnson and other manufacturers gave similar evidence.</p> + +<p>Quite unexpectedly, on the fifth day of the sitting of the Court, Lord +James announced his intention of not carrying the inquiry further. +Balancing the various conflicting issues at stake, and influenced +by the reduction in the number of cases of lead poisoning from 12 +to 3.5 per cent. in the four years’ operation of the Special Rules, +he postponed the arbitration for eighteen months, during which, +putting the manufacturers on their honour, he looked to them to +rigidly give effect to the Special Rules of 1898; to take a lesson +from Continental manufacturers; to try fresh experiments with fritted +lead, and to reduce them to the lowest possible solubility consistent +with a satisfactory production of their ware; also to come to some +understanding with the workpeople in regard to founding a mutual +assurance fund. As the whole subject is to be again discussed in +eighteen months, it would ill become me to do more than simply state +these facts, and to express the hope that by a loyal adherence to the +special regulations the amount of lead poisoning in Staffordshire may +meanwhile still further decrease.</p> + + +<h3><i>Chromo-lithographic Works and Transfer Making.</i></h3> + +<p>In the printing of coloured trade advertisements and wrappers there +is frequently used metallochrome powder, known under various names, +<i>e.g.</i> “flake white,” “china white,” etc. Usually the dry powder +is dusted on the sheets of paper by hand and dusted off again by young +women or lads, an operation that is extremely dusty, and too often +carried on in workrooms totally unprovided with any artificial means +of ventilation. Practically speaking, the manufacture of transfers +for giving coloured impressions to pottery is a similar operation. +The coloured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span> impressions are made upon paper which, when applied to +china and earthenware about to be fired, allow of the floral design and +pictures being transferred to plates, cups, and saucers, etc. Under +all circumstances, whether it is the making of transfers for pottery +work, covers for fancy tins of biscuits, mustard, tobacco, etc., or +coats-of-arms for railway carriages, the occupation is not only dusty +but is dangerous, owing to the fact that metallochrome powder often +contains as much as from 50 to 60 per cent. of white lead. In the +manufacture of transfers the workers, usually girls, throw the powder +loosely on the paper and tilt it from side to side, or what is more +common, they gently rub the powder all over the paper by means of a +soft cloth or a pad of chamois leather, the superfluous powder being +removed by shaking. In visiting factories where transfers are made both +at home and on the Continent, I have been struck by the extreme pallor +of the workers; frequently they have complained of splitting headache +and severe abdominal pains. Nearly all the workers presented a deep +blue line on their gums. In Limoges, where large quantities of coloured +porcelain are made, the introduction of transfers into the industry +took place only about twenty years ago, and it was not until several +fatal cases of lead poisoning had occurred that the plumbism was traced +to its cause, viz., the making of transfers. Many of the girls had +succumbed to that extremely severe and often suddenly developed form +of Saturnine affection of the brain, which is attended by epileptiform +convulsions, and known as lead encephalopathy. It is when metallochrome +powder is used in the dry form, and therefore dusty, that there is +danger. When mixed and moistened as in coloured printers’ ink, and the +printing is done by machinery, there is no danger. Men, however, have +suffered from plumbism after mixing “flake white” and varnish. This is +not a dusty process, but there is considerable danger when spirituous +materials are used along with lead.</p> + +<p>Much of the risk to health in this trade can be overcome by diminishing +the amount of white lead in the metallochrome powder. Experience shows +that this is often present in excess of what is necessary. A less +harmful metal, too, might in several instances be substituted for +lead. Barium has been suggested, but time and trial alone can tell +whether even the use of barium is quite free from danger. Animals can +be fed upon barium salts, and apparently thrive when they would die<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span> +if given the same quantity of lead carbonate. It is a heavier metal +than lead, and on the whole may be said to be safer. Magnesia has also +been recommended as a substitute for white lead in the metallochrome +powders. The trade of transfer making is one in which, fortunately +in one sense for the workers, employment is irregular. Under any +circumstance it is an occupation in which the workers should have some +alternation of employment, and in which no young person should be +engaged, no food should be eaten in the workroom, overalls ought to be +worn, and before leaving the factory the hands and face of each worker, +should be washed. Not only should adequate lavatory accommodation be +provided, but sufficient time should be given by the masters before +break, for the workers to wash. In this, as in all trades in which lead +is used, the individuals should be subjected to periodical medical +examination—experience in the potteries, for example, having shown +how very beneficial this has been in preventing plumbism. Such an +examination often succeeds in eliminating persons who are susceptible +to lead before they have worked too long at the trade. In Limoges, +so impressed were several of the large porcelain makers by the great +susceptibility of young women to plumbism, that they now only employ +men in the manufacture of transfers. The work, too, is no longer +conducted on open tables, but in closed glass cases, through openings +which are guarded by indiarubber, the hands of the workman are thrust, +so that the operation of “laying on” is conducted under cover, the +dust created being drawn away by strong aspiration on the distal side +of the enclosed space. Since the introduction of this method of making +transfers, plumbism has disappeared from most of the large porcelain +works in Limoges. In Staffordshire a similar method of transfer making +has also been adopted, and with equally satisfactory results to the +workpeople.</p> + +<p>Eleven cases of lead poisoning were notified to the Home Office as +having occurred in litho-transfer works during 1899.</p> + + +<h3><i>Tile-making and Manufacture of Porcelain Stoves.</i></h3> + +<p>The manufacture of tiles for useful and decorative purposes, such as +the floor of entrance halls, hearths, sides of fireplaces, and stoves, +is a large and increasing industry. The pressing of clay into the form +of tiles is done by machinery, and although it is a dusty process, +there is usually in operation at the time the pressing is done a strong +aspirating draught brought into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span> play, whereby the dust is removed +from the face of the worker. The tiles when dried are subsequently +dipped in glazes often rich in lead. Usually the lead which enters into +the composition of the glaze for majolica tiles is fritted; but some +manufacturers have until recently been in the habit of using only raw +lead, and it was occasionally in their factories that lead poisoning +occurred. The opportunities for a worker becoming leaded are during +the dipping, cleaning, or painting. In some of the factories visited +by Professor Thorpe and myself, we saw mechanical dippers in use +which gave promise of superseding hand-dipping and of abolishing the +necessity for cleaning and trimming the edges of the tile. Employment +of mechanical dippers and of fritted lead compounds, conforming to the +solubility standard required by the Home Office, with enforcement of +the Special Rules, would pretty well abolish plumbism in this industry.</p> + +<p>During the manufacture, at Velten in Brandenburg, of glazed tiles for +making earthenware stoves, there recently occurred a considerable +amount of lead poisoning among the operatives,<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> due to the glazing +of tiles with oxide of lead. The outbreak is of sufficient importance +to be mentioned here. The glazing material is made, first, by firing +together lead oxide and tin in the proportion of three to one. To +the compound thus obtained there are added felspar, marine salt, and +quartz. These are mixed together, and subsequently exposed to a great +heat so as to form a fritt. The vitrified material thus obtained is +crushed, finely pulverised and mixed with water, while the thick liquid +is applied to the surface of the tiles, which are afterwards heated in +a special furnace. During these operations there are many opportunities +for the workmen to become poisoned by lead. In the act of crushing, +a considerable amount of dust rich in lead salts rises into the +atmosphere. Rasch caused some of the air to pass through cotton-wool, +and he thus arrested the dust. The lead in this he estimated as +sulphide. The quantity found by him in 100 litres of air varied between +0.0012 to 0.0066 gramme, which was equivalent to an amount of lead +oxide entering into the lungs during the twelve hours’ work in the +factory of 0.05 to 0.6 gramme. Upon the clothes of the workmen he +obtained as much as 3 to 4.8 grammes. It was found that all the lead +in the fritt had not been converted into an insoluble form. There was +at least one-hundredth part in the form of lead oxide, a circumstance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span> +which rendered the glaze harmful to those who dipped the tiles, and +also to those who handled them after dipping. It is needless to say +that where this industry is carried on, precautions should be taken +similar to those in use in the potteries, care being taken to have the +fritting of the lead carried on in well-ventilated places, and the +grinding of the fritt done in enclosed machinery.</p> + + +<h3><i>Washing of Lead-workers’ and Painters’ Clothes.</i></h3> + +<p>In my Gulstonian Lectures on Lead Poisoning, I make mention of the fact +that dogs which had slept on the coats or jackets of their masters, +who were lead smelters in the vales of Durham, sometimes suffered +from colic; also that a peculiar epidemic of Saturnine poisoning +occurred in France in women who had simply washed the clothes of their +husbands, who were workers in lead factories. One of the main reasons +for the White Lead Commission recommending the wearing of overalls +when at work was that the Committee ascertained that the clothes of +several of the female workers, which were often dust-laden, became +the bedclothes of the family at night. Lead dust is always a danger, +so, too, may be the bespattered working clothes of house painters. +A woman, thirty-six years of age, consulted me at the Newcastle +Dispensary on account of anæmia, headache, and double wrist drop. In +addition she had a well-marked blue line on her gums. There was no +difficulty in diagnosing the case as one of plumbism, the difficulty +was rather in tracing the lead poisoning to its source. She was a widow +and had never worked in any factory, nor, so far as she knew, had she +ever been brought into contact with lead. She simply attended to her +domestic duties. On inquiry I found that since her husband’s death, +in order to increase her income, she had taken to reside with her two +male lodgers—her own brother and a nephew. Both were house painters, +and they wore the ordinary white jackets and trousers of the artisan. +The patient was in the habit of washing their clothes once a week, +which were frequently very much discoloured, especially those of the +younger man, the nephew. I asked for a bottleful of the water removed +from the washtub when she washed the clothes. This water was dirty +brown in colour, and contained a good deal of sediment. I submitted +it to Dr Bedson, Professor of Chemistry at the College of Science in +Newcastle, who reported the presence of a very large quantity of lead +in suspension in the water, and a small quantity in solution. That the +woman’s ill-health and paralysis of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span> hands were due to Saturnine +poisoning there was not the least doubt, for under medicinal and +electrical treatment and cessation on her part of the weekly washing of +the painters’ clothes, health was gradually regained and muscular power +restored. It is known that women who wash the overalls, etc., in white +lead factories occasionally suffer from plumbism.</p> + + +<h3><i>Lead Foil Manufacture.</i></h3> + +<p>Makers of lead foil which is to be subsequently used for the tops of +bottles or for wrapping round tobacco, snuff, and cheese, occasionally +suffer from plumbism; so, too, do those who handle and fix the lead +discs over the corks of bottles. On analysis the metallic foil which +envelops Roquefort cheese has been found to contain 12 parts of tin +and 85 of lead, among other substances, while in that which envelops +Angelots cheese there has been found as much as 95 per cent. of lead. +Tobacco smokers and chewers have suffered from using tobacco kept in +metallic dishes, and I have had professional experience of the very bad +effects of the use of snuff wrapped in leaden foil. An attempt is being +made to substitute parchment for lead discs for bottles.</p> + + +<h3><i>Shoe-finishing and Staining by Lead Compounds.</i></h3> + +<p>A few months ago, owing to several shoe finishers in Northampton +having been thrown upon their benefit societies, all suffering from +the same type of symptoms, ultimately certified to be lead poisoning, +the circumstance was necessarily brought under the cognisance of the +Factory Inspector for the district. The men worked in the same factory. +On investigation it was found that they were in the habit of using, for +finishing the bottoms of shoes, certain powders, known in the trade +as Chinese red and yellow chrome. These contained lead compounds. In +the manipulation of the powders to stain the boots and shoes with, +a considerable amount of dust arises. The process is thus described +by Mr Wright, H.M. Inspector. Dry China-red powder is by means of a +sponge dusted on to the sole of a boot, a piece of fine glass-paper is +then used to scour the colour into the leather, a small quantity of +grease is subsequently applied, and the sole is polished with a dry +cloth. The workman, during the whole of the process, has to bend down +closely over the boot, and thereby inhales the coloured dust. Sometimes +chrome-yellow is mixed with the China-red. It was found necessary by +the Home<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span> Office to interdict the use of these powders, less harmful +substitutes being suggested.</p> + + +<h3><i>Lucifer Matches containing Lead.</i></h3> + +<p>In order to make matches strike softly, and in other instances with the +view of making matches free from yellow phosphorus, various compounds +of lead have been introduced into the paste for heading the lucifers. +The mixing of the ingredients and the manipulation of the paste were +attended by such an amount of sickness among the workers that their use +has been discarded, for it was found that although less painful, lead +poisoning was just as serious a malady as that caused by phosphorus.</p> + + +<h3><i>Buffing of Brass Cocks and Plumbism.</i></h3> + +<p>In buffing brass cocks upon rapidly revolving wheels covered with +leather, the surface of which is kept coated with emery powder, several +of the men have become ill, and shown signs of lead poisoning. Buffing +is done so as to smooth the brass cocks after casting. In what is known +as “gun” and “pot” metal, lead is sometimes present to the extent of 5 +to 6 per cent.</p> + + +<h3>APPENDIX</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Number of Cases</span> of Lead Poisoning notified to the Home +Secretary under Section 29, 1895, during 1898, 1899, and 1900.[A]</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Disease and Industry.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Number of Reported Cases.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrb">1900.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">1899.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">1898.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Lead Poisoning</td> + <td class="rightr">1058</td> + <td class="rightr">1258</td> + <td class="rightr">1278</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">China and Earthenware</td> + <td class="rightr">200</td> + <td class="rightr">249</td> + <td class="rightr">457</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Litho.-Transfer Works</td> + <td class="rightr">10</td> + <td class="rightr">11</td> + <td class="rightr"><a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Glass Polishing</td> + <td class="rightr">7</td> + <td class="rightr">8</td> + <td class="rightr">19</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Smelting</td> + <td class="rightr">34</td> + <td class="rightr">61</td> + <td class="rightr">82</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Tinning and Enamelling</td> + <td class="rightr">16</td> + <td class="rightr">24</td> + <td class="rightr">24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">File Cutting</td> + <td class="rightr">40</td> + <td class="rightr">41</td> + <td class="rightr">46</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">White Lead</td> + <td class="rightr">358</td> + <td class="rightr">399</td> + <td class="rightr">332</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Paints and Colours</td> + <td class="rightr">56</td> + <td class="rightr">75</td> + <td class="rightr">59</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Coachmaking</td> + <td class="rightr">70</td> + <td class="rightr">65</td> + <td class="rightr">45</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Shipbuilding</td> + <td class="rightr">32</td> + <td class="rightr">30</td> + <td class="rightr"><a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Electric Accumulator Works</td> + <td class="rightr">33</td> + <td class="rightr">33</td> + <td class="rightr">11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Other Industries</td> + <td class="rightrb">202</td> + <td class="rightrb">290</td> + <td class="rightrb">103</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span></p> + +<p class="center p1"><span class="smcap">Analysis of Reports</span> on Lead Poisoning by Certifying Surgeon. +Factories and Workshops: Annual Reports for 1899 and 1900 (Dr T. M. +Legge).</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="4">Total Cases.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">1900.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">1899.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Smelting</td> + <td class="rightr">34</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">52</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Brass</td> + <td class="rightr">3</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">11</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Sheet Lead</td> + <td class="rightr">17</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">26</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Printing</td> + <td class="rightr">17</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">25</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">File Cutting</td> + <td class="rightr">35</td> + <td class="rightr">3</td> + <td class="rightr">39</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Plumbing</td> + <td class="rightr">8</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + <td class="rightr">16</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Tinning and Enamelling of Iron Hollow Ware</td> + <td class="rightr">2</td> + <td class="rightr">3</td> + <td class="rightr">11</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">White Lead</td> + <td class="rightr">288</td> + <td class="rightr">28</td> + <td class="rightr">340</td> + <td class="rightr">22</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Red Lead</td> + <td class="rightr">19</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">19</td> + <td class="rightr">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Earthenware</td> + <td class="rightr">92</td> + <td class="rightr">105</td> + <td class="rightr">119</td> + <td class="rightr">111</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Litho.-Transfers</td> + <td class="rightr">7</td> + <td class="rightr">3</td> + <td class="rightr">6</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Glass</td> + <td class="rightr">7</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">7</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Enamelling of Iron Plates</td> + <td class="rightr">8</td> + <td class="rightr">3</td> + <td class="rightr">6</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Electric Accumulators</td> + <td class="rightr">30</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">31</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Paints and Colours</td> + <td class="rightr">51</td> + <td class="rightr">5</td> + <td class="rightr">47</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Coachpainting</td> + <td class="rightr">61</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">58</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Shipbuilding</td> + <td class="rightr">31</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">30</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Paint in other Industries, excluding House Painters</td> + <td class="rightr">46</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">47</td> + <td class="rightr">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Other Industries</td> + <td class="rightrb">58</td> + <td class="rightrb">18</td> + <td class="rightrb">64</td> + <td class="rightrb">17</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Dr T. M. Legge deals with the age, distribution, and duration of +employment in persons brought in contact with metallic lead, and +with the salts of lead, either in the form of dust or of paint; and +in the following table, taken from his annual Report for 1900, shows +that in those who handle metallic lead or use it as paint, symptoms +of poisoning are more slowly developed than in those employed in +industries in which the salts of lead are present in the form of dust.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2" colspan="2">Source of Poisoning.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Age.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Duration of Employment.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrb">Under 30.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">30 Years<br>and over.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">1–5 Years.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">5 Years<br>and over.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtleft">Metallic Lead</td> + <td class="ctrr">per cent.</td> + <td class="rightr">43.0</td> + <td class="rightr">57.0</td> + <td class="rightr">37.4</td> + <td class="rightr">62.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtleft">Salts of Lead as Paint</td> + <td class="ctrr">„</td> + <td class="rightr">43.6</td> + <td class="rightr">57.4</td> + <td class="rightr">45.8</td> + <td class="rightr">55.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtleftbl">Salts of Lead as Dust</td> + <td class="ctrrb">„</td> + <td class="rightrb">65.4</td> + <td class="rightrb">34.6</td> + <td class="rightrb">76.0</td> + <td class="rightrb">24.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The reports bring out the fact that Saturnine palsy is essentially an +affection of the male sex, while the symptoms of headache, anæmia, and +encephalopathy are more common in the female.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XX<br> +<span class="subhed">ELECTRICAL TREATMENT IN CASES OF LEAD POISONING</span></h2></div> + +<p>The treatment of lead poisoning by electricity is based upon two +distinct ideas. First, the use of the electrolytic effects of a current +to eliminate the metal from the system; and secondly, the treatment +of its symptoms, especially its nervous symptoms, by electricity, +in virtue of its usefulness as a remedy for paralytic disorders. +In any treatment of lead poisoning these two considerations are of +importance:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Elimination of the Metal.</i>—There is no doubt that the +elimination of the metal is necessary for the recovery of a patient +from the effects of the poison. In the ordinary course of events +elimination probably takes place by the sweat glands of the skin, +by the kidneys, and by the mucous membrane and glands of the bowel; +whereas the direct effect of an electrolytic elimination would be to +cause the lead to pass by a process akin to osmosis in some soluble +form, most probably as a chloride of lead, from the tissues of the +body to the electrolyte surrounding the body, and so to the plates or +poles of the electrolytic cell or bath in which the patient is placed. +Unfortunately, the experimental evidence that lead can be extracted +from the tissues of the body in this way is not free from possible +sources of error. The amount of lead existing in the tissues of a +patient suffering from lead poisoning may not be more than a few grains +in weight, and the quantity which could be deposited by electrolysis +in an electric bath of the ordinary strength and duration could not +amount to more than a few milligrammes. In solutions such as the juices +of the body, containing but little lead, the lead ions could play but +an insignificant part in the transport of the current, and therefore +there are considerable difficulties in depositing at the poles of the +bath a quantity of lead which could only be a small fraction of the +total amount contained in the body. Lead compounds also have a somewhat +special behaviour when submitted to electrolytic treatment, for whereas +most metals are deposited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span> from their solutions at the negative pole, +lead compounds when submitted to electrolysis have a tendency to be +deposited in part upon the positive pole, as lead peroxide, and in part +upon the negative pole, in a spongy metallic form. In the presence of +chlorides the lead peroxide does not adhere to the positive pole, but +tends to undergo changes and decomposition. Statements have frequently +been made that after the treatment of a patient by electrolysis in a +bath of water, traces of lead may be found upon the poles of the bath. +I have been able to detect lead on the plates in one case of my own in +which the experiment was tried. But there is always some uncertainty +as to the source of this lead, for in cases of workmen it may very +well have come from dust and dirt containing lead which has been +mechanically deposited upon the surface of their skin; or again, it +may be lead which has actually come from the tissues, but has already +been eliminated by the sweat glands, and is lying on the surface of the +skin, so that it could be washed away by ordinary washing with soap and +water. But at the same time we must not forget that even if the direct +electrolytic elimination of lead is a thing which can be brought about +by electricity, it is not the only way in which electrical applications +may act favourably in removing lead from the system, for by their +means we can also influence what may be called the natural processes +of elimination, so that after electrical treatment one might expect to +find traces of lead in the urine, in addition to that which might be +found by a careful examination of the poles of the bath. And so far as +mere opinions go, I certainly take the view that electrical treatment +favours such an indirect elimination of the poison, and to that extent +is of service in the treatment of cases.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Electrical Treatment of the Paralysis caused by the +Lead.</i>—This is probably as important, or more important, than +the question of the extraction and elimination of the metal. In +practical treatment we may say that it is the paralytic symptoms +which are most readily dealt with by electrical methods. All forms +of electrical application have been recommended for paralysis due to +lead, <i>e.g.</i>, the constant current, the interrupted current of +the coil, and, more recently, the sinusoidal current of an alternating +dynamo. These can all be used, and apparently with advantage. As I have +frequently maintained in other places, the state of contractility in +a paralysed muscle need not necessarily dictate to us the form that +the electrical applications are to take. I mean that when a muscle +paralysed from lead ceases to react to induction coil<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span> currents, it +does not at all follow that induction coil currents are useless in its +treatment; and, therefore, I consider that the widely held view that +a coil should be used only for those muscles capable of responding to +it is not correct. Muscles which show the reaction of degeneration, +and contract only to direct applications of the constant current, +will almost certainly derive benefit from a course of induction coil +currents, and these should in every case be given to them, not to +the exclusion of constant currents, but in addition thereto. Many of +the rules laid down for the treatment of paralysis by electricity +are based upon the view that the therapeutic effect of electricity +upon a muscle can be measured by the amount of contraction which the +electrical application can produce in it; but this is quite wrong. +Even in the absence of all visible contractions in a muscle under +treatment, electrical applications produce effects—vasomotor, trophic, +and other—which are of service. Indeed, we may go further, and say +that treatment by currents purposely made strong, in order to set up +contractions in paralysed muscles with very feeble contractility, +may easily be overdone, and that fatigue and injury may be caused +to muscles through too severe stimulation when strong currents are +demanded, in order to make them contract visibly.</p> + +<p>In the practical treatment of paralysis due to lead, the choice of +an electrical method will turn upon the supposed relative advantages +of electrolytic extraction of the metal on the one hand, and of +electrical stimulation of the paralysed parts on the other. For the +former the electric bath with constant current is to be used, and for +the latter induction coil currents or sinusoidal currents, with or +without a water bath. The advantages of the sinusoidal current over +that of the induction coil consist mainly in the greater smoothness +with which the current varies in the former case, and in the greater +magnitude of the currents which can be borne. The two methods differ +from each other rather in degree than in essence. When, as is usual, +the case is one of paralysis of the extensor muscles of the forearm, +the use of an arm-bath as the medium for applying the electricity +has very decided advantages, so that I am accustomed to treat most +of my cases by the arm-bath and sinusoidal current. In cases of +severe or extensive lead poisoning, or in cases where the muscles +of the lower limbs are affected, I make use of the full-length +bath, and at the commencement of the case would advise the use of +direct and sinusoidal currents on alternate days, in order to secure +electrolytic effects as well as those of simple stimulation. It is +probable that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span> hot baths, without electricity, are of very decided +service in treating symptoms due to lead. In former days the thermal +waters of Bath enjoyed a very considerable reputation in this disease. +Thus, by combining a full-length bath with electricity, one is able +to make use of the increased elimination set up by hot bathing, as +well as of the increased elimination set up by general electrical +stimulation. The electrolytic effect also comes in if the current used +is a continuous one, but not so if it is alternating. In practical +treatment, the cases of lead poisoning most commonly met with, are +cases of operatives who handle lead, or some preparation of lead, in +the course of earning their living. The symptoms of which they commonly +complain in London, at least, are wrist drop and paralysis of the +extensors of the wrist and fingers. This is the class of case which I +have had under treatment during the last ten years; and the opinion +which I have formed of electrical treatment is decidedly favourable. +Although in a number of cases the lead has had many years in which to +poison the patient, yet it is the rule that within a few weeks from +the commencement of electrical applications the paralytic symptoms +become very considerably decreased. Unfortunately, recovery is usually +followed by a return to the old occupation; fresh infection follows, +and paralytic symptoms sooner or later reappear. The patient returns +for further treatment under conditions less favourable than before. He +is older, the system is more seriously damaged, and his recovery is +apt to be less perfect than on the previous occasion. It is this state +of things which is chiefly responsible for the fact that brilliant +results are not often met with in the treatment of lead poisoning due +to occupation. In districts where lead poisoning is common, I would +recommend an installation for electrical treatment on the following +lines: (1) one or more arm-baths; (2) one or more full-length baths for +the whole body. Both of these sets of baths should be supplied with +sinusoidal current, generated by a dynamo on the premises, or drawn +from the mains of an electric light station, if the current supplied +in the neighbourhood should happen to be alternating. In each case +some clockwork or other mechanical contrivance for slowly varying the +current from zero to the maximum might with advantage be installed, +although good results may be obtained without this. In addition, for +direct treatment by constant current in special cases, it would be +necessary to have a battery or other source of constant current, either +for use with the bath or for local applications by means of pads and +conductors of the usual class. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span> induction coil may be used where +the sinusoidal current cannot be obtained, but wherever possible, the +latter should be used in preference. A pressure of ten or twelve volts +is about a suitable one for an arm-bath, and if an average of twelve +and a half volts per arm-bath is taken, it is sometimes convenient +to arrange the arm-baths in series, as is done, for example, at St +Bartholomew’s Hospital, where four arm-baths in a series are fed from +one source at fifty volts. This, it will be seen, gives twelve and a +half volts per bath, minus a small loss of one volt or so over the +whole circuit for the conductors. So if eight or ten baths could be +employed with advantage, they might be arranged in a single series +upon mains of a hundred volts pressure. In the fitting up of a new +establishment, it would be convenient to provide waste pipes and water +taps fixed over them, to obviate the inconvenience of filling and +emptying by hand. A very convenient vessel for arm-bath treatment is +an oblong stoneware picklepan, which can usually be obtained in towns; +or wooden vessels of the same shape may be made almost anywhere. It +is advantageous to use narrow oblong vessels of a suitable length and +width to take the arms and hands, because with round tubs there is +considerable loss of current, carried by the water without entering +into the patient. There is also a certain waste of hot water by reason +of the greater capacity of round tubs. The electrodes for arm-baths may +conveniently be made of one piece of sheet copper or sheet zinc, shaped +like a tennis racket, with the handle bent over in a hook, by which to +suspend it to the end of the tub.</p> + +<p>The progress of treatment is slow, and without incident. There is +a gradual return of power and a gain in thickness of the wasted +muscles. The duration of the case varies much with the severity of the +poisoning, and the state of health of the patient. The final results +are good.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">H. Lewis Jones.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[378]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXI<br> +<span class="subhed">ARSENIC</span></h2></div> + +<p>Arsenic is employed for colouring purposes in various arts and +industries, and may produce injurious effects on the workers and on +others who are exposed to the influence of the poison. A Committee +of the Medical Society of London, of which I was secretary some +twenty years ago, compiled from the information collected by them the +following list of articles in which arsenical pigments, dyes, and +mordants were used.</p> + +<p>Paper, fancy and surface coloured, in sheets for covering cardboard +boxes; for labels of all kinds; for advertisement cards, playing +cards, wrappers for sweetmeats, cosaques, etc.; for the ornamentation +of children’s toys; for covering children’s and other books; for lamp +shades, paperhangings for walls and other purposes; artificial leaves +and flowers; wax ornaments for Christmas trees and other purposes; +printed or woven fabrics intended for use as garments; printed or +woven fabrics intended for use as curtains or coverings for furniture; +children’s toys, particularly inflated indiarubber balls with dry +colour inside, painted indiarubber dolls, stands and rockers of +rocking-horses and the like, glass balls (hollow); distemper colour +for decorative purposes; oil paint for the same; lithographers’ colour +printing; decorated tin plates, including painted labels used by +butchers and others to advertise the price of provisions; japanned +goods generally; Venetian and other blinds; American or leather +cloth; printed table baizes; carpets, floorcloth, linoleum, book +cloth and fancy bindings. To this list may be added coloured soaps, +wafers, sweetmeats, and false malachite. Arsenic is also used in the +preparation of skins for stuffing and of some preservatives used by +anatomists. Workers employed in the manufacture of any of these things +may suffer from the effects of the arsenic contained in the materials +which they handle. The fluid known as “sheep dip,” which is sold for +the purpose of killing tic on sheep, contains a large quantity of +arsenic. Occasionally the men who manufacture the liquid or who wash +the workmen’s clothes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span> have suffered from the effects of arsenic upon +their extremities and nervous system.</p> + +<p>The metal is mostly employed in the form of green arsenites of copper, +known as Scheele’s green, and Schweinfurt or Vienna green. The poison +gains admission to the system either by being carried into the mouth on +the hands and thence taken into the stomach, or by inhalation into the +lungs.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of artificial flowers Scheele’s green is powdered +over the leaves, and in this process some of the dust is drawn in with +the breath, while some may lodge in the furrows of the skin and under +the nails. In the manufacture of green wallpapers Scheele’s green and +the aceto-arsenite of copper are mainly used; from 1 grain of the +poisonous substance to 50 or 60 grains per square foot has been found +in different samples. Arsenic has been found in red, orange, brown, +and grey papers as well as green. The poisonous material may be dusted +off the wallpapers and distributed through the atmosphere of the room. +Bamberg, of Stockholm detected arsenic in the atmosphere of a room that +had been papered for twenty-five or thirty years. According to Parkes +and Kenwood,<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> in the case of the smoother papers arseniuretted +hydrogen is formed by decomposition of the size and paste acting +chemically on the arsenical salt. The same authors point out that even +distempered walls must not be assumed to be innocuous, as there is +frequently arsenic in distemper which is mixed with size to make it +adhere, thus forming a combination of organic matter and arsenic ready +for the development of arseniuretted hydrogen.</p> + +<p>Persons living in rooms hung with arsenicated wallpapers, and workmen +who strip walls or hang pictures, are liable to suffer from the +inhalation of the poisonous dust or vapour. Injurious effects may also +be caused by the use of green lamp shades, and of gloves, stockings, +and other articles of clothing coloured with aniline dyes in the +preparation of which arsenic is largely employed. The use of arsenic +in many of the arts that have been enumerated, and particularly in +the manufacture of wallpapers and in the tinting of textile and +silken fabrics intended for furnishing and clothing purposes, also of +arsenical colours, has greatly diminished since attention was called to +the danger of these by the Medical Society and by sanitarians, among +whom the late Mr Henry Carr<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> deserves special mention. Yet, as is +proved by cases which are from time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span> to time reported in the papers, +they are still too much employed.</p> + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—The symptoms are those of chronic arsenical +poisoning, and may vary in severity from slight inflammation of +the eyes or conjunctivitis, and running at the nose, or coryza, to +prostration, or convulsions ending in death. The strong are attacked +as well as the weak. In the slighter forms of the affection they are +marked by conjunctivitis, running at the nose, and injection, with +dryness and soreness of the throat, accompanied by depression. In +more severe forms there is headache with colicky pain and abdominal +“cramps,” with vomiting, diarrhœa, and sometimes dysentery; the +throat and mouth are sore and parched; there is great thirst, with +distaste for food. The congested condition of the respiratory passages +manifests itself by cough and bronchial catarrh, sometimes by asthma. +If the cause is not removed the affection may last indefinitely in +a stage of more or less troublesome indisposition, or the prolonged +gastro-intestinal derangement may gradually undermine the health and +exhaust the patient. In some cases the nervous system suffers most; +there is increasing depression, with restlessness and insomnia; +in certain severe cases paralysis of the extremities occurs, with +convulsions ending in death. This, however, is altogether exceptional, +and indeed death from arsenical poisoning of what may be called +industrial origin is decidedly rare.</p> + +<p>In certain cases arsenic produces local as well as general effects. +According to Arlidge<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> workers employed in the manufacture of +arsenical green often exhibit peculiar symptoms. That product is +derived from arsenite of soda, which is decomposed by sulphate of +copper, and the resultant treated with pyroligneous acid.</p> + +<p>The workers are liable to the development of boils and pimples, and +suffer from an itching eruption about the nostrils and in the flexures +of the arms. In severer cases there is headache with thirst and +nausea, and an irritating eruption appears on the scrotum. Vomiting, +quickening of the pulse, and conjunctival injection are observed in +some persons. In workmen employed in the calcining or “burning” houses +for arsenical ores the fumes produce sometimes gastric disturbances, +sometimes bronchial and laryngeal irritation. The commonest effect is +the production of an eruption about the genitals and on the exposed +parts of the body, especially at the bends of the limbs. Stockings, +handkerchiefs, gloves, etc., dyed with aniline colours often cause +severe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[381]</span> irritation, especially on the skin of delicate women and +children. This ought never to occur, for if the process is rightly +carried out no arsenic passes into the finished dye.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment and Prophylaxis.</i>—The first principle of treatment is +removal of the cause. The symptoms will then, in the great majority of +cases, spontaneously disappear. Debility or other conditions calling +for active measures should be treated <i>secundum artem</i>.</p> + +<p>As regards the prophylaxis, in trades where exposure to the arsenic +is unavoidable, sanitary precautions on the same lines as those taken +against lead poisoning should be enforced. For colouring purposes +arsenical colours are unnecessary. In the dyeing of textile fabrics and +in the tinting of papers they should be absolutely prohibited.</p> + +<p>No paper should be placed on a wall unless it be guaranteed free +from arsenic, and even with a guarantee from the manufacturer it is +advisable to test a piece with Marsh’s apparatus to make sure.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Malcolm Morris.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXII<br> +<span class="subhed">CHINA AND EARTHENWARE MANUFACTURE: POTTERS’ ROT</span></h2></div> + +<p>In all dusty trades pulmonary disease is the cause of death of large +numbers of the workpeople. The manufacture of pottery is a dusty +trade. Potters’ asthma and consumption have for long been known. The +potteries of Staffordshire formerly had an unenviable notoriety on +account of the prevalence of ill-health, and the large death-rate among +the hands employed. For much that we know of the pulmonary diseases +of potters and of <i>pneumoconiosis</i> in general we are indebted to +Drs Greenhow, Addison, Peacock, and the late Dr J. T. Arlidge, who, as +Physician to the North Staffordshire Infirmary, Stoke-upon-Trent, had +unusual opportunities of observing and recording the prevalent diseases +of that district.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of china and earthenware the workpeople are exposed +to two dangers: (1) pulmonary disease due to inhalation of particles +of clay and flint; and (2) plumbism in consequence of the presence of +lead used in the glazes and for colouring purposes. In another part +of the book the dangers incidental to lead poisoning in potteries are +dealt with. Here we are concerned with mineral dust solely, and its +effect upon the lungs. Cheap pottery is made from ordinary clay, but +in the manufacture of the finer ware, Cornish clay and stone are used. +In firing china, ground flint is largely used as a packing between the +cups, saucers, and plates, etc., when these are placed in the “saggers” +or burnt-clay boxes in the ovens. In addition to the ingredients +mentioned above, ground calcined bone is also one of the constituents +of china.</p> + +<p>Clay and flint both contain very hard, sharp, angular particles of +silex, which when drawn into the respiratory organs during inhalation +are not dissolved by the secretions of the bronchi. They become +deposited in the smallest bronchial tubes and the pulmonary alveoli, +and set up irritation. The initial process in the manufacture of +earthenware consists in mixing the clays with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span> ground flints and +water. This is rather a dusty operation, but fortunately only a few +men are employed at it. When properly mixed, the compound is known as +“slip,” and the men are called slip-makers. The mixing of the slip is +sometimes done by hand by means of long, broad pieces of wood, but +usually by machinery. The next stage in the manufacture is known as +“throwing,” where the potter throws moist clay upon a revolving wheel, +and by means of his hands and fingers shapes the clay into all forms +of useful dishes, elegant vases, etc. These products are known as +hollow ware, but other kinds of ware just as useful, <i>e.g.</i> plates +and saucers, can be made by pressing. The clay vessel when removed +from the potter’s wheel is felt by the fingers when run over it to +be rough and uneven, and in order to get the required smoothness it +is necessary later on to turn such hollow ware as cups upon a lathe, +while flat goods like plates and saucers are made even by being rubbed +with tow or flannel upon a rapidly revolving table. This process is +called “towing.” Ware thus smoothed is ready for the oven. The first +firing is known in the trade as “biscuiting.” After this it is ready +to be painted or imprinted by coloured transfers, and then glazed. The +ware to be fired is placed in large thick-walled vessels the size of +an ordinary cheese, made of very coarse local clay, and known by the +name of “saggers.” These are capable of withstanding great heat. Into +these the earthenware and china goods are packed, care being taken +to separate the individual china pieces from each other by plenty of +loose ground flint. The men who carry the saggers into the kilns are +called “placers.” They build up the saggers on the top of one another, +pile after pile, and when doing this they are naturally exposed to +alternating heat and cold, to high temperatures in ovens just emptied, +to the fumes of sulphur in the kilns from the expiring fires, and to a +considerable amount of dust when emptying the saggers. Coming out of +the warm kilns covered with perspiration they run the risk of getting +chilled.</p> + +<p>In this description of the manufacture we have simply dealt with ware +that has not been glazed or in any way brought into contact with +poisonous compounds, such as lead. The products have only once been +fired. Should the biscuited ware be subsequently glazed, this is +done by dipping it into a liquid which contains, among other things, +“raw” or “fritted” lead. The man who plunges the ware into the glaze +is called a “dipper,” and he is followed in his work by the dipper’s +cleaners, who rub<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span> the rough edges off the ware, while the person who +places the dipped ware in the saggers, which go again into the oven +for a second firing, is called a “glost placer.” The workman who fills +the unglazed ware in the saggers and carries them into the kilns for +the first firing is, as already stated, called a “placer.” He only +incurs such risks to health as might be caused by exposure to varying +temperatures and to dust, but the “glost placer” runs in addition the +risk of lead poisoning. About 3 per cent. of them suffer from plumbism.</p> + +<p>Since, however, we are only concerned at present with dust and its +effect upon the respiratory organs, we shall adhere to a description +of those processes in potteries in which it prevails, and of these +the two that are the dustiest and the most dangerous are “towing” or +smoothing of the ware before it has been fired, also what is known as +the “scouring” or cleaning of china after it has been biscuited. The +scouring of china is generally done by women, sometimes by hand, by +brushing the ware over a wooden trough so that the ground flint can be +collected and used over again. The atmosphere of the workroom is often +thick with dust, while the hair and clothing of the women are literally +white with the fine particles of flint. For dust and danger there is no +comparison between the throwing and turning of unfired clay products +and the cleaning of china that has been once fired. Unless provision +is made by fans for the removal of the dust, the air is so thick that +no person could scour china for even a few weeks or months without +suffering from bronchial irritation or bronchitis, cough and shortness +of breath. Dr Prendergast of Hanley, Staffordshire, informs me that +after two months’ work in scouring china, a healthy woman will often +present symptoms suggestive of phthisis, but happily the condition of +the lung is remediable. Potters’ asthma and consumption, as indeed +all forms of lung disease due to dusty occupations, are becoming +fortunately fewer and fewer every year in this country, owing to the +improved appliances in factories for getting rid of dust. The late Dr +Arlidge told me that the chances of obtaining a good illustration of +potters’ phthisis as a pathological specimen was becoming increasingly +difficult, and the same information has been sent to me from Sheffield +as regards steel grinders’ lung.</p> + +<p>In addition to visiting the largest potteries in England and Scotland, +I have had the opportunity of inspecting many on the Continent, and +particularly the porcelain works at Limoges, where I saw something of +the baneful effects upon the French potters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[385]</span> of the scouring of china. +In Limoges the porcelain is made from a very fine white clay or kaolin, +which is found in the district. The products made from this kaolin are +dipped in a glaze containing felspar and quartz, and whose composition +is silica 70, aluminium 17, potash 13.</p> + +<p>For more than a century porcelain has been manufactured in Limoges, a +town containing 80,000 people, of whom, roughly speaking, 15,000 are +engaged in the potteries in the town and neighbourhood, men and women +about equally. The kaolin is found at St Yrieix, a village twenty-six +miles south of Limoges. There is therefore very little expense incurred +in the railway transport of the raw material. Labour, too, is on the +whole cheap. In Limoges there are sixteen or seventeen large potteries +with almost double that number of smaller workshops. The brushing-off +or époussetage of the fired or biscuited ware is done both by women and +men by means of soft feather brushes. It is a very dusty operation, and +where there are no fans for its removal, as in some of the factories +I visited, the air was thick with dust. The windows were open at the +time, but currents of air obtained by this means exercised no very +appreciable influence upon the dust. It is not this kind of ventilation +that is required under these circumstances. In the matter of the +provision of artificial means for the removal of dust and the renewal +of air in the potteries of Limoges, some of the manufacturers seemed to +me to be rather behind than in advance of the owners of large factories +in Staffordshire. Accordingly I was not unprepared for the information +that among the potters, especially the brushers-off or scourers, in +Limoges, the mortality from pulmonary consumption and chest diseases +is high. The harmful operations in porcelain works are the emptying +of the kilns, the removal of the ware from the saggers, and the +brushing of this ware; while the <i>hard</i> dust that rises during +the polishing of the all but finished articles is equally dangerous. +The polishing has for its object the removal of any roughness from the +edges or surfaces of the ware, and it is generally done on a revolving +wheel by means of a broken piece of china, the workman using this as +the smoothing agent. The men and women employed in these operations +are usually well covered with dust, yet it is seldom that they wear +respirators. Fans for the removal of the dust were present in only +very few of the factories. The employés objected to them on the ground +that they created a strong draught of cold air. Dr Raymondaud, one of +the Professors in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span> School of Medicine, Limoges, has made a special +study of the diseases of porcelain makers, particularly of pulmonary +consumption and chronic bronchitis. He found that the potteries +furnished a larger number of patients suffering from lung diseases +than did the other trades of the district. Of 75 deaths registered +in Limoges as occurring among china makers, 36 were due to phthisis, +and of 30 potters whom Raymondaud examined, 20 were suffering from +pulmonary consumption. Pulmonary phthisis is regarded as the principal +disease affecting the workers in the Limoges potteries.</p> + +<p>The discovery of the tubercle bacillus by Koch has tended to unify +medical opinion as to the cause of pulmonary phthisis. The bulk +of pulmonary phthisis is tubercular and is due to the bacillus. +Other conditions, however, are not without their influence, such +as hereditary predisposition, constitutional weakness, infection +at home, and the effect of chills; but admitting all these, there +is considerable evidence in favour of the view that dust plays an +important part in producing potters’ phthisis, which, as previously +remarked, differs in some respects from tubercular consumption. Dr +Lémaistre, with whom I discussed this subject, had analysed the air +of the Limoges potteries, and he found that the dust in some of the +workshops is composed of earthy particles, fragments of granite, flint, +particles of dried glaze, soot, and wood charcoal. The atmosphere which +the brushers-off, the finishers, and the porcelain makers generally +work in, he found contained 640 million particles of dust to the cubic +metre, while several of the finishers, <i>i.e.</i> those persons whose +duty it is to remove the excess of dried glaze on the ware, often work +in an atmosphere containing 680 million particles to the cubic metre. +The particles in the latter instance are smaller than those first +mentioned, and they therefore remain a longer time suspended in the +air of the workroom. This large number of particles of dust in the air +is one explanation of the frequency of bronchitis and of pulmonary +disease, and also of the small chalk-like masses found after death in +the lungs of porcelain makers, but which must not be confounded with +cretaceous tubercles. Whatever may be the influence of the dust-laden +atmosphere of a pottery in causing pulmonary fibrosis, the accidental +presence of the tubercle bacillus in addition would go far to aggravate +existing pulmonary conditions, and tend to transform a non-tubercular +affection of the lungs into one of a true specific character. It is +thus that the presence of a tuberculous person in a workroom becomes +a source of danger to his fellow-workmen. Particles of clay or china +dust, when inhaled, can only act mechanically upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[387]</span> the lining of the +small bronchial tubes and pulmonary alveoli, but by making a breach +upon their epithelial coating they reduce the local vital resistance, +and pave the way for the entrance of the tubercle bacilli. Dust, +therefore, weakens the lung, and by altering its structure, induces +conditions that favour the development of the tubercle bacilli. Apart +from bacillary infection, dust is itself a cause of danger: it is +capable of inducing bronchitis, and if long inhaled causes fibrosis of +the lungs of potters. The pulmonary consumption of porcelain-makers +differs from tubercular phthisis in the fact that it is of slower +development, and is of longer duration; that it less seldom attacks +the young than those of middle life and more advanced age; also that +there may be found in the lungs after death calculous concretions, +which on chemical examination are found to be composed of carbonate and +phosphate of lime, silica, and oxide of iron, with a certain amount of +organic matter. The average age at death of men from fibroid phthisis +in the potteries of Limoges is forty-three, and of women thirty-eight +years. The same symptoms just described as having been observed in +the Limoges porcelain-makers are also found in workers in pottery +in this country, viz., cough, shortness of breath, and progressive +emaciation, but there is a greater tendency to blood-spitting in French +porcelain-makers than Arlidge found among the potters in Staffordshire.</p> + + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—It is not until an individual has worked, as a +rule, some months or years at his trade that he shows signs and +symptoms of potters’ phthisis. In this, as in other forms of chronic +pulmonary disease, there is cough on getting up in the morning, but +this circumstance attracts little or no attention, as the general +health usually remains good for a lengthened period. At first white +and frothy, or speckled from the greyish-black dust that has been +inhaled, the expectoration by degrees becomes purulent, while the +cough, no longer confined to the morning, becomes more paroxysmal in +character, and is attended by shortness of breath, which tends to get +worse with time. On examining the chest it is found that the amount of +shortness of breath or dyspnœa is out of all proportion to the amount +of consolidated lung that may be present. It is a fact well known to +every member of the medical profession that tubercular consumption much +more frequently affects the apices or uppermost parts of the lungs, +<i>i.e.</i> just below the collar-bones, than the lowest portions, a +circumstance very largely due to the imperfect inflation or ventilation +of those particular regions, so that when they become the seat of +catarrh or of subacute<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[388]</span> inflammation, the morbid products that are +secreted and effused are, owing to the limited range of movement of +this part of the chest wall, and incomplete aëration of this part of +the lungs, with difficulty expectorated. A catarrh therefore tends +to linger in the apices of the lungs, and offers opportunities for +bacillary infection. In dust diseases of the lungs, on the other hand, +it is not the apices that become affected so much as the lower and +back parts of the lungs. This is an important distinction between the +two, for it shows that a different cause must have been in operation. +Limited areas of dulness, indicating small patches of consolidated +lung, can be detected here and there in the chest, especially at the +base behind or close to the shoulder-blades. In the early stages there +is neither the evening rise of temperature, the feverishness, nor the +accelerated pulse and rapid loss of flesh which are so pathognomonic +of tubercle. Arlidge says there is, too, a wonderful immunity from +blood-spitting. If an afflicted workman, therefore, at this stage were +to give up his employment and seek for some occupation out-of-doors, +the chances are that he would still have a good spell of life before +him; but if, on the other hand, he is contented to remain at his +occupation, sooner or later he becomes the confirmed victim of +potters’ phthisis. His vital resistance becomes gradually more and +more enfeebled. His preference for indoor life, daily exposure to +infection in the factory, and his overcrowded home, lay the individual +open to the chances of a tubercular lesion becoming grafted upon a +fibrotic lung. Dr Arlidge found that the mean age at death of male +potters aged twenty years and upwards was forty-six and a half years, +whilst that of non-potters stood at fifty-four. Dr Prendergast tells me +that potters working in dust generally die at the age of forty-five. +Among potters Arlidge found as the most frequent causes of death +pulmonary consumption, diseases of the heart and nervous system. In the +workpeople of the district other than potters, while the death-rate +from diseases of the chest was 7.86 per cent., the rate for potters was +12.29. Taking the male population generally and their entire mortality +from all causes at the time that Arlidge wrote, we find that the +deaths of male potters from diseases of the respiratory organs were +60 instead of 27 per 1000, and that the decennial period from fifty +to sixty gave the greatest number of deaths, each preceding decennium +back to twenty giving less and less, while the maximum mortality from +phthisis as opposed to diseases of the lungs generally was reached +between the ages of thirty and forty years. Before the age of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span> forty, +therefore, the bulk of the potters who have contracted lung disease, +and who have become tubercular, die; whereas in those who contract the +disease later on they become less liable to the tubercular type of the +malady. Bronchitis is met with among the male pressers who are exposed +to the dust of the clay, but in china scourers pulmonary diseases are +extremely prevalent; as many as 40 per cent. were found suffering from +phthisis and 25 per cent. from bronchitis. As already stated, the +phthisis in potters is in the early stages usually not tuberculous. +So much so is this considered to be the case that Dr John Tatham,<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> +at page xcvii. of Supplement to the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the +Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, etc., Part II., 1897, in speaking +of potters (earthenware makers) sustaining a mortality from phthisis +and respiratory diseases together far in excess of that experienced by +other groups of workers, <i>e.g.</i> 453 as against 100 agriculturists, +says that “potters succumb to non-tubercular disease of the lungs +more rapidly than they do to phthisis, and it is certain that much +of the so-called ‘potters’ phthisis’ ought properly to be designated +non-tubercular cirrhosis of the lung.” Cirrhosis is a medical term +sometimes used instead of fibrosis.</p> + + +<p><i>Prevention.</i>—Ventilation of the workroom should be by means of +fans and not simply by open windows. Scouring of china by hand over an +open trough into which the ground flint falls should be discontinued. +It should be done in semi-closed boxes with a strong down draught on +the offside of the workers, or by revolving brushes driven by machinery +in semi-closed spaces similarly aspirated. Overalls and coverings for +the head should be worn by the workers; and since the form of pulmonary +disease that affects potters develops slowly and is capable of being at +least retarded, if not arrested, in the early stages, in the interests +of the workpeople themselves their chest should be examined by a +doctor once every three or six months, so that those who show signs of +commencing lung disease might be pronounced disqualified for further +employment at towing and scouring.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXIII<br> +<span class="subhed">BASIC SLAG</span></h2></div> + +<p>In the manufacture of steel by the Thomas Gilchrist or basic process, +there is a large percentage of waste product, which is known by the +name of basic slag. This, notwithstanding its high percentage of +phosphorus, remained for some years of little or no value, until it was +found that its fertilising properties could be obtained by reducing +it to an exceedingly fine powder. Since that was done, it has been in +great demand as a manure. It is the manufacture of this manure which is +said to produce deleterious effects upon the workmen engaged, and which +has brought it within the meaning and regulations of a dangerous trade.</p> + +<p>The composition of basic slag is:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Lime</td> + <td class="right">41.58</td> + <td class="ctr">per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Magnesia</td> + <td class="right">6.14</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Alumina</td> + <td class="right">2.57</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Peroxide of iron</td> + <td class="right">8.54</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Protoxide of iron</td> + <td class="right">13.62</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Protoxide of manganese</td> + <td class="right">3.79</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Protoxide of vanadium</td> + <td class="right">1.29</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Silica</td> + <td class="right">7.38</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Sulphur</td> + <td class="right">0.23</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Calcium</td> + <td class="right">0.31</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Sulphuric anhydride</td> + <td class="right">0.12</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="right">14.36</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Before crushing, the slag is in large pieces, and it has to be ground +into an almost impalpable powder, so that 80 to 85 per cent. of it will +pass through a mesh of 10,000 to the square inch. There is still a +more impalpable dust given off which, notwithstanding the utmost care, +escapes from the machinery during the process of grinding.</p> + +<p>The grinding is performed in several ways, sometimes by means of edge +runners, sometimes by flint pebbles, and sometimes by means of heavy +balls called the Krupp ball system. The following is a description +of the process as carried on at the North Eastern Steel Works, +Middlesborough.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[391]</span></p> + +<p>The main building is of three storeys, the ground floor of which is +used for the various pulleys and driving gear for the mill.</p> + +<p>On the first floor are six roller mills, and on the top floor are ten +Askam separators, three screens, and a main conveyor, into which each +separator discharges the dust.</p> + +<p>Outside the main building, but connected with it, on the ground floor, +is a shed in which are placed four edge runner mills.</p> + +<p>The slag is put into the first edge runner, and crushed until it is +fine enough to pass through grids at the bottom of the mill, and it +falls through these on to an elevator, which takes it up to the screen +on the top floor. That which is not fine enough to pass through this +screen falls down into the second edge runner, where it is ground in a +similar manner and again elevated to the top floor.</p> + +<p>After the slag has passed through the screen, it is taken into the +first two separators, where the fine dust is taken out and falls into +the main conveyor, and is carried by means of this direct to the +warehouse.</p> + +<p>The tailings from the separator fall into the roller mills on the first +floor, where they are crushed up, after which they fall into the second +edge runner mill, where they are ground and treated in exactly the +same way as in the first edge runner mill. This process being repeated +altogether four times, the slag is then found to be pulverised.</p> + +<p>The dust made in the separators is conveyed direct to the warehouse, +as above described; but that made by the roller mills on the first +floor is drawn by means of a fan into a long tube, running the whole +length of the building, and from this it passes into a long dust-tight +chamber, called the stive room. The floor of this room is cleaned by +scrapers, which take the dust into the main conveyor above referred +to. The dust is finally received into a hopper, and from this it falls +automatically into bags, in quantities of about a hundredweight.</p> + +<p>In the early years of its manufacture, the process was conducted in +such a way that it was undoubtedly a very dusty occupation, and the men +working at it then suffered constantly from what they called the “slag +cough.”</p> + +<p>Some two or three years after its manufacture was begun, there was an +outbreak of epidemic pneumonia in Middlesborough, and it was thought +by many to be in some way caused by the new industry. As the disease +(in 1888) assumed very serious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span> proportions, it was thought expedient +by the sanitary authority to invite the co-operation of the Local +Government Board. Dr Ballard came down, and after a most careful +inquiry, he reported that “the slag dust to which the epidemic had +been attributed was not the cause of the pneumonia, but that when from +any cause pneumonia becomes epidemic, persons largely exposed to the +inhalation of this dust may and do suffer more than persons not so +exposed, and that the disease with them is of high fatality.”</p> + +<p>In 1893 the attention of the Secretary of State was again called +to the injurious nature of the trade, and Mr Gould, Her Majesty’s +Superintending Inspector of Factories, conducted the inquiry, and made +a report in December of that year, in which he says:—“Being in its +nature extremely fine, it has a tendency, when inhaled, to settle in +the farthest ramifications of the air-passages, and to induce in the +mucous membrane of these a chronic state of irritation, thus rendering +the larynx and bronchial tubes unduly susceptible of further mischief +should the subject take cold; and in general creating a distinct +predisposition to bronchitis and pneumonia. Moreover, it is found that +when pneumonia does supervene, a fatal result not unfrequently follows, +with unusual rapidity. But even in a case of complete recovery from an +acute attack, the patient will be constantly liable to a recurrence of +the same malady, as his breathing apparatus is continually undergoing +deterioration, so long as he is subject to the influence of the dust.”</p> + +<p>The summaries of these two inquiries may be taken as representing all +that could be said about the effects of slag dust at that time; and it +remains for me to state whether more recent observations have tended to +confirm these conclusions.</p> + +<p>In investigating the subject, I have examined a number of men engaged +in daily occupation at the mill, and I subjoin a short report of some +of them.</p> + +<p>S. R., 54, been in the mill twelve years; well nourished; no complaints +except occasional cough after starting in the morning; breath sounds +not very distinct at the base of the lungs, and expansion of chest +rather deficient.</p> + +<p>J. R., 32, worked in the mill thirteen years; chest expansion rather +deficient; general health good; occasional cough.</p> + +<p>E. F., 31, worked eleven years; good appetite and good health; had +pneumonia fifteen years ago; does not suffer from colds, but coughs +sometimes in the mornings.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[393]</span></p> + +<p>W. J., 44, has worked nine years; always has cough, which is worst +about an hour after leaving work; expansion of chest diminished.</p> + +<p>J. T., 52, worked thirteen years; health equal to the average. Three +years ago had pneumonia; ten weeks off; colds not common; respiratory +murmur diminished over the bases of lungs; expansion lessened.</p> + +<p>N. R., 44, worked eight years; health good, never ill; colds often.</p> + +<p>In measuring the chest, it was found that there was only a difference +of about one and a half inches between that of inspiration and +expiration, showing considerable diminution in chest capacity.</p> + +<p>With regard to the causation of chest affections there can be little +doubt that it produces increased action of the bronchial mucous +membrane, and consequent cough. But unless this is accompanied by such +influences as wet, cold, exposure, or drink, there is no reason to +think that it is the cause of acute bronchitis. Indeed, notwithstanding +excessive carelessness in their habits, I should say that the tendency +in the great majority of cases is towards a chronic affection of the +bronchial tubes, followed after some years by emphysema.</p> + +<p>The men nearly all suffer more or less from cough and some mucous +expectoration, which makes them frequently seek relief from cough +medicines. In the last few years, however, great improvements have +taken place in the grinding mills, and the men now tell me that their +discomforts are greatly reduced.</p> + +<p>In the cases examined, there was accelerated breathing in three, and +diminished power of expansion more or less in all of them.</p> + +<p>It will be seen from the chemical analysis of the slag that there is +nothing in it of the nature of a poison such as to produce immediate +injurious consequences, beyond such effects as may be traced to +its mechanical action upon the bronchial tubes and air cells. The +phosphoric acid is in combination with the lime as a tetraphosphate, +which is not corrosive, nor generally harmful. There is, however, a +good deal of irritation produced in those unaccustomed to it, for on +the last occasion when I visited the works, I felt some tightness in +the chest, with cough and roughness of the voice, which lasted three or +four hours.</p> + +<p>Inquiries have failed to elicit that any undue proportion of +slag-workers have been attacked by pneumonia. As the medical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[394]</span> +profession in Middlesborough had come to suspect pneumonia in +slag-workers as infectious, with a view to helping in its investigation +an arrangement was come to with the Health Department of the Town +Council to have the cases of pneumonia notified. Of these, 36 were +labourers, and the other 67 embraced nearly the whole catalogue of +special workers and trades, such as crane men, gantry men, carters, +trimmers, blacksmiths, joiners, fitters, and moulders, besides +printers, barmen, publicans, butchers, teachers, and insurance agents.</p> + +<p>During the latter half of 1900, Dr Dingle, the Medical Officer of +Health, received 103 notifications of pneumonia in adult males, which +he inquired into. After a very careful inquiry, Dr Dingle failed to fix +any special degree of susceptibility upon any particular occupation. +Slag dust does not play any prominent part in causing pneumonia.</p> + +<p>In the treatment of the immediate effects of the inhalation of slag +dust, the remedies for ordinary catarrhal conditions of the bronchial +tubes answer as well as anything; and as its remote effects are in no +way different from those produced by other dusty occupations, remedies +which prove useful in those, such as potassium iodide, carbonate of +ammonia, digitalis, and strychnine, have, in my hands, proved most +efficacious.</p> + +<p>But our efforts must be directed more to the prevention of the initial +ailments, and to the amelioration of their causes than to their +treatment by medicines, for it must not be forgotten that the tendency +is always towards the production of structural changes in the tissues +of the bronchi and lungs.</p> + +<p>There is a standing order in all of the works that the men should wear +respirators, and these are provided by their employers. But hitherto +no form of respirator has been suggested which answers the necessary +requirements of being porous and comfortable, and at the same time +impervious to dust. The face bag, which was one of the results of Mr +Gould’s inquiry, ought to be of great service; but it becomes saturated +with the moisture of the expired air, the result being that during +inspiration it is drawn up against the mouth and nose, and a sufficient +quantity of air not being available, the workmen slip it down +underneath the chin, where, of course, it is useless. No contrivance +will ever answer the purpose which does not admit of easy access of air +into the lungs, and of complete expiration without effort. For this +purpose a light, soft wire mask might be made to fit the face, which +should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span> stand out from the mouth and nose. It should contain a shutter, +by which several layers of open webbing could be enclosed, through +which the breath could be easily drawn; and there should be an opening +fitted with a valve, which should open easily for outward, but shut for +inward breathing.</p> + +<p>The finished material is placed in packing bags, in the fitting of +which the openings are tightly fixed round the hopper, and by means +of a lever the charge is suddenly dropped into the bag, when a cloud +of dust immediately rises. There is consequently more dust in this +department than there ought to be, and, moreover, it is the finest dust +of all, for it comes through bags of very closely-woven texture. If the +packing material were dipped in size, or rendered impervious in some +other way, this source of danger would be largely reduced.</p> + +<p>There is another improvement which might be suggested, and that +is, that the men should be provided with a room, outside the mill +altogether, in which to take their meals. As it is at present, the +grinding goes on without stoppage for meals, which renders it necessary +for the men to be on hand the whole time; consequently there is no +opportunity for open-air breathing time. By a little arrangement the +men could probably go in batches, and have their dinner in comfort, and +for a time be free from the atmosphere of the mill.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">John Hedley.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[396]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXIV<br> +<span class="subhed">GANISTER CRUSHING</span></h2></div> + +<p>Workers engaged in crushing basic slag, in the breaking of certain +rocks, in the manufacture of millstones, in stone-mason’s work and +kindred occupations, are peculiarly liable to chronic inflammation of +the air-tubes, caused by the inhalation of dust of an irritant kind. +This, it is believed, leads to lung fibrosis. Where the operatives form +part of a large community in which individuals are employed in many +and varied trades, it is conceivable that fibrosis of the lung may +be mistaken for tubercular pulmonary consumption, and it may not be +realised that the cause is due to the occupation of the sufferer. The +late Dr Arlidge, in a public lecture on “The Sanitation of Industries +and Occupations,” referring to china clay as a silicious material, +states that the dust is most destructive to lung function and lung +integrity, as it sets up chronic inflammation of the air-tubes and of +the lung tissues, itself accompanied by bronchitis and asthma. The +disease thus established terminates in fibrosis of the lung, “a lesion +which symptomatically closely resembles pulmonary consumption.”</p> + +<p>The risks referred to have in late years more than ever engaged public +attention. Already great strides have been made in the provision of +remedies. To medical men practising in districts where these dusty +trades form the principal occupation, we may look for information of +a definite and exact nature as to the health of the workers. A highly +interesting article, entitled “Ganister Disease,” was published in the +<i>Journal of the Sanitary Institute</i> for April 1900. The writer, Dr +C. L. Birmingham, lived for several years in the valley of the Don, the +principal centre of this mining industry.</p> + +<p>To the general reader it may be well to explain that ganister or +calliard is a hard, close-grained, silicious stone which often forms +the stratum that underlies the coal seam. A footnote in Dr Percy’s +<i>Fuel</i> says—“Dinas rock is believed to be a millstone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[397]</span> grit of +the carboniferous system, and the geological equivalent of the bed +termed ‘Ganister’ at Sheffield.” It is found in Yorkshire, Durham, +North and South Wales, and elsewhere. When crushed and ground into +dust it is used as a fire-resistant, chiefly for lining Bessemer and +other steel-converters, for the manufacture of bricks likely to be +subjected to great and continuous heat, and it is sometimes mixed with, +or substituted for, Stannington or other clays, which, together with +ground cinders and old ground pot, are used for the manufacture of +crucibles in which certain kinds of steel are made.</p> + +<p>The persons liable to suffer are the ganister miners and those who +manipulate the material in mills known as “breaker-mills.” During +the mining process much dust is generated in the various stages of +blasting, and little doubt exists that it is to this that we must +look for a solution of the very high mortality returns. By many it +is held that the products of combustion from the blasting charges +are liable, when inhaled, to cause (or to predispose the worker to) +chest affections. The ganister, in large lumps, is brought from the +mines to the mills in small trucks running on metals. Where necessary, +these lumps are broken by hand with heavy sledge-hammers, the process +being known as “sledging.” Whilst this is being done a certain amount +of dust arises. The material is next thrown into breaker-mills of +various patterns, for crushing. The mills are in the open air, or in +open sheds. As the lumps are thrown into the mouth of the mill where +the crushing takes place, clouds of dry dust rise in the face of the +workers, and to this operation is attributable much of the illness. +Happily, a remedy generally accepted has been found and is being +adopted. It is simply a jet of steam playing into the mouth of the +mill, damping the material and preventing the dust from rising. In some +works, small fine jets of water, such as would run from an ordinary +water can, are preferred. Time has not yet allowed practical men to +say with certainty that this is an absolute remedy, but they are very +hopeful.</p> + +<p>The crushed ganister, in pieces about the size of “metal” used for +road-making, is carried from the breaker-mills by shoots to edge-runner +mills, to be pulverised into a fine dust. During the whole of this +process it is thoroughly saturated with water, rendering the escape +of dust a practical impossibility. In this state it is ready to be +converted into bricks, or to be taken away in railway trucks, carts, +or other conveyances, for use elsewhere.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[398]</span> It is sometimes found that +the ganister mortar is too moist, in which case it is “tempered,” that +is, dry ganister-dust, to the necessary amount, is mixed with it. In +this process some dust may here arise, but it is hardly in sufficient +quantity to affect the health of the workers.</p> + +<p>The bricks are made in hand presses. It is not a dusty process until +just before closing the press, when many operatives take a handful of +ganister dust and throw it over the surface of the brick, to secure a +clear and clean impress, showing the name of the maker, etc. This is +a dangerous and unnecessary step; damp sawdust is equally efficacious +and is now generally used. The floors of ganister brick-drying sheds, +as in other brick works where the same method of drying is adopted, are +more or less dusty. Under these floors there are pipes heated by steam +or hot air, for the purpose of drying the bricks. Each time a dry brick +is lifted, dry dust is liberated, but seeing that there is little or +no traffic on these floors (except in passages, which can easily be +kept clean), the dust rests on the floor, and does not permeate the +atmosphere. Mechanical fans have been suggested, but practical men +would find it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to find any fan +that would carry this dust, and such men certainly would be sceptical +as to the wisdom of creating draughts where the desire is to keep +the dust on the floor, and not to cause it to fly about. It will be +realised that although fans may be, and are, used with the greatest +advantage in certain dusty occupations, it does not follow that they +will answer in all.</p> + +<p>It has been stated, and probably with some degree of accuracy, that +the “setter’s” work involves exceptional risk. The process consists +in placing the bricks in the kilns for baking, after they have been +dried in the sheds. A man standing in an elevated position catches the +bricks, which are thrown to him by the man at the mouth of the kiln. As +they are thrown, dust is liberated, and seeing that this work is done +in a confined space, it is quite conceivable that injurious results to +health may follow.</p> + +<p>In some works ganister is ground dry in what are known as “sieve +mills.” These are ordinary edge-runner mills, with a sieve at the +bottom of the pan. The fine ganister passes through the sieve, and is +taken by elevators to the sifting machine, where what is fine enough +is carried away to the receptacle for holding it, the coarser material +being carried<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span> by shoots to be again ground in the mill. In many works +the ganister, although nominally dry, is damped sufficiently to prevent +any escape of dust, and it has been stated by experienced manufacturers +that the damping in no way damages the material, nor does it hinder the +work. This dry ganister crushing is in most cases a subsidiary process, +the quantities required being small, it only being used for the purpose +of making a cement, or mortar, for joining silica bricks or other fire +resistants.</p> + +<p>Ganister workers are peculiarly liable to those ailments incidental +to occupations exposing the operatives to extremes of heat and cold, +to damp, and to draughts, but the writer believes that he has, in +general terms, defined the peculiar and exceptional risks incurred in +this occupation. Having done so, it seems difficult to account for +the alarming mortality returns published in Dr Birmingham’s article. +A possible solution may be found in the fact that where ganister +works are situated there are also large numbers of fireclay works in +which are made fire-resisting bricks, tuyeres, pipes, gas-retorts, +etc. To the uninitiated it might appear that ganister and fire-brick +workers were engaged in one and the same occupation, nor would this be +unreasonable when the constitution of the two substances is considered. +Ganister is stated to contain 95 per cent. of silica, whereas, +according to <i>Chambers’s Encyclopedia</i>, from which the following +extract is taken, it will be seen that fireclay contains from 54.2 to +65.1 per cent. of silica.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Ordinary fireclay is chiefly found in beds not usually +much exceeding two feet in thickness, in the coal measures, +interstratified with seams of coal and other rocks. In the +British Islands it is most largely worked about Glasgow, +Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Stourbridge in Worcestershire, at which +last place it is said to have been discovered about 1555 by +some wandering glass-makers from Lorraine. But it occurs, more +or less, in most places where true coal is found. It is mined +in Germany, Belgium, France, the United States, and other +countries. Stourbridge fireclay, owing to its excellent quality, +is largely exported to foreign countries, as well as bricks and +other objects made of it. Refractory clays are found, although +more rarely, in other formations besides the coal measures. +For example, some of Tertiary age found in Dorsetshire and +Devonshire are made into firebricks. The following table shows +the principal constituents of fireclay:—</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[400]</span></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 1.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 2.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 3.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 4.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 5.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Silica</td> + <td class="rightr">65.10</td> + <td class="rightr">51.10</td> + <td class="rightr">59.49</td> + <td class="rightr">53.52</td> + <td class="rightr">54.20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Alumina</td> + <td class="rightr">22.22</td> + <td class="rightr">31.35</td> + <td class="rightr">28.95</td> + <td class="rightr">33.68</td> + <td class="rightr">33.80</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Potash</td> + <td class="rightr">0.18</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">Trace</td> + <td class="rightr">Trace</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Lime</td> + <td class="rightr">0.14</td> + <td class="rightr">1.46</td> + <td class="rightr">Trace</td> + <td class="rightr">0.76</td> + <td class="rightr">Trace</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Magnesia</td> + <td class="rightr">0.18</td> + <td class="rightr">1.54</td> + <td class="rightr">...</td> + <td class="rightr">0.14</td> + <td class="rightr">0.02</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Oxide of iron</td> + <td class="rightr">1.92</td> + <td class="rightr">4.63</td> + <td class="rightr">1.05</td> + <td class="rightr">0.52</td> + <td class="rightr">0.01</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Water</td> + <td class="rightr">9.28</td> + <td class="rightr">10.47</td> + <td class="rightr">11.05</td> + <td class="rightr">11.34</td> + <td class="rightr">10.86</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Organic matter</td> + <td class="rightrb">0.58</td> + <td class="rightrb">10.47</td> + <td class="rightrb">...</td> + <td class="rightrb">...</td> + <td class="rightrb">0.15</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>No. 1, Stourbridge; No. 2, Newcastle-on-Tyne; No. 3, Gartsherrie, +Scotland; No. 4, Poole, Dorsetshire; No. 5, Morgantown, West Virginia, +United States.”</p> + +<p>Ganister is pulverised in the wet state. Fireclay is not moistened, but +ground into a fine dry powder, certainly suggesting greater risk to the +workers.</p> + +<p>Into other industries, such as the manufacture of steel-melters’ +composition, the crushing of ganister largely enters. This composition +is used for the manufacture of heavy castings, and contains large +proportions of old ganister and fireclay crucibles, bricks, mortar, +etc., which are ground in open edge-runner mills in the dry state, +fed, and often sifted by hand. The work is generally done in the open +air or in open sheds, where the dust is blown about, and where it +is a practical impossibility for the worker to avoid inhalation of +this irritant. The use of closed mills, closed cylindrical worm-screw +conveyers, and mechanical sieves, would largely avoid unnecessary risk, +and these labour-saving appliances (the writer believes) would soon +more than repay any original cost.</p> + +<p>The sickness and mortality amongst ganister workers engaged the +attention of the poor-law authorities in the district of Deepcar, near +Sheffield. Statistics were prepared for them, and a very carefully +considered report dealing fully with the subject was submitted by Dr +Robertshaw of Stockbridge, Medical Officer of Health for the division.</p> + +<p>The attention of Dr Legge, H.M. Medical Inspector of Factories, was +called to the subject recently, and he obtained from Dr Robertshaw the +lung of a ganister miner, who had presumably died from pneumoconiosis. +The following is an extract from the valuable report by Dr F. W. +Andrews, Pathologist to St Bartholomew’s Hospital, of the anatomical +changes in this lung induced by the inhalation of ganister dust, +published in Dr Legge’s Report to the Chief Inspector of Factories for +the year 1900.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[401]</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Report on Portions of Lung from a Ganister Miner.</i></h3> + +<p>The upper lobe is densely indurated, black and fibrotic. The pleura is +thickened, especially at the apex. The lower lobe shows less advanced +changes; numerous blackish nodules, about the size of a hemp-seed, +are scattered throughout its substance with tolerable uniformity. +Under a lens many of these indurated patches are seen to contain a +minute cavity, as if they had been formed around minute bronchi or +blood-vessels. The intervening lung tissue is greyish, scarcely at all +pigmented, and not indurated; it has the appearance of slight uniform +emphysema. The large and medium-sized bronchi stand out prominently. To +the naked eye the lung nowhere shows any evidence of tubercle.</p> + + +<p><i>Microscopic Examination.</i>—Seven different blocks of lung tissue +were selected illustrating as far as possible the different degrees of +fibrotic change present, from an area almost normal up to the densest +induration. These were sectioned. The method of staining found most +suitable was that known as Van Giesson’s—viz., staining in hæmalum, +followed by a counterstain of acid fuchsin with picric acid. In this +way the distribution of the fibrous tissue was demonstrated with great +minuteness. Nuclear staining was not very well marked, because the +tissue had been lying so long in spirit.</p> + +<p>All sections show an abundance of foreign mineral particles of a black +or brownish colour. The majority of these are minute, irregular, +sometimes angular in form. Seen singly they are semi-transparent +and brownish, but they are commonly collected into blackish heaps, +included in cells, and then appear opaque. Careful focussing, however, +reveals the presence of the angular semi-transparent particles in these +accumulations. The pigment masses have not the soft and rounded outline +of the carbon masses seen in the lungs of town dwellers; nevertheless +very finely divided jet black particles are present, which are probably +carbon, but they are less abundant than the brownish semi-transparent +masses. The pigment masses occur chiefly in connection with the +fibrotic areas.</p> + +<p>A few simple chemical tests were applied to microscopic sections, +and their effect watched under the microscope. Caustic potash (10%) +produced no change whatever in the pigment. Glacial acetic acid +likewise caused no change. Fuming nitric acid caused liberation of gas +bubbles under the coverglass, but the colour and amount of the pigment +were in no way altered. From this it may be concluded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[402]</span> that the colour +does not depend upon altered blood or any organic product, but that the +pigment is purely mineral in character—carbonaceous or siliceous. The +liberation of gas by nitric acid indicates the presence of traces of +carbonates.</p> + +<p>The characters of the fibrotic change and its localisation and +development could be traced from its earliest commencement. Sections +of the least affected portions of the lung present the following +appearances. The pleura is scarcely thickened over much of the lower +lobe. There is a slight degree of diffuse emphysema; apart from the +indurated patches there is a very slight increase in the amount of +fibrous tissue present in the alveolar walls generally, but in some +places this is barely perceptible. Careful search in the alveolar +walls reveals the presence of scanty mineral particles scattered in +the tissue. In places these form larger clumps. Some few detached +epithelial cells, laden with pigment, are seen here and there in the +alveoli; but on the whole, except around the fibroid nodules, the +pulmonary epithelium shows no sign of proliferation or catarrh. There +is no evidence of general broncho-pneumonia and none of vascular +congestion.</p> + +<p>The development of the fibroid nodules appears to take place in the +first instance around the small arteries, veins, and bronchi. Where a +vessel chances to be cut longitudinally, the perivascular thickening +is seen to be irregular and patchy, whence arises the appearance +of discrete fibroid nodules. When cut transversely, nearly all the +blood-vessels display some degree of perivascular fibrosis. This is +true also of the bronchi; but these have undergone so much loss of +mucous membrane that it is not always easy to say which are bronchi and +which blood-vessels. It is not possible to be sure that all the young +fibroid nodules have this perivascular or peri-bronchial origin. Some +appear to be independent of vessels or bronchi, but it is possible +that they are tangential sections of such thickenings. It seems clear, +however, that most own such an origin. In any case the relation between +the accumulation of mineral particles and the production of new fibrous +tissue is obvious and beyond dispute.</p> + +<p>Older and denser nodules, such as are visible to the naked eye, as +the hemp-seed structures above described, illustrate the further +development of the process. In those the vessel or bronchus around +which they have presumably arisen has usually disappeared, and they +present concentric zones which represent different stages in their +formation, and illustrate the manner in which they increase in size. +The outermost zone shows the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[403]</span> earliest stage: large black pigment-laden +cells accumulate; they may be in part leucocytes, in part pulmonary +epithelial cells or fixed connective tissue corpuscles. The pulmonary +epithelium is here often in a condition of catarrhal proliferation—a +localised broncho-pneumonia—each cell full of mineral particles. +The next zone consists of a loose connective tissue, the meshes of +which contain the large pigment-laden cells previously mentioned. The +mineral matter is almost entirely intracellular. The central mass is +composed of a dense fibrous tissue in which the cells have almost +entirely disappeared, the mineral particles now becoming free and less +conspicuous because they are no longer aggregated into dense black +clumps. It is easy to realise from the structure of such nodules how +they increase in size at the expense of the lung tissue. Beneath the +pleura a similar development of new pigmented fibrous tissue similarly +occurs. It is to be observed that all this fibrotic change corresponds +in its localisation with the distribution of the lymphatic system of +the lungs. The lymphatics, originating by stomata between the pulmonary +epithelium, fall into two sets—(1) the sub-pleural network, and (2) +those which closely accompany the blood-vessels and bronchi, forming a +perivascular and peri-bronchial network.</p> + +<p>The final stages in the process are shown by sections taken from the +upper lobe of the lung, in which the fibrosis is much more dense and +complete. Here the individual nodules have so encroached upon the +lung tissue that they have more or less completely coalesced. In the +most advanced portions, little or no normal lung tissue can be seen, +although the focal character of the fibrosis is still perceptible, +since islands of dense fibrous tissue are connected by areas in which +the pigmental cells are enclosed in a looser connective tissue. The +mineral particles are here even more abundant and conspicuous than in +the lower lobe of the lung. In one single nodule (in the lower lobe) +calcification was seen, but this stage is absent elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Although to the naked eye there is no evidence of tubercle in the +lung, yet microscopically such evidence exists in at least one of +the seven blocks. The process of fibrosis has been traced from its +earliest stages, and is most positively non-tubercular in its origin. +The evidence of tuberculosis is present, as a recent and accessory +phenomenon, only in the most advanced stages of the fibrotic change. +It consists in the presence of small miliary tubercles embedded in the +fibrous tissue, and showing the characteristic structure of tubercles,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[404]</span> +with typical giant cells. Even in these no tubercle bacilli can be +demonstrated.</p> + +<p>The conclusions to be drawn from the preceding observations are as +follows:—</p> + +<p>The inhaled mineral particles are, in the first place, deposited +uniformly in the pulmonary parenchyma. They are at once taken up hence +by the lymphatics and carried along by the lymph stream. The lymphatics +have a perivascular, peri-bronchial, and sub-pleural distribution, and +in these situations the mineral matter specially accumulates, because +the amount is greater than can be got rid of by the lymphatics. It is +here chiefly found enclosed in cells (phagocytes), and exercises an +irritant action leading to the production of new fibrous tissue in +these situations. The fibroid areas increase at the expense of the +adjacent lung, in part at least by the development of a localised +broncho-pneumonia, and in part by thickening and induration of the +alveolar walls. When the fibrous tissue is fully formed the cells +containing the mineral particles break up and degenerate, and the +particles again lie free amongst the fibrous tissue. By the spread and +coalescence of the fibroid areas, the lung tissue in the most advanced +areas completely disappears. A secondary tubercular infection has now +taken place, and miliary tubercles appear in scanty numbers in the +fibroid areas.</p> + +<p><i>Chemical Analysis.</i>—Portions of the lung were handed to Mr H. A. +Schölberg, M.B., who furnishes the following analyses.</p> + +<p>The material supplied was dried at 100°C. on a water bath for three +hours. The dry lung tissue thus obtained was used for analysis.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">(1) <i>Analysis for total Ash.</i></td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Grammes of dry lung taken</td> + <td class="right">2.2675</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Loss of weight on combustion in muffle furnace</td> + <td class="right">1.1900</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Residue of ash</td> + <td class="right">1.0775</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right" colspan="2">∴ Percentage of ash in dried lung = 47.519 </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">(2) <i>Estimation of Silica.</i></td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Grammes of dried lung taken</td> + <td class="right">0.1505</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Silica in the same</td> + <td class="right">0.0100</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right" colspan="2">∴ Percentage of silica in dried lung = 6.644 </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Hamilton P. Smith.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXV<br> +<span class="subhed">MILLSTONE BUILDING: FRENCH BUHRSTONE</span></h2></div> + +<p>In the Final Report of the Dangerous Trades Committee of the Home +Office,<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> the subject of the building or making of millstones by a +hard, flint-like stone known in the trade as French buhrstone, and +which is imported into this country from Epernon in the Valley of the +Seine, and from Fierté-sous-Jouarre, is fully discussed and the dangers +exemplified. Buhrstone is one of the hardest stones in nature. It is a +variety of quartz, and is so hard and destructive to the steel tools +used by the workmen that in ten minutes a workman will knock off the +points of as many chisels. The stone has to be shaped into wedges of +varying size. These wedges are placed together in the form of a circle +cemented together, and subsequently surrounded by one or more strong +iron hoops. The millstones are used for grinding flour, cement, feeding +stuffs, etc. The chiselling of the buhrstone is generally conducted in +the open air or in a shed open at the sides, the rough stone resting +meanwhile upon a tub filled with sand, or upon some other solid +support. Fortunately French millstone building is a small industry, +for it is one that is most destructive to human life. Millstone masons +are a short-lived body of men. Their work is hard, most of it is +done practically in the open, without adequate protection from cold, +wind, and rain; the wages earned are good, often as much as fifty or +sixty shillings a week, but as a class the workmen are intemperate +and careless. No doubt alcoholism and indiscretion play their part in +shortening the lives of the men. As the stone is very hard, and the +point of the steel tools with which the men chisel is readily knocked +off, the workmen are exposed to two dangers: (1) splinters of steel +and stone striking the eye; and (2) inhalation of the dust given off +with each stroke of the hammer. Considering the compactness and the +great weight of the stone, it is astonishing that the dust evolved in +chiselling ever reaches the lungs at all. In dealing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span> with the question +of dust generated in any trade, it is to be remembered that while the +dust that is seen lying about in a factory may seem to be heavy and +the particles large, yet there is a finer and more impalpable dust +created at the time the particular work is being done, and it is very +largely this which is inhaled and inflicts the damage. When a workman +is chiselling a piece of buhrstone, two different kinds of particles +are given off, mineral particles from the stone, and metallic from +the chisels. These mingle together and form the dust that is inhaled. +That steel particles are present in the dust rising from the stone was +indicated to my colleagues on the Departmental Committee and myself +by a workman who, having magnetised the blade of a pocket knife, +placed the same in his waistcoat pocket, and “after moving it about +a few moments withdrew it, when it was found to be covered along its +edge with a fern-like coating consisting entirely of minute particles +of steel.” It is to the presence of very small fragments of steel +imbedded in the skin of the arms of the men, who frequently chisel with +their sleeves rolled up, that is due the bluish-black mottling of the +forearms of millstone builders.</p> + +<p>The men, as already stated, are short-lived. Several whom I examined in +the stoneyards on the banks of the Thames acknowledged the unhealthy +character of their employment, and said that they and their comrades +knew they might be able to follow their calling for only ten or +fifteen years, seldom more, and that probably before the tenth year +was reached, symptoms of pulmonary consumption would show themselves, +attended by cough and blood-spitting. Hæmoptysis is a very common +symptom, and in this respect, as also in the rapid course of the +illness, the pulmonary consumption of millstone builders differs from +the phthisis of potters in which hæmorrhage from the lung is rather +infrequent. Once destructive changes have been started in the lungs +of a buhrstone chiseller, the disease progresses quickly to a fatal +termination. The Dangerous Trades Committee found that men who began +this occupation when very young seldom lived beyond thirty-six to forty +years of age.</p> + + +<p><i>Prevention.</i>—It is such a dangerous occupation that if the +industry were swept out of existence altogether it would be no great +loss either to the commercial world or to civilisation at large. The +number of men employed in it is small, and as steel rollers have to +a large extent replaced French millstones in the grinding of food +and other stuffs, milling can be just as successfully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span> accomplished +without as with these stones. The trade will probably die a natural +death, but so long as the industry continues, the men ought to wear +respirators. If this were done much illness would probably disappear. +The men complain of the irksomeness of respirators, and of the heat +that they cause. The laborious nature of their employment creates a +need for free, full, and easy respiration. The dust that is given off +in chiselling the stones is very heavy, and is therefore capable of +being readily carried downwards and away from the workmen by powerful +suction, yet the conditions under which the work is carried on, viz., +in open places and unprotected sheds, makes the use of fans difficult, +if not impossible. The wearing of goggles or eye-guards should be +insisted upon.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXVI<br> +<span class="subhed">STEEL GRINDING</span></h2></div> + +<p>The process of grinding cutlery and other steel implements is +conducted by a class of workmen known as “grinders.” Their trade is a +highly specialised one, necessitating a long apprentice*-ship before +proficiency is attained; and in the majority of instances the calling +has been handed down through many generations. The trade is quite free +from the adulteration of casual labour, and consequently statistical +data respecting “grinders” possess a relatively high value. For the +most part they earn good wages, and being keen sportsmen, get a fair +amount of outdoor recreation. Their hours of work are seldom excessive, +and their homes and mode of living are up to the average standard of +comfort obtaining in the artisan class of the population.</p> + +<p>Grinding is done on circular stones turned either by steam or water +power. The stones vary in diameter from an inch up to several feet, and +are of different degrees of hardness according to the work required of +them. On the stones, articles of cutlery are reduced to their proper +shape and thickness, and are given their cutting edge, while many +other steel implements are ground to remove the roughness of their +surfaces. For the most part “grinders” sit astride the grinding stone +on a saddle, leaning forward, more or less according to the size of the +stone. The position is not an ideally healthy one, but the assertion +that it interferes with the free expansion of the lungs is only to a +very slight extent true. The attitude, however, renders the workmen +peculiarly vulnerable to accident when a stone breaks.</p> + +<p>Grinders are divided into two classes, known respectively as “dry +grinders” and “wet grinders.” The former are engaged in grinding steel +forks, augers, gimlets, needles, and a few other articles; while the +latter grind the blades of knives, scissors, razors, and most other +cutting implements.</p> + +<p>Certain articles of cutlery are ground partly on a wet and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[409]</span> partly on +a dry stone. Thus the backs of razors and scissors and the bolsters of +table-knives are ground dry, while the rest of the blade is wet ground.</p> + +<p>Dry grinders form a comparatively small class of workmen, but owing to +the excessive mortality which formerly obtained among them they have +long attracted the attention of the trade sanitarian. The attrition +of the steel against the dry grinding stone gives rise to enormous +quantities of steel and stone dust, which renders the atmosphere of +the workshop very irritating to the lungs, and produces a pathological +condition known as grinders’ phthisis.</p> + +<p>The following account of the pathology and symptomatology of the +disease has been very kindly written for this article by Dr Duncan +Burgess, Senior Physician to the Sheffield Royal Hospital:—</p> + +<p>“Grinders’ Phthisis, Grinders’ Asthma, Grinders’ Rot.—This disease +is due to the inhalation of dust composed for the most part of gritty +particles from the grinding-stone, but also containing fine particles +of steel from the implement ground. It has been asserted that steel +particles are not found in the grinders’ lung, but a very beautiful +microscopical section of an affected lung, appropriately stained, in +the possession of Dr Arthur Hall, shows unmistakably traces of iron. +Steel dust, however, constitutes only a minute fraction of the foreign +pigment in the diseased lung, and its effects compared with those of +stone dust may be neglected.</p> + +<p>“The frightful mortality among dry grinders before the introduction +of fans made the lung diseases of this class of workmen so notorious +that the name ‘grinders’ phthisis’ still signifies outside Sheffield +the very severe indurated broncho-pneumonia, which past generations of +fork grinders were subject to. This extreme form of grinders’ phthisis +is now practically extinct, but a modified form of the disease is +still very prevalent among Sheffield grinders and cutlers. The whole +respiratory tract is exposed to the action of the dust, but its effects +on the larger passages are comparatively unimportant. The disease +usually manifests itself in the first instance in the form of chronic +bronchitis with emphysema. Immunity from symptoms may continue for +decades, then in the winter or during foggy weather cough with some +expectoration in the morning may be noticed. The cough gradually gets +worse, and it may last more or less throughout the winter. Shortness +of breath is now complained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span> of, and the grinder may have to leave off +work for weeks together from time to time. Finally his cough persists +through the summer, and his shortness of breath on exertion forces +him to leave off work altogether, it may be after the age of sixty, +or even twenty years earlier. If he be examined now his skin and lips +will be dusky, and his chest fixed as at the end of inspiration. The +breathing is mainly diaphragmatic, and though the auxiliary muscles +of respiration stand out in strong contraction, there is very little +expansion of the chest. In addition to the ordinary physical signs +of bronchitis there may be areas in which the breath sounds are very +feeble or absent, and areas in which they are comparatively loud. The +grinder is especially liable to have tuberculosis grafted on to his +bronchial lesion, and this may occur quite early, or be deferred until +late. Wasting, night sweats, and hæmoptysis mark the onset of the rapid +change for the worse which follows tubercular infection. The dyspnœa +is naturally greater than in ordinary phthisis, and the emphysematous +condition of the lung may mask for a time tubercular infiltration. The +sputum is at first very scanty, and consists of mucus with dark spots +and patches. Later it is more abundant and becomes muco-purulent, with +black spots and patches, and occasionally gritty particles. In the +terminal stage tubercular bacilli are present, together with other +pathogenic organisms. Grinders suffer inordinately from pleurisy and +pneumonia.</p> + +<p>“The pathological feature of dry grinders’ phthisis is the presence in +the cut section of the lung of groups of dark, hard nodules about ⅓ +of an inch in diameter. Under the microscope these nodules are found +to consist of dense fibrous tissue arranged more or less in layers. +Black amorphous masses may be conspicuous in or near the centre of +the nodule. The lung tissue in immediate contact with the nodules is +converted into less dense but more deeply pigmented fibrous tissue. +This merges into air-cells with thickened and pigmented walls. The +apices of the lungs are more frequently the seat of nodules than the +bases. In an extreme degree of grinders’ phthisis the entire upper lobe +may be replaced by a solid, hard, black mass, which on section presents +a mottled appearance from the innumerable nodules, thickened bronchi, +and pigmented airless lung tissue. The pleura is irregularly thickened, +in places forming a milky or thick yellow layer, which may be adherent +to the chest wall. A tubercular cavity of considerable extent may be +found at the apex or elsewhere.”</p> + +<p>At one time dry grinding was perhaps the most unhealthy trade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span> in the +country. The late Dr J. C. Hall of Sheffield, in a paper read before +the Social Science Congress in 1865, stated that “excluding boys, the +average age of dry grinders was only twenty-nine years;” and there +can be little doubt that comparatively few workmen were to be found +following their employment after the age of forty years. Of late the +introduction of fans for carrying away the dust has greatly improved +the conditions under which dry grinders work, and, as I shall presently +show, this has been followed by a corresponding improvement in health +and length of years, but the trade is still an unhealthy one.</p> + +<p>Wet grinding is much the more important branch of the grinding trade, +and in Sheffield alone it gives employment to several thousand +workmen. In revolving, the grinding-stone passes through a thin layer +of water placed in a trough beneath the stone, and is always wet, +so that comparatively little dust is produced; but as certain other +dust-producing processes are usually conducted in the wet grinding +workrooms, the atmosphere is not quite free from dust. The processes +referred to are:—</p> + + +<p>(1) <i>Glazing.</i>—Most articles of cutlery after having been ground +are “glazed.” This is done on a wooden wheel covered with leather which +has received a coating of emery and glue. The rim of the wheel is from +time to time rubbed with a cake composed of emery, suet, and beeswax. +The “glazer” is used for the purpose of removing marks on the blade +left by the grinding-stone. Owing to the greasy nature of its surface +there is not much dust formed.</p> + + +<p>(2) <i>Polishing</i> is employed to give a highly-finished appearance +to certain blades. The “polisher” is also made of wood, covered with +leather, but instead of emery a fine powder containing oxide of +iron, and known as “crocus,” is used. The process gives rise to a +considerable amount of dust.</p> + + +<p>(3) <i>Lapping.</i>—The blades of pen-knives and many razors are +subject to a process called “lapping,” which is done on a lead-rimmed +wheel called a “lap.” The process is chiefly interesting as being a +possible source of lead poisoning, but after careful inquiry I have +failed to find any one showing evidence of plumbism from this source.</p> + + +<p>(4) <i>Racing the Stone.</i>—The grinding-stones are received from +the quarries in a rough condition, and the “grinder,” after mounting +the stone on its axle, reduces its circumference to the proper shape +and degree of smoothness by applying a steel bar to it while it is +revolving slowly. This process, which is known as “racing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span> stone,” +gives rise to enormous volumes of dry dust, so that the air in the +immediate neighbourhood of the stone is almost unbreatheable. All +stones, whether for wet or dry grinding, require to be “raced” in the +first instance.</p> + +<p>But while wet grinders cannot be said to suffer much from the +irritation of dust, they show an appalling mortality from phthisis and +other diseases of the lungs, and there is no room for doubt that the +damp, stagnant atmosphere in which they work is the principal cause of +these diseases. The grinding-stones are constantly throwing off water, +which soddens the floor and saturates the air of the grinding-room +until, owing to the absence of efficient ventilation, it becomes very +like that of a damp cave.</p> + +<p>Another danger to which grinders are exposed is the breaking of the +grinding-stone when in motion. These accidents are unfortunately +common, and often cause frightful injuries and death. They are due to +a variety of causes, such as departure from the circular shape owing +to one side of the stone wearing faster than the other; flaws in the +stone; allowing the lower part of the stone to remain immersed in the +water trough when not in use; fixing the stone on its axle by means +of wedges instead of using plates and screws for this purpose; and +permitting the stone to revolve too rapidly.</p> + +<p>In the hafting of certain classes of knives an emery wheel is used +for shaping the knife handles, and it produces dense volumes of dust +composed of steel particles from the rivets and tangs, also of emery +from the wheel, and of bone or other material of which the knife +handles are made. This emery wheel is known as a “cutler’s glazer,” +and is a comparatively recent invention, having come into general use +only during the last twenty-five years, previous to which all handles +were shaped with a file. It is most injurious when used for shaping the +handles of knives that have scale tangs.</p> + +<p>The cutlery manager of one of the largest firms in Sheffield assures +me that cutlers as a class have become much more unhealthy since the +introduction of the glazer. This opinion is endorsed by other competent +observers, and there is no difficulty in accepting the accuracy of it +if we reflect that the modern scale tang cutler who uses a glazer is +virtually a “dry grinder.”</p> + +<p>Grinding is carried on either in separate buildings, which are known as +“grinding wheels,” or on premises where other branches of the cutlery +trade are conducted. In either case the grinding of heavy articles is +done on the ground floor. The rooms, or “hulls,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[413]</span> as they are called, +are sometimes sunk below the level of the ground, and are as a rule +bounded on three sides by blank walls without adequate provision for +cross ventilation. The windows and doors are in the fourth wall, +and the former are usually devoid of glass because the mud from the +grinding-stones would speedily obstruct the light if glass were used. +The hulls are provided with fires for drying the blades, but the +fireplaces are situate in front or in one of the lateral walls, and +consequently their utility as ventilating agents is not great. Each +hull contains one, two, or more troughs which run from front to back, +and in them are placed the grinding, glazing, and polishing wheels in +the order mentioned. The floors are wet and dirty, and the atmosphere +damp and stagnant, particularly at the back, where it is further +defiled by the dust given off from the polishing wheels. The cubical +space per worker would as a rule be ample if the ventilation was good.</p> + +<p>Dry grinding and the lighter branches of wet grinding are carried on +in rooms in the upper stories. Better ventilation exists here, but on +the other hand the rooms are often overcrowded, and when dry grinding +is done there is of course much dust. In the majority of dry grinding +rooms fans for the removal of dust are to be found, but occasionally +these are absent. One fan is as a rule sufficient for several workmen. +Attached to it is a number of tubes, each of which ends in an expansion +or hood in front of the grinding-stone. The tubes are put down by the +owner of the factory, who likewise occasionally supplies the fans; +but as a rule the fans and hoods belong to the workmen, who are known +as “piece workers.” When properly constructed and looked after, the +fans act admirably for removing dust, and also aid in ventilating the +workshops; but as several workmen commonly occupy one room and share +responsibility for its sanitary condition, there is the usual failure +to carry out efficiently that which is the duty of one in particular. +For this reason the tubes are apt to become choked from not being +periodically cleaned out, or a trivial defect which a few minutes would +suffice to remedy, is allowed to render the fan inoperative for days +together. Again, a careless grinder by neglecting to use a hood will +seriously discount the efforts of his more careful shopmates to keep +down dust. Hence it happens that in many workshops where dry grinding +is done the dust accumulates in large quantities on the floor, to rise +in dense clouds each time it is disturbed.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of scale tang cutlery, in which glazers are +extensively used, the atmosphere under the most favourable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[414]</span> +circumstances is charged with fine dust. This is especially noticeable +where bone is employed for hafting. Moreover, manufacturers complain +bitterly that the workmen will sometimes block up ventilators and +dispense with the use of fans unless strict vigilance is maintained. It +is almost incredible that any one should pursue so suicidal a policy, +yet personal observation compels me to admit that these allegations are +not altogether groundless.</p> + +<p>Another grave defect is the indiscriminate mixing of various classes of +workers. Thus in a shop where a dozen men work, only two or three may +be engaged in dust-producing processes, yet all are obliged to inhale +the dust-laden atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The buildings in which grinding and hafting are done vary widely in +their sanitary aspects. Many of these places are as perfect as it is +possible to make them, having regard to the nature of the work carried +on therein; but not a few are just the reverse. Dilapidated buildings, +constructed in the first instance without regard to the requirements +of health, are sadly too common. In these overcrowding, defective +ventilation, and a dust-laden atmosphere are the rule rather than the +exception. Externally the condition of affairs is often no better, the +factories being shut in by other buildings which exclude sunlight from +the lower rooms, and interfere with the circulation of the air.</p> + +<p>Trade mortality tables have been carefully compiled by successive +Medical Officers of Health for the city of Sheffield, showing the +number of deaths, the principal diseases which cause death, and the +age at which death took place in a number of trades. The figures have +reference to males over the age of fifteen years, and when contrasted +with the corresponding figures of the Registrar-General for the entire +male population of the country they indicate fairly accurately the +relative unhealthiness or otherwise of the workmen concerned. An +examination of the returns for grinders shows an appalling death-rate +from phthisis and other diseases of the respiratory organs. Thus in +every thousand deaths among grinders phthisis causes 345, and other +respiratory diseases 295, or collectively these diseases account for +64 per cent. of the entire mortality, whereas among the entire adult +male population of the country phthisis accounts for 144, and other +respiratory diseases for 182, in every thousand deaths, or collectively +to 32.6 per cent. If we examine the ages at which deaths occur, a +similar unsatisfactory contrast obtains. Thus 458 grinders in every +thousand die between the ages of thirty-five<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[415]</span> and fifty-five years, as +compared with 261 in every thousand obtaining among the entire male +population of the country; while only 140 grinders in every thousand +have attained the age of fifty-five years and upwards at death, as +compared with 391 in every thousand for the entire adult male community.</p> + +<p>The dusty nature of a dry grinder’s occupation prepares us to accept +these figures as applied to him; but it must not be lost sight of +that dry grinders form a very small minority of those engaged in the +grinding industry. Moreover, my investigations lead me to believe that +dry grinders, although they still show an enormous mortality from +phthisis and other respiratory diseases, live to a much greater age +than formerly. Thus I found the average age of twenty-two unselected +fork grinders to be forty-three years, which is a marked improvement +compared with the late Dr Hall’s estimate of twenty-nine years. Again, +during the four years 1889–92 the average age at which fork grinders in +Sheffield died was forty-five and a half years.</p> + +<p>Owing to the conditions already set forth as existing in many grinding +rooms, wet grinders are frequently compelled to inhale dust-laden air, +and this no doubt is a factor in producing the high mortality which +prevails among them. But important as this evil is, it is altogether +overshadowed by the baneful influence of the damp, stagnant atmosphere +of the wet grinding “hulls,” an atmosphere which is peculiarly +favourable for the propagation of diseases of the lungs.</p> + +<p>The legislature of this country has done much to improve the conditions +under which workmen pursue their various callings, but local +peculiarities and unforeseen contingencies sometimes frustrate the +beneficent intentions of our legislators, and this is markedly the case +in respect of the grinding industry. With few exceptions grinders are +“piece workers,” and pay rent for their “stalls” and the motive power +which drives their stones. The grinding wheels and cutlery works are +frequently owned by individuals or companies who are not themselves +manufacturers, but are merely the landlords of the premises, letting +off rooms or portions of rooms to workmen who, in the eyes of the law, +are the occupiers, and therefore responsible for carrying out the +requirements of the Factory Acts. It follows that the owners of the +premises are able to repudiate responsibility for sanitary control and +that the Factory Inspector, when he wishes to insist on fans or other +needful appliances being provided, must proceed legally against the +workmen. The outcome of all this is that it is difficult<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span> or impossible +to apportion responsibility for sanitary requirements; the Inspector’s +work is enormously increased, and often rendered excessively irksome; +while the amount of good he can do is proportionally lessened. There +is but one remedy for this state of things. Sooner or later the +legislature will have to fix on the individual, or company, who lets +off rooms and power to workmen, the responsibility for carrying out the +provisions of the Factory Acts. We shall be told that an enactment of +this kind would disturb long-established trade usages, and be unfair to +the manufacturers; but apart from the fact that it is the only feasible +way out of the difficulty, it would merely place cutlery manufacturers +on the same footing as that occupied by most other employers of labour +in the country. Moreover, some of the best cutlery firms already +recognise their moral responsibility in this respect, and provide +for the use of their workmen fans and all other contrivances of a +health-saving nature.</p> + +<p>The sanitary condition of the workshops in which grinders, particularly +wet grinders, work admits of much improvement. These rooms should +always be above the level of the ground, and so situated in regard to +surrounding buildings as to allow of free entrance of fresh air and +sunlight. The floors should have a fall to the front, and be composed +of concrete or some similar impervious material. Better ventilation is +urgently required, especially towards the back of the rooms, and the +fireplaces might with advantage be placed at the back. The polishing +wheels should be provided with hoods connected with a fan for the +removal of dust and the better ventilation of the room.</p> + +<p>Grinding-stones should not be mounted until they have been inspected by +some competent person with the view to detecting flaws, and it should +be obligatory to use plates and bolts instead of wedges for fastening +the stones on their axles.</p> + +<p>Dry grinding should be done in rooms specially set apart for this +purpose, and not, as is sometimes the case, in rooms where other +processes are carried on. The “racing” of stones should be conducted +at a time when there are few workmen present, and those engaged in the +process should wear some form of respirator.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Sinclair White.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXVII<br> +<span class="subhed">PHOSPHORUS AND LUCIFER MATCHES</span></h2></div> + +<p>However useful phosphorus has been to man, its manipulation has been +a constant source of danger. As there are two forms of phosphorus, +so there are two kinds of matches: the <i>safety</i>, which-only +ignite on the box, and the ordinary <i>strike-anywhere</i>. Safety +matches are made from red or amorphous phosphorus, and the ordinary +matches from white or yellow. Oldbury, near Birmingham, is the seat +of the manufacture of yellow phosphorus. Although white phosphorus is +a dangerous substance, there have been very few cases of ill-health +among the men who make it, owing very largely to the fact that in its +production from bone, very few people are employed, and the processes +of manufacture are such that the workmen are not brought directly into +contact with the dangerous substance. Sixty tons of the phosphorus +annually manufactured in Oldbury are consumed in lucifer match works in +Britain.</p> + +<p>The death of a lucifer matchmaker in London five years ago, and the +announcement in the daily press of the contemporaneous occurrence of +a large number of cases of ill-health in a Metropolitan match works, +aroused an amount of feeling, and created such an adverse public +opinion in regard to this industry in England, that the Home Secretary, +Sir Matthew White Ridley, appointed a Commission, composed of Professor +T. E. Thorpe, Dr George Cunningham, and myself, to undertake an +inquiry into certain important questions which had arisen with regard +to the effect of work in lucifer match factories on the health of the +workpeople.</p> + +<p>The questions which at the time engaged the attention of the Home +Office were:—</p> + +<p>(1) The nature and extent of the dangers attending the use of yellow +and white phosphorus.</p> + +<p>(2) The means whereby these can be lessened.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[418]</span></p> + +<p>(3) The practicability of discontinuing the use of yellow and white +phosphorus.</p> + +<p>Many match works, both at home and abroad, were visited by the members +of the Commission, whose views and opinions upon these questions are +embodied in a Report<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> that describes the methods of manufacture, and +the legislative measures adopted in most of the countries in Europe to +abolish or diminish the ill-effects of the industry upon the health of +the workpeople.</p> + +<p>The principal malady of the lucifer matchmaker is a localised +inflammatory affection of the jawbone, followed by suppuration +and death of the bone, constituting what is known as phosphorus +necrosis—“phossy jaw,” as it is sometimes called in this country, and +<i>mal chimique</i> in France. Other diseased conditions are also met +with, but these and the subject of phosphorus necrosis generally will +be dealt with further on.</p> + +<p>Commercial phosphorus is made from bone-ash by treating it with +sulphuric acid, filtering and evaporating the product, heating this +with charcoal, and afterwards distilling it. The substance known as +white or yellow phosphorus was discovered as far back as 1669, by +Brandt of Hamburg, and is, when pure, colourless and transparent, but +when exposed to the light it becomes yellowish. During absorption +of oxygen from the atmosphere it becomes phosphorescent. The +greenish-white light thus evolved can at once be checked by such +essential oils as turpentine and eucalyptus. The glow of phosphorus is +an indication that oxidation is taking place, and that both phosphorous +and phosphoric oxides are being formed, ozone being probably present at +the same time. White phosphorus is extremely inflammable: it ignites +at a temperature of 34° C., and forms with a plentiful supply of air +phosphoric oxide P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub>, but if the supply of air is limited, +phosphorous oxide is formed P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. It is with a paste made from +white phosphorus that the ordinary strike-anywhere matches are headed.</p> + +<p>Red or amorphous phosphorus, from which safety matches are made, has +been known only since 1845. It was discovered by Schröter of Vienna, +and is obtained by exposing ordinary phosphorus for some time in a +closed vessel to a temperature of about 250° C. Red or amorphous +phosphorus differs from yellow both physically and in other respects. +It can be handled, for example, with impunity, and does not take fire +when rubbed on any rough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span> surface. It is non-volatile, and since it +is not acted upon by the digestive juices of the alimentary canal it +is non-poisonous. As much as an ounce of amorphous phosphorus has +been given to animals without any bad effects, while one to three +grains of the ordinary metalloid have caused death. In order to ignite +red phosphorus, it has to be rubbed upon a surface that contains +substances rich in oxygen. The heads of safety matches are composed +of potassium chlorate and chromate, and other compounds that contain +large quantities of oxygen, while the red phosphorus is present in the +brownish-red layer that has been pasted on the side of the matchbox. It +is significant of the habits of our countrymen that while sixty tons +of white phosphorus are converted into the ordinary strike-anywhere +matches every year in Britain, only three and a half tons of red +phosphorus are required to satisfy the public demand for safety-matches.</p> + +<p>White phosphorus is volatile at ordinary temperatures, and its vapour +when pure is said by Schonbein to be odourless; the odour that is +perceived is a mixture of ozone and phosphorous oxide. On analysing +the fumes given off by phosphorus eight-tenths are found to consist of +oxides of phosphorus.</p> + +<p>Professor Thorpe found that when decayed human teeth were exposed to +the fumes of phosphorus for twelve hours they lost 0.37 per cent. of +their weight, and that carious teeth when crushed and exposed to a +dilute solution of phosphoric acid (1 per cent.) lost 8.9 per cent. +of their original weight. When, therefore, the fume of phosphorus +co-operates with the saliva of the mouth, it must clearly exercise +a solvent action upon the teeth. In the air of the dipping room of +a match factory, Thorpe found O.02 milligrammes of phosphorus per +100 litres of air, while the same quantity of air of the boxing-room +contained O.12 milligrammes of phosphorus. On analysing the water +in which twenty-two of the workpeople had washed their hands, after +working a certain number of hours in the factory, 37.3 milligrammes +of phosphorus were found, or an equivalent of 4.2 milligrammes of +phosphorus per person for each ten hours’ work.</p> + +<p>The lucifer match industry of Great Britain and Ireland gave employment +during 1898 to 4270 persons, of whom 1166 were males and 3104 females; +about 1700 of these were working in phosphorus processes. Of persons +under eighteen years of age there were 466 males and 1077 females. +The match works were distributed as follows: in England and Wales 17, +Scotland 2, and in Ireland 5, making a total of 24. Dr Whitelegge sends +me<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[420]</span> the following information regarding the number of lucifer match +works in January 1901—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Number in which yellow phosphorus is being used</td> + <td class="right">15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Number in which the use of yellow phosphorus has been discontinued</td> + <td class="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Number not yet working</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Number closed during past twelve months (one temporarily)</td> + <td class="rightb">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right">Total</td> + <td class="right">24</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The Chief Inspector of Factories, in his Annual Report for 1899, p. +318, states that the total cases of industrial phosphorus poisoning in +this country within the last twenty years, of which there is a definite +record, number 102. Before 1898 there were 92 cases of phosphorus +necrosis, 6 in 1896, and 4 in 1899. Three other cases were reported +in 1899, and are included in the return, but they did not reach the +stage of necrosis. It has been urged with reason that such doubtful +cases, when notified, should be placed on a “suspended” list, and +judgment deferred until the diagnosis is quite clear. Of the 102 cases +19 terminated fatally. Dr Whitelegge informs me that three cases of +phosphorus poisoning were reported during 1900; this brings the total +number up to 105 in twenty-one years.</p> + +<p>The ordinary lucifer match is dipped in a paste composed of glue, +phosphorus, chlorate of potass, powdered glass, sometimes magnesia +or lime, and coloured by a magenta dye. On an average there is 5 per +cent. of phosphorus present in the paste, but sometimes it is double +this amount. The paste or composition, when about to be used, is spread +upon an iron slab kept at a moderate temperature. Into this paste the +dipper, always a male in this country, quickly plunges the tips of +prepared wooden splints that are projecting at a uniform level from a +frame, and at once hands them over to a fellow-workman, who removes +them to the drying chambers, which are ventilated by means of fans to +renew the air, and to hasten the drying of the matches. At the distal +end of the slab upon which the dipper heads the lucifers, there is, or +ought to be, a fan towards which, when in operation, the fumes of the +phosphorus as they rise from the paste can be seen travelling away from +the face of the worker. Since the introduction of fans on the far side +of the slab, the occupation of dipping in match works has become much +less dangerous.</p> + +<p>The boxing of matches, when done by hand, is attended by considerable +risk to health, especially if the workroom is badly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[421]</span> ventilated. In +addition to the phosphorus fumes which pervade the boxing-room, the +atmosphere is from time to time rendered more unhealthy by dense clouds +of smoke given off by the matches that are frequently catching fire.</p> + +<p>It was Lorinser of Vienna who first drew the attention of the medical +profession to phosphorus necrosis, or disease of the jawbone, in +lucifer matchmakers. This was in 1845, or about eleven years after +the establishment of the match industry in Austria. Between the years +1839–1845 he had examined nine cases of phosphorus necrosis. Shortly +after Lorinser had published his cases, Sir Samuel Wilks in our +own country reported the occurrence of disease of the jawbone in a +matchmaker, attended by suppuration, and followed by exfoliation of +the bone. Since then in every country where ordinary lucifer matches +have been made, the use of phosphorus has been followed by such an +amount of ill-health and suffering on the part of matchmakers, that +almost all the preventive measures which industrial science and +legislation could suggest, short of total prohibition, have had a +trial without rendering the industry completely safe. More than twenty +years ago Denmark interdicted the use of white phosphorus, and the +importation of ordinary strike-anywhere matches. France, several years +after having made the manufacture of matches a Government monopoly, +and having been obliged to pay large sums of money as compensation +to the diseased matchmakers of Pantin-Aubervilliers, has commenced +to manufacture matches from a harmless sesquisulphide of phosphorus; +matches which, while possessing all the freedom from poison claimed +for <i>safeties</i>, have the property of striking anywhere. Belgium +has not only insisted upon the reduction of phosphorus in the paste +to 8 per cent., but with the view of stimulating the manufacture of a +satisfactory non-poisonous strike-anywhere match, has offered a prize +of 50,000 francs (£2000). Holland<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> insists upon 5 per cent. of +phosphorus in the paste, and allows no young person under sixteen years +of age, and no woman to work in a match factory where yellow phosphorus +is used. In Norway 28 cases of phosphorus necrosis occurred in fourteen +years out of a total number<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span> of 600 workers. The match industry +of Sweden gives employment to about one-twentieth of the artizan +population. In the twenty-seven match factories of that country, 5500 +persons find employment, males and females about equally. Although +a large proportion of Swedish matches are safeties, yet as a matter +of fact 80 per cent. of the matches produced are made from ordinary +phosphorus. There is a large home consumption of strike-anywhere +matches in Sweden. As a consequence of their manufacture, phosphorus +necrosis is not unknown in that country, and on more than one occasion +the question of the total prohibition of ordinary phosphorus has been +discussed in the Rigsdag. Were such a thing to become law the match +industry of Sweden, in the absence of an international agreement, would +be seriously crippled. During the year 1891 there were 19 cases of +phosphorus necrosis reported from thirteen factories. The Commission +appointed by the Swedish Parliament to consider the prohibition of +ordinary phosphorus did not feel justified in recommending such a +sweeping change, believing that in better ventilation of the workrooms, +repeated medical examination of the workers, and scrupulous attention +to details in the various processes, the manufacture of matches could +be robbed of much that had hitherto caused it to be regarded as a +dangerous industry. Of the ninety match factories in Germany about +thirty make ordinary lucifers. Several cases of phosphorus necrosis +have occurred, but since the introduction of stringent regulations +in 1884, requiring special ventilation, medical examination of the +workers, personal cleanliness and separation of the workrooms, +the amount of sickness has, within the last few years, materially +diminished. In Austria-Hungary there are upwards of ninety match +works. It is an important industry in Bohemia, Galicia, and Hungary. +The matches chiefly find their way into Servia, Bulgaria, Roumania, +and Turkey. In eighteen years 140 cases of phosphorus necrosis were +reported to the Factory Inspectors; as many as 47 cases of phosphorus +necrosis having occurred in the year 1888. This unhappy circumstance +is to be explained by the fact that the manufacture of lucifers at +this time was extensively but secretly carried on as a home industry. +Experience has shown that this clandestine practice is always extremely +dangerous. Fortunately the authorities have practically succeeded in +abolishing this home industry. The regulations in Austria-Hungary +resemble those of Germany. Switzerland in 1879 introduced a Bill +for the prohibition of the use of yellow phosphorus, and two years +afterwards it became law. Instead of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[423]</span> abolishing phosphorus necrosis, +however, the disease became not only more prevalent, but of a severer +type, owing to the manufacture of matches as a home industry. As the +interference of the Government defeated the object it had in view, +viz., safe-guarding the health of the workers, the Act of 1879 was in a +sense repealed. Whilst in Switzerland the importation and manufacture +of matches made with yellow phosphorus is forbidden, the manufacture +of lucifers is under the control of each canton, the Federal Council +holding itself responsible for the conditions that are requisite for +the health and safety of the workers, and also of the public.</p> + + +<p><i>Phosphorus Necrosis.</i>—It is difficult to say what is the actual +cause of necrosis of the jawbone in lucifer matchmakers. As to whether +it is a primary lesion or one secondary to a general or constitutional +form of poisoning, medical opinion is still divided. Most writers +attribute the disease of the bone to the fumes of phosphorus, +<i>i.e.</i> to the oxides of phosphorus, acting upon the decayed teeth +of the workpeople. The fumes are supposed to penetrate a carious tooth +and induce a periostitis or inflammation of the covering of the bone. +The gum becomes swollen and painful. To such an extent has this been +regarded as the explanation of the cause of necrosis that two of the +large match works in this country had at their own expense appointed +dentists to examine and keep in good order the teeth of the workpeople. +Subsequently the Home Office, as a result of the opinions expressed +at an Arbitration with the Match Manufacturers, decided to accept +periodical examination of the teeth of the workpeople by a qualified +dentist as a substitute for medical inspection. While regarding decayed +teeth as a necessary preliminary to inflammation of the dental socket, +Roussel holds that it is phosphoric acid that is the destructive +agent. Gubler and Lailler,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> on the other hand, maintain that they +have met with phosphorus necrosis in the inferior jaw of a matchmaker +whose teeth were perfectly sound, and that if phosphoric acid were the +destructive agent the teeth ought to become softened and translucent. +Gubler holds, but on what grounds we do not know, that it is phosphorus +itself that penetrates into the soft tissues and destroys the nutrition +of the covering of the bone. Under all circumstances “phossy jaw” is +a painful affection, especially in the early stages, and although +naturally it might be expected to occur with greater readiness in +workpeople who are ill-nourished, scrofulous, or tubercular, yet I have +seen it in male and female matchmakers who were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span> physically strong and +otherwise perfectly healthy. This circumstance, therefore, is rather +in favour of phosphorus necrosis being in the first instance a local +affection and primary. Once suppuration occurs, the painful tooth +removed, and the pus thereby allowed to escape, pain is subsequently +not a marked feature in the case. As the periosteum is usually +separated, the affected portion of bone lying underneath dies and is +exfoliated. A piece of bone varying from half-an-inch to three inches +is thus thrown off. The process of separation of the bone by ulceration +is extremely slow. It may extend over months or years if the bone is +not surgically treated, and all this time there is a constant oozing +of pus into the mouth of the patient, some of which must be swallowed +along with the food, thereby undermining the health and causing anæmia +or cachexia, or during sleep it may trickle down the throat into the +respiratory passages and set up an unhealthy inflammation of the lining +membrane, or it indirectly prepares the way for tubercular disease of +the lungs. Either jaw may become necrosed. If anything, the inferior +maxilla is more frequently affected than the superior. When the upper +jaw is diseased there is a tendency for the inflammation to extend +to the base of the skull and to induce a septic inflammation of the +membranes of the brain, which is invariably fatal. In France both Dr +Magitot of Paris and Dr Arnaud of Marseilles described a constitutional +condition or cachexia in matchmakers to which they gave the name of +<i>phosphorisme</i>, of which pallor, dyspepsia, albuminuria, and +a tendency to bronchitis are the prominent features. Arnaud, with +whom I had the opportunity of discussing this subject in Marseilles, +found that as many as 28 per cent. of lucifer matchmakers, especially +young women under eighteen years of age, suffered from bronchitis, +but he did not think that matchmaking <i>per se</i> was a cause of +tubercular lung disease, nor was it his experience that pregnant +female matchmakers aborted more frequently than their sisters engaged +in other occupations. Phosphorisme does not occur to any extent in +English matchmakers. In visiting the match factories of Belgium, +particularly of Grammont, where I met Dr Brocoorens, who from his large +experience of industrial phosphorus poisoning had been invited to give +evidence before the French Commission, my attention was drawn to the +interesting fact that men who had been dippers and who had suffered +from necrosis of the jawbone and recovered, exhibited an unnatural +tendency to spontaneous fracture of their long bones, especially the +femur. During twenty-five years in Grammont alone,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[425]</span> which is not a +large town, with six match factories giving employment to 1100 people, +Dr Brocoorens treated 30 cases of fracture of the long bones, caused by +muscular effort, in dippers who had previously suffered from necrosis +of the jaw. This circumstance would rather suggest that in addition +to the local disease of the maxillæ caused by phosphorus, there was +also induced a wider spread morbid state, which was capable of showing +itself long after recovery from the primary lesion. Spontaneous +fracture of the long bones of matchmakers is not unknown in England. Dr +Garman of Bow, medical officer to Messrs Bryant & May, informs me that +he knows of nine cases in which the long bones of the arm and leg of +matchmakers have become broken without any injury being received, and +Dr Dearden of Manchester relates<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> the case of two dippers, “each of +whom has had separately and at different times both thigh bones broken +in a ridiculously simple fashion.” Dr Kocher of Berne had experience +of a matchmaker who broke his thigh bone five times. These facts +indicate that the osseous tissues of the body are in some way or other +influenced either by phosphorus itself or its compounds, whereby they +become unable to withstand external violence. Dearden is of opinion +that the bones of match dippers contain an excess of phosphoric acid, +which combines with the pre-existing neutral phosphate of lime to form +a slightly acid salt. In this circumstance may possibly be found an +explanation of the <i>fragilitas ossium</i> of lucifer matchmakers.</p> + +<p>A brief notice of some experiments performed by Wegner may not +be out of place here. He believes that phosphorus has a specific +action upon bones, especially those of young animals. Wegner found +that the administration of very minute doses of yellow phosphorus, +¹⁄₁₀ to ⅕ mgrm., for several weeks to young rabbits was followed by +characteristic changes in the growth of the long bones, owing to the +phosphorus acting as an irritant or stimulant to the bone-forming +cells. Where loose cancellous bone was being formed from cartilage, +phosphorus caused the deposition of a layer of dense bone, and if +the drug was pushed a little longer, the soft, cancellous bone, +formed before the phosphorus treatment was begun, became gradually +absorbed. In this way the central or medullary cavity of the bone +became enlarged, so that in the case of the long bones this cavity +extended into the epiphyses or ends of the shafts. In other instances +the newly-formed bone which had developed under the influence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[426]</span> the +phosphorus, and also that which grows normally from the periosteum, +became denser, so that in fowls Wegner found the medullary cavity +obliterated by the deposition of hard bone. When lime salts were +withheld from the food of the animals treated by phosphorus, the +activity of the bone-forming cells continued, but no lime was +deposited, and so there was produced a condition of bone such as is +found in rickets. Kassowitz by similar means produced appearances +closely resembling the soft and yielding bones that are met with in +rickety children. Wegner, by exposing the bared tibia of an animal to +the influence of phosphorus fumes, induced periosteal irritation and +the deposit of new layers of bone.</p> + +<p>Although it takes a long time for the sequestrum of a diseased jawbone +to be thrown off in a person the subject of phosphorus necrosis, yet +once it is expelled and the wound closed, the patient generally feels +well enough to return to work in a match factory, and is placed in a +department wherein he runs no further risk. Despite the tediousness +and the unpleasantness of the malady, most of the patients recover. Dr +Garman of Bow, treating his cases by the expectant method and allowing +the sequestrum to be naturally separated, found that 83 per cent. of +his cases recovered; Kocher of Berne prefers to remove by means of a +surgical operation the affected portion of bone, and 83.7 per cent. of +his cases recovered; while Kuiper of Jena, treating his patients on +similar lines to Kocher, had 89 per cent. of recoveries.</p> + +<p>This account of the diseases of bones of matchmakers allows us now +to return to the original question, viz., the cause of phosphorus +necrosis. Fume is generally regarded as the cause, but it is probably +only an incident. In the pus that keeps oozing away from the necrosing +jaw of an affected matchmaker, I have found numerous pus-forming +micro-organisms, viz., putrefactive bacilli, streptococci and +staphylococci pyogenes, and as Professor Stockman of Glasgow detected +in addition in the pus a few tubercle bacilli, he is disposed to +regard the “phossy jaw” of lucifer matchmakers as a true tubercular +process. In several of the specimens of pus taken from the diseased +jawbone of matchmakers sent to me by Dr Garman of Bow, I could find +no trace of tubercle bacilli, although these were carefully searched +for. The presence of the bacilli of tubercle in Professor Stockman’s +specimens, which by the way I have had the privilege of examining +and confirming, is an extremely interesting fact, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[427]</span> certainly +creates a bias in favour of the lesion being tubercular. On the other +hand, the human mouth under all circumstances contains large numbers +of micro-organisms, some of which are capable of becoming extremely +virulent under altered conditions, and there is no reason why some of +these might not find their way through a carious tooth to its socket in +the jawbone or to the periosteum, where phosphorus fumes had previously +gained entrance and set up irritation. In these tissues thus prepared +microbes would find a suitable nidus for their multiplication. As the +same remark applies to tubercle bacilli, it is clear that the final +answer has not yet been given to the pathological problem of phosphorus +necrosis. There is something in the causation of phosphorus necrosis +that is still unknown to us, some peculiar action of phosphorus on the +human subject that is not yet fully explained.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> It is an extremely +difficult thing to produce phosphorus necrosis in animals, either by +exposing them to the fumes of phosphorus itself, or to clouds of smoke +from burning matches.</p> + +<p>In many instances where “phossy jaw” has occurred, the workpeople were +at the time following their occupation, and had done so for many years. +Acute phosphorus poisoning, practically speaking, does not occur in +matchmakers. The poisoning is always chronic. Phosphorus necrosis was +not recognised in Vienna until the industry had been established seven +or eight years. The malady might have existed, and of course not been +diagnosed. Most of the patients with “phossy jaw” whom I have seen +had worked from seven to fifteen years at the trade, but the disease +has been known to occur within twelve months after entering a match +factory. Dr Garman has kept a register of all the cases of phosphorus +necrosis that have occurred in Messrs Bryant & May’s for the last +twenty years. During this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[428]</span> period there have occurred 51 cases—31 +females and 20 males. The upper jaw was affected fifteen times, and the +lower sixteen, in the women: while in the men the numbers were eleven +and nine. The severer type of the malady formed 70 per cent. of the +cases in females, while in males, who as dippers are more exposed to +the fresh fumes of phosphorus, it formed 85 per cent. Of these 51 cases +of phosphorus necrosis nine ended fatally; 83 per cent. recovered and +returned to work. On examining the register as to the ages at death, I +find that these were nineteen, twenty-three, twenty-one, twenty-two, +twenty-seven, twenty-seven, nineteen, twenty-two, and twenty-two years. +Clearly, therefore, it is not necessary to have a very lengthened +exposure to the fumes in order that a fatal result may follow. +Co-existing pulmonary consumption was present in two of the patients, +and doubtless contributed to the fatal ending. In Great Britain less +than 1 per cent. of matchmakers suffer from phosphorus necrosis: in +Switzerland it used to be 1.6 to 3, and in France formerly 2 to 3 per +cent. Phosphorus necrosis, it is well to remember, does not always +develop during the time an individual is following his employment in +a match work; it has been known to occur two years after leaving the +factory. The early age at which Garman’s patients died suggests that +the vital resistance to the malady at this period is less than in later +years.</p> + + +<p><i>Prevention of Phosphorus Necrosis.</i>—Since the manufacture of +lucifer matches is capable of inducing in the workpeople necrosis +of the jawbone, which in the early stages is admittedly a painful +affection, but fortunately one not often followed by any marked +deformity, it is apparent that to the public must be given by the +manufacturers some satisfactory assurance, if the use of yellow +phosphorus is to be continued, that the industry which at present is +harmful shall be converted into one that is free from danger. Is this +event possible? Experience of match works, both at home and abroad, +shows that where the industry is conducted on the best hygienic lines +possible, phosphorus necrosis is practically unknown. This, so far +as it goes, is satisfactory. It cannot be said, however, that the +employment of white or yellow phosphorus can under all circumstances +be rendered absolutely free from danger. The education of the working +classes to use only safety matches would of itself very largely +diminish the danger by reducing the demand for ordinary strike-anywhere +matches. Dipping of the wooden splints in cold composition instead +of hot would, as in the case of vestas, in the manufacture of which +“phossy jaw” does not occur, also tend to diminish the ill-health of +the workers. It has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[429]</span> been demonstrated that certain essential oils +are capable of checking the oxidation of phosphorus, which is one of +the possible causes of phosphorus necrosis. It has, therefore, been +recommended to circulate the vapour of turpentine through the dipping +and boxing rooms. In some American factories the workpeople wear +suspended round their necks small vessels containing turpentine. Of +all hygienic measures full and free ventilation is the best. Years ago +the scourge of matchmakers in Belgium was “phossy jaw,” but shortly +after the introduction of hygienic measures and the reduction of +phosphorus to 8 per cent. in the paste, there was observed a very +notable declension in the number of cases of necrosis, and in our own +country the removal of phosphorus fume by powerful aspiration from +the dipping slab, frequent renewal of the air of the drying chamber, +and ventilation of each of the benches at which the boxing is done by +women by hand, have exercised an undoubted influence in preventing +phosphorus necrosis. Periodical examination of the teeth of matchmakers +by a dentist, with the necessary local treatment, including temporary +suspension from work on the detection of disease in the early stages, +will be beneficial. It is one of the requirements of the Home Office +that this dental examination shall be periodically made. Whether of +itself it is sufficient to permanently obviate the necessity for a +medical examination of the workers by a doctor in addition remains +yet to be seen. Since the frequent firing of matches is a cause of +pollution of the atmosphere of the boxing-room, and filling of the +matchboxes by hand brings the worker into direct contact with dried +phosphorus paste, it is advisable to discontinue the practice of +cutting wooden matches once they have been headed, and to substitute +machinery for all hand labour, which, as in the case of the Diamond +Match Company, Liverpool, dips, dries, and boxes the matches in large +and well-ventilated rooms, and has thereby practically made lucifer +matchmaking a harmless industry. It is absolutely necessary that +personal cleanliness should be attended to, and that there should be +adequate provision of washing appliances with hot and cold water, +plenty of soap and towels, that overalls should be worn, frequent +change of occupation from one department in the factory to another, and +that no food should be allowed into the workroom.</p> + +<p>Can any substitute be found for yellow phosphorus, capable of producing +a non-poisonous match that will strike anywhere, and yet conform to the +same conditions as ordinary phosphorus? France has, within the last +three years, ceased to manufacture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[430]</span> matches from yellow phosphorus. In +that country the manufacture of matches is a State monopoly. A short +while ago the Government felt itself obliged to change the method of +manufacture, partly on humanitarian grounds, but very largely owing +to the numberless claims for compensation by the workpeople upon the +Minister of Finance. In the match works at Pantin-Aubervilliers, there +were, in 1894, 32 cases of phosphorus poisoning, 125 in 1895, and in +1896 the number rose to 223, or one-third the effective force of the +factory. Many of these must have been of a mild nature, and probably +some of them were cases of imposition, for when analysed carefully +it would appear that between 1888 and 1896 there were eight cases of +deforming necrosis, 12 of necrosis requiring surgical treatment, 21 +probable cases of phosphorus necrosis, and 18 of phosphorisme, making +a total of 59. At this time the match paste, in addition to lead, +contained often as much as from 20 to 30 per cent. of phosphorus. +From the 1st January to 31st December 1896, the State paid 400,000 +francs as allowances to sick-workers, men and women, employed at +Pantin-Aubervilliers, or an average of 650 francs per head employed. +It was in consequence of this experience that in order to encourage +research, which would lead to the manufacture of a non-poisonous +match, the State granted financial help. After many experiments—such, +<i>e.g.</i>, as the matches of M. Ponteau, made from acetate of amyl, +during the manufacture of which a splitting headache, a feeling of +cerebral fulness, and a throbbing of the head were complained of by the +workers, a circumstance that led to their manufacture being abandoned; +also the lucifers of M. Miram, which met with a similar fate, since +they contained lead, and therefore one poison was simply being +substituted for another,—the French Government at present believes +that in the substance known as sesquisulphide of phosphorus it has +found an answer to the question raised at the head of this paragraph.</p> + +<p>The toxicity of the sesquisulphide of phosphorus is small. Messrs +Sevène and Cahen gave repeated doses of 3 centigrammes (⅖ grain) of +the substance daily to guinea-pigs without these animals appearing +to suffer, although the ingestion of 3 milligrammes (¹⁄₂₅ grain) of +white phosphorus caused rapid death. The dose of 3 centigrammes (⅖ +grain) to a guinea-pig would correspond to 3.5 grammes (54 grains) +for a human adult, that is to say, to the amount of sesquisulphide of +phosphorus present in 6000 matches. For these and other reasons based +upon experience, the French inventors maintain that sesquisulphide of +phosphorus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span> matches are harmless. The following is the composition of +the paste employed:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Sesquisulphide of phosphorus</td> + <td class="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Chlorate of potass</td> + <td class="right">24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Zinc white</td> + <td class="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Red ocre</td> + <td class="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Powdered glass</td> + <td class="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Glue</td> + <td class="right">18</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Water</td> + <td class="right">34<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The sesquisulphide is almost inodorous as a powder, and is +non-poisonous. When matches are headed with a paste made from it, +they are capable of striking anywhere. The only impurity which the +sesquisulphide can contain is some red or amorphous phosphorus. At +first manufacturing chemists expressed doubtful opinions as to the +keeping properties of the matches, also as to their capability of being +transported across the seas, and of remaining good in all climates. Two +years’ experience of the manufacture of matches from sesquisulphide +of phosphorus has demonstrated such fears to have been groundless. +Dr Courtois-Suffit, the Medical Inspector of the Match Works at +Pantin-Aubervilliers, says that “since substituting sesquisulphide for +yellow phosphorus, not only have the workpeople been more healthy, +but that there has been no complaint on the part of the consumers.” +No match is superior to the lucifer made from yellow phosphorus. +French matches have never been regarded as equal to those of English +manufacture. France is not an exporting country. While, therefore, the +introduction of what is called a <i>sans phosphore</i> match in France +has answered satisfactorily, it does not follow that the manufacture +of this particular kind of lucifer is the best for all countries, and +especially for such a large exporting country as Britain.</p> + +<p>In Italy the same subject has received the attention of scientists. M. +Bertarelli,<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> in a lecture at the University of Turin, demonstrated +the properties of a non-poisonous match made by Dr G. Graveri of +Villanova-Sollaro, the principal ingredient of which is persulphocyanic +acid, a substance obtained from the residue of gas-works, of a yellow +colour, crystalline, soluble in alcohol, ether, and boiling water, +decomposing at a temperature of 220° C., and giving rise to sulphide +of carbon, ammonia, and sulphur. This is made into a paste with +sulphur and antimony trisulphate. The matches ignite when rubbed +briskly upon a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span> rough surface, and no cyanogen is evolved. Bertarelli +states that he has given to dogs for several days 3 to 4 grammes (46 +to 60 grains) of the paste used for heading the matches, and beyond +slight vomiting he has not noticed any accident, whilst 0.7 grammes +(11 grains) of ordinary phosphorus paste caused death. It is claimed +for his matches that they cost less to produce than ordinary matches, +they ignite noiselessly, and develop no odorous gases, that they are +non-hygroscopic and non-poisonous. The only drawback is stated to be +the escape of hydrochloric acid fume during their manufacture, but this +can be overcome by efficient ventilation.</p> + +<p>Great Britain is not only a consumer but a large exporter of lucifer +matches, and it is this circumstance that raises a difficulty in +regard to the total abolition of the use of yellow phosphorus in +this country. If other matchmaking and large exporting countries, +such as Belgium, Sweden, the United States, and Japan, could come to +some satisfactory terms of international agreement with Britain not +to manufacture lucifer matches from yellow phosphorus, the question +would be settled, if not permanently, at least for a time. It would be +useless for Britain with her free trade to abolish yellow phosphorus, +thereby crippling her own matchmaking industry, and at the same time +allow matches made from the poisonous phosphorus to be imported from +other countries wherein Government supervision is perhaps less strict +than in ours. Such a course would only transfer phosphorus necrosis +from our own to other countries. English methods of manufacture, like +national customs, die hard. It is pleasing to observe, however, that +the objection on the part of British match manufacturers to the use of +substitutes for yellow phosphorus is gradually disappearing. Messrs +Bryant & May no longer use yellow phosphorus. Mr Gilbert Bartholomew, +the Managing Director of the firm, in answer to some queries I +addressed him (1901), informs me that “we are well satisfied with +our long trial of the new composition. There has not been, and there +cannot be, from the nature of the composition, any sickness among the +workpeople. We have not used an ounce of yellow or poisonous phosphorus +for nearly ten months.... We do not think there is an increased +demand for safety matches; the great demand is for strike-anywhere.” +It is gratifying to know that some of the smaller firms of lucifer +matchmakers have also undertaken to produce ordinary strike-anywhere +matches from a non-poisonous substance. How far these non-poisonous +substances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[433]</span> are quite free from danger and as sources of irritation, +remains to be seen, for conjunctivitis, œdema of eyelids, and eczema +have been noticed in the workers.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> + +<p><i>Treatment of Phosphorus Necrosis.</i>—It is unnecessary to enter +into this at any length. Such preventive measures as a medical and +dental examination of the workpeople before entering the factory, and +from time to time afterwards, combined with suspension when necessary, +personal cleanliness, and the use of terebinth gargles, wearing of +overalls, and a change of employment in the factory, also thorough +ventilation of the workrooms and of the dipping tables by reliable +artificial means, will, if carefully carried out, do a very great deal +to make and keep the workpeople healthy.</p> + +<p>Once phosphorus necrosis has developed, it may either be treated by +antiseptic mouth-washes, maintenance of the general health by good +nourishing food, and a life spent in the open air, thus allowing +time for exfoliation of the necrosed bone to take place naturally, a +process which, as we have seen, may extend over many months; or it may +be treated surgically by removal of the piece of diseased bone. Each +method has its advocates, but the results are practically the same, +viz., upwards of 80 per cent. of recoveries.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[434]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXVIII<br> +<span class="subhed">DANGERS IN THE USE OF MERCURY AND ITS SALTS</span></h2></div> + +<p><i>Introduction.</i>—The number of industries and the number of +persons coming into contact with mercury in this country is not large. +Probably not more than 500 to 1000 persons are exposed to the danger +of industrial mercurial poisoning in Great Britain, but no matter how +the metal or its salts are used, those handling it run considerable +risk. In some industries, indeed, as, for instance, the silvering +of mirrors with an amalgam of tin and mercury, which was for over a +century the great source of mercurial poisoning, the matter is now only +of historical interest, as the process in question has been replaced +within the last twenty years by an innocuous one in which mercury is +not used. On the other hand, fresh industries arise in which the metal +is used, as, for example, the manufacture of electrical meters and +incandescent electric lamps.</p> + + +<p><i>Historical.</i>—As far back as the year 1665, in the +<i>Philosophical Transactions</i> of that year, a reference is made +by Dr Walter Pope to the tremor affecting the hands of a worker in +some cinnabar mines in Italy. In 1721 Antoine de Jussieu<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> described +the symptoms of salivation, ulceration of the gums, and tremor which +affected the workers in the quicksilver mines of Almaden, in Spain. In +the various translations of Bernardino Ramazzini’s work, <i>De morbis +artificum diatriba</i>, originally published in 1702, an account is +given of the effect of mercury on miners and gilders.</p> + +<p>One of the first references to the occurrence of mercurialism in the +process of silvering of mirrors was made by Bateman<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> in 1812, but +the great work which still remains the classical work on the subject +of chronic industrial poisoning, due to mercury,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span> was published in +1861 by Adolf Kussmaul,<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> Professor of Medicine in Erlangen. The +splendid use which he and other medical men made of the opportunities +offered them of studying the clinical symptoms among persons employed +in the silvering of mirrors in Fürth and Nuremberg, the principal seats +formerly of the industry on the Continent, and the publication of their +observations, led up to the introduction of the stringent regulations +which have since caused the process to be given up.</p> + +<p>In 1829, Dr Reitz<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> of St Petersburg published an account of the +danger to health in hatters furriers’ processes in that city, and +showed that the solution (regarded then as it still is as a secret), +contained mercury, arsenious acid, and nitric acid.</p> + +<p>He does not particularly refer to the occurrence of tremor, but +describes the death of three men from acute bronchitis after mixing the +nitrate of mercury solution.</p> + +<p><i>Industries in which Poisoning may occur.</i>—The industries in +which mercurial poisoning may occur are:—</p> + +<p>1. Recovery of the metal from the ore.</p> + +<p>2. Separation of gold and silver from their ores by means of an amalgam +with mercury.</p> + +<p>3. The manufacture of barometers and thermometers and other +philosophical instruments.</p> + +<p>4. The manufacture of incandescent electric lamps, where mercurial +pumps are used to create a vacuum.</p> + +<p>5. The manufacture of electrical meters.</p> + +<p>6. Gilding and silvering, generally known as water-gilding: where an +amalgam of gold or silver is applied to the objects, and the mercury +volatilised by heat.</p> + +<p>7. Chemical works: where pharmaceutical mercurial preparations are made.</p> + +<p>8. Paint and colour works: where anti-fouling paints or vermilion are +made.</p> + +<p>9. In hatters furriers’ workshops: from the brushing of rabbit skins +with an acid solution of nitrate of mercury.</p> + +<p>10. Bronzing with a solution of nitrate of mercury: as in bronzing the +inside of field-glasses.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[436]</span></p> + +<p>In the first six the poisoning takes place almost entirely through +the inhalation of mercurial vapour, and hardly at all from dust; in +(7) it may arise either from vapour or from, as is the case in (8), +contamination of the hands and subsequent ingestion of the salts; +in (9) it results from the inhalation of fumes or the ingestion of +particles of fur impregnated with nitrate of mercury.</p> + +<p>Other processes which deserve mention as a possible source of +mercurial poisoning are: electrical engineering, mercury being used in +amalgamating zinc plates; taxidermy when corrosive sublimate is used; +the manufacture and use of fulminate of mercury in explosive factories; +sole-stitching by the “Blake sole-stitching machine,”<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> in which +mercury is used to prevent the escape of gas.</p> + +<p><i>Mode in which Poisoning is brought about.</i>—Mercury in the +liquid form, even when swallowed in large amount, rarely gives rise to +poisoning. When absorbed in the form of vapour it frequently does, but +it would be wrong to suppose that the vapour can as such pass through +the lining walls of the alveoli of the lungs. It must first undergo +condensation, and the tiny globules so formed become oxidised and then +dissolved. In view of the fact that expired air is warmer than that +inspired, it is difficult to see where this condensation takes place. +Von Renk<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> carried out a series of experiments to see whether the +mercury that was scattered in rooms where the silvering of mirrors +was carried on could be swallowed with the dust. He found, however, +such small quantities of dust in the air (only 7.3 milligrammes in 712 +litres of air) that he concluded absorption of mercury in this way was +improbable. On the other hand, mercury gives off vapour at ordinary +temperatures, the amount depending on the vapour tension, and he found +appreciable quantities (2 milligrammes) in a cubic metre of air in a +room without special ventilation immediately above a layer of mercury +half a square metre in area. As in eight hours a worker inhales and +expires about 3 cubic metres of air, if the air breathed were charged +only to an extent of 1.5 milligrammes per cubic metre, it would mean +that 4.5 milligrammes entered the lungs. Were this continued day after +day, injurious effects would necessarily ensue.</p> + +<p>The reactions which enable mercury to enter the circulation are only +imperfectly understood. It is acted on more readily by salt solution +than by dilute acids. The presence of both salt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[437]</span> solution and free acid +must favour greatly the solution of the metal. Corrosive sublimate +forms an albuminate with albumen insoluble in water, but readily +soluble in the presence of salt solution. In this remarkable reaction +of the solubility of albuminate of mercury in presence of sodium +chloride lies the probable explanation of the occurrence of mercurial +poisoning.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—Although in industrial mercurial poisoning the +symptoms occasionally resemble those which result from the internal +administration of full doses of mercury, such as excessive salivation, +swelling and ulceration of the gums with fœtor of the breath, followed +in severe cases by looseness and falling out of the teeth, they are +as a rule much slower in their onset and more insidious in character. +For years the only sign may be more or less gastric disturbance, a +gradually increasing anæmia, a slight increase in the secretion of +saliva with tendency to ulceration of the gums, and slight tremor of +the muscles of the face and hands, accompanied by a certain amount of +nervousness.</p> + +<p>Kussmaul, from his wide experience among the silverers of mirrors in +Fürth, describes three stages in industrial mercurial poisoning: first, +erythism or psychical changes; secondly, tremor; and thirdly, the final +or cachectic; and my own experience points to the correctness of his +description.</p> + +<p>The first commences usually in the digestive tract with slight +stomatitis and salivation. The worker becomes pale and loses his +appetite. He frequently has headache, giddiness, and transitory pains +in the limbs. The muscles of the face twitch, the fingers tremble when +spread out, and the tongue is also tremulous when protruded. The mental +condition undergoes change. Workers assured of their skill become shy +and nervous, especially when watched. Sleep is often interfered with +and broken by nightmare. Sometimes the tonsils and pharynx become +involved in the inflammatory processes affecting the mouth.</p> + +<p>At this stage if the employment be given up, the symptoms disappear +in about three weeks. If not, the weakness of the muscles increases. +Palpitation, headache, sleeplessness, and emaciation all become worse.</p> + +<p>In the second stage of tremor, disturbance of the muscular system +preponderates. It is observed principally in the muscles of the face, +hands, and arms; more rarely in the legs. At first it may amount only +to slight tremulousness, but gradually it advances until the movements +become convulsive in character,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[438]</span> and the hand cannot be directed with +certainty to any particular object. The speech, from involvement of the +muscles of articulation, becomes slow and indistinct. The psychical +condition changes to one of depression or despondency. There may +be hallucinations, loss of memory, and dulness of the intellectual +faculties. In women, menstruation is diminished or ceases. Miscarriage +is frequent, and the offspring is liable to be the subject of rickets +or scrofula.</p> + +<p>The condition of the teeth of persons exposed to the fumes of nitrate +of mercury in hatters furriers’ processes deserves separate mention. +The typical appearance in the teeth of those who are engaged in +“carotting,” that is, brushing the rabbit skins with the dilute acid +solution for several years, is loss of the molar teeth in the upper and +lower jaws. The upper incisor and canine teeth are not infrequently +absent, and such teeth as remain (generally the lower incisors and +canines) are characteristically blackened and often loose. They show a +marked tendency to erosion (a process quite distinct from caries, as +the enamel and not the dentine suffers most) from the acid fumes, and +frequently the gums recede, so that the anterior surfaces of the roots +are exposed.</p> + +<p>Chronic mercurial poisoning does not frequently lead directly to death. +It appears to lower the vitality of the tissues markedly, and Kussmaul +calls attention to the frequency with which mercurial workers die of +phthisis.</p> + +<p><i>Recovery from the Ore.</i>—The principal ore from which the metal +is obtained is cinnabar, or sulphide of mercury. It occurs principally +in Idria in Illyria, where the greater part of the male inhabitants are +concerned with its extraction, in Almaden in Spain, and also in China, +Peru, California, and in smaller quantity in some of the German States.</p> + +<p>The extraction of the metal depends on the principle that by heating +the ore in the presence of air, oxidation of the sulphur present +results, while the mercury is liberated in the form of vapour, which is +condensed in suitable flues kept constantly cool by a stream of water. +Complete condensation of the vapour is difficult.</p> + +<p>In the actual mining of the ore, poisoning does not occur. Danger +principally attaches to the smelting operation, to the cleaning out of +the flues, and to the packing of the quicksilver.</p> + +<p>The amount of illness caused may be judged from the fact that between +the years 1879–1884, of 1000 workers, 112 suffered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span> from mercurialism, +although this figure does not take account of gastric symptoms, which, +if included, would raise it to 200 or 250 per 1000.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> + +<p>The dangers can be best avoided by suitable arrangement of the furnaces +so as to prevent the escape of fumes, the wearing of overalls, and +ample provision of washing and bath accommodation.</p> + +<p><i>Making of Thermometers.</i>—In the making of thermometers a small +funnel is blown on the top of a capillary glass tube and filled with +mercury. Heat from a spirit lamp or gas jet is applied to the bulb, +and the expanded air partially escapes. On cooling, a portion of the +mercury passes into the bulb to take the place of the air which has +escaped. This process is repeated until the bulb and part of the tube +are full of mercury. The mercury is then heated to boiling, mercury +vapour escapes, carrying with it the air and moisture which remain +in the tube. The tube, when full of the expanded mercury and mercury +vapour, is hermetically sealed at one end.</p> + +<p>The number of persons employed in the industry of thermometer and +barometer making is small. They generally describe themselves as +experimental glass-blowers. The processes are usually carried on in +small workrooms, the conditions in which, owing to the wooden benches +and floors affording lodgment in the crevices for particles of mercury +and to the gas jets alight at every bench, are not conducive to health. +Close observation of almost every worker who has been employed for +a few years (and when once entered on it is rarely exchanged for +another), reveals the presence of chronic mercurialism either in slight +tremor of the muscles of the face or hands, or the characteristic +earthy complexion.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> + +<p><i>Incandescent Electric Lamps.</i>—In the manufacture of incandescent +electric lamps, if mercurial pumps are used to produce the vacuum in +the glass envelope, the danger from the scattering of mercury, which +not unfrequently happens through breakage and careless manipulation, is +considerable.</p> + +<p>In Berlin and Buda Pesth<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> several cases of chronic poisoning from +this source occurred a few years ago. The industry, so far as the +operations in the pump-room was concerned, was placed under special +regulations in Berlin, requiring (1) mechanical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">[440]</span> ventilation; (2) +overalls and head coverings for the persons employed; (3) provision +of a meal room and the washing of hands and face with soap, and the +rinsing out of the mouth with potassium chlorate before meals; (4) a +warm douche bath three times a week; (5) medical examination of the +workers once a week. The effect of these regulations was a cessation +almost at once of mercurial poisoning, and they soon led to the +introduction of mechanical pumps to replace those of mercury.</p> + +<p>In this country no case has been reported in this industry, and the +evidence I have found so far of mercurialism among the workers is +slight.</p> + +<p><i>Electrical Meters.</i>—The same dangers from the free use and +handling of mercury is to be found in workshops where electrical meters +are made, and they can only be satisfactorily met by the adoption of +the precautions mentioned in the last section of this chapter.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Silver Extraction.</i>—Both gold and silver are +occasionally separated from the ores in which they are found by +amalgamation with mercury, the latter subsequently being removed by +distillation.</p> + +<p><i>Water-gilding.</i>—In the gilding and silvering of ornaments, the +use of mercury has fortunately been almost entirely replaced by the +much less harmful electroplating. The gilding, however, produced by +the amalgam with mercury and subsequent firing (water-gilding) is more +durable than that obtained by electroplating, but such articles as +military buttons are still prepared in the old dangerous way, although +greater precautions are taken to see that the fumes are carried away. +The object to be gilt is treated with a solution of nitrate of mercury, +and the amalgam (previously prepared by heating an alloy of gold with +silver and copper to redness, adding an eighth part by weight of +mercury, subsequently cooling in water and expressing any excess of +mercury) is applied with a brush. Formerly the article was heated over +a charcoal fire, with, necessarily, escape of fumes both of carbonic +oxide and mercury into the room. Now it is done either in a closed +stove or on a gas jet with a good draught.</p> + +<p><i>Silvering of Mirrors.</i>—The process of silvering of mirrors, +which formerly caused so much suffering, was to spread out on a +perfectly horizontal table of marble or glass a sheet of tinfoil. On to +this a small quantity of mercury was poured to form an amalgam. A large +quantity of the metal was then added, and the carefully polished plate +of glass was slid over it, pushing some of the excess<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">[441]</span> of mercury in +front, which was collected in small channels, but abundance remained in +the cracks and crevices of the tables. Heavy weights were placed on the +glass to press out the mercury, and in a few days the combination of +mercury and tin was found to have adhered firmly to the glass.</p> + +<p>It may be well to refer here to the process which has taken its place. +The method is a wet one, and consists in pouring over the cleaned +and dried glass plate a solution of nitrate of silver, containing an +alkaline reducing agent, such as a tartrate, or more commonly ammonia. +A reddish or black precipitate at first falls down, and later on a +shining surface of metallic silver holds close to the glass. The glass +is then carefully wiped dry and backed with a coat of varnish or red +lead. Cases of lead poisoning have occurred from the use of red lead in +this way.</p> + +<p>Statistics of Dr Wollner<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> show that in 1885, on an average, 160 +persons were engaged in the silvering of mirrors in Fürth. Among +these there were 165 illnesses (103 per cent.) for which sickness +insurance money was paid, and of these 60.6 per cent. were on account +of mercurial poisoning. The percentage among males and females was +practically the same, but the number of sick days was greater in the +case of men than in that of the women—66.7 days as compared with 50.5.</p> + +<p>In 21 per cent. symptoms became prominent in from one to two years, in +61 per cent. in two to six years, in 15 per cent. in six to ten years, +and in 3 per cent. in ten to seventeen years.</p> + +<p>In 1898 the Factory Inspector for the district of Fürth states in his +report that only seven persons were engaged in the process, and that +their employment was intermittent. As the process has thus become +practically extinct, it is hardly necessary to give the regulations +enforced in Germany since 1889, but they are well worth reading by +those who are anxious to bring to an end particularly dangerous +industries, especially when they are carried on in the homes of the +workers.</p> + + +<p><i>Hatters Furriers’ Processes.</i>—Mercury in the form of a dilute +solution of the nitrate is used in the preliminary process of felt +hat making to increase the felting properties of the rabbit fur. The +industry employs in the mercurial process alone between two and three +hundred men and women. After the longer hairs have been removed by +fur pullers, the rabbit skins are subjected to a process known as +“carotting,” in which they are brushed with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">[442]</span> the above solution. When +dried they are brushed by machinery to loosen the fur, and then each +rabbit skin is passed through an ingenious machine with rotating knives +so arranged as to cause the skin to be shaved off in strips, leaving +the fur intact.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p> + +<p>Few combinations can be imagined more likely to affect detrimentally +the health and more particularly the teeth of workers than that of +mercury and nitric acid. As might be expected, those engaged in +“carotting” show in most marked degree injury to the teeth from the +nitric acid fumes, the typical condition of which has already been +described, while tremor and erythism predominate in those engaged in +the later processes as the result of the inhalation of particles of fur +impregnated with the nitrate of mercury.</p> + +<p>The following figures make this clear, giving the result of an +examination made by me of 111 persons in eight different factories, who +had worked for one year and upwards—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Process.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Number<br>examined.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Teeth<br>Bad.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Teeth<br>Fair.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Tremor.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Carotting</td> + <td class="rightr">30</td> + <td class="rightr">20</td> + <td class="rightr">66.6</td> + <td class="rightr">10</td> + <td class="rightr">33.3</td> + <td class="rightr">1</td> + <td class="rightr">3.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Other processes</td> + <td class="rightrb">81</td> + <td class="rightrb">27</td> + <td class="rightrb">33.3</td> + <td class="rightrb">54</td> + <td class="rightrb">66.6</td> + <td class="rightrb">17</td> + <td class="rightrb">21.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>A “fur” as received from the cutting machine, analysed in the +Government Laboratory, was found to contain 1.34 per cent. of nitrate +of mercury. The mercury forms a very insoluble combination with the +keratine in the hair which is not removed in the subsequent processes +of felt hat making. Jungfleish<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> found in a layer of felt which had +been deposited on the revolving cone used in making hats nearly 0.5 per +cent of metallic mercury, and in a felt hat which had been worn for +a long time 0.7 per cent. Nevertheless, mercurial poisoning even of +slight degree does not occur, or at any rate only very exceptionally, +in the later processes of felt hat making.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> + +<p><i>Preparation of Mercurial Compounds.</i>—In factories where +mercurial compounds are made, such as calomel, corrosive sublimate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">[443]</span> +the red oxide (largely used as an anti-fouling paint for ships’ +bottoms), and vermilion, there is considerable evidence of mercurial +poisoning among the workers. For instance, of 27 men so employed, I +found in four (15 per cent.) more or less salivation, and in ten (37 +per cent.) tremor, besides such other symptoms as anæmia and gastric +derangement. Danger arises from the volatilisation of the metal in the +subliming operations, and also to some extent from the dust which, +though very heavy, can become scattered, if such processes as mixing, +sifting, and grinding are not carried out with care in closed-in +vessels.</p> + +<p>Calomel, subchloride of mercury (HgCl), is made either by intimately +mixing corrosive sublimate with metallic mercury and subsequent +sublimation, or by mixing definite proportions of mercuric sulphate, +metallic mercury, and common salt. The mixture is then heated so +that the calomel may pass off as vapour and be condensed in the cool +subliming chamber. Finally, it is ground wet, dried, and sifted. All +these later stages in the preparation must be carried on in a closed +apparatus, and with observance of great care.</p> + +<p>Corrosive sublimate, the bichloride of mercury (HgCl<sub>2</sub>), is made +by heating two parts by weight of mercury with three parts of strong +sulphuric acid. To the mercuric sulphate so formed when dry, one +and a half parts of common salt are added. The corrosive sublimate +is converted into vapour by heat, and condenses on the upper cooler +portion of the vessel in lustrous colourless masses, leaving a cake of +sulphate of soda below. The sublimate is then scraped out, and usually +undergoes no further treatment such as grinding. The operation of +sublimation requires very constant attention on the part of the worker +to prevent the vessels in which the vapour sublimes being overheated, +and so allowing its escape.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of red oxide of mercury, nitrate of mercury is first +made, in which care has to be taken that the fumes so developed are +carried away by ventilating shafts in connection with each vessel. The +crystals formed after evaporation are ground with addition of metallic +mercury, and then heated in an oven. Nitrous fumes are evolved, and the +oxide, black when hot, turns to a brilliant red crystalline powder on +cooling. Finally, it is ground wet, dried, and sifted.</p> + +<p>Vermilion, sulphide of mercury (HgS), is made by mixing excess of +sulphur with metallic mercury in closed rotating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">[444]</span> wooden drums. Black +amorphous sulphide of mercury results,<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> which on heating to 150° +C. becomes converted into a dark violet powder. From this vermilion is +obtained by sublimation, a process attended with risk from escape of +vapour. Finally, it is ground wet, and according to the fineness of the +grinding so is the particular shade of colour obtained.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of calomel, corrosive sublimate, and vermilion can be +made by a wet method throughout without danger, provided reasonable +care is taken.</p> + +<p><i>Preventive Measures.</i>—The conditions to be aimed at in places +where metallic mercury is handled (and for the most part also in places +where salts of mercury are used), are as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. The flooring and benches should be smooth, impermeable, and free +from cracks or crevices in which mercury can lodge. Preferably the +floor should be of some kind of asphalt or cement, laid in such a way +that channels all converge towards a receptacle where the scattered +mercury may collect. Wood, although at present in common use, is not +well adapted for the purpose. The receptacles should be covered over, +leaving only a narrow opening for the mercury to run in.</p> + +<p>2. There should be ample light, and the windows of all rooms where +mercury vapour may be produced should preferably face the north.</p> + +<p>3. Mercurial processes should be carried on in rooms separate and +distinct from the other workrooms.</p> + +<p>4. Any unnecessary raising of the temperature above 60° F. is to be +avoided, and consequently there should be no direct heating of the +rooms by open fires or stoves.</p> + +<p>5. Mechanical ventilation should be provided, and reliance not be +placed merely on differences of temperature between the outside and +inside air. Inlets for air should be above the level of the heads of +the workers, and the draught of the fan should be a downward suction +one.</p> + +<p>6. Workers should wear overalls and head coverings.</p> + +<p>7. Shortness of the hair, shortness and cleanliness of the nails, a +proper hygiene of the mouth, and baths, would do much to protect the +workers. Ample washing convenience, including soap, nail brushes, and +towels, should be provided.</p> + +<p>8. Meals should be prohibited in any room where mercury is handled.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">[445]</span></p> + +<p>9. Periodical medical examination, with power to the surgeon appointed +to suspend temporarily or permanently from work.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>In two of the largest factories in which mercurial preparations are +made, in addition to the carrying out of all dusty processes such as +mixing and sieving, as far as possible, in a closed-in apparatus, the +following measures have been taken:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Rules to be Observed in the Manufacture of Mercurial +Preparations.</span></p> + +<p>1. The firm will appoint a surgeon to examine all persons +employed in mercurial processes at least once in every month, +and he will undertake any necessary medical treatment of illness +contracted in consequence of such employment. He will have power +to suspend any such person from work in any place or process.</p> + +<p>The surgeon will enter in a register the dates and results of +the examination of the person employed as above. No person after +suspension can be employed in any mercurial process without +written sanction from the surgeon.</p> + +<p>Every person employed in a mercurial process must present +himself at the appointed time for examination by the surgeon.</p> + +<p>2. The firm will provide sufficient and suitable overall suits +for the use of persons engaged in the processes of sifting and +grinding, and every person when so engaged must wear an overall +suit.</p> + +<p>3. The firm will provide respirators approved by the surgeon for +persons engaged in processes where there is unavoidable dust, +and every person so employed must wear the respirator.</p> + +<p>4. The firm will provide and maintain washing conveniences +in the proportion of one lavatory basin to each five persons +employed, with soap, nail brushes, and towels, and a constant +supply of hot and cold water laid on to each basin.</p> + +<p>Every person must, before meals and before leaving the premises, +thoroughly wash in the basins provided, and those who have worn +overalls and respirators must deposit them before leaving the +factory after the day’s work in the place appointed for the +purpose by the firm.</p> + +<p>The firm will see that the overalls are washed once a week, and +the respirators renewed or washed every day.</p> + +<p>5. The firm will provide and maintain a bath with hot and cold +water laid on, and a sufficient supply of soap and towels. Every +person shall have the opportunity of taking a bath at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">[446]</span> +factory once a week, and those whom the surgeon directs must do +so.</p> + +<p>Each person taking a bath must sign his name in a register.</p> + +<p>6. The firm will provide and maintain a cloak-room in which +workers can deposit clothing put off during working hours, +separate from any portion of the works where mercurial processes +are carried on.</p> + +<p>7. No food or tobacco are to be taken into, nor is food to be +eaten in any part of the factory where mercurial processes are +carried on.</p> + +<p>8. The foreman must report to the manager any instance coming +under his notice of a workman neglecting to observe these rules.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—The danger against which the rules are directed is +that of mercurial poisoning, of which the principal symptoms are +soreness of the gums, offensive breath, increase in the amount +of spittle, and trembling of the fingers. Workers are warned of +the danger arising from the chewing of tobacco, and of eating +food with unwashed hands. Mercury has a tendency to destroy the +teeth, and this can be best obviated by the use of a tooth-brush +once every day.</p> +</div> + +<p>In hatters furriers’ processes the remedial measures required are +rather different, although suggestions (6), (8), (9), and part of +(7) equally apply. It is necessary in this industry to remove the +fumes arising from the solution of nitrate of mercury in carotting, +and to secure the absence of dust at the cutting machines, either by +perfecting the machinery and fittings of the receptacles into which the +bulk of the dust is carried by the revolving knives, or by increasing +this draught by means of a fan. This latter mode has been adopted with +success both as regards removal of dust and economy of work. It is +desirable, too, that the primitive stoves at present in use for drying +the “carotted” skins should be replaced by the kind now commonly to be +found in steam laundries, of “horses” sliding in and out of the heated +chamber on rails.</p> + +<p>By the French law of 13th May 1893, the treatment of the skins and fur +of hare and rabbit skins with nitrate of mercury is scheduled, with +others, as an industry in which neither children nor females may be +employed.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">T. M. Legge.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">[447]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXIX<br> +<span class="subhed">THE LESIONS RESULTING FROM THE MANUFACTURE AND USES OF POTASSIUM AND +SODIUM BICHROMATE</span></h2></div> + +<p>Peculiar lesions—erosion of the septum of the nose and the production +of ulcers on the skin—are caused by bichromate of potassium or sodium. +Erosion of the septum is found only among persons engaged in the +manufacture of the salts, but ulceration of the skin of exposed parts, +principally the hands, although most severe and most frequently met +with among the same class of operatives, may be detected among persons +engaged in the many industries in which the salts are used in solution.</p> + +<p>Bichromate of potassium and sodium, commercially known as “bichromes,” +are used largely—</p> + +<p>1. In the manufacture of colours, such as the various chrome yellows, +by the interaction of lead acetate and bichromate of potassium.</p> + +<p>2. In dyeing and calico-printing. In dying cotton yarn the material +is soaked in lime water, and, after wringing, is transferred to a +vat containing lead acetate. It then passes through a solution of +bichromate which develops the yellow colour on the fibre.</p> + +<p>In calico printing potassium bichromate is used in the indigo blue +discharge style, when it may be printed from a paste containing 40 per +cent. of bichromate, which will discharge the colour from the blue +material after suitable treatment. Or it may be used for the production +of chrome lead colours by first printing the desired pattern on the +calico with a paste containing acetate of lead, and subsequently +passing this through a 2 to 5 per cent. solution of bichromate.</p> + +<p>Potassium bichromate is the most important mordant for wool. The +mordanting bath is prepared with 2 to 4 per cent. potassium bichromate +(of the weight of the wool) and the necessary quantity of water, +amounting to from 50 to 100 times the weight of wool.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">[448]</span></p> + +<p>3. In photography. The carbon process depends on the fact that gelatine +and potassium bichromate combine under the influence of light to +form a compound which is insoluble in hot water. The strength of the +bichromate solution for this process does not exceed 5 per cent.</p> + +<p>4. As an oxidising agent for the manufacture of coal tar colours, for +the bleaching of oils, etc.</p> + +<p>The first full account of the lesions arising in the course of the +manufacture of bichromate was given by Bécourt and Chevallier in +1863.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> In 1854 Heathcote published in the <i>Lancet</i><a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> an +account of obstinate ulceration of the tonsils and pharynx observed in +a worker in a bichromate factory. No such extensive ulceration as he +describes has been recorded since.</p> + +<p>A very complete description of the processes and of the clinical +symptoms shown by the persons employed, together with suggestions for +improving the conditions of working, was given in a joint paper by +Delpech and Hillairet<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> in the years 1869 and 1876. They believed +that any part of the skin might become ulcerated if exposed long +enough to the action of the dust. In no case did they find that the +ulcers penetrated into the joints, or that the bones of the nose were +attacked. They believed that the action of the dust set up in some +cases bronchitis and asthma.</p> + +<p>In 1893 the effect of bichromate on the health of the workers was +referred to in the Report of a Departmental Committee of the Home +Office on the conditions of labour in chemical works, and, as a result, +special rules prescribing protection of vessels containing bichromate +in solution, respirators, due means for the removal of dust, waterproof +gloves, and lavatory accommodation, were drawn up.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> + +<p>In 1895 the conditions found in the German bichromate factories +was made the subject of an interesting official report by Dr +Wutzdorff,<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> assisted in the chemical part by Dr Heise.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">[449]</span> Following +upon the recommendations made by Dr Wutzdorff, stringent regulations +were drawn up to govern the industry in Germany.</p> + +<p>In 1899 considerable stir was created in Glasgow by the publication +by the <i>Labour Leader</i> of a series of pamphlets directed to +show, among other things, that in certain factories in Scotland the +conditions of work were still unhealthy. In that year I visited all +the factories in this country, and a code of special rules printed +elsewhere in this volume now governs the industry.</p> + +<p>Potassium bichromate is made by roasting a mixture of chrome ironstone, +potash and lime, lixiviating the fused mass with water, and adding +enough sulphuric acid to convert the neutral chromate into bichromate. +The reaction may be represented as follows:—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> + 3O = 2CrO<sub>3</sub></li> + <li>CrO<sub>3</sub> + K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> = K<sub>2</sub>CrO<sub>4</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub></li> + <li>2K<sub>2</sub>CrO<sub>4</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> = K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + K<sub>2</sub>Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>Sodium bichromate is made in practically the same way, sodium carbonate +taking naturally the place of potassium carbonate. In the crushing and +grinding of the chrome ironstone much dust permeates the air, but this +mineral dust does not give rise to the peculiar lesions associated with +the bichromate.</p> + +<p>After having been ground to a fine impalpable powder the chrome +ironstone, mixed with lime and potash, is introduced into a furnace +and roasted for about three hours. When withdrawn from here the fused +mass or “batch,” as it is called, consisting of neutral chromate of +calcium and potassium, after being allowed to cool, is broken up and +shovelled with evolution of much dust into large vats or “keaves.” +Water and potassium sulphate in solution are added, and at this stage, +owing to the slaking of the uncombined lime, much steam, carrying with +it particles of chromate dust, arises. The solution, when concentrated +by passing through successive keaves, is pumped into evaporating +pans, which are almost invariably entirely covered in and communicate +with the outside air by means of a shaft running through the roof. +Sulphuric acid is next added, forming potassium sulphate and potassium +bichromate. The former is withdrawn, and the latter, when sufficiently +concentrated, is pumped into lead-lined tanks, where crystallisation is +usually completed within three weeks. The crystals form beautiful large +adherent masses on the sides and floor of the tanks. They are broken +up by a pick, removed on barrows to be washed, dried in open stoves by +hot-air or steam-pipes, and finally packed in barrels.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">[450]</span></p> + +<p>Sodium bichromate does not usually crystallise, but forms a solid cake +which requires to be broken up.</p> + +<p>The particular lesions associated with the manufacture are found among +all classes of men employed, from the moment the fused mass is removed +from the furnace, until the crystals are headed up in the barrels. +Inasmuch, however, as all the processes are carried out in one large +common shed, it is a little difficult to determine the relative degree +of danger attaching to each operation.</p> + +<p>The rafters immediately above the keaves are coloured a canary yellow, +from the neutral potassium chromate carried up by the steam; a sheet +of cardboard suspended at a height of 2 feet above an evaporating +pan becomes covered in a short time on its <i>upper</i> surface with +innumerable small brown specks of bichromate—a precipitation which +must result from the cooling of the steam; a stranger present for only +a few minutes while the packing is being done has the mucous membrane +of his nose acutely inflamed for hours or even days afterwards. These +facts show how permeated the atmosphere in the shed can become from the +dust and fumes from the bichromate. Breaking the crystals is the source +<i>par excellence</i> for the development of chrome sores.</p> + +<p>Dr Heise, in the paper already referred to, estimated quantitatively +the amount of bichromate dust in the air where the different processes +were carried on. Thus he found 1 cubic metre of air near to the place +where three men were breaking up a cake of sodium bichromate contained +6.30 milligrammes. One cubic metre taken during the fifteen minutes +during which packing was done contained 1.57 milligrammes. As regards +the steam, he found 1 cubic metre taken at a height of 45 centimetres +above the level of the evaporating pan contained 0.736 milligrammes of +sodium bichromate. In general, considerably less bichromate was found +in the air over the evaporating pan than where the dusty processes were +carried on.</p> + +<p>The following is the result of an examination I made of 176 men exposed +to work at one time or another in the chrome house:</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Number<br>Examined.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Septum<br>Normal.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Septum<br>Perforated.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Septum<br>Ulcerated.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Sense of Smell<br>Lost or<br>Impaired.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Number with<br>Unhealed<br>Chrome Sores.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">176</td> + <td class="ctrr">30</td> + <td class="ctrr">126</td> + <td class="ctrr">20</td> + <td class="ctrr">16</td> + <td class="ctrr">39</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">100</td> + <td class="ctrrb">17.0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">71.6</td> + <td class="ctrrb">11.3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">9.9</td> + <td class="ctrrb">22.1</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In most of the cases where the septum was found ulcerated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">[451]</span> but not +perforated, the duration of employment had not been sufficiently long +for the ulceration to proceed to perforation.</p> + +<p>In none of the 30 men in whom the septum was found to be normal was the +immunity attributable to shortness of employment. Six were connected +with the management, 6 were blacksmiths or coopers, 10 were furnacemen, +4 were engaged at the keaves, and 4 in the crystal house. One-half of +them had been employed for upwards of ten years.</p> + +<p>There can be no doubt that the mucous membrane covering the septum is +attacked more readily in some persons than in others, and I incline to +the view that an immunity may be acquired if the first few months are +passed without ulceration taking place.</p> + +<p>The rapidity of its onset is remarkable, as is shown by the following +table:—</p> + + +<p class="center p1">Duration of Employment where the Ulceration had not progressed to +Perforation.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">2 Weeks or<br>less.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">2 Weeks to<br>3 Months.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">3 to 12<br>Months.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">1 to 3<br>Years.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Over<br>3 Years.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">7</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5</td> + <td class="ctrrb">4</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + </tr> + + </table> + +<p>Perforation was noted as having already occurred in one instance where +the duration of employment had been seven weeks, and in two others it +had been less than three months. Usually, it appears to take place +between the sixth and twelfth month after commencing work. Most of +the men examined worked in the crystal house, and all except the +four mentioned had either ulceration or perforation of the septum. +The majority of the furnacemen also had perforation, but in them the +septum was found normal more frequently than was the case with the men +employed in the crystal house.</p> + +<p><i>Nature of the Perforation.</i>—The cartilaginous framework of the +nose consists of five pieces, the two upper and the two lower lateral +cartilages, and the cartilage of the septum. The two upper and the two +lower lateral cartilages give the nose much of its shape, and form the +alæ nasi. The ulcerative process due to bichromate dust never attacks +them. The cartilage of the septum is somewhat triangular in form, and +thicker at its margin than at its centre. Its anterior margin, thickest +above, is connected from above downwards with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">[452]</span> the nasal bones, the +front part of the two upper lateral cartilages, and the inner portion +of the two lower cartilages. Its posterior margin is connected with +the perpendicular lamella of the ethmoid; its inferior margin with the +vomer and the palate processes of the superior maxillary bones. The +seat of election for the ulceration to commence is a point about a +quarter of an inch from the lower and anterior margin of the septum, +and it extends in a direction upwards and backwards.</p> + +<p>The limitation of the perforation to the cartilage of the septum is +accounted for by the fact that the mucous membrane covering it is +adherent, forming the perichondrium, and is far less vascular than the +mucous membrane lining the rest of the nasal fossa. Once the mucous +membrane is destroyed, the blood supply to the cartilage is cut off, +and necrosis ensues. The ulceration having progressed upwards as far +as the junction of the septum with the ethmoid and backwards to the +vomer, becomes arrested. Healing then takes place, the bone not being +attacked, and the cicatrix usually becomes covered with an ecthymatous +crust of mucus.</p> + +<p>In no instance was the anterior or lower border of the septum +destroyed. Consequently, the rigidity of the parts is maintained, and +deformity, so prominent in other ulcerative processes attacking the +nose, absent.</p> + +<p>The onset of the morbid process is ushered in by sneezing and the +ordinary symptoms of nasal catarrh. The pain accompanying the +ulceration appears to be insignificant. It had never been severe enough +to necessitate absence from work or to call for medical treatment.</p> + +<p>Once the perforation is established, the only inconvenience which +results is the formation of plugs of mucus in the nasal passages. The +general health is in no way detrimentally affected by the condition. +Considering the extent of the lesion, the number found with marked +impairment of the sense of smell is not large. Mucous deposits and +white patches were occasionally noted on the pharynx, but definite +ulceration, such as has been described in bichromate workers, was in +no case detected. Asthma, noted by the French writers on the subject, +Delpech and Hillairet, was found in one instance—that of a partner in +one of the works. In his case there was a family predisposition to it, +but the first definite attack dated from contact with bichromate.</p> + +<p><i>Ulceration of the Skin.</i>—In 39 out of the 176 men engaged in +chrome processes, one or more unhealed ulcers or “chrome<span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">[453]</span> holes” were +observed. In these and in several others, numerous scars marking the +site of bygone ulcers were noted.</p> + +<p>A chrome hole is a sluggish ulcer. It results from a cut or abrasion of +the skin coming into contact with bichromate in the form of crystals or +solution. The seat of election is either on the knuckles or at the base +of the nail, but they may occur on any part of the hands or forearm. In +two cases they were observed on the neck, once in the groin, and once +on the foot. The tissues around are raised, thickened, and indurated; +the centre is filled by a slough, usually covered by a scab, and the +whole resembles a large boil. When the slough has been removed the +floor of the ulcer is seen to consist of greenish-yellow granulation +tissue. In the majority of cases the central scab is not more than ⅛ +inch in diameter, in a few it is ¼ inch, and the largest that I have +seen measured, ¾ by ½ inch. Chrome holes occur principally among men +engaged in the crystal house and at the keaves, and only rarely among +the furnacemen. The amount of pain and inconvenience they cause is +considerable. Sometimes they necessitate absence from work, but they +are never a menace to life. At one works six men were absent during +1898 for periods varying from three to nine weeks, on account of chrome +holes. Even when their severity is not such as to necessitate absence +from work, months may elapse before they heal.</p> + +<p>The treatment adopted by the men is of the most elementary description, +and naturally under these circumstances they prove intractable.</p> + +<p>The conditions found by Dr Wutzdorff in the German bichromate factories +were very similar. Ulcers of the external skin were found most +frequently on the fingers, hands, and arms, then on the feet and legs; +once an ulcer was found in the external auditory meatus and three times +on the eyelids. The ulcers penetrated deeply into the soft parts, and +required, in consequence, a long time to heal. In no case had they +penetrated as far as the tendons, or into the joints. Ulceration and +perforation of the septum was found in workers in several factories, +and ulceration of the gums and pharynx of slight extent was observed +twice. The general condition of the workpeople was apparently good—at +all events no worse than that of chemical workers generally.</p> + +<p>The preventive measures necessary in the manufacture of potassium or +sodium bichromate will be found stated in the regulations printed +elsewhere in this volume. They resolve themselves generally into +removal of dust and fumes, cleanliness, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">[454]</span> medical supervision +periodically of the workers, and the covering up of cuts and abrasions +with suitable dressings. When in solution the salt does not attack the +unbroken skin. Indiarubber gloves are sometimes worn by the men in +dye-works who are constantly engaged in processes in which bichromate +is used in dilute solution, but in view of the difficulty of enforcing +their use, and the fact already stated, that unless there is an +abrasion of the skin a chrome hole will not be developed, the wearing +of indiarubber gloves, while a thing to be recommended, can hardly be +made compulsory. It is advisable that in all dye-works the foreman +should be made responsible to report all men suffering from abrasions +of the skin, or from chrome holes, to the manager, in order that they +may have proper treatment, and be put to other work until such time as +healing has taken place.</p> + +<p>In photographic processes involving the use of bichromate, if there +is any tendency to the development of eruptions on the hands, careful +washing and subsequent treatment, when thoroughly dried, with lanolin +or glycerine should be tried. If this fails, rubber gloves must be worn.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">T. M. Legge.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">[455]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXX<br> +<span class="subhed">COPPER AND BRASS</span></h2></div> + +<p>The two substances, the dangers to health attendant on the working +of which form the subject of this chapter, present widely different +features, both as regards their essential natures, their treatment +during the processes of manufacture, and the treatment they +subsequently receive. The one being a metal and the other an alloy, +the primary processes in the first case are those of mining and of +reducing the ore; while in the second, the admixture of metals in such +proportions as the particular alloy requires is the first detail of +treatment. A similar process of casting into ingots follows with both +substances, but the malleable and ductile qualities of copper render +its subsequent treatment, in the various processes of manufacture, +dissimilar to that of brass and its kindred alloys.</p> + +<p>There are, moreover, marked features of dissimilarity in the +constituents of brass and of copper ore of especial importance in +any consideration of unhealthy conditions attendant upon working in +these substances. The form of copper ore which is most largely smelted +in England is copper pyrites, an ore which is largely composed of +sulphur, while in various ores arsenic is found. Brass and similar +alloys, on the other hand, are composed of copper and zinc; and as we +shall see later in this chapter, it is to the presence of the latter +ingredient that in our opinion may be attributed the illness known as +“brassfounders’ ague,” or at all events the abnormal amount of ill +health found to exist amongst brass mixers and casters.</p> + +<p>Although it might be more natural to discuss the metal in the first +place, and the alloy of which it forms a very important part in the +second, we will reverse that order, owing to the much greater degree +of importance, from a sanitary point of view, which attaches to the +working of brass than to that of copper. Prefacing, therefore, our +remarks on the dangers attending the working in brass by an outline +of the processes involved, it will be sufficient for our purpose to +quote from a Report of a Committee of the Home<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">[456]</span> Office appointed in +1894 to inquire into the conditions of labour in the manufacture of +brass and of kindred amalgams, and of which we had the honour of being +members. It is explained that, in the first instance, an alloy is made +at a very high temperature in crucibles which are plunged into sunken +furnaces, the principal components of the alloy being copper and zinc +(commonly called spelter) mixed in proportions varying in accordance +with the quality of brass required. An example of a deposit resulting +from the pouring of common or yellow brass taken by the Committee is as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Moisture</td> + <td class="right">9.64</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Organic matter</td> + <td class="right">39.42</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Silicious residue</td> + <td class="right">9.14</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Oxide of iron</td> + <td class="right">2.78</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Copper</td> + <td class="right">1.71</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Oxide of zinc</td> + <td class="right">28.82</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Other matter</td> + <td class="rightb">8.49</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="rightbd">100.00</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Other amalgams, such as gun metal, phosphor bronze, and bell metal, +yield different proportions, while in some cases it is found that +old copper and brass scrap, such as discarded locomotive and marine +boiler tubes, are thrown into the mixture. The alloy thus mixed is +poured into iron moulds or ingots, to be remelted when required; or +it is at once poured into moulds which have been already prepared +by patterns to receive the metal, and in which the formation of the +castings takes place. Previously to receiving the metal the mould has +been dusted over with fine dust either of burnt loam, sand, burnt +red brick, charcoal, French chalk, or bean flour, according to the +requirements of the work. The moulds are, roughly speaking, iron rims +clamped together, and filled with very fine sand in which the patterns +have left impressions for the reception of the metal, hence the name of +sand-casting possessed by this process. Should the metal be required +for sheets, tubes, or wire, it is poured into iron moulds or ingots, to +be subsequently rolled or drawn as required, and this process is called +sheet or strip casting. Having procured its shape, the brass article +or casting is subjected to further processes on its way to completion, +such as (1) that of dipping in aqua fortis and in acid solutions of +various strengths for the purpose of removing oxidation and impurities; +(2) that of burnishing or of polishing at a lathe to acquire a smooth +surface; (3) that of finishing or dressing; and finally (4) that of +lacquering, which is an application of a solution<span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">[457]</span> of shellac and +other ingredients to the work (specially heated for its reception on a +stove) with a view of securing the colour desired; also (5) a process +of bronzing is also undergone when a particular effect is required +in the appearance of the article. In either of these processes, +which involves the pouring of the molten alloy, the zinc deflagrates +during the pouring, and a dense white smoke is formed, which almost +instantaneously fills the atmosphere of the casting shop. This smoke is +rapidly converted into snow-white flakes and white powder, consisting +of the oxide of zinc, which remains for some time diffused through the +atmosphere of the shop, and in ill-ventilated casting shops collects +upon the rafters and ceiling in the form of a dense white incrustation. +The quantity of these fumes depends, firstly, upon the amount of zinc +employed; secondly, upon the ventilation of the shop; thirdly, upon the +weather—a dull, foggy day preventing their escape. It may be readily +imagined that persons exposed to the alternations of heat and cold in +the casting shop, to the deflagrated zinc inhaled as well as imbibed +with food and drink, and the intense thirst induced by the nature of +the work, would suffer in health. That such is the case the evidence +submitted to the Home Office Committee was ample and conclusive. It +must not, however, be assumed that nothing was previously known upon +the subject, or that no steps had been already taken in the endeavour +to improve the shops or in other ways to ameliorate the condition of +the workers.</p> + +<p>The recognition of working in and making brass as causative of disease +is due to Dr Headlam Greenhow, who, in 1862, read before the Royal +Medical and Chirurgical Society a paper on “Brassfounders’ Ague.” +This was based on his experience while paying a brief holiday visit +to Birmingham in 1858, in connection with his investigation of trades +injurious to health. It is curious that he should have selected for +his title the name of a disorder which undoubtedly occurs, but which, +as we shall endeavour to show, is only an acute expression of a +chronic malady, and one which rarely or never comes within the range +or experience of practising physicians. In the out-patient department +of the Birmingham hospitals one meets with an enormous number of +brass-workers complaining of various pulmonary and gastric disorders; +but an experience of many years has never yet produced to us a case of +this so-called ague, although questions will very frequently elicit +the statement of its occurrence. The literature of the subject is +very scanty, but Greenhow quotes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">[458]</span> Thackrah’s essay on the “Effects +of Arts, Trades, and Professions on Health and Longevity,” published +about 1830, as well as the writings of a few Frenchmen, which have not, +however, materially advanced our knowledge of the disease. Thackrah’s +observations were clearly inaccurate and imperfect, for he mentions +only “ague,” which he speaks of as an intermittent fever, attacking +brass-workers from once a month to once a year, and leaving them in +a state of great debility. Dr Hogben, Physician to out-patients at +the Queen’s Hospital, Birmingham, published a very interesting paper +on this subject in the <i>Birmingham Medical Review</i> in May 1887. +Dr Greenhow refers only to ague and bronchial disorders, and very +cursorily to nervous troubles, as resulting from brass casting; but +Dr Hogben mentions also colic, constipation, and dyspeptic troubles +which result from this occupation. Dr Greenhow, on the one hand, refers +all the symptoms to intoxication by zinc, while Dr Hogben thinks they +should be rather referred to chronic copper poisoning. These two metals +are the principal ingredients in the making of brass, as already +mentioned.</p> + +<p>That Thackrah was in error in speaking of brass ague as an intermittent +affection, occurring once a month or once a year, is clearly proved +by the following positive observation, which is supported by all +brass-workers. Ague never occurs among the regular workers, but always +affects those who are new to the work, or who resume work after an +absence of even a month or a fortnight. If a man resumes work, that +is melting or casting, after even so brief an interval, he is sure to +have an attack of ague, but he will have only one attack, and remain +free until after his next holiday. There is most certainly no kind +of regular intermission, and according to brass-workers themselves, +they only suffer till they are inured to the poison. The following +are the symptoms of this so-called ague. After working a few hours, +a man becomes languid, depressed, and feels very cold. He is very +pale and almost in a state of collapse, his face is covered with a +cold perspiration, he shivers, his teeth chatter, and he is restless +and anxious. His head aches, there is much nausea and complaint of +muscular pains. As a rule he goes or is led home, where he drinks +freely of milk and goes to bed. The symptoms continue until he has +vomited, either as the result of taking an emetic or independently of +it. Vomiting is usually followed by sleep or recovery, with more or +less of debility and lassitude on waking. Drs Greenhow and Hogben<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">[459]</span> +speak of a more or less marked hot stage succeeding the cold, while +following the hot stage they mention profuse sweating. The hot stage +may be absent, but the sweating, according to these writers, invariably +occurs. Our own observations, based on inquiry amongst those who have +suffered from this ague, have never elicited a statement of these hot +and sweating stages. Even direct questions as to their occurrence +have always been met with positive negation, though some have spoken +of free perspiration in the stage of collapse. How to reconcile these +statements we do not know. The cycle of events as recorded by Greenhow +is just that of ordinary ague, from which this disease differs, +otherwise than in the suggested sequence, in toto. The inquiries +we have made do not support such a sequence, and certainly not a +relationship to malarial ague. The symptoms are just such as would be +caused by the ingestion of a quantity of irritant metal, sufficiently +large to cause vomiting, and its attendant depression. Such, indeed, +is our opinion of the causation of the symptoms, and therefore the +name “ague” should not be continued, as being wrongly suggestive and +misleading. It will be remembered that it is only when fresh to the +work that brass-workers suffer from “ague,” but, though they do not +suffer from acute metallic poisoning, they do suffer from its chronic +effects, and it is extremely probable that, as with arsenic and opium +eaters, they may become inured to the use of the metals.</p> + +<p>As it is not very common for brass-workers to use tooth brushes, the +accumulating tartar is usually found coloured green. Even when an +attempt is made to cleanse the teeth, they still show signs of green +discoloration. This has been proved to be due to the presence of +copper. The white hair of the workmen is often coloured green, and the +underclothing is stained green by the perspiration. The gums may be +slightly blackened at the edges, but there is nothing distinctive as in +the case of the blue line of lead poisoning; nor, indeed, beyond the +green colouring of the hair and teeth, do brass-workers present any +unequivocal evidence of their calling.</p> + +<p>Ague is not a disorder for which brass-workers consult a medical man; +they know how to treat it themselves, and also that it is transitory in +its effects; but they come to hospitals in large numbers to be treated +for bronchitis. As regards this there is nothing special. The men +suffer from it in common with all workers in dusty trades, and so far +as we can learn from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">[460]</span> Secretary of the Brass-workers’ Organisation, +they usually die from chronic bronchitis or fibroid phthisis, unless +they succumb to some acute malady. The existence of nervous disorders, +especially paralysis agitans, has been said to be common among them, +but we cannot find that a larger percentage of brass-workers than of +the rest of the community suffers from diseases of the nervous system. +It is common, however, to meet with complaints of disturbance of the +digestive function. Brass-casters suffer from dyspepsia, loss of +appetite, gastro-intestinal catarrh, nausea, vomiting, metallic taste, +thirst, colic, constipation, and diarrhœa. They are often nervous and +hypochondriacal, and complain of headache as well as muscular pains. +There is nothing distinctive about any of these disorders, except the +obstinacy with which they resist ordinary methods of treatment, and +the readiness with which they yield to the administration of iodide +of potassium in combination with the other drugs indicated by the +various conditions of ill-health. All the symptoms bear a remarkable +resemblance to those produced by chronic copper poisoning. In Guy and +Ferrier’s <i>Forensic Medicine</i>, an outbreak of copper poisoning +from the use of copper vessels in cooking is recorded, in which the +symptoms were almost identical with those here mentioned. The inmates +of a convent suffered severely from obstinate and severe colic, +retching, and bilious vomiting, costiveness, and flatulence, burning +pain in the pit of the stomach and extremities, and paralytic weakness +in the arm. According to Stephenson it is impossible to distinguish +between the symptoms produced by zinc and copper poisoning. These +are just such as brass-workers suffer from, and it is, therefore, +impossible to say which metal—copper or zinc—is most concerned in the +production of these symptoms. Dr Greenhow attributes them all to the +inhalation of the deflagrating zinc. This forms oxide of zinc, which is +only sparingly if at all soluble, and, therefore, is not likely to be +freely absorbed into the stomach. Greenhow pays little or no attention +to the common and chronic gastric and intestinal troubles to which +brass-workers are liable. These affect all who work in the various +processes by which, either in vapour or in minute particles, copper and +zinc—that is, brass—are distributed in the atmosphere. Dr Hogben, on +the other hand, considers copper alone to be the efficient cause of the +symptoms, and advances the following arguments:—</p> + +<p>1. We have no evidence that the internal administration of zinc ever +produces the symptoms of brass ague. Enormous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">[461]</span> doses of the oxide have +been administered without apparently producing the characteristic +febrile reaction of brass ague.</p> + +<p>2. The malady is observed in individuals whose work is other than +casting.</p> + +<p>3. The malady is not observed in operatives, such as galvanised iron +workers, who work with zinc, and are exposed to its fumes.</p> + +<p>4. Zinc is rapidly excreted, and does not, like lead, mercury, or +copper, become fixed in the body, and produce chronic affections.</p> + +<p>It seems more probable that, accepting Stephenson’s statement of the +impossibility of distinguishing between the effects of acute copper or +zinc poisoning, the symptoms of ague are due to an admixture of the two +metals; whereas, for the chronic complaints, the copper is responsible. +How the practice of taking milk during an attack of so-called ague has +arisen is not clear; but its wisdom is proved by the fact that in cases +of both copper and zinc poisoning milk is one of the best antidotes, +since it precipitates both these metals into insoluble albuminates. +It is abundantly evident that brass-workers are especially liable +to diseases from the use of the metals employed in its manufacture, +but these are not new disorders; they are either proofs of chronic +poisoning by zinc or copper, or, as in the so-called ague, are due to +intoxication by them. If more proof were wanting of the unhealthiness +of brass-casters, it would be afforded by the fact that a few years +ago, though there were 1200 casters in Birmingham, there were not +more than ten over sixty years of age, and in connection with a +superannuation fund of the Amalgamated Brass-workers’ Association from +which casters could at the age of fifty-five derive benefit, it is an +appalling fact that there were only three men—two in Birmingham and +one in Sheffield—enjoying this benefit.</p> + +<p>That such a condition of affairs should be allowed to remain +unremedied, if remedy was possible, was improbable after special power +was vested in the Home Secretary by the Factory Act of 1891 to deal +with processes which he deemed dangerous or even injurious to health.</p> + +<p>The desirability of observance of certain general principles, such as +temperance, cleanliness, and care in the matter of taking food, was +obvious not less in the case of brass-workers than of other operatives. +These need not be enlarged upon by us, although their importance +towards securing health and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">[462]</span> happiness in a man’s declining years are +sadly overlooked among the working classes. But it was felt that there +should be some definite rules officially published for the healthy +conduct of brass-working.</p> + +<p>A series of rules designed to that end were tentatively issued with the +approval of the Secretary of State by Mr R. E. Sprague Oram, C.B., then +Chief Inspector of Factories in 1894, but although possessing features +of stringency which appear not unwarrantable under certain conditions +of brass-working, they were generally felt to be unnecessary in the +case of working in alloys in which the percentage of zinc was either +relatively small, or indeed from which it was entirely absent.</p> + +<p>Official attention had, however, been thoroughly aroused to the +necessity of action, and in November 1894 a Departmental Committee +was appointed by Mr Asquith, Secretary of State, to report upon +conditions of work, so far as they affected the health of operatives +in the various processes connected with the working of brass, gun +metal, bell metal, and other kindred amalgams. Subsequently too at +Birmingham, which may be regarded as the home of the brass trade, +the Committee held sittings and made inquiries in various parts of +London, in Willenhall, Wolverhampton, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Sheffield, +and Rotherham, and were assisted by the evidence of a large number of +manufacturers, artisans, factory inspectors, physicians, and others, +on which their report to the Home Secretary of State was based. The +report largely deals with matter already given in this chapter, but +drawn as it was immediately after the accumulation of the best evidence +on the subject which could be procured, and for the elicitation of +which no further opportunity is likely to arise for the present, it +is desirable that the conclusions arrived at should be given. Having +stated that during the inquiry the Committee had met with ample +evidence of the existence of such symptoms as have been described +above, the report adds that the attention of the Committee had been, by +personal observation and experience, especially drawn to the causes and +symptoms of the so-called “ague,” of which the members had no reason +to doubt zinc fumes were the efficient cause; that it considered the +danger of working in the several alloys was proportionate to the amount +of zinc contained; that the danger was increased by the use of such +ingredients as discarded locomotive and boiler tubes, and such-like +scrap; also that the symptoms were caused by the inhalation of the +zinc fumes, and by the introduction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">[463]</span> of the particles of zinc into +the digestive tract with such food as might be eaten in the casting +shop. The conclusion arrived at was that, “Although in brass-casting, +as in all other occupations, the practice of personal cleanliness may +serve to reduce the ill effects incident to the workers’ employment, +yet if a brass-caster is constantly exposed to the influence of these +fumes, it remains almost an impossibility that he should pass unscathed +by them. The most serious efforts, therefore, should be directed by +manufacturers and artisans alike towards the minimising of the ill +effects which must of necessity be caused in the process of casting +by these fumes; and the Committee are convinced, both from personal +experience and from evidence which they have acquired from witnesses +of all classes, that the direction of these efforts should lie towards +securing a proper construction of casting shops, supplemented by a +system of ventilation conducted on scientific principles.”</p> + +<p>Shops properly constructed, scientifically ventilated, adequately +provided with washing arrangements for the casters, and licensed by a +competent authority, were the requirements suggested by the Committee +as being absolutely necessary for the casters. The compulsory wearing +of mouth coverings during the process of pouring the metal was felt, +owing to hostile evidence given by the workers themselves, to be +impossible for recommendation. Finding that “a great many witnesses +considered milk to be a desirable thing to take when ill, but as a rule +they preferred to take it at night, finding that it did not agree with +them so well when taken in the shop, and in many cases witnesses did +not think milk suited them personally,” the Committee did not consider +it desirable to recommend the retention of the tentative rule requiring +manufacturers to provide a supply of milk or other sanitary drink. +The drinking of milk, however, as well as the wearing of a covering +to the mouth and nostrils, was recommended for the casters. Further +recommendations were, leaving the shop for the purpose of taking food, +frequent ablution, care in the avoidance of taking cold, and of a +regular and moderate diet.</p> + +<p>Apart from the recommendations for optional courses of conduct were +suggestions for specific rules. It was a matter of sincere regret +to the Committee to learn that these were in some instances—such, +for example, as the desired requirement that casting shops should be +licensed—beyond the powers of enforcement vested in the Secretary of +State. The special rules<span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">[464]</span> which were issued subsequently to the report +of the Committee underwent a slight modification more recently, and are +now as follows:—</p> + +<p class="p-left p1">Form 271.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<p class="center">MIXING AND CASTING OF BRASS AND OF CERTAIN OTHER ALLOYS.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<p>Under Section 8 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, and +Section 28 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1895, for the +processes in the mixing and casting of Brass, Gun Metal, Bell +Metal, White Metal, Delta Metal, Phosphor Bronze, and Manilla +Mixture.</p> + + +<p class="center p1 sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. They shall provide adequate means for facilitating, as far as +possible, the emission or escape from the shop of any noxious +fumes or dust arising from the above-named processes. Such means +shall include the provision of traps or of louvre gratings in +the roof or ceiling of any shop in which such processes, or +either of them, is or are carried on; or in case of a mixing or +casting shop which is situated under any other shop, there shall +be provided an adequate flue or shaft (other than any flue or +shaft in connection with a furnace or fireplace) to carry any +fumes from the mixing or casting shop, by or through any such +shop that may be situated above it.</p> + +<p>2. They shall cause all such mixing or casting shops, whether +defined as Factories or as Workshops under the Factory and +Workshop Act, 1878, to be cleaned down and limewashed once at +least within every twelve months, or once within every six +months if so required, by notice in writing from H.M. Inspector +of Factories and Workshops, dating from the time when these were +last thus cleaned down and limewashed; and they shall record the +dates of such cleaning down and lime-washing in a prescribed +form of register.</p> + +<p>3. They shall provide a sufficient supply of metal basins, +water, and soap, for the use of all persons employed in such +mixing or casting shops.</p> + +<p>4. They shall not employ, or allow within their Factory or +Workshop the employment of, any Woman or Female Young Person, +in any process whatever, in any such mixing or casting shop, +or in any portion thereof which is not entirely separated by a +partition extending from the floor to the ceiling.</p> + + +<p class="center p1 sm">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>5. They shall not partake of, or cook any food in any such +mixing or casting shop, within a period of at least Ten Minutes +after the completion of the last pouring of metal in that shop.</p> + +<p class="r4 p-min">B. A. WHITELEGGE,</p> +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> +<p class="p-min"><i>July 10, 1896.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>Note.</i>)—<span class="smcap">Women</span> and <span class="smcap">Persons</span> +under <span class="smcap">18 Years of Age</span> are by the 39th section +of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1878, expressly +<span class="smcap">Forbidden</span> either to <span class="smcap">Take a Meal</span> or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">[465]</span> +to <span class="smcap">Remain</span> in any casting shop during the time +stated on the Notice affixed in the factory or workshop +as being allowed for meals; and the obligation of +enforcing this section rests with the occupier.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>These Rules are required to be posted up in conspicuous places +in the Factory or Workshop to which they apply, where they may +be conveniently read by the persons employed. Any person who +wilfully injures or defaces them is liable to a penalty not +exceeding five pounds (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, section +11). Occupiers of factories and workshop, and persons employed +therein, who are bound to observe any special rules, are liable +to penalties for non-compliance with the same (Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, sections 9 and 11).</p> + +<p>These rules will be found to strike at the three principal causes of +illness in the workers, viz.: (1) shops either structurally unfit for +the processes of mixing or casting metal, or equally unfit on account +of their dirty and zinc-coated condition; (2) the want of opportunity +afforded to the casters of washing themselves before taking meals; and +(3) the most pernicious habit, too common hitherto with the workers, of +taking food in an atmosphere of deflagrated zinc. It will be noticed +also that a prohibition is laid upon the employment of females in +casting-shops. Their labour in connection with such work is limited +to the making of cores, small blocks of sand which are used in the +formation of hollow castings. The evidence of the witnesses examined +before the Committee was in favour of this prohibition, also of +core-making being carried on in a separate shop.</p> + +<p>With regard to the other processes met with in brass-working, and which +have been enumerated in an earlier part of this chapter, it cannot +be said that they present any causes of illness differing from like +processes in connection with other metals. Workers in the dipping-shop, +and to a less extent in the bronzing process, are exposed to inhalation +of acid fumes, and further, in the former occupation to exposure to the +weather and to being obliged to stand on very wet floors. In a case +brought to our notice, the powder used in bronzing contained lead to an +extent of 7 per cent., a condition which might induce plumbism in the +worker in the absence of due precaution. The dust which is given off +during polishing is partly metallic in character, partly composed of a +mixture of sand and lime, and partly textile fluff worn off the calico +polishing discs by the process of work. Without doubt such dust should, +as in all factories, be removed by fans or other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">[466]</span> ventilating methods +from the shop. The shops used for lacquering should similarly be freed +from the unpleasant fumes of the lacquer, which cannot, however, +be considered in any particular degree injurious to health. A most +interesting paper read before the Midland Medical Society by Dr William +Murray (subsequently printed in the <i>British Medical Journal</i>, +2nd June 1900) on Chronic Brass Poisoning, draws attention to another +rather common form of plumbism caused by the process of “putting +together” gas fittings, it being customary to solder the joints of +these fittings with white lead, and then having closed one end of the +bracket, to suck at the other to ascertain that the work is perfectly +sound. We have recently met with a case of advanced paralysis in a +man of forty-five apparently induced by this branch of brass-work. Dr +Murray deals in detail with his method of treatment of cases of chronic +brass poisoning, of which as Resident Surgeon of the Birmingham General +Dispensary he has had considerable experience.</p> + +<p>We hope we have shown that, firstly, the conditions of brass-working +in all its branches require that the shops in which it is carried +on should be well ventilated in order to secure the escape of the +“smother” from the casting-shops, and of the conglomerated dusts from +the polishing rooms; and secondly, these conditions require or rather +demand habits of personal cleanliness and of self-respect on the part +of the workers, habits which prescribe temperance, avoidance of taking +food in the shop, and frequency and regularity of ablution. Such are +now possible of attainment by the persons whose health is concerned, +and it rests with themselves alone to make full use of the improvements +placed within their reach.</p> + +<p>Passing from the consideration of brass to that of copper, we find +that there is little to be said regarding the working of that metal +descriptive of any injury to health among its workers. Indeed it may +be doubted whether any traces of such injury can be found. Having +been mined in many quarters of the globe, the ore is subjected to the +process of smelting, which, so far as Great Britain is concerned, +takes place chiefly at Swansea, and also at St Helens and at +Newcastle-on-Tyne. The qualities of the ores from different mining +districts vary greatly, and the reducing processes of the ores vary +correspondingly. Speaking generally, it may be said that the process +consists of six operations conducted in reverbatory furnaces,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">[467]</span> termed +calcining and melting furnaces. At the conclusion of these processes +the metal, freed from the arsenic, sulphur, and other accessories of +the ore, is melted and cast into ingots, to be sent in that shape to +various centres for manufacturing purposes.</p> + +<p>During the smelting processes the sulphurous fumes either are collected +in leaden chambers for purposes of condensation into sulphuric acid, +or escape through the flues into the outside air. In neither case does +the worker at the furnace suffer from these fumes, except, perhaps, +when drawing the furnace he may experience some back draft of sulphur, +an evil which may readily be met by the wearing of a handkerchief over +the mouth while engaged in the operation. During recent years it may +be mentioned that the first of the reducing processes is more commonly +carried on in the vicinity of the mines, and as a consequence the ore +on reaching S. Wales is now usually in the form of regulus. The denuded +state of the country in the neighbourhood of the smelting furnaces +bears witness to the unhealthy character of sulphur fumes. Dr Arlidge, +however, notes an analysis of sickness in the Swansea district which +tends to prove that though the fumes were very productive of acute +pulmonary disease, yet the death-rate in parts of the country subject +to their influence was lower than that in adjacent districts. We are +told by Mr Lewis, who for many years has been the Factory Inspector +in charge of the Swansea district, that although there is a prevalent +impression that the furnacemen suffer exceptionally from chest mischief +owing to the great heat and the fumes, he does not consider that +they suffer in any degree more than the furnacemen in other metal +processes. He forms the same opinion as that held by us in respect +of the brass-workers, namely, that the workers are not sufficiently +careful of themselves between shifts. He reports that the flue and +chamber cleaners, as at other smelting works, rarely wear respirators; +they will not ventilate the flues nor water the dust before commencing +cleaning operations, and consequently the respiratory organs are more +or less affected; he cannot find direct evidence of specific illness +traceable to copper smelting. Mr Lewis attaches considerable importance +to the provision of high and well-constructed stacks and flues, and to +the due preparation of the chambers by ventilation and watering before +the process of their cleaning takes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">[468]</span> place. No special inquiry having +been ordered concerning this subject, particular importance attaches to +Mr Lewis’ opinion.</p> + +<p>On the whole we do not consider that copper-working is in any way as +dangerous an occupation as brass-working, for the pouring of metal +is not accompanied by the same abundant vapours as in brass pouring, +besides such vapour as does arise is mainly due to the presence of +a small quantity of spelter in the mixture. The same precautions as +advised for brass pourers should be taken, but the need is less; +we have seen a pouring shop with a perfectly clear atmosphere five +minutes after the pouring has taken place. A muffler or respirator +should be worn during the operation, and, as far as we have seen, this +is generally done. Apart from the pouring we have been struck by the +excellent health of copper-workers, and as the dust is heavy, and does +not float in the air, there are none of those respiratory troubles +which, as we have seen, are the bane of brass-workers. There is one +danger to which apparently they might be subjected, but we found no +evidence of its having arisen, and that is from the accumulation of +the heavy copper dust on the tables or boards at which the men are +working. It seemed not unreasonable to expect that want of cleanliness +on the part of the workers would entail digestive troubles from the +mixing of copper dust with the food. As we have stated, no evidence of +this is forthcoming. It will be seen that we are unable to confirm Dr +Arlidge’s view of the dangers to copper-workers from the inhalation +of copper dust, nor are we able, though contrary to our expectations, +to assert that men employed in the trade are particularly liable to +suffer from colic. According to Blaudet, this colic is attended by +complete prostration, by vomiting and purging, and it is very probable +that such results would follow, if the men were dirty in their work and +habits, the introduction of copper dust by food taken into the stomach. +Opinions are much divided on this subject, and it is possible that +working in old copper and brass, which are covered with a carbonate +of copper, may be responsible for the ill effects noticed. According +to M. Perron of Besançon, clockmakers, who have to handle copper +freely, suffer from a slow intoxication from it, exhibited by gastric +derangements, diarrhœa, oppression, and some feverishness, but our own +experience among copper-workers and other persons does not confirm +these observations.</p> + +<p>The conditions of improvement suggested both for brass<span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">[469]</span> and copper +working are those that should be applied to all manufacturing +processes. Shops of good construction, well ventilated, and amply +furnished with lavatory and other sanitary arrangements; these are +desiderata for the workmen.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="smcap">Robert M. Simon.</li> + <li class="smcap">Seymour H. Knyvett.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">[470]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXI<br> +<span class="subhed">INDIA-RUBBER: DANGERS INCIDENTAL TO THE USE OF BISULPHIDE OF CARBON AND +NAPHTHA</span></h2></div> + +<p>Indiarubber is used in the manufacture of waterproof garments, +door-mats, toys for children, insulators of electric wires, tobacco +pouches, etc. In the production of these articles large numbers of +people find employment. During my visits to indiarubber works in +Manchester and London I had several opportunities of observing some of +the dangers incidental to the trade.</p> + +<p>On entering a waterproof garment manufactory one encounters an +extremely pungent vapour, which dries and heats the nose and throat, +and is apt to make the eyes run water. This is the fume that comes from +naphtha, which is used to dissolve the rubber and to form the dough +that is spread as a thin layer by means of a roller machine upon the +cloth about to be waterproofed. Both coal tar and mineral naphtha are +employed. The vapour of naphtha is extremely irritating, and can be +detected over the whole of the factory. The colour of the waterproofed +material depends upon the pigment that is employed. If, for example, +black is wanted, all that has to be added to the dough, composed of +indiarubber and naphtha, is lamp black. The men who feed the roller +machines, and who regulate the distribution of the dough upon the +cloth, are constantly breathing the irritating atmosphere, but I did +not find any special complaint in regard to it from them. It is the +girls who work in the overheated and often overcrowded rooms of the +factory that suffer most. They are usually very anæmic and complain +much of headache. So saturated are they with the fumes of naphtha +that even after they have left the factory they still feel the taste +of naphtha in their food. In the workrooms these girls are employed +rolling and pressing the garments; joining the seams, etc., by rubber +dissolved in naphtha. On a winter’s night, when the gas is full ablaze, +the air of the workroom is extremely pungent, so that girls are often +obliged to leave the room and go into the open air for a short period. +The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">[471]</span> fumes of naphtha are more unpleasant than really dangerous; still +there is no doubt that the constant inhalation of these fumes during +working hours and the distaste for food thereby created cannot but in +time undermine the health of the female worker, and render her more or +less unfit for duty.</p> + +<p>The dangerous process in the manufacture of indiarubber goods is not +that in which naphtha is used, but <i>bisulphide of carbon</i>. In +order to render rubber goods capable of withstanding alternations +of heat and cold, and of retaining their elasticity in all kinds of +weather, they must be <i>vulcanised</i>. The vulcanising agent is +either the common flowers of sulphur or a compound of sulphur. When +50 to 60 per cent. of sulphur is added to rubber there is obtained a +very hard product known as <i>ebonite</i>. Considerable care has to be +taken in using sulphur. If, for example, too much sulphur is added to +rubber, the goods become hard; 5 per cent. gives good elasticity. There +are various ways of bringing indiarubber goods under the influence of +sulphur. It may be done in the primary mixing of the dough, so that +all that is subsequently required in the treatment of the waterproofed +materials is exposure to a great heat, say 260° F. in a closed oven. +Another method is to hang up non-vulcanised waterproofed goods for +several hours in a hot stove in which there is a basin containing +chloride of sulphur heated over a flame. These processes can scarcely +be called dangerous, for they are conducted in closed chambers. +The real danger lies in using as the vulcanising agent bisulphide +of carbon, to which is often added a small quantity of chloride of +sulphur. The bisulphide of carbon has an extremely offensive odour: it +is very volatile and highly inflammable, but it is an excellent solvent +for caoutchouc. To vulcanise indiarubber goods by means of bisulphide +of carbon, the materials are passed through a solution containing +about one thousand parts of bisulphide of carbon and from two to ten +of chloride of sulphur. The indiarubber is dissolved by the carbon +bisulphide and becomes incorporated with the sulphur given up by the +chloride.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to prevent the nauseating, offensive, and repellent +vapour given off by carbon bisulphide penetrating the atmosphere of +a workroom even when the room is provided with fans. Fortunately, in +some respects, the work is carried on in the top storey of the factory. +Here the long webs of cloth coated with indiarubber are vulcanised by +being passed through a trough of bisulphide of carbon placed in front +of rollers. Escaping at the distal end of the machine the cloth is +afterwards hung up to dry. All the time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">[472]</span> the men are at work in this +room they are exposed to the vapour of the bisulphide. Inhalation +of the vapour is liable to induce a subacute inflammatory condition +of the nerves of the limbs known as <i>peripheral neuritis</i>, in +consequence of which men lose the power in their arms and legs. Some of +the men whom I examined had been paralysed in their lower extremities, +had been off work for several months, and had only slowly regained +the use of their limbs. Occasionally men may work as long as three or +four years in the bisulphide department without becoming paralysed. +Before actually losing the power in their legs the men suffer from +inco-ordination; they stagger when walking. The workmen complain of the +carbon bisulphide vapour making them drowsy and of their sleep being +heavy. After working for a few hours in the vulcanising department, +they feel tired and sleepy. Thick or foggy weather rather tends to +favour the development of these unpleasant symptoms.</p> + +<p>The pernicious effects of bisulphide of carbon are by no means +confined to the men. The women and girls who dip very fine indiarubber +goods—for example, children’s balloons, tobacco pouches, etc.—into +the bisulphide, suffer even more severely than the men. The poisoning +shows itself under two forms. In one the symptoms which are slowly +developed are dizziness, headache, vomiting, lassitude, and not +infrequently paralysis of the arms or legs. Many of the female workers +complain of tasting the nauseous bisulphide in their food. The appetite +thus becomes impaired. In the other form of poisoning, which may be +spoken of as acute, the individual is really intoxicated. Girls have +told me that on leaving the factory at night they have simply staggered +home, they have even fallen as if drunk, or at the end of a day’s work +they have had a splitting headache, and on reaching home have sat down, +tired out, and fallen asleep before touching their evening meal. This +sleep is heavy and non-refreshing. In the morning they drag themselves +to the factory feeling ill and headachy, and, like people who are +accustomed to the intemperate use of alcohol, they only get relief and +recover their nervous equilibrium by renewed inhalation of the vapour +of the bisulphide of carbon. Sad as this state of things is, it is +nothing to the extremely violent maniacal condition into which some +of the workers, both male and female, are known to have been thrown. +Some of them have become the victims of acute insanity, and in their +frenzy have precipitated themselves from the top rooms of the factory +to the ground. In consequence of bisulphide of carbon being extremely +explosive, vulcanisation by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">[473]</span> means of it has generally to be carried +on in rooms, one side of which is perfectly open. This open front is +usually protected by iron bars.</p> + +<p>Bisulphide of carbon, in addition to causing paralysis of the +limbs and an exalted condition of the brain, induces a temporary +form of amblyopia, or blindness. Women often suffer from excessive +menstruation, and, if pregnant, they may abort. Girls sometimes become +hysterical and excited. This form of <i>toxic hysteria</i>, like +that in plumbism, often masks a deeper form of bisulphide of carbon +poisoning. The individual becomes extremely loquacious; she shouts or +sings, becomes very irritable, and may, when in this mood, perpetrate +acts that are beyond her control and even beyond her consciousness. +Just as in some people, after the excitement of alcoholic intoxication +has passed off, there comes a stage of depression, physical and mental, +so too after intoxication by bisulphide of carbon there is a period +marked by great weakness of mind and body. Prolonged exposure to the +vapour of bisulphide induces an enfeeblement of the intelligence that +recalls the mental weakness of chronic alcoholic inebriety.</p> + +<p>In addition to the risks from naphtha and bisulphide of carbon, +indiarubber workers are said to be liable to consumption. Dr Philip of +Edinburgh states that within a period of eight years he had under his +care in the Hospital for Consumption 70 indiarubber workers, and that +85 per cent. of these suffered from respiratory diseases, the bulk of +which was phthisis. His experience as to pulmonary phthisis has not +been altogether confirmed by that of medical men elsewhere.</p> + +<p><i>Prevention of Poisoning.</i>—Ventilation of the workrooms is of the +first importance. This cannot be secured by open windows alone. Owing +to the inflammability of carbon bisulphide no fires and no naked lights +are allowed in the workroom. The workpeople complain, therefore, of +the cold, and as a consequence cannot but have their vital resistance +reduced thereby. The air of this particular part of the factory is +redolent of the offensive odour coming from the open troughs and +basins. As carbon bisulphide is heavier than the ordinary atmosphere, +the artificial means of ventilation that are required are such as shall +draw the air of the workroom downwards away from the worker. No young +person should be allowed to work in the vulcanisation of indiarubber +by means of carbon bisulphide, nor should any adult be allowed to work +more than five hours a day—two and a half at a stretch—separated by +at least an hour’s interval, which should be spent in the open air, if +possible, and away from the factory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">[474]</span></p> + +<p>This is a kind of work in which there ought to be alternation of +employment. All receptacles containing carbon bisulphide when not +in use should be covered. The machines should be provided with +down-draught suction fans. During the drying of the vulcanised +waterproof goods no person should be allowed to enter the room where +these products are hanging unless on business that is absolutely +necessary. Naphtha receptacles should, when not in use, be kept +covered. No food should be eaten in the bisulphide department, and +it should be discouraged also where naphtha is used. Girls say that +they sometimes can only eat food in the workrooms, because they do +not taste the naphtha there. In the open air the food tastes as +though it contained naphtha. Workers in the bisulphide process should +be medically examined once a month, and the slightest indication of +commencing paralysis or other nervous manifestation should be followed +by suspension from work. Five hundred cubic feet of air space should be +allowed to each worker.</p> + +<p>Poisoning by bisulphide of carbon in its minor form generally +disappears on removing the individual from his employment. By many of +the workers, particularly girls who are extremely poor and ill-fed, +suspension from work would be keenly felt, for to them the loss of the +weekly wage is a serious matter. When peripheral neuritis has been +induced and causes paralysis, recovery is usually tedious. The patient +under these circumstances should be taken to a hospital, where under +the influence of good food, rest, electricity, and tonic treatment, +health will in most instances be regained.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Allgm. Medic. Central Zeitung</i>, 22nd December 1900, +Lazarus, a surgeon-dentist, draws attention to a new malady to which +workers in gutta-percha are liable. In one year he observed twenty +cases of dental caries and necrosis of the jawbone not unlike that met +with in lucifer matchmakers, and known as phosphorus necrosis. Those +workers, who on entering the factory were already the subjects of +decayed teeth and carious stumps, are the most predisposed. With the +exception of a young woman, aged 19 years, and who had worked in the +factory for only two years all the other females who suffered were from +25 to 35 years of age. While Lazarus recommends a dental examination of +the teeth of all the workers before entering a gutta-percha factory, he +offers no suggestion as to the probable causes of the necrosis of the +jaw in the patients who came under his care for treatment.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">[475]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXII</h2></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">THE EFFECTS OF DINITROBENZINE AND OTHER NITRO-SUBSTITUTION +PRODUCTS OF THE AROMATIC SERIES ON THE WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE +MANUFACTURE OF HIGH EXPLOSIVES.</p> +</div> + + +<p>There are about fourteen authorised explosives in use in the United +Kingdom, all of which contain, more or less, naphthalene and the +aromatic nuclei, benzine, toluene, either singly or combined. These +nuclei, when nitrated, form the usual combustible elements in high +explosives.</p> + +<p>The dinitro compounds of benzine exist in three varieties, ortho, meta, +and para. The ordinary commercial form consists almost entirely of +metadinitrobenzine, and is generally used in the manufacture of high +explosives. This is in some cases mixed with a chlorinated hydrocarbon. +The metadinitrobenzine is usually commercially pure, it rarely contains +a trace of mononitrobenzine, or the lower oxides of nitrogen. A little +free acid is generally found which colours the crystals yellow, and +stains the hands of the workmen. It is very sensibly volatile at a +temperature of 48° C. At ordinary temperatures it is solid, as are also +its isomerides, para and orthonitrobenzine.</p> + +<p>The proportions used in the various explosives differ very largely, +ranging from 5 to 20 per cent. in the finished explosives. In a smaller +number the mono, di, and tri nitrobenzine, toluene, and naphthalene are +employed either alone or in combination.</p> + +<p>When comparing the poisonous nature of these substances, naphthalene is +probably not poisonous, whilst some of the toluene compounds are more +poisonous than the benzine.</p> + +<p>There is evidence that, generally speaking, the higher the nitration +of the aromatic series, the more dangerous these substances are to +manipulate.</p> + +<p>This is borne out by the following investigations, which we +communicated to the <i>Lancet</i>, August 31, 1901:—</p> + +<p>“We found that mononitrobenzine when given by the mouth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">[476]</span> to cats was +quite harmless, they seemed rather to thrive and grow fat upon it. +Dinitrobenzine is exceedingly poisonous both to men and animals. 1.2 +grammes given to a cat by the mouth proved fatal in about three hours. +The smallest lethal dose for a cat of 6 lb. in weight, given by the +mouth in one dose, was .08 gramme. In another instance .06 gramme given +in the same manner was almost fatal. A lethal dose of .09 gramme of +dinitrobenzine, when given over a consecutive number of days in divided +doses of .04, .02, .01, and .02 gramme, did not cause death.”</p> + +<p>“Hypodermically, .04 gramme did not prove fatal to a cat.</p> + +<p>“In experimenting upon animals with trinitrobenzine, we found that it +was distinctly but not much more poisonous than dinitrobenzine.</p> + +<p>“Coming to the toluene group, the administration of mononitrotoluene +proved, like its homologue mononitrobenzine, quite inert.</p> + +<p>“There is great difference of opinion amongst manufacturers as to +whether dinitrotoluene has lethal properties or not. The weight of +evidence rather supports the latter view. We are investigating this +point (<i>Lancet</i>, August 31, 1901).</p> + +<p>“Trinitrotoluene is not poisonous under ordinary use.</p> + +<p>“For comparative purposes we injected 50 minims of a 1 per cent. +solution of dinitrobenzine into a cat, with a fatal result. We then +injected 60 minims of a 1 per cent. solution of trinitrotoluene into +another cat, with the result that the only effect appeared to be some +slight cyanosis.</p> + +<p>“Again, 90 minims of a 1 per cent. solution of dinitrobenzine given +hypodermically was quickly fatal to a cat, whilst 90 minims of a 1 per +cent. trinitrotoluene proved perfectly innocuous.”</p> + +<p>This is a very important practical point, as the susceptibility of man +and animals seems closely allied. In some factories the trinitrotoluene +has been substituted for dinitrobenzine, with great advantage to the +health of the workmen employed.</p> + +<p>The oxidising bodies used are the nitrates of ammonium, potassium, and +barium. These do not appear to affect the workmen injuriously.</p> + +<p>The gases produced by the complete detonation of these high explosives, +when well diluted with air, are for all practical purposes harmless.</p> + +<p>During the process of the manufacture of these high explosives +an intimate mixture of the organic compound with the oxidising +body results. This is effected in the case of chlorinated +metadinitrobenzine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">[477]</span> (of which this article chiefly treats), by the +processes of grinding, melting at a temperature of 98.9° C., cooling, +mixing in a closed, heated, jacketed pan at a temperature of 80° C., +and finally filling in air-tight cartridges.</p> + +<p><i>Poisonous Dose.</i>—Dinitrobenzine is a potent poison, whether +introduced into the stomach, injected into the circulation, absorbed as +it readily is by the skin, or inhaled in the form of vapour.</p> + +<p>The poisonous dose of dinitrobenzine for an animal, cat, or dog of six +pounds in weight averages about .08 gramme; in the same proportion for +a man of ten stones weight, it will be about 1.84 grammes.</p> + +<p>Dixon Mann (<i>Forensic Medicine</i>, 2nd edition) and T. Oliver +(article in Allbutt’s <i>System of Medicine</i>, vol. ii.) do not +mention the poisonous dose, but in all probability a dose of under 1 +gramme by the mouth will be lethal.</p> + +<p>In fatal cases death takes place within twenty-four hours from a single +dose. If animals live beyond that time, there is a strong probability +of their ultimate recovery.</p> + +<p>A marked characteristic of dinitrobenzine is the ease and rapidity with +which, when mixed with fat, it passes through the skin into the system. +We found that a 25 per cent. ointment in lanoline, rubbed into the skin +of a cat, caused death in twenty-four hours, and 400 milligrammes of +lanoline containing .1 gramme of dinitrobenzine, when rubbed into the +groins of a man, produced lividity, cyanosis, and other pathognomonic +symptoms in a few hours. No doubt the secretions of the cutaneous +glands facilitate absorption when the powder settles on the skin. It +is probable that all the nitro derivatives of the aromatic series pass +readily through the skin. In most works, handling any of these crude +compounds for any length of time without gloves is prohibited, being +considered dangerous.</p> + +<p>The concentrated vapour is dangerous in small doses, and fatal in +large. A workman breathing for ten minutes the air in a flue through +which pure dinitrobenzine had passed from the mixing pans, died from +the effects eighteen hours later.</p> + +<p>Judging from experiments upon animals, the poisonous dose, if injected +hypodermically, is about half that taken by the mouth.</p> + +<p>Poisoning divides itself naturally into acute, subacute, and chronic.</p> + +<p><i>Acute Poisoning.</i>—Fatal acute cases are rare, and have been +noted chiefly on account of their interest from a medico-legal point +of view. The symptoms are nausea and vomiting, intense<span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">[478]</span> congestive +headache, faintness and giddiness, loss of control over the limbs, +numbness, tingling in tongue and lips, and other subjective sensations. +A characteristic symptom is deep cyanosis; lips, fingers, and tongue +are deeply cyanosed, nearly black in the early stage. The skin becomes +cold and clammy, the pulse quick and weak, often over 120 a minute. +It is small, thready, and feeble, and shows a very low condition +of arterial tension. The capillaries are freely dilated, and cause +the line of descent in sphygmographic tracings to be very rapid. In +all severe cases the pulse is fully dicrotic, and displays well the +loss of vasomotor tone, which is one of the most marked features in +these cases. The heart’s action is easily excited by exertion, the +breathing is laboured, and the urine darkened. The eyes become bright +and glassy, the features pale and ghastly, and coma supervenes, which +lasts for many hours. Exceptional symptoms are noises in the head, or +dark specks floating before the eyes. When larger doses of the poison +have been absorbed, unconsciousness may become complete. The eyes then +roll slowly from side to side, the pupils are widely dilated, and the +conjunctivæ are insensitive to touch. Both the deep and superficial +reflexes are in abeyance. The respirations are increased to even double +the normal number, become irregular, and Cheyne-Stokes in character. +The limbs become quite flaccid, or one or more of the joints remain +stiff, and when this is the case it is usually those of the upper +limbs. Eventually this stiffness entirely disappears. The hands, feet, +and face become remarkably bloodless. Occasionally there is œdema +of the lips and eyelids, or dropsy of the lower extremities. The +temperature ranges from 99° F. to 102° F. (<i>Lancet</i>, November 1, +1902, p. 89).</p> + +<p><i>Subacute Poisoning.</i>—Subacute attacks may supervene upon +chronic poisoning, in which, besides the usual chronic conditions to +be mentioned later, we find a distinct distaste for food, especially +breakfast. Sometimes there is nausea, or there may be slight vomiting. +This should always be a warning sign, for, if neglected, coma may +follow.</p> + +<p>The attacks vary in severity according to the amount of the poison +absorbed. The symptoms noticed are:—Headache, with throbbing of the +temples and forehead, great langour and depression, the urine becomes +darkened in colour, the hands moist; there is drowsiness, with great +tendency to sleep; the men say it is impossible to keep awake. During +the night they sleep soundly unless prevented by an incessant headache. +In the morning they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">[479]</span> awake unrefreshed and heavy. The tongue is fairly +clean though dark in colour, and develops a yellowish fur; dull, heavy +pains are felt in the back. Breathing is quick and short, and fatigue +follows upon the least exertion. Pricking, tingling, and numbness +in the extremities are complained of when walking; workmen when so +affected may take three hours to cover as many miles; they stagger, do +not know where their legs are, frequently fall, and are unable to pick +themselves up readily. When asked to walk backwards with their eyes +closed, their movements are very unsteady. These symptoms practically +disappear if the men leave work a few days; after such rest they say +they feel in excellent health and spirits.</p> + +<p><i>Chronic Poisoning.</i>—The more common manifestations may be +denominated chronic, as they are found after prolonged absorption of +small doses of the poison, and many of them persist for a long time, +at least many months, even after the workmen have left this special +occupation. All workers who are brought into intimate contact with this +poison show more or less the following:—</p> + +<p>Upon careful examination of the cases, it is found that those employed +suffer from a very severe form of anæmia. The ruddy hue of health +disappears; the skin becomes dirty yellow-greyish in colour. This +duskiness gradually deepens with the amount of poison absorbed, +and decreases as it becomes eliminated. This objective symptom is +especially marked in the mucous membrane. The men appear to be +suffering from partial asphyxia. The conjunctivæ show a jaundiced tinge.</p> + +<p><i>Muscular System.</i>—The effects of the poison are shown in a +marked manner upon the muscular system. The men have not the appearance +of being employed in manual labour. When stripped the muscles are seen +to be flaccid and the skin loose. The body lacks fullness and firmness. +All movements lose tone and precision. Fatigue quickly follows muscular +exertion.</p> + +<p>In long-continued cases the objective symptoms are occasionally +remarkable, such as wasting of the muscles, especially those of +the extremities. This has been particularly pointed out by Dr Ross +(<i>Medical Chronicle</i>, May 1889). “The muscles of the hands are +seen to be very much atrophied. The spaces between the metacarpal bones +are more distinctly marked than is normal, and the grooves between them +very noticeable. The muscles of the thenar and hypo-thenar eminences +are soft and distinctly wasted, especially the abductor indices. +Patients cannot, without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">[480]</span> considerable trouble and difficulty, cause +the tips of the thumb and little finger to meet. Sometimes this is more +observable in one hand than the other. The phalangeal joints must be +bent, otherwise there is inability to flex the thumb strongly into the +palm, and at the same time the power of adduction is feeble.</p> + +<p>“All the finer and more delicate movements of the hands are greatly +restricted in severe cases. Small objects such as pins and needles +cannot be readily felt or held. The act of walking loses much of its +elasticity and spring, and in consequence the balance of the body is +with difficulty maintained. The big toe in the advancing foot does not +manifestly drop; it is only slightly flexed into the sole. There is +usually no ankle drop, and the power of raising the toes whilst the +foot is flat on the ground is not lost. The symptoms of weakness and +paresis observed in the muscles of the foot are not so well-marked as +those seen in the hand.”</p> + +<p><i>Nervous Symptoms.</i>—Pains of a shooting, stabbing, or darting +character are of very frequent occurrence. They are felt in all parts +of the body, a common position being under the heart or in the armpit, +neck, or jaws. The legs are rarely affected. When the pains are in +the locality of the stomach they are of a griping nature. Sometimes +a smarting or burning sensation is described, which is felt in the +cheeks, forehead, and eyes, or restricted to the soles of the feet. +These sensations are not accompanied by tenderness to the touch.</p> + +<p>More or less irritation of the peripheral nerves is always present. It +shows itself by tingling and itching of the skin of the fingers, palms, +and backs of the hands, sometimes extending to the wrists. In a certain +proportion of cases they are felt in the feet as well as the hands. +They may be restricted to the feet, and only noticed when the men have +their boots on, or their legs crossed. Whilst sitting, or at rest in +bed, the pains are often acute. They are invariably confined to the +dorsum of the foot, never being felt in the soles, and disappear upon +standing or walking. Occasionally these symptoms are more severe in the +extremity or extremities of one side of the body.</p> + +<p>Hyperæsthesia is a most characteristic feature in all these chronic +cases of poisoning. In all cases it is present, but it varies both +in intensity and in the part of the body affected. It may be felt +in one or both feet, restricted to the upper or under surfaces of +the toes. Striking the outside, or dorsum of the foot, causes severe +electric-like pains to run all over the leg. In a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">[481]</span> well-marked case +there will be exceeding tenderness upon the slightest pressure on any +part of the foot. Drawing the finger very gently over these sensitive +areas sends shooting pains about four inches up the legs. The soles of +the feet are not affected by a light touch, but a sharp blow, tap, or +jar, or a false step in walking causes painful sensations as high as +the knees. These symptoms are usually more acute in the left than the +right leg. The upper extremity is in like manner affected; a gentle +rub on a small part of the cutaneous distribution of the ulnar nerve +will produce general formication and tingling all over the arm. Partial +hemianæsthesia, with a small patch excessively tender, may be present. +This is probably hysterical. Dr Dreschfeld points out that Charcot, +Balmskz, and Marie have found this same symptom in bisulphide of carbon +poisoning, viz., hemianæsthesia with small circumscribed hyperæsthetic +areas. The nerve trunks of the legs or arms are sensitive to pressure +where superficial; and great pain is caused all over the area of +distribution of the occipital nerve by pressure on the nerve trunk.</p> + +<p>The muscles are often very tender, especially those of the upper arm. +Touch is often impaired in the fingers and toes. Patients almost +invariably complain that the skin of the hands and soles of the feet +is less sensitive than is usual in the healthy state. The fingers are +numb and act clumsily, while the hands feel as if they were gloved. +The impression of sand or snow is conveyed to the feet when standing +or walking. Heat and cold are with difficulty differentiated. In +one sufferer two test-tubes containing water, differing 10 degrees +in temperature, being applied to the arms and trunk, were readily +distinguished, but from the hips downwards the patient was utterly +unable to discover which of the two tubes was the hotter. If applied +simultaneously about three inches apart, both were experienced as +cold. Generally speaking the skin of the body is more sensitive than +that of the limbs, but in all parts variations occur. Upon using a +Faradic current of a given strength, which was with difficulty borne +by the thighs, arms, and trunk, there was no perceptible impression +produced in the calves or legs. In these situations the compasses must +be separated three inches, to be distinguished as two points. The +transmission of touch and pain are slower than normal, or at any rate +are not as readily responded to as in health. The extremities become +very quickly chilled. On the slightest exposure to a low temperature +the fingers look pale, bloodless, and feel as if they were dead, and +the feet are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">[482]</span> always cold. Hearing and taste are unaffected. There +is great loss of energy. Feebleness, lassitude, and depression are +invariable concomitants. The sexual appetite is notoriously weakened, +or lost, and erections of the penis rare. The reflexes, superficial and +deep, are very variable; sometimes they are exaggerated; this, however, +is not usual. Generally speaking, they are enfeebled. Dr Reynolds +mentions a case where the patient was comatose and the knee-jerk +persistent. Cremasteric and plantar reflexes are those most commonly +absent. The muscles react readily to a moderate Faradic current, but +different groups of muscles vary in their sensitiveness to the same +strength of current.</p> + +<p><i>Eye Affections.</i>—Dinitrobenzine produces a distinct toxic defect +of vision similar in many respects to that caused by tobacco, iodoform, +bisulphide of carbon, etc. This amblyopia will be found in a varying +degree in all those who suffer periodically from subacute attacks +of poisoning, or who develop other symptoms due to the continued +absorption of the poison. Susceptibility may aggravate the symptoms, +but no worker can claim perfect immunity. Comparatively few complain +of any impairment to their sight, but probably about one in ten are +unknowingly affected. Dr Neiden (<i>Edinburgh Medical Journal</i>, +1889) and Mr Simeon Snell (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, 1894) have +described the eye affections. The latter summarises his conclusions as +follows:—“Failure of sight, often to a considerable degree in both +eyes, concentric contraction of the visual field, with in many cases a +central colour scotoma, some blurring, never extensive, of the edges of +the disc, and a varying degree of pallor of its surface.”</p> + +<p>In all cases absence from the work removes these symptoms in a varying +length of time: and usually a restricted exposure will alleviate them.</p> + +<p><i>Urinary Affection.</i>—In cases of long-continued chronic +poisoning, dinitrobenzine will always be found free in the urine +(Dixon Mann). In the urine of animals, tube casts, brown flakes, and +hæmoglobin have been isolated, and in the kidneys much cloudy swelling +of the epithelium lining the tubules can be seen (Strassmann and +Strecker).</p> + +<p>We tested the blood, lungs, liver, spleen, and urine from several +cats poisoned by dinitrobenzine. In only one sample, the urine from a +cat which died from chronic poisoning, could any indication be found. +Both sugar and albumen are generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">[483]</span> absent. The source of the bile +pigments is the hæmoglobin of the blood, and the excretion of these +pigments points to the existence of some cause at work in the blood +leading to the destruction of hæmoglobin. The large deposit of urates, +high specific gravity and presence of biliary pigments found in the +urine, is strong corroborative evidence of an active destruction of +blood corpuscles.</p> + +<p>No experimental evidence has yet proved that reduction takes place +in the body in case of the nitro-compounds of benzine to aniline, or +phenylene-diamine.</p> + +<p>In several samples of urine tested, both nitrates and nitrites were +present, so that in the case of phenylene-diamine being present, the +pigment Bismarck brown would be formed, and would give the urine a +brown tint.</p> + +<p>The samples of urine were tested for free dinitrobenzine by the +following method: The urine is treated with zinc and hydrochloric acid +for some hours. Any dinitrobenzine that may be present is reduced +by the nascent hydrogen into phenylene-diamine. The urine is then +alkalised with caustic soda, and well shaken up with ether. The ether +is then separated, filtered, and evaporated. The residue is treated +with dilute acetic acid and nitrite of soda, when a yellow or brown +coloration shows the presence of dinitrobenzine in the original sample. +In three cases a slight indication was found.</p> + +<p>By ordinary reducing agents in the laboratory, such as nascent +hydrogen, the nitro-substitution compounds of benzine can easily be +reduced as follows:—</p> + +<p>Mononitrobenzine to aniline.</p> + +<p>Dinitrobenzine to phenylene-diamine.</p> + +<p>Trinitrobenzine to triamidobenzine.</p> + +<p>The amount of urea is generally high, due to increased metabolism of +the tissues.</p> + +<p>The exact chemical changes which take place in the body are extremely +difficult to follow. The nitro-compounds probably pass through the body +without suffering any change, or they may be reduced in the body.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed in the subsequent table that all the samples are +acid, many being strongly so. Nearly all are dark-brown in colour +and generally precipitate a red deposit, principally urates. In most +of these urobilin is present, and can be easily recognised by the +following test: 100 c.c. of the urine are acidified with 10 drops of +strong hydrochloric acid, and then shaken with 20 c.c.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">[484]</span> of chloroform. +The chloroform which falls to the bottom is separated by means of a +separating funnel, and filtered into a test-tube, .4 c.c. of a solution +of 1 gramme of crystallised acetate of zinc dissolved in a litre of 95 +per cent. alcohol is then poured gently down the side of the test-tube, +and at the junction where the liquids meet, a green fluorescent ring, +characteristic of urobilin, will appear; the solution on shaking will +become fluorescent, being green by transmitted, and rose-coloured by +reflected light. This pigment can also be detected by means of the +spectroscope.</p> + +<p><i>Urine.</i>—In severe cases of dinitrobenzine poisoning, the urine +becomes of a dark, tawny, port-wine colour. There is no irritation or +frequency in making water.</p> + +<p>The following table represents the examination of the urine from very +mild cases, such as can any day be found amongst men handling, or +breathing the fumes of dinitrobenzine.</p> + +<p><i>Pathology: The Blood.</i>—Active metabolism takes place at once +upon contact of the blood tissue with dinitrobenzine, and this may +induce a febrile rise of temperature. The blood becomes thin and dark +in colour, varying from chocolate-brown to black. The number of blood +corpuscles is greatly diminished, in some cases less than half the +normal number. The amount of hæmoglobin averages 35 per cent. MacMunn +describes the presence of large coloured megalocytes, 12 µ in diameter; +the ordinary red corpuscles are smaller than normal, about 5 µ or 6 µ +in diameter; many are crenated and broken up.</p> + +<p>Haldane (<i>Journal of Physiology</i>, vol. xxi., 1897), in carefully +conducted experiments on mice, “finds spectroscopically a feebly-marked +band in the red besides the oxyhæmoglobin bands; but it was not +methæmoglobin. Methæmoglobin is contained in the blood, but some +other pigment is probably present.” In men we were able to obtain +the oxyhæmoglobin band, but it was always blurred. Whether there is +a special dinitro band in the blood is a disputed point; it has been +investigated in animals by Huber and Röhl (<i>Über akute u. chron. +Intox durch Nitrokorp d. Benzolreihe</i>, 1890).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">[485]</span></p> + + +<p class="center p1"><i>URINARY ANALYSIS</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">No.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Sp. Gr.<br>Water = 1000.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Appearance.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Colour.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Reaction to<br>Litmus.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Urea<br>per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Albumen.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Bile<br>Pigments.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Sugar.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Urobilin.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Dinitrobenzol.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">1029</td> + <td class="ctrr">Clear</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.6</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">1030</td> + <td class="ctrr">Clear</td> + <td class="ctrr">Yellow</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">Present</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">1024</td> + <td class="ctrr">Slight pp. mucus</td> + <td class="ctrr">Yellow</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">4</td> + <td class="ctrr">1021</td> + <td class="ctrr">Slight pp. mucus</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">1025</td> + <td class="ctrr">Heavy red pp.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">...</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Present</td> + <td class="ctrr">Trace</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">1027</td> + <td class="ctrr">Clear</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.3</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Faint trace</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">1026</td> + <td class="ctrr">Thick white pp.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Pale yellow</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.9</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Faint trace</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">8</td> + <td class="ctrr">1026</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red deposit</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Present</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">9</td> + <td class="ctrr">1022</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red deposit</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.0</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Present</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">10</td> + <td class="ctrr">1022</td> + <td class="ctrr">Clear</td> + <td class="ctrr">Yellow</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.8</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">11</td> + <td class="ctrr">1027</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red deposit</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">Trace</td> + <td class="ctrr">Trace</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Present</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rl">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">1025</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red deposit</td> + <td class="ctrr">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrr">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.9</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrr">Present</td> + <td class="ctrr">Nil</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right3rbl">13</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1024</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Red deposit</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Red brown</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Acid</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.8</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Nil</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Present</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Nil</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Dinitrobenzine is a powerful narcotic poison. Death in acute cases +is due to coma in man. Convulsions are frequently and generally +observed in animals. It is a powerful disintegrator of the blood, and +in dogs, cats, and rabbits causes oligocythemia, poikilocytosis, and +hæmoglobinæmia. So great is the destruction of the blood corpuscles +that Haldane attributes all the symptoms to the want of oxygen +consequent on changes in the blood. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">[486]</span> chronic poisoning men exhibit +the features of a peripheral neuritis, although this point has not +been confirmed by pathological investigation. Strassmann and Strecker +(Friedreich’s <i>Blätter für gerichtliche Medizin</i>, 1896), in dogs, +have obtained, by staining, degeneration of the lateral columns of +the cord. They also found irritation and catarrh of the stomach and +intestines, and after large doses small extravasations of broken-down +blood-clot, with swelling and cloudiness of the mucous membrane of the +stomach. There is also evidence of much tissue degeneration in the +organs, probably fatty. In men, post-mortem, we find that the lividity +entirely disappears, the skin becomes pale, and all the internal +organs, such as the heart, lungs, and liver, are of a pale yellowish +cast, and more friable than usual. The brain is of a dull pink colour, +and the veins of the body, and especially the meninges, are filled with +a thin, characteristically-fluid, black blood.</p> + +<p><i>Prognosis.</i>—Prognosis in cases of poisoning by dinitrobenzine +depends upon the amount absorbed, the time the men have been exposed +to it, and their previous health. The headache and general malaise +caused by small doses are usually recovered from in the course of a +few days. A week’s absence from work enables the men to regain their +usual energy, the appetite and urine becoming normal. Anæmia is a +very persistent trouble. If the number of blood corpuscles becomes +greatly decreased, it takes months to restore them. The peculiar dusky +colour of the skin can be detected by those who are conversant with +this symptom, even weeks after ceasing work. In cases of coma hours +may elapse before consciousness returns. Recovery has taken place +after insensibility lasting eight to twelve hours. In one fatal case +consciousness returned after nearly sixteen hours’ insensibility, but +death suddenly occurred half-an-hour afterwards, when the man was +being raised quickly and carelessly from the recumbent position. Cases +which are going to terminate fatally usually do so within twenty-four +hours. Some months may elapse before muscular power is fully restored. +The profound anæmia does not leave its mark permanently, it is +eventually entirely recovered from when the workers are removed to +other occupations. Workmen often affirm that after a time they become +accustomed to the effect of the poison. This is not so, any more than +individuals can become habituated to taking alcohol without being +affected by it. In the early stages of employment the workers notice +and complain of the effects of the poison, as it is new and strange +to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">[487]</span> them; eventually they come to regard the symptoms as necessary to +the work, and if slight, know from their own experience that, by more +care in the manipulation, or absence from work, the symptoms will pass +away. Any natural weakness is liable to be aggravated, and pre-existing +anæmia will be made worse.</p> + +<p><i>Precautions.</i>—With ordinary care the work is but slightly +harmful, but without care it becomes immediately dangerous. The +higher the percentage of dinitrobenzine used the greater the risk +and the necessity for care. The dinitrobenzine used should be, as +far as possible, chemically pure. We find a small admixture of +mononitrobenzine makes it more dangerous to manipulate (<i>Lancet</i>, +August 31, 1901). Commercial dinitrobenzine is a deadly poison, however +introduced into the system. All precautions have for their object the +prevention of poisonous quantities gaining access to the system, by the +dilution of the poison, and the avoidance of personal contact. Works +should be situated in the country. At the erection of the different +houses, much attention should be given to their construction and +arrangement. Each should be well isolated; not opening one into the +other, nor contiguous to another building. Each should be surrounded +by a plentiful air space, and have ample ventilation. Every house +should be provided with a lantern roof, containing rain-proof windows +easily opened and closed. The window space must be ample, and all +windows capable of being freely opened or entirely taken out. It is +often necessary to regulate the draught, and on windy days removing +the windows on the lee side will permit a free current of air, and +ample exit of the fumes, dust, and heat generated. No house should +be overcrowded with machinery, and the different processes should +be conducted as far as possible in separate buildings. All vessels, +melting pots, cooling trays, or pans containing a heated compound +must be provided with efficient and well-fitting covers, with flues +leading from them to the outside air. The floors, tables, covers of +pans, ledges, canisters, etc., in all the houses are to be kept clean +and free from dust, the powdered compound, and manufactured explosive; +and no utensils or useless articles are to be allowed in the houses. +Canisters containing the powder must be kept closed with a well-fitting +lid. No flue through which heated vapour has passed may be entered by +any person. The cleaning of such flues must be done automatically, or +from the outside of the building. Cooling trays should be in a shed +open on all sides to the external air. A house, or other shelter from +the weather, should be provided for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">[488]</span> the workmen to retire from the +vitiated atmosphere of the house whilst watching the operations.</p> + +<p>Wherever possible, the processes of grinding, filling, and emptying +utensils, hoppers, pans, and cartridges should be done automatically. +If done by hand, respirators should be used, and the men should be +careful to stand on the windward side of the pans when the covers +are off. Washing appliances should be freely supplied, preferably +near each house. Towels inside the houses are objectionable; even if +covered up they remain wet. Frequent washing of the hands with soap +and nail-brushes is most desirable. The face, beard, and head should +be kept clean, frequently washed, and free from dust. The beard, hair, +and nails should be cut short. The air in the houses should be kept +as dry as possible. Moisture in the atmosphere is always followed by +an increase in sickness. Low temperature and dry atmosphere cause a +proportionate decrease in the sick-rate. This is accounted for by +the fact, that moisture makes the powder cling to the exposed parts +of the body; perspiration has the same effect, as also some of the +deliquescent salts used. In winter the number of invalids is very +small, but during the hot summer months is greatly increased. In all +houses where there is much dust, respirators are essential. They are +of no use against the vaporised fumes. Cotton respirators fitting +over the nose and mouth, kept very clean and frequently renewed, are +least objected to by the workmen. Dr Snell has suggested a diving-bell +apparatus. Gloves are necessary when handling the material. The +importance of keeping the interior of the gloves scrupulously clean and +tight at the wristbands is self-evident.</p> + +<p>Special clothing should be provided, fitting well at the neck, wrists, +and overlapping at the buttons; the caps should fit close. All clothing +should be regularly washed, and never damp when put on. No overalls +should be allowed in the eating place; they should be always removed +before entering, and donned again before going into the working sheds. +Separate dressing and dining rooms should be provided, suitably +arranged with washing appliances.</p> + +<p>Medical inspection of the works should be made regularly, preferably at +the end of the week. The difference in the appearance of the employés +at the beginning and end of the week is very noticeable. The number +of visits should be not less than once a fortnight. In hot and damp +muggy weather, where there is extra pressure of work and longer hours, +and in the more dangerous processes, medical inspection should be more +frequent.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">[489]</span></p> + +<p>The inspection should include the sanitary condition of each house, +ventilation, number of hours worked, composition of the compound, +condition of each employé, sufficiency of washing and drying +requisites, the overalls, gloves, respirators, escape of vapour from +melting pots or flues, dustiness of the air, cleanliness of the houses, +and freedom of tables, floors, etc., from the powder. The surgeon +should warn the management of any peculiarly dangerous process, +suggest the number of hours to be worked, and notify any workman +whom he thinks unfit for it. He may find it necessary to advise an +earlier hour to begin work, on account of the heat, and more frequent +exchange of workers in the different departments of the manufactory. +In selecting men for work, he should choose men of middle age and +strong constitution, and, other things being equal, the less frequently +new hands are taken on the better. Young women, or nursing mothers, +should not be allowed to work, or handle the crude dinitro, the organic +compound, or the finished explosive. Pregnancy or anæmia should entail +dismissal. The medical officer should watch carefully new beginners +at the work, and initiate proper precautions to prevent chronic cases +becoming acute. A written notice of employés off work supposed to be +due to the effects of the poison should be sent to the medical officer +in charge, so that he may investigate the conditions and causes. +All employés should be examined and passed by the medical man, and +their condition noted before being taken on. He may find it necessary +to prescribe short shifts; this may mean either a short continuous +number of hours at the work, as in the filling houses; or frequent +intermission of work, as can be obtained by the mixing house workers. +Sometimes it is necessary to advise very limited spells of work. The +process of grinding and cleaning out of flues are operations attended +with serious risk. About six hours’ work in the mixing and filling +houses daily is as much as an average man can undertake. Headache, +sickness, nausea, and distaste for food in the morning should be looked +upon as warning symptoms, and men so affected should not be allowed to +persist at the work. Heavy muscular exertion is not desirable for those +who suffer from anæmia, or the cyanosis caused by the poison.</p> + +<p>Alcohol is contra-indicated, and all oils and fats are solvents of +dinitrobenzine. Lemons, apples, acid fruits and drinks, and milk, are +usually advised; the two latter may be ordered by the medical man with +advantage.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i>—There is no known antidote. Symptoms must be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">[490]</span> +combated as they arise. If the poison has been taken into the +stomach it must be immediately removed by the stomach tube. Oxygen +freely inhaled and saline infusion are necessary. Artificial warmth, +diffusible stimulants, and perfect rest must be persisted in until +all danger from syncope is past. Warm, easily-assimilated liquid food +per mouth and rectum must be given. Later the anæmia requires general +tonics, fresh air, and good food.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Robert Prosser White.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">[491]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXIII<br> +<span class="subhed">DRY CLEANING BY MEANS OF BENZINE</span></h2></div> + +<p>The cleaning of gloves and stained garments by means of benzine is an +occupation which gives employment to large numbers of people. In some +dry-cleaning establishments naphtha alone is used, so that what has +already been said of naphtha in connection with indiarubber trades will +equally apply here. The soiled articles are first washed with naphtha +and soap in an out-building in which no naked lights are allowed, and +then put into a revolving cylinder filled with naphtha. When benzine +is the cleansing agent, two kinds are made use of: (1) a petroleum +spirit obtained from mineral oil, and (2) spirit obtained from coal +tar. In several dry-cleaning establishments fires have suddenly, and +often in a most mysterious and unexplained manner, broken out. They +have been attributed to friction, electric sparks, and to accidental +ignition of the spirit by lucifer matches concealed in the clothes. +One of the first things attended to on the arrival of garments to be +cleaned is a thorough turning inside out of all the pockets, and the +removal particularly of any matches that may have been left therein, +also a stripping-off of all metallic buttons from coats, jackets, +etc. The workmen are not allowed to smoke nor to have in their +pockets any lucifer matches. The work is carried on in outbuildings, +one side of which is quite open, so that the freest ventilation +possible is obtained. No naked, nor artificial, light of any kind is +allowed in these buildings. The garments, after having been examined +on their arrival, and sorted, are placed in a revolving drum that +contains benzine, and which can be hermetically closed, or in a fixed +machine within which there is a revolving cylinder that contains the +spirit. By either of these methods the clothes are brought into the +closest contact with the benzine. After the garments have thus been +sufficiently agitated and cleaned by contact with the benzine, they are +removed and placed in a machine known as a hydro-extractor, whereby +the excess of spirit is removed. This liquid is allowed to settle, the +supernatant clean<span class="pagenum" id="Page_492">[492]</span> spirit is decanted off and redistilled. The garments +on being removed from the hydro-extractor are rinsed in clean spirit, +put through the hydro-extractor again, removed, dried, and finished.</p> + +<p>The risks incurred by the workpeople are twofold: (1) danger from fire +and explosions; (2) effects of inhalation of the benzine. Fires, as +already mentioned, occur in dry-cleaning establishments under the most +mysterious circumstances. In one establishment that I visited eight +fires and explosions had occurred in fifteen years. In the summer +evenings when the weather is sultry, and perhaps several hours after +the employés have left off working, fires have broken out in these +establishments. The cause of the fire is often unexplainable. It is +believed that benzine has a tendency to undergo spontaneous combustion, +and that this can be prevented by the addition of a small quantity of +oil soap, ¹⁄₁₀ to ¹⁄₁₀₀ per cent., to the benzine, and well mixed with +it. This soap is prepared according to the patent of an Austrian firm, +Messrs L. Schutte, Landsberg, & Co., by dissolving one kilo of caustic +potass, or soda, in four kilos of alcohol. To a litre of this solution +one and three-quarter litres of oleic acid are added and the mixture +heated. In order to keep the salt in solution there should be added +to every 100 parts of the mixture, either before or after heating it, +250 parts of carbon tetrachloride, benzol, benzine, or other suitable +solvent. Experience has shown that too great care cannot be taken in +regard to the manipulation and storage of benzine. Materials that have +just been removed from or cleaned with benzine should on no account +be brought near a fire or naked light. Care has to be exercised, too, +that naphtha and benzine are not poured into the drains in considerable +quantity, for they give off explosive vapours which are dangerous when +workmen enter the large drains in a city with naked lights.</p> + +<p>Inhalation of the vapours of benzine affect people differently. Some +persons are more susceptible than others, and are obliged to retire +from the work while others can remain at it. Its effects are more +noticeable in young women than men. Females on the whole are more +readily intoxicated, they become excited and hysterical. The power of +walking is not interfered with. Both men and women complain of headache +and giddiness after working in an atmosphere laden with benzine vapour. +Occasionally they vomit. Although women seem to be more susceptible +than men, yet even the men become intoxicated and feel as if they +were drunk. On a sultry afternoon the effects are more pronounced. +The workpeople are often obliged to leave the rooms and go out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_493">[493]</span> into +the fresh air. The vapour of benzine produces in some people a heavy, +sleepy feeling, with a sense of great tiredness, amounting to a loss of +muscular power and followed by a temporary defect of memory. Naphtha +produces similar symptoms. As its vapour is heavier than atmospheric +air, the workmen suffer most in hot, close weather.</p> + +<p><i>Prevention.</i>—The air of the workroom should be kept as pure +as possible by means of artificial ventilation. In the place where +gloves are cleaned the air should be renewed by the running of a fan. +No food should be allowed to be taken into the workroom. Attached to +each revolving cylinder in which the garments are agitated along with +benzine there ought to be an automatic fire-extinguisher. There should +be plenty of loose sand lying about to put out any accidental fire, and +there ought to be blankets in readiness to throw round any one whose +clothes have caught fire. Woollen outer garments should be worn by the +workpeople. If a dry-cleaning establishment is a few storeys high, +there ought to be fire-escape ladders provided.</p> + +<p>Workpeople who have become excited or intoxicated by the benzine +should be taken into the fresh air. It is by the respiratory organs +that the spirit which has been taken into the blood leaves the system. +Anæmic girls who are subject to headache should give up the work, for +experience shows that the inhalation of benzine aggravates headache.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_494">[494]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXIV<br> +<span class="subhed">USE OF INFLAMMABLE OR SPIRIT PAINTS</span></h2></div> + +<p>Inflammable paints have only come into use within the last twenty +years. Known in the trade as <i>quickly drying, composite</i> or +<i>spirit</i> paints, they are principally used for painting the +interior of ships that put into dock and which the owners can only +allow to stay there for two or three days. By their use a ship can +be painted and turned out of dock according to the number of men put +on to do the work in from one to three days. To the owners of modern +steam-ships time is money, and consequently there has grown up of +late a considerable demand for these paints. It is in the drying of +the ordinary oil-paint that there occurs delay not only in regard +to the laying on of a second coating, but in the utilisation of the +painted spaces afterwards. With these quickly drying paints it is +quite otherwise. Mr James H. Edwards, formerly of Messrs Edwards, +ship repairers, South Shields, informs me that in half-an-hour or +thereabouts after the first coating of spirit paint has been put on +another layer can be applied. They are used more in the painting of old +than of new boats. Instead of being ground with oil, the colours are +mixed with methylated or petroleum spirit, or with benzine. The paints +may contain lead, but there is less danger from the lead than from the +spirit. It is the spirit which confers upon these paints their quickly +drying properties, but at the same time it renders them extremely +dangerous to the workmen alike from inhalation of the vapour and its +inflammability. In investigating this question along with my colleagues +of the Dangerous Trades Committee of the Home Office, our attention was +specially drawn to the fact that as these paints are generally employed +for coating spaces in ships that are confined and often dark, men have +worked therein with naked lights, and, as a consequence, explosions and +fires have occurred. Too often the workman is alone in the confined +space, and as he may be rendered unconscious not only by the spirituous +vapours rising from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_495">[495]</span> paint, but, in the event of fire, by the +products of combustion, he is quite unable to extricate himself from +his perilous position. I have seen one man with burns nearly over the +whole of his body who had been rescued with difficulty from the bunker +in which he was working. It is not only in the confined spaces in the +interior of ships that fires suddenly break out, they are not unknown +during the painting of the outside of a ship in a dry dock. Momentarily +and without any explanation, unless it be that the wind has fanned a +naked light or blown a spark, the side of a ship may be enveloped in +flame which is just as suddenly extinguished.</p> + +<p>It is during the painting of the bunkers, fore and aft peaks, tunnels, +ballast tanks, and the holds of ships that the greatest risk is +incurred, and especially in the former, since only one man as a rule +can work in these confined spaces at a time. Men have been known, after +working in one of these confined spaces, to have become excited as if +intoxicated, and on being removed to the open air they have vomited. +The ejected contents of the stomach have smelt strongly of the spirit +paint they were using. For a short period the men have seemed dazed and +stupid, and would have fallen if unsupported.</p> + +<p>Sometimes exposure of an hour or less to the vapours given off by +the paint in a contracted chamber is sufficient to induce unpleasant +symptoms. Men have become unconscious in the bunkers and have had to be +extricated. On being placed on deck in the open air they have looked +pale rather than cyanosed. In some instances where the symptoms have +been less severe, there have been difficulty of breathing and a sense +of suffocation in the chest, but as a rule these are absent. There +is often complaint of a swimming in the head and a feeling of great +uncertainty and want of self-confidence, while in other instances the +individual falls soundly asleep. Now and again, when the men have been +removed from the bunkers bleeding has occurred at the nose. As a rule +the intoxicating and stupefying effects of these spirit paints soon +pass off on exposing the workman to the open air.</p> + +<p>In some of the men I observed a well-marked blue line on the gums, +showing that in addition to the danger caused by inhaling spirituous +vapours their system at the same time had been exposed to the risk of +lead poisoning.</p> + +<p><i>Prevention.</i>—Since these spirit compositions cannot be used +to paint the inside of peaks, bunkers, and tunnels of ships, without +running considerable risk to the workmen, clearly their employment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_496">[496]</span> +ought to be prohibited in confined spaces. It is courting disaster +to paint the inside of any cramped space, ingress to or egress from +which can only take place through a man-hole. No naked lights should +be allowed in these places. Illumination should be secured either +by a safety lamp or by the electric light. All the workmen whom I +have interrogated are unanimously of opinion that the work should be +periodically interrupted. Every hour or two, according to the more or +less confined character of the chamber in which the paints are being +used, the workmen should go into the open air for several minutes. +Six hours’ work a day should be the maximum, and this ought to be +divided into equal halves, separated at least by one and a half hour’s +interval. Since there is considerable risk from fire and explosion, no +young or inexperienced person should be allowed to use these paints, +and under all circumstances men on being employed for the first time +should be informed of the dangers and of the risks they are running. +Where a workman is painting the inside of a confined space in a ship +with spirit paint he should be frequently visited by a foreman, to see +that all is well.</p> + +<p>When an individual has become intoxicated through the vapours given +off by composite paints, the best treatment is to take him into the +open air, and to wrap him up in rugs so as to avoid the chance of his +being chilled. When the workman has sufficiently recovered, he should +be accompanied home by some of his mates, put to bed, kept warm, and a +saline aperient administered at the earliest opportunity.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_497">[497]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXV<br> +<span class="subhed">ACETYLENE AND ITS DANGERS</span></h2></div> + + +<p>All details relating to the manufacture of coal-gas, water-gas, or +oil-gas, and to the incidental risks both to the worker and the +consumer, are well known, having been treated by many reliable +authorities. Acetylene gas, however, is a comparatively modern +illuminant, growing in public favour, and now that the manufacture of +calcium carbide is not confined to the United States, Canada, and the +Continent, but is produced also in the United Kingdom, it is probable +that the adoption of acetylene will become more general.</p> + +<p>For country houses, country churches, railway stations, isolated +factories and workshops, Indian bungalows, and other places where a +cheap and ready supply of coal-gas or electricity is not available, +acetylene will be particularly appreciated. Its uses, however, are more +extended. On the Continent many towns are lighted with this gas. The +Town Commissioners have expressed satisfaction with it as an illuminant +for the town of Boyle. For photographic purposes, carriage lamps, magic +lanterns, bicycle lamps, etc., acetylene is largely used.</p> + +<p>A brief description of the manufacture will be interesting. The +writer, owing to the fact that there are as yet few carbide of calcium +manufactories in the United Kingdom, can speak with only a limited +experience, but he is indebted for information to the Read-Holliday +Acetylene Company, to an article which appeared in the <i>Public Health +Journal</i> for 29th September 1900, to one on “Electrical Furnaces” +recently published in the <i>Windsor Magazine</i>, and to other sources.</p> + +<p>The introduction of electrical furnaces capable of producing intense +heat has rendered it possible to melt and join together such infusible +elements as lime and carbon. When the furnaces are cool, the compound +formed is known as “calcium carbide.” If dropped in water it +decomposes; some authorities say, almost with an explosion. If simply +damped, the decomposition is slower,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_498">[498]</span> the product given off being +the gas known as “acetylene,”—a colourless gas, stated to contain +by weight 24 parts of carbon and 2 parts of hydrogen. In England the +electrical furnaces are practically arc lamps on a large scale, the +bottom of the furnace being a large carbon block electrically connected +to the positive pole of the generator, whilst the upper carbon is +connected to the negative. By a simple arrangement the negative pole +can be raised or lowered at will, to strike the arc or regulate the +intensity of the furnace. A mixture of lime and coke, in the form of +fine powder, is thrown into the furnaces for fusion, and when cool it +is taken away in lumps ready for use.</p> + +<p>Seeing that this industry is one of very modern date, it is of interest +to consider whether acetylene gas, during the process of manufacture or +in use, is likely to produce injury to health or life. This question +may be considered under the following heads:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The inhalation of dust during the crushing processes and in +feeding the furnaces.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The fumes evolved from the furnaces.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The danger of electric shock to the workers.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Explosion during the stages of manufacture.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Explosion, or risk of inhalation of gas, when in use.</p> + +<p>During the operation of grinding carbon and lime, and when feeding +the furnaces, more or less fine dust must of necessity arise, unless +this is prevented by mechanical appliances of a somewhat expensive +kind. Some of this dust will be held in suspension by the atmosphere +and inhaled by the workers, but as the work is done in practically +open sheds, and as the industry is of comparatively recent origin, it +is impossible at present to say whether injury to health is caused. +Labourers engaged in quarrying limestone are said to be healthy +men. The late Dr Arlidge, when referring to workmen employed about +lime-kilns, stated that there are grounds for believing that the +carbonic acid of respiration is capable of acting upon lime-dust and +ridding the lungs of it.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Fumes must of necessity be given off from the furnaces, but +mechanical ventilating fans render these harmless.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Little fear of electric shock need be apprehended in this +country, the voltage being low, although the current is strong—a +result attained by the aid of several brushes and heavy copper strips +for conveying the current to the carbons forming the furnaces. An +interesting article recently published in the <i>Windsor Magazine</i> +describes a visit to Niagara Falls, where the largest furnaces in the +world are operated, and where, amongst other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">[499]</span> industries, is found the +manufacture of calcium carbide. Furnaces on the arc and incandescent +principle are employed. The current enters the building at a voltage +of 2200, to be transformed to about 100 volts, which approximates the +pressure found in English works.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) An accident of a serious (but happily a non-fatal) nature +recently occurred at works in which the calcium carbide, when cool, +is stored in 8 cwt. metal tanks, ready to be sent away. It appears +that some moisture had found its way into a returned tank. This was +unobserved by a worker, who placed about 4 cwts. of the material +into it, screwed the lid down, and left the works for the night. The +tank stood about 15 feet from the electric furnace. A mechanical fan +for ventilating purposes was running, and caused a current from the +direction of the tanks to the furnace. As a natural result, gas was +generated in the tank during the night. The workman, before resuming +work in the morning, took off the lid, liberating the gas, which was at +once ignited by the furnace, causing explosion, and seriously injuring +the man. The obvious lesson is, that tanks should be carefully examined +for moisture or leakage before filling, and that under no circumstances +should the filling be done near the furnaces, but in another room, in +which there are no lights and no probability of “sparking” from any +electrical machine.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) On the first adoption of acetylene, accidents happened, +giving rise to a general belief that it was dangerous. The following +extracts from Orders in Council issued at various times will show that +the Government officials were fully alive to this danger, and that +from time to time precautions to safeguard the public have been taken. +By an Order in Council dated 26th February 1897, certain parts of the +Petroleum Acts, 1871–1881, were made to apply to carbide of calcium, +and it was laid down that:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The label on the vessel containing the carbide of calcium shall +bear in conspicuous characters the words ‘Carbide of Calcium,’ +‘Dangerous if not kept dry,’ and with the following caution: +‘The contents of this package are liable if brought into contact +with moisture to give off a highly inflammable gas,’ and with +the addition:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">“(<i>a</i>) In the case of a vessel kept, of the name and +address of the consignee or owner.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">“(<i>b</i>) In the case of a vessel sent or conveyed, of +the name and address of the sender.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">“(<i>c</i>) In the case of a vessel sold or exposed for +sale, of the name and address of the vendor.”</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_500">[500]</span></p> + +<p>On the 7th July 1897, an Order in Council amended the Order of 26th +February 1897, by prescribing that:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Notwithstanding anything to the contrary in the said Order, +the quantity of carbide of calcium which may be kept without a +licence shall be as follows:—</p> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">“(<i>a</i>) Where it is kept in separate substantial hermetically closed metal +vessels containing not more than 1 lb. each</td> + <td class="ctr">5 lbs.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">“(<i>b</i>) Where it is kept otherwise</td> + <td class="ctr">None.”</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="p1">By a further Order in Council, dated 26th November 1897, it was laid +down that:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Acetylene when liquid, or when subject to a pressure above +that of the atmosphere, capable of supporting a column of +water exceeding one hundred inches in height, and whether or +not in admixture with other substances, shall be deemed to +be an explosive within the meaning of the Explosives Act of +1875, subject to the following exception; that if it be shown +to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene, +declared to be explosive by this Order when in admixture with +any substance, or in any form or condition, is not possessed +of explosive properties, the Secretary of State may, by Order, +exempt such acetylene from being deemed to be an explosive.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="p1">The Order further prescribed that:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Whereas by section 43 of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is +provided that Her Majesty, from time to time by Order in +Council, may prohibit, either absolutely, or except in pursuance +of a licence of the Secretary of State under the said Act, or +may subject to conditions or restrictions, the manufacture, +keeping, importation from any place out of the United Kingdom, +conveyance, and sale, or any of them, of any explosive which is +of so dangerous a character, that in the judgment of Her Majesty +it is expedient for the public safety to make such Order.</p> + +<p>“And whereas it is in the judgment of Her Majesty expedient for +the public safety that acetylene, when an explosive within the +meaning of this Order, shall be prohibited.</p> + +<p>“Now, therefore, in pursuance of the above-mentioned provision +of this Act, Her Majesty is pleased, by and with the advice +of Her Privy Council, to order and prescribe that acetylene, +declared to be an explosive by this Order, shall be prohibited +from being manufactured, imported, conveyed, or sold.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="p1">An Order of the Secretary of State, dated 28th March 1898, provided as +follows:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Acetylene in admixture with oil-gas in a proportion not +exceeding twenty parts by volume of acetylene in every one +hundred parts of the mixture, when subjected to a pressure not +exceeding one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch, shall +not be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the +Explosives Act, 1875.</p> + +<p>“Provided that the acetylene and oil-gas shall be mixed together +in a chamber or vessel before the gases are subjected to +compression.”</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_501">[501]</span></p> + +<p class="p1">Lastly, an Order of 15th May 1900 required:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“That acetylene in admixture with air or oxygen, declared to +be an explosive by this Order, shall be prohibited from being +manufactured, imported, conveyed, or sold.</p> + +<p>“Provided that nothing in this Order shall apply to acetylene +in admixture with air when such admixture takes place only in +a burner or contrivance in which the mixture is intended to be +burnt.</p> + +<p>“Provided also that nothing in this Order shall be held to apply +to an admixture of acetylene and air which may unavoidably +occur in the first use or re-charging of an apparatus, properly +designed and constructed with a view to the production of pure +acetylene.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="p1">A Committee of the Society of Arts, London, was appointed to +investigate the subject and frame rules for the safe construction +of acetylene apparatus, and it is claimed (justly I believe) by +manufacturers such as the Read-Holliday Acetylene Company, Lockerby and +Wilson Limited, and others, that their apparatus fulfils the conditions +laid down by the Committee, and that now their appliances may be used +with perfect safety. Messrs Tinker & Holliday, of Huddersfield, who +manufacture carbide of calcium, give their assurance that they have +sold more than 1000 machines, mostly of a large size, some of 600 +lights, and that there has never yet been an accident of any kind. +On the other hand, it must be remembered that, as acetylene is more +explosive than coal-gas, exceptional care should be taken as to where +generators are placed, and to avoid the use of lights where leakage +is suspected. Early last November a representative of an acetylene +firm visited an hotel in a country town in Derbyshire to inspect the +generator. The newspapers state that immediately after striking a match +a loud explosion occurred, in consequence of which his face and hand +were injured.</p> + +<p>The <i>Chemical Trade Journal</i> for 16th June 1900 contains a +paragraph of public interest, relating to the safety of calcium +carbide, which may perhaps with advantage be here reproduced:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The large army of insurance agents and adjusters who are now +in Ottawa settling the losses incurred through the recent fire +have lately had before them an object lesson which should remove +any doubts that may have been entertained as to the safety of +storing carbide of calcium. According to a communication we have +received from Mr Andrew Holland of the Board of Trade, Ottawa, +when the fire reached the furnace-room of the Dominion Carbide +Works, everything in it that would burn was consumed. Three pigs +of carbide, however, in three crucibles remained in perfect +condition as evidence that they did not explode. The grinding +and mixing department and warehouse were in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_502">[502]</span> another building, +and every effort was made to prevent the fire from reaching it; +but the very strong wind blowing, and the vast rush of flame, +enveloped all the buildings in the vicinity, and they were in a +few minutes reduced to ruins. In the carbide warehouses there +were 15 tons of carbide, packed in rolled steel cans with screw +covers. When the floor burned, the carbide dropped through into +the cellar, in which a foot of water had collected from the +firemen’s hose. Here was an ideal combination for an explosion, +if carbide is an explosive. Several cans were broken in the +fall, owing to the intense heat having opened the seams, and the +carbide was dumped into the water. Gas was generated in immense +quantities, but it simply burned with a low steady flame, making +less show than two cartloads of coke on fire in the immediate +vicinity. Had the cellar been dry, the carbide could have been +all saved after the fire; but it continued to soak up the water +and make gas for some days, and the burning gas kept the carbide +so hot, that it could not be handled. As it was, about a ton +of it was shovelled out and packed in new cans. Two of the +cans were dug out whole from the hot mass, and saved with the +carbide, though they were burned like old, worn-out stove-pipes. +The insurance agents admit that they have had a practical +demonstration which had convinced them how much the ‘risks’ of +calcium carbide have been over-estimated.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is claimed by the manufacturers of acetylene that it possesses +certain hygienic advantages over other gases, these being—a less +consumption of oxygen, a less addition of carbonic acid to the +atmosphere, less heating of the air, and freedom from sulphur +compounds. The illumination is stated to be brilliant, but not +injurious to the eyes. On this point, however, it does not appear that +oculists in this country have pronounced definite opinions, although +individual medical practitioners have reported favourably. Dr W. A. +M’Keown, in his <i>Treatise on Unripe Cataract</i>, in a chapter on +“Suitable Light and Optical Aids,” says: “Fortunately, however, it is +now within the power of the surgeon to whom the electric light is not +available to have acetylene light, an illuminant at least as good as +the electric light, and very well borne by the eyes.”</p> + +<p>An article by Professor Thomas Oliver, published in the <i>British +Medical Journal</i> of 23rd April 1898, and entitled “Acetylene, the +New Illuminant, and the Dangers arising from its Inhalation,” is +probably the only authoritative statement yet published dealing with +the physiological effects of acetylene gas. In a brief paper such as +this, many details describing the methods of experiment adopted by Dr +Oliver must be omitted, but the following is an attempt to summarise +the conclusions arrived at by him:—</p> + +<p>A mixture of air and acetylene commences to be explosive when it +contains 5 per cent. of acetylene (Captain Thomson,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_503">[503]</span> H.M. Chief +Inspector of Explosives, thinks 3 per cent.), whereas it requires +the presence of 8 per cent. of coal-gas to make a similar mixture +explosive. It is therefore more explosive than coal-gas. Acetylene +has an excessively pungent and disagreeable odour, but this, although +a disadvantage in some ways, acts as a warning to individuals of its +presence. Generators for private mansions, etc., should be placed in +the open air, or in a covered shed open at the sides. In the case of +coal-gas and water-gas, death supervenes by asphyxia, owing to the +carbon-monoxide entering into extremely stable combinations with the +hæmoglobin of the blood. If a rabbit is placed in a bell-jar into which +ordinary air and acetylene are pumped, the animal for a long period +experiences little inconvenience. If atmospheric air is excluded, and +acetylene only admitted, symptoms gradually and slowly develop. After +more lengthened exposure to acetylene than that which is necessary for +coal-gas, the animal becomes intoxicated, stupor stealing over it, +apparently painlessly. When somnolence has been induced and asphyxia +not pushed too far, the rabbit, if placed in atmospheric air, shortly +afterwards moves about in as lively a manner as if it had not been +interfered with. Should the inhalation, however, have been pushed +further, and the animal be deeply narcotised, death may ensue. In the +minor stages of asphyxia, vascular tension is maintained, but in the +deeper stages the vessels are so deeply contracted, that it is almost +impossible to obtain a drop of blood. On spectroscopic examination, +the blood of a rabbit at different stages of intoxication from +acetylene always exhibits the well-marked bands of oxyhæmoglobin, but, +unlike the blood in coal-gas poisoning, it is capable of undergoing +reduction. In this respect it behaves like ordinary blood. If asphyxia +caused by acetylene is not too profound—and under ordinary domestic +circumstances it would not be a pure acetylene atmosphere that would +be inhaled by an individual, but one mixed with a large proportion +of common air—the danger to life seems to be less than it would +be in coal-gas poisoning, and the prospect of recovery by removal +to atmospheric air greater. Death may supervene, however, if the +inhalation has been lengthened, and atmospheric air excluded. In the +treatment of unconsciousness caused by the inhalation of acetylene gas, +it is necessary to remove the individual into the open air, and to try +artificial respiration.</p> + +<p>Since this brief article was framed, a handbook for the student<span class="pagenum" id="Page_504">[504]</span> and +manufacturer has been published by Professor Vivian Lewis, dealing +in an exhaustive form with everything relating to acetylene. It is +illustrated profusely, and doubtless will become a standard book of +reference.</p> + +<p>In November 1900, the Foreign Office published a Consular Report by Dr +Frederick Rose, H.M. Consul at Stuttgart, on “The Rise, Progress, and +Present Condition of the Carbide and Acetylene Industries in Germany,” +containing statistics and detailed information of considerable value, +but which cannot well be here reproduced. It is shown that thirty towns +or villages in Germany, with populations varying from 6000 to 382, are +lighted by acetylene. In Berlin the Imperial Post Office has made a +beginning by lighting two of its branch post offices with this gas, and +has installed an apparatus with sixty jets in the head post office. In +July 1898, 62,000 jets of acetylene were installed in Germany. In the +first months of 1899 the number had increased to 170,000. Reference +is made to a new application of calcium carbide in the production of +pure metals from their ores by its use as a reducing agent; to the +manufacture of lampblack, it being stated that acetylene gives three to +four times as much lampblack as good oil-gas; and to an invention which +utilises carbide for the production of converted steel, as well as for +hardening armour-plate after Harvey’s process.</p> + +<p>On 1st December 1900, <i>The Public Health Engineer</i> devoted the +whole of its issue to acetylene, and as the article gives in detail +descriptions of generators and other appliances made by practically +all recognised firms, together with a statement of what is claimed in +regard to safety and economy in use, it may be helpful to mention this +publication, for the benefit of inquirers.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Hamilton P. Smith.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_505">[505]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXVI<br> +<span class="subhed">FLOUR MILLS</span></h2></div> + + +<p>Flour-milling as conducted in this country a few decades ago was, +despite the fact that most of the mills were situated in the country, +an unhealthy industry. Flour millers died from pulmonary consumption +and chest diseases in a larger proportion than men engaged in other +trades in the same district. The average life of a miller was said to +be forty-three years. Hirt compiled tables of the comparative sickness +of millers and bakers, and he showed that while of one hundred bakers +seven died from pulmonary phthisis, out of the same number of millers +the deaths were ten. Bakers and millers seemed to him to be about +equally predisposed to emphysema of the lungs, but as regards pneumonia +the mortality figure for bakers was 8.4 per cent. as against 42 per +cent. for millers. These statistics are taken from a German source, and +it is difficult to explain the very heavy mortality rate from pneumonia +in millers compared with that of bakers.</p> + +<p>Until within thirty years ago all the wheat and oats in this +country were ground between revolving stones. During the grinding +a considerable amount of fine dust was given off, the continual +inhalation of which was held responsible for much of the ill-health of +the operatives. So unhealthy was the occupation of milling believed +to be twenty years ago, that Friendly Societies would not accept +operative millers as members. To-day no objection is raised. In +addition to injury to health from breathing the dust-laden atmosphere, +there was a risk from fire owing to the highly explosive character +of the dust. While danger to life from explosions in flour mills +still to some extent prevails, both it and the risk to health from +inhalation of the dust have materially diminished. There is the widest +divergence possible between the old and the new methods of milling. The +introduction of the steam roller system of milling from Buda-Pesth, and +the fact that nearly all the various processes are carried on inside +closed machinery, have cleared the atmosphere of modern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_506">[506]</span> flour mills +and converted what was admittedly a dangerous trade into one that +compares very favourably with most occupations. Wherever the old method +of milling is still carried on the atmosphere is found laden with a +very fine dust, mostly flour. This with each inspiration is drawn into +the bronchial tubes of the miller, and forms plugs with the mucus +secreted by these passages. The plugs, owing to their tenacity, are +dislodged with difficulty. It is not contended that the flour itself +reaches the lungs; probably the whole, or at any rate the most of it, +becomes entangled in the mucus of the smallest bronchial tubes, but +in the dust there are other things than flour present, <i>e.g.</i>, +portions of the husks of harder grain than wheat, portions of hairs +of oats, bristles of rye, and particles of mineral from the grinding +stones (see Microphotographs, page 276), so that through one thing and +another, and in consequence of the repeated bronchial irritation and +the cough caused by respiring the dust-laden air, a strain is imposed +upon the lungs that leads to over-distension of the air cells, or what +is known as pulmonary emphysema. That portions of bristle, etc., are +capable of being inhaled into the deeper recesses of the respiratory +passages is shown by the presence of these bristles on microscopical +examination of the expectoration that has been discharged after hard +coughing.</p> + +<p>As a nation we are dependent upon foreign countries for our food +supplies, especially wheat. Some of the wheat that is imported is +extremely dirty, particularly that from the River Plate, India, and +Persia. It not only contains small stones and sand, and the husks of +other seeds, but often particles of soil that have been contaminated by +manure. In going over a large modern flour mill one is struck by the +amount of dirt that is taken out of wheat. It is therefore necessary to +clean the grain, which is done by first removing all solid impurities +and then washing it. To clean it, the wheat is passed through a +separator composed of sieves that are kept vibrating. By this means the +larger impure particles are removed, while by the operation of a strong +current of air the lighter dust is sucked away. After this preliminary +cleaning the wheat is taken to rotatory sieves, which size the grain +and thereby separate the larger from the smaller seeds. It is now ready +to be washed. This is done by allowing the wheat to fall into a tank of +warm water, through which a stream is constantly running. From this it +is removed to dryers and coolers. It is only the very dirty wheat that +is washed. Some of it is simply scoured and brushed inside a conical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_507">[507]</span> +iron cylinder by means of beaters or brushes that are revolving +rapidly. The dust given off escapes through fine slot holes.</p> + +<p>In modern flour mills the dangers that operatives are exposed to are: +(1) those incidental to the machinery; (2) fire and explosions; and +(3) inhalation of dust. It is with the latter that we are here most +concerned. The cleaning of wheat is a dusty process, but it is usually +carried on within enclosed machinery, and so long as this and all the +covered-in spaces are provided with fans that are kept in good order, +and the pipes leading away from these to the dust chambers are kept +patent, the workmen do not seem to incur any great risk to health. +Attention, however, must be given to keeping the suction-pipes clean +and the fans in good order, otherwise, as cleaning is a very dirty +process, the men would assuredly suffer in their chest. At several of +the large flour mills where Oriental wheat is ground, and to the grains +of which particles of manure are often adherent, I have on several +occasions interrogated the men as to whether any illness had ever +followed the washing of the foreign wheat, but in no instance could I +learn of any illness being traceable to such a source. Once the wheat +has been cleaned and brushed or washed, it is put through the rollers +and is milled into flour. This consists of not one but many processes, +all of which are conducted in enclosed chambers, the product at each +particular stage being lifted and carried onwards by self-regulating +machinery and elevators from one part of the mill to another. Where +the fittings of the machinery are good, no dust practically escapes. +Hence it is that flour-milling has ceased to be the harmful industry it +formerly was. In filling the sacks with flour, and in cleaning returned +sacks, there is often a considerable amount of dust given off, but +mechanical contrivances are now in operation that greatly minimise the +amount of dust, so that this particular operation too has become less +dangerous than it once was.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_508">[508]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXVII<br> +<span class="subhed">MINING</span></h2></div> + + +<p>The industry of mining, touching as it does the boundaries of nearly +every field of human activity, necessarily presents itself under so +many and such different aspects, that the complete study of the risks +to life, limb, and health to which those engaged in it are exposed, +involves an unusually large number of diversified considerations. It +is here proposed to examine only the risks that are more directly +incidental to mining proper, and these again only in so far as they +affect the miners themselves, leaving out of consideration entirely +the dangers to which mining operations may expose the population in +whose midst they have to be carried on, although these are far from +unimportant, including, for example, such accidents as a fall down an +unfenced shaft, the destruction caused by the explosion of a dynamite +magazine, the possibility of being struck by a stone projected by a +blast, the injurious effects of fumes arising from smouldering waste +heaps, or from the calcination of pyritic ores, and extending in +extreme cases to the collapse of entire districts, as, for instance, in +the salt-mining area of Cheshire.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> + +<p>The entire subject of mining is generally looked upon as divisible into +three main branches, namely, “prospecting,” or the search for mineral +deposits; “mining” properly so called, or the exploitation of these +deposits; and “dressing,” or the preparation for the market of the +minerals produced.</p> + +<p>Of these three branches the risks incidental to the last named are +practically those to which workers in any ordinary factory are exposed, +and need not be further considered here; whilst minor accidents, such +as cuts and bruises, are common enough, especially when mineral is +broken by hand, serious casualties, on the other hand, are fortunately +rare. The only precautions needed are those indicated in all cases +where men, and in the case of dressing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_509">[509]</span> works, often boys, girls, and +women also are at work in the midst of machinery in motion. It may just +be mentioned that, in certain branches of gold mining, a solution of +cyanide of potassium is used as a solvent for extracting the gold; this +solution is not only extremely poisonous when taken internally, but +also produces in many instances painful sores on the hands and arms of +the men working with it.</p> + +<p>The life of the prospector is necessarily a most arduous one, and for +which men of exceptionally good physique and sound health are alone +suitable. The typical prospector starts off, generally by himself, +sometimes with a mate, to examine an unknown and at times uninhabited +district; or worse still, the inhabitants may be uncivilised races, +hostile to the white man, and thus their presence only introduces +another and a serious danger to the prospector. At the best he can only +carry a limited amount of food with him, and has often to depend on his +gun for a great part of his supplies. He has, therefore, to time his +journeys accurately, so as to enable him to get back to civilisation +before his stock of provisions or ammunition is exhausted, and many +a poor fellow has paid with his life for the rash eagerness that has +led him too far afield in his search for valuable minerals. In some +countries, such as Western Australia, not only has food to be arranged +for, but drink also, great areas being absolutely without potable +water; there is no doubt that many an explorer in this great auriferous +continent has perished of thirst<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> in his search for the precious +metal.</p> + +<p>When mining operations have to be undertaken by the prospector, these +usually take the form of sinking small shafts, less rarely of driving +levels. In either case the timbering is of the crudest character, +any branch of a tree, piece of bamboo, or similar weak support being +generally looked upon as sufficient. The windlass is usually a rough +concern, made entirely, or almost entirely, of wood, and the writer was +once a witness of the remarkably narrow escape of a prospector who was +being hoisted up a shaft by a couple of natives with the aid of such a +rudimentary windlass, after having lit a couple of shots in the shaft +bottom, when one of the rough wooden handles of the windlass suddenly +broke. To the risks incidental to working with imperfect appliances +must be added those due to the fact that only native labour, always +utterly inexperienced in mining and often unused to work of any kind, +is available, whilst the prospector has to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_510">[510]</span> undertake, single-handed, +the task of both instruction and supervision.</p> + +<p>It but rarely happens that the prospector is fortunate enough to +find a healthy climate at the scene of his operations, although such +is the case in some parts of Australia, South Africa, etc. As the +greater portion of the temperate zone habitable by civilised man has +been pretty well ransacked for minerals, the prospector is generally +compelled to resort to tropical regions for his hunting ground, and +is, therefore, often subject to all the risks of an unhealthy climate, +amongst which malarial fever in its various forms is perhaps the most +formidable. Prospecting in Central America, the northern half of South +America, West Africa, and Central Africa, parts of India, Siam, Burma, +the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula, and some parts of Australia means +in each case the strong probability, amounting almost to a certainty, +of being attacked by malaria, which, though not necessarily fatal, +only too often undermines the strongest constitution. Finally, it must +be remembered that whenever a rich “strike” has been made and a rush +sets in to any small area, the townships that spring up thus suddenly +are invariably unhealthy at first, even in the healthiest climates. +“What is everybody’s business is nobody’s business,” and the most +elementary rules of sanitation are disregarded with the most frightful +recklessness, until the number of victims becomes so serious as to +compel attention. In this way Kimberley, Johannesburg, Coolgardie, +Menzies, etc., have all been visited by epidemics of typhoid or enteric +fever.</p> + +<p>That the Polar regions are no more favourable to the prospector than +are the Tropics is only too clearly shown by the death-roll of those +who have been seeking their fortunes of recent years in the Yukon and +other similar parts of far North-Western America. Statistics of the +mortality of prospectors, whether by disease or by accident, are, of +course, not available in any form, but no one who has had much to +do with prospecting can fail to recognise that there are few more +dangerous, just as there are few more fascinating, occupations.</p> + +<p>Turning next to mining proper, as carried on in civilised countries, +it becomes necessary to investigate separately the accidents and the +diseases incidental to the miners’ calling. Careful statistics of +mining accidents are kept by many countries, notably Germany, France, +Belgium, and Great Britain, and a comparison of these statistics would, +no doubt, enable us to deduce<span class="pagenum" id="Page_511">[511]</span> results of the highest importance if +these statistics were at all comparable. Unfortunately, however, the +definitions of what constitutes a mining accident on the one hand, and +of what constitutes a fatal mining accident on the other, are either +extremely vague, or else will be found to differ in each country. +In Great Britain we have no legal definition at all. The Coal Mines +Regulations Act, section 35, merely says that “loss of life” or +“serious personal injury” due to an accident must be reported, unless +the accident be due to “any explosion of gas, or of any explosive, or +of any steam-boiler,” when every personal injury whatever, whether +serious or not, has to be reported. The Act, construed literally, +seems to require only the reporting of any accident that is instantly +fatal, or of a serious accident that terminates fatally under the +head of “Loss of Life.” If a trivial accident, such as would not need +reporting under the Act, happens to end fatally, as, <i>e.g.</i>, when +a slight cut or scratch causes blood-poisoning and ultimately death, +the Act seems to deliberately exclude such accidents from the list of +fatalities. In the absence of clear legal guidance, most inspectors +seem to include in their list of fatal accidents all accidents of any +kind whatever that terminate fatally within a year and a day from +the date of the occurrence of the accident. This may not be law, but +it is certainly common sense. The term “serious personal injury” is +interpreted very differently in different places, the ultimate decision +resting with the colliery manager and the colliery doctor. Thus one +doctor may hold that a simple fracture is not a “serious” accident, +and need not be reported; whilst another may consider a bad cut or +bruise, perhaps not sufficient even to lay a man off for a day, as a +“serious” accident, though the majority rather incline to the view that +no accident is “serious” unless there is rather more than a possibility +that it will end fatally. This wide discrepancy of opinion makes it +very difficult to compare fairly the accident statistics of different +parts of the Kingdom, and, as the sequel will show, the British +official non-fatal accident statistics are practically worthless.</p> + +<p>In Germany each state or kingdom has its own mining law. The Prussian +law, which is the most important by far of any, and which all the +others follow more or less closely, merely says, that any accident +that has caused death or serious injury to one or more persons must +be at once reported. The accident statistics based upon these reports +are, therefore, even less satisfactory than our own; it would appear +as though the law contemplated only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_512">[512]</span> the inclusion of cases of +instantaneous death in the list of fatal accidents, whilst non-fatal +accidents are quite undefined. The Prussian official statistics record +only fatal accidents in mines, except in the case of explosions of +fire-damp, when injuries are also recorded. Fortunately, however, +accurate statistics have been kept for some time past of all mining +accidents by the Official Miners’ Permanent Relief Fund of the German +Empire. This assurance association defines a fatal accident as one +that causes death, whether instantaneously or after any length of +time. Non-fatal accidents are divided into such as incapacitate the +injured person from working for either a longer or a shorter period, +the limit between these two classes being fixed at thirteen weeks. A +distinction is also made between accidents that permanently, and those +that temporarily, disable a miner, and again between those that cause +total, and those that cause partial, disablement. As this Insurance +Fund of Germany is under the direct supervision of the Governmental +authorities, the statistics published by it have all the character of +official documents.</p> + +<p>In France mining accidents are simply divided into those that cause +injuries merely and those that cause death, there being apparently no +precise definitions of either.</p> + +<p>In Belgium a mining accident is one that has for its consequences the +death or severe injury of one or more persons—severe injury being +defined as an injury of such a nature as to cause the ultimate death +or to interfere with the regular work of the victim. Apparently the +Belgian law, strictly interpreted, would include amongst the fatal +accidents only those where the injured person is killed on the spot, +but in the published statistics, a fatal accident is understood to be +one that causes death within thirty days of its occurrence. Obviously +this definition is much narrower than that used in Great Britain, +a fact that must not be lost sight of when statistics of the two +countries are compared.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most exhaustive analysis of mining accidents is to be found +in a work published in 1897 by the above-mentioned Official Miners’ +Permanent Relief Fund of the German Empire,<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> which covers the +period from 1st October 1885 up to 1st January 1895. This Relief Fund, +administered under Government supervision, deals with all accidents +that incapacitate the victims from work for a longer period than +thirteen weeks, all accidents of lesser importance, here called minor +accidents, being dealt with by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_513">[513]</span> separate fund worked in conjunction +with the former. The total number of persons insured for one year +during the period covered by this work was 3,623,175; the total +number of accidents of all kinds notified was 278,371, distributed as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr">Numbers.</td> + <td class="ctr">Per 1000<br>Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Fatal accidents</td> + <td class="right3">7,721</td> + <td class="right">2.13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Accidents causing total permanent disablement</td> + <td class="right3">1,427</td> + <td class="right">0.39</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Accidents causing partial permanent disablement</td> + <td class="right3">14,367</td> + <td class="right">3.97</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Accidents causing temporary disablement</td> + <td class="right3">8,164</td> + <td class="rightb">2.25</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="right3"></td> + <td class="right">8.74</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Minor accidents</td> + <td class="right3b">246,692</td> + <td class="rightb">68.09</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Total</td> + <td class="right3bd">273,371</td> + <td class="rightbd">76.83</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Although, as will be seen subsequently, the ratio of fatal accidents +is slowly but steadily decreasing in all the more important mining +countries, the ratios between the various classes of accident appear +to remain approximately constant. It is, however, notorious that ever +since the laws providing compensation for accidents have received their +present form, the number of non-fatal accidents reported in Germany +has been steadily increasing year by year, there being no satisfactory +explanation that can be assigned for this fact. The serious accidents +are classified in various ways, the most interesting of which are those +that refer to the causes of the accidents. Thus, of the above serious +accidents, it is shown that the distribution was as follows amongst the +various branches of mining:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">No. of<br>Persons<br>Employed.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Fatal Accidents.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Serious Accidents.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Number.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Per 1000<br>Persons<br>Employed.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Number.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Per 1000<br>Persons<br>Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>a</i>) Coal Mines</td> + <td class="right3r">2,378,673</td> + <td class="right3r">6020</td> + <td class="right3r">2.53</td> + <td class="right3r">19,130</td> + <td class="right3r">8.04</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>b</i>) Lignite Mines</td> + <td class="right3r">331,522</td> + <td class="right3r">617</td> + <td class="right3r">1.86</td> + <td class="right3r">1,354</td> + <td class="right3r">4.08</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>c</i>) Metalliferous Mines and Smelting Works</td> + <td class="right3r">58,853</td> + <td class="right3r">870</td> + <td class="right3r">1.14</td> + <td class="right3r">2,750</td> + <td class="right3r">3.62</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>d</i>) Salt Mines and Brine Works</td> + <td class="right3r">95,423</td> + <td class="right3r">143</td> + <td class="right3r">1.50</td> + <td class="right3r">450</td> + <td class="right3r">4.71</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">(<i>e</i>) Other forms of Mining</td> + <td class="right3rb">58,704</td> + <td class="right3rb">71</td> + <td class="right3rb">1.21</td> + <td class="right3rb">274</td> + <td class="right3rb">4.66</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_514">[514]</span></p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that the ratio of accidents above ground to +those below was as follows in the various branches of mining:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="right3" colspan="2">Below Ground.</td> + <td class="right3" colspan="2">Above Ground.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">(<i>a</i>) Coal Mines</td> + <td class="right3">84.7</td> + <td class="ctr">per cent.</td> + <td class="right3">15.3</td> + <td class="ctr">per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">(<i>b</i>) Lignite Mines</td> + <td class="right3">45.1</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="right3">54.9</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">(<i>c</i>) Metalliferous Mines and Smelting Works</td> + <td class="right3">73.5</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="right3">26.5</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">(<i>d</i>) Salt Mines and Brine Works</td> + <td class="right3">51.4</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="right3">48.6</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">(<i>e</i>) Other forms of Mining</td> + <td class="right3">42.3</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="right3">57.7</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The information is unfortunately not complete, as the relative numbers +of the workers above and below ground are not given, so that no idea +can be formed from these data of the relative degree of risk of work +above and below ground.</p> + +<p>As regards the time at which accidents occur, there are a few more in +the forenoon than in the afternoon, as might well be expected, seeing +that the average number of men at work is greater in the former than in +the latter period. As regards the days of the week, the percentage of +accidents occurring on the respective days is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Sunday</td> + <td class="right3">2.2</td> + <td class="ctr">per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Monday</td> + <td class="right3">15.1</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Tuesday</td> + <td class="right3">16.2</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Wednesday</td> + <td class="right3">16.6</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Thursday</td> + <td class="right3">15.9</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Friday</td> + <td class="right3">16.7</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Saturday</td> + <td class="right3">17.0</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Excluding, of course, Sunday, it is noteworthy that the number of +accidents in the second half of the week is notably greater than in the +first half; apparently the only cause that can be suggested for this +circumstance is that the men, being more fatigued towards the latter +end of the week, are on that account more liable to accidents. It may +well be, however, that the facts here noted are themselves merely +accidental, and that observations extended over a larger period would +tend to equalise the numbers.</p> + +<p>Two highly interesting series of tables give an objective and a +subjective division of the causes of the accidents, showing in what +manner and by whose fault these originated. The former table may be +summarised as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_515">[515]</span></p> + +<p class="center smaller">KEY:</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>A: Falls of Rock, Coal, Falling Bodies, etc.</li> + <li>B: Transport, Haulage, Winding, Loading, etc.</li> + <li>C: Falls from Ladders, Steps, or other Heights.</li> + <li>D: Explosions.</li> + <li>E: Machinery in Motion, Motors, etc.</li> + <li>F: Molten Metal, Hot and Corrosive Liquids, Poisonous Gases.</li> + <li>G: Miscellaneous.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Branch of Mining.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="7">Causes of Accident per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">A</td> + <td class="ctrrb">B</td> + <td class="ctrrb">C</td> + <td class="ctrrb">D</td> + <td class="ctrrb">E</td> + <td class="ctrrb">F</td> + <td class="ctrrb">G</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>a</i>) Coal Mines</td> + <td class="right3r">41.1</td> + <td class="right3r">26.2</td> + <td class="right3r">9.1</td> + <td class="right3r">9.2</td> + <td class="right3r">5.7</td> + <td class="right3r">1.0</td> + <td class="right3r">7.7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>b</i>) Lignite Mines</td> + <td class="right3r">35.9</td> + <td class="right3r">28.7</td> + <td class="right3r">14.8</td> + <td class="right3r">3.5</td> + <td class="right3r">7.9</td> + <td class="right3r">3.4</td> + <td class="right3r">5.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>c</i>) Metalliferous Mines and Smelting Works</td> + <td class="right3r">34.4</td> + <td class="right3r">20.8</td> + <td class="right3r">13.1</td> + <td class="right3r">10.2</td> + <td class="right3r">5.6</td> + <td class="right3r">1.9</td> + <td class="right3r">14.0</td> + </tr> + + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>d</i>) Salt Mines and Brine Works</td> + <td class="right3r">13.7</td> + <td class="right3r">31.5</td> + <td class="right3r">23.6</td> + <td class="right3r">7.9</td> + <td class="right3r">7.3</td> + <td class="right3r">7.6</td> + <td class="right3r">8.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">(<i>e</i>) Other forms of Mining</td> + <td class="right3r">31.9</td> + <td class="right3r">25.2</td> + <td class="right3r">12.2</td> + <td class="right3r">9.6</td> + <td class="right3r">2.9</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">18.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">All Mines</td> + <td class="right3rb">39.4</td> + <td class="right3rb">25.8</td> + <td class="right3rb">10.2</td> + <td class="right3rb">9.0</td> + <td class="right3rb">5.9</td> + <td class="right3rb">1.3</td> + <td class="right3rb">8.5</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The accidents due to these various causes calculated per 1000 people +employed in the whole mining industry were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Falls of Rock, Coal, Falling Bodies, etc.</td> + <td class="right">3.44</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Transport, Haulage, Winding, Loading, etc.</td> + <td class="right">2.26</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Falls from Ladders, Steps, or other Heights</td> + <td class="right">0.89</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Explosions</td> + <td class="right">0.78</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Machinery in Motion, Motors, etc.</td> + <td class="right">0.51</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Molten Metal, Hot and Corrosive Fluids, Poisonous Gases</td> + <td class="right">0.12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Miscellaneous</td> + <td class="rightb">0.74</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Total (Fatal and Serious Accidents)</td> + <td class="rightbd">8.74</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>There were no less than 3.42 accidents per 1000 workers due to falls +of rock and coal in the workings, whilst those due to explosions of +fire-damp were only 0.31 per mil. It will be seen in the sequel that +accidents due to falls of ground of various kinds play by far the most +important part in mining casualties everywhere.</p> + +<p>In distributing the blame for these accidents, four main groups are +distinguished, accidents being either apparently unavoidable and +therefore put down to the intrinsic danger of the occupation, or else +due to some fault of omission or commission either of the mine owners +or managers, of the victims themselves or of their fellow-workers. The +numbers for the entire mining industry are given as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_516">[516]</span></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="ctr">Per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Inherent danger of the occupation</td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="right">58.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr">Per cent.</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Defects in or absence of safety appliances</td> + <td class="right">0.2</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Insufficient regulations</td> + <td class="right">0.1</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Other faults of management</td> + <td class="right">0.9</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Faults of the mine owners</td> + <td class="rightb"></td> + <td class="right">1.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Neglect of fellow-workers to use safety appliances</td> + <td class="right">0.1</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Contravention of regulations by fellow-workers</td> + <td class="right">1.1</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Unskilfulness of fellow-workers</td> + <td class="right">0.3</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Carelessness of fellow-workers</td> + <td class="right">2.4</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Ignorance of danger on the part of fellow-workers</td> + <td class="right">0.1</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Gross negligence of fellow-workers</td> + <td class="right">0.5</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Faults of fellow-workers</td> + <td class="rightb"></td> + <td class="right">4.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Neglect of victims to use safety appliances</td> + <td class="right">0.9</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Contravention of regulations by victims</td> + <td class="right">6.4</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Unskilfulness of victims</td> + <td class="right">4.8</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Carelessness of victims</td> + <td class="right">20.3</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Ignorance of danger on the part of victims</td> + <td class="right">2.0</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Gross negligence of victims</td> + <td class="right">1.5</td> + <td class="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Fault of victims</td> + <td class="rightb"></td> + <td class="right">35.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Unknown causes</td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="rightb">0.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="rightbd">100.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>This table shows, in the first place, that 41.6 per cent. or two-fifths +of all the accidents could have been avoided by proper care and +intelligent thought on the part of all concerned; and in the second +place, that fully one-third of the accidents can be ascribed to the +faults of the victims themselves. This means that whilst the occupation +is not necessarily much more than half as hazardous as the accident +statistics make it appear, there is but little room for improvement +either in the appliances used or in the regulations framed for the +safety of the miners, and that the remedy lies largely within their +own grasp, the better education of the miner and the development of +his thinking powers being the best protection that can be offered him +against accident. This view is further supported by the fact that in +coal-mining the unavoidable accidents are as high as 61.7 per cent., +whilst the avoidable accidents fall to 28.2 per cent. (0.1 per cent. +being ascribed to unknown causes). It may be taken as fairly well known +that the coal miners are amongst the better educated and the more +highly trained of all classes of miners, the effect of their higher +intelligence being indicated in these figures.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to compare the above data with the results +given in a recent paper by Mr B. M’Laren on “Preventible Colliery +Fatalities,”<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> in which that gentleman analyses the fatal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_517">[517]</span> +accidents in Great Britain during the years 1896–98, and points out +that 35 per cent. of the total number of underground fatal accidents +were preventible. In coming to this conclusion, he has included “all +fatalities stated to have been brought about by carelessness or +neglect; those in which a deficiency of props, sprags, bars, chocks, +packs, etc., are mentioned; cases of want of judgment; a moment’s +forgetfulness on the part of some one; acts contrary to the Coal Mines +Regulation Act, special rules, and ordinary regulations; want of care, +etc.; and those which present themselves as possibly preventible; while +all apparently doubtful cases are omitted.” It may be added that this +writer, like most others on this subject, concurs in the view that “the +best preventive for colliery accidents is technical education.”<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> + +<p>These German figures have been dealt with at considerable length +because they give the most complete picture anywhere obtainable of the +liability of miners to serious or fatal accidents. Although the tables +in the work dealt with extend only up to the year 1895, they are still +perfectly applicable to the present day; this is perhaps best seen by +taking the proportion of fatal accidents for the decade 1890 to 1899, +when it will be seen that though these fluctuate considerably about the +average for the period under consideration, yet their general average +agrees pretty well with that of the period covered by the work quoted, +namely, 1885 to 1895:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Year.</td> + <td class="ctr">Death-rate<br>per 1000 Persons.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1890</td> + <td class="ctr">2.19</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1891</td> + <td class="ctr">2.44</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1892</td> + <td class="ctr">2.05</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1893</td> + <td class="ctr">2.27</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1894</td> + <td class="ctr">1.91</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1895</td> + <td class="ctr">2.16</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1896</td> + <td class="ctr">2.21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1897</td> + <td class="ctr">2.05</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1898</td> + <td class="ctr">2.53</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">1899</td> + <td class="ctrb">2.03</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Average</td> + <td class="ctrbd">2.18</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>No other equally complete data are available for any other country. +In addition to the special report that has been here summarised, this +official Relief Fund publishes annual statistics,<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> and these can +be compared with the official statistics published annually by the +Government from the returns collected by the Inspectors of Mines; it is +true that these latter do not refer to the German Empire as a whole, +but are published separately for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_518">[518]</span> principal mining states, namely +Prussia<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> and Saxony<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>; the Prussian statistics are especially +useful, because, out of the total number of miners employed in the +German Empire, no less than nine-tenths are included in the kingdom of +Prussia.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>The following table shows the proportion of Fatal Accidents as given in +the above quoted Prussian statistics for 1899:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="5">Fatal Accidents per 1000 Persons Employed in</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Bituminous<br>Coal Mines.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lignite<br>Mines.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Metalliferous<br>Mines.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Other Mines.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">All Mines.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1891</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.889</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.825</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.035</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.018</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.395</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1892</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.208</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.710</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.081</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.224</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.963</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1893</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.619</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.089</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.794</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.298</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.245</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.209</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.986</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.005</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.935</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.983</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.540</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.103</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.002</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.917</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.229</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.577</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.664</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.137</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.649</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.241</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.353</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.362</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.046</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.611</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.124</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.864</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.992</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.994</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.956</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.485</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.314</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.945</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.393</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.231</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.114</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Decade</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1890–99</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.518</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.946</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.079</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.708</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.204</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures refer to the total number of workers both below and above +ground; an analysis for the year 1899 gives the following results:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr">Per 1000 Persons<br>Employed Underground.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Fatal accidents due to explosions</td> + <td class="ctr">0.079</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">   „    „ haulage and winding</td> + <td class="ctr">0.874</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">   „    „ falls of coal and stone</td> + <td class="ctr">1.191</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">   „    „ after-damp</td> + <td class="ctr">0.112</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">   „    „ blasting</td> + <td class="ctr">0.121</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">   „    „ miscellaneous causes</td> + <td class="ctrb">0.142</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Total fatal accidents underground</td> + <td class="ctrbd">2.519</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr4">Per 1000 Persons<br>Employed Above Ground.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Total fatal accidents above ground</td> + <td class="ctr">1.082</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="ctr4">Per 1000 Persons<br>Employed in Open Workings.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Total fatal accidents in open workings</td> + <td class="ctr">1.455</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be seen that the death-rate per 1000 persons employed is very +nearly the same as that given by the Relief Fund Association,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_519">[519]</span> an +agreement that goes far to confirm the belief above expressed in the +general reliability of these statistics. It is important to note that +metal-mining is in Germany a far safer occupation than coal-mining, a +state of affairs that would naturally be expected to obtain, having +regard to the conditions of safety of these two classes of work, and +bearing in mind that in Germany the educational level of both classes +of miners is more nearly the same, and that the legislation for both +is practically identical. It should be added that the above statistics +refer only to persons regularly employed in mines, and excludes fatal +accidents that may occur in or about any mine, to persons not comprised +in the category of regular mine employés; the inclusion of such cases +would increase the above total figure by about 2.5 per cent.</p> + +<p>In Belgium, careful statistics of accidents are published,<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> and in +spite of the fact that her coal mines present circumstances of special +difficulty, the recorded death-rate is a low one, due partly to the +fact already pointed out, that only deaths within thirty days of the +accident are reported. Moreover, in Belgium, deaths due indirectly to +mine accidents are excluded from the lists. Coal-mining being the chief +mineral industry of Belgium, the mineral statistics of that kingdom are +more particularly devoted to it. The death-rate has been as follows in +the Belgian coal mines from the year 1895 to 1899:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Death-rate per 1000 Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">At Surface and<br>Underground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Underground only.</td> +</tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.33</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.58</td> +</tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.14</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.38</td> +</tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.03</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.31</td> +</tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.40</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.71</td> +</tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.97</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.09</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In 1899 there were 241 separate accidents underground, causing 101 +deaths, and 151 serious injuries; of these, 85 accidents, killing 48 +and injuring 43 workmen, were due to falls of rock or coal; accidents +due to haulage produced 63 casualties, of which 19 were fatal, the +majority, or 39 accidents, occurring in roads which were approximately +level. There was only one explosion of fire-damp, causing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_520">[520]</span> 4 deaths, +but there are 6 fatal accidents recorded as due to choke-damp. An +interesting table shows that the number of accidents due to falls of +rock or coal has produced an annual average of 0.73 deaths per 1000 men +employed, the year 1899 happening to be considerably below the average +in this particular category.</p> + +<p>In France also, great attention is paid to conditions affecting the +security of the miner. Great care is exercised by the Inspectors of +Mines, and the accident death-rate appears to be decreasing steadily +and satisfactorily, but, in comparing the French statistics with these +of other countries, it must be remembered that the former include only +accidents that result fatally within a few days of their occurrence, +there being no rule at all on the subject. The following table shows +the death-rates per thousand since 1894<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="3">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="9">Death-rate per 1000 Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rb" colspan="3">In Coal Mines.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb" colspan="3">In other Mines.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb" colspan="3">In all Mines.</td> +</tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rb">Under-<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Above<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Total.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Under-<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Above<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Total.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Under-<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Above<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Total.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.97</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.55</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.85</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.92</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.54</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.81</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.96</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.55</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.84</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.41</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.68</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.19</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.73</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.31</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.32</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.43</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.65</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.62</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.50</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.30</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.97</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.90</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.67</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.65</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.53</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.33</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.34</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.41</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.07</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.52</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.84</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.06</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.44</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.44</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.26</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.60</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.07</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.06</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.00</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.75</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.41</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.72</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.62</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.66</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.29</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.11</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.02</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.78</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.67</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.70</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.39</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Coal-mining forms the principal portion of the French mining industry, +over 90 per cent. of those engaged in mining being employed in +collieries of various kinds. Metal-mining is comparatively unimportant, +and is generally carried on upon a small scale, a fact that in part +no doubt accounts for the relatively high accident death-rate. In +coal-mining, on the other hand, the rate is a very low one. Many French +collieries are controlled by large corporations, and in these large +and well-managed concerns all work is done with the greatest care, and +carried on in the most approved style.</p> + +<p>Italy is rarely looked upon as a mining country, yet there are over +60,000 persons annually engaged in mining proper in the kingdom of +Italy, the mining being practically all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_521">[521]</span> metalliferous mining. The +following are the recent Italian accident statistics<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="3">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="6">Per 1000 Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rb" colspan="2">Underground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb" colspan="2">Above ground.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb" colspan="2">Total.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rb">Killed.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Injured.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Killed.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Injured.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Killed.</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Injured.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.77</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.23</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.78</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.86</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.31</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.67</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.75</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.50</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.46</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.39</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.41</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.95</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.10</td> + <td class="ctrrb">3.29</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.42</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.08</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.66</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.72</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It is worth noting that about two-thirds of the fatal and one-half of +the non-fatal accidents underground are due to falls of stone, this +being here, as elsewhere, the most prolific cause of disaster. The +comparatively high death-rate in Italy cannot well be due to any of the +conditions of mining, none of the mines being particularly deep, or +presenting any conditions of abnormal danger or difficulty. It is more +than probable that the high rate is due to the low educational level +of the Italian miner. Whilst not less naturally intelligent or skilful +than his fellow-worker in Britain, Germany, or France, his technical +training is far inferior, and to this deficiency the higher accident +death-rate in Italy may fairly be ascribed.</p> + +<p>In the United States it is only within quite recent years that +any attempt has been made to obtain accurate statistics of mining +accidents, and these are still mainly confined to coal mines; even now +the inspection of these leaves a good deal to be desired. The following +figures are given for miners other than coal miners in an article by +F. L. Hoffman,<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> from which most of the following information is +derived:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Occupation, Locality, and Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Accident Death-rate<br>per 1000<br>Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Iron Ore Miners, Michigan (1892–96)</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.14</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">   „      „   (1899–1900)</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.62</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Copper Mines, Lake Superior (1892–96)</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.57</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">   „      „   (1898–99)</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.07</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Metal Miners, Colorado (1896–97)</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.89</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Metal Miners (Lead and Zinc), Missouri (1892–97)</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.59</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_522">[522]</span></p> + +<p>It is obvious that the collection of accurate statistics in the Western +States, where the mines are much scattered and there is practically no +inspection, is quite out of the question.</p> + +<p>The following table, taken from the paper above quoted, shows the +accident death-rate in coal mines in the various States of the Union +during the period 1886–1897, as far as such statistics are available:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr">States and<br>Territories.</td> + <td class="ctr">Accident Death-rate<br>per 1000<br>Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Alabama</td> + <td class="ctr">1.63</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Colorado</td> + <td class="ctr">4.72</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Illinois</td> + <td class="ctr">1.82</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Indiana</td> + <td class="ctr">2.32</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Indian Territory</td> + <td class="ctr">3.76</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Iowa</td> + <td class="ctr">2.28</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Kansas</td> + <td class="ctr">1.62</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Kentucky</td> + <td class="ctr">1.50</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Maryland</td> + <td class="ctr">1.63</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Missouri</td> + <td class="ctr">2.19</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">New Mexico</td> + <td class="ctr">9.42</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Ohio</td> + <td class="ctr">1.53</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Pennsylvania (Anthracite)</td> + <td class="ctr">3.15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Pennsylvania (Bituminous)</td> + <td class="ctr">1.88</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Tennessee</td> + <td class="ctr">4.16</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Washington</td> + <td class="ctr">10.70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">West Virginia</td> + <td class="ctr">3.30</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">In all bituminous coal mines (average)</td> + <td class="ctr">2.12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">In all anthracite mines (average)</td> + <td class="ctr">3.15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">In all coal mines (average)</td> + <td class="ctr">2.53</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The first point that is brought out by this table is that anthracite +mining is evidently more dangerous than bituminous coal-mining, and +this is the more striking seeing that anthracite coal does not give off +fire-damp, so that the dangers of gas explosions are here excluded. +The general conditions of anthracite mining, and more particularly +the steep inclination and great thickness of many of the seams, are +sources of danger that are not met with in ordinary coal-mining. +Although, as has been already pointed out, comparisons between the +statistics of different countries must be made with the utmost caution, +it seems certain that the accident death-rate in the bituminous mines +of the United States is higher than in the more important European +coal-producing countries. There seems to be nothing in the nature of +the bituminous coal mines of America to account for this fact, which is +no doubt largely due to the circumstance that the American coalfields +do not as yet possess a settled coal-mining population properly so +called, and that experienced coal miners are therefore rare, any +working man taking casually to coal-mining for a while, as he might +to any other temporary occupation. Such men can of course never gain +the experience and almost intuitive knowledge of coal-mining that is +acquired by coal miners in the older continent, who are generally born +and bred on the coalfields and imbibe knowledge about coal-mining +matters from their earliest childhood. Another equally potent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_523">[523]</span> +factor is the extraordinary mixture of nationalities to be found in +most American coal mines, which seem to be the first refuge for the +immigrant labourer from Eastern or South Eastern Europe. The result, +of course, is that regulations or orders are only half understood, +and are therefore not properly obeyed. Attention has recently been +directed to this source of danger in various parts of the world; for +example, the employment underground of persons who are not acquainted +with the German language has recently been forbidden in the Westphalian +coalfield. It is worth while noting that the States in which machine +coal-cutting is most largely employed, such as Ohio and Illinois, show +death-rates well below the average of the United States as a whole.</p> + +<p>Turning now to Great Britain, there is a large mass of statistical +material available by which the liability to accident of the British +miner may be gauged. Each of H.M. Inspectors of Mines in charge of a +district issues an annual report, a great portion of which is devoted +to mining accidents and their causes, and these district reports are +summarised in the General Report and Statistics, Part II., Labour, +whilst an advance proof is also published early in each year. It may be +as well to point out first of all that the death-rate due to accidents +has been steadily diminishing during the last half century,<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> as is +well shown by the following table, worked out for quinquennial periods +from 1851 to 1899:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="3">Quinquennial Period.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="7"> Average Annual Death-rate per 1000 Persons<br> +Employed in all Mines in Great Britain.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="5">Underground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Above<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Total.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Due to<br>Explosions.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Due to<br>falls of<br>Ground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">In<br>Shafts.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Misc-<br>ellan-<br>eous.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Due to<br>all<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Due to<br>all<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Due to<br>all<br>Causes.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1851–1855</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.280</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.016</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.296</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.556</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.149</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.012</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.301</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1856–1860</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.234</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.846</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.899</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.648</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.628</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.994</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.883</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1861–1865</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.618</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.714</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.668</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.790</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.791</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.105</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.240</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1866–1870</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.158</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.578</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.528</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.730</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.995</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.256</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.433</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1871–1875</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.516</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.210</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.437</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.572</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.736</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.899</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.342</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1876–1880</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.811</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.132</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.317</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.449</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.709</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.847</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.306</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1881–1885</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.408</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.108</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.263</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.532</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.312</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.848</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.007</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1886–1890</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.312</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.015</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.196</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.517</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.042</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.913</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.806</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1891–1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.244</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.798</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.188</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.470</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.704</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.820</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.524</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1896–1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.117</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.783</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.122</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.457</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.479</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.798</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.338</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_524">[524]</span></p> + +<p>This table shows that as far as comparisons with other countries are +at all possible, mining in Great Britain has reached a level of safety +with which but few other nations can compare favourably; it also +brings out the very satisfactory fact that the accident death-rate is +steadily decreasing, although further investigation will show that all +branches of the mining industry do not share equally in the decrease. +Great Britain is essentially a coal-mining country, its metal-mining +having been for years constantly diminishing until it is now almost +a negligible quantity; it must, however, be remarked that by one of +those curious legislative freaks that are so familiar to the miner in +this country, the only remaining important branch of metal-mining, +namely, ironstone-mining, is for legal purposes included under the +head of coal-mining, and figures as such in all these statistics. +About 95 or 96 per cent. of all persons employed in mining work in the +coal mines as thus legally defined, over 93 per cent. being employed +in coal-mining properly so called. The following table shows the +death-rates for quinquennial periods from 1875 to the end of 1899 for +coal and metal miners, taken separately, using these words in their +official sense:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="3">Quinquennial Periods.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="6">Average Annual Death-rate in Great Britain<br> +per 1000 Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="3">In Coal Mines.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="3">In Metal Mines.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Under-<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Above<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Total.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Under-<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Above<br>ground.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Total.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1876–1880</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.752</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.936</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.396</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.170</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.432</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.472</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1881–1885</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.310</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.962</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.046</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.338</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.461</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.600</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1886–1890</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.038</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.970</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.834</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.116</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.318</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.428</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1891–1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.686</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.874</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.526</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.250</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.392</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.482</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1896–1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.462</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.816</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.340</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.898</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.468</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.305</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>An examination of this table shows very clearly that practically all +the improvement has been confined to coal-mining. Leaving surface +labour out of question for the moment, it is seen that the death-rate +amongst coal miners for the period 1896–99 is little more than half of +what it was in 1876–80, whilst in metal-mining there has only been a +somewhat doubtful improvement of about 12½ per cent. Contrary to the +popular opinion, coal-mining in this country is obviously now a very +much safer employment than metal-mining, and has been so for about the +last twenty years. The death-rates of surface workers have in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_525">[525]</span> both +cases remained about stationary during the last twenty-five years. It +is evidently nearly double as high at collieries as it is at metal +mines, the reason for this being undoubtedly the greater complexity of +surface machinery, the far more intensive rate of work at the former, +and above all the fact that the surface works of the vast majority of +collieries are connected by a network of railway lines and sidings. +That these are a grave source of danger needs hardly any proof, but +such is easily obtainable, seeing that the accident death-rate of +all males in Great Britain is about 0.87[A] per 1000, whilst that of +railway employés, such as pointsmen, porters, guards, etc., is no less +than 2.286<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> per 1000. It is evident that the higher death-rate +at the surface of collieries as compared with metalliferous mines is +easily enough accounted for, and the fact is, moreover, indicated in +the statistics themselves. For example, in 1899, nearly 60 per cent. of +the total number of surface accidents at collieries were returned as +due to this cause. The suggestion of a remedy is unfortunately a far +more difficult matter; this necessarily lies largely in the hands of +the men themselves, and whilst it must be admitted that working about +and amongst railway trucks is a dangerous occupation, it is a danger +that can be considerably lessened by the care and attention of the +workers themselves.</p> + +<p>An analysis of the causes of fatalities in coal mines leads to several +important conclusions. In the first place it is obvious that the danger +which is most prominently connected in the public mind with coal mines, +that, namely, of explosions, is now one of the least formidable.</p> + +<p>The death-rate from explosions within the last five years has been as +follows in all the collieries of the United Kingdom:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr6">Year.</td> + <td class="ctr">Death-rate<br>per 1000 Persons<br>due to Explosions.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr5">1895</td> + <td class="ctr">0.10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr5">1896</td> + <td class="ctr">0.31</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr5">1897</td> + <td class="ctr">0.03</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr5">1898</td> + <td class="ctr">0.05</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr5">1899</td> + <td class="ctr">0.09</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures have now become so small that they are necessarily +irregular, an accident of any magnitude, causing even a dozen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_526">[526]</span> deaths, +being sufficient to affect the rate very greatly. The improvement +within the last twenty years is extremely marked, and is due to various +causes, among which may be enumerated better ventilation, the far more +extended use of safety lamps, the substitution in all dangerous mines +of safer explosives for the once universally used black powder, and +above all, of some better method of firing for the highly dangerous +“squib.” It is highly probable that further improvements may be looked +for with every prospect of success in this latter direction, and that +the general adoption of electric firing would be a distinctly valuable +safeguard. The recognition of the fact that coal-dust is an explosive +agent but little less dangerous than fire-damp, due largely to the +labours of Professor W. Galloway and Mr H. Hall, and the precautions in +the form of watering now adopted, have also played an important part +in reducing the death-rate. It need hardly be added that most of these +precautions would have been of little value, even if their introduction +had been possible, unless the scientific training of managers, +officials, and men alike had concurrently made considerable advances. +It is scarcely possible to enforce in a coal mine laws or regulations +of which the more intelligent, at any rate, amongst the miners +themselves do not see the use, and legislation alone could do but +little, unless there existed a general feeling in the mining community +that it was tending in the right direction. It needs a certain amount +of technical and scientific training, however, to enable the average +coal miner to realise such a fact, and that he has been brought to +realise it is one of the main factors in the increased security that +men enjoy nowadays.</p> + +<p>The main cause of disaster underground has always been, and still +remains, that classed as “falls of ground,” to which considerably over +half of the deaths underground are due. Explosions have now been so +far brought under control that an explosion has come to be looked upon +as an abnormal accident, due to a fault of omission or commission on +the part of somebody, and therefore requiring careful investigation, +whilst falls of ground are unfortunately still regarded as normal +risks incident to the miner’s calling. These falls may be subdivided +according as they are falls at the working face, when they are either +falls of roof or falls of the coal face, or they are “backbye” +accidents, that is to say, falls of roof in the roadways of the mine. +Falls at the face are accountable for over 70 per cent. of the total +number of deaths due to falls, but unfortunately our statistics do not +discriminate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_527">[527]</span> between falls of coal and falls of roof at the face. In +the absence of definite information on this important point, it is +difficult to suggest what remedies should be applied, but these must +depend greatly upon what may be found to be the most fertile causes of +accident; falls of the roof, properly speaking, can only be avoided +by setting more props, or by setting them better; falls of coal may +be due to bad “spragging,” or to the undercut mass of coal falling +forward, or to its coming away at one of the natural cleavage joints +of the coal. In Germany a Government Commission has been appointed to +inquire into the whole question of falls of ground, and no doubt the +report, when issued, will throw much light upon this difficult subject. +It is obvious that the two kinds of falls require entirely different +treatment; systematic timbering, <i>i.e.</i>, the setting of props at +regular uniform distances apart, whether the roof seems to need it or +not, is being advocated in several quarters, and it should certainly do +something to reduce the number of accidents due to falls of roof. Falls +of coal can hardly be treated in the same way; systematic spragging +might do something, but would probably not of itself be sufficient. A +very obvious mode of reducing the accident rate at the working face +should be found in the more extensive use of coal-cutting machinery; +in the first place the number of men necessary to be employed at the +coal face for a given output would be very considerably reduced, and +hence the number of men exposed to this danger would be proportionally +diminished. Furthermore, as the machine cuts rapidly, and must be kept +moving constantly if it is to be economically successful, the men +working it will always be under a comparatively fresh roof, which is +far less liable to sudden falls than a roof that has been laid bare +for some time, the same being true also of a freshly-cut face of coal, +which should never, under these conditions, be left standing long +enough for the weight of the roof to affect it. Finally, a man working +with a machine has a far better chance of looking about him and seeing +what is going on than has a miner lying on his side, half under the +coal, engaged in “kirving his holing,” that is to say, in hewing out +with his pick a narrow strip of coal along the floor of the seam, an +operation that has to be performed preparatory to breaking down the +mass of coal.</p> + +<p>It is highly probable that one of the conditions that has contributed +very largely to the prevention of colliery explosions, namely, the +extended use of safety lamps, has at the same time been a contributary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_528">[528]</span> +cause of the non-diminution in the number of accidents due to falls of +ground. Among the conditions that have been laid down from time to time +by Royal Commissions and others as essential to a good safety lamp, +that of giving a sufficient amount of light has been very generally +overlooked, and most of the safety lamps in use give a very poor light, +especially after they have been burning for a few hours. Their shape, +moreover, prevents their giving a top light, so that it is scarcely +possible for a miner to adequately examine the roof of his working +with a safety lamp, so as to see whether it is dangerous or not. Much +was hoped from the introduction of portable electric lamps, but so far +these have not come up to expectations, partly because no entirely +satisfactory electric lamp has yet been devised, partly because the +ordinary electric lamp does not, like the ordinary safety lamp, +indicate the presence of gas, and thus allows the miner to continue +his work without giving him warning that he is in an atmosphere in +which he ought not to remain. A really good safety lamp, giving a light +all round at least equal to that of an ordinary candle, is a great +desideratum at the present moment.</p> + +<p>Of the remaining causes of accidents underground, the most serious are +those connected with the transport of the coal; the various systems +of mechanical or self-acting haulage in use in all collieries of any +importance must always give rise to a certain number of accidents, +but it can only be said that the number of these could be greatly +diminished by a stricter attention to colliery regulations. A large +number are due annually to men and lads riding upon the tubs, so as to +save themselves the exertion of walking to or from the shaft bottom. +Shaft accidents have fortunately diminished considerably within the +last twenty years, having come down to about one-third of what they +were; much of the improvement is no doubt due to the greater attention +now being paid to the quality and condition of the winding ropes. A +notable proportion of the accidents classified under this head occurs +not in regular mining, but during the sinking of shafts, an operation +that always of necessity involves a good deal of risk.</p> + +<p>Turning next to metal-mining, the most striking fact is that the +conditions of safety have undergone such small improvement; the +figures of course fluctuate a good deal from year to year, because +the total number of men engaged is so small that a very few accidents +more or less affect the ratios very considerably. It should be noted +that metalliferous mines, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_529">[529]</span> defined by law, include a large number +of mines in which no metallic minerals are wrought, and should more +properly be described as all mines not included under coal mines; the +metalliferous mines properly so called show a far higher death-rate +than is returned for the miscellaneous mines legally described as +metalliferous. Here again, as in coal mines, the largest number of +casualties is due to falls of ground, by which nearly two-thirds of +the total number of deaths is caused. In metal-mining, the miner’s +safety must depend far more than in coal-mining upon the worker’s own +judgment, experience, and carefulness; it can only be suggested that +mine managers should see to it that an ample supply of suitable timber +is kept close to all the working places, and that the timbering of +all levels, etc., should be constantly inspected by special officials +appointed for this purpose.</p> + +<p>The most interesting problem that presents itself for solution is, +however, the question why the form of mining that was the safer of the +two twenty-five years ago in this country, and which is still far the +safer in Germany, is now the more dangerous, and why the death-rate in +one should have been reduced 50 per cent., whilst in the other it has +remained practically stationary. The only salient point of difference +to be found between the present regulations affecting the two forms +of mining is, that whilst the Coal Mines Regulation Acts insist that +no man shall be allowed to act as either manager or under-manager +of a colliery unless he has passed certain prescribed examinations, +any one is at liberty to manage a metalliferous mine, whether he be +qualified to do so or not. The result has been that the educational +level of coal miners as a whole has been raised; every intelligent +coal miner knows that the only road to ultimate promotion lies through +these examinations, and therefore applies himself to the scientific +study of his work. There are thus growing up in every coalfield in +Great Britain numbers of technically well-educated young men, from +whom colliery managers can select their colliery officials, and the +higher educational standard thus attained by the officials is slowly +but surely affecting both the working miner on the one hand, and the +manager on the other, as it is obvious that the latter dare not remain +on an intellectually lower plane than his subordinates. It is probable +this educational development has played a leading part in the improved +conditions of safety in coal mines, not only directly, by increasing +the knowledge and thinking powers of the miners, but indirectly, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_530">[530]</span> +already said, by rendering legislation easy that would scarcely have +been possible without it, all of which merely amounts to another +repetition of the statement, that improved education is the best +safeguard of the miner against accident. It will be remembered that the +same conclusion was already drawn from the comparison of the accident +death-rates of various countries, the highest death-rates being found +in the most ignorant nations. Although much has been done in this +country within the last twenty-five years, very much still remains to +be done in order to bring up the educational level of all connected +with mining to the high standard of scientific technology that is to be +found in some other countries.</p> + +<p>It should here be pointed out that mining, and more especially +coal-mining, is really not the highly dangerous occupation that it is +usually thought to be. The annual average accident death-rate<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> for +all males in Great Britain is 0.870 per 1000, with which the present +rate for coal miners underground of 1.462 per 1000 does not compare +very unfavourably. The true accident risk of the miner is perhaps best +seen by comparing it with a few of the other trades that are usually +classed as dangerous:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr1">Occupation.</td> + <td class="ctr1">Average Annual Accident<br>Death-rate per 1000<br> +in the years 1891–93.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Bargeman, Lighterman, etc.</td> + <td class="ctr">3.765</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Seaman, Merchant Service</td> + <td class="ctr">3.219</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Dock Labourer, etc.</td> + <td class="ctr">2.411</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Railway Guard, Porter, Pointsman, etc.</td> + <td class="ctr">2.286</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Railway Engine Driver, Stoker</td> + <td class="ctr">1.340</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">General Labourer</td> + <td class="ctr">1.155</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>As regards non-fatal accidents, it has already been pointed out that +the official statistics of this country are of practically no value, +owing to the absence of any standard or definition of what constitutes +an accident to be reported. The following table shows the number of +persons injured in mines (non-fatal accident cases) <i>according to the +official statistics</i>:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Number of Persons Injured per<br> +1000 Persons Employed.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">In Coal Mines.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">In Metal Mines.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">7.49</td> + <td class="rightr">6.96</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">8.29</td> + <td class="rightr">9.89</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">6.42</td> + <td class="rightr">8.29</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.74</td> + <td class="rightr">9.75</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5.66</td> + <td class="rightrb">10.10</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_531">[531]</span></p> + +<p>It will be seen presently that these figures are ludicrously +disproportionate to the real casualties, and although it is difficult +to get accurate data about these, an approximation, at any rate, to the +true facts can be obtained.</p> + +<p>Valuable information is afforded by the various Miners’ Permanent +Relief Funds, and by the Central Association for dealing with +distress caused by mining accidents. The latter Association publishes +statistics, from which the following table has been compiled, this +representing the summary of the returns from the nine English societies +(there are no Scotch or Irish ones) which together compose the +Association<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">No. of<br>Members.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">No. per 1000 Members.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Of Deaths by<br>Fatal Accident.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Of Disablement<br>Cases.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1889</td> + <td class="ctrr">238,892</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.12</td> + <td class="ctrr">188.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1890</td> + <td class="ctrr">268,985</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.66</td> + <td class="ctrr">157.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1891</td> + <td class="ctrr">287,690</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.88</td> + <td class="ctrr">149.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1892</td> + <td class="ctrr">295,676</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.17</td> + <td class="ctrr">139.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1893</td> + <td class="ctrr">299,027</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.59</td> + <td class="ctrr">144.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894</td> + <td class="ctrr">313,438</td> + <td class="ctrr">2.50</td> + <td class="ctrr">159.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">317,004</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.99</td> + <td class="ctrr">166.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">325,708</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.90</td> + <td class="ctrr">177.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">334,428</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.76</td> + <td class="ctrr">192.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">271,536</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.81</td> + <td class="ctrr">196.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">279,842</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.67</td> + <td class="ctrrb">176.6</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The accident death-rate reported by the Association is rather higher +than is shown in the Inspectors’ Official Reports, because in the +latter only deaths that occur within a year and a day of the accident +are included, whereas in the tables compiled by the Association all +deaths that can be referred to mining accidents are given, however long +the interval may be between the accident and the death of the injured +person.</p> + +<p>The disablement cases in the above table comprise all injuries received +by any member of the Association that are sufficiently serious to +keep the victim off work for at least a week. They are <i>more than +twenty times</i> as numerous as those included in the Inspectors +of Mines’ Reports, and this may be accepted as conclusive evidence +that these reports do not record by any means all cases of “serious +personal injury.” It is true that the two sets of statistics are not +in all respects strictly comparable; the Inspectors of Mines take no +account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_532">[532]</span> of an accident unless it happens within the precincts of the +mine as legally defined, while the Associations’ regulations extend to +accidents that may happen to miners going to or returning from their +work. There is also a suspicion that occasional cases of disability +to work are returned as due to accident, when they are really not so +caused, and escape the vigilance of the various societies’ officials. +Making all allowances, however, for these and similar defects, the +above figures may be looked upon as reasonably accurate, and as fairly +representing the risk of minor accidents to which the coal miner is +exposed in this country; it may be added that the figures for each +individual society do not vary very greatly from the general average, +as shown by the Association. It is difficult to see why they should +be about twice as high as the corresponding accidents in Germany, for +although there may be some laxity in admitting supposed accidents, this +circumstance cannot possibly account for one-half of the cases. It +would be a decided advantage if Inspectors of Mines had power to record +and report all cases of “smart money” and of compensation respectively +paid by the collieries in their districts, as fairly accurate +statistics of minor accidents could be obtained in this simple manner. +It would also be more satisfactory if all accidents were subject to +the examination of special medical officers appointed solely for this +purpose. In this way the suspicion would be avoided that a medical +practitioner may at times take too lenient a view of a doubtful case, +biassed perhaps by the fact that his livelihood may depend largely upon +the goodwill of the miners, who often form the bulk of his patients.</p> + +<p>By far the most important of the individual societies that make up the +Central Association is the Northumberland and Durham Miners’ Permanent +Relief Fund; from the annual reports of this society useful information +may be gathered, some of which is summarised in the following table:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Year.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">No. of Members.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">No. per 1000 Members.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Of Killed.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Of Permanently<br>Disabled.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Of Temporarily<br>Disabled.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">122,257</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.33</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.96</td> + <td class="ctrr">156.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">124,920</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.60</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.94</td> + <td class="ctrr">156.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">127,564</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.24</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.96</td> + <td class="ctrr">152.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">130,552</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.50</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.00</td> + <td class="ctrrb">148.4</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_533">[533]</span></p> + +<p>According to the rules of the society an injured man whose injuries +prevent him from working for a week is considered as “temporarily +disabled,” and he continues in this category until he is fit to return +to work, unless he is so badly hurt as to be unable to work for six +months, when he is classed as “permanently disabled”; such a man may +either recover sufficiently to be able to work again, or he may die, or +he may remain disabled for life. The duration of permanent disablement +as above defined has of course risen gradually from the commencement of +the fund, until it amounted to 5.17 years in the quinquennial period +1887–91, its average duration from the formation of the fund having +been 4.42 years.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p> + +<p>The duration of temporary disablement was about:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">3.5</td> + <td class="ctr">weeks in the year</td> + <td class="ctr">1896</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">3.6</td> + <td class="ctr">„   „</td> + <td class="ctr">1897</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">3.55</td> + <td class="ctr">„   „</td> + <td class="ctr">1898</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">3.55</td> + <td class="ctr">„   „</td> + <td class="ctr">1899</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In the Liverpool district, the ratio of permanent disablement is found +to be 4.5 per 1000 members, and of temporary disablement 180 per 1000 +members; the duration of the former cases averages 3½ years, and that +of the latter 4.3 weeks.</p> + +<p>Annual reports are also issued by the Prussian Official Miners’ Relief +Fund; the report for 1898 gives the accident death-rate of the members +of the Association as 2.69 per 1000 members, the death-rate from all +other causes being 5.39, making a total death-rate of 7.58 per 1000. +It is worth noting that the average age at which members are totally +incapacitated from working is 49.2 years, whilst the average age at +which members are partially incapacitated is about forty-five years; +this includes disablement due to old age as well as to accident.</p> + +<p>Coming lastly to the subject of the diseases of miners, it may first +of all be stated that mining is a distinctly healthy occupation. The +mortality of all males<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> in Great Britain during the years 1890–92 +was 18.74 per 1000, out of which 0.87 deaths were due to accident, +leaving 17.87 per 1000 due to what may be termed natural causes. On +the other hand the mortality among coal miners from all causes for the +same period was 12.33, that due to accident being given as 2.00,<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> +making the death-rate due to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_534">[534]</span> natural causes only 10.35 per 1000. Of +course it must not be forgotten that the working miner’s career covers +just that period of life at which the natural death-rate is lowest. +There are no doubt several circumstances that contribute to the general +healthiness of the miner’s occupation; in the first place, mining is +hard work, and men whose constitution is not tolerably sound, and whose +physique is not fully up to the average, will either select some less +arduous occupation at the outset, or will find themselves, if they +began life as miners, unable to continue at the work. On the other +hand, the work, though arduous, requires steady though only moderate +exertion, and does not expose the worker to the abnormally violent +strains, exerted through brief periods, that characterise some other +occupations. Again, the hygienic conditions are, as far as the coal +mine at least is concerned, far more favourable than in most other +occupations. The miner works in a good atmosphere, ample ventilation +being a prime necessity for ensuring the safety of the coal miner, +in an equable temperature, free from the extremes alike of heat and +cold, he is not exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, and his +working place is usually dry. The same cannot always be said of the +miner in metalliferous mines, where the conditions of work are far less +favourable in every respect, and his mortality is therefore higher. It +may be added that the coal miner, if even moderately industrious, can +always earn a wage ample to keep him in fair comfort, and to supply him +fully with all the necessaries of life. Probably the most unhealthy +part of the coal miner’s work consists in “kirving” or undercutting the +coal, in doing which the miner has to lie on his side on the floor of +the coal seam, swinging his pick with a peculiar sideways stroke over +his head, till he has cut out a narrow groove some 3 feet deep below +the over-hanging mass of coal. Work in this constrained position is +necessarily harmful to some extent; its effect has been most noticed as +affecting the nervous system, and especially the nerves of the eyes, +the disease known as miner’s nystagmus having been often ascribed to +it. Cases of miner’s nystagmus occur, however, also among miners who +do not have to kirve, and it may well be due in great part to the poor +light obtainable in so many cases underground, especially when safety +lamps are used, and the consequent strain on the eyes; at any rate +this seems to be the opinion of several who have suffered from this +complaint. The coal miner working in this position is also bound to +inhale a considerable amount of fine coal-dust, which has an irritating +effect upon the lungs; thus it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_535">[535]</span> appears from the tables already +referred to that the percentages of deaths of coal miners due to the +respective causes indicated were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Causes of<br>Death.</td> + <td class="ctr">Percentage of<br>Total Number of Deaths.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Accident</td> + <td class="ctr">16.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Phthisis</td> + <td class="ctr">10.7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Bronchitis</td> + <td class="ctr">12.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Pneumonia</td> + <td class="ctr">10.9</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The most obvious remedy for reducing the proportion of diseases due to +the above causes is the one already referred to, namely, the general +use of mechanical coal-cutters, and the replacement of hand kirving +by machine kirving. Another cause besides coal-dust that is probably +answerable for a considerable proportion of diseases of the lungs is +the universal custom among coal miners in this country of walking home +in their damp and dirty pit clothing, instead of changing into warm, +dry clothes at the mine. Colliery owners have tried the experiment of +providing changing houses and baths for the men at the pit’s mouth, but +have always found that the men declined to avail themselves of these +conveniences.</p> + +<p>It has been pointed out that the metal miner’s work is far more +unhealthy than that of the collier. This is well seen in the death-rate +among Cornish tin miners, the typical metal miners of Great Britain. +Here we find that the death-rate, instead of being below the average +of the country, is higher, namely 19.66 per 1000 from all causes, +that from accident being given as 1.14, leaving 18.52 per 1000 as the +death-rate from disease. Consumption is extremely fatal amongst tin +miners, bronchitis also claiming many victims. The following table +shows the percentage of the total number of deaths for the period +1890–92, due to the causes specified:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr2">Cause of Death.</td> + <td class="ctr">Percentage of the<br>Total Number of Deaths.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Accident</td> + <td class="right">5.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Phthisis</td> + <td class="right">29.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Bronchitis</td> + <td class="right">13.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Pneumonia</td> + <td class="right">5.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Other diseases of respiratory system</td> + <td class="right">7.1</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It is worth noting that according to Dr Ogle’s figures the percentage +of deaths in the period 1880–83 amongst Cornish miners (which may be +taken as practically equivalent to the tin miners<span class="pagenum" id="Page_536">[536]</span> quoted above) due +to phthisis was 37.5, and to other diseases of the respiratory organs, +24.9, the death-rate from all causes being rather more than double +that of the average of all males. It is probable that a good deal of +the improvement that appears to have taken place in those ten years is +due to the increasing replacement of ladders by cages for getting the +men to and from their work; there seems little doubt that the fatigue +of having to climb up a good many hundred feet of steep ladders at the +end of a hard day’s work is a prolific cause of chest complaints and +of heart disease. At most Cornish mines of any importance a “dry” is +provided, <i>i.e.</i>, a room or building in which the miners change +their wet and dirty mine clothes, and leave them to be properly dried +for the day following. As in coal mines, so in metal mines, the dust +produced by the miner’s work is apt to injure the men’s lungs. In +metal-mining this dust is chiefly produced by the action of drilling. +When a drill hole inclines well below the horizontal, water can and +always should be poured in, to convert the dust produced into mud, and +thus to prevent it from flying about. When a hole “looks upwards” or +is pointed above the horizontal, water cannot be poured in, but may +be splashed in from time to time; this, however, involves a certain +amount of trouble, and is rarely done, although it ought to be. It is +especially important in the case of machine drills, which work very +much faster and cause much more dust than hand drilling. The compressed +air by which these drills are usually actuated can easily be employed +to force a small jet of water into the drill hole; this is done by some +machines, and is to be highly recommended. Some Continental makers +have extended this idea, and use drills pierced longitudinally with +a small hole, through which water is injected; this plan seems to be +very effective in preventing dust, but may be found open to some other +objections in practice.</p> + +<p>The fumes produced by blasting, especially when nitro-glycerine +explosives are used, are said to be occasionally injurious to health. +There is no doubt that the explosion of ordinary black blasting-powder +produces a considerable amount of carbonic oxide, and this poisonous +gas is also produced, though apparently in less quantity, by most of +the so-called safety explosives used in coal-mining. There is, however, +never or rarely any good reason why a miner should be exposed to these +fumes, which can be cleared away rapidly, provided that the mine is +properly ventilated. It has been remarked that in most cases where +such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_537">[537]</span> ill effects have been complained of, the fault has lain with the +men themselves.</p> + +<p>It is very exceptional that mining operations, properly so called, +necessitate working in air under pressure, though this may occur in +some special methods of shaft-sinking or of driving levels through wet +ground; it is well known that men working under these conditions are +liable to suffer from caisson disease. None but sound, healthy men, +not too old, should be employed on such work; they should work short +shifts, remain a sufficient time in the intermediate air-lock, and it +is advisable that they should be under medical observation or periodic +examination as long as the work lasts. In Westphalia the law forbids +men working for more than six hours in any place underground the +temperature of which exceeds 29° C. (84° F.).</p> + +<p>Of special diseases that particularly affect miners, there can hardly +be said to be any. On the Continent, particularly in Belgium,<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> and +more recently in Australia, especially in North Queensland, a good deal +of alarm has been caused by the prevalence of a serious disease due to +an intestinal parasite known as Anchylostomum Duodenale. This disease, +once introduced, spreads with alarming rapidity; thus in one Hungarian +pit, 80 per cent. of the workers were found to be affected, and in pits +in the province of Liège from 50 to 69 per cent. were attacked; in +Westphalia, in 1897, there were 275 cases of the disease amongst 56,370 +miners. The principal, if not the only remedy for this very serious, +and often fatal disease, consists in the strictest personal cleanliness +on the part of the miners themselves, whilst the management should take +care to provide portable sanitary appliances, properly disinfected, at +suitable places underground, and an ample supply of clean water for +washing purposes. This has been made compulsory by recent legislation +for the Westphalian coal mines. At German collieries bathing facilities +are always provided, but the same Act now compels the use of separate +shower baths in the place of the general plunge bath, the latter having +been found to be a means of propagating not only anchylostomiasis, but +other contagious diseases, such as trachoma (contagious disease of the +eyes), typhus, etc.</p> + +<p>There are a few special diseases due to special cases of mining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_538">[538]</span> +poisonous minerals, which only just need passing mention. It may be +said that the only poisonous minerals mined are the ores of copper, +arsenic, lead, and mercury. The mining of copper never seems to have +given rise to any trouble, and it is even disputed by some authorities, +whether copper, taken into the system in small quantities, acts as a +poison.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> Arsenic is usually mined in the form of arsenical pyrites, +and does not seem in this shape to have any injurious effects. It +is said that dust from the mineral smaltite (an arsenide of cobalt, +containing no sulphur when pure), when drawn into the lungs produces +cancer of the lungs,<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> and that this disease is not uncommon amongst +the miners in the Schneeberg district of Saxony, where the above +mineral occurs.</p> + +<p>In ordinary lead mines, lead poisoning or plumbism is almost unknown; +in the mortality tables already quoted, only one case of death is +referred to plumbism among 16,827 miners. This is apparently due mainly +to the fact that in all British lead mines the supply of oxidised lead +ores is practically exhausted, and work is confined to the sulphuretted +ores. Galena, the sulphide of lead, is a heavy and difficultly soluble +substance, and it would seem that lead is not readily absorbed from it +into the system. The case is far different when the softer oxidised +ores of lead, such as the carbonates, are worked, and these have been a +source of serious trouble at the mines of the Broken Hill district, New +South Wales. It was found that men could not safely be kept at work in +those parts of the mine which produced the earthy lead carbonates for +more than a fortnight at a time.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p> + +<p>Mercurial poisoning is no doubt the most serious of all these special +forms of mining disease, due to the fact that all ores of mercury carry +more or less mercury in the metallic state, as also to the readiness +with which metallic mercury volatilises even at ordinary temperatures. +At the Almaden mines in Spain, and the Idria mines in Carniola, a good +deal of mercurial poisoning is found to occur; the chief remedy adopted +seems to be the working of short shifts, so as to expose the men for +as short a time as possible to the dangerous fumes. At the New Almaden +mines in California statistics have shown that there were amongst<span class="pagenum" id="Page_539">[539]</span> the +miners 10.44 per cent. of cases of mercurialism (salivation) in one +year (1890).<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The following remarks on this subject in the report +are worth quoting:—</p> + +<p>“The miners employed in the extraction of ore work by contract as +a rule, and a certain number of careless men, through their own +negligence, become victims to mercurial salivation. Men engaged in ore +chambers, where native mercury is found, are requested not to eat, +drink, or smoke, without first cleaning the face and hands, and using a +solution of potassium chlorate as a mouth wash. Working stripped to the +waist is discouraged.</p> + +<p>“As the greatest attention is paid toward the attainment of perfect +ventilation, which is of prime importance in the prevention of +mercurial sickness, it is the physician’s belief that if the miners +were more thorough in the use of the above precautions, the salivation +rate at the mine would be under 1 per cent., whereas it is now over 10 +per cent. It is probable that there will always be a slight amount of +mercurial sickness, owing, very likely, to the suspension in the moist +atmosphere of the mine of a small amount of the chlorides, and possibly +other salts of mercury.”</p> + +<p>This last example, therefore, serves to repeat and enforce the lesson +that seems to be taught by every portion of this investigation, +namely, that although mining is from the very nature of the occupation +accompanied by certain risks, and although enlightened legislation and +careful and scientific management can do much towards diminishing these +risks, the main prophylactic must always lie in the thoughtfulness and +intelligence of the miners themselves, and that the best thing that can +be done towards increasing the safety of mining operations is to raise +by all possible means the intellectual status of mining communities.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Henry Louis.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_540">[540]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXVIII<br> +<span class="subhed">THE AIR OF MINES</span></h2></div> + +<p>The air of mines of whatever kind is extremely liable to vitiation, the +nature and extent of which is of considerable importance in relation +to the health and safety of those working in the mine. The impurities +met with are known to the miners under such names as “black-damp,” +“fire-damp,” “after-damp,” “white-damp,” “gob-stink,” etc.; and these +terms will as far as possible be adhered to in the present account of +the subject.</p> + +<p>In all mines a current of air to all parts is secured by means of +the arrangement of the shafts and roads. One shaft, known as the +“downcast,” serves for the supply of fresh air, which is distributed +by means of “intake” roads to the working places. The more or less +vitiated air then passes along a corresponding system of “return” roads +or passages to the “upcast” shaft, by which it leaves the mine. In +coal mines, where a very large ventilation is necessary, the current +is usually maintained by means of a centrifugal fan placed at the top +of the upcast, or in some cases by a furnace at the bottom of the +upcast. In metalliferous mines the warmth of the mine commonly causes +sufficient up-current, without any artificial aid. It is evident that +by analysing the return air, and measuring its rate of flow, we can +obtain the best idea of the nature and amount of the general vitiation +of air throughout the whole mine, while analyses made at particular +points in the mine afford more information with regard to vitiation due +to special local conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Black-damp.</i>—So far as is known the impurity known to miners +as black-damp is met with to a greater or less extent in all, or +nearly all, mines, and in many wells. Black-damp is recognised by +the fact that when present in small quantities it causes a candle or +lamp to burn dimly, without at the same time producing any distinctly +noticeable effect on men: that in larger amounts it extinguishes +lights; and that in still larger amounts it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_541">[541]</span> causes death by +suffocation. It is never explosive when present by itself, and is +almost always heavier than air, unless, as very frequently occurs in +coal mines, it occurs mixed with fire-damp.</p> + +<p>Until lately black-damp was believed to issue from coal and other +strata, and was commonly identified with carbonic acid. Investigations +by Mr W. N. Atkinson and the writer[A] have shown that this belief is +erroneous, and that black-damp is nothing else than the residual gas, +resulting from the action of air on oxidisable material present in coal +and other materials. Pure black-damp, free from air and other gases, +consists of a mixture of nitrogen with usually from 5 to 15 per cent. +of carbonic acid.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the composition of the black-damp obtained +from various coal-mines, metalliferous mines, and wells. The samples +were usually mixed to a greater or less extent with air, the amount of +which was determined from the percentage of oxygen present:—</p> + + +<p class="center smaller">ANALYSES OF BLACK-DAMP.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl smcap">Locality.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Nitrogen<br>per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Carbonic Acid<br>per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Stopping, Podmore Hall Colliery, North Staffordshire</td> + <td class="ctrr">87.87</td> + <td class="rightr">12.13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Another Stopping, same Colliery</td> + <td class="ctrr">91.37</td> + <td class="rightr">8.63</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Main Return, same Colliery</td> + <td class="ctrr">87.30</td> + <td class="rightr">12.70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Sladderhill Colliery, Apedale, North Staffordshire</td> + <td class="ctrr">85.86</td> + <td class="rightr">14.14</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Old Road, Talk o’ the Hill Colliery, North Staffordshire</td> + <td class="ctrr">91.90</td> + <td class="rightr">8.10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Main West Return, Talk o’ the Hill Colliery</td> + <td class="ctrr">80.66</td> + <td class="rightr">10.31</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">South Main Return, Great Fenton Col., N. Staffordshire</td> + <td class="ctrr">89.31</td> + <td class="rightr">12.69</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Return, Wallsend Colliery, Newcastle, New South Wales</td> + <td class="ctrr">89.00</td> + <td class="rightr">11.00</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Old Workings, Burghlee Colliery, Midlothian</td> + <td class="ctrr">86.90</td> + <td class="rightr">13.10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Upcast Shaft, same Pit</td> + <td class="ctrr">86.91</td> + <td class="rightr">13.09</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Upcast Shaft, Tylorstown Colliery, South Wales</td> + <td class="ctrr">85.97</td> + <td class="rightr">14.03</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Old Road, Conygre (Timsbury) Colliery, Somerset</td> + <td class="ctrr">84.92</td> + <td class="rightr">15.08</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Stopping, Nabb Pit, Lilleshall Colliery</td> + <td class="ctrr">86.48</td> + <td class="rightr">13.52</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Stopping, Hamstead Colliery, South Staffordshire</td> + <td class="ctrr">93.25</td> + <td class="rightr">6.75</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Upcast Shaft, Hamstead Colliery, South Staffordshire</td> + <td class="ctrr">93.31</td> + <td class="rightr">6.69</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Old Road, Forge Ironstone Pit, North Staffordshire</td> + <td class="ctrr">85.30</td> + <td class="rightr">14.70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Issuing from Hole, Foxdale Lead Mine, Isle of Man</td> + <td class="ctrr">88.07</td> + <td class="rightr">11.93</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Issuing from another Hole, same Mine</td> + <td class="ctrr">79.80</td> + <td class="rightr">21.20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Return Air-way, same Mine</td> + <td class="ctrr">80.30</td> + <td class="rightr">19.70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Well at Redwick, Gloucestershire</td> + <td class="ctrr">95.80</td> + <td class="rightr">4.20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Coming over Top, Well at Balcombe, Sussex</td> + <td class="ctrr">88.93</td> + <td class="rightr">11.07</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Well at Charterhouse School, Surrey</td> + <td class="ctrr">81.86</td> + <td class="rightr">18.14</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Well at Northleigh, Oxfordshire</td> + <td class="ctrrb">93.19</td> + <td class="rightrb">6.81</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The black-damp met with in coal-pits is probably formed chiefly and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_542">[542]</span>often exclusively from the oxidation of iron pyrites (FeS<sub>2</sub>) present +in the coal. This is oxidised to sulphuric acid and sulphate of iron, +and as carbonate of lime (calcite) is also present in the coal, the +sulphuric acid usually combines with the lime, liberating carbonic +acid. The whole process may be represented by the following equation:—</p> + +<p class="center">4FeS<sub>2</sub> + 15O<sub>2</sub> + 8CaCO<sub>3</sub> = 8CO<sub>2</sub> + 8CaSO<sub>4</sub> + 2Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>.</p> + +<p>Oxidation occurring according to this equation would yield black-damp +consisting of 87.7 per cent. of nitrogen and 12.3 per cent. of carbonic +acid, which is nearly the composition usually found. On pieces of coal +which have been exposed for some time to air and moisture the red oxide +of iron resulting from this reaction may frequently be seen. On other +pieces where there is no carbonate of lime, crystals of sulphate of +iron, and an acid reaction will be found in the positions previously +occupied by iron pyrites, while the coal itself is unchanged. The +oxygen of air left in contact with coal gradually disappears. Hence old +workings or spaces of any kind left unventilated soon become filled +with black-damp. A fall in barometric pressure leads to an issue of +black-damp from these spaces, though often there is also a constant +issue into the return air-ways on account of a little air being +sucked through from the intakes. In the case of wells the influence +of barometric pressure on the issue of black-damp is very marked. The +black-damp is formed in the pores of the surrounding strata, and issues +out up the well whenever a fall of pressure occurs. Thus the well may +be fairly clear of black-damp at one time, and shortly afterwards full +of it. Accidents to well-sinkers commonly occur through ignorance of +this fact. The air is perhaps tested in the morning with a candle and +found clear. In the afternoon after dinner a further test is neglected, +and if the barometer has meanwhile fallen, the well-sinkers may descend +into black-damp and be asphyxiated or fatally injured, or drowned by +falling from the ladder. In the case of wells and metalliferous mines +the black-damp is probably formed partly by the oxidation of carbonate +of iron.</p> + +<p>The return air of coal mines always contains black-damp, about 2 per +cent. being very commonly present in the air of the upcast shaft. As +the air-current passing through a coal mine is enormous, the quantity +of black-damp formed in the pit is very considerable, usually amounting +to over 2000 cubic feet per minute in a large pit. The oxidation +thus represented must liberate a large amount of heat in the mine. +Thus in the case of one pit investigated by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_543">[543]</span> the writer and Mr F. G. +Meachem<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> the amount of heat calculated as being liberated in the +mine per minute would have sufficed to raise one ton of water 134° +F. or to heat the whole of the air-current (of 100,000 cubic feet +per minute) to boiling point. Of this heat only about one-ninth was +expended in raising the temperature of the air, two-ninths became +latent through evaporation of moisture, and the remaining six-ninths +escaped by conduction into the surrounding strata. This slow oxidation +is one of the main causes of the high temperatures met with in mines; +and apart from it very deep workings could be kept comparatively +cool by ventilation. It must, however, be borne in mind that air in +descending the shaft of a pit is heated by compression about 5½°F. +for every 1000 feet of descent. There is thus a limit to the cooling +effect of ventilation. Moreover, at great depths oxidation is apt to be +favoured by both the higher temperature and the crushing of the coal by +the weight of superincumbent strata, since in coal which is crushed a +much larger surface is exposed to the oxygen of the air. When a current +of air insufficient to carry off the heat passes through crushed +coal spontaneous combustion is very apt to occur, and is a source of +constant danger in some seams.</p> + +<p>Black-damp is ordinarily recognised by its action in extinguishing a +candle or lamp. The percentage which is just extinctive to a tallow +candle or miners’ safety lamp was carefully determined by Mr Atkinson +and the writer. We found that a candle held vertically will not +continue to burn if more than 15.8 per cent. of black-damp is present +(corresponding to an oxygen percentage of 17.6 per cent.): that 17.7 +per cent. of black-damp extinguished an ordinary safety lamp; and that +18.6 per cent. extinguished a candle held horizontally. The extinction +is due, practically speaking, to the reduction in the oxygen percentage +of the air and not to the presence of carbonic acid, although dilution +of air with carbonic acid extinguishes a light somewhat sooner than +dilution with nitrogen. A light will still just burn in a mixture of 75 +per cent. of carbonic acid and 25 per cent. of oxygen. The presence of +black-damp affects the light given by a candle long before the point +of extinction is reached. The flame becomes smaller, and the rate of +combustion is diminished. Angus Smith<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> found that when a candle was +allowed to burn in air increasingly vitiated by its own combustion and +by respiration, the light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_544">[544]</span> diminished to 22 per cent. of its original +value when the oxygen percentage fell to 18.5 (corresponding to 8.9 per +cent. of black-damp).</p> + +<p>The effects of black-damp on men are due partly to the carbonic +acid, and partly to the diminished oxygen percentage accompanying +the admixture of black-damp with the air. The influence of excess of +carbonic acid and of deficiency of oxygen must therefore first be +described separately.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p> + +<p>When carbonic acid is added to air no noticeable effect is produced +until about 3 per cent. is present, when the breathing begins to be +distinctly deeper and slightly more frequent. No other unpleasant +effects are produced, even after a long exposure; and animals kept in +air containing 3 per cent. of carbonic acid are unaffected in health. +As the percentage of carbonic acid increases, the effects on the +breathing become more and more marked, until at about 6 or 7 per cent. +there is severe panting, the pulse-rate being also more frequent and +vigorous, and the face being flushed. The sensation experienced is +similar to that accompanying hard, muscular work. A long stay in air of +this composition is followed by frontal headache. With 10 per cent. of +carbonic acid the respiratory distress is very great, but with a still +higher percentage a narcotic effect is produced, and the mind becomes +confused. Animals sometimes die from long exposure to air containing +about 25 per cent. of carbonic acid, but even 50 per cent. may not +prove fatal for some time.</p> + +<p>Diminution of the oxygen percentage of air usually causes no noticeable +effect until the percentage falls to about 12, when the respirations +begin to be just perceptibly deeper. At 10 per cent. the respirations +are usually distinctly deeper, and the lips begin to become slightly +bluish. At 8 per cent. the lips and face have more or less of a leaden +blue colour, and usually the breathing is deeper and more frequent. In +some persons, however, this is not the case, and nothing is noticed by +the person breathing this vitiated air, although his face presents to +a bystander a most alarming appearance. At 5 or 6 per cent. there is +clouding of the senses, and loss of power over the limbs, and often +complete loss of consciousness, which, to judge from experiments on +animals, would probably soon end in death, either from gradual failure +of the respiratory centre or from stoppage of the heart. The symptoms +described are those observed when the breathing of the vitiated air is +not accompanied by muscular exertion. The danger point is, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_545">[545]</span> +reached much sooner when any muscular exertion, such as that of +climbing, or even walking, is made. Even at 15 per cent. of oxygen +there is often shortness of breath and dizziness on exertion, and when +the oxygen percentage falls much further fainting is apt to occur, and +this is probably the cause of many accidents in which men fall off +ladders in vitiated air, and are fatally injured or drowned. When the +oxygen percentage falls below 8 or 10 per cent. death may occur in +consequence of muscular exertion. Air vitiated simply by diminution +of the oxygen percentage of the air is exceedingly dangerous, for +the reason that there are hardly any warning symptoms before life is +imperilled; and were it not that a light is usually carried in such +air, and that its extinction gives ample warning, since it occurs at +about 17 per cent. of oxygen, accidents would be much more frequent.</p> + +<p>Sudden exposure to air containing less than 3 or 4 per cent. of oxygen +causes in men loss of consciousness within about forty seconds. This is +followed by convulsions, and the respirations soon cease. The heart, +however, continues to beat for some time longer, and during this period +artificial respiration will still restore life.</p> + +<p>A reference to the composition of black-damp will show that the effects +produced by it are due, in most cases at least, to carbonic acid as +well as to want of oxygen. When there is just sufficient black-damp +present to extinguish a light no noticeable effect is, as a rule, +produced, since there is 17 per cent. of oxygen, and usually not more +than about 2 per cent. of carbonic acid. Occasionally, however, as in +the case of two of the samples from Foxdale lead mines (see table), +there will be as much as 3 or 4 per cent. of carbonic acid present, in +which case the breathing will be slightly affected. With an increasing +percentage of black-damp the panting due to carbonic acid will usually +become more and more noticeable. Thus with 50 per cent. of black-damp +there will commonly be about 6 per cent. of carbonic acid, and 10.5 per +cent. of oxygen. The panting due to carbonic acid will, therefore, be +very considerable. In some cases, however, as in the black-damp from +Hamstead Colliery or Redwick Well, there will still be insufficient +carbonic acid to produce panting, and the air will be already dangerous +from deficiency of oxygen. With still larger percentages of black-damp, +the symptoms from want of oxygen will predominate more and more, until +at last with about 75 per cent., or 5 per cent. of oxygen, life can no +longer be supported. Death is always due to want of oxygen, and not +to the poisonous action of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_546">[546]</span> carbonic acid. The presence of carbonic +acid diminishes the danger, as the panting caused by it not only gives +warning of danger, but also increases the oxygen supply to the lungs, +and thus wards off for a time the effects of the deficiency of oxygen.</p> + +<p><i>Carbonic Acid.</i>—There is no recorded case of evolution of pure +carbonic acid in a mine in this country, but in one colliery district +in France sudden outbursts of pure carbonic acid have occurred. The +locality is a volcanic one, and possibly the carbonic acid may have +originated from some such cause as the decomposition of limestone by +silicates at high temperatures. The well-known case of the Grotto del +Cane is one in which pure carbonic acid is evolved. The composition +of a sample recently analysed by the writer from near the floor of +the Grotto corresponded exactly to that of a mixture by diffusion of +pure carbonic acid and air. The effects of pure carbonic acid have +already been described, and are, of course, quite different from +those of black-damp. According to Clowes, air containing 15 per cent. +of carbonic acid is just sufficient to extinguish lights. Air of +this composition would produce violent panting and partial loss of +consciousness.</p> + +<p><i>Fire-damp.</i>—The gas known to miners as fire-damp is recognised +by its forming with air explosive mixtures. So far as is known the +fire-damp met with in English mines is always pure methane (CH<sub>4</sub>), +although in Germany ethane (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>) is also reported to occur +in connection with certain kinds of coal. The writer has carefully +examined many specimens of fire-damp from various English coalfields, +but never found that it consisted of anything else but the methane +described by previous observers. The presence of fire-damp in air is +recognised by miners from the appearance over the ordinary flames of a +lamp of a pale non-luminous “cap” of flame, similar in appearance to +the non-luminous flame of a Bunsen burner, though much paler, unless +the air is nearly explosive. From the size and distinctness of this +cap, the percentage of fire-damp can be approximately determined. In +testing for fire-damp the flame of the safety lamp should be lowered +until only a small blue flame is left. The pale cap can then be better +seen above the lamp flame. With very careful observation about 1 per +cent. of fire-damp in the air can just be detected. With a hydrogen +flame, as in the Clowes lamp, it is possible to detect as little as +0.2 per cent.<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> With increasing percentages of fire-damp, the cap +becomes longer and more distinct, and passes right up the chimney when +the air is nearly explosive.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_547">[547]</span> Air containing anything between about 5 +and 13 per cent. of fire-damp is explosive.</p> + +<p>Fire-damp is given off from coal, within which it is contained in +a highly compressed state. Different seams of coal give off very +different proportions of fire-damp. Those seams which give off much +are known to miners as “fiery.” The amount of fire-damp contained in +the coal seems to depend in large measure on the extent to which the +strata above the coal are gas-tight. If fire-damp can escape upwards it +drains off from the coal. Some idea of the enormous amount of fire-damp +contained in fiery coal can be formed from the amount of fire-damp +which escapes from the mine by the upcast shaft. This is chiefly given +off from the coal as it is exposed in working, so that from the output +of coal and fire-damp from the mine a rough estimate can be made of the +proportion of fire-damp in the coal. In one mine, for instance, about +4500 cubic feet of fire-damp per minute were given off, with an output +of about 1200 tons of coal per day, or nearly one ton per minute. It +would thus appear that 4500 cubic feet of fire-damp per ton raised were +given off, or 150 cubic feet of gas per cubic foot of coal.</p> + +<p>The fire-damp met with in mines is commonly mixed with a large +proportion of black-damp; and in consequence of this the fire-damp, +<i>though still capable of forming an explosive mixture when less air +is present</i>, may not be recognised unless very carefully looked for, +as the lamp is extinguished before a prominent cap is visible. Such a +mixture may easily be fired by striking a match in the midst of it, +or by a blown-out shot in blasting. The mixture is lighter than air, +whereas pure black-damp is nearly always heavier than air.</p> + +<p>Fire-damp has no direct action on man. It only acts by diluting the +oxygen of the air. When a mixture of 79 per cent. of fire-damp and +21 per cent. of oxygen is breathed it cannot be distinguished from +air; and animals may be kept for long periods in a mixture of this +composition. The action of a given mixture of fire-damp and air thus +depends simply upon the oxygen percentage, any effect produced being +merely due to want of oxygen, the symptoms of which have already been +described. As fire-damp is lighter than air, a man affected by it will, +on losing consciousness, usually fall into better air. Were it not for +this, fatal accidents by asphyxiation with fire-damp would be much more +common. It often enough happens that a man is temporarily overcome +by putting his head upwards into a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_548">[548]</span> cavity filled with fire-damp. If +the fire-damp contains little or no air loss of consciousness occurs +suddenly, and without previous warning. Fatal accidents sometimes occur +through a man incautiously advancing without a lamp up a road, during +attempts to restore ventilation in a district of a mine which has +become filled with fire-damp. So long as a lamp burns in air containing +fire-damp not the slightest harm results from breathing the air.</p> + +<p><i>After-damp.</i>—The gas remaining in a mine at the place where an +explosion has occurred is known to miners as “after-damp,” and is much +dreaded on account of its poisonous properties. A careful examination, +recently undertaken by the writer,<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> of the bodies of the men and +horses killed in three colliery explosions resulted in showing that in +almost every case, whether or not there were burns or other injuries, +the actual cause of death was carbonic oxide poisoning. In many cases, +however, the burns or other injuries would certainly have proved fatal +apart from the carbonic oxide; and the result of a rough estimate was +that, on an average of the three explosions, about 23 per cent. of +those killed had received burns or other injuries sufficient to cause +death. Only 46 per cent. were burnt or injured.</p> + +<p>The symptoms of the rescuers who encountered after-damp were clearly +those of carbonic oxide poisoning. Their lamps continued to burn in the +poisonous air, and in some cases men were found dead with their lamps +either still burning, or with the oil burnt out. The fact that a lamp +continues to burn, which is an excellent test of the safety of air +vitiated by black-damp or fire-damp, is thus no test of the safety of +air vitiated by after-damp.</p> + +<p>In the case of the great colliery explosions which cause such wholesale +destruction of life, the explosion is almost invariably one of +coal-dust, started either by blasting at dry and dusty places in the +mine, or by small explosions of fire-damp. Slighter explosions may +be due simply to ignition of fire-damp. When fire-damp or coal-dust +ignites in presence of excess of air, the products of combustion are +simply carbonic acid and water, along with a little sulphurous acid in +the case of coal-dust. The reaction occurring when fire-damp ignites +under these conditions is represented by the following equation:—</p> + +<p class="center">CH<sub>4</sub> + 2O<sub>2</sub> = CO<sub>2</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_549">[549]</span></p> + +<p>The after-damp from such an explosion in air would consist of 88.3 +per cent. of nitrogen and 11.7 per cent. of carbonic acid; and with +coal-dust a slightly higher proportion of carbonic acid would be +present. When, however, the proportion of air present is insufficient +for complete oxidation a certain amount of carbonic oxide is produced +in place of part of the carbonic acid. As much as 4.5 per cent. may be +present in the after-damp of an explosion of fire-damp. In a colliery +explosion the fire-damp or dust must always be very irregularly +distributed in the air, so that in some places there will be an excess +of air, and in others an excess of fire-damp or dust. At many places +the excess of gas or dust must be so great that no explosion at all +can occur. The after-damp is thus a variable mixture of nitrogen, +carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide, together with much air, and, in +the case of dust explosions, a little sulphurous acid or sulphuretted +hydrogen, and various products of the dry distillation of coal. These +latter products give after-damp a characteristic unpleasant smell. The +fact that sufficient oxygen to support life is left along the track +of an explosion is shown by the fact that the bodies do not present +the appearances seen in the rapid death which ensues in an atmosphere +devoid of oxygen. Probably about 2 to 5 per cent. of carbonic oxide +is usually contained in the pure after-damp of a colliery explosion. +The gas met with by rescuers some hours, or perhaps days, after the +explosion, is, of course, a mixture of after-damp with the black-damp +and fire-damp which has accumulated in consequence of stoppage of the +ventilation through the air current being short-circuited.</p> + +<p>The action on men and animals of after-damp depends practically upon +the carbonic oxide contained in it. Pure after-damp, containing no air, +would of course cause death just as rapidly apart from the action of +the carbonic oxide: but such after-damp unmixed with air is hardly met +with.</p> + +<p>Carbonic oxide or carbon monoxide (CO) is a very poisonous gas. Judging +from experiments on animals, air containing anything more than 0.4 per +cent. would, after a sufficient time, always cause death in a man, +though anything over 0.2 per cent. would in many cases prove fatal. +It has practically no smell or irritating properties by which its +presence might be readily recognised, and its action is peculiarly +slow and insidious. The first symptoms of carbonic oxide poisoning are +usually dizziness, shortness of breath, and palpitation following any +unusual exertion. Sometimes there is drowsiness, and sometimes unusual +excitement similar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_550">[550]</span> to that produced by alcohol. When more of the +gas is absorbed there is great failure of muscular power. The least +exertion causes dizziness and fainting, and any serious exertion may +prove fatal. At the same time the mind becomes more or less confused, +although the person affected is not himself aware of any mental +failure. The senses are also affected, and frequently there seems to +be greater or less insensibility to pain, as miners who are partially +stupefied by carbonic oxide are not infrequently seriously burnt by +their lamps. The loss of muscular and sensory power gradually becomes +more and more complete, until at last consciousness is entirely lost; +and finally, with further absorption, death quietly ensues. There is no +pain or serious discomfort at any stage. Recovery from slight carbonic +oxide poisoning is usually accompanied by severe headache, nausea, and +depression. When consciousness has been lost for a considerable time, +recovery is very slow and uncertain. Death may occur from pneumonia +after two or three days; and a variety of severe mental symptoms may +persist for long periods. In cases where much muscular exertion has +been attempted during exposure to the poison the heart appears to be +often seriously affected.</p> + +<p>In order to understand the very peculiar features presented by carbonic +oxide poisoning it is necessary to consider the mode of action of +this gas. The oxygen absorbed from the air in the lungs is normally +taken up in the form of a loose chemical combination with the red +colouring matter (hæmoglobin) of the blood corpuscles, and so carried +by the circulation to the tissues, where it is used up. The hæmoglobin +not only combines with oxygen, but is also capable of forming a much +more stable compound with carbonic oxide, and, as was shown by Claude +Bernard, hæmoglobin which is saturated with carbonic oxide cannot take +up oxygen. Hence, when the hæmoglobin of a living animal is saturated +to a certain extent with carbonic oxide, sufficient oxygen cannot be +conveyed from the lungs to the tissues, and death occurs from want +of oxygen.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> Carbonic oxide has no other action than that due to +its interference with the oxygen supply through the blood. Apart from +its property of combining with the hæmoglobin it is a physiologically +indifferent gas, like nitrogen; and it has no action on lower animals +which do not possess hæmoglobin. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_551">[551]</span> symptoms produced by it are +therefore essentially the same as those described above as due to +deficiency of oxygen in the air breathed. No noticeable symptoms are +produced until the hæmoglobin is about a third saturated with carbonic +oxide, and death does not usually occur until about 70 or 80 per +cent. saturation has been reached. When, therefore, not much carbonic +oxide is present in the air, a considerable time elapses before a +sufficient quantity of the gas has been absorbed to produce symptoms. +A man possesses on an average a weight of blood equal to ¹⁄₂₁ of his +body-weight, or about 3 litres, and the hæmoglobin of this blood +requires about 600 c.c. of carbonic oxide to saturate it. He breathes +when at rest about 5 litres of air per minute. Hence, supposing that +the air contains 0.2 per cent. of carbonic oxide, which is about the +minimum quantity which will produce death, he can absorb only 10 c.c. +per minute at the most. It must thus take at least twenty minutes, +and actually takes a good deal longer, for distinct symptoms to be +produced. During this interval, which will, however, be shorter when +the man is breathing more rapidly in consequence of muscular exertion, +he may advance far into an atmosphere poisonous from the presence of +after-damp, and may consequently be unable to return.</p> + +<p>It might be supposed that the presence of any proportion, however +small, of carbonic oxide in air would ultimately prove fatal from +gradual absorption of the gas by the blood. Actually, however, there +is a maximum limit to absorption with any given percentage of carbonic +oxide in air; for although the affinity of hæmoglobin for carbonic +oxide is much stronger than for oxygen, yet if both gases are present, +the hæmoglobin is shared between them in proportion, not only to the +relative strengths of their affinities for hæmoglobin, but also to the +relative percentages present of the two gases. Hence, although the +affinity of carbonic oxide for hæmoglobin is nearly four hundred times +as great as that of oxygen, yet if the percentage of carbonic oxide is +very minute as compared with the percentage of oxygen, only a little of +the hæmoglobin will combine with the carbonic oxide, and consequently +no symptoms of poisoning will be produced, however long the exposure +may be. Thus with less than about .03 per cent. of carbonic oxide in +the air, the blood will never absorb enough of the gas to produce +distinct symptoms; and with less than .2 per cent. life will hardly be +endangered, although very severe symptoms may be produced.</p> + +<p>In recovery from carbonic oxide poisoning, the gas is driven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_552">[552]</span> out +from the blood through the lungs in consequence of the preponderating +influence of the oxygen of the air; and in the course of several hours +the blood will be again practically free from carbonic oxide. An hour +of breathing fresh air will usually suffice to remove any dangerous +excess of carbonic oxide, but if, as often enough happens in persons +who have been rendered unconscious, the breathing is shallow, a much +longer time may be needed unless artificial respiration has been +employed. Carbonic oxide is not oxidised within the body, so that the +only way in which it can be got rid of is through the lungs. The blood +from which the carbonic oxide has been expelled is in no way injured. +The expulsion of carbonic oxide during recovery from poisoning can be +greatly hastened by the inhalation of pure oxygen, since its influence +in driving out carbonic oxide from the blood is about five times as +great as that of air, which only contains 20.9 per cent. of oxygen. +Inhalation of oxygen has also another and immediate effect, however. +In addition to the oxygen taken up in combination with hæmoglobin, the +blood takes up in the lungs a little oxygen in simple solution, just as +an equal volume of water would do. When pure oxygen is breathed, the +quantity of this dissolved oxygen is increased five times, and is then +sufficient to afford an important immediate supply of oxygen to the +tissues. If an animal be placed in oxygen at two atmospheres’ pressure, +carbonic oxide can be administered without harming it, since although +its hæmoglobin becomes completely saturated with carbonic oxide, its +blood carries enough oxygen in simple solution to support life.</p> + +<p>The cause of death in carbonic oxide poisoning can always be determined +by examining a drop of blood taken from the body, and comparing it +with normal blood from a healthy person or an animal. The normal blood +is diluted with water until the tint of the solution appears yellow; +the suspected blood is then diluted until its <i>depth</i> of colour +appears about the same. If death was due to carbonic oxide poisoning +the latter solution will appear pink instead of yellow. By taking +advantage of this difference of tint the percentage saturation of the +hæmoglobin can readily be determined. Death often occurs, however, some +hours or days after removal from the poisonous atmosphere, and in this +case the blood will be free of carbonic oxide. Blood saturated with +carbonic oxide has a red colour similar to that of arterial blood, +hence the lips, cheeks, and other parts of the bodies of men who have +died<span class="pagenum" id="Page_553">[553]</span> from carbonic oxide poisoning have often a pink colour similar to +that seen in life.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the restricted oxygen supply to the tissues during +prolonged exposure to carbonic oxide, serious changes may be produced +in the brain, heart, and other organs, and as a result of these changes +recovery does not occur at once when the carbonic oxide disappears from +the blood. Unconsciousness may persist, or relapses may occur, and +death is not unfrequent several days after exposure to the poison.</p> + +<p>The prompt recognition of the presence of carbonic oxide or after-damp +in air is of much practical importance. As already remarked, the fact +that a lamp continues to burn is no proof of the safety of air in which +after-damp may be present, and elaborate chemical tests are hardly +applicable in ordinary practice. A small warm-blooded animal, such +as a mouse, or perhaps still better a small bird, may, however, be +used to indicate the presence of any dangerous proportion of carbonic +oxide. The oxidation processes in the small animal are enormously +more rapid than in a man: consequently the small animal breathes and +absorbs carbonic oxide much more rapidly. It therefore shows symptoms +of poisoning in a fraction of the time necessary in the case of a man, +although it is only about equally sensitive to a given percentage of +the gas. Hence by watching the animal, timely warning may be obtained +of the presence of enough carbonic oxide to cause danger to life. It +must be remembered, however, that the animal may show no very evident +signs when sufficient carbonic oxide is present to cause very distinct +and unpleasant symptoms in a man, and that these symptoms may be +aggravated to a dangerous extent by muscular exertion, such as that of +hurrying back towards fresh air. Another circumstance which tends to +suddenly intensify the symptoms of carbonic oxide poisoning is exposure +to cold air, and this should be avoided as far as possible with persons +who have begun to feel the effects of the gas.</p> + +<p>When a man has been rendered unconscious by exposure to carbonic oxide +or any other suffocative gas, the first thing to do, after his removal +from the contaminated air, is to apply artificial respiration without a +moment’s delay, if the breathing has stopped or is feeble.</p> + +<p><i>Smoke.</i>—Some of the most disastrous accidents in mines have +been due to the poisonous action of smoke from underground fires. +Fires may occur from an intensification of the spontaneous oxidation +of coal, iron pyrites, cotton waste, etc., from the careless use of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_554">[554]</span> +lights, from engines underground, or in consequence of an explosion of +gas setting fire to brattice cloths, igniting blowers of gas, etc. In +any case the occurrence of a fire underground is a source of extreme +danger, especially when the timbering has become ignited. If the fire +occurs on, or spreads to, an intake road the ventilation current +carries the smoke over the mine, killing all those who are unable to +avoid it. Smoke which has travelled some distance in a mine appears +to lose its pungent smell, and deposits the suspended particles which +ordinarily render it visible. This greatly increases the danger, as +there is then nothing to give warning of its presence. Thus in the case +of the Snaefell accident in 1897 a number of men descended into the +shaft without their suspicions being in any way aroused until they had +gone too far to be able to return.</p> + +<p>The poisonous constituent of smoke is carbonic oxide. This was +clearly established in the case of the Snaefell accident, where +the timbering had caught fire.<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> A sample of the poisonous air +collected by Mr Williams, Her Majesty’s Inspector of Mines, was found +by the writer to contain 1.1 per cent. of carbonic oxide. Mr Williams +fell over unconscious just after obtaining the sample, and was only +restored through the prompt application of artificial respiration +by his colleague, Mr Jones. Further evidence that carbonic oxide is +the cause of death in underground fires was afforded by the medical +examination of the bodies by Dr Burkitt in the recent fire at Whitwick +Colliery.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> There can be little doubt that carbonic oxide poisoning +is also one of the most frequent causes of death in fires above ground. +The writer recently examined the body of a man found dead in a sitting +position in a house which was partially burnt in Oxford. Carbonic oxide +poisoning was the cause of death. There were only a few superficial +burns which had apparently been inflicted after death. The smoke from +burning or smouldering wood is particularly dangerous, as the gas +distilled from wood may contain about 30 per cent. of carbonic oxide, +the large proportion of oxygen in wood favouring the production of +carbonic oxide.</p> + +<p>As regards the symptoms produced by smoke nothing need be added to what +has already been said under the heading of after-damp.</p> + +<p><i>White-damp, Gob-stink, Fire-stink.</i>—Under one or other of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_555">[555]</span> these +names is included by miners the poisonous gas given off from coal which +has heated from spontaneous oxidation. Some seams of coal, such as +the thick coal in South Staffordshire, or the Bulhurst seam in North +Staffordshire, are particularly liable to heating, which readily occurs +where the coal has become more or less disintegrated. If the coal is +not actually red-hot there may be no distinct smell, and the poisonous +gas would come under the designation of “white-damp.” The name +“gob-stink” is derived from the fact that the heating usually occurs in +the waste coal of a goaf or gob (the area from which the workable coal +has been removed). The origin of the name “white-damp” is less clear.</p> + +<p>Practically speaking, white-damp and gob-stink, or fire-stink, have the +same properties as after-damp, and the poisonous constituent is again +carbonic oxide, which the writer has found to be present in various +samples. Occasionally, however, sulphuretted hydrogen is also present +in formidable proportions. The latter gas is extremely poisonous, as +little as .07 per cent. being capable of causing death. Air containing +0.2 per cent. kills warm-blooded animals within one and a half minutes. +Its presence may be detected not only by its characteristic smell of +rotten eggs, but also by the fact that when present in the proportion +of more than about .01 per cent., it causes smarting of the eyes and +general irritation of the air-passages.</p> + +<p><i>Gases from Explosives.</i>—The gases from some explosives are +extremely poisonous, from the presence in them of carbonic oxide, +sulphuretted hydrogen, or nitric peroxide. In coal mines, when the +ventilation is everywhere good, it seldom happens that there is +trouble from the gases from explosives; but in metalliferous mines and +underground quarries cases of poisoning are not uncommon.</p> + +<p>Gunpowder gives off on ignition carbonic acid and nitrogen, along +with a variable, though much smaller, proportion of carbonic oxide +and sulphuretted hydrogen, either or both of which gases may produce +symptoms of poisoning.</p> + +<p>Of the “high” explosives, nitro-glycerine, blasting gelatine, and +roburite yield on detonation only carbonic acid and nitrogen, whereas +gun-cotton, tonite, gelignite, and carbonite also give off carbonic +oxide, and therefore require more care when the ventilation is +defective.</p> + +<p>The most serious accidents in mines from gases from explosives have +been due to the accidental burning of high<span class="pagenum" id="Page_556">[556]</span> explosives, such as +dynamite or gun-cotton. When substances of this class burn quietly +instead of detonating, nearly the whole of the nitrogen is given off +as nitric oxide (NO) instead of as free nitrogen. The nitric oxide at +once combines with the oxygen of the air to form nitric peroxide, which +is a very dangerous gas. Even when a charge is detonated for blasting +purposes it may happen, particularly with badly made or roughly +handled explosives, that part burns quietly and forms nitric peroxide. +The latter is an irritant gas, but when sufficiently diluted may be +breathed for some time without the person exposed to it being aware +of his danger. Under such circumstances bronchitis of a very acute +character is apt to occur after a few hours, and death often results. +In the gold mines in India and the Transvaal, accidents involving the +loss of as many as twenty men at a time have sometimes occurred in this +way from dynamite catching fire underground, and serious injury to +health may easily be caused by the fumes of imperfectly detonated high +explosives where the ventilation is bad.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">John Haldane.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_557">[557]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXIX<br> +<span class="subhed">QUARRIES</span></h2></div> + +<p><i>Introduction.</i>—Man is essentially a builder, and Nature has +prepared for him material in abundance and rich variety. Quarrying or +stone-getting is an occupation of great antiquity. Its early records +are evidenced in the relics of man’s labour in prehistoric days. +Through all the ages human ingenuity and skill have been at work +freeing the closely-fettered rocks and fashioning them for uprising.</p> + +<p>A thorough investigation of our subject would make an acquaintance with +geology and practical mechanics desirable, but in the present article +it will only be possible to deal with the matter in its immediate +relation to health, and its public importance will be evident when it +is remembered that something like 94,000 individuals are engaged in +connection with quarries in the British Isles alone.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> + +<p><i>Definitions.</i>—A quarry (L.O.F. <i>quarrière</i>, F. +<i>carrière</i>, L.L. <i>quadraria</i>, <i>quadratus</i>) is an +excavation, pit, or place from which stone or rock material is +separated by digging, cutting, blasting, or similar processes.</p> + +<p>For legal requirements a quarry is defined as: “A place in which +persons work in getting slate, stone, coprolites, or other minerals, +and any part of which is more than 20 feet deep.”<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> + +<p>It will be readily seen that the depth limit in the legal definition +introduces a factor which goes far to lessen a proper application of +the law, and it is desirable that such restriction should be abandoned.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_558">[558]</span></p> + +<p><i>Varieties of Quarries.</i>—Quarries vary greatly in respect to +their size, depth, and the nature of the material worked. In some +instances the quarry is superficial in its extent, readily accessible +and easily worked from the surface. In other cases the quarry is deep, +can be reached only by shafts or ladders, and its working necessitates +elaborate means for the elevation and removal of the materials when +separated from the native rock. Of the stones quarried for building +purposes we may distinguish: 1. Enduring stones, which are used for the +major part of the structure; 2. Shaping stones, which are principally +utilised for ornamentation.</p> + +<p>Of quarried materials the uses may be exceedingly varied, chalk being +worked for the making of lime, china-clay for the purpose of pottery, +graphite for pencil manufacture, and so on.</p> + +<p>Quarries are perhaps best classified according to the nature of the +rock they yield. We can distinguish the following:—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>Alabaster</li> + <li>Basalt or Whinstone</li> + <li>Brickearth</li> + <li>Chalk</li> + <li>Chert</li> + <li>China-clay</li> + <li>Clay</li> + <li>Flint</li> + <li>Freestone</li> + <li>Graphite</li> + <li>Gravel</li> + <li>Gypsum</li> + <li>Limestone</li> + <li>Marl</li> + <li>Porphyry</li> + <li>Sand</li> + <li>Sandstone</li> + <li>Shale</li> + <li>Serpentine</li> + <li>Slate</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>Of each of the above class of quarry much might be said, would space +allow, concerning: (<i>a</i>) geological character of the rock; +(<i>b</i>) localities where the various forms of quarry are to be +found; (<i>c</i>) uses of the quarried materials; (<i>d</i>) special +methods of working employed in some of the quarries; and (<i>e</i>) +particular dangers connected with certain forms of quarry. But for the +purposes of this article it will be desirable to deal with the subject +in its general aspects only.</p> + +<p><i>Methods of Working.</i>—In early days men were content to labour +patiently with primitive methods and inadequate tools. The modern use +of explosives, and the introduction of various mechanical contrivances, +have, however, done much to accelerate the getting of stone: and such +measures have led to accidents and conditions inimical to health.</p> + +<p>The methods of quarrying and the operations immediately concerned +therewith may be grouped under:—(<i>a</i>) Mechanical, or the +application of various mechanical contrivances; (<i>b</i>) Blasting, or +the use of explosives.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_559">[559]</span></p> + +<p>In spite, however, of the introduction of machinery and explosives, +it would seem that the risk of accidents and exposure to conditions +detrimental to health have not been very appreciably increased, +although, of course, the process of quarrying has been greatly +facilitated, and such works extended. In most quarries, both in this +country and abroad, the wedge and hammer are still the chief agents +employed in the getting of stone. For rocks in levels or distinct +seams, as in the case of the millstone grit, probably the wedges afford +the best methods. A procedure called the “plug and feather” method, and +working on the principle of the incline plane, is sometimes employed.</p> + +<p>According to an ancient procedure, after the hole was drilled, dry wood +was inserted, and the expansion after moistening with water employed to +split the rock. Another custom was to fill the bore-hole with quicklime +and water.</p> + +<p>Explosives are, however, extensively employed, and their use proves +fruitful as a source of accidents. In many quarries with stone in flat +layers, after boring the holes by hand, or the aid of machinery, only +sufficient explosive is used to split but not to break or shatter the +rock, its further separation being accomplished by wedge and hammer.</p> + +<p>Blasting is commonly used for all rocks not found in seams, and hence +explosives are largely employed in granite and marble quarries. In +slate quarries also, especially in Wales, blasting would seem to be the +favourite method.</p> + +<p>Among the more important explosives used in quarry work are the +following:—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>Blasting gelatine</li> + <li>Dynamite</li> + <li>Fulminate of mercury</li> + <li>Gelatine dynamite</li> + <li>Gelignite</li> + <li>Gunpowder</li> + <li>Roburite</li> + <li>Tonite</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p><i>Pathology.</i>—The quarryman, from the nature of his work and the +circumstances under which it has to be carried on, is necessarily +exposed to influences which may (1) excite or (2) predispose to morbid +conditions, and in not a few cases it is difficult, if not impossible, +to sharply distinguish between them.</p> + +<p>The pathological lesions resulting from the action of the causal agents +may be best considered under the customary headings of (1) Accidents, +and (2) Disease.</p> + +<p><i>Etiology.</i>—The exciting agents may be classified according to +their nature into:—(1) Mechanical; (2) Thermal; (3) Chemical; (4) +Electrical; (5) Biological.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_560">[560]</span></p> + +<p>The predisposing agents act by (1) influencing the condition of the +individual, and (2) by modifying the character of his environment. +Without entering into details we may simply enumerate such points as +heredity, sex, period of life, constitution, temperament and previous +disease, as modifying the health tendencies of the individual; while +climate, social standing, education, form of occupation, and habits are +all influential in modifying the environment.</p> + +<p>Of accidents occurring in connection with quarries, a study of the +published returns will show that these may be best considered as to +whether they arise (1) inside, or (2) outside the quarry proper.</p> + +<p>Quarry accidents may thus be grouped:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Those which occur inside the quarries</i>—</p> + +<p>(1) From falls of ground and detachment of rock. Such may occur +(<i>a</i>) from beyond, or (<i>b</i>) at the person’s own working place.</p> + +<p>(2) By blasting. Accidents are here particularly liable to occur +(<i>a</i>) while charging or tamping, (<i>b</i>) from stones projected +by shots, (<i>c</i>) from miss-fires.</p> + +<p>(3) During descent or ascent to a deep-seated quarry, accidents may +arise from (<i>a</i>) falling from paths, steps, or ladders, while +climbing; or even (<i>b</i>) when ascending or descending by machinery.</p> + +<p>(4) Accidents may also arise from a miscellaneous group of causes, +such, for instance, as—</p> + +<p>The breaking of ropes or chains, the mismanagement of machinery, boiler +explosions; in connection with inclined and engine planes, railways, +tramways, or sidings, from falling from ledges, or by injury with the +ordinary quarry implements.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Those which occur outside the quarries</i>—</p> + +<p>The chief of these arise in connection with machinery, from the use +of hot liquid or molten metal, by boiler explosions, from the escape +of gas, steam, or metal, on inclined and engine planes, railways, +tramways, or sidings.</p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the accidents arise chiefly from mechanical +agencies, or from the misuse of explosives. Thermal causes lead to +burns and scalds. As electricity comes into more general use, injuries +from this agent are likely to be met with.</p> + +<p>The dangers from mechanical conditions depend upon: (1) the situation +and material of the quarries; (2) the implements and machinery used.</p> + +<p>Dangers in connection with the use of explosives arise: (1)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_561">[561]</span> while +conveying explosives; (2) during the thawing of explosives; (3) from +changing or stemming holes; (4) allowing access of sparks from lamp +or candle; (5) by the use of iron or steel tools, or by using wooden, +brass, or copper tools; (6) premature explosions are liable to arise +from the use of squibs or straws, and sometimes from the so-called +safety fuse; (7) delayed explosions; (8) unramming shots; (9) blows +from stones projected by shots.</p> + +<p>Exceptional accidents may also arise, as, for instance, where an +acetylene gas apparatus used in the quarry work suddenly exploded.</p> + +<p>The nature and extent of the injuries met with in quarrying vary +greatly. Burns and scalds may occur from contact with the boilers and +steam appliances used in many large quarries. Contusions of greater or +less severity are necessarily common. Crushes may arise from falling +rock or entanglement in machinery. Dislocation of joints sometimes +occurs from falls or similar accidents. Eye injuries are somewhat +common from granite chips or particles of steel, and they also occur +where dressing of stone is carried out at the quarries. Fractures arise +from falls and the giving of the ground. Lacerations, superficial or +deep, and involving skin and muscular structures, arise not only in +connection with the actual quarrying, but in the use of the machinery +which is now so frequent in large quarries. Sprains are not uncommon +in connection with falls and the like. Wounds may arise from various +circumstances, and may be of any degree of severity.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases.</i>—After having made extensive inquiries with a view to +ascertain the extent of actual disease which may be fairly considered +as incidental to quarrying, we are drawn to the conclusion that such +work, generally speaking, is not necessarily detrimental to health.</p> + +<p>The medical officers and managers of most of the large quarries from +whom we have sought information are decisive in considering quarrying, +as usually carried out in this country, a fairly healthy occupation.</p> + +<p>Of course quarry-workers are liable to many of the ailments to which +all labourers are more or less prone, and their habits and social +customs are not always such as to maintain a high degree of physical +vigour.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, in many parts the quarrymen are thriftless and drunken. +Their homes also are often ill-built and ill-kept.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_562">[562]</span> A neglect of habits +of cleanliness is, in many instances, only too apparent. In some parts +of the country the quarrymen are of poor physique, which arises, +according to local opinion, from too early marriage, intermarriage, +excessive tea-drinking, and poor diet.</p> + +<p>We find that in some rather isolated districts, for instance in +Cornwall, there is considerable intermarriage among the workers, and +some believe that this affords a factor of importance in connection +with the development of phthisis.</p> + +<p>That quarrying is by no means a dangerous employment to health is +evidenced by the fact that in many quarry districts old men abound, +many of whom work until over eighty years of age.</p> + +<p>We have made particular inquiries regarding workers in limestone, but +even those who are engaged as burners and dressers of the lime seem to +experience no detriment to health, many having worked all their lives +without complaint. Indeed, we learn that at one justly celebrated +lime-works, delicate lads have been sent to work at drawing lime, +and have materially improved in their general health. The fact that +quarrying is necessarily carried on out-of-doors of itself makes for +physical vigour.</p> + +<p>Even where dressing is carried out in the immediate vicinity of the +quarry, the sheds are frequently of such a character as to allow of +free natural ventilation, and the ready carrying away of dust almost as +quickly as it is formed. In many places the cutting is done quite in +the open and with no protection whatever.</p> + +<p>Brief reference may be made to some of the more important pathological +conditions which, arising in quarry-workers, may be considered as +ætiologically associated with the nature of their labour.</p> + +<p><i>Affections of the Respiratory Organs.</i>—Lesions in connection +with the lungs and air-passages have long and rightly been considered +the more particular accompaniment of work associated with the +production of dust. But in most forms of quarrying the amount of dust +and its means of access to the respiratory tract must be considered so +limited that serious pulmonary disease is quite the exception.</p> + +<p>Where, however, in connection with quarry-works there is also +extensive dressing of soft material like sandstone, or the preparation +of material giving rise to such irritating particles as granite, +changes in the bronchi and lungs are liable to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_563">[563]</span> occur. The bronchi +then become the seat of an excessive formation of mucus, and it may +be that a catarrhal process is established which may progress to a +chronic bronchitis, to which will sooner or later be added the usually +associated conditions.</p> + +<p>The lungs may absorb more or less of the dust particles which, becoming +deposited in the inter-alveolar and sub-pleural lymphatics, or arrested +in the bronchial glands, give a greater or less degree of pigmentation +to the lung (pneumoconiosis). Should, however, as is very likely, the +particles of stone-dust produce marked irritation, the reaction of the +tissues will lead to the formation of fibrous tissue which may not +only lessen the function of the lungs as blood-aërating organs, but +predispose them to the invasion of the tubercle bacillus.</p> + +<p>Quarry workers would appear to be but little predisposed to +tuberculosis, and doubtless the outdoor character of the work greatly +militates against the liability to infection.</p> + +<p><i>Cardio-Vascular Disease.</i>—The laborious and oftentimes straining +character of the work seems to be influential, at least to some extent, +in initiating and perpetuating states of arterial degeneration, leading +to or associated with cardiac enfeeblement. It is very doubtful, +however, if atheroma and cardiac involvement occur more frequently in +quarrymen than in the sedentary and intellectual workers of the present +day, in whom cardio-vascular regressive changes are only too common.</p> + +<p>Indeed, even when cardiac and arterial degeneration is met with in +quarry workers there seems reason to believe that it is more often due +to alcoholic indulgence and other irregular habits than to the nature +and character of the work.</p> + +<p><i>Cutaneous Lesions.</i>—The skin frequently shows evidence of +exposure to wind and weather and scars from the war with rocks.</p> + +<p><i>Digestive Disturbances.</i>—The lack of suitable food, irrational +indulgence in tea, or excessive use of alcohol, not infrequently leads +to digestive derangements.</p> + +<p>We learn that in consequence of dietetic ignorance in some of the Welsh +quarries, constipation, dyspepsia, hæmorrhoids and hepatic disorders +are common.</p> + +<p><i>Ear Affections.</i>—It might be thought that the constant vibration +from the use of the hammer and the employment of explosives might prove +detrimental to hearing, but such seems not to be the case.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_564">[564]</span></p> + +<p><i>Eye Affections.</i>—Injuries to the eyes have already been +referred to and are often serious, but inflammatory or other morbid +processes in the eye are not of frequent occurrence. The action of the +sunlight on some of the light coloured and strongly reflecting rocks +may occasionally produce conjunctivitis, but, generally speaking, the +powers of vision of the quarryman would not seem to be inferior to that +of the ordinary labourer.</p> + +<p><i>Osteo-arthritis</i>, whatever may be the nature of its pathology, +certainly affects some of the quarrymen, especially when getting into +advanced life, but they are apparently not more liable than other +labourers. <i>Rheumatism</i>, more particularly in its so-called +chronic and muscular forms, may affect quarrymen, and is generally +credited as arising from exposure to damp and cold, which of necessity +during a considerable part of the year forms the daily portion of most +quarrymen in this country. Dupuytren’s contraction of the palmar fascia +and contiguous structures may also be met with.</p> + +<p><i>Septic Infection.</i>—Considering the frequency of injuries and the +unsatisfactory methods of treating the same, it is surprising that more +cases of serious septic infection do not occur.</p> + +<p><i>Tetanus.</i>—A quarryman, just like any other labourer, +occasionally contracts tetanus, but infection is quite exceptional.</p> + +<p><i>Legal Provisions.</i>—Very rightly the working of quarries is under +strict supervision and controlled by legal enactments.</p> + +<p>The chief Acts directing their management are:—</p> + +<p>1. Quarries Act, 1894.</p> + +<p>This empowers the application to quarries of certain provisions of +the Metalliferous Mines Regulations Acts, 1872 and 1875, and the +Metalliferous Mines (Isle of Man) Act, 1891, and arranges that the +Inspectors under the Metalliferous Mines Regulations Acts, 1872 and +1875, shall be Inspectors of the Quarries under this Act. This Act +applies to all quarries 20 feet or more in depth.</p> + +<p>2. Metalliferous Mines Regulations Acts, 1872, 1875, 35 and 36 Vict., +cap. 77, 38 and 39 Vict., cap. 39; and Metalliferous Mines Regulations +Acts (Isle of Man Act) 1891, 54 and 55 Vict., cap. 47, make certain +provisions which also apply to quarries.</p> + +<p>3. The Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 and 1891. These Acts apply +also to quarries, and there have also been introduced certain +modifications in the working of the same. Since 1898 brick and other +works in connection with quarries have come<span class="pagenum" id="Page_565">[565]</span> under the jurisdiction of +Inspectors of Factories. This explains why of recent years the number +of individuals returned as engaged in work outside the actual pit, +hole, or excavation has often been less than formerly.</p> + +<p>4. Quarry (Fencing) Act, 1887. This provides that where any quarry +dangerous to the public is in open or unenclosed land within fifty +yards of a highway or place of public resort dedicated to the public, +and is not separated therefrom by a secure and sufficient fence, it +shall be kept reasonably fenced for the prevention of accident, and +unless so kept shall be deemed to be a nuisance liable to be dealt with +summarily in manner provided by the Public Health Act, 1875.</p> + +<p>Actual getting of clay in case of brickworks is under the Inspector of +Quarries, but in the making of clay-ware under the Factory and Workshop +Act, the local Inspector of Factories exercises supervision.</p> + +<p>Where washing and dressing of quarried material takes place adjacent to +the quarry, the Inspector of Quarries acts as a Factory and Workshop +Inspector under the Factory and Workshop Acts.</p> + +<p>It may be well to point out that there is much need that the legal +definition of a quarry should be amended by abandoning the depth limit.</p> + +<p>It is also well to state that even in the case of small quarries, +where only one or two men may be employed, and the stone removed only +for such purposes as road repair, the place is nevertheless a quarry, +and legal enactments must apply. Explosives may be employed only in +accordance with the Explosives Act.</p> + +<p>In many indirect ways legislative measures have of recent years +accomplished much in lessening the dangers of quarrying. Thus the +passing of the Workmen’s Compensation Act has led in many districts +to much greater care and supervision being exercised. For instance, +in some quarries it is now forbidden to bring alcoholic drinks into +the quarries during working hours, although formerly it was no unusual +thing to find a lad whose chief work was the fetching of beer for the +workmen.</p> + +<p>The Boiler Explosives Act will also, of course, apply to cases +occurring in connection with quarry works.</p> + +<p>The systematic examination of boilers is a measure likely to avail much +in lessening the occurrence of boiler explosions.</p> + +<p>The Employers’ Liability Act also applies to quarry proprietors.</p> + +<p>With regard to further restrictions, it may be pointed out that the +Quarry Fencing Act, which applies to quarries on unenclosed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_566">[566]</span> land +within fifty yards of the highway might be well extended in its scope, +so as to provide protection to the public from the only too common +abandoned quarries.</p> + +<p>It is also very necessary that those responsible for the conduct of a +quarry should insist on the strict enforcement of rules. An abstract of +the Quarries Act and Special Rules should be printed on enamelled iron +and placed in a conspicuous position in the works. It is of particular +importance that well understood signals be always used in connection +with blasting.</p> + +<p><i>Prophylaxis and Treatment.</i>—Although quarrying as now conducted +must be considered a comparatively safe and fairly healthy occupation, +there yet remains much to be done to ensure the carrying on of such +work with the minimum of risk and the maximum of efficiency.</p> + +<p>Unless constant care is exercised and rigorous inspection carried out, +the results of ignorance and neglect are soon made apparent.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Preventive Measures.</i>—These may be considered as they are +formulated and carried out by (<i>a</i>) the State, (<i>b</i>) the +Employer, (<i>c</i>) the Workman.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The State has recognised the risks and dangers incidental +to quarrying, and legislation has to a great extent limited the +dangers arising from neglect and ignorance. The annual publications +of the Reports of the Inspectors and the occasional prosecution of +law-neglecting proprietors give evidence that the enforcement of the +law is in many districts satisfactory, but it may be freely admitted +that further measures of control and increased activity in surveyance +would do much to lessen the accidents still only too common in quarries.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The workmen should be well housed and offered inducements to +live rationally and act hygienically. Where possible, baths should be +available. Education in the elements of hygiene should be encouraged.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The workman can do much to maintain and retain his own +health. His clothing should be suitable to the form of his work and the +nature of the climate. His diet should be nutritious and appropriate +to the laborious character of his work. Suitable recreation should be +afforded, and temperance and thrift practised. Steps to provide against +accidents, sickness, strikes, and old age will be taken by a thrifty +and thoughtful workman.</p> + +<p>A wise workman realises that his best protection lies in his own +intelligence and experience, and no rules or superintendence can +relieve him of his own personal responsibility.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_567">[567]</span></p> + +<p>2. <i>Treatment of Accidents and Ailments occurring in +Quarries.</i>—The workmen engaged in quarries should be trained in the +methods of rendering “first aid” in cases of accident and illness, and +dressings, bandages, splints, and suitable appliances should always be +available.</p> + +<p>In most large quarries a medical officer exercises a certain amount of +general inspection as regards hygiene measures, often holds ambulance +classes, and attends in case of accident or sudden illness.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="smcap">John Brown.</li> + <li class="smcap">T. N. Kelynack.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_568">[568]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XL<br> +<span class="subhed">THE CHEMICAL TRADES</span></h2></div> + +<p><i>Introductory Remarks.</i>—Under the title of the chemical trades a +very large number of industries must be included which vary widely in +the conditions under which the manufacturing operations are carried on. +Nor must sight be lost of the great variety of chemicals used in the +arts. For instance, in the department of pure chemicals and drugs for +medical purposes, we find manufacturers who are engaged in producing +small quantities of these substances, with the greatest precautions +for cleanliness and care in the details of manufacture. These articles +may be manufactured in small vessels by the pound weight at a time. +At the other end of the industry we find the manufacture of such +chemicals as are used in very large quantities carried on by tons. +The whole conditions of such a manufacturing process are necessarily +quite different, and we find laboratory fittings replaced by enormous +machinery and great furnaces working under open sheds and turning +out large quantities of material. It is therefore impossible to deal +adequately with an industry of this description, or to give anything +approaching a complete survey of the different conditions of employment +found in it.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, we have allied to the chemical trade others closely +resembling it. It is, for instance, a mere arbitrary distinction to +separate the manufacture of pigments from that of chemicals, as many +of the pigments used at the present day are made by means of chemical +processes carried on under similar conditions, and the workmen engaged +in these are exposed to similar risks and dangers. The white lead +industry, for example, is merely a process of chemical manufacture, +although for convenience it is regarded as an industry by itself. There +are other industries in which the danger to health in using certain +chemicals is even more serious than it is to those actually engaged +in their manufacture. For instance, it seems to be far more dangerous +to dip match heads in the composition containing small quantities of +phosphorus than it is to manufacture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_569">[569]</span> phosphorus itself, and many cases +occur where lead poisoning results from the use of chemicals containing +lead. The greatest danger seems to be for those who are continuously +engaged in handling these substances in small quantities rather than +for those who deal with the manufacture in bulk. It is evident, then, +that as a matter of convenient classification we must strictly limit +the meaning of the words “chemical trades.”</p> + +<p>Dealing purely with the manufacture of chemicals themselves, we may, I +think, lay down this general principle, that there is not necessarily +any danger to the workman in manufacturing the most poisonous +substances, if reasonable precautions are taken. Most chemicals are +made by a wet process, and are crystallised or precipitated from the +solutions, and therefore the danger from the inhaling of poisonous dust +is not present. If deleterious gases are evolved, suitable arrangements +can be made for preventing them escaping into the laboratory: moreover, +we find that firms engaged in the manufacture of fine chemicals usually +prepare a great variety of substances, so that the workmen are not +always engaged upon the same process, and the risk of accumulated +poisoning is diminished.</p> + +<p>The experience of scientific chemists in their own laboratories goes to +show that for many years experiments may be carried on with the most +dangerous substances, including gases of a poisonous nature, and that +they may work day after day in an atmosphere frequently loaded with +the fumes of strong acids and other substances, and yet not suffer +any serious damage. In the manufacture of miscellaneous chemicals and +drugs conducted on a comparatively small scale, there is no reason, +I believe, to look for any serious difficulty in making the work +perfectly healthy. Good ventilation and obvious precautions are all +that are really necessary. But when we come to consider the manufacture +of certain chemicals in very large quantities, then we find conditions +which make it very difficult to protect the workmen from injurious +consequences. The heaviest part of the chemical trade is that devoted +to the manufacture of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, carbonate of +soda, caustic soda, and bleaching powder. These chemicals are usually +made in one establishment, as part of one process, or in establishments +closely allied to each other, and we shall find that there are three +distinct methods of producing some, at any rate, of these chemicals.</p> + +<p><i>The Le Blanc Process.</i>—To deal first with the process by which +all these substances can be manufactured, and which is the oldest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_570">[570]</span> +and still the most important, we shall consider in some detail the +manufacture known as the Le Blanc process, which is carried on in this +country by the United Alkali Company and others. We shall find that the +manufacturing processes necessitate the workman being exposed to the +weather in open sheds, and that he is carrying on operations involving +considerable bodily exertion before furnaces, and is exposed to various +deleterious gases. Probably the fact that his work is carried on in +open sheds, while making him more liable to sudden chills after working +before the furnaces, is, on the whole, beneficial, as he is supplied +in this way with fresh air. In fact it would be impossible to carry on +many of the operations under any other conditions. As has been shown +by statistics, the agricultural labourer, in spite of his exposure to +inclement weather, has the longest life of any class of workmen. We may +say, then, that the chemical worker, as his employment is practically +an outdoor one, has this much to the good; but we cannot compare the +air which he breathes in the chemical works with that which is breathed +on the country farm.</p> + +<p>The processes of Le Blanc manufacture are as follows: The first is +the production of sulphate of soda or salt cake. This is produced by +acting upon common salt with sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol. We shall +have to consider the conditions of the manufacture of sulphuric acid +itself, but it will be simpler in the meantime to assume that we have +sulphuric acid supplied to us. Its manufacture is usually carried on in +the same works in which the salt cake is made. The sulphuric acid and +salt are heated on the bed of a furnace, and are raked and moved about +by the man in charge, until the decomposition of the salt is complete, +and it has been converted into sulphate of soda. During this process +torrents of hydrochloric acid gas are set free from the mass, and are +drawn away from the furnace by means of a Root’s blower or some similar +contrivance.</p> + +<p>The hydrochloric acid gas has a suffocating and irritating effect when +breathed, and if present in any considerable quantities in the air, +makes it quite impossible for any one to stand the suffocation and +irritation produced. Even in smaller quantities the irritation of the +air-passages is so great that it must in course of time prove injurious +to the workmen. If we could obtain an ideal system, there seems to be +no reason why workmen should be exposed at all to this irritating gas. +The furnaces are, of course, arched in, and the gas is drawn off as it +is generated. The main danger of exposure to the gas comes when the +workman rakes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_571">[571]</span> the salt cake from the furnace into barrows, for removal +to the next operation. Here a considerable improvement has been made of +late years. The salt cake is raked into an iron box, which is connected +to the furnace draught, so that the gases are drawn away while the salt +cake cools, and the box is not removed from this position until by this +means most of the fumes of acid have been given off.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding these improvements, hydrochloric acid gas is found +to be present more or less in the neighbourhood of these furnaces. +The state of repair in the furnaces themselves, the condition of the +weather, the amount of moisture in the air, the successful working of +the acid towers, the rate at which the workman is trying to get out his +material, and consequently not allowing it to cool properly in the iron +box—all these conditions are present, and any of them may result in +the presence of a certain amount of gas. It is only necessary to be in +a town like St Helens on a moist evening to realise the fact that from +these various chemical works large quantities of hydrochloric acid and +other gases are evidently escaping.</p> + +<p>In order to protect himself to a certain extent from the hydrochloric +acid, the workman either wears a flannel muffler tied over his face, +or he bites a piece of flannel between his teeth and breathes through +it. The fumes of acid quickly cause the teeth to rot away, and it has +been suggested that this biting of the flannel, which gets full of +acid, is one of the main causes of the rotting of the teeth. I have no +evidence, however, on this point. My impression is that the rotting +away of the teeth will take place whether flannel is held between the +teeth or is wrapped over the mouth. Besides being exposed more or less +to hydrochloric acid gas, the man is also working before a furnace +door, in an open shed, and his work is of a very heavy character, so +that he usually wears a minimum of clothes and perspires freely. He is +thus exposed to constant chills, and to the risk of developing some +pulmonary disease.</p> + +<p>The custom of the chemical trade is to divide all work of this +character into shifts of twelve hours each, though as a matter of +convenience the workmen sometimes arrange to take shifts of eleven and +thirteen hours. During the twelve hours the workman is supposed to have +sufficient time for his meals, but he does not leave his furnace; his +food is brought to him, and he so arranges his work that he is able, +to get his meal while waiting for the next operation to take place. +His work at the furnace is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_572">[572]</span> absolutely continuous. It would be +impossible for any human being to carry on such heavy muscular labour +continuously. He has to watch the materials, to stir them and rake them +about at the proper intervals, and to remove the charge when completed, +and to distribute a new charge in the furnace. But as the method of +payment universally adopted in the chemical trade is by the quantity +of material turned out, he is naturally anxious to turn out as much +as possible, and he produces with considerable regularity the same +quantity of stuff from day to day.</p> + +<p>The amount of labour involved in this would be impossible to a muscular +man who had not been trained to it. The mere exposure to heat would +make it very difficult. But it must not be supposed, that because a +man going to this work for the first time would find the labour and +the heat involved quite intolerable that it is so to the salt cake +worker. The extraordinary power of adaptation which we find in the +human subject enables him to carry out these arduous operations with +comparative ease, and so far does this adaptation go, that the men +working beside him, whose business it is to wheel barrow loads of the +weighed chemicals to the furnace door, can wheel barrows all day, but +could not carry out the furnace operations; while the furnaceman, if +put into the yard, where he has general labouring work to do, will be +found at first very unfit for such toil, and will do the best he can to +get back to his furnace work again.</p> + +<p>Besides the long hours involved, the exposure to the heat of the +furnaces tends to make such men heavy drinkers, and I think it is the +universal experience in the chemical trade that such is the case. I +believe that inquiry would show that the quantity of alcoholic liquor +that one of these men can take, without any apparent injurious effects, +is extraordinary. In the end these drinking habits tell, and the result +is that the health of the workman rapidly breaks down.</p> + +<p>We have then four conditions which are acting prejudicially—exposure +to the fumes of an irritating gas, exposure to high temperature from +the furnaces, exposure to cold and chills working in an open shed, and +the tendency to drink heavily when away from work. I have described +these conditions in considerable detail, because the work at the salt +cake furnace is so similar to that carried on in many other operations +in chemical works, that it may be taken as fairly typical. The men +employed in this industry are very largely Irish labourers. If they are +not of Irish extraction, they are principally country labourers from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_573">[573]</span> +the surrounding districts. The comparatively high wages earned are, of +course, a temptation. A man may change from salt cake to a black ash +furnace, but he is still engaged in similar operations. The work is +of so peculiar a character, that a man who has once got adapted to it +is not suited for other purposes. When no longer fit for so arduous a +task, we may find him employed in odd jobs about the yard, acting as a +night watchman, or performing some of the many miscellaneous jobs that +require to be attended to in chemical works.</p> + +<p>In the earlier inquiries into the effect on health of this and other +processes in the chemical trade, very different opinions were expressed +as to whether the operations which these men had to carry on, while +undoubtedly of a disagreeable character, had really a serious effect +upon their health. I shall not discuss this at the present stage, but I +think it is proved, in spite of the difficulties, which I shall refer +to later on, of obtaining definite statistics on this point, that the +injury to health is of a definite and serious character. I shall also +reserve for general discussion the question as to the long hours of +labour, and how far that may be dealt with and improved.</p> + +<p>The salt cake after it leaves the furnace is mixed with limestone and +coal in a black ash furnace. After being heated and stirred in this +furnace for a sufficient length of time, it is poured out in a molten +condition, wheeled away to cool, is broken up, and the soda dissolved +from it in the black ash vats. This operation of decomposing the salt +cake used to be carried on in furnaces worked by hand. Such furnaces +have practically disappeared, and with their disappearance a form of +labour as arduous as the work of the salt cake man has also gone. +Large revolving mechanical furnaces are now used for this operation, +and although the labour of tending these furnaces is arduous, yet the +conditions are very much improved upon those which prevailed in the old +days. No fumes result in this operation, so that the workman is not +exposed to deleterious gases.</p> + +<p>After the soda has been dissolved it is subjected to various processes, +according to the product which may be required. It may be converted +into soda ash, into soda crystals, and into caustic soda. All these +operations involve boiling, furnacing, and similar processes, but there +is nothing to be said about them of special interest, except the final +operation in the manufacture of caustic soda.</p> + +<p>In order to make caustic soda, the liquors, after treatment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_574">[574]</span> with lime, +are evaporated in large cast-iron cauldrons some 15 feet in diameter. +As the liquor gets more and more concentrated, the temperature +keeps rising, until finally the cauldron is full of red-hot caustic +soda, which when it is finished is bailed into iron drums and there +solidifies and is ready for sale. These great cauldrons of red-hot +caustic are, of course, dangerous, as the substance will produce very +serious injuries, if by any accident it gets out of the pot, while a +drop of water will cause it to spurt, and other accidents may happen, +causing similar spurting of this liquid. We find accordingly that burns +are apt to happen in the caustic shop, although they are seldom of a +serious character, and occasionally men have lost their lives from +slipping and falling into the caustic pot.</p> + +<p>Some of these cases were discussed in the inquiry which was made in +1893 into the chemical trades, and certain precautions were suggested +for preventing such accidents in future, and were embodied in the +special rules. The most important of these was taking care that the top +of the pot should be at least 3 feet in height above the ground, and +that the brickwork should slope to the top, and should have no ledges +upon it where the workman could place his foot.</p> + +<p>But while the manufacture of caustic may and does lead to accidents, +there is nothing in the actual process of manufacture itself which +seems to be injurious to the workman, beyond the exposure to heat and +cold. The work of the caustic finisher is not nearly so continuous or +so arduous as that of the furnaceman. He is usually highly paid, and +requires to be a man of considerable skill, for the turning out of a +white caustic of a high strength depends upon long experience, as well +as great care in its manufacture.</p> + +<p>The next process to be considered is the manufacture of bleaching +powder from the hydrochloric acid which was given off during the +operations in the salt cake furnace. In practice there are two ways +of dealing with this substance, with the view to producing chlorine +gas, from which bleaching powder is prepared. Either the hydrochloric +acid is decomposed in large stone-covered vessels, known as stills, by +means of manganese mud, the chlorine gas evolved being carried away +through suitable pipes to the bleaching chambers; or the hydrochloric +acid gas is passed direct from the salt cake furnace, and without +condensation is mixed with proper proportions of air and steam; it is +then decomposed by being brought into contact with specially prepared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_575">[575]</span> +material, and the chlorine gas liberated. The first process is known +as the Weldon process, and chlorine gas produced by decomposition of +hydrochloric acid and manganese mud is known as Weldon gas. The second +process is known as the Deacon’s process, and the gas is called Deacon +gas.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned both these processes because the method of preparing +chlorine makes a considerable difference in the way in which bleach is +prepared from gas. In order to prepare bleaching powder we must expose +freshly slaked lime to the gas. The lime will then absorb the chlorine +gas, forming a compound known as bleaching powder, from which chlorine +can be very readily evolved, mere exposure to air and carbonic acid gas +being sufficient to cause a slight decomposition to go on.</p> + +<p>It is a matter of great importance to the manufacturer to get as high +a percentage of available chlorine into every ton of bleaching powder +that he sells as he can, as the buyer of bleaching powder naturally +objects to paying carriage on a weak article.</p> + +<p>As bleach is always slightly decomposing and losing in strength, it +becomes specially important for export purposes, where it may be +exposed to long voyages, to make it as strong as possible before it is +sent away. We have then the production of an unstable compound, which +can only be prepared at full strength, say 38 per cent., by taking +great care in the conditions of manufacture, a compound which is always +slightly decomposing, and which, if the conditions of manufacture +are only slightly altered, will possibly lose rather than gain in +strength in the final stages of its manufacture. For example, in order +to be able to meet the competition from the Continent and America, +it is necessary to turn out this product at as high a percentage of +strength as possible. The bleach below 35 per cent. in strength is not +saleable, except at a very reduced price, while bleach of 38 per cent. +strength is considered to be of the highest quality. It is a matter of +the utmost importance to the manufacturer to obtain this 2 or 3 per +cent. of strength. Many of those who have discussed the manufacture +of bleach, and have talked of improved mechanical processes, have not +realised how difficult and delicate a business the production of bleach +of full strength really is. These facts should be kept in mind when the +chemical manufacturer is condemned for what is called his crude and +old-fashioned methods of making this article.</p> + +<p>If we are going to make bleach from Weldon gas, we are dealing with +gas which contains a very high percentage of pure chlorine,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_576">[576]</span> and, +consequently, the conditions for successful manufacture are quite +different from those prevailing in the case of Deacon gas, in which +we have only some 7 per cent. of chlorine present. The manufacture of +bleach from Weldon gas is carried on to-day as it has always been, by +spreading lime over the floors of chambers, which are at the present +time usually made of lead, and passing the gas into these chambers, +and allowing it to be absorbed by the lime. These lead chambers are of +varying size, but are usually about 100 feet long, 30 feet broad, and +about 6 feet high. The lime is spread over the floor, and is made up +into ridges by means of a wooden rake. The doors are closed and the +chlorine gas is allowed to enter. The absorption process is carried +on for two or three days. During that time the lime is taking up the +chlorine gas, and forming the compound which we call bleaching powder. +Samples are withdrawn from time to time, the supply of fresh gas is +stopped, and the lime is allowed to continue absorbing the gas still +remaining upon it in the chamber. When this operation has gone as far +as it can, and the bleach has reached full strength, then the chamber +is again connected to another chamber, containing fresh lime, and this +second chamber is then connected to a pipe and subjected to a gentle +suction so as to cause a slight current from chamber No. 1 to chamber +No. 2. The doors of the first chamber are now slightly opened, so as +to admit a little air, and the remaining chlorine gas is then gently +drawn off into the chamber which is freshly limed, while air passes +in and takes its place. The doors are then thrown wide open, and free +admission of air is allowed. The chamber cools, and the greater part of +the gas is removed; but complete removal of the gas is not practicable, +as the powder itself is always slightly decomposing, and if left long +enough on the chamber floor would soon cease to be saleable bleach.</p> + +<p>The quantity of gas which may be left in the chamber when the bleach +is packed has been laid down in the Act of Parliament dealing with +injurious gases from chemical works, and the works’ chemist is expected +to test the air in the chamber and enter the result in a book which is +inspected from time to time by the Alkali Inspector. These inspectors +are not appointed under the Factory Acts. Their function is to prevent +the escape of injurious gases which may injure neighbouring property. +It must be remembered, however, that the bleach is always decomposing, +and in summer weather the decomposition of the bleach is going on very +rapidly, and unless it is packed with great promptitude it will lose +in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_577">[577]</span> strength, while, on the other hand, the fact of this decomposition +going on makes the work of packing more disagreeable.</p> + +<p>The method of packing is as follows:—The bleach packer wraps his face +in roll upon roll of flannel, the flannel being drawn over his mouth +and leaving the nostrils free. These layers of flannel stand out some +three inches beyond his face, and have to be of just the right dampness +to prevent the gas reaching his lungs. He then puts on leather goggles +to protect his eyes, and ties a piece of paper round his trousers to +keep the bleach from attacking them. He then enters the bleach chamber +and rapidly shovels the powder through holes made in the floor. Under +these holes are shoots down into the casks which are underneath the +bleaching chamber, and a covering is attached to the shoot and tied +round the sides of the cask, preventing the bleach from escaping as it +goes down. In this way the bleach is packed.</p> + +<p>This operation of bleach packing is the most disagreeable to which the +man in charge of the bleach is subjected. The chlorine rises from the +bleach as it is disturbed, and it would be impossible for any one to +remain for a few seconds in a bleach chamber unless he was protected +from breathing the gas in the way I have described. On the other hand, +such wrappings make breathing very difficult. In fact a man who has not +got accustomed to the bleach packer’s flannel would imagine that he was +going to die of suffocation, and could not bear it round his face for +more than a few seconds. While the bleach packer leaves his nostrils +free, he is careful to breathe out from them, while he inhales through +the flannels. He may stay from twenty to forty minutes inside the +chamber, then come out and take fresh air, then put on his flannels and +go back again, and in the course of a day he may thus do from two or +three to five or six hours’ bleach packing. The bleach chambers come up +to strength in succession, and when one of these is up to strength the +product is packed as rapidly as possible, and the chamber prepared for +another operation. A great part of the bleach packer’s time is spent in +merely looking after his bleaching chambers, seeing that the lutes are +tight, that the gas is passing properly into the chambers, and so on. +His life consists of periodic leisure combined with the most arduous +and exceptional form of toil.</p> + +<p>The exact conditions vary in different works, but it is usually found +that the bleach packer also prepares the chamber with lime, and he may +also prepare the lime himself and sift it. In large works the duties +of sifting and slacking the lime are performed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_578">[578]</span> by a special set of +men. This preparation of the lime is also a very unpleasant process, +as it involves working in clouds of lime, which settle on the body and +clothes, and is inhaled in considerable quantities. The lime-dresser +rubs his arms and face over with grease and has also to roll his face +in a flannel, but does not require to put on anything like the number +of layers which are necessary in the case of the bleach packer exposed +to chlorine gas. In the case of the Deacon process, the arrangement is +somewhat different. The lime is distributed on shelves, and is finally +removed by being pushed from these shelves down suitable holes, by +means of openings from the outside; so that the Deacon man does not go +into the chamber, as he does in the case of Weldon gas.</p> + +<p>Besides the exposure to the chlorine gas under the conditions of +packing, it must be remembered that, in carrying on operations on a +large scale with gas having the corrosive properties of chlorine, +many little escapes of gas will take place, and that accidents from +this source will be found to happen more frequently when the men, not +expecting such an escape, are not, consequently, prepared for it, than +from actual breathing of the gas during the process of packing.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to describe the effects of chlorine when breathed. +A person has himself to experience the peculiarly suffocating and +irritating properties of this gas, in order to appreciate its +qualities. But while the inconvenience and discomfort produced are +very great, and may result in vomiting and irritation of the bronchial +passages lasting for some days, yet the discomfort is greater +apparently than the permanent injury to health. Insensibility and death +have been produced, but such results are rare. It often happens that +workmen in chemical works get “gassed” accidentally, and consequently +feel great irritation of their respiratory passages, and have a feeling +of suffocation, followed by vomiting, but these symptoms are temporary +in their duration, and do not appear to cause permanent injury. Any one +who is familiar with chemical works has been gassed occasionally, and +yet he has found no permanent harm come from it.</p> + +<p>But when we come to the question as to whether the continuous exposure +to this gas, combined with work under the peculiar conditions necessary +in the case of the bleach packers, does not ultimately undermine the +health of the workers, we approach a more difficult problem. These men +are necessarily men of great physical strength and in the prime of +life, and they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_579">[579]</span> like the trade because of the very high wages paid; but +it is difficult to trace the ultimate history of such men, and decide +how far the death-rate among men who are picked for their health, +strength, and age would give any real information as to the injurious +nature of the employment. Here again, as in the case of the furnace +man, the temptation to excessive drinking is very great. The bleach +packer is more highly paid, and as he has a good deal of responsibility +resting upon him in the manufacture of this difficult article, he is a +superior man, just as the caustic finisher is a better man than he who +works at a furnace door. Many of them are in the local football teams, +and I think we may take it that, at any rate for a considerable number +of years, working in chlorine does not produce any very obvious bad +effects.</p> + +<p>Naturally when people first come across this industry, they remark upon +the crude methods by which this manufacture is carried on, and they +say at once: “Why is not some arrangement invented for the mechanical +production of bleach? How easy it would be to put in lime at the one +end, and carry it by means of suitable belting out at the other end, +and pass the chlorine gas continually over it, and so avoid these +unhealthy processes.” And the chemical manufacturer has been denounced +for his inhumanity in not adopting some such plan. The question of +humanity, or inhumanity, does not enter into the matter. A successful +mechanical mode of making bleach would save so much expenditure in +labour, the men connected with bleach manufacture being highly paid, +and would save so much capital expenditure, that it would be at once +adopted by chemical manufacturers. In the Home Office Report on the +Chemical Trades, one piece of apparatus, known as the Hasenclever +apparatus, is described, and an invention by another engineer. +Hasenclever’s apparatus has been used, I believe, in Germany, and +there is one works at any rate in St Helens where the apparatus has +been tried. I have had no experience of its working, and consequently +can say nothing about it, but the mechanical difficulties involved in +the manufacture of bleaching powder are so great, that there is no +indication at the present time of mechanical methods being adopted. +In the case of the Deacon process, shelves are being used, and the +latest plant put up by the Alkali Company consists of shelves made of +slate, upon which lime is to a certain extent distributed mechanically. +In processes where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_580">[580]</span> strong gas like the Weldon gas is produced, the +lead chamber is still in use, and in modern works where the latest +electrolytic plant is being erected in this country, and of which I +shall have something to say presently, large lead chambers on the same +plan as those used for the Weldon gas are being built. Very little +progress has, therefore, been made in the replacing of the old methods +of bleach making by a mechanical process. The tendency seems to be in +two directions. In the case of the Le Blanc manufacture, with which +we have been dealing so far, the Deacon process is replacing the +old Weldon process; but in the case of the new electrolytic methods +of making bleach, which are probably going to be the methods of the +future, the strong gas produced under these conditions is being poured +into bleach chambers, built on the old lines.</p> + +<p>There is another possible way of getting over the difficulty, and that +is by the men wearing a helmet not unlike a diver’s apparatus. There +are two difficulties here: one is the awkwardness for the workman +wearing such an apparatus, and his dislike to being covered in it, +while engaged in heavy toil. Another difficulty is in making the +apparatus of such material that it will stand continuous exposure to +chlorine gas. It is a common thing for people to say, why not use a +helmet covered with gutta-percha, or some other material that will +resist chlorine? This sounds very simple, but the material which will +continuously resist the action of chlorine, and at the same time will +enable us to construct a tight-fitting helmet, with its valves and +apparatus, has yet to be discovered. The practical difficulties in the +way of improving the conditions of bleach manufacture are very serious +indeed, and I fear that no real solution of them has yet been found.</p> + +<p>We have still to deal with two other products of manufacture which +are made by the Le Blanc process before considering other methods of +manufacturing soda and bleaching powder. One of these is sulphuric acid.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of sulphuric acid is carried on in many works besides +those for the manufacture of soda. Sulphuric acid is used in many +processes of manufacture, and is so expensive to carry, that it is +found more convenient to make the acid on the spot where it is wanted. +The method most universally adopted for making the gas is to burn +sulphur or sulphide of iron in specially constructed furnaces, so as to +produce sulphur dioxide, with the smell of which we are all familiar. +This is drawn into large lead chambers, where it is brought into +contact with air, steam, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_581">[581]</span> nitrous fumes. These fumes are produced +by decomposing small quantities of sodium nitrate with sulphuric +acid, the nitric acid gas and fumes being drawn into the sulphuric +acid chambers. In these chambers a chemical reaction is set up which +results in the production of sulphuric acid, while the nitrous fumes +are regenerated by the action of the air, and are consequently used +for the manufacture of a fresh quantity of acid. As it is necessary to +cause a current of these gases to move through the chambers, we find +at the end of the series of chambers air ladened with nitrous fumes +passing away; the nitrous gases are therefore absorbed and are returned +to the process again, so that we have in practice the burning of the +sulphide of iron going on continuously, and the gases passing into +the chambers at the bottom of which the sulphuric acid collects and +is drawn off from time to time, while the addition of fresh nitrous +fumes, by the decomposition of small quantities of nitrate of soda, +is necessary, merely in order to supply the waste which takes place +in what is theoretically a continuous process. The manufacture from +sulphur dioxide is too new to be considered here.</p> + +<p>The men working at the pyrites burners are exposed to heat and cold, +and at the same time are exposed to a certain amount of sulphur +dioxide, and to occasional nitrous fumes. These gases are, of course, +irritating, and must tend to produce similar effects on the breathing +apparatus to those found in the case of chlorine and hydrochloric acid. +Here again an entirely perfect system would result in the men not +having to breathe either sulphur dioxide or nitrous fumes, but under +practical conditions of manufacture, such substances are apt to be more +or less present on occasion. The work of a pyrites burner is not so +arduous as that of a man employed in making salt cake.</p> + +<p>The other product of manufacture, introduced in recent years, is that +of sulphur. Returning for the moment to the preparation of soda, it +will be remembered that at a certain stage black ash was produced, +which was treated with water, and the soda it contained dissolved +from it. After this operation, the black ash vats are left full of +material, known as vat waste, which is principally sulphide of lime. +In past years this material was thrown out as a waste product, so that +in the neighbourhood of such towns as St Helens immense quantities of +it have accumulated, forming great mounds. It is very unsightly, as no +vegetation can grow upon it, and it is gradually decomposed by air and +rain, with the result that the air and the streams become loaded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_582">[582]</span> with +sulphuretted hydrogen—a most disagreeable gas—the rotten-egg smell +of which is familiar to those who drink sulphur waters. For many years +attempts were made to recover the sulphur from this substance, and we +now find that the problem has been solved by that part of the Le Blanc +manufacture known as Chance’s process.</p> + +<p>The tank waste is mixed with a sufficiency of water, and placed in +large closed vessels, through which carbonic acid gas is passed. The +result is to decompose the tank waste, and give off sulphuretted +hydrogen gas, while the carbonate of lime is precipitated. When the +decomposition is complete, the sludge is run off from these vessels +into a suitable settling pond, and the sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which +has been produced, is burned, under certain conditions as to limitation +of the quantity of air, with the result that water and sulphur are +formed.</p> + +<p>This process means the manufacture in enormous quantities of +sulphuretted hydrogen, and this gas, as is well known, is very +poisonous. Breathing the gas for a few minutes, even if diluted with +a considerable quantity of air, results in coma, very often followed +by death. The smell of the gas is also so disagreeable, that if only a +very little escape, the whole neighbourhood is made intolerable, and +therefore the process of manufacture is so carried on as to make the +chance of gas escape as remote as possible. At the same time we find +here again the difficulty of carrying on a large process with absolute +perfection. Consequently, in such a district as St Helens we find +that at night the air will, in the neighbourhood of a Chance’s plant, +occasionally smell strongly of this gas. The best remedy for gassing +with sulphuretted hydrogen seems to be the breathing of pure oxygen, +and consequently a cylinder of compressed oxygen is kept at the works. +On the other hand, I have not been able to obtain any evidence that the +occasional exposure to small quantities of this gas has an injurious +effect. People living in the neighbourhood of Chance’s plant are +frequently breathing this gas, largely diluted with air, and while they +seem at first to suffer in health, loss of appetite, and so on, they +seem soon to adjust themselves to it, and not to suffer any permanent +inconvenience. At the same time it is very difficult, unless we could +have a large number of cases very carefully watched for many years, to +tell how far the presence of this gas is deleterious to health in its +ultimate effects.</p> + +<p><i>Alkali Manufacture, other Methods.</i>—We have now dealt with the +main branches of alkali manufacture, as carried on by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_583">[583]</span> Le Blanc +process, and it remains to say something of the new processes which +are being used in connection with this industry. Soda is very largely +manufactured in England, and on the Continent, by means of the ammonia +soda process. This process is carried on in closed vessels, the +substance being in solution during the whole time, and we do not find +the furnace introduced until the very last stage, when the soda ash has +to be heated at a comparatively low temperature, so that there are no +deleterious gases produced. There are no arduous furnace operations, +and I have never heard any complaint made as to the conditions of the +workmen in this industry. Messrs Brünner, Mond, & Co., the largest +manufacturers in this country, introduced some years ago an eight +hours’ day for their furnace-workers, and I believe that the result was +very successful, but I shall deal with that matter later on.</p> + +<p>The ammonia soda process, while giving us soda, does not produce +bleaching powder, and consequently we have to adopt some other means of +production—either by chlorine, as produced by the Le Blanc process, +or by some other method of obtaining this gas. At the works of Messrs +Brünner, Mond, & Co., I believe special processes are used by which +chlorine is part of the manufacture, but I cannot go further into that +particular matter.</p> + +<p>One of the most important methods of producing both soda and chlorine, +which is now coming to the front, is by means of the electrolysis of +salt. An electric current is passed through a solution of salt, and +the result is to decompose the salt directly into chlorine gas and +caustic soda. The caustic soda can be concentrated, or converted into +carbonate of soda, while the chlorine gas is led away and used for the +making of bleach. This method of manufacture has been very successful +on the Continent, and is also in use in this country, where large +new works are being erected for the production of chlorine in this +way. As in the case of most new industries, many different devices +have been introduced for carrying on the process, some successful and +some unsuccessful, but on the whole it continues to advance, and is +likely ultimately to replace the Le Blanc process. By this method of +manufacture we find all furnace operations are practically done away +with; but, on the other hand, the chlorine gas has to be drawn from +the decomposing house and converted into bleach, and we find here +conditions prevailing which we have already described, and which show +no indication of improvement. With the exception of the bleach packing, +the conditions of labour, however, are enormously improved,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_584">[584]</span> and the +more arduous duties of the chemical workers are absent.</p> + +<p>We must not expect to see the Le Blanc process of manufacture entirely +replaced by these new methods, and for this reason: the first stage of +the manufacture consists of the preparation of salt cake as already +described. This substance is used in very large quantities in glass +manufactories and also in other industries. As long as there is a +demand for salt cake, it will probably be prepared by the decomposition +of salt with sulphuric acid. It is possible that in the future the Le +Blanc process may stop at this stage, and that nothing but salt cake +and hydrochloric acid will be manufactured; but salt cake in some way +or other must be produced in enormous quantities quite apart from the +other products resulting from the Le Blanc process.</p> + +<p><i>The Chemical Worker.</i>—The general conditions of the chemical +worker are very much as I have described them, but how far they affect +his health is a more difficult matter. The earlier inquiries into this +question seem to have left the effect on health very doubtful. The +statistics of the death-rate of such a town as St Helens are not of any +value for a purpose of this kind. The town is inhabited very largely +by glass workers, coal miners, and engineers, and the chemical workers +form only a small proportion of the number of hands employed. I do +not find on inquiry of the medical men in St Helens, that they have +very definite views on this question. Where we have, for example, lead +poisoning produced by an industry, it is very easy to trace back the +cause of illness, but when we are dealing with a general undermining +of health, it is much more difficult to give definite figures or +definite facts as to the effects of an industry. Then the chemical +worker changes; he leaves the trade and goes back to it; he moves from +place to place. We also find that a very large number of men who work +in chemical works are simply labourers employed in the yard, and are +only exposed accidentally to the injurious gases produced, and then +probably in a diluted form. The construction of the works has also an +important effect. We may, for example, be trying to trace the effects +on health of employment at the black ash or the salt cake furnace, and +in the particular works examined, the bleach chambers might be built in +such a position that when the wind is blowing in a certain direction, +the chlorine gas is carried to the furnace and may seriously affect the +health of the workmen, while in other works the chlorine might be blown +in a different direction. The gas is so heavy that under</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_585">[585]</span></p> + + +<p class="center smaller p1">TYNE AND SCOTLAND DISTRICT.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Average Hours of Labour and Wages per Week.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="3">Name of Works.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2" colspan="2">Vitriol<br>Burner<br>Men.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2" colspan="2">Salt Cake,<br>Pot, and<br> +Roaster<br>Men.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="10">Alkali.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="8">Bleach.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="4">Sulphur.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2" colspan="2">Copper<br>FurnaceMen.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Revolver<br>Men.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Vat Men.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Salting.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Carbona-<br>ting.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Caustic<br>Pots.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Weldon<br>Packers.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Deacon<br>Packers.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Lime<br>Dressers.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Still<br>Men.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Carbon-<br>ator<br>Men.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Claus<br>Kiln.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Hours.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Wages.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl smcap">Tyne:—</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Allhusen’s</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">32 1</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">30 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">40 4</td> + <td class="ctrr">84</td> + <td class="ctrr">35 4</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr" colspan="2">Firing.</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">35 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">42</td> + <td class="ctrr">59 9</td> + <td class="ctrr">42</td> + <td class="ctrr">60 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">35 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">32 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">31 6</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr" colspan="2">Finish-<br>ing.</td> + <td class="ctrr">84</td> + <td class="ctrr">63 8</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Hebburn</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">33 10</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">34 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">71</td> + <td class="ctrr">36 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">54</td> + <td class="ctrr">32 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">32 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">30 6</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">60 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">60 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">39 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Friar’s Goose</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">31 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">71</td> + <td class="ctrr">33 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">37 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">58</td> + <td class="ctrr">44 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">28 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">31 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">55 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">48</td> + <td class="ctrr">40 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">69</td> + <td class="ctrr">33 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">75</td> + <td class="ctrr">31 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">73</td> + <td class="ctrr">26 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">St Bede</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">31 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">32 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">72</td> + <td class="ctrr">41 7</td> + <td class="ctrr">72</td> + <td class="ctrr">27 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">72</td> + <td class="ctrr">24 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">72</td> + <td class="ctrr">31 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">60 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">60 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">33 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl smcap">Scotland:—</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">St Rollox</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">35 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">28 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">32 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">56</td> + <td class="ctrr">26 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">27 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + <td class="ctrr">25 6</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">48</td> + <td class="ctrr">34 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">54</td> + <td class="ctrr">33 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">75</td> + <td class="ctrr">27 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Eglington</td> + <td class="ctrr">84</td> + <td class="ctrr">34 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">72</td> + <td class="ctrr">38 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrr">55 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">48</td> + <td class="ctrr">52 0</td> + <td class="ctrr">72</td> + <td class="ctrr">46 0</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rbl">Irvine</td> + <td class="ctrrb">84</td> + <td class="ctrrb">33 3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">70</td> + <td class="ctrrb">35 8</td> + <td class="ctrrb">70</td> + <td class="ctrrb">40 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">54</td> + <td class="ctrrb">37 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb">72</td> + <td class="ctrrb">52 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">36</td> + <td class="ctrrb">47 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb">36</td> + <td class="ctrrb">47 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">70</td> + <td class="ctrrb">47 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Averages</td> + <td class="ctrrb">64</td> + <td class="ctrrb">33 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">68</td> + <td class="ctrrb">33 1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">69</td> + <td class="ctrrb">37 9</td> + <td class="ctrrb">63</td> + <td class="ctrrb">33 7</td> + <td class="ctrrb">70</td> + <td class="ctrrb">28 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">70</td> + <td class="ctrrb">29 6</td> + <td class="ctrrb">71</td> + <td class="ctrrb">50 3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">39</td> + <td class="ctrrb">53 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb">43</td> + <td class="ctrrb">50 3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">69</td> + <td class="ctrrb">37 0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">65</td> + <td class="ctrrb">31 6</td> + <td class="ctrrb">64</td> + <td class="ctrrb">28 9</td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><i>N.B.</i>—The hours mentioned are the total hours the men are on +duty, without deduction for meal times, etc.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_586">[586]</span> certain atmospheric +conditions it will produce serious effects a long way from the point of +escape. In fact the men working in the bleach chambers might be quite +free of the gas while it was doing much damage elsewhere. Each works +would, therefore, have to be considered by itself in studying health +conditions, or very erroneous conclusions might be arrived at.</p> + +<p><i>Hours of Work in Alkali Manufacture.</i>—Before leaving this +industry it will be of interest to give some figures supplied by the +Alkali Union to the inquiry made in 1893 as to the hours of work of +the different workmen employed. These figures may be taken as very +carefully drawn up, and as representing very closely the conditions of +labour which still prevail. Wages, of course, tend to vary, so that +statistics on this point have to be constantly revised (<i>see table on +preceding page</i>).</p> + + +<p class="center p1 smaller">HOURS OF ATTENDANCE AND TIME SPENT IN ACTUAL WORK AT GLOBE WORKS.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Vitriol Process.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Average hours of attendance of the two shifts of men</td> + <td class="right">84</td> + <td class="ctr">per week</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Hours spent in actual labour (say)</td> + <td class="right">30</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">The latter is arrived at in the following way, viz.:—</td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="ctr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Dropping one burner or kiln</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + <td class="ctr">minutes</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Barring and charging one burner</td> + <td class="rightb">4</td> + <td class="ctrb">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="rightbd">6</td> + <td class="ctrbd">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht" colspan="3">30 burners are charged per 12 hours, or at the rate of 2½ per hour.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht6">6 × 2½ =</td> + <td class="right">15</td> + <td class="ctr">minutes per hour.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht6">Time spent in potting</td> + <td class="rightb">6</td> + <td class="ctrb"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="right">21</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht6" colspan="3">× 12 = 4.2 hours per shift, or 29.4 per week.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center p1"><i>Salt Cake Department.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Average hours of attendance</td> + <td class="right">70 </td> + <td class="ctr">per week</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Potmen—Time spent in actual labour</td> + <td class="right">52½</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Arrived at as follows:—</td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="ctr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Gathering up charge</td> + <td class="right">6¾</td> + <td class="ctr">minutes</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Shoving</td> + <td class="right">23¼</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Spreading</td> + <td class="right">10 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Charging pot</td> + <td class="right">7¼</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Wheeling out salt cake</td> + <td class="right">19 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Wheeling salt</td> + <td class="right">19½</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Working pot</td> + <td class="right">14 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Watching acid-heater filling</td> + <td class="right">16 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Clinkering fire</td> + <td class="right">3¼</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Firing</td> + <td class="right">8 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Throwing up cinders</td> + <td class="rightb">2½</td> + <td class="ctrb">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5"></td> + <td class="rightbd">129½</td> + <td class="ctrbd">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center smaller">Or 2 hours 9½ minutes per charge × 3 = 8 hours 38 minutes per shift, or +51 hours 48 minutes per week.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_587">[587]</span></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Furnacemen—Time spent in actual labour</td> + <td class="right">55 hours 18 </td> + <td class="ctr">minutes</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Arrived at as follows:—</td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="ctr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Taking in one charge</td> + <td class="right">23¼</td> + <td class="ctr">minutes</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Spreading</td> + <td class="right">10 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Charging pot</td> + <td class="right">7¼</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Clinkering</td> + <td class="right">3 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Slicing</td> + <td class="right">28¾</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Wheeling out salt cake</td> + <td class="right">19 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Slicing, tooth-raking, and drawing</td> + <td class="right">36½</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Firing</td> + <td class="right">8 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">Throwing up cinders</td> + <td class="rightb">2½</td> + <td class="ctrb">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5"></td> + <td class="rightbd">138¼</td> + <td class="ctrbd">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center smaller">= 2 hours 18¼ minutes per charge × 4 = 9 hours 13 minutes per shift, or +55 hours 18 minutes per week.</p> + + + +<p class="center p1"><i>Bleaching Powder Department.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Lime Dressers—Three men employed:—</td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="ctr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Average hours of attendance</td> + <td class="right">63 </td> + <td class="ctr">per week</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Time spent in actual labour (say)</td> + <td class="right">30 </td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht1">Arrived at as follows:—</td> + <td class="right"></td> + <td class="ctr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">2 men sieving</td> + <td class="right">3½</td> + <td class="ctr">hours each</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">One man laying down lime, 2½ hours</td> + <td class="right">3½</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5">One man slacking lime, 1 hour</td> + <td class="right">3½</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center smaller">All the men turning lime, 1 hour each, ∴ each man works 4½ hours, +which × 6 = 27 hours per week (say, 30 hours).</p> + +<p>It will be noted, after examining these figures, that the employment +of men who are on duty a very large number of hours does not mean +absolutely continuous work. The labour is, of course, of a very heavy +character, and such continuous labour would be impracticable.</p> + +<p>As has been already stated, Messrs Brünner Mond have introduced eight +hours’ shifts for their furnace workmen, and I myself am responsible +for trying an experiment of this character with hand-worked black ash +furnaces. My experience was as follows: I found that each furnaceman in +a twelve hours’ shift was able to turn out 15 black ash balls, and on +an eight hours’ shift he was able to turn out from 11 to 12, so that +in the course of the twenty-four hours the output of the furnace was +increased from 30 to 36 balls. This increased output was not sufficient +to enable the firm to pay quite the same wages. The black ash workman +is paid by the balls that he turns out, and it is evident that in order +to earn the same wage, the amount paid per black ash ball would have to +be increased. We were able to so adjust matters that his earnings were +reduced less than 2s. a week, while of course he had the advantage of +additional leisure. This experiment was ultimately abandoned,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_588">[588]</span> because +it was not appreciated, either by the foreman or by the black ash men +themselves. They preferred to have a twelve hours’ shift, and produce +their 15 balls with less strain, than to work harder for eight hours, +to get out the twelve balls. The foreman objected that the greater +leisure which the men had, made it more difficult to keep his gang of +men sober, while I believe the wives also objected to the change of +shift for the same reasons. These, of course, are merely temporary +objections, which would disappear if any such reform was carried out on +a large scale. Messrs Brünner Mond state that in their experience they +found that the result of the change has not worked out at any loss to +the firm, while the workmen are receiving the same wages.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered, however, that there are many processes in the +chemical works which cannot be hastened, and that the greater energy +of the workman has no effect on the output of the process. This was +pointed out by the Alkali Union at the time of the Home Office inquiry. +In such cases it is evident that the shortening of hours must result +in a definite loss to the manufacturer, and therefore it is not right +to assume that, because in the special furnace operations carried on +by Messrs Brünner Mond they are able to reduce the number of shifts +without loss because of the greater output of their furnaces, therefore +in the case of chemical processes of all kinds a similar gain would +result from shorter hours. This point is sometimes lost sight of by +those who discuss this question.</p> + +<p><i>The Administration of the Alkali Act.</i>—There is another matter +to be considered in connection with the alkali manufacture and all +chemical processes in which gases are produced which are injurious to +health and to vegetation. These processes have been under the charge +of a special set of inspectors appointed under the Alkali Act to +prevent the escape of gas with the view to protecting the neighbouring +districts from the injurious consequences that these gases may produce. +Consequently the present alkali manufacturer finds himself under +inspection from two different departments and from two different points +of view. The Factory Inspector requires him to take certain precautions +under the special rules issued by the Home Office for dangerous trades, +while the Alkali Inspector also requires him to prevent the escape of +gases. The Alkali Act had done a great deal to improve the condition +of the workman in the chemical works, because the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_589">[589]</span> diminution of the +escapes of gas injurious to his health has of course benefited him as +well as those living in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>The main defect, however, under this Act is to be found in the limited +amount of inspection possible in spite of the zealousness of the +inspectors. The districts they have to cover are so large, and the +number of works they have to visit so great, that it is impossible +for them to do all that might be done by enforcing this particular +Act. The tendency in all the chemical works is to arrange that if +any gases are to be allowed to escape it shall be done at night, and +consequently a night staff of inspectors is urgently required in order +to see that the law is complied with. It is a common statement to make, +that as these gases have a commercial value the manufacturer may be +trusted to prevent their escape. This argument is one which a practical +manufacturer smiles at. It is often much more important to push work +through as rapidly as possible with the view of delivering orders. And +it may be more profitable, with the view to getting a larger output +from the same plant, to allow a certain amount of gas to escape, rather +than use up the whole of the gases. It may happen that some part of +the plant breaks down, or that in order to get over some difficulty +the simplest plan is to let certain gases go. The temptation is for +all such operations to be arranged to take place if possible at night, +so that the public shall know as little about them as possible. There +are so many ways of evading such an Act that a far larger staff of +inspectors is necessary, to see that it is thoroughly complied with.</p> + +<p><i>Output Method of Paying Wages.</i>—Another matter we have referred +to is the method of payment of the workmen. We have already quoted the +tables supplied by the Alkali Union, with the view of showing the hours +of work prevailing in their factories. The usual method of payment +in the chemical works is by output, and a system of sub-contracting +is very frequently present, i.e., one man will take charge of the +output of bleach or of caustic soda, and will pay those he employs. +Whatever the system may be, the general principle is to pay by tonnage +and not by means of a weekly wage. This has been denounced as an +unfair system, as it causes the workman to be more exposed than is +necessary to the injurious nature of his employment. As I have already +indicated, it has that effect. The workman is disposed in many cases +to push the work through at the risk of exposure to injurious gases +for the sake of getting a larger output, and making a higher<span class="pagenum" id="Page_590">[590]</span> wage. On +the other hand it is, I fear, the only way in which such an industry +can be successfully carried on. Chemical works usually extend over +a large area of ground, and consist of a large number of workshops +and buildings in which various processes are being carried on, and +which make strict supervision on the part of the foreman practically +impossible. The only way in which economical results can be obtained +is by making the workman himself directly interested in creating a +proper output, while the chemist in the works takes care that the +product produced is up to standard quality. It is difficult to see +how under the present conditions of manufacture it could be carried +on economically in any other way. The amount of competition which now +exists with Germany and America has put this industry in so serious a +position that it is engaged in a fierce struggle for existence, and +consequently it becomes very difficult to carry out any radical reforms.</p> + +<p>While we have stated the dangerous nature of the work, it will be +evident in reading this description that little has been suggested in +the way of improvement beyond increasing the staff of alkali inspectors +with the view to keeping down the escape of injurious gases. The +reduction of the hours of labour of the workmen from twelve to eight +would no doubt have an excellent effect, and would be a reform which +all would welcome. At the same time, unless some understanding could +be come to, of an international character, on this point, I fear +that such a reduction at the present time would be disastrous to the +chemical trade, and consequently it is not at the present moment within +the region of practical politics. The difficulties of improving the +manufacture of bleach have also been dealt with, and while it may be +said that dangers have been pointed out and no remedy suggested, it +is better to face the fact of the numerous difficulties in the way of +improvement, rather than to imagine that it is a simple matter to put +this industry in a proper sanitary state.</p> + +<p><i>Bichromate of Potash Manufacture.</i>—Another department of +chemical manufacture which has attracted attention is the preparation +of bichromate of potash. This subject has already been dealt with by Dr +Morison Legge, and need not be repeated here.</p> + +<p><i>Coal Tar Products.</i>—Another industry, to which attention has +been directed of late years, is the manufacture of various products +from coal tar. This manufacture is principally carried on in Germany; +the crude distillations of the coal tar are made in this country, and +the resulting products sent to Germany: various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_591">[591]</span> dyes, drugs, etc., are +there manufactured from them, and then largely sold in this country to +our dyers and druggists.</p> + +<p>But the preparation of these compounds in this country is growing in +importance, and the almost complete monopoly which Germany has held for +so many years is not likely to be permanent.</p> + +<p>Consequently attention has been directed to the effect on the health of +the workers of the substances manufactured. Many of these are so new +to science that their possible poisonous qualities are not yet known, +but in the case of one or two, distinctly injurious results have been +proved to exist.</p> + +<p>Among these we may mention aniline and the nitrobenzines. These +bodies are prepared in large quantities as the starting point for +other compounds, and consequently their poisonous qualities have been +shown very clearly upon the workmen. One or two references to reports +will make this clear. In the year 1896, Mr Rodgers, H.M. Inspector +of Factories, pointed out that he had one or two cases of somewhat +serious illness among workers in aniline. He described the process of +manufacture by which the crude benzine is first of all converted by the +action of sulphuric and nitric acids into nitro and dinitrobenzine, +known to the workmen under the name of myrbane. This substance is then +reduced to aniline by means of the action of hydrochloric acid and iron.</p> + +<p>The fumes from the preparation of the nitrobenzines seem to +occasionally produce serious effects, such as dizziness ending in coma +and vomiting. Evidently some men are more susceptible than others, as +one case is mentioned where a man had been repeatedly away suffering +from pain in the stomach, dizziness, partial paralysis of the legs, and +defective vision.</p> + +<p>Again, we find another further reference to this industry. In the +report for the year 1899, Mr Sidney Smith, H.M. Inspector of Factories, +reports that he has noticed the peculiar anæmic appearance of the +men engaged in the manufacture of aniline, both those employed in +distilling the crude aniline oil and those engaged in manufacturing the +aniline hydrochloride. The men speak of being “gassed”—as they call +it—a number of times, and they seem to find tolindene, the homologue +of aniline, to have a similar effect. So that here we find the aniline +itself referred to as dangerous to the workers. It is, of course, well +known to medical men that aniline itself is an active poison. It is +evident from these accounts that these substances are dangerous to +health, and special measures are required to protect the workers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_592">[592]</span></p> + +<p>Doubtless, as we get further knowledge of the compounds belonging +to this large group of substances, we shall find other cases where +injurious results are produced, and, in fact, the time has probably +come for a searching inquiry into this branch of chemical manufacture.</p> + +<p><i>Bisulphide of Carbon.</i>—Another substance which might yet be +mentioned is bisulphide of carbon, but as it has been dealt with in +regard to the manufacture of rubber, where its effects are far more +injurious than in the actual manufacture of the substance itself, it is +hardly necessary to discuss it here.</p> + +<p><i>Phosphorus.</i>—In the same way phosphorus is more dangerous to +the matchmaker who uses it than to the worker who manufactures it. The +modern process of manufacture in an electric furnace is to a great +extent a secret one, and consequently it is difficult to get accurate +information.</p> + +<p>There are numerous other chemical substances, such as cyanides, the +compounds of antimony, the compounds of arsenic, and the compounds +of barium, which are very poisonous, and which are manufactured in +very large quantities, and which have not, as far as I am aware, +ever been studied in their relation to health. But many of these +substances appear in other industries, and their discussion in any +detail would be endless. It is probably sufficient to say that in all +these processes of chemical manufacture special precautions should be +taken to prevent the workmen being exposed to the fumes arising from +vats and tanks, to insist upon the greatest cleanliness, to allow him +efficient respirators during certain operations, and to take every +precaution for ensuring the removal of dust, and thorough and efficient +ventilation. If these things are done there is no reason why many of +these substances should not be manufactured, although poisonous in +their nature, without injury to the workmen.</p> + +<p>The special rules which were drawn up by the German Government +for bichromate works afford, I think, a very good guide as to +the conditions that ought to be insisted upon in all chemical +manufactories. We come now to consider how far statistics show that the +manufacture of chemicals is injurious to health.</p> + +<p><i>Health of Chemical Workers as shown by Statistics.</i>—The use +of statistics in this particular industry is of doubtful value. In +the first place it is very difficult to define what are the limits of +chemical manufacture. If, for example, the manufacture of chemicals +includes white lead, at once we shall cause a considerable apparent +increase<span class="pagenum" id="Page_593">[593]</span> in the unhealthiness of the industry; while, if white lead +manufacture is treated by itself and statistics referring to it removed +from the chemical trade, doubtless better results would be shown. There +are many other cases where it is difficult to know whether under the +head of chemical manufacture a particular industry is included or not.</p> + +<p>Then the trade is one which to a large extent employs the lowest class +of labour and requires little skill or special knowledge from those +employed. Many manufacturers in fact prefer to use this class of +labour, so that the workman himself shall have as little knowledge as +possible of the processes that he is carrying on, and will therefore be +useless to any rival manufacturer if bribed to give information. Then +the labour being of this rough and unskilled kind, the men leave the +industry or come into it in a very casual way, and we do not find that +a chemical worker is always a chemical worker in the same way in which +a cotton operative would be who remains in the cotton mills all his +life.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, so many of the chemical industries require men of unusual +health and strength, that they are recruited from the vigorous class +of country or Irish labour, and when the men get unfit for the arduous +character of the work, they are apt to drop out of the industry, so +that it is difficult to follow these men through their whole career, +and death statistics fail to indicate how far the industry is unhealthy.</p> + +<p>As I explained in the opening remarks of this chapter, the conditions +of the industry itself vary so enormously according to the substances +manufactured that any general condemnation of it, or approval of it, +is impossible, and if we find that men engaged in this industry show +a distinctly higher death-rate than those engaged in ordinary trades, +we must, I think, assume that certain branches of chemical manufacture +are peculiarly unhealthy since those branches are able to bring up +the death-rate over the whole number. With these preliminary remarks +I propose to quote some of the figures published by Dr Tatham as the +result of the census of 1890–91–92, which show, I think, very clearly +that this industry is far from being a healthy one.</p> + +<p>In the first place, if we compare the mean annual mortality of males +engaged in different occupations at successive periods of life, we +find, as is evident from the figures printed below, that while the +chemical worker up to the age of thirty-five does not show any very +excessive rate of death as compared with all males, with occupied +males, or with carpenters (to take an industry which may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_594">[594]</span> be regarded +as a very healthy one), his death-rate after thirty-five begins rapidly +to increase, and by the time we come to the period between forty-five +and fifty-five, his death-rate is nearly double that of a carpenter.</p> + +<p>In fact, in order to find between these ages so high a death-rate, we +have to take the returns for brewers, who are notoriously unhealthy +from the excessive quantities of beer they consume, cutlers, file +makers, lead workers, earthenware and glass workers. In some of these +industries that I have just referred to the figures are considerably +higher than those for the chemical worker: <i>e.g.</i>, while the +figure for the chemical workers at this age (forty-five to fifty-five) +is 30.3, that for earthenware is 43, and for the file maker 40: but +these are notoriously unhealthy industries, and it is evident that the +chemical worker comes high up among the unhealthy trades.</p> + + +<p class="center smaller"><span class="smcap">Mean Annual Mortality</span> of Males engaged in different +Occupations in the three years, 1890–91–92, at successive periods of +life.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Occupations.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="7">Ages.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">15–20</td> + <td class="ctrrb">20–25</td> + <td class="ctrrb">25–35</td> + <td class="ctrrb">35–45</td> + <td class="ctrrb">45–55</td> + <td class="ctrrb">55–65</td> + <td class="ctrrb">65 and<br>upwards.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">4</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">All Males</td> + <td class="rightr">4.1</td> + <td class="rightr">5.6</td> + <td class="rightr">7.7</td> + <td class="rightr">13.0</td> + <td class="rightr">21.4</td> + <td class="rightr">39.0</td> + <td class="rightr">103.6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Occupied Males</td> + <td class="rightr">2.6</td> + <td class="rightr">5.1</td> + <td class="rightr">7.3</td> + <td class="rightr">12.4</td> + <td class="rightr">20.7</td> + <td class="rightr">36.7</td> + <td class="rightr">102.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Brewer</td> + <td class="rightr">2.7</td> + <td class="rightr">5.6</td> + <td class="rightr">10.8</td> + <td class="rightr">19.0</td> + <td class="rightr">30.8</td> + <td class="rightr">54.4</td> + <td class="rightr">129.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cutler</td> + <td class="rightr">2.4</td> + <td class="rightr">5.4</td> + <td class="rightr">8.5</td> + <td class="rightr">20.9</td> + <td class="rightr">35.6</td> + <td class="rightr">60.2</td> + <td class="rightr">136.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">File Maker</td> + <td class="rightr">1.7</td> + <td class="rightr">6.9</td> + <td class="rightr">11.1</td> + <td class="rightr">26.1</td> + <td class="rightr">40.1</td> + <td class="rightr">70.8</td> + <td class="rightr">147.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Copper Worker</td> + <td class="rightr">2.6</td> + <td class="rightr">8.0</td> + <td class="rightr">11.1</td> + <td class="rightr">16.2</td> + <td class="rightr">27.9</td> + <td class="rightr">58.8</td> + <td class="rightr">168.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Lead Worker</td> + <td class="rightr">4.4</td> + <td class="rightr">11.8</td> + <td class="rightr">12.1</td> + <td class="rightr">22.8</td> + <td class="rightr">37.6</td> + <td class="rightr">75.3</td> + <td class="rightr">281.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Carpenter</td> + <td class="rightr">1.7</td> + <td class="rightr">4.0</td> + <td class="rightr">5.8</td> + <td class="rightr">9.4</td> + <td class="rightr">17.2</td> + <td class="rightr">32.2</td> + <td class="rightr">102.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Manufacturing Chemist</td> + <td class="rightr">4.5</td> + <td class="rightr">6.7</td> + <td class="rightr">8.4</td> + <td class="rightr">16.7</td> + <td class="rightr">30.3</td> + <td class="rightr">62.5</td> + <td class="rightr">117.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Earthenware Manufacture</td> + <td class="rightr">2.8</td> + <td class="rightr">5.4</td> + <td class="rightr">8.2</td> + <td class="rightr">19.6</td> + <td class="rightr">43.0</td> + <td class="rightr">75.1</td> + <td class="rightr">143.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Glass Manufacture</td> + <td class="rightrb">3.2</td> + <td class="rightrb">6.4</td> + <td class="rightrb">11.3</td> + <td class="rightrb">17.9</td> + <td class="rightrb">32.1</td> + <td class="rightrb">60.8</td> + <td class="rightrb">172.4</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>If, now, we take another of these tables and compare the comparative +mortality from specified causes among males engaged in certain +occupations, and if we take the annual mortality among all males as +1000, so as to obtain a figure of comparison, we find the following +results. The brewer, cutler, file maker, copper worker, lead worker, +and those engaged in earthenware and glass, all show high mortality; +but among these we find again the manufacturing chemist. In fact we +find only five industries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_595">[595]</span> in which the mortality is greater. Among +these, the file maker, lead worker, and earthenware worker again head +the list with enormous figures.</p> + + +<p class="center p1 smaller"><span class="smcap">Comparative Mortality</span> from specified Causes among Males +engaged in certain Occupations, 1890–91–92.</p> + +<p class="center p1 smaller">Key to table:</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>A: All Causes.</li> + <li>B: Alcoholism.</li> + <li>C: Rheumatic Fever.</li> + <li>D: Gout.</li> + <li>E: Phthisis.</li> + <li>F: Diseases of the Nervous System.</li> + <li>G: Diseases of the Circulatory System.</li> + <li>H: Diseases of the Respiratory System.</li> + <li>I: Diseases of the Digestive System.</li> + <li>J: Diseases of the Urinary System.</li> + <li>K: Plumbism.</li> + <li>L: Accident.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Occupation.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="12">Causes of Death.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">A</td> + <td class="ctrrb">B</td> + <td class="ctrrb">C</td> + <td class="ctrrb">D</td> + <td class="ctrrb">E</td> + <td class="ctrrb">F</td> + <td class="ctrrb">G</td> + <td class="ctrrb">H</td> + <td class="ctrrb">I</td> + <td class="ctrrb">J</td> + <td class="ctrrb">K</td> + <td class="ctrrb">L</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">4</td> + <td class="ctrr">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">8</td> + <td class="ctrr">9</td> + <td class="ctrr">10</td> + <td class="ctrr">11</td> + <td class="ctrr">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">All Males</td> + <td class="right3r">1000</td> + <td class="right3r">13</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">192</td> + <td class="right3r">102</td> + <td class="right3r">132</td> + <td class="right3r">224</td> + <td class="right3r">58</td> + <td class="right3r">44</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">56</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Occupied Males</td> + <td class="right3r">953</td> + <td class="right3r">13</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">185</td> + <td class="right3r">82</td> + <td class="right3r">126</td> + <td class="right3r">221</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">41</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">56</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Brewer</td> + <td class="right3r">1427</td> + <td class="right3r">41</td> + <td class="right3r">13</td> + <td class="right3r">10</td> + <td class="right3r">273</td> + <td class="right3r">125</td> + <td class="right3r">195</td> + <td class="right3r">315</td> + <td class="right3r">106</td> + <td class="right3r">78</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">50</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cutler</td> + <td class="right3r">1516</td> + <td class="right3r">18</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">382</td> + <td class="right3r">91</td> + <td class="right3r">167</td> + <td class="right3r">518</td> + <td class="right3r">58</td> + <td class="right3r">56</td> + <td class="right3r">3</td> + <td class="right3r">32</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">File Maker</td> + <td class="right3r">1810</td> + <td class="right3r">4</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">4</td> + <td class="right3r">402</td> + <td class="right3r">212</td> + <td class="right3r">204</td> + <td class="right3r">423</td> + <td class="right3r">72</td> + <td class="right3r">104</td> + <td class="right3r">75</td> + <td class="right3r">39</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Copper Worker</td> + <td class="right3r">1381</td> + <td class="right3r">4</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">294</td> + <td class="right3r">85</td> + <td class="right3r">186</td> + <td class="right3r">406</td> + <td class="right3r">76</td> + <td class="right3r">60</td> + <td class="right3r">8</td> + <td class="right3r">57</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Lead Worker</td> + <td class="right3r">1783</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">148</td> + <td class="right3r">232</td> + <td class="right3r">272</td> + <td class="right3r">397</td> + <td class="right3r">147</td> + <td class="right3r">161</td> + <td class="right3r">211</td> + <td class="right3r">45</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Carpenter</td> + <td class="right3r">783</td> + <td class="right3r">8</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + <td class="right3r">2</td> + <td class="right3r">172</td> + <td class="right3r">71</td> + <td class="right3r">106</td> + <td class="right3r">154</td> + <td class="right3r">45</td> + <td class="right3r">34</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">39</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Manufacturing Chemist</td> + <td class="right3r">1392</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r">162</td> + <td class="right3r">98</td> + <td class="right3r">168</td> + <td class="right3r">502</td> + <td class="right3r">68</td> + <td class="right3r">52</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">98</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Earthenware Manufacturer</td> + <td class="right3r">1706</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + <td class="right3r">8</td> + <td class="right3r">1</td> + <td class="right3r">333</td> + <td class="right3r">123</td> + <td class="right3r">227</td> + <td class="right3r">668</td> + <td class="right3r">66</td> + <td class="right3r">63</td> + <td class="right3r">17</td> + <td class="right3r">20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Glass Manufacturer</td> + <td class="right3rb">1487</td> + <td class="right3rb">24</td> + <td class="right3rb">10</td> + <td class="right3rb">9</td> + <td class="right3rb">295</td> + <td class="right3rb">155</td> + <td class="right3rb">157</td> + <td class="right3rb">445</td> + <td class="right3rb">67</td> + <td class="right3rb">63</td> + <td class="right3rb">12</td> + <td class="right3rb">59</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>If we now pass from these figures to the causes of death there are some +interesting points to notice. Unfortunately, returns as to causes of +death are not of so much value as they might be. Death certificates +are apt to be filled in in many cases very hastily, and too often the +custom is to give the immediate cause of death without attempting to +show how that immediate cause has been brought about. It has been and +still remains one of the great difficulties in tracing the effects +of industry on health that so little attention has been paid by the +medical profession throughout the country to industrial conditions +as causes of death. Even in the case of so specific a thing as lead +poisoning much difficulty has been found in obtaining reliable +statistics, and when we come to the general undermining of health +produced by other industries, the difficulties are increased. It must +be remembered that on account of the low class of labour employed in +chemical works, although the wages are in many cases good, the workman +probably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_596">[596]</span> feeds badly, lives under unhealthy conditions, and spends +far too much on drink, so that all these tell against him. It must +also be remembered that the tendency to drink is largely caused by +the nature of his work, therefore the nature of his employment may be +indirectly blamed for injury that is really caused by alcohol. With +these preliminary remarks, let us look at the causes of death as stated +in Dr Tatham’s tables.</p> + +<p>One striking fact is noticeable. The chemical trades head all other +industries in the number of deaths put down to accident. While the +number for all males stands at 56, the number for the chemical trades +stands at 98, and the only industry which approaches it is that of +shipwrights, with a death-rate from accident of 63.</p> + +<p>The next point of interest to notice is the number of deaths from +diseases of the respiratory system. If the fumes and deleterious +gases breathed by the chemical workers are injurious to health, it +is in pulmonary diseases that we should expect to find an increase; +consequently we find that while the number of deaths from diseases of +the respiratory system stand in the case of the manufacturing chemist +at 502, there are only two industries in which higher figures are +given—the cutlers, who are exposed to the dust from the grindstones, +and the earthenware manufacturers, who are exposed to the deadly +dust from the ground flints. Curiously enough, the next figure after +chemical workers is that for manufacturers of glass. This is not an +employment in which the workers are exposed to dust or injurious fumes, +and the only and the natural cause for diseases of this character must +be the exposure to the heat of the glass furnace and to the cold of the +open sheds, while engaged in an arduous employment. The figure given +for the glass workers is 445, so that it is apparently probable that +the conditions under which the chemical workers carry on the operations +in furnaces would alone be sufficient to cause a high death-rate among +that particular class without the additional injury caused by exposure +to fumes.</p> + +<p>When we look at the returns of death from phthisis we find that the +manufacturing chemist is below the normal for all males, the figure for +all males being 192, and for the chemical worker 162. If we compare the +glass worker, who is exposed to similar conditions of heat and cold, we +find that the figure for the glass worker is 295. This result agrees +with the view, which is held by many doctors in St Helens, that the +gases present in the air, such as sulphur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, +nitrous fumes, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_597">[597]</span> chlorine, are distinctly beneficial to phthisical +cases; that phthisis is rare, and when present, that the progress of +the disease is slow, also that it does not assume the virulent form +which is found in other places.</p> + +<p>As the figures given for chemical workers do not show any other marked +results, we may say that chemical manufacture is to be ranked among +one of the most unhealthy of our industries, coming fairly high up in +the list, although of course not ranking with those in which lead is +present in large quantities.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, it is one of our industries in which it is not easy to +improve the health of the worker.</p> + +<p>It is to be hoped that the most objectionable process of manufacture, +the making of bleaching powder, will in time become a thing of the +past, as the manufacturers who require this material for the bleaching +of goods and of paper pulp will make their own bleach liquors by means +of the electric current passed through the salt solution, and so avoid +the necessity of producing the same on a large scale. This industrial +revolution will take time. Meanwhile the manufacture of bleach remains +a difficult problem for those who wish to see the occupation healthier.</p> + +<p>I have suggested that more might be done by increasing the number of +inspectors under the Alkali Acts so as to protect the workmen from +the injurious fumes. While the present small staff of inspectors do +all they can to carry out the Act, they are not sufficient in number. +It would be necessary to appoint several new inspectors, so as to +arrange for constant surprise visits to the works, especially at night. +Furthermore, in this and many other industries where the general +conditions of life are unhealthy without the presence of any specific +cause of poison, such as lead, the best remedy will be the reduction of +the number of hours of work. If the men were working for eight instead +of twelve hours a day, their health would be enormously improved. This +has been clearly shown in the case of the works of Messrs Brünner Mond, +where it was found that the conversion of the twelve to the eight +hours’ day reduced the number of men who were attended by the doctor +by nearly 50 per cent. The actual figures given are as follows:—In +the year 1889, 10.12 per cent. were attended by the doctor; in the +year 1893, under the new system, 5.1. Where an industry is successful +and making large profits, as in the case of Messrs Brünner Mond’s +works, such changes can be made; but where the industry is struggling +against severe competition and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_598">[598]</span> vanishing profits, such an alteration +would be disastrous. It is therefore not a matter which can be done +with a stroke of the pen, but if some understanding could be come to +of an international character, chemical industries might make a move +in this direction. The number of works engaged in alkali manufacture +in America, Germany, Belgium, France, and England is after all not so +very large. At the same time the capital required to make a change +in this direction is very large, so that it ought to be possible to +come to some understanding, though it would be very difficult in the +case of industries carried on in small workshops. The effect of the +shorter hours would ultimately be the moral as well as the material +improvement of the workmen. It is impossible that a man who is engaged +in hard physical labour for twelve hours out of the twenty-four, and +who leaves it too exhausted to do more than eat and sleep, can develop +intellectually or morally to a very high level, and consequently he has +small chance of resisting the temptations to drink. With shorter hours +and more leisure might come an improvement, such as has been the case +in the mining population.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I may state that the rules for bichromate of potash +works, published by the German Government, as indicating the kind of +precautions to be taken in processes of chemical manufacture, are such +as might well be applied to chemical processes throughout the country, +with the exception of those special processes like the manufacture of +bleach, where the conditions seem at present to make improvement almost +hopeless. The subject, however, is so vast and complex, that I feel +as if I had simply touched upon many of the problems connected with +chemical manufacture and the health of the workpeople.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">A. P. Laurie.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_599">[599]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLI<br> +<span class="subhed">EXPLOSIONS AND EXPLOSIVES</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Introductory</i></h3> + +<p>In the following pages I have made no attempt to scientifically +discourse upon the composition and properties of explosive bodies, nor +have I endeavoured, on the other hand, to write an elementary treatise +on the subject; such matters have been fully attended to already by +Berthelot, Guttmann, Eissler, and others, while much useful information +is also obtainable in the <i>Dictionary of Explosives</i> and the +<i>Handbook of Service Explosives</i>. My object has rather been to +offer to such of the educated public as already possess a general +knowledge of the subject, a few remarks from a point of view from +which it has never yet to my knowledge been approached except in Blue +Books, while at the same time I have striven to avoid reiteration of +information already published in our Annual and Special Reports.</p> + +<p>Moreover, I have endeavoured to exclude, so far as may be, all matter +not entirely germane to the question at issue, viz., the special risks +connected with the trade in explosives in the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p>Until the year 1845 “explosive” and “gunpowder” were to all intents and +purposes synonymous terms, and even now as an explosive of universal +application gunpowder stands unrivalled. In these days of specialism, +however, it is being rapidly ousted from the field of battle, by +cordite as a propellant, by lyddite as a burster for shells, and by +gun-cotton as a destructive agent; from the field of sport, by the +countless nitro-powders; from the quarry and railway tunnel, by the +gelatine dynamites; and lastly, from the coal mine, by the so-called +safety explosives. As a coal-getter pure and simple, irrespective of +the question of danger from fire-damp and dust, it still, however, +stands unequalled, and in view of the recent vast improvements in its +manufacture—the result, no doubt, of legislative action—it would be +exceedingly rash to state that its days are numbered.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_600">[600]</span></p> + +<p>The great epoch-marking events in the history of explosives may be +briefly stated as follows:—</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, the discovery of the deflagrating properties of saltpetre +in admixture with carbonaceous material, and its consequent utilisation +in the form of Greek fire and such like destructive compounds, date +unknown.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, the first use of gunpowder as a propellant, in or about +1320 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, the invention of gun-cotton, in 1845.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, the discovery by Alfred Nobel in 1875, that a variety +of gun-cotton, or rather nitro-cotton, could be dissolved in +nitro-glycerine to form the homogeneous jelly-like mass to which he +gave the name of blasting-gelatine. To these may perhaps be added +the discovery of the power of transmitting detonation possessed by +fulminate of mercury.</p> + +<p>Although there are doubtless many other important discoveries connected +with the evolution of our multitudinous modern explosives, yet, without +belittling the genius of their inventors, they may all be regarded as +mere episodes, so to speak—the adaptation of existing principles. +Thus, nitro-glycerine and dynamite followed naturally in the wake of +nitro-cellulose, just as the gelatine dynamites and more recently +ballistite and cordite were merely modifications of blasting gelatine. +Perhaps the most important discovery in addition to those above +mentioned was Sir Frederick Abel’s process of pulping and cleaning +gun-cotton, or rather the principle underlying the process, viz., that +only by thorough cleansing can stability be assured to a nitro-compound.</p> + +<p>About lyddite there is little to say which has not already appeared in +the daily papers, and of that little the greater part is confidential; +but as regards its effect on the enemy, I have it on the authority of +an artillery officer who was engaged in every action of the campaign +which terminated in the relief of Ladysmith, that it was quite +impossible to obtain reliable information. Even when a rout resulted +from its use, it is doubtful whether this was not due as much to the +steep angle of descent of the howitzer fire as to the explosive effect +of the lyddite. The stories as to the wholesale havoc wrought at +Omdurman, where entire ranks of horsemen are said to have been laid +low by a single lyddite shell without a mark being found on them, +must be accepted with caution. A shell filled with high explosive +naturally bursts into very much smaller<span class="pagenum" id="Page_601">[601]</span> fragments than when filled +with gunpowder, and the resulting wounds would in many cases no doubt +be difficult to discern at a cursory examination.</p> + +<p>Of all branches of the explosives industry fireworks are perhaps the +most difficult to control. Not only is it a common custom at North of +England weddings to improvise amateur displays by filling iron pipes +with gunpowder and applying a light, but the actual manufacture of +squibs and rockets is regarded in most quarters as a praiseworthy and +legitimate occupation, provided there is no question of sale. That this +is entirely erroneous cannot be too strongly emphasised—the fine on +conviction being no less than £100 a day. Moreover, since the amateur +pyrotechnist invariably includes both chlorate of potash and sulphur +in his coloured fire composition, a mixture entailing grave risk from +spontaneous combustion, and one which is on this account prohibited by +Order in Council, a further offence is involved.</p> + + +<h3>I.<br> +<span class="subhed1"><i>Accidents in Manufacture and Use.</i></span></h3> + +<p>There is no industry possessing greater possibilities for sudden +death to its operatives than that connected with the manufacture, +storage, and conveyance of explosives; and there is no industry of +an admittedly dangerous nature demanding fewer victims. The reasons +for this happy result are not far to seek, and may be summarised +in two words—legislation and self-interest. The destruction of +property caused by an explosion in a factory is a mere fraction of +the actual loss; for days or even weeks the employés may not only +refuse to return to work, but may make use of the accident as a lever +to obtain a permanent rise in wages. Moreover, in gunpowder factories +particularly, where every trace is swept away, the cause of the +explosion is often impossible to determine, and the vague feeling of +unrest to which this uncertainty gives rise is by no means conducive to +efficient work. Thus, even the apathetic manufacturer is constrained +by motives of self-interest to enforce certain precautionary measures +(which, however, he is quite prepared to relax under the strain of +competition), while the conscientious trader who really has the +safety of his workpeople at heart is only too easily persuaded by the +additional incentive of personal profit to institute and maintain +a very high standard of discipline throughout his factory. It is, +however, extremely difficult for either of these individuals to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_602">[602]</span> +differentiate between what may be called essentials and refinements, +and the unscrupulous trader, in his anxiety to sail as near the wind +as possible, may neglect some obvious precaution, whereas his less +reckless rival may be seriously handicapped by a <i>too</i> close +attention to details. Here, then, is where legislation steps in, +and by enforcing equal restrictions on all, prevents undue economy +at the expense of safety—and, moreover, the public are properly +protected. With the courteous assistance of the trade, I am able to +give some figures in support of this. The total quantity of explosives +manufactured per annum in the United Kingdom, exclusive of that which +is produced in Government factories, is approximately as follows<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">Classes I. to IV. (<i>i.e.</i> gunpowder, other nitrate +mixtures, nitro-compounds, and chlorate mixtures), 32,115 tons.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">Class V. Fulminate of mercury being the only explosive of +this class made in any quantity, and the manufacture being +practically in the hands of two firms, one of which is domiciled +in the Channel Islands, I must not for obvious reasons disclose +the total output.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">Class VI. (Ammunition). Here again it is impossible to specify +with any degree of accuracy the number of the various natures +of explosive coming under this head. Fifty million detonators, +electric detonators and fuses, and an equal number of yards of +safety fuse will not be very wide of the mark, while about 500 +million cartridges for small arms are turned out by licensed +factories during the year.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">Class VII. (Fireworks). About 1788 tons.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the actual operations of manufacture 4828 persons are employed, the +total number working within the licensed areas, and therefore more or +less exposed to the effects of an explosion, being 11,098. During the +year 1899, 54 accidents occurred in the manufacture of explosives, +causing the death of 3 persons and injuries to 24, the average for the +last ten years being 4.4 and 20.4 respectively. Of the 54 accidents no +less than 32 were unattended with loss of life or personal injury—a +fact that would be somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_603">[603]</span> remarkable were it not that in many +operations in which the application of force is required, or where the +explosive is of an extra sensitive nature, accidents are unavoidable +and provided for accordingly. “Prevention,” in fact, being impossible, +a “cure” is applied. Among these specially dangerous processes may be +instanced the “milling” or “incorporation” of gunpowder, the “pressing” +of detonators, and the mixing of cap composition, during each of which +the operator is either directly or indirectly specially protected.</p> + +<p>In the following table I have endeavoured, by collecting the results +of the last ten years, to show the relative risk attached to the +manufacture of various classes of explosives. The classification +is by no means in accordance with the Order in Council classifying +explosives, but is better suited to the particular purpose in view.</p> + + +<p class="center p1"><i>TABLE A.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">Showing the Number of Accidents causing Personal Injury, and the +Number of Killed and Injured in the Manufacture of the Various +Natures of Explosive during the decade 1890–99, and the Number +of Persons now Employed.</p> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="3">Nature of Explosive in<br>course of Manufacture.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Accidents causing Loss of<br>Life or Personal Injury.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="4">Number of Persons Employed in the<br> +Manufacture of the various natures.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb" rowspan="2">No. of<br>Accidents.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">No. of Persons</td> + <td class="ctrrb" rowspan="2">In the<br>Danger<br>Buildings.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" rowspan="2">In<br>Licensed<br>Area.</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">Per 1000<br>per annum.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Killed.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Injured.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Killed.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Injured.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">1. Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">18</td> + <td class="right4r">10</td> + <td class="right4r">23</td> + <td class="right4r">964</td> + <td class="right4r">1,906</td> + <td class="ctrr">.52</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">2. Nitro-glycerine and<br>Cellulose Explosives</td> + <td class="ctrr">47</td> + <td class="right4r">17</td> + <td class="right4r">58</td> + <td class="right4r">2034</td> + <td class="right4r">4,021</td> + <td class="ctrr">.42</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">3. Ammunition, exclusive<br>of Detonators</td> + <td class="ctrr">39</td> + <td class="right4r">5</td> + <td class="right4r">43</td> + <td class="right4r" rowspan="2">1155</td> + <td class="right4r" rowspan="2">4,267</td> + <td class="ctrr" rowspan="2">.23</td> + <td class="ctrr" rowspan="2">2.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">4. Fulminate Compositions,<br>in or out of<br> +Detonators and Caps</td> + <td class="ctrr">48</td> + <td class="right4r">5</td> + <td class="right4r">54</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">5. Fireworks</td> + <td class="ctrrb">23</td> + <td class="right3rb">7</td> + <td class="right3rb">26</td> + <td class="right3rb">675</td> + <td class="right3rb">904</td> + <td class="ctrrb">.77</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Totals</td> + <td class="ctrrb">175</td> + <td class="right3rb">44</td> + <td class="right3rb">204</td> + <td class="right3rb">4828</td> + <td class="right3rb">11,098</td> + <td class="ctrrb">.39</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.8</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Under heading No. 2 are included the various smokeless powders for +sporting purposes, but as a matter of fact no accident causing personal +injury has occurred in their manufacture during the last ten years, +and the same may be said of safety fuse, which comes under heading +No. 3. The explosives of the ammonium-nitrate group also have a +stainless record up to the present, and they no doubt possess a very +high degree of safety in manufacture; but those of them which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_604">[604]</span> contain +dinitrobenzol present another kind of risk quite independent of their +explosive properties. This subject is, however, fully dealt with +elsewhere by Dr Prosser White, and will not be enlarged on here. As +regards their apparent safety in manufacture, too much stress must not +be laid on their immunity from accident in the past. They can most of +them be exploded by combined friction and percussion, and though as +a rule only the part affected will explode, this applies also in the +case of gun-cotton and many other admittedly sensitive compounds, and +it would be rash to predict the result under circumstances specially +favourable to the transmission of detonation.</p> + +<p>To the accidents in actual manufacture, those occurring during the +storage and distribution of the finished product must also be added, +since they may be said to have taken place under conditions to which +the controlling provisions of the Act are intended to apply. Thus 69 +accidents, causing 32 deaths and injuries to 81 persons, occurred under +these headings during the decade 1890–1899, making a grand total of 76 +killed and 285 injured in the period named, or an average of 7.6 killed +and 28.5 injured per annum in that section of the industry which is +presumably controlled by experts supplemented by Government inspection. +Briefly, this result has been attained by (<i>a</i>) subdivision of +risks, <i>i.e.</i>, the number of persons allowed in any one “danger” +building is strictly limited, and communication of explosion between +buildings is prevented by the erection of mounds of earth or masonry, +and by making the quantity of explosive in any building directly +dependent on its distance from others; (<i>b</i>) scrupulous attention +to cleanliness; (<i>c</i>) prevention of the introduction of matches +and other dangerous articles, by providing suitable clothing without +pockets, and by a thorough system of searching all those employed in +danger buildings; and (<i>d</i>) the provision of an adequate number of +escape doors opening outwards, and provided with safety latches so as +to yield easily to a push from the inside. Many manufacturers of their +own initiative go far further in these directions than is enjoined by +statute, with the result that in discipline, efficiency, and immunity +from accident, their factories compare most favourably with the +Government establishments.</p> + +<p>On turning to the question of risk in the <i>use</i> of explosives, +the prospect is not so pleasing; the contempt bred of familiarity is +something appalling. It is not too much to say that 99<span class="pagenum" id="Page_605">[605]</span> out of every +100 accidents would have been avoided by the exercise of reasonable +care and common sense. Scraping out detonators with pins, thawing +dynamite over the fire in tin dishes, driving gunpowder and dynamite +with metal rods into roughly drilled holes, and boring out misfires, +are only a few of the commonest examples of reckless folly. In mines +alone there were no less than 29 persons killed and 195 injured by +explosives during the year 1899, and this be it remembered in the +handling and use of the finished article, each nature of which is +thoroughly tested for purity and absence of extreme sensitiveness +before being authorised by the Home Office, whereas in the course of +manufacture many operations have to be undertaken which are known +to be dangerous, even with the exercise of the greatest care. Quite +recently a fatal accident was reported as follows:—“A. B. was charging +a bore-hole in rock with pellet gunpowder. Finding a difficulty in +inserting the charge, he was holding the tamping rod on the powder +while his mate drove it home with a sledge-hammer, when, <i>for no +reason whatever</i>, the charge exploded.” The italics are my own.</p> + + +<p class="center p1"><i>TABLE B.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Showing the Number of Accidents in the handling and use of the various +Explosives during the decade 1890–99.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Nature of Explosive.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">No. of<br>Accidents.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">No. of Persons</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Killed.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Injured.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">1. Gunpowder<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></td> + <td class="right3r">244</td> + <td class="right3r">94</td> + <td class="right3r">294</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">2. Nitro-glycerine Compounds</td> + <td class="right3r">376</td> + <td class="right3r">135</td> + <td class="right3r">440</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">3. Ammonium Nitrates</td> + <td class="right3r">44</td> + <td class="right3r">12</td> + <td class="right3r">41</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">4. Detonators</td> + <td class="right3r">143</td> + <td class="right3r">3</td> + <td class="right3r">193</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">5. Fireworks</td> + <td class="right3rb">41</td> + <td class="right3rb">19</td> + <td class="right3rb">96</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Total</td> + <td class="right3rb">848</td> + <td class="right3rb">263</td> + <td class="right3rb">1064</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Total in Manufacture during same period</td> + <td class="right3rb">175<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></td> + <td class="right3rb">44</td> + <td class="right3rb">204</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In Table B, I have summarised the accidents which have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_606">[606]</span> occurred during +the ten years 1890–99, in order to give some idea of the relative risk +attached to the handling of the various explosives. It is, however, +somewhat misleading in view of the impracticability of forming even a +rough estimate of the quantity of each description used, and also of +the fact that ordinary mining accidents with gunpowder are not required +to be reported.</p> + +<p>The accidents with ammunition other than detonators are so +insignificant in number and effect that I have omitted them from +the above table, but, on the other hand, the ammonium-nitrates now +contribute their quota of casualties. Whatever margin of safety they +may possess alone, it is nullified the moment the detonator is fitted, +and without this deadly little adjunct they are useless. The ideal +mining explosive is no doubt one which, while possessing the slow +action and consequent “coal-getting” properties of gunpowder, together +with its capacity for exploding without the use of a detonator, shall +at the same time be as safe to manufacture, store, convey, and use in +a “fiery” or dusty mine, as an ammonium-nitrate explosive. Moreover, +it should have the plasticity of gelignite with similar immunity from +injury by water, should require a bore-hole of but small diameter, and +lastly, should produce on combustion nothing more harmful than CO<sub>2</sub> +and water. If to these advantages cheapness be added, and the inventor +has sufficient capital to properly exploit its capabilities, such an +explosive may possibly have a future before it—but the British miner +is very conservative, and has a deep-rooted affection for gunpowder.</p> + +<p>I have already referred to the system by which the quantity of +explosive allowed in a licensed building is automatically regulated +by the distance that can be maintained between the building and the +nearest highway, dwelling-house, railway, etc., and from the social +aspect the application of this principle is of more importance in the +case of an isolated magazine or store (of which there are several +thousand in the United Kingdom) than when only the various buildings +of an individual factory are involved. Fortunately, owing to the care +with which explosives of questionable stability are excluded from +the authorised list, an explosion in a magazine or store is of the +rarest occurrence in this country (and as regards foreign explosions +figures are difficult to obtain), but in the following table I have +been at some pains to set forth the results, from a destructive point +of view, of a number of accidents with gunpowder and high explosives, +even though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_607">[607]</span> they may not have occurred in magazines or stores, so +as to enable the public to estimate for themselves the measure of +risk offered by the unavoidable establishment in their midst of +so great a quantity of “bottled energy.” I say unavoidable, since +modern engineering feats would be practically impossible without +high explosives, and admitting the necessity for their existence, it +is assuredly safer to keep them stored in specially constructed and +protected buildings, than to have them continually travelling about +the country. In Table C “destructive effect” may be taken to mean +structural damage to ordinary dwelling-houses due to the explosion +itself, but not to projected débris. Nor does it include broken +windows; to maintain a radius sufficient to prevent this would be +practically impossible; at Erith, for instance, in 1864, windows were +broken up to ten miles. In many cases much protection was no doubt +afforded by mounds of earth and clumps of trees specially erected and +planted for the purpose, interfering somewhat with the accuracy of +the figures, but the margin of safety is in general so ample that no +apprehension need be felt on this score.</p> + +<p>As showing how circumstances alter cases, a comparison of the results +of the Regent’s Park explosion on 2nd October 1874, with that of +Craig, near Montrose, on 5th March 1880, is somewhat striking. In +the former case five tons of gunpowder exploded in the middle of +London, without injuring a soul outside the barge on which the +explosive was being conveyed; whereas at Craig, an ounce or two of +nitro-glycerine—possibly less than an ounce—killed no less than five +persons, and severely injured another.</p> + +<p>To summarise, the explosives industry can scarcely be said to affect +the health of the operatives, as this word is generally understood, +although there is no doubt an ever-present risk of sudden mutilation or +death. I have endeavoured to show, however, that with the precautions +now universally adopted in this country, this risk is reduced to +a minimum, and that in all other respects the high standard of +cleanliness and smartness necessarily associated with the manufacture +introduces a condition of affairs which cannot be otherwise than +beneficial to those engaged.</p> + +<p>Finally, the fact cannot be too strongly emphasised, that in dealing +with explosives a policy of pin-pricks is strongly to be deprecated, +unless the perpetrator is anxious to be translated to a higher sphere. +In the words of the late Colonel Cundill, “the function of an explosive +is to explode.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_608">[608]</span></p> + + +<p class="center p1"><i>TABLE C.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Giving some particulars in connection with the Chief Explosions which +have occurred in this country.</p> + +<p class="center p1 smaller">KEY TO COLUMN HEADINGS:</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>A: Date of Accident.</li> + <li>B: Place.</li> + <li>C: Nature of Explosive involved.</li> + <li>D: Quantity of Explosive involved.</li> + <li>E: No. of Killed.</li> + <li>F: No. of Injured.</li> + <li>G: Radius of destructive effect in yards.</li> + <li>H: Distance in yards from nearest inhabited house, now rendered obligatory for this quantity.</li> + <li>I: Cause so far as ascertained, and Remarks.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 50em"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">A</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">B</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">C</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">D</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">E</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">F</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">G</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">H</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">I</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1/10/64</td> + <td class="cht1r">Erith</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">51 tons</td> + <td class="ctrr" colspan="2">A large<br>number</td> + <td class="ctrr">3080</td> + <td class="right4r">3500</td> + <td class="cht1r">Unknown.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">11/8/71</td> + <td class="cht1r">Stowmarket, Suffolk</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gun-cotton</td> + <td class="ctrr">12½ tons</td> + <td class="right4r">24</td> + <td class="ctrr">over 50</td> + <td class="ctrr">466</td> + <td class="right4r">1030</td> + <td class="cht1r">Malicious introduction of acid into pure gun-cotton.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">2/10/74</td> + <td class="cht1r">Barge on Canal in Regent’s Park, London</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">5 tons</td> + <td class="right4r">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">400</td> + <td class="right4r">525</td> + <td class="cht1r">Ignition by the cabin fire of benzoline vapour, +which communicated to the gunpowder.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">21/4/76</td> + <td class="cht1r">Cymmer, Glamorgan (in a tunnel)</td> + <td class="cht1r">Dynamite</td> + <td class="ctrr">160 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">13</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">37</td> + <td class="right4r">50</td> + <td class="cht1r">Probably due to candle falling on to the explosive.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">12/5/76</td> + <td class="cht1r">Herodsfoot, Liskeard</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">4½ tons</td> + <td class="right4r">3</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">150</td> + <td class="right4r">470</td> + <td class="cht1r">Workman struck a spark with wooden mallet while + “breaking” press cake.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">30/6/77</td> + <td class="cht1r">Floating magazine off Gravesend</td> + <td class="cht1r">Detonators</td> + <td class="ctrr">3300 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">3</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">No houses near</td> + <td class="right4r">250</td> + <td class="cht1r">Probably due to the fall of a case containing detonators.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">6/8/78</td> + <td class="cht1r">Victoria Colliery, Bruntscliffe, Yorkshire</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">1 ton</td> + <td class="right4r"></td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">do.</td> + <td class="right4r">150</td> + <td class="cht1r">Lightning. The nearest house at 220 yards was quite uninjured.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">29/11/78</td> + <td class="cht1r">Elterwater, Westmoreland</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">500 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">20</td> + <td class="right4r">65</td> + <td class="cht1r">Unknown.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">21/2/79</td> + <td class="cht1r">Hall’s Factory, Faversham</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">3½ tons</td> + <td class="right4r">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">8</td> + <td class="ctrr">300</td> + <td class="right4r">360</td> + <td class="cht1r">Probably due to accidental breaking of shaft in “glazing” house.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">5/3/80</td> + <td class="cht1r">Craig, Montrose</td> + <td class="cht1r">Nitro-glycerine</td> + <td class="ctrr">about 1 oz.</td> + <td class="right4r">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="right4r"></td> + <td class="cht1r">In a kettle placed on the fire.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">19/3/81</td> + <td class="cht1r">Blackbeck, Haverthwaite</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">1800 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">45</td> + <td class="right4r">148</td> + <td class="cht1r">Breaking down “mill cake.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">21/7/81</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gatebeck, near Kendal</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">1100 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">2</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Under 50</td> + <td class="right4r">100</td> + <td class="cht1r">Unknown, but while “pressing.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">29/9/83</td> + <td class="cht1r">Furness, Inveraray</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">2½ tons</td> + <td class="right4r">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">240</td> + <td class="right4r">255</td> + <td class="cht1r">Probably spark from adjacent chimney.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">17/11/83</td> + <td class="cht1r">Pembrey, near Llanelly</td> + <td class="cht1r">Dynamite</td> + <td class="ctrr">300 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">Only a few yards</td> + <td class="right4r">65</td> + <td class="cht1r">Blow on frozen dynamite.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_609">[609]</span></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">26/7/84</td> + <td class="cht1r">Blackbeck, Haverthwaite</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">1400 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">4</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">50</td> + <td class="right4r">125</td> + <td class="cht1r">Lightning.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">3/5/87</td> + <td class="cht1r">Hounslow</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">7600 lbs. (but not all at once)</td> + <td class="right4r">1</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">60</td> + <td class="right4r">390</td> + <td class="cht1r">Probably fracture of machinery in glazing house, or malicious.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">22/6/87</td> + <td class="cht1r">Cornbrook, Manchester</td> + <td class="cht1r">Picric acid</td> + <td class="ctrr">(?)</td> + <td class="right4r">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">Several</td> + <td class="ctrr">180</td> + <td class="right4r">(?)</td> + <td class="cht1r">Formation of picrate of lead during a fire.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">7/11/87</td> + <td class="cht1r">Kennall Vale, near Redruth</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">1050 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">2</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">30</td> + <td class="right4r">100</td> + <td class="cht1r">Spark in “pressing.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">22/1/90</td> + <td class="cht1r">Roslin, near Edinburgh</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">2 tons</td> + <td class="right4r">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">120</td> + <td class="right4r">200</td> + <td class="cht1r">Probably matches in mixing house.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">22/10/90</td> + <td class="cht1r">Roslin, near Edinburgh</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">2500 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">2</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">150</td> + <td class="right4r">160</td> + <td class="cht1r">Repairing glazing reel.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">11/1/92</td> + <td class="cht1r">Floating magazine, Gravesend</td> + <td class="cht1r">Fireworks</td> + <td class="ctrr">10 tons</td> + <td class="right4r"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">No houses near</td> + <td class="right4r">525</td> + <td class="cht1r">Friction light.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">3/9/92</td> + <td class="cht1r">Barque “Auchmountain,” off Greenock</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">20 tons</td> + <td class="right4r"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Nearest house at 1¼ miles uninjured</td> + <td class="right4r">1525</td> + <td class="cht1r">Fire on board, not known how originated.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">24/2/97</td> + <td class="cht1r">Ardeer, Stevenston, N.B.</td> + <td class="cht1r">Nitro-glycerine</td> + <td class="ctrr">about 1 ton</td> + <td class="right4r">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">8</td> + <td class="ctrr">200</td> + <td class="right4r">200</td> + <td class="cht1r">Unknown. Damage was to <i>wooden</i> buildings only.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">19/1/98</td> + <td class="cht1r">Blackbeck, Haverthwaite</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">1¾ tons</td> + <td class="right4r">None</td> + <td class="ctrr">None</td> + <td class="ctrr">60</td> + <td class="right4r">187</td> + <td class="cht1r">Fall of roof. Damage small on account of good position.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">26/5/00</td> + <td class="cht1r">Blackbeck, Haverthwaite</td> + <td class="cht1r">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="ctrr">1800 lbs.</td> + <td class="right4r">2</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Building at 100 yards uninjured</td> + <td class="right4r">148</td> + <td class="cht1r">Probably failure of one of the columns of press.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">30/5/00</td> + <td class="cht1rb">Huddersfield</td> + <td class="cht1rb">Picric acid</td> + <td class="ctrrb">(?) 6800</td> + <td class="right4rb">None</td> + <td class="ctrrb">None</td> + <td class="ctrrb">140</td> + <td class="right4rb">400</td> + <td class="cht1rb">Probably due to formation of picrate of lime during a fire.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_610">[610]</span></p> + +<h3>II.<br> +<span class="subhed1"><i>Products of Combustion: Fumes.</i></span></h3> + +<p>All explosives in practical use contain carbon. If there be also +present a sufficiency or an excess of oxygen this carbon is generally +burnt on explosion to carbonic anhydride, CO<sub>2</sub>. This is a poisonous +gas. If, on the other hand, there is a deficiency of oxygen the carbon +is only partially burnt and carbon monoxide (CO) is formed. This is a +vastly more poisonous gas. But in any event the products of combustion +are distinctly harmful, and it is misleading and mischievous to +assert of any explosive that it gives off “no noxious fumes.” Some +are, however, as already stated, worse than others in this respect. +Gunpowder, gun-cotton, and lyddite (picric acid) are all deficient +in oxygen. The two latter, being chemical compounds, are of constant +composition, viz.:—</p> + +<p class="center">C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>14</sub>O<sub>4</sub>(O,}NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>6</sub> and C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>OH</p> + +<p>respectively, and their lack of oxygen can be seen by inspection +of their formulæ; but the ingredients of gunpowder, being merely +mechanically mixed, may be varied at will so as to produce on +combustion the minimum of CO compatible with other requirements. +In blasting, for instance, where there is no outlet for the gases +formed except by disruption of the rock or coal, the production of +a large volume of gas at high temperature is in theory all that +is necessary—the time taken to attain maximum pressure is of +comparatively little importance. When there is a deficiency of oxygen +a proportion of the carbon is converted into CO, giving for equal +weights of oxygen double as much gas as is produced in the formation of +CO<sub>2</sub>, and thus, although the heat evolved in conversion to CO<sub>2</sub> is +more than half as much again as in conversion to CO, yet the maximum +pressure is theoretically about the same. Calculations of maximum +pressures are, however, somewhat unreliable, owing not only to the +fact that at the high temperature of explosion the complex potassium +salts found in the cooled residue undoubtedly undergo dissociation, but +also to the uncertainty which exists as to whether gases, especially +compound gases, obey, at very high temperature and pressure, the usual +law as to the relation of pressure to volume. Practical experience +would certainly seem to contradict the theory of equality in blasting +efficiency between high and low grade powder, since far better results +are undoubtedly obtained with the former. For use in fiery or dusty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_611">[611]</span> +coal mines or in confined spaces there is, of course, no comparison +between them. According to Noble and Abel the percentages of CO evolved +by Curtis’s and Harvey’s best sporting powder, containing 75 per +cent. of saltpetre, and by ordinary blasting powder, containing but +62 per cent. of this ingredient, are as 2.47 to 15.22; the hydrogen +sulphide, another poisonous gas, being also increased from .83 per +cent. in the case of the former to 3.89 per cent. in the latter. On +the occasion of the peculiar accident at Crarae Quarry, Lochfyne, in +September 1886, when no less than 40 persons were rendered insensible +(7 of whom succumbed) by the fumes from a monster blast, the powder +used contained 74 per cent. of saltpetre, and only yielded 3.6 per +cent. of CO on combustion. Since 150 persons were present, it is more +than probable that, had gunpowder of inferior quality been used, the +mortality would have been very much greater. Gun-cotton is an even +worse offender in this respect, yielding on detonation, according to +different authorities and according to the pressure under which it +is exploded, from 28 to 45 per cent. of CO. For mining purposes this +percentage has been much reduced by the admixture of a due proportion +of barium nitrate to supply the necessary oxygen for theoretically +complete conversion of the carbon to CO<sub>2</sub>, and although this happy +consummation has not been fully attained, yet this explosive, under +the name of tonite or cotton powder, has been used in mines with +good results, the products of combustion, according to Sir F. Abel, +furnishing little or no carbonic oxide. Prior to the introduction of +this modification, several fatal accidents had already occurred in the +use of gun-cotton by itself. For instance, no less than 12 persons were +injured, one fatally, in April 1878, by the fumes from a gun-cotton +blast during the construction of a mine tunnel at Halkyn, Flintshire.</p> + +<p>Lyddite, on the other hand, of whose fumes we have been hearing a +good deal of late, yields not only a large proportion of CO, but also +a notable percentage of free carbon, as is evidenced by the black +smoke arising on detonation. In small quantities, however, complete +detonation is somewhat difficult to achieve, a yellow deposit being +the result. This deposit, mingling with the black smoke tinged with +the blue-grey of the pulverised rock, may possibly have given rise to +the “green fumes” which were, according to eye-witnesses, a marked +feature at Paardeberg and elsewhere. The proportion of CO formed is +doubtless greatly in excess of that evolved by gunpowder—especially +of the good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_612">[612]</span> quality alone used by the War Department—but it is +difficult to believe that even in the most favourable circumstances +the atmosphere could be rendered unfit to breathe by the bursting of +lyddite shells. If this possibility existed half Huddersfield must +have been asphyxiated by the recent explosion of picric acid at the +works of Messrs Read, Holliday, & Sons. Owing to its exceedingly bitter +taste, the sifting of the dry acid gives rise in some cases to sore +throat and distressing cough, necessitating the use of a respirator +by those employed in this operation, but that these symptoms are mere +inconveniences not affecting in any way the general health of the +operator is shown by the fact that the workers complain that they +cannot keep themselves on account of the tonic and appetising effect of +the acid! It is also, in solution, an excellent cure for burns.</p> + +<p>Into the question of the physiological effect of CO poisoning I do not +propose to enter, but would refer the reader to the reports and papers +on the subject by Dr Haldane, whose classical investigations in this +connection are unrivalled; but it is of importance to note that all +explosives, except nitro-glycerine (<i>i.e.</i> Kieselguhr dynamite), +and certain of the ammonium nitrates, produce on explosion a proportion +of this deadly gas. Nitro-glycerine, or glyceryl tri-nitrate, as it +might more properly be called, contains, as shown by its formula, +C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(O,NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, more oxygen than is required for complete +combustion. The manner in which it decomposes on detonation may be +expressed according to the majority of authorities by the equation:—</p> + +<p class="center">2C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(O,NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub> = 6CO<sub>2</sub> + 5H<sub>2</sub>O + 6N + O</p> + +<p class="p-left">giving the following percentages—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Carbonic acid</td> + <td class="right">58.15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Steam</td> + <td class="right">19.82</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Nitrogen</td> + <td class="right">18.50</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Oxygen</td> + <td class="rightb">3.52</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4"></td> + <td class="rightbd">99.99</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>the products thus contain nothing more deleterious than carbonic acid +gas. Even if, as is possible, the excess of oxygen combines with +nitrogen to form nitrous oxide, the proportion of NO formed can only +amount to 6.60 per cent., a quantity which, under no conceivable +circumstances, could produce fatal effects.</p> + +<p>If; however, nitro-glycerine be decomposed by simple combustion, not +detonation, the nitrogen and oxygen in the NO<sub>2</sub> molecules do not +appear to be dissevered, the result being that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_613">[613]</span> not only are highly +poisonous nitrous fumes given off, but the proportion of available +oxygen is also so much diminished that a considerable quantity of +CO is formed. Many instances are recorded of fatalities due to the +inhalation of these nitrous fumes, and there is also at least one case +(in September 1892) when the symptoms pointed to CO, or rather to a +combination of CO and CO<sub>2</sub> as the cause of death, the two victims +being rendered unconscious on the spot, and dying before help could +arrive. In cases where death has resulted from breathing nitrous +fumes only, the end has generally been deferred for some considerable +time, amounting in one instance to no less than 40 hours after the +inhalation. The symptoms are identical with those observed in cases of +poisoning from nitric acid vapour, viz., very little inconvenience is +felt at the time,—in fact the person affected has generally partaken +of food, and in one recorded case, enjoyed a smoke, before noticing +anything wrong,—subsequently difficulty in breathing, accompanied by +violent coughing, is then experienced, which increases until death. An +accident from these fumes, which occurred in September 1879, during the +construction of the Severn Tunnel, by which two men lost their lives, +has been very fully reported on by Col. Ford, late Chief Inspector +of Explosives, in Special Report No. XXVI., dated 30th October 1879, +and he there quotes several other interesting cases brought to his +notice by Dr Dupré. Moreover, since the issue of that report, several +instances have occurred where dynamite has been accidentally ignited in +a mine gallery, and has caused fatal injuries, not by explosion, but by +the fumes given off.</p> + +<p>The notorious “nitro-glycerine headache” must not be forgotten. +This is due to dilation of the capillary blood-vessels, or rather +of the arteries, by which means the circulation is largely and +suddenly increased. This effect is achieved either by inhalation of +nitro-glycerine vapour, or by absorption through the skin, so that it +results from handling the manufactured compound, as well as from being +present in a building in which the hot explosive is deposited. No one +can enter a cordite drying room or “stove” without experiencing a +peculiar sensation at the heart and at the back of the head, which, in +the absence of fresh air, soon develops into a headache which reduces +to insignificance all the other ills of life. Some suffer more than +others, but in no case, so far as I can gather, has any permanent harm +resulted from this cause, and on most people the fumes appear to lose +their effect after a few days. With certain individuals, on the other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_614">[614]</span> +hand, it is a matter of weeks before they become inured, and during +that period they are never free from sickness and headache; moreover, a +very few days’ absence from contact with the explosive causes a return +of the original susceptibility. The best remedies are strong coffee, +and a linseed poultice applied to the back of the neck. Like most +poisons, nitro-glycerine is used in medicine, and has undoubtedly been +the means of prolonging many lives in cases of angina pectoris. Its +freezing point is high, viz., about 40° F., and once frozen it cannot +be thawed below 50° F. Thus, nitro-glycerine compounds are frequently +found frozen hard in June; in fact, for a great part of the year they +have to be thawed before use, and this process, unless carefully +carried out in proper warming-pans, constitutes a very considerable +danger. The lesson is gradually being learnt that dynamite will explode +at temperatures below that required to ignite it, owing to the heat +produced by the chemical action set up by the decomposition, which +commences long before the point of ignition is reached. Three accidents +in thawing occurred during the year 1899, and between the years 1872 +and 1898 no less than sixty-eight accidents due to this cause took +place, involving the death of 68 persons and injuries of a more or less +serious nature to 97 others.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as nitro-cotton contains too little oxygen for complete +combustion, and nitro-glycerine contains more than is necessary, it +may well be imagined that a very powerful explosive would result from +an admixture of the two in proper proportions. This was first effected +by Alfred Nobel in 1875, and the invention of blasting gelatine, as +the resulting compound was named by him, may be said to mark an epoch +in the history of explosives. Provided the nitro-cotton be in the +form of the penta-nitrate only, 100 parts of nitro-glycerine would +theoretically be required to satisfy 10 parts of nitro-cellulose, but +in actual practice it is impossible to ensure the absence of lower +nitrates, and as the degree of nitration of the cellulose decreases +the necessary proportion of nitro-glycerine increases. If, however, +the percentage of nitro-cotton is reduced too low, it is impossible +to comply with the Home Office conditions as to exudation. Thus, in +this country, where the usual proportion is 9 of nitro-cotton to 91 of +nitro-glycerine, a certain quantity of CO is invariably produced by +the explosion of even the best blasting gelatine; and cordite, which +contains 37 per cent. of cellulose hexa-nitrate to 58 per cent. of +nitro-glycerine, the balance consisting of vaseline, produces no less +than 32 per cent. of CO. The gelatine dynamites, a most popular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_615">[615]</span> class +of blasting explosive, and the majority of smokeless powders, may be +said to be based on blasting gelatine.</p> + +<p>As regards those ammonium-nitrate explosives, of which dinitrobenzol +forms the combustible ingredient, several fatalities have occurred +in their manufacture, generally from neglecting to make use of the +respirators and gloves supplied to prevent introduction of the poison +into the system. In one recorded case, however, viz., on 6th June 1889, +at the Roburite Company’s Works, a workman was engaged in cleaning +out an air flue through which the fumes from three mixing pans were +discharged, and owing to the admittedly ultra-dangerous nature of +the work, wore a handkerchief over his respirator, and was entirely +clothed in indiarubber, but in spite of these precautions was fatally +injured by the fumes. According to the manufacturers, the injury to the +health of the workpeople in the ordinary process of manufacture is more +apparent than real, but the wish may possibly be father to the thought, +and the industry has not been in existence long enough to provide +reliable statistics.</p> + + +<h3>III.<br> +<span class="subhed1"><i>Explosives in Coal Mines.</i></span></h3> + +<p>Reference has already been made to the dangers attending the use of +certain explosives in fiery and dusty coal-pits. In view of the vast +quantity used in coal-getting, and of the somewhat complex nature of +the problem presented, also having regard to the wholesale destruction +of life, and consequent widespread misery entailed by a pit explosion, +originating perhaps in quite an insignificant ignition of fire-damp +or even of coal-dust, the question as to what does or does not +constitute a “safety” explosive has been discussed in all its bearings +in every civilised country. The results obtained are, however, hardly +satisfactory—no two experts, or rather groups of experts, appear to +agree. The systems by which increased safety is sought to be obtained +may be dubbed for general purposes the French, German, and British. +It would be quite impossible in the space at my disposal to trace the +gradual development in each country of the researches, theoretical +and experimental, which have in each case culminated in legislative +action. Other countries have, so far as I can gather, adopted one or +other of the above systems, or modifications of them, but, so far as +general principles are concerned, the above classification may be +accepted as correct. Thus, in France, the criterion of safety is the +<i>calculated</i> temperature of explosion, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_616">[616]</span> must in no case +exceed 1500° C.; in Germany, increasing quantities of the explosive +under examination are fired unstemmed in a regulated mixture of +pit-gas, coal-dust, and air, and no charge may be fired in practice +exceeding the maximum weight shown to be safe under the above +conditions; lastly, in this country, an arbitrary but semi-practical +test has been established, and in the prescribed mines no explosive may +be used, until it has satisfied this test. Having been connected with +the Woolwich Testing Station since its inception, any comparison by me +of the merits or demerits of the three systems would be worthless, but +I venture to hope that it will be conceded that the <i>principle</i> +underlying our own method is sound, however defective the details may +be considered by rival investigators. The truth of the matter is, +that the whole question is most involved, safety depending not on one +condition but on many. The temperature, the time, and the products, +gaseous and solid, of the explosion, the weight of the charge, the +depth and diameter of the bore-hole, the quantity and quality of the +stemming, the position of the bore-hole with reference to surfaces or +obstacles on which the hot gases may impinge, the composition of the +atmosphere of the mine, the meteorological conditions, the structure +of the rock or coal in which the shot is fired, and last but not +least, the means of firing—all have their say in the matter; and it +is ridiculous to attribute to the inherent qualities of an explosive +a calamity really due to the negligent or reckless misuse of it. An +analysis of the official reports on mine explosions caused, or rather +probably caused, by shot firing during the last twenty years, is +somewhat instructive in this connection, and may be deemed worthy of +perusal, with this preface, however, that the information has been +obtained from the published reports only, and with no facilities for +reading between the lines (see pp. 617–618).</p> + +<p>The natural inference to be drawn is, that if a “permitted” explosive +alone is used, and the charge properly stemmed with suitable material, +and if, moreover, a very moderate quantum of judgment and common sense +is used in selecting the position of the bore-hole and the weight of +explosive necessary to do the work, the risk of an accident under this +head is practically eliminated.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_617">[617]</span></p> + + +<p class="center smaller p1"><i>TABLE D.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">A List of Explosions of Gas and Dust in Coal Mines caused +by Shot-firing, on which Reports have been published, with +Explanatory Extracts from these Reports.</p> +</div> + +<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 50em"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Date.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Place.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Nature of Explosive.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Remarks and Extracts.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">21/1/80</td> + <td class="chtr">Fair Lady Pit, Leycett, Staffs.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="chtr">62 killed. Caused by a blown-out shot + in a particularly fiery and dusty mine in which, on the initiative of the + owners themselves, steps had already been taken to substitute “wedging” + for “blasting.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">8/9/80</td> + <td class="cht2r">Seaham Colliery, Durham</td> + <td class="ctr1r">(?) Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="cht2r">160 killed. Cause of explosion doubtful, +but if due to a shot, there is no evidence to show carelessness in + charging and firing. In other words, the accident could only have been + avoided by the prohibition of explosive—or, at any rate, of + gunpowder—throughout the mine.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">27/1/84</td> + <td class="cht2r">Pen-y-craig, Rhondda Valley</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Dynamite (probably)</td> + <td class="cht2r">14 killed. The conditions were such as +“in the opinion of all the skilled witnesses would have deterred any +prudent man from firing a shot on 27th January in the place where the +explosion originated.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">2/3/85</td> + <td class="cht2r">Usworth Colliery, Durham</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Blasting gunpowder (probably)</td> + <td class="cht2r">40 killed. “In my opinion to fire a +shot at such a place was a breach of General Rule 8, sub-section 2, of +Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">8/4/85</td> + <td class="cht2r">Great Fenton Colliery</td> + <td class="ctr1r">(?)</td> + <td class="cht2r">8 killed, 5 injured. “The error of the +fireman in boring the shot-hole into the ‘fast,’ and thus causing the shot +to ‘blow out,’ was the immediate cause of the explosion.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">2/10/86</td> + <td class="cht2r">Altoff’s Colliery</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="cht2r">22 killed. “Three consecutive shots +fired in the same part of the pit—the third causing the accident. +Watering quite inadequate, since the mine was very dusty.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">18/2/87</td> + <td class="cht2r">National Colliery, Tnyshir, Glamorgan</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Gelatine dynamite</td> + <td class="cht2r">39 killed, 6 injured. The shot was +fired in the roof pointing towards very dusty floor. Also, although it +was only considered safe to use “water cartridges,” the water had +in this case been omitted.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_618">[618]</span></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">10/3/90</td> + <td class="cht2r">Morfa Colliery, Port Talbot</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="cht2r">87 killed. No watering done, +notwithstanding that “blasting was not generally allowed in the colliery. +The manager was much averse to shot-firing, and ... it had been +entirely dispensed with in coal-getting for a number of years.” +Again, “permission to fire shots was reluctantly given.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">2/4/91</td> + <td class="cht2r">Apedale Colliery, Staffs.</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Gelignite</td> + <td class="cht2r">10 killed. Shot fired by fuse and blown +out. The jury at the inquest were of opinion “that the explosion was +caused by a blown-out shot, and that we are strongly of opinion that the +management of the colliery has been most lax and negligent; leading, in +the opinion of the jury, to the gross carelessness shown on the part of +their subordinates.”</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">13/11/93</td> + <td class="cht2r">Camerton Colliery, Somerset</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="cht2r">2 killed. Overcharged shot, fired in +roof pointing at very dusty floor. Shot-hole only 10 inches long and +1⅞ inches in diameter, so that the charge of about ¾ lb. of powder +could not have been properly stemmed—the cartridge would occupy 8 or 9 inches.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">23/6/94</td> + <td class="cht2r">Albion Colliery, Pontypridd</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Gelignite</td> + <td class="cht2r">290 killed. Shot ignited by safety fuse +and fired, probably unstemmed, in <i>timber</i>. These facts strongly commented +on by jury at inquest.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">6/2/95</td> + <td class="cht2r">Timsbury Colliery, Radstock</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="cht2r">7 killed. Shot fired by squib or +straw—in the roof—and stemmed very probably with an inflammable mixture +of clay and oil. Road watered two or three days before the +explosion. Shot overcharged owing to a joint.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">15/3/95</td> + <td class="cht2r">Malago Vale Colliery, Bristol</td> + <td class="ctr1r">Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="cht2r">2 killed. Improperly stemmed shot +fired by fuse in a dry and dusty place.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">27/1/96</td> + <td class="cht2r">Tuberstoun Pits, Ferndale Collieries</td> + <td class="ctr1r">A high explosive, probably Bellite or Ammonite</td> + <td class="cht2r">57 killed. Very little watering done, +shot fired by fuse, and so much gas found close to shot-hole that one +fireman refused to fire the shot, there being more than ⅜ inch of +“cap” in his lamp.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rbl">13/4/96</td> + <td class="cht2rb">Brancepeth Colliery, Durham</td> + <td class="ctr1rb">Blasting gunpowder</td> + <td class="cht2rb">20 killed. The shot was badly put in. +The direction of it was bad, it was overcharged, and there was an unseen +joint behind it. No watering had been done on the sides and roof.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_619">[619]</span></p> + +<p>In the year 1899, during which period an increased amount of attention +was paid to the above points, out of no less than 147 ignitions of +fire-damp or coal-dust only 6 were caused by the flame from explosives +used in shot-firing.</p> + +<p>I will conclude with a very concise description of a few of the best +known explosives in common use, other than gunpowder.</p> + + +<p class="center p1">(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Military.</span></p> + +<p><i>Cordite.</i>—Nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton, and vaseline, reduced by +means of acetone to a gelatinous paste, which is then “squirted” into +cords through dies of varying diameter by hydraulic or screw pressure. +The rate of combustion depends on the diameter of the cords.</p> + +<p><i>Gun-cotton.</i>—Cellulose hexa-nitrate—pure cotton or cellulose +steeped in a mixture of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids, and +thoroughly washed.</p> + +<p><i>Lyddite.</i>—Trinitrophenol or picric acid, a mixture of carbolic +acid (phenol), and concentrated sulphuric acid treated with strong +nitric acid, picric acid crystallising out.</p> + + +<p class="center p1">(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">Sporting.</span></p> + +<p>The name of these is legion. The best known are <i>Amberite</i>, +<i>Ballistite</i>, <i>Cannonite</i>, <i>E.C.</i>, <i>Schultze</i>, +<i>S.S.</i>, and <i>Walsrode</i>, and the vast majority are based on +nitro-cellulose. This is mixed with other comparatively unimportant +ingredients, and granulated, gelatinised, and hardened in a suitable +manner, the method of manufacture varying according to the explosive.</p> + + +<p class="center p1">(<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">Blasting.</span></p> + +<p><i>Ammonite</i>, <i>Amvis</i>, <i>Bellite</i>, <i>Electronite</i>, +<i>Roburite</i>, and <i>Westphalite</i>, form with a few others seldom +met with in this country a group of explosives derived from the +admixture of ammonium-nitrate with various carbonaceous substances, +such as dinitronaphthalene, dinitrobenzol, starch, and resin. They are +comparatively safe to handle and convey, but suffer in keeping from the +hygroscopic nature of the ammonium-nitrate, which necessitates their +enclosure in absolutely waterproof cases.</p> + +<p><i>Blasting Gelatine.</i>—Nitro-cotton dissolved in nitro-glycerine to +form a jelly. This is probably the most powerful explosive in general +use.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_620">[620]</span></p> + +<p><i>Carbonite.</i>—About 27 per cent. of nitro-glycerine absorbed in a +“dope” of woodmeal and saltpetre or nitrate of barium.</p> + +<p><i>Dynamite.</i>—75 per cent. of nitro-glycerine absorbed in 25 per +cent. of an infusorial silicious earth called “Kieselguhr.”</p> + +<p><i>Gelatine Dynamite.</i>—Nitro-glycerine thickened by the addition of +nitro-cotton, and combined with woodmeal, charcoal, or certain other +non-explosive ingredients.</p> + +<p><i>Gelignite</i>, the most commonly used of all the high explosives, is +practically gelatine-dynamite with the addition of saltpetre.</p> + +<p><i>Tonite</i> or <i>Cotton Powder</i> is a mixture of equal parts of +gun-cotton and nitrate of barium.</p> + +<p><i>Fulminate of Mercury</i>, used for detonating nearly all high +explosives, is a grey precipitate obtained by treating with alcohol +a solution of mercury in nitric acid. It is extremely sensitive to +percussion or friction.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">A. Cooper Key.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_621">[621]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLII<br> +<span class="subhed">ANTHRAX</span></h2></div> + +<h3><i>Hides and Horsehair.</i></h3> + + +<p>The disease to which the term anthrax is at the present time usually +applied, in this country, is fortunately of rare occurrence in man, +mainly affecting, as it does, cattle, sheep, swine, and horses. In +1891, it may be noted, there was an outbreak among deer, and in certain +foreign countries attacks among goats and camels appear to be not +uncommon. The disease may be transmitted by direct inoculation of a +scratch or wound of the skin, by inhalation into the lungs, or by being +introduced into the alimentary canal with the food. The last-named +mode of infection is that which appears to be most common in the lower +animals, and the disease produced in them, accompanied as it is, as +a rule, by marked enlargement of the spleen, is sometimes referred +to as splenic fever. The infective property clings pertinaciously to +certain fields and pastures, so that in America, and on the continent +of Europe, the risk incurred by allowing animals to graze in particular +localities is definitely recognised, while a similar phenomenon has +also been observed in this country. The risk in question appears +to be greater at certain times of the year. In the Western States +of America it is said to be inseparably connected with the highest +temperatures of summer, and to occur only when the surface soil has +been thoroughly warmed; a certain degree of moisture is also believed +to be necessary. Power of transmitting infection is maintained in +these particular localities, and conveyed to others, by allowing the +discharges from infected animals, and the blood of such animals, if +they are slaughtered or cut up after death, to obtain access to the +soil. Hides, skins, hair, and wool, which have become smeared with +such blood or discharges, retain the property of conveying infection +after drying, and exposure to light and air for prolonged periods; even +after transportation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_622">[622]</span> for thousands of miles the manipulation of such +infected products is attended with serious danger.</p> + +<p>In man the disease assumes generally what is known as the <i>external +form</i>, the poison obtaining access to the body through some abrasion +of the skin. At the site of inoculation a small vesicle may be detected +at the outset: this vesicle speedily develops into a <i>malignant +pustule</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, an inflamed area presenting a dark centre, +surrounded by a ring of vesicles with a crenated margin. At this +stage, which is that in which attention is usually first drawn to the +disease, the appearances are generally quite characteristic, and if +skilled advice is obtained, and the nature of the mischief realised, +the pustule can be excised and there is comparatively little risk of +a fatal issue. The term pustule, it may be noted, is a misnomer, as +pus (<i>i.e.</i> matter) is not formed in the local manifestation of +anthrax as in the case of an ordinary boil or carbuncle. A variety of +external anthrax occasionally met with (erysipelatous or œdematous +anthrax) is referred to elsewhere. Again, in some instances, usually +in connection with the manipulation of wool, anthrax in man assumes +the <i>internal form</i> (<i>vide</i> Anthrax in relation to the wool +industry). This last-named form of the malady is also met with among +workers in horsehair, but is very uncommon in persons who manipulate +hides and skins.</p> + +<p><i>History of the Disease.</i>—Little is known as regards the +prevalence of anthrax in man and in animals in past times. It has +been suggested that the grievous murrain which destroyed the cattle +of the Egyptians, and which was succeeded by a “breaking forth with +blains” upon men, and upon horses, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep, was +anthrax. Again, numerous instances of the concurrence of murrain in +cattle with pestilence in man have been recorded from time to time, +and some of these may conceivably admit of similar interpretation. At +the present day the name <i>anthrax</i> is commonly given, in some +parts of the world, to what in England is known as carbuncle, and +there is room for difference of opinion as to the meaning of the word +when it occurs in old records. It may be sufficient to note in this +connection that it has been contended that in ancient Greece the term +was applied to smallpox. Towards the end of the last century, however, +the occurrence of what would now be termed in this country “anthrax” +seems to have been observed in the human subject, in association +with the manipulation of raw animal products. Thus Fournier of Dijon +in 1769 referred to the transmission<span class="pagenum" id="Page_623">[623]</span> of disease to men engaged in +handling hair and wool. Similar cases were recorded by Montfils in +1776; moreover, the subject of anthrax in animals was, it may be noted, +discussed by Chabert in a work published in Paris in 1780. It was not, +however, until the latter part of the nineteenth century that any +considerable amount of attention was attracted by the malady.</p> + +<p>In 1847 cases of “malignant pustule” were described by Lawrence in +connection with a hair factory; a series of cases was collected and +published in 1852 by Mr Harvey Ludlow; and in 1862 the history of some +30 cases, one of which occurred in a tanner, and one in a person who +had been employed in loading hides, was given by Dr William Budd.</p> + +<p>Growth of knowledge concerning anthrax was much stimulated by the +discovery of the anthrax bacillus. This organism had been observed +by Pollender in 1849; it was shown to be the actual cause of the +disease, however, by the researches of Davaine, and knowledge of +its life-history was subsequently greatly extended by Koch. The +discovery of the comparatively easily destructible bacillus, and its +ability to produce highly resistant spores, afforded explanation of +the pertinacity with which raw animal products retain the power of +transmitting infection, and led to appreciation of the difficulty +of dealing with contaminated material. The researches of Pasteur, +concerning attenuation of the anthrax organism and protective +inoculation, moreover, opened up a most interesting and important field +of inquiry.</p> + +<p><i>Anthrax Statistics.</i>—It was not until 1863 that “malignant +pustule” began to appear as a cause of death in the Registrar-General’s +returns. During the fourteen years 1863–1876, three or four deaths on +an average were registered annually. Then, for a time, in addition +to the heading “Malignant Pustule,” the headings “Charbon” and +“Wool-sorters’ Disease” were officially recognised, and the number +of deaths registered under the three headings had, in the year 1880, +increased to eighteen. From 1881 onwards, all anthrax deaths have been +included by the Registrar-General under the heading “Splenic Fever,” +and the number registered was, it may be noted, as small as three +in the year 1891, as high as eighteen in 1884, 1897, and 1898, and +twenty-one in 1899.</p> + +<p>Brief as has been the period in which records of the disease in man +have accumulated, and imperfect as these records doubtless still +are, anthrax statistics relating to other animals are, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_624">[624]</span> might be +expected, still more imperfect. Returns for Great Britain, which are +only available from 1887 onwards, are given in the annexed table, taken +from the annual report on proceedings under the Diseases of Animals +Acts, compiled for the Board of Agriculture.</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">Number of Counties in Great Britain in which Anthrax was +reported by the Inspectors of the Local Authorities, with the +Number of Outbreaks reported, and the Number of each kind of +Animal returned as attacked in each year.</p> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Years.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">Counties.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">Outbreaks<br>reported.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="5">Animals attacked.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Cattle.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Sheep.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Swine.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Horses.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Deer.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1887</td> + <td class="ctrr">51</td> + <td class="ctrr">236</td> + <td class="ctrr">415</td> + <td class="rightr">37</td> + <td class="rightr">184</td> + <td class="ctrr"><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1888</td> + <td class="ctrr">49</td> + <td class="ctrr">180</td> + <td class="ctrr">280</td> + <td class="rightr">45</td> + <td class="rightr">76</td> + <td class="ctrr"><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1889</td> + <td class="ctrr">45</td> + <td class="ctrr">167</td> + <td class="ctrr">236</td> + <td class="rightr">4</td> + <td class="rightr">69</td> + <td class="ctrr"><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></td> + <td class="ctrr">461</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1890</td> + <td class="ctrr">48</td> + <td class="ctrr">152</td> + <td class="ctrr">253</td> + <td class="rightr">72</td> + <td class="rightr">210</td> + <td class="ctrr"><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1891</td> + <td class="ctrr">50</td> + <td class="ctrr">226</td> + <td class="ctrr">300</td> + <td class="rightr">15</td> + <td class="rightr">156</td> + <td class="ctrr"><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1892</td> + <td class="ctrr">60</td> + <td class="ctrr">289</td> + <td class="ctrr">445</td> + <td class="rightr">11</td> + <td class="rightr">190</td> + <td class="ctrr"><a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1893</td> + <td class="ctrr">68</td> + <td class="ctrr">563</td> + <td class="ctrr">833</td> + <td class="rightr">108</td> + <td class="rightr">313</td> + <td class="ctrr">46</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1894</td> + <td class="ctrr">64</td> + <td class="ctrr">494</td> + <td class="ctrr">625</td> + <td class="rightr">125</td> + <td class="rightr">188</td> + <td class="ctrr">62</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1895</td> + <td class="ctrr">66</td> + <td class="ctrr">434</td> + <td class="ctrr">604</td> + <td class="rightr">158</td> + <td class="rightr">140</td> + <td class="ctrr">32</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">64</td> + <td class="ctrr">488</td> + <td class="ctrr">632</td> + <td class="rightr">34</td> + <td class="rightr">200</td> + <td class="ctrr">38</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">67</td> + <td class="ctrr">433</td> + <td class="ctrr">521</td> + <td class="rightr">39</td> + <td class="rightr">284</td> + <td class="ctrr">38</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">73</td> + <td class="ctrr">556</td> + <td class="ctrr">634</td> + <td class="rightr">22</td> + <td class="rightr">161</td> + <td class="ctrr">39</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrb">67</td> + <td class="ctrrb">534</td> + <td class="ctrrb">634</td> + <td class="rightrb">69</td> + <td class="rightrb">253</td> + <td class="ctrrb">30</td> + <td class="ctrrb"></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>As time goes on the value of these returns will no doubt be enhanced. +At present veterinary opinion rather suggests that too absolute +reliance must not be placed upon the figures given. It may be taken +for granted, however, that the system of reporting outbreaks has led +to increased attention being devoted to anthrax in animals, and to an +appreciation of the fact that the disease is more prevalent in Great +Britain than had been supposed. The particulars collected, moreover, +show that those counties in which foreign animal products, hides, +hair, wool, etc., are manipulated, are specially prone to suffer from +outbreaks of anthrax in animals. It may be mentioned that an inquiry +was made a few years ago by Dr Ravenal of Pennsylvania as to the +influence of tanneries in spreading anthrax among cattle feeding on +pastures watered by streams contaminated by tannery refuse. The result +of this inquiry is given by Dr Legge in a report, which appears in the +Annual Report for 1899 (p. 325) of the Chief Inspector of Factories.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_625">[625]</span> +It seems that in 1897, 12 men and 60 head of cattle died of anthrax +near tanneries in the State of Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p>Of the prevalence of anthrax in other parts of the world, it is +difficult at the present time to obtain precise knowledge. In some +parts of Europe (France, Germany, Russia, and Italy) the malady appears +to be more prevalent than it is in this country; the same remark may +perhaps be said to hold good for Persia, India, Siberia, China, and +parts of Africa, and North and South America. It is stated that in the +district of Novgorod, Russia, in the four years 1867–70, 56,000 horses, +cattle, and sheep perished from anthrax.</p> + +<p><i>Outbreaks Recorded during Recent Years.</i>—During the last +twenty-five years several detailed reports on outbreaks of anthrax in +man, attributed to the handling of particular raw animal products, +have been made. Thus Dr Russell, in 1878, published the history of +an outbreak of this kind, which was attributed to the manipulation +of “raw Russian manes” in certain horsehair factories in Glasgow. In +his report (appended to the Annual Report of the Medical Officer of +the Local Government Board for 1878) Dr Russell discusses certain +previously recorded instances of anthrax in association with horsehair +manipulation in Paris, Metz, Leipzig, and Massachusetts. From 1878 +to 1899 no further cases of the disease were noted in workers in the +horsehair industry in Glasgow; in 1900, however, three such cases were +reported, and similar cases have been observed in several instances in +London (<i>vide</i> Annual Reports of the Medical Officer of Health +of the County of London and of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories). +Outbreaks on a more extensive scale have been reported in Germany +(<i>vide</i> Report of Dr Kubler in <i>Arbeiten a. d. Kaiserlichen +Gesundheitsamte</i>, 15 Band, 3 Heft, 1899). It may be noted that raw +Russian and China manes have fallen especially under suspicion in +connection with several of the recorded outbreaks, and these kinds of +raw material seem particularly prone to be contaminated with dirt, and +when combed or “willeyed,” to give rise to dust, which it is presumed +is the medium by which infection is conveyed to workers in horsehair.</p> + +<p>At about the time when the publication of Dr Russell’s report drew +attention to horsehair, the question of wool-sorters’ disease +(<i>vide</i> Anthrax—its relation to the Wool Industry) also came +to the fore. Again, in 1882–83, Mr Spear, on behalf of the Local +Government Board, carefully investigated the circumstances of an +outbreak of anthrax in connection with the hide and skin industry in +London, affecting persons who had manipulated certain bales<span class="pagenum" id="Page_626">[626]</span> of hides +from China, either at the warehouse in which they were in the first +instance stored, or subsequently at the tannery to which they were +conveyed and in which they underwent the process of conversion into +leather. Mr Spear published, in an appendix to his report, a table +giving particulars as to cases of anthrax which he had traced as having +occurred in London between 1873 and 1883. This table was subsequently +extended, and further cases have been recorded from time to time in +the Annual Reports of the Medical Officer of Health of the County +of London. These reports show that between 1873 and 1896 there were +recognised, in the metropolis and its neighbourhood, in all 148 cases +of the disease. Of these:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">108 occurred among persons engaged in the hide and skin trade; +5 occurred among persons engaged in slaughtering animals; 18 +occurred among persons engaged in the manipulation of horsehair, +or in the manufacture of brushes; 1 occurred in a person +employed in a bacteriological laboratory; finally, 16 occurred +under circumstances in which the source of infection was not +traceable.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Anthrax Notification.</i>—Sect. 29 of the Factory and Workshop Act +of 1895 made notification of a case of anthrax occurring in a factory +or workshop compulsory, and under this section there have, during +recent years, been notified the following cases:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">In 1896, 13 cases.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">In 1897, 23 cases, including 14 in connection with hides and +skins and 9 in connection with wool.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">In 1898, 28 cases, including 8 in connection with hides and +skins; 16 in connection with wool; 3 in connection with +horsehair; and 1 in connection with other industries.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">In 1899, 55 cases, including 16 in connection with hides and +skins; 18 in connection with wool; 17 in connection with +horsehair; and 4 in connection with other industries.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">In 1900, 37 cases, including 9 in connection with hides and +skins; 9 in connection with wool; 12 in connection with +horsehair; and 7 in connection with other industries.</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1897 an important report by a Departmental Committee appointed +by the Home Office to inquire into the “Conditions of Work in +Wool-sorting and other Kindred Trades” was issued. In this report +existing knowledge concerning the subject was summarised and special +consideration was devoted to the discussion of possible preventive +measures. Dr Whitelegge, now H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories, was +one of the members of this Committee, and since his appointment to his +present office he has, in his annual reports,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_627">[627]</span> published a summary +of the facts ascertained with regard to anthrax in each year since +1897. Dr Whitelegge’s more recent reports contain also the results of +the inquiries made by Dr Legge, the Medical Inspector of Factories. +This series of Home Office reports is from year to year, adding +materially to our knowledge of the disease and the methods which may be +advantageously used in checking its prevalence. In Germany, moreover, +the reports of the Imperial Health Office have of late years contained +frequent references to the subject, and a new era may thus be said to +have commenced as regards the study of the malady in its relation to +industry.</p> + +<p>Having regard to the recent introduction of compulsory notification, +and to the larger measure of importance which is attached to anthrax, +it is now unlikely that cases of the disease will escape notice, as +they have doubtless in some instances done in the past, and as more +and more complete records of the circumstances of anthrax outbreaks +are obtained, there seems reason for hoping that it may be possible to +obtain fuller knowledge concerning the history and antecedents of the +material which has conveyed infection. If this proves to be the case, +preventive measures may be thus greatly facilitated.</p> + +<p><i>Grouping of Anthrax Cases.</i>—That investigation of this kind +may prove of importance seems clear from the evidence of grouping of +cases which has been forthcoming, even from such inquiry as it was +possible to make in past years, and in the absence of the more precise +information which compulsory notification may, in future, be expected +to afford. The following instances observed in the metropolis and its +neighbourhood may be referred to in illustration of this point.</p> + +<p>(1) In the year 1895 a number of cases of anthrax occurred among +persons employed in manipulating horsehair and in brushmaking. Thus +three cases occurred in Southwark, and in each instance the persons +attacked had manipulated horsehair, in connection, however, with +the establishments of three different brushmakers. A fourth case +occurred in a dresser of horsehair employed in St Luke’s. Two cases in +Shoreditch appeared to be traceable to a brushmaker’s at Tottenham, +and it was found, on making inquiry there, that two other cases had +occurred among employés at this particular workplace. Two further +cases occurred in East London affecting men who worked with horsehair +at a bass and fibre dresser’s in Mile End Old Town. In all, ten +cases occurred between May and December 1895,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_628">[628]</span> in association with +the manipulation of horsehair. The facts as to the distribution of +horsehair to the various establishments concerned could not be fully +ascertained; so far as the question could be followed up, it appeared +quite possible that some particular consignment of horsehair had been +handled by all the affected workers, and that this consignment had done +all the mischief. Having regard to the distribution of the cases in +time such an hypothesis seemed a likely one.</p> + +<p>(2) On the last day of January and the first four days of February +1896, six men were admitted to Guy’s Hospital suffering from malignant +pustule. Five of the men had recently been engaged in manipulating +goatskins at a leather-dressing establishment, and the sixth man was +employed at a warehouse from which goatskins had been supplied to this +establishment. Every facility was given by the firm employing the +five men with a view to enabling the particular consignment of skins +implicated to be traced, but it was not found possible to ascertain +all the facts with regard to these skins. There was, however, evidence +pointing to two conclusions respecting them. In the first place, some +of them were “sea damaged,” and secondly, they were brought to England +by a vessel which had touched at certain Mediterranean ports.</p> + +<p>On investigation of previous occurrences of anthrax in London it was +found that a case had occurred in December 1895, the patient being a +man employed in a tanyard. This man had on 29th November and succeeding +days handled goatskins, which, inasmuch as they were a salvage lot from +a ship on which a fire had broken out, had “been sold cheap.” Some of +these goatskins which were described as “sea damaged,” were regarded as +unfit for treatment, and were sent away; the others were converted into +leather. The ship by which they were brought to this country had come +from the Mediterranean. Again, a dock labourer who had unloaded goods, +among which were goatskins, in St Katherine’s Dock during the first +week of December, developed on 7th December a malignant pustule. The +skins concerned possibly came from the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>Thus within a period of a few weeks three distinct occurrences of +anthrax had been observed in London, apparently attributable to one +common cause, the manipulation of goatskins. On the information to +hand, the three consignments of goatskins could not be traced to one +and the same source—indeed a distinct ship was apparently implicated +in each instance, the only feature in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_629">[629]</span> common being that two of these +vessels were definitely stated to have come, and the third may have +come, from the Mediterranean. It was further noteworthy that several +cases of anthrax had occurred in recent years at the wharf from which +one of the consignments referred to above had been supplied. Thus a +case occurred at this wharf in September 1893, another in March 1894, +and in each of these cases the man who was attacked had manipulated +goatskins. In September 1894 another man working at this wharf was +attacked; there was, however, no information as to goatskins in this +instance. Again, in October 1895, two cases occurred in men who had +manipulated goatskins at the same wharf.</p> + +<p>This series of events is suggestive of one or other of two +explanations. Either the wharf may have been supplied from time to +time with infected goatskins, and in that case the possibility of some +particular anthrax-infected locality being the source of supply and +the cause of all the trouble naturally suggests itself; or the wharf +premises, having themselves become infected, may have served as a +means of re-infecting from time to time batches of skins. The former +hypothesis seems to best fit in with the facts. That premises may, +however, at times become infected and again convey infection at a later +period seems not improbable. Such was indeed proved to be the case +by Professor Boyce (<i>vide</i> Annual Report of the Medical Officer +of Health of Liverpool for 1899). It may be noted in this connection +with regard to the five cases of anthrax mentioned above, as having +occurred in January and February of 1896, that three further cases +developed which may possibly have been attributable to the same source +of infection. Two of the cases occurred in persons who may have been +brought in contact with the skins implicated in January and February; +a third case was that of a man who had worked at the leather-dressing +establishment, and on a part of the premises in which the skins +implicated in the earlier part of the year had been placed.</p> + +<p><i>Grouping of Cases considered in Relation to Preventive +Measures.</i>—The occurrence of such groups of cases as those above +referred to merely repeats the experience of Glasgow in 1878, when +Russian manes were at fault, and that of Bermondsey in 1882, when +certain Shanghai hides fell under suspicion. If careful inquiry were +made concerning every case of anthrax, it appears not improbable that +all the cases occurring during a series of years could be referred to a +very limited number of consignments of raw material, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_630">[630]</span> if the origin +of the goods were followed up in each instance, it might be found that +a considerable check could be placed upon the introduction of infected +raw products into this country. In some cases workmen have been led to +suspect that they were incurring special risk from something unusual +in the appearance of the hides, skins, or horsehair, with which they +were dealing. It has been already said that the hides suspected in +the historic outbreak in Bermondsey in 1882 came from Shanghai; a +considerable number of these were ascertained to have been “light,” +“dirty,” “stale,” and “much tainted,” “many were in fact ‘dead’ hides,” +<i>i.e.</i> those of animals that had not been slaughtered, but had +died, possibly, of course, of anthrax. In a particular instance, in +connection with a more recent occurrence of a case of the disease in +question in London, it was found that a small quantity of suspected +material had been retained at the broker’s warehouse, the bulk of the +consignment, of which the said material formed a portion, being sent +abroad. The small quantity in question, which consisted of scabbed +and worthless skins, was handed over, at the request of the Medical +Officer of Health in whose district the warehouse was situated, to +be destroyed; but that officer had no opportunity afforded him of +examining the bales which were not disposed of in London. There can +be no doubt that there would be less likelihood of suspected material +being placed upon the market, if it were definitely realised that the +source of infection would be traced in all cases of anthrax which +occur. Veterinary experts in this country have long insisted that “no +attempt should be made to utilise any part of the carcase of an animal +which has died of anthrax”; and M. Chauveau, in a paper read before +the seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demography in 1891, +argued that only by convincing those concerned with the disposal of +raw material, to which suspicion attaches, that to destroy it is the +only course open to them in order to safeguard their own interests, +will it be practicable to exercise any really efficacious check upon +production of disease. M. Chauveau urged that effort should be made to +cause this fact to be generally appreciated, and he added, “L’effet de +cette propagande devrait être renforcé par une bonne organisation des +services de surveillance sanitaire, et par une application sévère des +pénalités contre les délinquants.”</p> + +<p>Mr Spear, in his report in 1883, referred to the possibility of “the +establishment of an organisation by which this country may be warned of +the existence of the disease among cattle,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_631">[631]</span> with a view to prohibiting +the import of suspected hides. He pointed out, moreover, that if the +practice of dealing separately with “dead” hides, from their first +shipment at the port of export, were to become established, such a +system would “result in the limitation of dangerous material mainly to +one class of goods, instead of its distribution throughout the entire +bulk.” These suggestions seemed, perhaps, when they were made, to be +“counsels of perfection,” but if the material conveying infection is +in the future traced in a growing proportion of cases, and if, armed +with knowledge of all cases of anthrax which occur, inquiry as to +the antecedents of implicated material is more and more sedulously +prosecuted, it seems probable that it will increasingly become the +practice of owners of diseased animals to destroy infected hides, +skins, hair, etc., instead of attempting to dispose of them.</p> + +<p>Against the prospect of diminution of risk from the growth of a desire +on the part of dealers in raw animal products to safeguard their own +interests, it may be urged that anthrax is so common a disease that +the wholesale destruction of the skins, hides, hair, etc., of infected +animals would mean great loss; that in many instances the existence +of diseased conditions cannot be detected; that even with the best +intentions on the part of the dealer much dangerous material must +necessarily be placed on the market; and that in any event all that +is needful in the case of suspected raw products is that they should +be adequately disinfected. Further experience will no doubt throw +more light on these questions, but the history of cases in London and +elsewhere, so far as it is known, suggests that the amount of dangerous +material exported to this country is very small in proportion to the +total bulk, and that, with the devotion of an increasing amount of +attention to the matter, it will become more and more usual for the +origin of consignments of such dangerous material to be traced. If this +should prove to be the case, it may be that the prevention of anthrax +infection will be worked out very much upon the lines indicated by M. +Chauveau.</p> + +<p><i>Disinfection and Other Measures of Precaution.</i>—As regards +disinfection it has been, until quite recently, assumed that exposure +to steam, or to reliable chemical disinfectants, was quite out of +the question. So far as the leather trade is concerned this doctrine +is still generally accepted, but, as regards the horsehair industry, +experiments have shown that disinfection is practicable under certain +conditions. It appears from a recent Report<span class="pagenum" id="Page_632">[632]</span> of the Medical Inspector +of Factories (Dr Legge), that in this country a steam disinfector +is in use in a particular establishment for dealing with mane hair +from Russia and China, and that in other establishments all mane +hair is boiled or dyed before being used for curling purposes. In +Germany careful experiments have been made with a view to determining +how disinfection can be carried out with a minimum of damage to raw +material, and an account of the results obtained is contained in the +<i>Arbeiten a. d. Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte</i>, 15 Band, 5 Heft, +1899. The principal conclusion would appear to be that the pressure +under which the steam is allowed to enter the disinfecting chamber +should not exceed 0.15 atmosphere (2 to 3 lbs. to the square inch). +Higher pressures, such as are commonly in use in steam disinfectors in +this country, tend to make the ends of the hair (especially of long +tail hair used for weaving purposes) brittle. A further objection +to steam is the yellow colour which it imparts to white hair. As +the outcome of these experiments, special rules dealing with the +disinfection of foreign horsehair and pigs’ bristles were formulated, +and came into force throughout Germany in 1899. A report as to their +operation appeared in 1901 (<i>loc. cit.</i>, 18 Band, 1 Heft).</p> + +<p>The use of steam disinfection in the horsehair industry may, +therefore, become considerably extended. Dr Legge points out, however, +that reliance must not be placed upon such disinfection as at +present practised for dealing with “unopened bales, especially when +hydraulically pressed.” The fact noted by Dr Legge that, in September +1899, “the principal horsehair manufacturers, at a meeting held in +London, passed unanimously a resolution binding themselves from that +date to buy no Russian, Siberian, or Chinese undyed mane hair, until +satisfactory guarantees had been given by the sellers that the hair has +been thoroughly disinfected,” is a significant one. Further, reference +may be made to a circular letter, addressed to occupiers of horsehair +works by H.M. Chief inspector of Factories, which deals with means of +diminishing risk of anthrax in the industry in question (<i>vide</i> +Annual Report of the Chief Inspector for 1900).</p> + +<p>In connection with hides, Mr Spear first pointed out the desirability +of studying, in relation to the process of curing, the question of +the possibility of favouring the destruction of morbific germs. “It +might,” he said, “be possible so to treat the skins by a preliminary +process, as to cause any attached spores to germinate into the easily +destructible rods.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_633">[633]</span></p> + +<p>Anthrax appears to be rarely, if ever, conveyed by wet hides, and there +is, therefore, some prospect that the increasing adoption of the “wet,” +as opposed to the “dry,” cure may prove an important means of obviating +the spread of infection. The dry cure is said to stand condemned from +the point of view of producing good leather, but, in places where +difficulty of transport makes weight an important consideration, it is +still largely adopted. As long ago as 1894, a writer in the <i>Leather +Trades Circular and Review</i> urged the merchants engaged in the China +trade to “establish saladeros (as has been done in South America), +where all green hides shall, after slaughtering, go through a proper +system of brining, or arsenic curing, or salting, by which the pelt +will be preserved.” Arsenic curing, it may, however, be noted, might +become a source of danger. Experiments made with a view to determining +whether chemical disinfection of hides can be effected in a practicable +manner are being carried out in this country at the present time.</p> + +<p>Pending the growth of knowledge as to sources of anthrax infection, and +increase in appreciation of the desirability of destroying infected +goods, something can be done by advocating cleanliness and enforcing +the provision of washing appliances, and by urging the great importance +of alertness as regards detecting the disease at the outset, with a +view to obtaining proper advice during the earliest stages of the +malady. In the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for +1899 the special rules issued in 1899, and established in eighty-eight +works, are published <i>in extenso</i>. These rules define both the +duties of the occupier and the duties of persons employed. In 1899, +too, it was decided by the Home Office authorities to give facilities +for bacteriological examination, with a view to the verification +of doubtful cases of anthrax, and medical practitioners, on making +application to the Medical Inspector of Factories at the Home Office, +are now enabled to satisfactorily clear up the diagnosis in doubtful +cases. This in itself constitutes an important step in advance, and is +an indication of the growing amount of attention that is likely to be +accorded to anthrax prevention in the near future.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">W. H. Hamer.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_634">[634]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLIII<br> +<span class="subhed">ANTHRAX—ITS RELATION TO THE WOOL INDUSTRY</span></h2></div> + + +<p>Wool has been woven into the industrial history of the world, and has +been an important factor in the progress of nations from savagery to +civilisation. In all ages, “flocks and herds” have represented peace +and prosperity, and only within recent years has it become known that +the fleeces, hides, flesh, and other products of animals which die from +anthrax sometimes convey the disease to man.</p> + +<p>The word “wool” in its technical meaning comprises sheep or lamb’s +wool, goat’s wool or hair (mohair), camel’s wool or hair, alpaca, and +other allied textile fibres. The quantities and origins of these for +manufacturing purposes in the year 1900 were nearly as follow, in +million pounds weight:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr">From</td> + <td class="cht">the United Kingdom</td> + <td class="right">141</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht">British Possessions</td> + <td class="right">448</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht">Foreign Countries</td> + <td class="right">105</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht">    „    Mohair</td> + <td class="right">22</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht">    „    Alpaca</td> + <td class="rightb">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + <td class="cht"></td> + <td class="right">722</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht" colspan="2">Exported in the “raw” state</td> + <td class="rightb">220</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht" colspan="2">Balance for home use</td> + <td class="rightbd">502</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The “clip” of wool of the United Kingdom is practically what it +was fifty years ago. The total imports of wool, goat’s hair, and +alpaca, have increased fourfold during the same period. This increase +represents the growth of the wool industry in the West Riding, there +having been little increase in other parts of the Kingdom. It is +probable that “three-fourths of all the wool used in this country is +consumed within a radius of fifteen miles from Bradford.” The longer +and finer combing wools, including almost all the mohair and alpaca, +are manufactured into “worsteds”—stuffs—for which Bradford is the +commercial centre. The shorter and coarser felting wools are made into +“woollens”—cloths—of which Leeds and Huddersfield are the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_635">[635]</span> most +important producers; others are used at Halifax and Kidderminster for +carpets, and also at Leicester for hosiery.</p> + +<p>Previous to 1837, when alpaca and mohair were imported from Peru and +Asia Minor respectively for use as textile fibres, no specific disease +had been associated with wool. Ten years afterwards, owing to recurring +deaths of sorters, a suspicion arose that these materials were in some +way or other the cause of the peculiar, rapid, and fatal illness which +became known as “wool-sorter’s disease.” When these sudden deaths +followed each other at several months’ interval they did not attract +much attention, but when sorters died within a few weeks from a similar +and unusual disease, the workpeople became alarmed, and their fears +were increased when no reasonable explanation could be given as to +the nature of the illness, its prevention or its cure. In the hope +of solving the mystery, many <i>post-mortem</i> examinations of the +bodies of wool-sorters were made by leading medical men in the large +towns of the West-Riding, and the suspected materials and dust arising +from these were submitted to experts for microscopical examination and +chemical analysis. These investigations and reports extended over more +than thirty years without arriving at a satisfactory explanation. In +1877 a case of this disease came under the writer’s observation; the +man was apparently well in the morning on leaving home for work, and +died seventeen hours after the first feeling of illness. It was evident +that this fatal collapse without pain or distress was not from any +well-known disease. In 1879, when visiting such a patient—who died +twelve hours afterwards—he took some blood from the arm, and within +a few minutes two or three drops of it were injected under the lumbar +skin of a rabbit, a guinea-pig, and a mouse respectively. The animals +died within sixty hours, and the blood of each showed the presence +of bacilli. Another animal was inoculated with the blood from one of +these, and it died in a shorter time. The fluids from this animal were +found to be crowded with the <i>bacillus anthracis</i>, and the disease +was recognised to be anthrax. (<i>Lancet</i>, vol. ii., 1879, pp. 920, +959.)</p> + +<p>Anthrax is a contagious disease, and of the widest distribution. +It readily attacks most wool-bearing animals, and is found in all +countries, being very prevalent on the Continent of Europe, in Asia, +South Africa, and South America, and occurring less commonly in the +United Kingdom, North Africa, North America, and Australasia. The +incidence of anthrax among animals in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_636">[636]</span> Great Britain varies very +much, some counties having no outbreak year after year, while from +others it is never absent. It is most prevalent in the West-Riding, +and the counties of Leicester, Northampton, and Norfolk, in all of +which foreign wool, hair, hides, or other animal products are used +in industrial processes. The number of sheep and lambs in Great +Britain in 1900 was 28,000,000, and the number reported to the Board +of Agriculture to have died from anthrax during the year was 40. +For 1899 the number of deaths was 69. The risk of infection from +home-grown and colonial wools is so slight that it may be disregarded. +The most noxious wools are those from foreign countries where anthrax +is prevalent, the wool being dry, dusty, of low quality, and having +very little “yolk.” (Yolk is a peculiar unctuous substance, chiefly +consisting of a potash soap which pervades the wool and protects the +animal from the effects of rain and cold; it also nourishes the wool, +rendering it soft, oily, and pliable.) It is equal in weight to 7 or 8 +per cent. of the “raw” fleece. Alpaca, mohair, camel’s hair, Persian, +and inferior dry Eastern wools have very little yolk, and are dangerous +to handle if they contain “fallen fleeces.” The greater amount of yolk +or grease in South American and other foreign wools appears to fix the +anthrax spores, and renders the wool almost innocuous to the sorters.</p> + +<p>The essential cause of anthrax is a micro-organism, the <i>Bacillus +anthracis</i>, the spores of which can only produce their specific +effect when they gain access to the circulating blood by way of the +skin, the lungs, or the stomach; hence there are three types of the +disease: the cutaneous, the pulmonary, and the intestinal.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Cutaneous Anthrax.</i>—This presents two varieties, viz., +malignant pustule and erysipelatous anthrax. The malignant pustule was +first noticed in England in 1854, and recorded in 1863. It must have +occurred frequently in the Bradford Worsted District for more than +thirty years before it was diagnosed as anthrax in 1880. This form of +cutaneous anthrax in wool-workers is very much the same as that which +appears in hide-dressers and others.</p> + +<p><i>Erysipelatous anthrax</i>, of which <i>œdematous anthrax</i> is a +milder manifestation, has, until recently, escaped recognition in this +country. It was first noticed by Bourgeois in Provence, France, in +1834, and his observations were published in 1843. He wrote afterwards +a very complete account of it in his book on <i>La<span class="pagenum" id="Page_637">[637]</span> Pustule Maligne et +L’Œdème Malin</i>, 1861. Subsequent writers have been almost entirely +indebted to this author for their statements.</p> + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—Bourgeois says: “It begins as a pale swelling, +soft and without pain. It is only after several days, and when more +fully developed, that vesicles and eschars form, notably on the +eyelids, but at the onset the skin is smooth and has no trace of +a pimple.” The local symptoms are the extensive œdema, in slight +cases, without redness, vesication, or eschar; in severe cases, with +redness, vesication, and a gangrenous appearance of the skin. The +general symptoms are of a negative character; there may be no pain, no +distress, and no fever. Even in fatal cases these are not very marked.</p> + +<p><i>Diagnosis.</i>—The appearance of the patient is so like that +of one with ordinary erysipelas that the differences might easily +be overlooked, were it not that there is so little constitutional +disturbance. The absence of injury, pain, and fever will distinguish +it from acute emphysematous gangrene. The only proof, however, is +the finding of the characteristic bacillus in the blood or fluids by +cultures and physiological tests.</p> + +<p><i>Prognosis.</i>—This form of anthrax is stated to be much more fatal +than malignant pustule; of seven cases seen by the writer, three were +fatal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Case.</span>—J. G., æt. 29, a willower of low class wools, had +been ailing several days when visited on 12th March 1899. The right +upper eyelid was greatly swollen, red, and hard, there were several +vesicles, nearly the size of kidney beans, which contained a clear +gelatinous, straw-coloured serum; pulse 88, temperature 100.5°. March +13th, neither eye could be opened, the right ear was doubled on itself, +the scalp pitted on pressure, and he was slightly delirious; pulse +76, temperature 101.8°. March 14th, other vesicles on the cheek, much +swelling of submaxillary glands and neck; pulse 88, temperature 101.8°. +After a few days, black eschars appeared on the eyelids, the swelling +subsided, and he was convalescent. March 17th, pulse 72, temperature +98.9°. Serum taken on 12th March for cultivation yielded positive +results.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Pulmonary Anthrax.</i>—“Wool-sorters’ Disease.”—From the year +1846, when this disease was first noticed in the neighbourhood of +Bradford, to 1877, it had not been known to attack other persons than +the sorters of alpaca and mohair. In subsequent years it was found that +camel’s hair, Persian, and other dry, dusty, low class foreign wools, +were also infective; and further, that any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_638">[638]</span> person might be attacked if +exposed to the inhalation of anthrax spores in dust arising from the +products of dead animals.</p> + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—The absence of troublesome symptoms is very +remarkable. There may be no rigor, pain, cough, vomiting, purging, or +other distressful conditions. Even when dying, the patient may not +feel particularly ill. In ordinary cases, at the commencement, there +is a chilliness or slight shivering, the tongue is moist and thinly +coated, thirst is present, and the appetite indifferent, with some +nausea and uneasiness at the stomach; vomiting is common (if this is +only at the commencement it is not of much moment, but if persistent or +commencing after two or three days it is of serious import, indicating +the extension of the disease to the stomach and bowels.) The lungs are +always affected, although sometimes only slightly. Nearly all patients +have a feeling of tightness, weight, and oppression about the chest, +which embarrasses the breathing. Cough is generally present, but never +very troublesome; in one-third of the cases it was absent, or very +slight. In most there is no expectoration, but in mixed cases, which +continue over five days, there is some, which is occasionally rusty +coloured. The purer the infection, however, the less likely is there +to be any pneumonia. There is a dusky, leaden hue, with coldness of +face, ears, and fingers in the collapse stage. Percussion sounds are +generally clear; occasionally there is some dulness, mostly at the +base of the right lung; the respiratory sounds are feeble and almost +inaudible on this side, with some sibilant sounds; moist bronchial +râles may be present later on, but rarely crepitations. In cases where +no dulness on percussion was detected a few hours before death, not +unfrequently a considerable quantity of fluid has been found in the +pleural spaces at the <i>post-mortem</i> examination. In the early +stage the pulse may not differ from the normal as regards frequency; +later it is small, feeble, irregular, uncountable, and out of keeping +with the apparent slight character of the illness. The heart’s sounds +are also very weak and may be inaudible. In most cases the mind keeps +clear to the end; in some with cerebral lesions, there are struggling, +convulsions, and coma. The skin is always moist and often bathed with +perspiration. The temperature seldom reaches 103°; when more than +this, the infection is mixed, causing septic pneumonia. Generally the +temperature is from 3° to 5° higher in the rectum than in the axilla. +As the illness advances, the temperature falls. The urine is scanty +and high-coloured. In one case the sp. gr. was 1040. In several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_639">[639]</span> cases +albumin was found, in one equal to two-thirds of the quantity of urine +in the test-tube. Sugar is also occasionally present.</p> + +<p>The cases clinically arrange themselves into three classes: (1) Rapid, +in which death takes place within two days, from collapse without any +reaction. (2) Ordinary, in which the initial depression is followed +by reaction and death within four days. (3) Prolonged cases, in which +there is pneumonia from mixed infection, and death after the fourth day.</p> + +<p><i>Duration of Illness.</i>—Number of cases fatal within—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr2">1 day</td> + <td class="ctr2">2 days</td> + <td class="ctr2">3 days</td> + <td class="ctr2">4 days</td> + <td class="ctr2">5 days</td> + <td class="ctr2">10 days</td> + <td class="ctr2">over 10 days</td> + <td class="ctr2">Total</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr2">5</td> + <td class="ctr2">19</td> + <td class="ctr2">19</td> + <td class="ctr2">16</td> + <td class="ctr2">7</td> + <td class="ctr2">7</td> + <td class="ctr2">2</td> + <td class="ctr2">75</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Diagnosis.</i>—In a rapid case this is easy; the patient when first +visited is seen to be dying from continued uncomplicated collapse, +which if there has been exposure to infection should not be mistaken +for any other disease. In ordinary cases during the first two days +diagnosis is impossible, the symptoms are not severe, and are such as +are met with in common ailments; it is only when the illness becomes +more pronounced by the patient’s strength and his heart failing without +other sufficient reason that a diagnosis may be made. In prolonged +cases the uncertainty is still greater; the pleuritic and pneumonic +conditions mask the purely anthrax symptoms so much, that it is only by +a <i>post-mortem</i> examination that the true nature of the illness +can be known.</p> + +<p><i>Prognosis.</i>—In all cases this is unfavourable; symptoms are +unreliable; what appears to be nothing more than ordinary catarrh +in a person who has been exposed to anthrax infection may suddenly +terminate fatally from heart failure. In the more prolonged cases, +which are mixed with septic pneumonia, death may occur unexpectedly. It +is probable that many cases of pulmonary infection recover; such cases +have been reported, but in none has the diagnosis been confirmed by +exact experimental methods.</p> + +<p><i>Incubation.</i>—The period of incubation is uncertain. The exact +time of infection cannot be fixed as in cases of traumatic cutaneous +anthrax. No case of pulmonary anthrax has been recorded which was due +to only one exposure to infection. Sorters of noxious materials may +work exposed to the risk of infection almost daily for years without +any noticeable effect from it. It is only when the virus gains access +to the blood stream through some accidentally open gateway that serious +illness follows. Judging from what takes place in cutaneous cases +we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_640">[640]</span> may presume that when the spores pass the respiratory epithelial +barrier they will produce some local specific effect within twenty-four +hours. Infective material may be present on the skin or the mucous +membranes several days before it gains access to the blood and produces +any noticeable effect.</p> + +<p><i>Pathological Changes: External.</i>—The appearance of the body +twenty-four hours after death varies considerably. The discoloration +of decomposition appears very soon, attended with more than the usual +lividity, which is not confined to the posterior surface of the body. +The face is sometimes very much swollen and discoloured. The cellular +tissue of the neck and upper part of the chest may be distended, +gangrenous-looking, and emphysematous. In many cases the cause of +death may be surmised from the external appearance of the body alone; +in other cases there is no unusual discoloration excepting that the +tips of the fingers are cyanosed. Between these two conditions there +is every gradation of external appearances. <i>Internal.</i>—On +cutting the skin of the chest where it is much discoloured serum and +air bubbles escape. The muscles are dark coloured. On removing the +sternum the cellular tissue beneath is sometimes emphysematous; more +frequently there is much gelatinous œdema and occasionally it has been +seen infiltrated with blood. The pleural spaces almost invariably +contain a large quantity of clear straw-coloured serum, generally more +on the right side. Gelatinous infiltration under the serous covering of +the lungs and between the lobes may be one inch in thickness without +any plastic inflammatory exudation. On section the lungs are seen +to be engorged with dark-coloured blood, some portions being more +solid than others, and of a blacker red colour. It is not uncommon to +find infarcts of blood in the parenchyma of the lungs, and these in +prolonged cases may have broken down and become purulent. The bronchial +glands are enlarged, and more so on the right side; the mass may be +the size of a hen’s egg. The trachea and bronchial tubes contain +frothy blood-stained mucus; the mucous membrane is claret-coloured +and swollen, and beneath it are frequently small infarcts of blood. +The connective tissue at the root of the lungs and base of the heart +is sometimes œdematous and extensively infiltrated with blood. The +pericardium, epicardium, and endocardium frequently show subserous +petechial spots, and the pericardial fluid may be increased to five +or six ounces. The blood is nearly always fluid and of a dark, almost +black colour. The heart may be empty or contain fluid blood in all its +cavities. The colour<span class="pagenum" id="Page_641">[641]</span> of its lining membrane varies from a pale cherry +red to dark chocolate. The abdomen does not contain much fluid unless +the intestines have been involved, when the quantity may be from two to +four pints. The gelatinous œdema is sometimes very considerable in the +mesentery and the cellular tissue surrounding the kidneys. Extravasated +blood in small or large quantities is also seen in a few cases in the +mesentery or in the connective tissue around the kidneys. The stomach +and intestines frequently show numerous patches of extravasated +blood; if these are considerable in size they are seen on both the +mucous and serous surfaces. The spleen, like all other organs in this +disease, varies very much. It is generally larger than natural, but +not unfrequently it is unaltered in size and appearance. The liver +and kidneys are less frequently affected than other organs. The brain +is occasionally completely surrounded by blood extravasated between +the membranes. Small infarcts are sometimes seen in the cerebral +substance. The characteristic changes are: 1. The discoloration of the +skin, especially about the neck and upper part of the chest. 2. The +gelatinous œdema under the sternum, about the base of the heart, in +the mesentery, the omentum, and the adipose tissue around the kidneys. +3. The extravasations of blood, which may be extensive, in the chest, +the abdomen, or the head, with smaller hæmorrhagic areas and petechial +infarcts in any organ or any part of the body. 4. The serous effusions +into the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum. 5. The dark colour and +fluid condition of the blood. Many coarse changes are present in every +case, but no single lesion is found in all cases. There may be no +unusual discoloration of the skin, no gelatinous œdema, no large or +numerous small extravasations of blood, or even serous effusions, but +one or more of these in various degrees is always present.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Intestinal Anthrax.</i>—Only one case of primary intestinal +anthrax has been observed in wool-workers, and that recently. A +wool-sorter, aged 29, on leaving work felt weak and as if he had a +lump at the stomach. The following day he was sick and restless; on +the third day the pulse was 86, temperature 99.2°; on the fourth day +brown-coloured blood was vomited, and several tar-like stools were +passed. Thirteen hours before death he was in a collapsed condition; +pulse 112, small and almost uncountable; respiration 26. The lungs were +not involved. Duration of illness, 4½ days.</p> + +<p><i>Distribution of the Bacilli.</i>—These are found in the swollen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_642">[642]</span> +mucous membrane of the trachea and larger bronchi, being most numerous +in the neighbourhood of small hæmorrhages, and only a few in the lung +tissue. The gelatinous serum never contains large numbers. The serum +from the chest and abdomen, being a pure cultivation fluid, generally +contains large numbers of bacilli of shorter or longer lengths. Bacilli +are very unequally distributed throughout the body; they may not be +found in the spleen, but in the fluids and tissues near pathological +lesions.</p> + +<p>Inoculations of rodents with blood taken from a patient twelve hours +before death does not always produce fatal anthrax, a result which is +inevitable if the blood be taken two or three hours before the event, +even if on microscopical examination it gives no evidence of containing +bacilli. Inoculations with gelatinous and pleural serum taken within +twenty-four hours after death may have no effect on rodents, but +generally they are fatal. All fluids and tissues which are fresh and +contain the characteristic bacilli give rise to anthrax when inoculated +into the blood stream of susceptible animals, but if not used for two +or three days this effect may not follow.</p> + +<p><i>Preventive Measures.</i>—Noxious wools of foreign origin sometimes +include “fallen fleeces,” which are easily recognised; these should be +picked out, classed apart, and disinfected by steam.</p> + +<p><i>The Precautionary Regulations</i> agreed upon at Bradford in 1884 +were adopted by the Home Office in 1899, and have the force of legal +enactments. They provide that bales of alpaca, pelitan, cashmere, +Persian and camel’s hair, shall be opened over a dust-extracting fan, +so arranged that the current of air shall draw the dust away from any +workman in the room. Badly-damaged wool or hair, van mohair, “fallen +fleeces,” and foreign skin wool shall be damped with a disinfectant, +and then washed without being put through any dust-extracting machine. +The dust collected by the willows or other dust-extracting machine from +the open boards—wire-work—shall not be discharged into the open air; +it shall be removed weekly and afterwards burnt. No person having any +open cut or sore upon any part of the body shall be allowed to attend +to any willow or dust-extracting machine. No bale of wool or hair shall +be stored in a dust-extracting room. Requisites for slight wounds shall +be kept at hand. Appliances for washing shall be provided for the +workers in the warehouse and dust-extracting rooms. No meals shall be +taken in the willowing or carding room. These regulations have had a +beneficial effect in reducing the number of cases of anthrax, but they +are not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_643">[643]</span> sufficient to eradicate the disease. If bales of noxious wool +or hair were placed in steamers, and submitted to a steam pressure of +six pounds to the square inch—230° F.—for a few hours, all bacteria +would be destroyed. Such a regulation should be enforced wherever +noxious wools or hairs are used in the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i>—It is to be regretted that in such a fatal disease +so little can be done in the way of treatment. The progress of the +illness is often so rapid that before a diagnosis can be determined the +patient is in a hopeless condition. If the patient is seen before any +signs of collapse are apparent, perhaps the inhalation of non-toxic +germicides in the form of spray, and the intravenous injections of +these may give the best chances of success. We may look forward with +confidence to the time when we shall be able to treat the disease more +successfully by antitoxines; hitherto these have been used only in +external cases.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">John Henry Bell.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_644">[644]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLIV<br> +<span class="subhed">RAGS AND THEIR PRODUCTS IN RELATION TO HEALTH</span></h2></div> + +<h3><i>Rag-Sorting, Rag-Grinding, Shoddy, Mungo, Flocks, Carbonising or +Wool-Extracting</i></h3> + + +<p>Rags may be roughly divided into two distinct kinds: (1) cotton and +linen rags; (2) woollen and partly woollen rags. The former are almost +entirely used by the paper-maker, the latter by the cloth manufacturer. +It is with the second section that I am here chiefly concerned. Rags, +as a matter of fact, seem to cause little or no infectious disease to +those who work among them, except in the case of cotton and linen rags +used in papermaking, which have been a frequent source of smallpox +infection. It may be stated that little or no infectious disease is +introduced among the workers by woollen rags. Woollen rags are of +two kinds: (1) soft rags, and (2) Mungo rags. Soft rags are largely +drawn from Scotland. Such rags as stockings, white flannels, stuffs, +carpets, etc., are included in the term “soft rags.” The “Mungo rag” +is of two sorts, the “old and the new”: the old, derived from coats, +vests, trousers, caps, etc., the “new” from clippings of army cloth, +and tailors’ shreds, etc. The wide world is laid under contribution by +the rag merchants. Walter White, in his <i>Month in Yorkshire</i>, says +of Batley:—“Hither were brought tatters from pediculous Poland, from +the gipsies of Hungary, from the peasants and scarecrows of Germany, +from the frowsy peasants of Muscovy, to say nothing of snips and +shreds of monks’ gowns and lawyers’ robes, from postillions’ jackets +and soldiers’ uniforms, from maidens’ bodices and noblemen’s cloaks. +A vast medley, truly, and all to be manufactured into broadcloth in +Yorkshire.” Sir George Head, in his <i>Home Tour</i>, also alludes to +Batley and the shoddy trade. This quotation gives one a good idea of +where rags come from. Rags are collected by travelling tinkers, etc., +and by marine store dealers, and by them transmitted to rag merchants, +who sort them out into different lots according as they are (1) soft, +and (2)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_645">[645]</span> Mungo rags. All linings and seams are removed by the sorters. +All rags are sorted over what is called a riddle, through which the +dust falls, at least a part of it. Rag sorters only sit down when +seaming.</p> + +<p><i>Effects of Rag-Sorting on Health.</i>—People who sort rags are +occasionally bronchitic and asthmatic from the dust which rises from +them, but I have seldom met with this condition in rag sorters, +although I have known individuals who had to wear respirators when +sorting. In the case of very dirty rags derived from dust heaps, rags +which have been exposed to rain in many cases, it is probable that +after drying, the dust would be of a septic character, and might induce +sore throat. Rags from surgical hospitals are decidedly dangerous. +Most persons who work as sorters are infested with fleas, which simply +swarm among the rags, especially the Mungo variety. Sorters are mostly +females, and they have sometimes to help to crane up bales of rags into +warehouses. This frequently produces prolapse of the womb and other +uterine displacements. It is certainly not suitable work for women. If +infection ever breaks out among rag-sorters, it generally attacks them +when a bale is first opened. It is a desideratum that all rags, whether +of foreign or home origin, should be subjected to disinfection by heat +before being opened, and this can be effectually accomplished, even in +the tightly packed bales from abroad. This would have the virtue of +destroying fleas, while disinfecting the bales.</p> + +<p><i>Rag-Grinding.</i>—This process is accomplished by means of a swift +which is really a drum, studded with sharp teeth, which are set very +close for grinding cloth, and more openly for the transformation of +soft rags, such as stockings, flannels, etc. These swifts perform six +or seven hundred revolutions per minute, and the rags are metamorphosed +into a soft, fluffy, woolly mass. Oil is largely used in this process. +This prevents dust.</p> + +<p>The dust which rises from rag machines consists of particles of wool +and also of filth adherent to the various kinds of rags. It is highly +irritating to all the respiratory passages, especially in those who are +novices at the trade, but older hands become inured to it, and tolerate +it well. A train of symptoms is developed, called “shoddy fever.” It is +accompanied by high fever, with nasal catarrh and frontal headache, and +a certain amount of bronchial catarrh. It is ushered in by shivering, +malaise, and general muscular pain. It is almost indistinguishable from +epidemic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_646">[646]</span> influenza, and if treated on similar lines, recovery is soon +secured. The only difference is, that the catarrhal symptoms are the +result of local irritation, and, consequently, when that is removed, +the febrile condition soon subsides. Shoddy fever is easily induced +in persons who have been out of the mill for a few weeks and return +to work, in persons suffering from general catarrh, or in habitual +drunkards.</p> + +<p>What is known as shoddy is produced from soft rags, and Mungo from +cloth rags. Flocks of the commoner kind are manufactured from a variety +of raw material, the refuse of the shoddy trade, while the superior +qualities are manufactured from a better raw material. For the former, +the seams of woollen cloth rags, and heavy linsey (mixed wool and +cotton), such as old dresses, and a variety of other materials, are +used. The lowest class of flocks are made from old carpets with a +backing of hemp or other vegetable fibre. Flocks are used for stuffing +beds and articles of furniture. The raw material is separated in a +similar manner as in the manufacture of shoddy and Mungo, only in +flock-making the teeth are shorter and not so sharp. When a shoddy +machine is worn out, it is sometimes used for flock-making.</p> + +<p><i>Carbonising.</i>—This process is applied to rags which have a +certain amount of cotton in them. The cotton is carbonised by means of +either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The former acid is used in a wet +process, the rags being steeped in a somewhat diluted sulphuric acid, +at a temperature of 160° to 190° F., then rinsed in water, and dried +in a stove. In the second or dry process, the rags are heated for some +hours in an atmosphere of hydrochloric acid gas. By these means the +cotton fibre is destroyed, and when the rags are beaten it flies off +as a powdery dust, probably glucose, which is very inflammable, and +often causes explosions. The above process is also styled “extracting,” +<i>i.e.</i> extracting the wool from fabrics composed of cotton warp, +and worsted or woollen weft.</p> + +<p>Are these various processes inimical to health? Shoddy fever has been +already considered. Flock fever is also a condition of the flock +manufacture. Upholsterers, working with flocks, are occasionally +sufferers from the dust. A few of the workers in shoddy mills suffer +from bronchitis and emphysema of the lungs, but those who do so are the +older men who began to work before so much oil was used with the rags. +The dust is also apt to combine with the wax in the ears and plug them, +as is the case in any dusty occupation. Granular inflammation of the +eyelids is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_647">[647]</span> also occasionally seen among rag grinders. Acne is common +through plugging of the sebaceous ducts. Carbonising occasionally +causes bronchitis and emphysema. Workers in carbonising mills state +that it is quite the exception for men to be off ill. In one mill which +I visited, no worker had been off work for more than two days, and the +mills had been in existence upwards of five years. The glucose product +from carbonised rags subjected to the “shaking” process is highly +inflammable, and severe burns are occasioned by the explosion of it in +the air. These are generally due to carelessness.</p> + +<p><i>Recommendations.</i>—Dr Parsons, in the Annual Report of the +Medical Officer of the Local Government Board (Dr George Buchanan) for +1885, recommends: (1) vaccination and re-vaccination of rag workers; +(2) ventilation, cleanliness, and avoidance of dust in rag factories; +(3) disinfection or purification of rags, preferably in the bale. +Disinfection of rags is at present not very satisfactory, as the steam +used for disinfection in the bale condenses and ruins the stock. Many +men in the trade say that no disinfection is necessary, as infection +seldom or never comes from woollen rags.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">John A. E. Stuart.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_648">[648]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLV<br> +<span class="subhed">BLANKET STOVING</span></h2></div> + + +<p>The men who are employed in this branch of blanket making are a fine, +stalwart set of fellows, broad-set, muscular, and well-coloured in +complexion, the healthiest-looking workmen, apart from teamers, to +be seen in the Heavy Woollen District. It is a hereditary occupation +as a rule. Most of the men are connected by ties of kindred, for +intermarriage is prevalent. Blanket raisers are, as a rule, long lived, +the mean age at death of 28 workmen whom I attended in their last +illness was 64.1 years.</p> + +<p>In winter-time, blankets are exposed in a stoving house to brimstone +fumes. This is intended to bleach the blanket. In summer-time, most +of the blankets are dried outside. The fixing of these on the tenter +posts involves an immense amount of stretching. There is considerable +exertion involved in the raising process, and getting the pile on the +fabric. In fine weather, the men are in the open a great part of the +day; but in winter, the stoved blankets are taken out to the tenters, +when the change from the close, sulphurous atmosphere to a cold and +damp tenter field is found to be trying even to a strong constitution. +At some mills, fans are inserted in the roofs of the drying houses to +take away the fumes; in others, the tenters in the drying house are +on wheels, and run on rails. These are ladened with blankets in the +open, and then run in to the sulphurous atmosphere, and after being +sufficiently dried, are again drawn out to the open, where the blankets +are taken off the frames without causing the irritating cough and +semi-suffocation which ensues when men have to enter the dry house +to remove them. I am informed that, under this last system, it is no +uncommon thing for a raiser to cough and sneeze until blood comes from +his mouth or lungs.</p> + +<p>The question of whether blanket stoving with brimstone is a dangerous +trade or not was answered in the negative by the Commissioners +appointed by Mr Asquith, Home Secretary, before whom I gave evidence +about five years ago.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_649">[649]</span></p> + +<p>As there is a considerable number of these men living near me, and I +have often conversed with them about the brimstone and the healthiness +of their occupation, certain matters of interest have come to my +knowledge. Among these is the fact, that the men almost never die +from tuberculosis. They seldom, if ever, contract infectious disease. +As a rule, they imbibe beer very freely, owing to the dryness of the +mouth and throat produced in the drying house, and by the tremendous +sweating which results from the enormous loads which they take on their +shoulders to the tenter field.</p> + +<p>Bronchitis and emphysema are the most common diseases among them. +Of the 28 deaths which I certified among raisers, 10 were due to +bronchitis; the mean age at death was 64 years. Heart disease +accounted for 4 deaths, at a mean age of 69.3 years. Three succumbed +to pneumonia, at a mean age of 49. Two died from phthisis, mean age +51.5 years. There were two deaths from senile decay, mean age 72 years. +Influenza claimed 2, mean age 68.5. Typhoid caused one death, at 60 +years; as did prostatic disease, at 68 years. Apoplexy caused death in +two, mean age 75.5 years. Cerebral softening claimed one at 68 years.</p> + +<p>The 28 deaths are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Bronchitis</td> + <td class="right">10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Heart Disease</td> + <td class="right">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Pneumonia</td> + <td class="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Senile Decay</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Phthisis</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Influenza</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Apoplexy</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Typhoid Fever</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Prostatic Disease</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Cerebral Softening</td> + <td class="rightb">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4"></td> + <td class="rightbd">28</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Seeing that the mean age at death at all ages in England is 29 years, +and that of blanket raisers is 64.1, one is scarcely justified in +regarding it as a trade which is injurious to health.</p> + +<p>Efficient ventilation and the establishment of the running tenter +described above, and figured in the Blue Book issued by the Commission, +are all that is necessary.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">John A. E. Stuart.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_650">[650]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLVI<br> +<span class="subhed">JUTE</span></h2></div> + + +<p>The commercial fibre jute is obtained from the following species of +Corchorus—<i>Corchorus Capsularis</i>, grown mostly in Northern, +Central, and Eastern Bengal, and <i>Corchorus Olitarus</i>, raised in +the vicinity of Calcutta. The great bulk of the fibre is obtained, +however, from the former variety.</p> + +<p>The plant may be described as a long wand, from 8 to 10 feet in height, +and of the thickness of one’s finger at the bottom. The stem is smooth, +and more or less branched towards the top, bearing vivid green leaves +and yellow flowers. It possesses an outside covering of hard bark; +underneath this is the commercial fibre, and within the latter a pithy +stick.</p> + +<p>Jute is an annual, and appears to be capable of cultivation in almost +any kind of soil, but is grown to best advantage upon that of a loamy +nature, or on rich clay and sand. The coarser and larger plants are +cultivated chiefly upon the “churs” or mud banks, and islands formed +by the rivers, while others are raised upon submerged lands and in +salt-impregnated soils. A hot, damp climate, such as is found in the +vast delta of the Ganges, and Brahmapootra, with annual heavy rains +and inundations, fulfils the conditions under which jute can be +successfully cultivated. In November or December the soil is ploughed +over five or six times, the clods broken up, pulverised, and at the +final ploughing the weeds are collected, dried, and burned. The seeds +are sown during the months of April, May, and June, according to the +district, and covered over with a thin sprinkling of earth. Germination +takes place in from three to seven days, and when the plants rise a +few inches above the ground, the cultivator weeds and thins them out, +ultimately leaving a space of, approximately, 6 inches between each.</p> + +<p>The crop is considered to be in season for cutting when the flowers +appear during August and September. By this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_651">[651]</span> time the plants have +attained a height of from 8 to 10, or even in some instances, 17 feet. +The stems are cut with knives close to the ground, tied up in bundles, +and removed to the steeping or “retting” pond.</p> + +<p>The system of “retting,” as practised by the natives of India, consists +in steeping the plants in stagnant pools or tanks for from two to +twenty-five days. Weights are placed above the bundles to ensure that +all the material may be submerged. The stagnant water thus used for +steeping purposes has a strong and somewhat offensive smell, which, +however, is not remarked in the fibre itself, and the fetid liquid is +valuable as a manure.</p> + +<p>To ascertain that the process is complete, the cultivator has to +visit the tank daily, and test the fibre to see that it has begun +to separate from the stem or pith. In removing the fibre from the +woody portion the operator, standing waist deep in the tank, seizes +a bundle of stems in his left hand, beats the ends out flat, turning +the bundle deftly meantime, and then breaks the stems about eighteen +inches from the point, first one way and then another. A little more +manipulation, and the short sticks at the end fall out, leaving the +fibre clear. The remaining portion is separated in a somewhat similar +manner. The operator then, striking the surface repeatedly with the +fibre, and drawing it through towards him, relieves it of any remaining +impurities. By a dexterous throw he next spreads it on the surface of +the water, and picks off any remaining black spots or hard patches.</p> + +<p>It is then wrung out and hung on bamboos to dry in the sun, when it is +ready for the market.</p> + +<p>The fibre for exportation is bought by dealers, shipped to Calcutta, +and made up into hydraulically-compressed bales of about 400 pounds +weight, lashed round with ropes made of strong jute, the various +qualities being distinguished by different marks affixed to the bales.</p> + +<p>Jute is now a source of considerable revenue to the Indian Government, +about 3,500,000 bales being exported annually to Europe and America, +and over 2,900,000 bales manufactured into cloth and sacks in and +around Calcutta. The distribution of the exported material is +approximately as follows:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht4">To the United Kingdom</td> + <td class="right">1,900,000</td> + <td class="ctr">bales.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">To the Continent</td> + <td class="right">1,000,000</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">To America</td> + <td class="right">500,000</td> + <td class="ctr">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Dundee is the chief seat of jute manufacturing in the United<span class="pagenum" id="Page_652">[652]</span> Kingdom, +only a very small proportion of the material imported being operated +upon elsewhere. According to the latest procurable statistics there +are slightly over 43,000 persons employed in the industry, and of +this number quite 40,000 are engaged in and around Dundee, almost +three-fourths of these being women. The figures do not include several +hundreds who make up cloth into bags—a separate industry. Indirectly, +the staple trade gives employment to a considerable number of persons, +such as shuttle-makers, bobbin-turners, hackle-makers, yarn-bleachers, +etc., and practically supports about 1000 sack-sewers who are +out-workers.</p> + +<p>Jute as imported consists of coils or bundles of fibre of a pale +yellowish colour, and possesses a faint yet not unpleasant, though +characteristic, smell. It cards and spins easily when properly treated +with oil and water, the yarn produced being relatively coarse, fairly +strong, and is much sold as twine, the output of this article amounting +to hundreds of tons per annum. The bulk of the yarn spun, however, is +woven into what are termed “Hessians,” plain jute cloth of various +widths up to four yards. This material is seen everywhere, and is +constantly used for packing and wrapping goods of all descriptions. A +certain amount of cloth is cut up into suitable lengths and sewn into +sacks.</p> + +<p>Jute sacks are required for holding all kinds of material; they are +cheap and strong, and although they rapidly deteriorate if exposed to +wet, they are, owing to their low price, easily replaced.</p> + +<p>Jute fibre takes kindly to most dyes, and this characteristic allows +of its being largely used in the manufacture of carpets and rugs. A +large trade has grown up in this department, fabrics being produced of +beautiful designs and brilliant colouring. Jute is also interwoven with +cotton and other textiles, but it does not readily spin with any fibre +of an elastic nature.</p> + +<p>The inelasticity of the fibre is a distinct drawback, affecting the +utility of the articles manufactured, and although the durability of +the fabric is great if kept dry, the colours are fugitive.</p> + +<p>The first operation in the process of the manufacture of jute consists +in cutting the binding ropes of the bale, and opening out the hard, +compressed material. This is invariably done by hand, and immediately +afterwards the fibre, still in a compressed state, is passed through +between four heavy deeply-fluted rollers intersecting each other, +which open the material somewhat and facilitate its disentanglement, +before it is placed on the feeding table of the softener. During these +processes, while the fibre is in a dry condition, a considerable +quantity of dust is shaken out,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_653">[653]</span> much of it being of a gritty nature, +and consisting largely of fine particles of the sand or mud in which +the plant grows. The latter impurities adhere to the rooty portion +of the plant, but become dispersed when the fibre is shaken out and +disturbed. It is in this dust that tetanus spores have been found in +very considerable quantities.</p> + +<p>Once placed on the softener, the fibre passes through a long series +of spirally fluted rollers, pressure being brought to bear on the top +row by means of springs. Hot water and oil are applied to the material +during the progress along the machine, care being taken to spread the +liquids evenly.</p> + +<p>This moistening of the fibre is rendered necessary owing to its +inherent brittle nature. Although this application of oil and water is +to facilitate the subsequent manipulation of the material, it serves a +beneficial purpose in reducing to an enormous extent the quantity of +dust which would otherwise be diffused in carding and other processes. +As matters at present stand, the preparing operations in jute factories +are much more dusty than subsequent processes, but the particles thrown +off in carding, drawing, and rove-spinning are more of a light fluffy +nature, and prove less irritating to the respiratory organs than the +gritty dust evolved in handling the dry jute. After the material has +been effectively softened, and while in a slightly moist condition, +it is fed into the “breaker” card. Here, owing to the splitting and +combing action of the rapidly running card teeth, many rooty particles +and other impurities are removed, but the heavier matter falls below +the machines, from which it is taken away periodically, so that only +the lighter dust rises, and is breathed by the operators.</p> + +<p>When delivered from the “breaker” it is passed over the “finisher” +card, but less dust if possible is evolved in the second carding. To +equalise the thickness of the jute sliver as it emerges from the cards, +and to lay the fibres parallel, the material is passed over drawing +frames, and, when delivered, is spun by roving machines into “rove,” +that is, thick loosely-twisted yarn. The twist given is just sufficient +to keep the fibre together during its treatment in the spinning frame, +before the actual twist is administered which completes it as finished +yarn.</p> + +<p>The operations subsequent to carding evolve little dust relatively, but +owing to the excessive speed of spinning frame flyers, and the friction +on the yarn, very light fluffy particles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_654">[654]</span> are continually rising in +spinning rooms, so that the atmosphere becomes charged with extremely +fine portions of fibre. All horizontal surfaces, and the clothing and +hair of the workers in these departments, soon become coated with this +dust.</p> + +<p>The yarn intended for weft is never dressed, but is wound or built up +into solid “cops” for insertion in the shuttle. It is so coiled in +the cop as to unwind regularly and easily when in the shuttle, but is +still of sufficient firmness to withstand handling without collapsing. +The warp yarn is wound into solid balls, or on large bobbins, and +thereafter arranged upon angular frames at each end of the dressing +machines.</p> + +<p>The dressing, the basis of which consists mostly of flour, is contained +in troughs affixed to the machines, the yarn passing through the +liquid, and then round steam-heated cylinders to ensure its thorough +dryness before being wound on the weaving beam. As in the dressing +of linen yarn, considerable heat is constantly maintained in the +departments of factories apportioned for this purpose. The cylinders, +round which the damp yarn passes, radiate heat, and where the ceilings +of the rooms are low, or the cubic capacity restricted, much discomfort +is occasioned in summer, unless exhaust fans, or wide-opened windows, +are arranged for. The beams when filled are removed, and inserted in +the looms, the “dressed” or starched yarns constituting the warp of the +woven fabric.</p> + +<p>The weaving of jute cloth calls for little comment or description, the +process being of the simplest character, except where figured carpets +are woven. This work is comparatively pleasant and clean. To give +finish to the cloth, calendering is necessary. The webs are passed +through ponderous machines, known as either calenders or mangles; hot +rollers and heavy pressure, combined with the dressing in the yarn, +effecting an evenness to the fabric, and, if necessary, a gloss to the +surface.</p> + + +<h3><i>Health Conditions.</i></h3> + +<p>The factories in Great Britain engaged in manufacturing jute are, +with few exceptions, rather superior. Many of them are on the shed +or one-floor system. They were built at a time when the industry was +extremely remunerative, and much capital was sunk in substantial and +well-designed premises. The shed construction with the saw-tooth roof +is advantageous from many standpoints, facilitating the maintenance of +an equable temperature, the free ingress of air through roof openings, +while providing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_655">[655]</span> an abundance of light throughout. The latter advantage +is important, when one considers the liability to accident which +constant attendance on, and manipulation of, intricate mechanisms +necessitate. Jute machinery is very similar to that utilised in the +manufacture of flax, the various machines (with the exception of +softeners and openers) differing only in small details, necessary owing +to the greater length and relative coarseness of the former fibre. +The liability to accidents is slightly greater in the manufacture +of jute than in any other textile industry, to judge by the annual +returns of casualties. This is partially due to the fact that the +older types of machines have been fitted with crude and ineffective +protections, to improve which requires much careful and systematic +supervision, and partially to the proportionately large number of +insignificant accidents, hitherto found unpreventable, occasioned by +the oscillating slays of looms, which, though slight in themselves, +are yet sufficiently serious to bring them just within the category of +reportable accidents.</p> + +<p>By slight alterations in the construction of certain machines and +additions to the existing fencing of spinning, drawing frames and +cards, certain kinds of accidents have been completely stamped out. +Thus, since the insistence on travelling feed and delivery sheets +or webs for jute softeners, a type of accident always severe, and +often fatal, has entirely disappeared. Before these safeguards were +introduced the operatives were frequently entangled in the long +jute fibre in feeding or attending the delivery end of the machine, +and instantly drawn forward and mangled by the rapid-running fluted +rollers. As might be expected young persons are the commonest victims +of factory accidents, owing to their ignorance and indiscretion. A +careful note of all such casualties has revealed lurking dangers in +certain machines, and where these have been effectually protected, +accidents decrease in number and in seriousness. Since shuttle-guards +have become universal, the annual return of injuries from flying +shuttles has decreased to less than half the former figure. The +liability to tetanus of persons injured in jute manufactories makes the +adequate and effective protection of all dangerous mechanism, even to +the minutest details, of the utmost importance.</p> + +<p>The dirtiest and most objectionable processes in the manufacture of +the material are undoubtedly those of preparing and spinning. The +remuneration of the operatives in these departments is considerably +less than that earned by the weavers. Thus a distinctly lower class +of employés engage in the former<span class="pagenum" id="Page_656">[656]</span> processes, the more self-respecting +taking up weaving as a means of livelihood.</p> + +<p>Where the finer qualities of fibre are treated, the amount of dust +evolved is comparatively small, and the factories fairly clean; but +in the coarser varieties it becomes excessive, and the whole premises +assume a dirty and objectionable aspect.</p> + +<p>It may be of interest to observe here that many women engaged in the +preparing and spinning operations of jute manufacture habitually snuff, +presumably to rid the nostrils of dust. The custom is rarely observed +among women outside Dundee.</p> + +<p>The prevention of the dispersal of dust in carding and spinning is +extremely difficult, for it appears to rise, more or less, from the +fibre, wherever it is sufficiently disturbed, and from any number +of points, even in one room. Exhaust fans, however, when placed +immediately above the softening machines, and properly erected, +undoubtedly remove much of the fine gritty particles shaken out of the +raw material, and where a hood is arranged above the exact seat of dust +production, and communicates with a fan, there is little to complain of.</p> + +<p>This particular dust from the raw material is most irritating to +breathe, and is presumably injurious, but fortunately few persons in +any one mill come in contact with it.</p> + +<p>The ample cubic space of most carding departments greatly counteracts +the injurious effects of this ever-present dust; and indeed, in +establishments where very fine material is spun, it is scarcely +noticeable. The prevailing high temperature of spinning departments, +together with the crowded arrangement of the frames and the number of +workers congregated in a limited floor space, makes such rooms somewhat +disagreeable to work in, and the occupation is increasingly unpopular. +The friction of the numerous small bearings, and especially that +generated by the temper bands on the bobbins, raises the temperature to +30 or more degrees above that existing outside, and maintains it thus +even when the outer air has fairly free ingress. This over-heating of +the spinning room is a constant source of trouble, and is difficult +to regulate. A temperature of 80° is common in the coldest weather, +and persists at times, even when many windows are open. The provision +of exhaust fans in premises where high temperatures were hitherto +troublesome has, however, effected a distinct improvement. The +application of oil, already referred to, reduces the tendency of the +material to give off dust, but the subsequent operations disperse fine +particles of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_657">[657]</span> fibre throughout the workrooms. The oily jute gives to +the preparing departments a somewhat peculiar and rather offensive +odour, and where the atmosphere is abnormally heated, creates a feeling +of closeness.</p> + +<p>During the month of March 1900, samples of air were taken from +three selected mills in Dundee, at various times, and in different +atmospheric conditions. Two of the selected establishments were +considered as typical of badly ventilated premises; the third, for +contrast, was one of the most modern and airy factories in the +city. Although the high winds which prevailed during the period +of testing may detract from the assumption that the figures are +really representative of the usual conditions, still after making +all allowances it must be presumed that they approximately indicate +the true condition of the inside atmospheres. Samples were procured +from two of the mills on a Sunday about mid-day, a period of about +twenty-four hours having elapsed since any workers had been in the +premises.</p> + +<p>The windows in both cases were all closed, and, on the day in question, +a fresh cold wind prevailed.</p> + +<p>The result showed a very pure atmosphere—3.1 and 3.3 volumes of CO<sub>2</sub> +respectively per 10,000 volumes of air.</p> + +<p>The following day, samples were secured in the two establishments and +from a third between 1 and 2 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> (the meal hour being from +2 to 3 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>), and again just before the factories stopped +running, namely, between 5 and 6 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span></p> + +<p>The following table gives the results:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="6">No. of Samples.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2</td> + <td class="ctrrb">3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">4</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5</td> + <td class="ctrrb">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Time</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.30 p.m.</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.40 p.m.</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.55 p.m.</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.15 p.m.</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.30 p.m.</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.50 p.m.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Selected room</td> + <td class="ctrr">Spinning</td> + <td class="ctrr">Spinning</td> + <td class="ctrr">Spinning</td> + <td class="ctrr">Spinning</td> + <td class="ctrr">Spinning</td> + <td class="ctrr">Spinning</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Total cubic contents</td> + <td class="ctrr">462,840</td> + <td class="ctrr">100,383</td> + <td class="ctrr">83,856</td> + <td class="ctrr">462,840</td> + <td class="ctrr">100,383</td> + <td class="ctrr">83,856</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Number of Persons employed</td> + <td class="ctrr">300</td> + <td class="ctrr">150</td> + <td class="ctrr">83</td> + <td class="ctrr">300</td> + <td class="ctrr">150</td> + <td class="ctrr">83</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cubic space per head</td> + <td class="ctrr">1542</td> + <td class="ctrr">669</td> + <td class="ctrr">1010</td> + <td class="ctrr">1542</td> + <td class="ctrr">669</td> + <td class="ctrr">1010</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Temperature:—</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Inside</td> + <td class="ctrr">70°</td> + <td class="ctrr">77°</td> + <td class="ctrr">77°</td> + <td class="ctrr">75°</td> + <td class="ctrr">81.5°</td> + <td class="ctrr">83°</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Outside</td> + <td class="ctrr">41°</td> + <td class="ctrr">41°</td> + <td class="ctrr">41°</td> + <td class="ctrr">40°</td> + <td class="ctrr">40°</td> + <td class="ctrr">40°</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Ventilation</td> + <td class="ctrr">Natural<br>windows<br>¼ open</td> + <td class="ctrr">Natural<br>windows<br>½ open</td> + <td class="ctrr">Natural<br>windows<br>⅓ open</td> + <td class="ctrr">Natural<br>windows<br>¼ open</td> + <td class="ctrr">Natural<br>windows<br>⅓ open</td> + <td class="ctrr">Natural<br>windows<br>⅓ open</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">No. of Factory</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + <td class="ctrr">1</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Carbonic acid in 10,000 vols. of air</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5.4</td> + <td class="ctrrb">7.0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">7.5</td> + <td class="ctrrb">7.0</td> + <td class="ctrrb">9.8</td> + <td class="ctrrb">9.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_658">[658]</span></p> + +<p>Factory No. 1 was of modern construction and built on the one-floor +system. The relative purity of the sample is noticeable as compared +with Nos. 2 and 3, both old premises with low ceilings. There was no +artificial lighting in either case, consequently the carbonic acid +present must have been entirely due to respiration. Other examinations +of samples obtained from both spinning and weaving rooms show almost +similar results, except that the weaving sheds were purer, owing to +their ample cubic space, and the temperature, as is always the case, +considerably lower.</p> + +<p>In the instance of factory No. 1, carding, spinning, and winding +were all proceeding under one roof, 300 persons being at work, as +will be seen from a reference to the table. Had gas as an illuminant +been burning for even a short time in any of the premises examined +the proportion of CO<sub>2</sub> would presumably have been higher. This is +supported by the analysis of air in a dressmaker’s workroom, selected +at 8 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> There were ten persons at work, three large gas jets +burning (lit for two hours), and 259 cubic feet capacity per head. +An examination of the sample showed the proportion of CO<sub>2</sub> to be +26.4 per 10,000 volumes of air: temperature inside 73°, outside 41°F. +Electric light is now the illuminant in almost all the jute factories +of any size, and a distinct improvement in the condition of the inside +atmospheres has resulted. Unquestionably the high temperatures of +spinning rooms are distinctly harmful, perhaps more so than is usually +imagined; in fact, the writer from close observation of operatives in +various parts of the country and in dissimilar industries, exposed +persistently to warm atmospheres, is of opinion that a general lowering +of the health (in certain instances marked) very frequently follows +such employment. The effects of constantly breathing warm air, quite +apart from the liability to chills which such atmospheres engender, are +worthy of closer study and scientific investigation. Certainly exposure +to great radiated heat, if the air is not particularly warm, does not +affect workmen in a similar manner.</p> + +<p>As has been already remarked, the weaving of jute is apparently +a healthy occupation, judging from the general appearance of the +operatives. The wage of the weaver enables her to occupy a comfortable +home, and ensures a sufficiency of suitable food. The same may be said +of the sack-sewers, who, like the weavers, usually work in premises +kept at a reasonable temperature, and present a ruddy and robust +appearance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_659">[659]</span></p> + +<p>With reference to the subject of tetanus, no more authoritative +statement can be submitted than that of H.M. Medical Inspector of +Factories, Dr T. Morison Legge, and his remarks are accordingly quoted +from the Annual Report of H.M. Chief Inspectors of Factories for the +year 1899:—</p> + +<p>“When visiting Dundee in February, my attention was called by the +district inspector, Mr Wilson, to the fact that within the preceding +twelve months two fatal cases of tetanus had occurred in one jute +mill. It occurred to me that possibly the soil of the alluvial land in +which the jute was grown in Bengal might be rich in tetanus bacilli, +and the incidence of tetanus on jute workers in Dundee therefore be +attributable to spores brought over in the mud adhering to the jute +fibres.</p> + +<p>“In April a woman climbed up upon the travelling feed-sheet of a +jute-softening machine while it was in motion. Her foot was caught +between the ingathering fluted iron rollers, and was severely crushed +and lacerated. Tetanus ensued on about the sixth day after the +accident, and proved fatal within twenty-four hours. A sample of dust +was collected from under the machine, and was submitted to Dr Andrewes +of St Bartholomew’s Hospital, for bacteriological examination. He +found tetanus bacilli undoubtedly present in the dust, probably in +considerable numbers, and stated that it was unusual to be able to +demonstrate tetanus bacilli in such numbers, and with such ease as he +had been able to do.</p> + +<p>“The point having considerable scientific interest, as showing possibly +the same connection between tetanus and jute as is known to exist +between anthrax and wool-sorting, and further in emphasising the +necessity of careful fencing of machinery, I collected, eight months +later, four other samples of jute from factories in Dundee, and one +sample of Russian hemp dust to serve as a control. In three of the +samples of jute dust, Dr Andrewes reported that tetanus bacilli were +present, but that he could not demonstrate their presence in the sample +of hemp dust.</p> + +<p>“One of the samples in which the bacilli were present was taken from +under the same machine where eight months previously the accident had +occurred. During the interval the original sample, which Dr Andrewes +had retained, appeared to have lost its virulence.</p> + +<p>“At the end of December an accident occurred in a jute mill resulting +in severe injury to the wrist of a worker. Tetanus developed twenty-six +days later, and as has frequently been</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_660">[660]</span></p> + +<p>noted in cases where the incubation period is prolonged more than three +weeks, did not prove fatal. Some dust was collected six weeks after the +accident from near the place where it occurred, and was examined with +negative results.</p> + +<p>“Dr Andrewes’ experiments prove unquestionably that tetanus spores +must be present in incredible numbers in much of the dust in jute +mills. Fortunately, the disease cannot be brought about like anthrax by +inhalation, nor does it develop, as a rule, except as the result of a +mixed infection.</p> + +<p>“In the ten years 1890–99, 11 fatal cases of traumatic tetanus have +been recorded in Dundee. Five of these were workers in jute mills. Of +the remaining six, one, aged six, was the son of a yarn-dresser, a +second, aged eight, the son of a mill overseer, and a third, aged one, +the daughter of a yard-beamer. The possibility of the tetanus in their +cases having been brought about by the dust in their parents’ clothing, +or in jute material worked at home, is not excluded. In the other three +cases there does not appear to have been any connection with jute.</p> + +<p>“While not wishing to lay too much stress on the matter, seeing that +tetanus germs are to be found in almost every sample of garden mould, +I think the figures do show a special incidence of tetanus on jute +workers, and I attribute it, as I have said, to the soil in which the +jute is grown being particularly rich in the bacilli.</p> + +<p>“In India, tetanus is much commoner than it is in this country, and I +am informed that one of the most prominent fears before the surgeon’s +mind in treating a severe lacerated wound is the possibility of tetanus +supervening. Inquiry is being made in India as to the incidence of +tetanus among jute workers there.”</p> + +<p>Investigations reveal a predisposition among factory workers, and +particularly those employed in spinning and preparing rooms, to +develop respiratory troubles—broncho-pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, +and pulmonary emphysema, being the most prominent. There is also a +singularly large number of patients admitted to the local infirmary +suffering from lobar pneumonia. Rheumatism is an extremely common +ailment, and can be partially accounted for by the great variations of +temperature which operatives have frequently to withstand. Multiple +tuberculous lesions are frequently observed in the children of the +poorer operatives, and thus one finds from time to time young persons +at work, with portions of the hands amputated on account of scrofulous +or tuberculous diseases of the bones. Slight deafness is widespread +among</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_661">[661]</span></p> + +<p>jute operatives, but other textile workers may be afflicted in a +similar degree. The excessive noise of jute-weaving looms, and the +persistent loud hum of spinning frames presumably account for much of +this. The looms, owing to their large size, and the weight and high +speed of the shuttles, are particularly noisy. The possibility of the +dust inducing the formation of an obstruction with the waxy secretion +of the ear is not excluded; indeed the fine light particles of fibre +readily accumulate in the external auditory canal.</p> + +<p>A hoarseness or huskiness of voice is met with frequently, and is +especially marked in preparing and spinning operatives. Whether +this is due to overstraining of the voice, shouting above the noise +of the machinery, or to dust irritation of the vocal chords, has +never been clearly demonstrated. Anæmia in its commonest forms is a +frequent ailment among all the operatives, but doubtless careless and +injudicious feeding contributes to this condition of health.</p> + +<p>An illness locally known as “mill fever” attacks about one-fourth of +the persons who commence labour in factories for the first time. The +symptoms make their appearance a few days after work is started, and +take the form of one or more of the following: headache, backache, +lassitude, thirst, and slight fever. The attack lasts about from three +to four days, and yields to antifebrile medicines followed by tonics. +It has been observed that the patients are usually young people, and +are frequently of weak constitution, or badly nourished.</p> + +<p>In drawing definite conclusions as to the incidence of these +ailments in jute operatives, one is confronted by the difficulty of +differentiating between what is caused by the industry, and what is the +natural result of poor feeding and bad housing. No absolutely reliable +statistics have yet been compiled relating to the health conditions of +the workers; indeed there is much scope for further research in this +direction.</p> + +<p>The low physical and social condition of a section of the operatives is +a marked feature of this industry. The class alluded to is generally +distinctly diminutive in appearance, being of light weight as well as +of short stature. For the most part they are employed in the relatively +disagreeable processes, namely, preparing and spinning, and, as before +mentioned, they earn smaller wages than weavers. It is needless to say +that most of this class are indifferently housed. At the census return +of 1891 there were 22,206 persons living in single-roomed houses in +Dundee, an</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_662">[662]</span></p> + +<p>average of 2.6 per house. Of two-roomed houses there were 17,834, +containing 81,488 inmates, an average of 4.56 per house. Generally +speaking, the single-roomed abodes shelter the worst paid operatives. +These single rooms are at times badly crowded, and the sanitary +accommodation, if such exists at all, in spite of extensive +improvements effected in recent years, is often an open manure heap, +the tenants using pails for house refuse, etc.</p> + +<p>Typhus fever is almost constantly prevalent in Dundee, 39 cases +occurring in 1899, with 5 deaths, and up to the 13th November 1900, 49 +cases, 6 terminating fatally. These figures may indicate to a certain +extent the amount of destitution and overcrowding which exists.</p> + +<p>The infantile death-rate is high, the figures for the last few years +being as follows:—For 1897, 194; 1898, 181; 1899, 169 per 1000 births. +The lamentable neglect of young infants leaves its impress on the +children who survive, many of them presenting a puny and delicate +appearance when applying for employment at twelve years of age.</p> + +<p>The poverty or greed of the parents drives these children, the most +undersized and least able to withstand the injurious effects of a +factory life, to work at the earliest possible age, and the indoor life +discourages growth and development.</p> + +<p>The reports of the inspectors of jute mills in East India show that +the industry is considered there to have no particularly deleterious +effects on health. The mills, however, are built with very high roofs, +and are largely open to the sky. The climate permits of this, and +accordingly the ventilation gives no trouble. Another fact has to be +borne in mind in comparing Indian operatives with those employed at +home. The former are migratory, only remaining a year or two at the +industry, and, presumably, insufficient time is given for any injurious +effects to betray themselves; whereas in Scotland, the bulk of a +lifetime is spent by a worker in a jute factory.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Harry J. Wilson.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_663">[663]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLVII<br> +<span class="subhed">LAUNDRY WORKERS</span></h2></div> + + +<p>Thousands of women and girls are employed every week in the useful +office of cleansing and making fresh the garments stained in the +daily stress and toil of life, and the impression is probably a +correct one—though it is impossible to support it by statistics—that +“washing,” in the sense of laundry work, affords occupation to at least +as large a number of women as does any other industry in the country.</p> + +<p>The industry embraces perhaps as wide a range of methods as any other +that could be mentioned. The disparity between that of the woman who +“takes in a little washing” and that of the huge “Sanitary Laundry” +owned by a Limited Company, and equipped with power-driven machinery +which yearly becomes more complicated, is indeed great. But the engine +wins, and it seems clear that before long the whole industry will +become one of organised factory-labour with some survivals of the other +system, just as in the textile trades a few rough wooden hand-looms +and picturesque spinning-wheels still linger in the more out-of-way +districts.</p> + +<p>“To take in washing” has for so long appeared to be an occupation +mainly reserved as a resource for the woman bereft of her +“breadwinner,” or deprived by circumstances of other means of +livelihood, that many people still look on “laundry work” from this +point of view. It is perhaps difficult to realise that the radical +change which has everywhere transformed industrial conditions has +already affected this occupation also, and that for good or for +evil the washerwoman is passing under the influences which have +so profoundly modified the circumstances of her sister of the +spinning-wheel and the sewing needle. When the first washing machine +and ironing roller were applied to this occupation, alteration in the +conditions became as much a foregone conclusion as it did in the case +of the textile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_664">[664]</span> or the clothing manufactures, when the spinning frame, +the power loom, or the sewing machine appeared.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, few industries afford at the present time a more interesting +study. From a simple home occupation it is steadily being transformed +by the application of power-driven machinery and by the division of +labour into a highly organised factory industry, in which complicated +labour-saving contrivances of all kinds play a prominent part. The +tremendous impetus in the adoption of machinery, and the consequent +modification of the system of employment so striking in the large +laundries, is not greater than the less obvious but even more important +development in the same direction among small laundries. Indeed the +difference is rapidly becoming one of degree only. In the large +laundries may be found perhaps more machinery and a greater number +of the newest devices, but the fundamental change has affected all +alike. “At one time it was only in a few large steam laundries that +machinery was to be met with, now it is no uncommon thing to find a row +of houses in separate occupation, the back yard of each of which is +roofed in and packed with laundry machinery, all driven by an engine +installed at one end of the row. The old-fashioned ‘washerwoman’ is +fast disappearing, and is superseded by the enterprising young ‘laundry +proprietor,’ who, turning the tubs out of the back kitchen, fills their +place with ‘washing machines,’ and connecting them with a little gas +engine (tightly wedged into the dark broom cupboard under the stairs), +blossoms forth as the owner of ‘a factory laundry,’ ready to deal with +six times the amount of work that his predecessor could hope to cope +with, and to compete feverishly with scores of similarly equipped +rivals.”<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p> + +<p>One result of this haphazard adaptation of old conditions to new +circumstances is an undesirable anomaly between the two. The small +unsuitable premises, never designed for house machinery, quiver and +shake under the unaccustomed strain; and the little rooms, “ventilated” +by windows only, are ill suited for operations which produce quantities +of steam and an abnormal temperature. Not seldom the ambitious +“proprietor” himself is lamentably ignorant of the capacities and +possibilities of the machinery of which he is the proud possessor. +“Since the guv’nor tied the old box-mangle up to the new engine, +she has taken to leapin’ back and forrards that alarmin’ and that +sudden-like, that it’s a wonder I’ve not been caught out sooner nor +I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_665">[665]</span> was.” The remark, which is recorded by the Factory Inspector who +investigated the resulting accident, epitomises quaintly the situation +in many a small laundry. Everywhere machinery is to be found, even in +the smallest hand laundry. The hand-turned washing machine stands among +the wash-tubs, and as soon as funds permit will be coupled up to a tiny +gas engine, which in time will give place to a larger one.</p> + +<p>“Side by side with this development in the smaller laundries is to +be found the rapid multiplication of large laundry companies and +syndicates, certain of which own as many as a dozen or more fine +well-equipped steam laundries fitted up with the latest ingenious +inventions in labour-saving machinery, and organised into ‘departments’ +in which the division of labour is at least as marked a feature as +it is in the majority of non-textile factories. In such places a +single shirt will pass through seven or eight different machines in +the process of ironing alone. In place of the elderly married woman +or widow, we find skilled engineers in charge of a shed full of +machinery still called familiarly the ‘wash-house,’ while scores of +girls and young women, from thirteen years upwards, tend the various +kinds of ironing machines, with exactly the same mechanical precision +and routine as in any other factory. Even in those departments where +machinery is not required, the labour is organised and regulated as in +an ordinary factory, the sorters have their staff of ‘markers,’ and the +‘dryers’ fill and empty with almost automatic regularity the series of +drying closets through which hot air is driven by propulsion fans. With +this advent of machinery and subdivision of labour, the whole character +of the industry has changed. It is becoming more and more evident that, +from the smallest to the largest laundry, the industry is passing—has +indeed in some respects already passed—out of the peculiar position +which it has hitherto occupied, and is taking its place alongside +ordinary trades.”<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> + +<p>The manufacture of laundry machinery, to which much energy and capital +is devoted, is every year increasing. New and ingenious inventions and +improvements constantly appear, many of which come from America, whence +a considerable amount of this machinery is imported. The adaptation to +laundry work of the “hydro-extractor,” a powerful drying machine much +used in bleaching and dye-works, has greatly expedited the laundry +process. This machine consists of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_666">[666]</span> round perforated metal “cage” +or “basket,” which revolves at an enormous speed (500 to over 1500 +revolutions a minute) inside an iron or steel case, in shape like a +huge round pot standing 2 or 3 feet high; the wet clothes are packed +into the “basket,” and during its rapid revolutions the water is +driven out of them by centrifugal force through the perforations into +the outer casing, on the same principle as water from a mop which is +trundled. As may be imagined, the terrific velocity and vibration of +such a machine is an element of danger, and in the event of a cast-iron +case bursting, the fragments are hurled with a force which will wreck +the room or shed in which it stands, and prove fatal to any bystander.</p> + +<p>In the same way the “calender machine” has been adapted to laundry +work, and is now commonly found in quite small laundries; it consists +of huge steam or gas heated cylinders, varying from 4 to 8 or 9 feet +long, either revolving singly in a metal bed, as in the case of the +“decoudun,” or on each other, as in the case of the multiple-roller +calenders. The machine is tended by quite young girls from thirteen +years old and upwards, who stand in front to “feed” the edge of the +material into the “bite” of the rollers or over the “lip” of the +decoudun. The linen is gradually drawn in under the hot, revolving +rollers, which thus “iron” it smooth and glossy, a cloud of steam +arising as each damp article passes under the roller. Constant care is +required to so put the work under the machine that the hands are not +also drawn under; want of attention may be followed by an accident, and +even where care is exercised the fingers may be entangled in a string +or hole in the material and the hand thus drawn in. The heat given off +by these machines is sometimes very great; a temperature of over 90° F. +may be registered even in winter on the feeding-step in front of this +machine, at which little girls stand all day long.</p> + +<p>It would be difficult to enumerate in detail all the various machines +and appliances now used in laundries; washing machines in endless and +bewildering variety, hydro-extractors, mangling and starching machines, +calenders, collar and cuff-ironers, shirt-bosom polishers, blouse +ironers, skirt ironers, body-linen ironers, curling machines (to give +the desired curl to collars), gophering-machines (which give the wave +to frills), electric or gas-heated irons and drying closets, through +which hot blasts are driven by mechanical “fans,” are some of the +contrivances which are in common use.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_667">[667]</span></p> + +<p>The change in the nature of the occupation is naturally accompanied +by a change in the conditions of work which now assimilate in all but +the degree of legislative regulation to those in ordinary factories +or workshops. As in other industries, the adoption of machinery +has resulted in a large increase in the employment of young and of +comparatively unskilled labour, for girls of fourteen or sixteen years +can tend machines, the operations of which, if accomplished by hand, +could only be undertaken by older or more skilled workers. Where only +one girl under eighteen years was employed eight or nine years ago, now +dozens are to be found as machine tenders.</p> + +<p>In endeavouring to present as saliently as possible the most striking +feature of the present position of this trade, namely, its development +into a factory industry, and the strides with which it is ranging +itself alongside others in this respect, reference has been purposely +delayed to that section which, though relatively decreasing, is +still of course large, in which only hand labour is employed. Here +the interesting feature is the steady decrease in the size of the +average hand-laundry. Large hand-laundries are becoming rare, for, +unless they do a peculiar class of work, they cannot hope to compete +with similar or smaller-sized ones in which mechanical power is +employed. On the other hand, the very small hand-laundries, where +from one to five or six women are employed, still of course exist +in large numbers, and are for the most part carried on in little +dwelling-houses. The house-mother who endeavours to support her +family by tailoring, shirtmaking, boot-closing, knitting, artificial +flower-making, or by handwork of any kind carried on in her own living +rooms, may feel assured that, uncomfortable and wretched as her home +may in consequence become, it is and must be infinitely less wretched, +unhealthy, and disorganised than the home of the woman who in a small +town dwelling-house takes in washing as a means of livelihood. The +discomforts of the family “wash day” are extended to all the other +days in the week, and are increased tenfold. It is impossible to wash +without creating steam, which makes the air heavy and condenses on +ceilings, walls, and furniture, saturating them with a clammy moisture. +It is impossible to “dry” in smoky towns during the greater part of the +year except under cover, and the flapping wet material hung all day +and all night across the rooms, the passages, or the tiny backyard,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_668">[668]</span> +excludes air and light, even apart from the other objections. It is +impossible to iron without fire or stoves which raise the temperature, +until not only the tiny room but the whole house becomes oppressively +hot, and the “close” smell, always so noticeable in small town houses, +is seriously aggravated when piles of soiled linen are sorted and dealt +with.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the washing is done in a basement room, to light or ventilate +which is practically impossible; and one has only to stand in such a +place where, with the best will in the world, proper drainage of the +sloppy floor is impossible, where the heat in summer and the damp in +winter are alike excessive, to realise vividly that of all industries +laundry work is perhaps the least suitable to the home. A common plan +in certain crowded parts of London, and one much favoured by foreign +immigrants, is to let in lodgings the single rooms on the floors above +the ground, and to carry on such a “laundry” below, with the help +of one or two other women. The steam, heat, and smell are sometimes +overpowering, while the work is continued till far into the night.</p> + +<p>The effect of the occupation on the health of those engaged in it is +not very easy to gauge, because most of the diseases to which such +persons are rendered peculiarly liable by the nature of the occupation +are those which might be induced by many other causes. It is much to be +hoped that before long the registration of the occupation of women as +well as of men, in all hospitals and infirmaries, and in certificates +of death, will make the comparison of this with other industries +possible in this respect.</p> + +<p>It is impossible that the heat and steam, the exhausting manual labour +(all of which is done standing), and above all the excessively long +hours of work in this ill-regulated industry, can fail to have a +marked effect on the health of the workers as a class. In 1893 and +1894, when inquiry as to these conditions preceded the passing of the +Act of 1895, the periods of work of women and young girls were found +to be excessively long—and they are still not only very long, but +extraordinarily irregular. The most immediately obvious effect on +health is to be found in the prevalence, among these workers, of ulcers +on the legs and varicose veins. It would perhaps be hardly credited by +any who are not intimately acquainted with them, to what extent these +poor women suffer in this respect. To stand at work all day is the lot +of many industrial workers, but in no other woman’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_669">[669]</span> industry is this +form of suffering so serious. In certain well-defined laundry districts +in West London an inquiry at the Poor Law Infirmaries, to which, and +not to the Hospitals, the poor women suffering from this troublesome +and painful ailment most naturally resort, demonstrated the peculiar +liability of laundry workers in this respect.</p> + +<p>The districts to which the following figures (taken from the Report of +the Chief Inspector of Factories) relate are those in which industrial +workers—although not perhaps <i>employed</i> to the same extent as +laundry workers—<i>reside</i> in greater numbers, and to the Poor Law +Infirmaries, to which they therefore gravitate to even greater extent.</p> + + +<p class="center p1 smaller"><i>TABLE A.</i><a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p> + +<p class="center">Wandsworth: Clapham Infirmary (including Battersea).</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">1899.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Suffering<br>from Ulcers<br>of Legs.</td> + <td class="ctrtrdb">Proportion.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Pulmonary<br>Consumption.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Proportion.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightr">247</td> + <td class="ctrr">36</td> + <td class="ctrrd">1 in 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">21</td> + <td class="ctrr">1 in 11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Women other than Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightr">1171</td> + <td class="ctrr">50</td> + <td class="ctrrd">1 in 23</td> + <td class="ctrr">63</td> + <td class="ctrr">1 in 19</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">1900.</td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + <td class="ctr1rd"></td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightr">199</td> + <td class="ctrr">27</td> + <td class="ctrrd">1 in 7</td> + <td class="ctrr">18</td> + <td class="ctrr">1 in 11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Women other than Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightrb">1127</td> + <td class="ctrrb">41</td> + <td class="ctrrdb">1 in 27</td> + <td class="ctrrb">59</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1 in 19</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p class="center p1 smaller"><i>TABLE B.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Isleworth Infirmary (includes Acton, Chiswick, Brentford).</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">1899.8</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Suffering<br>from Ulcers<br>of Legs.</td> + <td class="ctrtrdb">Proportion.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Pulmonary<br>Consumption.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Proportion.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightr">58</td> + <td class="ctrr">9</td> + <td class="ctrrd">1 in 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">1 in 10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Women other than Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightr">179</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrrd">1 in 25</td> + <td class="ctrr">7</td> + <td class="ctrr">1 in 25</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr1rl">1899.</td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + <td class="ctr1rd"></td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + <td class="ctr1r"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightr">79</td> + <td class="ctrr">13</td> + <td class="ctrrd">1 in 6</td> + <td class="ctrr">9</td> + <td class="ctrr">1 in 9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Women other than Laundresses</td> + <td class="rightrb">218</td> + <td class="ctrrb">7</td> + <td class="ctrrdb">1 in 31</td> + <td class="ctrrb">11</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1 in 20</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The transference of most of the work in laundries from comparatively +elderly women to quite young girls, who are thus at an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_670">[670]</span> immature age +brought under conditions which no thoughtful or educated person will +deny are in every respect trying, is an aspect of the subject to which +it is important to direct attention; seventy, seventy-two, seventy-six +hours a week, exclusive of meal times, are not uncommonly worked by +girls of fourteen, fifteen, or sixteen years of age, and although these +long hours are nominally illegal, it is practically impossible to +give general effect to the law. This work is not the light and often +pleasant occupation of sewing or folding. It is not done sitting down. +From morning to night these young girls are constantly standing, they +are generally tending machines, the majority of which are specially +heated, and they work in an atmosphere in which steam, which is nearly +always present, makes the high temperature far more oppressive than +would be the case if the air were not thus artificially saturated to +an excessive degree with moisture. Steam rises from the calenders and +various machines. It is given off also by the damp clothes, which in +many laundries, even large ones, hang drying or airing overhead or on +“horses” in the room. The conditions in this respect are often at least +as trying as in any spinning-mill, and the hours, during which the +girls are exposed to them, very much longer.</p> + +<p>Ironers suffer from headaches and sore eyes, which result from +constantly bending over the gas-heated irons in general use. The fumes +from the tiny gas-jets—unless these and the air supply to each iron +are very carefully regulated—are disagreeably noticeable on entering +the room, and sometimes even the laundry, and are of course worst of +all just above the iron so heated. It is to be remembered that the +material handled is not new or in the first instance clean, and unless +sufficient care is taken to keep the “sorting” room in laundries in +proper condition, the result is sure to be insanitary.</p> + +<p>In small hand and “factory” laundries, a practice is to be found which +cannot be too severely deprecated, of employing as a “drying-room” +for the washed linen the same little room in which the foul linen is +sorted on its arrival. The room has a stove in the middle of it, and +the washed linen is hung on lines drawn across it, and, with door and +window closely shut, is left all day and often all night till dry.</p> + +<p>It may be taken as an axiom that when on entering the premises the +peculiar “close” smell is noticeable, there the conditions are bad. Of +all the disagreeable smells that are to be found, the heavy odour of an +ill-ventilated laundry or wash-house<span class="pagenum" id="Page_671">[671]</span> is one of the worst; “it seems +to cling to one’s lips till one tastes it,” was the expression used by +one who frequently visits laundries. To this discomfort the “sorters” +are peculiarly exposed. As Miss Squire says: “It is hardly perhaps +realised how great are the demands that this branch of laundry-work +makes upon the physical and mental powers of the workers, usually young +women of good education, and the constant standing, the unpleasant, +if not the insanitary nature of the work for the first part of the +week during the “sorting” process, and the great care and attention +required during the latter part, when collecting, checking, and packing +separately each customer’s linen.” “I visited,” says Miss Anderson, +“one hand laundry in London where a packer and sorter had been driven +into a hospital with sores on her legs from long standing; every day in +the week she had been working from 8 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> to 10 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> +with indefinite meal-times, and on Sundays the whole morning, giving +out parcels to customers. This girl eventually left the hospital on +crutches, and at that time I found her successor in a fair way to +losing her health also.”<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> + +<p>The reply of the women themselves, when questioned on the subject, is +nearly always the same, and its reiteration is impressive: “I don’t +know that it’s anything particular as carries us off; but we are just +wore out in no time.” “There’s nothing like this life for wearing you +out.” “We’re old women at forty.” “It’s a harder life than any, is a +laundry; it wears you out very soon.” “For one strong one that’ll stand +it, there’s a many and many fair wore out by it before they’ve lived +half a life.”</p> + +<p>It would be interesting to test the accuracy of this general impression +which is shared by many medical and philanthropic persons who are +interested in laundry-workers, if figures were available on which to +base a calculation of the “expectation of life” among these women. +“Worn out while still young,” is the expression constantly used by +those whose professional work brings them into contact with these women +when speaking of the effect of the occupation on health.</p> + +<p>It is frequently asserted that laundry women as a class are intemperate +and rougher than most industrial workers. That they are peculiarly +irregular in their habits it is impossible to deny; and that the long +hours, the discomfort and exhaustion due to constant standing in wet +and heat, discourage the entrance into the trade of a better class +of worker is certain. This latter cause, however, will operate less +and less strongly as the environment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_672">[672]</span> improves. They may at present +be characterised as a hard-working, impulsive, short-tempered body of +women, the control of whom, under the existing irregular conditions +which have been thoughtlessly and unnecessarily encouraged, is not to +be lightly undertaken by a man without a fair amount of physical and +moral courage. The prevalence of the drink habit among many of them, +of which so much is said, is not difficult to account for: the heat +of an atmosphere often laden with particles of soda, ammonia, and +other chemicals, has a remarkably thirst-inducing effect; the work is +for the most part exhausting, even apart from the conditions, and the +pernicious habit of quenching the thirst, and stimulating an overtired +physical condition, with beer. The ten minutes or quarter-hour “lunch” +of “beer” is common, and the “beerman,” who goes his rounds at 10 +<span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> and 6 or 7 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> to all the laundries, delivering +his cans of beer from the nearest public house, is an institution which +is, I believe, unknown in any other trade. Imagine the amazement of the +master of a mill or weaving factory if his employés were to stop in a +body for a quarter of an hour twice a day between meals to drink beer! +Yet in many laundries the beer is kept on the premises for the purpose, +and it is certain that as long as time thus wasted (to put it on the +lowest grounds) can be made up by each separate woman “working it out” +at the end of the day, irregular dawdling and intemperate habits will +be encouraged. On the other hand, a woman who is expected on Thursdays +or Fridays to be in the laundry from 8 or 8.30 in the morning till 9 or +10 or 11 at night, may claim with some show of reason that only by some +kind of spur can she keep her overtired body from flagging.</p> + +<p>None deplore this discreditable and unsatisfactory practice more than +the better and more progressive among the laundry employers, but the +abolition of it rests practically with them.</p> + +<p>Little has been said about the legal regulation of hours of work. Were +the conditions in this trade to be raised by the exercise of modern +ingenuity and wise organisation—above all, by whole-hearted adoption +of effectual means of counteracting the very trying conditions, which +it is best frankly to own are otherwise an essential accompaniment of +the work—there is no reason why it should not rank as one of the best +of the non-textile industries.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Lucy A. E. Deane.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_673">[673]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLVIII<br> +<span class="subhed">FISH-CURING AND FRUIT-PRESERVING</span></h2></div> + + +<p>It would probably seem to the casual observer that of all industries +in which women are employed, none are less likely to cause injury to +health than those connected with fish. Visions arise of the fisherman’s +wife, who from the minute the fishing-boat grates on the beach relieves +her husband of all labour, taking the burden of the active work and the +sole responsibility for all connected with the fish and the nets; of +the Newhaven fishwife, so familiar in the streets of Edinburgh, as she +trudges from door to door bearing with apparent ease the enormous creel +of fish, and her almost equally surprising burden of petticoats, and +of everything one has heard or read of the fisher lass. These visions +and traditions would seem to justify the view that whatever there may +be in her life that is hard, and for which the dweller in towns might +be found unfit, the woman who has from her infancy been accustomed to +an outdoor life and to constant exposure to wind and weather, will, in +this work, have fitness and endurance which it would be difficult to +overtax.</p> + +<p>Yet it is not inappropriate to give some space to this industry in +a book on Occupation Diseases, and in order to arrive at the reason +for its inclusion, it is necessary to look at the history of the +development of the fish-curing industry and the conditions of work.</p> + +<p>Far away in remote districts of Scotland and Ireland, there may still +be found surviving the hand industry of wool-carding and spinning, +carried on often by the crofter’s or shepherd’s wife as she sits, +singing no doubt appropriate songs, on the hillside or at her peat +fire, but in nothing can this be compared with the great wool-spinning +industry of the Yorkshire mills. Similarly in the fish-curing trade, +the work of the women who concern themselves only with the catch of +one small fishing-boat is totally different from that of those who are +centred round a fish market, who go from port to port, and to whom the +trawler, the drifter, the steam<span class="pagenum" id="Page_674">[674]</span> liner, and a huge fleet of sail boats, +bring in daily tons of fish.</p> + +<p>In a country with such a coastline as ours, with its shores washed +by many seas, it follows as a matter of course that all parts of the +United Kingdom are industrially interested in fishing, but in Scotland +chiefly it is a staple industry; and the Scots, in some parts of the +country, might be called a nation of fisher folk, so large a proportion +of the population depend, if not for their entire living, at least for +the chief part of it, on the harvest of the sea. The figures given in +the last published report of the Scotch Fishery Board show that almost +90,000 Scots were employed in connection with the various branches +of the sea fisheries, of whom probably at least a fourth are women, +constantly or intermittently engaged in fish-curing.</p> + +<p>The industry, leaving out of account the packing of fish for sale +fresh, which is done from the market, not the workshop, may be divided +roughly into two varieties, the one dealing with herring, the other +with haddocks, cod, and other white-fleshed fish. It is with the former +I wish to deal chiefly here, although the latter has also a record of +injury caused by overwork and bad conditions.</p> + +<p>There does not appear to be reason to fear that the demand both at +home and abroad for Scotch-cured herrings will diminish. The industry, +while fluctuating yearly, both locally and generally, grows as a +whole in extent, and is largely in the hands of Scotch workers, +even in the ports in England in which it is carried on. There is a +huge trade to foreign ports in cured or pickled herrings, for which +there is apparently an unlimited demand in Russia and Germany; and +an immense quantity are exported also to the Mediterranean ports. +The women employed (if we consider, as the English curer does, that +Northumberland is part of Scotland as far as the fishing industry is +concerned) are practically all Scotch. They are engaged by the curer +for the season as long as that lasts in one port, or may be engaged +for a longer period, or indeed for the whole “herring” year by the +same curer. At any rate, they find little difficulty in securing +engagements, and, in May and June, we find them very far north: +Stornoway and Thurso being the centres of the industry. In July, there +is a move eastwards on the part of the herring, and consequently of +the herring curers, and for two months Shetland, Wick, Fraserburgh, +and Peterhead are the chief headquarters. Later, the same women may +be found doing the same work on the Yorkshire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_675">[675]</span> and the Lincolnshire +coasts, and in October they move to Lowestoft and Yarmouth, where their +season probably ends about Christmas time. A certain number also may be +found in Hull, kippering herrings in the early part of the year, before +making their way home north for a sight of friends and home, before +beginning the work of a new season.</p> + +<p>The chief causes of injury to health in the industry are two: (1) long +and irregular hours of work; (2) exposure. Uncertainty of supply, +both of fish and of wind, are of course important factors in the +trade; and, so far, little enterprise has been shown in overcoming the +resulting difficulties by adopting even such methods as are known to a +careful housekeeper, of keeping the fish, which undoubtedly, when left +unprotected and piled in heaps, soon begin to deteriorate. The curer’s +object is to have the fish dealt with as soon as possible after they +are landed, both to prevent deterioration and in order to be ready for +the next supply. Hence the long hours, the night work, the absence of +regular hours or of intervals sufficient for meals.</p> + +<p>The method of housing the workers adds to the discomforts occasioned +by the methods of work. In Scotland it is customary for the curer to +utilise for this purpose the sheds used in winter as stores, handing +them over unfurnished, save for grates and rough boards put together +to form bedsteads, in the proportion of one bedstead for one crew. The +workers bring their own furniture, bedding, and cooking utensils, and +live as they work, in crews of three; generally six, nine, or twelve in +a room according to its size. It is not surprising that the frying-pan +and the tea-pot fill a large place in their domestic arrangements, +and that their diet is as a rule as expensive as it is indigestible. +If they are not so housed, the probability is that their lodging is a +long way from their workplace, too far to admit of them returning for +meals, and they take these in the wet and unwholesome atmosphere of the +fish-house.</p> + +<p>The second drawback to this work is the exposure. In early summer in +Lewis (where the absence of any real darkness makes it easy to continue +work all through the night), with the rain falling softly probably, as +is its custom in the west, but none the less effectively; later on in +the east, exposed to the scorching mid-day heat; and still later on, +on the Norfolk coast in frost, wind, and rain, working far into the +night, by the light of flaring torches, such is the yearly experience +of the herring curer. The reason given for the present conditions in +each place is that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_676">[676]</span> the season is short, a month or two out of the year +only. True, the season is short for the town, but it is long for the +worker, living a nomadic life for eight to ten months out of twelve, +either in barracks or in lodgings, too often enduring the maximum of +discomfort both in and out of her working hours. Since the work, unlike +most of an outdoor nature, can be carried on in bad as in good weather, +it is reasonable to expect that some covering should be provided, so +that the worker shall not be wetted through and through, and compelled +to stand in mud as she works. Should the occupation be ever transformed +from an outdoor to an indoor industry, there would necessarily be a +loss of those picturesque sights with which many of us have become +familiar, but there would be a distinct gain in improved health to the +workers, for the unsatisfactory health of many of the women is the +direct result of the conditions under which their work is carried on. +Rheumatism, bronchitis, and the pulmonary troubles, from which so many +of them suffer, are consequent upon exposure to inclement weather, +but the derangements of the digestive organs and the tendency for the +workers to contract, often too in a severe form, epidemic diseases with +which they are brought into contact, are the result of their generally +lowered physical condition, due to their unhealthy mode of living. +The very ground they stand on is often a menace to health, for in the +absence of proper paving and drainage, the earth becomes impregnated +with decaying organic matter, which “smells to heaven,” and creates a +constantly foul atmosphere not completely counteracted by the open-air +surroundings. The long spell of work, the irregular and hastily cooked +and eaten meals, and overcrowded rooms, all tend to lower vitality and +render the system an easy prey to disease. No one will deny that an +allowance of 250 cubic feet of space for each person, in a room which +serves as a living room, as well as bedroom, for six to twelve persons, +is too small, yet a smaller allowance of space is frequently found.</p> + +<p>I have spoken of the workers at the pickling or gutting and packing +process, leaving out of account the numbers employed in kippering, +who, while also nomadic, yet work on different terms as regards wages, +etc. Each worker is engaged separately, not as part of a crew, and as +a rule she has to find her own lodgings. The nature of the employment +obliges the kipperer to work in a covered place, but she, equally +with the “gutter” working outside, is injuriously influenced by the +imperfect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_677">[677]</span> sanitary conditions dependent upon unpaved or badly-paved +floors that cannot be <i>cleansed</i> by simply being flushed with +water. Only properly constructed floors with good means of drainage +are of value here, and these are seldom seen. Ventilation and daylight +are acknowledged to be desirable to maintain health, but the little +kippering shop is too frequently without them. As a set-off against the +unhealthiness of the trade, it is urged that the season is short, but +if we take the interests of the workers into account, the season, as I +have shown, is not short, and there can be no justice in depriving the +woman who works in a trade which requires her to be in several places +in a year, of those privileges to which she would be entitled were she +working in one which permitted her to live always at home.</p> + +<p>Among the minor ills from which the herring curer suffers, are the +severe cuts which it is impossible to avoid, and which are rendered +exceedingly painful by the constant use of salt, necessary in her work. +This often causes sores which take a long time to heal. Cases of mild +forms of blood poisoning are not infrequent, caused chiefly by the +sting of the jelly-fish, which is often found with its tentacles wound +round the herring.</p> + +<p>In considering this question, it must be remembered that this branch +of the industry is not one in which young girls work. I am of opinion +that not more than 3 per cent. are under eighteen years of age. Were +it otherwise, there would undoubtedly be a much darker picture to draw +of ill-health, for the adult is able to withstand more than the young +undeveloped girl, and the evil effects are not so rapidly apparent. +The subject is one on which anything more than general statements are +difficult to make, for only a little of the injury is discoverable at +any one of the curing stations. When ill-health overtakes her, the +thought of the worker turns to home, and it is to the little fishing +villages, and among the crofters of the north, that one must go to +learn the full record of the fisher woman’s life. It is impossible to +doubt that the fish-curing industry has much to answer for, possessing +as it does, in addition to the unfavourable surroundings of insanitary +districts, evils peculiar to itself. The history of many a worker is +one of steady deterioration of health during the time of her employment +in this industry.</p> + +<p>In the other branches of the trade, such as the curing and smoking of +haddocks, cod, ling, etc., and the preserving and tinning of fish, the +workers are drawn much more generally from the immediate locality. It +is in these that young labour is found,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_678">[678]</span> especially and increasingly +in the processes in which the hours and conditions are not regulated +by law, the period of employment at times abnormally long, and the +conditions of the workplaces far from satisfactory. Trying as these are +to every one, it is to the young and undeveloped workers that they most +often cause lasting injury. The employment of children, too, out of +school hours and during school holidays, in these laborious processes, +is not to their physical advantage.</p> + +<p>The hopeful feature is that the evils are avoidable. The exemptions +from Public Health and Factory and Workshop Acts, which the fish-curer +has been allowed, have not been for the benefit either of the worker +or the consumer. With definite enactment and administration, with +regulated hours and sanitary workplaces, impetus would be given, I +believe, to better regulation of the industry itself, and there being +nothing necessarily unhealthy in the work, we should gradually find our +fisher population becoming what with their ancestry and industry they +ought to be—worthy successors of those who, in the annals of history, +have never been found wanting in strength and endurance.</p> + + +<h3><i>The Preserving of Fruit.</i></h3> + +<p>The preserving of fruit has only of recent years become an industry of +any importance. The costliness of sugar made jam formerly a luxury for +which the demand was small, and the great bulk of it used was made not +in the factory or workshop, but in the domestic kitchen. Few housewives +would, in those past days, admit the use of bought jam; now its +reduced price has brought it within the reach of all who are without +the appliances or knowledge to make it, or space in which to store +it. The industry is carried on in all varieties of workplaces, from +the large country factory in a fruit-growing district, to the little +dingy workshop in a crowded city street, and largely by women and young +girls. Jam-making is not an intricate process, whether made outright +in the fruit season, or only partially, to be completed as required +during the remainder of the year; it is simple and easily carried on, +for the most part, by unskilled workers. Still the work is not light, +and although there are many appliances which help to render it less +hard and exhausting, these are not in general use, and the workers are +exposed, as a rule, to danger both to health and limb. Burns and scalds +from the boiling mixture, and injury from falls on slippery floors, may +not be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_679">[679]</span> wholly unavoidable in this trade; but the risk from them can +be reduced greatly by using proper means of pouring and conveying jam, +and by limiting the amount which a worker shall be allowed or expected +to carry. One cannot but view with concern the increasing number of +youthful workers now employed, especially during the summer months, +when, owing to a relaxation of the Factory Act, the industry is largely +outside the sphere of legislative control. Long hours, too, go, as is +often the case, hand in hand with bad conditions.</p> + +<p>In quite a number of industries among which jam-making may be included, +wetness really forms the chief menace to health. In the textile +industry the danger from this cause has been so much recognised, that +by means of the Cotton Cloth Act and by Special Rules, provision is +made for the health of the workers where they are exposed to moisture. +In the law relating to steam laundries, the removal of steam is +specially provided for. In jam manufacture, there is of necessity the +production of moisture. Where the means for removing it are effective, +little discomfort or injury may result, but unfortunately in the rapid +development of the industry, buildings unsuitable for the purpose have +often been chosen; disused factories, intended primarily for quite +other purposes, and not easily adaptable to their present use. In +these, consequently, the work is done at a risk to health.</p> + +<p>When you enter the boiling-room of one of these factories, you are +often conscious only of steam, steam which cannot be seen through, +which envelopes you, wetting and chilling at the same time. As you +penetrate it you find that there are workers there, young girls often, +thinly clad, thin and pale, and as you stand and talk to them, the +condensed steam drops down on you and them from the roof, so that +you are not surprised that the thin cotton dresses they wear are +saturated, and even their hair is dripping wet. In the resigned manner +characteristic of this class of worker, they admit that it is “a bit +steamy,” possibly assuring you at the same time in husky voices, which +go far to belie their words, that it has never done them any harm. +Under foot there is again wetness, partly due to the steam, partly to +the water, hot and cold, which must be used with some lavishness, and +which in factories, not constructed with a special view to such an +industry as this, lodges in pools, lies between the flags and bricks of +the floor in crevices, to which much of the refuse of the factory finds +its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_680">[680]</span> way. There it lies decomposing, affecting injuriously the health +of the workers, and hastening the deterioration of the fresh fruit.</p> + +<p>Jam-making is classed as a season trade, and although employment for +the permanent workers is usually continuous throughout the year, it is +in the summer months that there is the greatest pressure, and large +numbers of casual workers are employed. To meet this pressure, the +usual limits set by the Factory Acts have been relaxed, and long spells +of work, with shortened meal-times, are further elements in rendering +the worker less efficient and more liable to contract disease. The +effects of these conditions are not seen at once, they are gradual and +insidious in their action, but it is only the constitution much above +the average which can withstand them. The prevalence of bronchitis +and other chest diseases, and of rheumatism and lumbago of a chronic +character, although often not of a specially severe type, is due to +causes which are, or should be, preventable.</p> + +<p>The two industries, fish-curing and fruit-preserving, have many points +in common, notably that in both: (1) the material dealt with is of a +perishable nature, liable to deterioration; (2) the pressure of work +is not continuous throughout the year; (3) the industry is not fully +controlled by the Factory Acts. To the effects from these causes all +that renders these trades at present dangerous or injurious to health +may be attributed. If the economic value of the health of the worker is +recognised, it will not be impossible to secure conditions which, being +primarily intended for her benefit, shall incidentally tend also to the +improvement of the industries.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—This chapter was written before the Factory Bill of 1901 +passed into law. It should, owing to the provisions of that Bill, be +possible in future for H.M. Inspectors to exercise some control over +some of the conditions relating to health in these trades.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Mary M. Paterson.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_681">[681]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XLIX<br> +<span class="subhed">WOMEN’S LABOUR IN TINPLATE WORKS</span></h2></div> + + +<p>Tinplates, the material of which canisters, tin boxes, etc., are made, +are plates of iron or of steel, which have been dipped in baths of +molten tin; the tin unites by this process with the iron or steel, +and coats it completely. The secret of tinning plates was brought +into England from Saxony at the end of the seventeenth century, and +the first works were opened at Pontypool. South Wales still retains +the chief part of this trade; a few tinplate works are to be found +on the banks of the Severn and in the Midlands, but the majority are +in Monmouthshire, Glamorgan, and Carmarthen. In these counties great +tinplate works, either singly or in groups, or in a long line at +intervals of a mile or so down the still beautiful valleys, are to be +seen and heard, pouring out volumes of smoke from tall chimneys, and +sending up the ceaseless clang and roll of resounding metal—literally +ceaseless, for the work goes on night and day, with shifts of men and +boys. More unlikely places in which to find women and girls than these +iron and steel works where tinplates are made it would be difficult to +imagine, yet there are hundreds of them in those of South Wales, and a +few in some of the works in England. Before the Factory Acts restricted +their hours of labour, women and girls worked all night through in +tinplate works with the men and boys, and such employment seems to +have lingered long in these out-of-the-way places, for the older women +remember the night alarm of the inspector’s visit and the rush from the +works out into the darkness, and the quiet stealing home so as not to +be caught. Now, boys working in a night-shift take the place of women +and girls in the continuous processes. The actual manufacture of the +tinplate as distinct from the manufacture of the material is divided +into two distinct departments: (1) The preparation of the iron or steel +into plates of the required size and thickness, or rather thinness, and +the smoothing and cleaning of their surfaces; (2) the tinning of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_682">[682]</span> +plates and their subsequent cleaning, polishing, and packing up.</p> + +<p>The first set pf processes is carried on in the mills, the second in +the tinhouses; the chief part of the work is done by men and boys, but +in both the mills and the tinhouses women and girls find occupation. +Their labour falls into five main divisions; in some tinhouses there +are also found others subsidiary to these five:—</p> + +<p>(1) <i>Opening.</i>—Separating the plates which have in the process of +rolling been almost welded together.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Washing.</i>—Cleansing the plates in water.</p> + +<p>(3) <i>Pickling.</i>—Lading and unlading the cradle with plates for +the pickler (a man) to immerse in dilute sulphuric acid.</p> + +<p>(4) <i>Rubbing or Dusting.</i>—Rubbing the tinned plates with bran, +meal, or mineral powder to remove grease and polish the surface.</p> + +<p>(5) <i>Counting and Packing.</i>—Ordinary warehouse processes.</p> + +<p>The first three of these processes are carried on in the mills, +the last two in the tinhouses and warehouses. Different as are the +conditions of occupation in the various processes, all the employés +are subject alike to certain conditions: in all departments there is +exposure to the weather, the works being more or less open on all +sides; everywhere there is noise which in the mills is deafening, +danger to life and limb from locomotives and trucks in motion, from +red-hot metal, from sharp-edged plates, and scraps strewn about, so +that the whole works appears one vast rubbish heap; in all departments +alike the lifting and carrying of heavy loads are part of the ordinary +work. There is also the association of men and women, lads and +girls, working together in these great open works where supervision +is impossible, and where, unfortunately, proper provision for +women’s convenience, often even for elementary decency, is too often +conspicuous by its absence.</p> + +<p>In the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for 1888, Mr +Whymper gives a graphic description of tinplate works and the various +processes of manufacture, only touching upon the part taken by women +and girls, and time seems to have made little or no change in either +works or processes.</p> + +<p>A few remarks must now be made on the special conditions of each of the +processes in which women are employed.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Opening.</i>—Mr Whymper has well described this process as +follows: “Holding the plate upright on a stand of the proper height, +her right hand fitted with the much-needed guard, she<span class="pagenum" id="Page_683">[683]</span> first breaks +down the plate’s upper edges with a sort of knife, and starts asunder +the tops of the layers which the rolling-mill has pressed together +temporarily into one piece. Then having thus got something to take +hold of, she wrenches them asunder in their whole lengths, one +after another, and lays them flat before her. These at last are the +required black plates, the result of so much and such varied labour.” +Strength and skill are required for this work; there is some danger +of overstrain in lifting the heavy plates, but an opener is more at +liberty to suit her load to her strength than are the women and girls +in the other departments. The sharp edges of the plates inflict nasty +cuts upon the hands in spite of the guards worn, and serious accidents +have occurred by women stumbling and falling against the upright +plates; one young woman had her arm cut open from wrist to elbow in +this way. Fine particles of steel and iron fly off in the forcing open +of the layers, and it is surprising that injuries to the eyes are not +more frequent. Some doctors well acquainted with these works consider +that much injury is caused to the men by inhaling these particles of +metal present in the air of the mills, and that the women are more +injuriously affected than they themselves know, chest diseases in later +life resulting from this cause. The openers are a somewhat superior +class to the other women in tinplate works, from whom they hold +themselves aloof: their hours, too, are much shorter than those of the +others, usually from 9 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> to 2 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, and they come +and go as they like.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Washers.</i>—These women wash the metal plates in large tanks +of water; they carry loads of these heavy, sharp-edged plates, and +immerse them in the tanks, the displaced water splashes over the edge +of the tank upon the washer, and falls upon the floor. With sleeves +rolled up above the elbow, bending over the tank, the woman raises +the plates again, and carries them to stack at a little distance, the +water pouring from her load down her dress and into her boots. As the +same process is repeated again and again the whole day long, it is not +surprising that her clothes are saturated even through the sacking +tied on as an apron. Nothing more unsuitable for the occupation than +the dress of the washer could well be imagined—several thin articles +of clothing hanging wet upon her, the dress and petticoat long enough +to draggle in the pools of water on the broken flagged or slushy mud +floor, and flapping heavily against her ankles, and upon her feet men’s +boots filled with water oozing through the eyelet-holes. Rheumatism, +colds, and chills are regarded as inseparable, at any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_684">[684]</span> rate in winter, +from the work of washing tinplates, and other ills consequent upon +this wet condition are complained of. Yet the wearing of a waterproof +apron (which should be provided by the employer), and of short skirts, +woollen under-garments, and clogs, would prevent nearly all the +discomfort and risk to health now endured by all these women. The +provision of properly paved and drained floors, such as the Factory +Acts require in all laundries, might reasonably be looked for from the +occupiers of tinplate works, and were mechanical means employed, as in +the bottle-washing departments in aerated water works for, lowering +into the tanks and raising from them the articles to be washed, the +work would be less unsuitable for women than it is at present.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Pickling.</i>—The roughest and dirtiest, and perhaps the most +unhealthy occupation for women in the works is that of the “picklers’ +assistants.” These girls work in gangs under the man who has the +contract for cleaning the plates in dilute sulphuric acid. Their work +is to lade and unlade the cradles in which the plates placed in racks +are lowered by the pickler into the steaming tanks of acid. Backwards +and forwards the girls move with armfuls of plates, carrying each time +weights of thirty pounds and upwards, first filling the racks and then +removing from them the wet plates fresh from the tanks. The clothing of +the girls becomes saturated like that of the washers. It is not only +their health that suffers; the girls are “soaked through to the skin” +as they say, not with plain water, but with the “pickle,” which rapidly +destroys both their upper and under garments, and also the leather of +their boots and clogs.</p> + +<p>The strength of the solution of sulphuric acid used in different works +varies considerably according to the class of plate manufactured, and +consequently the degree of discomfort and ill-health to those exposed +to its fumes varies also. The peculiar smell of the acid pervades the +entire works, and is encountered sometimes at some distance from them. +In the pickling department itself it is very strong; here the huge +tanks of pickle emit volumes of steam, which only under very favourable +conditions of weather and exceptional structural arrangements rises +and escapes from the building; usually it hangs about the workers, +or blows in clouds across the open shed, irritating throat and eyes. +Where the solution used is a strong one, the workers suffer much from +running of the eyes, dryness of the throat, and smarting of lips and +face, from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_685">[685]</span> what they describe as a “stifled feeling,” and from nausea +and giddiness; the teeth become black, and the hair is said by the +workers to fall out. When the strongest solution is used, the girls tie +handkerchiefs across their mouths and cover the hair completely. But +in most cases a weaker solution is employed, and very little complaint +of ill-health is made; the workers believe that the pickle gives them +an appetite and keeps off infectious illness. In Switzerland, by a +decree of 1898, pregnant women are forbidden to work where there is any +emanation of sulphuric acid, lifting heavy weights, or violent shocks, +conditions which are combined in the pickling department of tinplate +works.</p> + +<p>The only special health provision of the Factory Acts at present +applied to tinplate works is the order of the Secretary of State, +dated December 1882, prohibiting meals being taken in departments +“where metal is dipped in acid solution.” This excludes women and young +persons from the pickling department during meal hours, but as no other +place is provided where meals can be eaten under shelter by those whose +homes are at a far distance, this rule is frequently disregarded.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Tin-houses.</i>—Large numbers of quite young girls, young +persons from thirteen to eighteen years of age, are employed in this +work, which is that of rubbing the tinned plates with bran, meal, or +fine mineral dust to remove all grease and polish the surfaces of +the plates. This process is largely done by hand, but machines have +superseded hand-rubbing in some works. Where they are in use, girls +are still employed to tend the machines, but fewer are required than +when all the work is done by hand. The girls work in the tinhouses +standing, whether at the tables heaped with bran or at the machines, at +right angles to the tinning stacks where the tinman and his assistants +are working. The plates are passed on hot from the tinning-pot to the +girls, who push them backwards and forwards through the heaped “bran” +before them; or if this first process has been done by the machine, +the girls pass the plates through the power-driven sheepskin rollers. +In either case the fine dust rises into the face of the worker, covers +her hair and dress, and diffuses through the air of the tinhouse, which +frequently is filled as with a fog with this light, floating dust. +This being inhaled, produces more or less injurious effects, according +to the nature of the dust and the susceptibilities of the individual. +In some works the irritation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_686">[686]</span> to the throat is so great as to make +speech almost impossible, and complaints of cough and “stuffing up” of +the chest are numerous, while in others, whatever may be the ultimate +result on the lungs, no discomfort, after once the worker has become +used to the conditions, seems to be felt.</p> + +<p>A most objectionable feature of the employment of young girls in the +tinhouse is the carrying of heavy loads. As this is not essential to +the work, and could be done by boy or man with a specially constructed +truck or trolly, it is greatly to be deplored. The plates which have +been rubbed accumulate upon the table, and must be removed to the +warehouse to be weighed and packed, and so at frequent intervals the +girl, with both her hands (protected by sheepskin gloves), grasps her +pile of plates, and supporting them upon her hip, staggers along to +the warehouse. To prevent constant journeys and secure more time for +wage-earning (for the “rubbers” are paid so much for a box of plates), +the girls carry as much at a time as they possibly can, carrying loads +men hesitate to lift. These loads, carried by slight girls of thirteen +or fourteen, weighed from 40 to 111 lbs. Injuries known, and unknown, +are done by this unnecessary use of young girls as “beasts of burden.”</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Rose E. Squire.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_687">[687]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER L<br> +<span class="subhed">WOMEN’S LABOUR IN AERATED WATER WORKS</span></h2></div> + + +<p>In the year 1896 the Dangerous Trades Committee appointed by the Home +Office reported on the manufacture and bottling of aerated waters. As +a result of this report this industry was scheduled as a dangerous +trade, and Special Rules were imposed. The danger—for minimising +which regulations have been framed—in this manufacture is not, as +is the case with the majority of those to which Special Rules are +applied, a danger to health, but to life and limb. The danger is +the risk of cuts, more or less severe, from the glass fragments of +bursting bottles filled under pressure. The number of such accidents is +enormous, inflicting every degree of injury from a skin graze to a cut +artery, or the loss of an eye. The number of accidents reportable to +the Home Office has been greatly reduced by the wearing of faceguards +and gauntlets prescribed by the Special Rules, but it is still very +large. Four classes of workers are specially mentioned in the Special +Rules as requiring protection by wearing guards—these are bottlers, +wirers, sighters, and labellers. The first of these four are exposed +to most danger; the bottles frequently burst while in the machine, or +more often while being removed from it, but if suitable faceguards +and gauntlets are worn no serious injury results. Unless the bottling +machines are, in accordance with the Special Rules, carefully fenced +off, the danger is very great to all persons in the room; the broken +glass, sent by the explosion with enormous force to a considerable +distance, has been known to rebound with terrible effect from an +object struck in its course, and to hit persons who seemed quite +safe. Women and girls are largely employed as bottlers in London, +Birmingham, and a few other large towns, but elsewhere this work is +done almost exclusively by men; boys are generally employed outside +London and Birmingham as wirers, sighters, and labellers, in place +of girls. Wiring has disappeared from most aerated water works, the +patent stoppers having taken the place of corks in all but a few kinds +of aerated waters. Sighters, those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_688">[688]</span> who examine the filled bottles to +detect specks by holding them up to the light, wirers (where these +are employed), and labellers, are the classes of workers who most +frequently discard the prescribed guards, or wear them under protest +as interfering with their work. The sighters complain that the wire +mesh of masks or goggles prevents their seeing the specks in the water; +wirers and labellers find that the knitted woollen mittens, which +are the kind of gauntlet commonly supplied, impede the movements of +the hands; in the one case the handles of the pliers used to twist +the wire catch in the worsted, and in the other the mitten becomes +stiff and hard with the paste with which the labels are smeared. A +satisfactory gauntlet has yet to be invented; the conditions required +are that they should be of a material impenetrable to flying glass, +soft and pliable, close-fitting, of a size and shape to keep in place +over the palm of the hand and up above the elbow; these have not yet +been found combined. Objection on the part of the women and girls to +wearing faceguards is only met with where the guard supplied to them is +unsuitable. The faceguards for girls should be of a smaller size and +lighter make than those for men, sufficiently bowed out not to press +upon the nose, and long enough to cover the whole chin, throat, and +neck; they must be clean, and must be provided with buckle and strap, +or some other means of keeping them firmly in position on the head. +A mask that presses against the face, or weighs heavily on the head, +or shifts from side to side with every movement, or of which the wire +mesh is clogged with rust and dirt, is sure to be thrown aside whenever +supervision is relaxed.</p> + +<p>Another class of workers employed in aerated water factories who are +mentioned in the Special Rules as needing to be protected from the +danger of bursting bottles are the washers. These women, although +handling the empty, not the filled bottles, generally work in the +bottling rooms, and unless the bottling machines are well guarded, do +meet occasionally with serious accidents, such as the loss of an eye, +or an arm cut open. But this is a risk quite apart from the nature of +their employment, to which it is most unreasonable that washers should +be exposed. A far more serious risk, a risk to health, is incidental to +their work; it is that of being constantly wet. No special rules are +imposed to protect them from such injury to health arising from their +employment, as is the case in wet spinning factories, where women are +exposed by their occupation to being constantly wetted. In wet spinning +factories the occupier must, unless splashboards are provided,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_689">[689]</span> supply +to all the workers waterproof overalls or aprons, and floors must be +kept in a sound condition, so as to prevent retention or accumulation +of water. The bottle-washers stand in great need of protection of +the kind specified in these rules. They stand at large tanks full of +water, in which the bottles, returned empty by customers, are washed +before being refilled for sale. From the point of view of the public +health, the history of the water used for this purpose would be of +interest—its source, the frequency with which it is changed, and the +steps taken to cleanse the tanks. The appearance of the water in the +tanks is not, as a rule, attractive, and the notices to washers to +reject bottles smelling of paraffin suggest strange uses to which the +bottles may be put by customers before they are returned empty. But +it is the wetness and coldness of the water, and not its purity or +impurity, which affect the washer. Bending over the tank to lower into +it or raise from it the bottles being washed, she is very early in the +day wet to the skin; the water splashes up from the tank and drips +from the wet bottles, and it is no wonder that the usual description +given by the washers of their condition is, “We are sopped through +to the skin soon after we begin in the morning until we get home at +night.” As a consequence, rheumatism, colds, coughs, aches and pains, +are the bottle-washers’ constant complaints, and not infrequently one +and another of them is laid up for some weeks with more serious results +of their wet condition. The wearing of a waterproof apron seems such +a simple means of protecting the clothing from getting wet that it is +surprising how seldom it is adopted, but such aprons are too expensive +for the washers to provide for themselves, and in the few cases where +the occupier has supplied them, a small sum has been deducted weekly +from the wearer’s wages until the article has been paid for. Usually +the only kind of protection is a number of old sacks tied on as an +apron; these are better than nothing, but they soon get saturated. In +the larger aerated water works the bottle-washing tanks are fitted with +automatic means of lowering the bottles into the water and raising +them again, and with revolving brushes to cleanse the inside. This +labour-saving apparatus also reduces the amount of wetting to which the +washer is exposed, and if a splash-board is fitted to the tank, as has +been done in a few cases, the women need scarcely get wet at all. Where +there is no mechanical contrivance to aid the washer, a splash-board is +impracticable, as she must bend low over the tank to reach deep down +into it. Grids and boards to stand upon are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_690">[690]</span> usually provided, but even +where the women have these to stand upon it is of importance that the +floor should be properly paved and drained, and kept in good condition. +Where this is not done the feet are constantly wet in moving backwards +and forwards across the pools of water standing in the broken, uneven +floor. Clogs should always be worn in aerated water works, and are in +most large factories provided by the employers at the expense of the +workers, who pay 3d. or 4d. a week towards them. It would be well if +occupiers were to supply all such necessary articles as part of the +equipment of the works.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Rose E. Squire.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_691">[691]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LI<br> +<span class="subhed">FLAX AND LINEN</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Historical, Manufacturing, Hygienic, and Medical.</i></h3> + +<p>The manufacture of linen cloth from flax was well known to the ancient +Egyptians and other Eastern nations. Reference to linen frequently +occurs in the Celtic literature of Ireland. The native Irish usually +dyed their linen garments of a yellow or saffron colour. The revival +of the industry in the North of Ireland is attributed to the French +Huguenots who left France after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes +in 1685. Several of these refugees settled in Belfast, Lurgan, and +Lisburn. One name stands out prominently amongst these people, viz., +Louis Crommelin.</p> + +<p>Crommelin published, in 1705, a short sketch of the Irish linen trade. +It may be more or less interesting to give a few extracts from it, +thus:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The people are entirely ignorant of the mysteries relating to +the manufacture ... the flax being managed by women altogether +ignorant as to their choice of the seed or soil, for which +reason their flax is too short, and unfit for making good +yarn; they do not know when or how to pull their flax, whereby +their seed degenerates, and their flax wants strength and +substance.... They have no judgment when or how to water or +grass their flax, so as to give it a natural colour; and what +is yet worse than all, they constantly dry their flax by the +fire, which makes it impossible to bleach cloth made of their +yarns; for let all the skill and judgment in the world be used +to bleach cloth made of different sorts of flax, you can never +bring it to a good colour; for till such time as it is woven +and bleached, the best artist in nature cannot discover the +mischief.... They also use, in cleaning their flax, things +which they call “breaks,” which I can in no way approve of.... +They spin their long and short flax athwart, which is extremely +preposterous, as the flax cannot be spun fine, so the linen is +cottony.... The wheels used in spinning are turned by the foot, +and have two cords, one going round the wheel and the whirl of +the spindle, and the other going round the wheel and the whirl +of the spool, which overtwists the thread. Their manner of +reeling yarn is one of the greatest grievances, as many honest, +industrious men are undone by the deceitful methods now used +by the crafty and unfair people in this particular; as, for +instance, there is no standard for the measure of reels, and +everybody uses such reels as they think fit, for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_692">[692]</span> which reason +a stranger to the market is imposed upon to his ruin. The cuts +and hanks are reeled by several threads, through laziness or +wickedness, to the utter ruin of the poor dealers who buy yarn, +and think they have good and marketable goods for their money, +but find that the whole hank ravels together, and becomes +entirely unserviceable, or at the best so troublesome to wind +that it is as eligible to lose it as it is to spend so much +time and pains to wind it. They ought to mark each cut, or six +score threads, as they reel them, and not afterwards, as they +now do, which they might do without difficulty. They do likewise +intermix, in one and the same hank, yarn of several degrees of +fineness, which is a cheat intolerable to buyers.... The looms +generally employed in this kingdom for the making of all sorts +of linen cloth (excepting diaper and damask) are looms properly +disposed, and invented for the making of woollen cloth (save +only that they changed the gear, and wrought promiscuously linen +and woollen therein). Therefore, it is impossible to use one and +the same loom to both material with good success.... The reels +are uneven and too thick ... and they make a stuff, of water +and meal, without judgment, wherewith they stiffen their warps; +and the cloth is made too thin and sleazy, and woven where the +weather affects it....”</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1710 a bleach green, on an improved plan, was established at +Lisburn, and a Board of Trustees of the Linen and Hempen Manufacture of +Ireland was formed by Act of Parliament in 1711.</p> + +<p>North of Ireland farmers purchase their flax seed from local merchants, +and it is usually either Dutch or Russian. The farmers never save any +of their own flax seed, owing to the local custom of “steeping” the +flax, as soon as it is “pulled,” in ponds of water for a certain length +of time; it is subsequently removed, spread out in a field to dry, then +gathered into bundles, stacked, and eventually taken to the scutch +mill. Here it is run through rollers so as to remove the outer coat or +bark. The farmer next takes his flax to market, which is visited by +the flax buyers from the various spinning mills, and after purchase +conveyed to the store, examined and sorted, so as to be used for +different kinds of yarn. An analysis of Irish flax fibre made by the +late Professor Hodges, M.D., of the Queen’s College, Belfast, gave—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr" colspan="2"><i>In 100 parts of Ash.</i></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Potash</td> + <td class="right">20.32</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Soda</td> + <td class="right">2.70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Chloride of sodium</td> + <td class="right">9.27</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Lime</td> + <td class="right">19.88</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Magnesia</td> + <td class="right">4.05</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Oxide of iron</td> + <td class="right">2.83</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Sulphuric acid</td> + <td class="right">7.13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Carbonic acid</td> + <td class="right">10.72</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="right">10.24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Silica</td> + <td class="rightb">12.80</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4"></td> + <td class="rightbd">99.94</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_693">[693]</span></p> + +<p class="p-left">The presence of silica causes linen cloth always to feel +cool; moreover it contains no moisture, thus differing from cotton.</p> + +<p>In the “roughing shop” the “rougher” examines a “strick” of flax; +giving it a quick pull with his right hand, then, swinging his arm, he +leaves the disengaged portion of the fibre on his bench. This is called +“piecing,” and its object is to have all the flax as near as possible +of the same length. After having obtained a sufficient quantity, he +takes up a piece of flax, throws it out behind his shoulder, and draws +the same through his “heckle” pins, which are attached to a bench in +front of the operator. The next process is running the flax through +heckling machines of different kinds, but they are all more or less +made on the same principle. These machines are attended to by boys, +five or six to each machine. Some mills employ “half-timers”; in other +mills the lads are over fourteen years of age, but they are all under +the control of a “machine master.” In this department the flax is +separated into stricks, fastened by means of screws into a clamp called +a “holder,” which runs along the upper part of the machine, on vertical +fixed combs. Accidents to the machine boys have been frequent, owing to +their attempting to remove a “holder” too soon, or in consequence of +wearing a loose shirt sleeve, they get caught, and have their hand or +forearm pulled in against the pins. The lads in this room were formerly +obliged, by the factory authorities, to wear respirators. These were of +simple construction, for they were composed of two pieces of flannel +sewed together and fastened by a tape. The boys generally suspended +them over their chin or neck instead. The respirators were not at all +suitable; they did not cover the nose, they became damp with saliva, +foul and malodorous. In frosty weather they irritated the lips. The use +of respirators has since been abandoned.</p> + +<p>The part of the flax taken off by the pins of the machines is known +as “tow.” The pins are kept clean by a brush and doffer arrangement +connected with the machine. The boys in a machine room are classified +into tow-boys, sweepers, oilers, parcel lads, piecers-out, and cutter +boys. The last-mentioned attend to the flax-cutting machine, by which +the ends of a strick of flax are cut off by the revolving grooved +wheels.</p> + +<p>The next stage or process in the manufacture is that of “dressing and +sorting,” which is performed by hand. The men employed are called +hecklers. In the preparing room, flax is made into <i>sliver</i> by +being sorted out on the spread-board by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_694">[694]</span> girl, and then drawn through +pins and rollers to produce a ribbon-like band, which is finally +deposited in sliver cans. When a bell connected with the drawing +frame rings, it is the signal for the girl to break off the sliver. +Occasionally the sliver breaks short in its passage, and it is the duty +of the attendant then to stop her machine and to put up the end, as +it is called. Sometimes her hands are injured by doing this while the +machine is in motion. The roving frame is the last machine in use in +the preparing department, and has flyers and spindles. The sliver, on +coming from the boss rollers, goes into the flyer, a small tube of iron +like an inverted V, fixed to the top of a spindle that revolves, and +passes through its eye on to a bobbin, revolving on the spindle. This +gives a twist to the sliver now called by the name of rove.</p> + +<p>All small fibres, etc., of the flax that are taken off during the +heckling processes are called tow. This is put through a somewhat +different preparation, but eventually it becomes tow sliver and tow +yarn. The tow from flax scutching mills is also run through a breaker +card, which is a machine consisting of a cylinder of iron 4 or 5 feet +in diameter, that turns at a rapid rate of speed, and is covered by +a quantity of iron pins of varying size. To it the tow is brought by +means of feed sheets, and removed from the cards by a doffer knife.</p> + +<p>The rove is spun into yarn in the spinning-room. A recent writer +remarks that—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The process is nearly entirely mechanical, brass rollers, +fluted and revolving, taking the place of the primitive rock, +and manipulation between the fingers, as practised by the +spinning-wheel. The fact of spinning as it is now, being +mechanical, cannot be better illustrated than by mentioning +that as much yarn can now be spun under the supervision of +<i>one</i> woman called a spinner, as could be turned off 400 +spinning-wheels by 400 women in the older time.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The spinning frame has been much improved of late years. The spindles +have a velocity of 1000 revolutions or more per minute; the yarn as +it goes through the eye of the flyer attached to the end of each +spindle is thus properly twisted before it is wound on to a bobbin that +revolves on a spindle immediately beneath the flyer. There are “wet” +and “dry” spinning. In the former, the yarn goes through a trough of +hot water (heated by steam pipes) situated on the top of the spinning +frame. When the yarn is being twisted round the bobbins, a quantity of +spray is thrown off that wets the clothes of the spinners and doffers, +who are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_695">[695]</span> obliged to wear waterproof aprons and chest protectors. The +workers, however, prefer coarse sacking, which they maintain soaks up +the spray, and prevents the water running down over their petticoats, +making the lower parts of the body more or less wet. The floor of the +spinning room is frequently tiled, and is always covered with more or +less water. The atmosphere of the room from this cause and steam jets +is thoroughly saturated with moisture. When the bobbins have received +enough yarn, the doffing mistress stops the spinning frame, and by the +assistance of her doffers—boys and girls, usually “half-timers”—the +full bobbins are rapidly removed and replaced by others. The +temperature of the spinning-room is usually at least 70° F.</p> + +<p>The measuring of yarn into hanks is called “reeling.” Some of the +reeling machines, always tended by women, are moved by steam-power, +others by hand. When the reel is full, the hanks of yarn are taken to +the drying-room, and finally to the bundling department, where they are +put up in bunches.</p> + +<p>Before being woven into linen cloth, some yarn is bleached, but whether +bleached or in the brown state it is taken from the mill to the +factory, first going to the winders, who put the yarn on spools. These +are then carried to the warpers, who transfer it on to the loom beams. +It is dressed or sized and is ready for weaving. The stiffening or +dressing applied by the tenters to the yarn before weaving is made from +Irish Carragheen Moss, which is very mucilaginous but free from starch, +and to it flour and tallow are added. The temperature of the room in +which this process is conducted is high, generally from 90° to 125° F., +so as to dry the yarn as quickly as possible.</p> + +<p>At the bleach green, the brown linen is first boiled in water and lye, +next put out on grass; after this it receives another boiling to remove +any remaining chemicals, dried, and taken to the beetling engines to be +beetled. Subsequently it is lapped into parcels, and is then ready for +the market.</p> + +<p>Belfast is the centre of the linen trade. My father, Dr C. D. Purdon, +formerly Certifying Factory Surgeon for Belfast and the surrounding +district, wrote several pamphlets on the flax and linen industries. +Many of his suggestions have been adopted. In 1873 he published a +pamphlet, “On the Mortality of Flax Mill Workers,” etc., accompanied by +tables showing the mortality of different classes. In the compilation +of his statistics he had the assistance of the late Dr Newett, +Dispensary Medical Officer and subsequently Certifying Surgeon of +Ligoneill. W. D. Cramp, Esq.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_696">[696]</span> at that time H.M. Inspector of Factories +for Belfast and the North of Ireland, likewise gave valuable assistance.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“It will be perceived,” he says, “that the flax manufacturing +operatives suffer far more from phthisis than the other two +classes, nearly three-fifths of those that die annually being +taken off by diseases of the respiratory organs, while in the +other two classes (artisan and mercantile) the average amounts +to about two-fifths. In carrying our investigations into the +fatality of the different branches of the manufacture, we will +see that the death-rate amongst those employed in the preparing +rooms is exceedingly high, and that few of those employed +in these rooms live beyond sixty years. The next class that +suffers from the same diseases is the ‘hecklers,’ and the rate +of mortality among the spinners and weavers is also high. The +reason that the ‘machine boys’ appear to suffer so little is +that when they become ‘poucey,’ <i>i.e.</i> asthmatic, caused +by flax dust, numbers of them leave the mills on account of +suffering from chest affections, and go to other trades, where +they may linger on, or die from phthisis. This fatality I +consider arises from four different causes: 1st, commencing to +work when too young; 2nd, the unhealthiness of the employment; +3rd, neglect of sanitary laws; 4th, insufficient and impure +diet. A fifth might be added—namely, insufficient clothing for +the young.”</p> +</div> + +<p>My own observations lead me to think that the machine boys are the +hardest worked of any employés in the mill. They seldom have a minute’s +rest, for they are either charging the holder with flax, or taking it +out. Although fans have been introduced into the machine room, the +atmosphere is still laden with more or less dust. I have long had +the opinion that no boy under at least thirteen years of age should +be employed in this department. Many of the machine boys work in the +brickfields during summer, so as to be in the open air. Although +the half-time doffers in the spinning-room do not suffer from the +inhalation of dust, they are exposed to an unnatural heat and humid +atmosphere for several hours daily, whereby they become liable to +bronchial irritation, especially during cold and frosty weather. The +weavers are often similarly affected.</p> + +<p>The late Mr Baker, M.R.C.S. Eng., H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories in +the year 1874, introduced a respirator which for a time was worn by +hecklers in some of the mills, as they derived much benefit from it. +Many of the men, however, would not wear it, as it prevented them from +expectorating when chewing tobacco. Some of the owners have introduced +a new system of ventilating into the hecklers’ shop, whereby all dust +is carried away at once from the bench by fans.</p> + +<p>The hecklers and roughers suffer from dryness of the throat, which +is one of the first symptoms of “mechanical bronchitis.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_697">[697]</span> This +is generally followed by cough and dyspnœa, and is occasionally +accompanied by vomiting. In order to relieve these distressing symptoms +the men often drink whisky. During cold weather, easterly winds or +frost, their breathing is worse. Some of the older men are not able +to follow their occupation during the winter months. The late Dr C. +D. Purdon, in the pamphlet already referred to, makes the following +remarks:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The consumption of stimulants is also producing sad havoc.... +If I may single out a class that injure themselves more than +any other, I would mention the ‘hecklers,’ for when they begin +to suffer from the effects of dust, they commence to drink, and +go on using alcoholic stimulants till at last they die from the +effects of drink, or hasten the advance of chest affections by +its inordinate consumption.”</p> +</div> + +<p>At the time this was written, a child under the Factory Act, if ten +years of age, could be employed for six hours each day, independent of +school attendance of three hours daily, and was obliged each alternate +fortnight to commence work at six o’clock in the morning, often +travelling bare-footed one or two miles before arriving at the mill. At +present no child in Ireland can work as a “half-timer” unless he or she +be eleven years of age,<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> and the time of commencing work is in flax +mills generally 6.30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> In towns most of the workers live +close to the mills.</p> + +<p>The “half-time” children who are employed as doffers in the +spinning-room do not suffer so much from dust as from the heat and +steam from the hot water, through which the flax is passed, also from +their clothes becoming wet in spite of the use of overalls. Hygienic +rules are ignored in the home. The workers sleep in small overcrowded +rooms. Nor is the food of the mill workers as nutritious as it ought to +be. Tea and white bread, potato-bread or oaten-meal bread, form their +principal food, to which is occasionally added bacon or salt fish. “Tea +dyspepsia” is common. The children of the millworkers are, I think, +rather degenerating than improving in physical development.</p> + +<p>The diseases from which flax millworkers chiefly suffer are those +incidental to the preparing and spinning processes. To quote from Dr C. +D. Purdon’s pamphlet:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“In the former (preparing) the lungs chiefly suffer from the +constant inhaling of the ‘pouce.’ The irritating quality of +the dust is felt on the throat, which soon becomes dry. This +irritation creeps to the lungs, which soon manifests its +presence by the worker being attacked each morning with a +paroxysm of coughing.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_698">[698]</span> The dyspnœa is often very severe. Those +employed in the roughing and sorting, heckling and preparing of +flax suffer from this affection, and in the majority of cases +die from phthisis.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The carders who are employed attending to the carding machines inhale a +great deal of vegetable dust. Some physicians maintain that vegetable +dust is more irritating to the lungs than mineral. These workers as a +matter of precaution wrap round their mouth and nose a lump of tow, +which makes a kind of respirator. The introduction of fans—Blackman’s, +Davidson’s, and others—has effected an improvement in clearing away +the dust of the atmosphere of the carding and machine rooms. A few +steam jets in these departments would help still further to allay the +dust and purify the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The late Dr Hamilton, Certifying Surgeon for Cookstown, stated that +in the scutch mills of Antrim, Down, and Tyrone the workers were very +prone to ophthalmia, phthisis, and asthma, all due to dust.</p> + +<p>The late Dr Arlidge (<i>Diseases of Occupation</i>, page 255) has +remarked:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Organic dusts—some vegetable, others mineral—are encountered +in the textile manufactures, and include cotton, flax, hemp, +silk, wool, and hair. These in a general point of view are +obstructive dusts, nevertheless they are not devoid of irritant +properties, and differ greatly among themselves in the latter +respect. They further exemplify the fact, that besides +mechanical form and action, dust operates by inherent qualities; +for dust of linen and hemp develops far more serious symptoms. +The degree of dyspnœa varies extremely, and is influenced both +by individual peculiarities and also by the properties of the +dust. Writers generally concur in the belief that a tonic spasm +is set up in the bronchial muscles by the irritation and the +reflex action just spoken of, and that in co-operating therewith +there is turgescence of the mucous membrane of the bronchi, +which interposes a mechanical impediment to the free admission +and egress of air to and from the air-cells. This hypothesis is +sanctioned by the repeated strong efforts made to inspire and +expire.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The workers employed in the spinning-room are sometimes in summer +attacked by vertigo and faintness due to excessive heat; also owing +to their long standing, especially when bare-footed, on a wet floor, +they are liable to varicose veins, and œdema of ankles followed +often by an outbreak of eczema. It may be worth while to say that I +have occasionally noticed eczema rimosum on the hands of spinners, +especially the right hand. A great many of the workers wear a kind +of half leather glove on that hand. Heat and moisture may cause +the disease. Dr Glibert, of the <i>Ministère de l’Industrie et du +Travail</i> at Brussels, has been good enough to send me some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_699">[699]</span> +photographs showing slight superficial ulceration of skin of palm +of hand and fingers in flax spinners.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> I cannot say that I have +ever noticed this in our Belfast workers, either during the 32 years +I attended as Physician to the Belfast Skin Hospital, or the 19 +years that I have been Certifying Factory Surgeon. Constipation is +also common. Enlarged glands are frequent, and the women are of pale +complexion.</p> + +<p>The doffers, especially if young, are frequently, when first employed +in the mills, attacked by “mill fever” a few days after commencing +work. The symptoms are nausea and vomiting, followed by pain in the +head, thirst, and heat of skin. These continue for three or four days, +when the affection subsides. No treatment is required or sought. +The cause assigned for its origin is the smell of the oil, along +with the heat and vapour of the rooms. Irish flax is said to be less +irritating to doffers than either Dutch or Belgian. Egyptian flax, +which is occasionally met with, and which has been steeped in a special +preparing fluid, gives off in the process of heckling more or less +ammonia; this causes irritation of the mucous membrane of the nostrils.</p> + +<p>A peculiar eruption also attacks doffers, and which is evidently due to +a combination of flax-water and oil. The uncovered parts of the body, +as forearms, arms, and face, are the parts attacked by this cutaneous +eruption. It never attacks adults, only the doffers. It is a papular +rash in the first stage, and is shotty to the touch, like smallpox. The +papules become larger, and often contain a central plug of sebum. It is +a <i>folliculitis</i>. Some kinds of flax, such as Russian, cause more +of the eruption than others.</p> + +<p>Various trades are known to cause particular kinds of callosities due +to pressure and constant friction; thus hecklers have frequently a +thickened or callous condition of the skin of the index finger of the +right hand due to pulling the flax out of the “pins.”</p> + +<p>Another disease, now rare, owing to the spinners wearing boots or +shoes instead of going bare-footed from home to mill and back in all +weathers, is onychia, or inflammation of the nail of the great toe. +Cases of this were very common at the Belfast Royal Hospital thirty +years ago. The late Sir William MacCormac, Bart., then one of the +surgeons to the hospital, investigated the origin of the disease and +introduced the local treatment by nitrate of lead. It seemed to be due +to the action of the hot and contaminated water lying on the floor of +the spinning-room, containing flax-water, and probably verdigris, or +other matter from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_700">[700]</span> brass in the machinery, some of which, finding +its way under the nail, or from some slight injury to the part, caused +the painful affection known as onychia.</p> + +<p>During late years many improvements have been made in the mills and +factories as regards ventilation, by the introduction of fans, so +that there is now little more to suggest. During the 19 years that I +have been Certifying Factory Surgeon for the city of Belfast, I have +always found our merchants and employers of labour ready to adopt any +<i>reasonable</i> suggestion towards improvement of the health of their +workers. The recommendations I would make are:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">1. That no “half-timers” be employed in machine shops; all to be +over, at least, thirteen years of age.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">2. That no “half-timers,” who according to the certifying +surgeon appear weakly or not well-developed for their age, be +allowed to work in the morning set, especially during the winter +months.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">3. That only the strong and well-developed who are from twelve +to thirteen be kept in the morning set, and before being so +placed, reported by the surgeon as fit for such work.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">4. The wearing of a good respirator to cover nose as well as +mouth is necessary in the carding and heckling rooms, and should +be made compulsory.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">5. An inspection of the “young persons” and “children” by the +certifying surgeon, say every three months, to see what the +effect of the work is upon the constitution of those employed. +If there are signs of suffering they should cease work.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">6. That those mills and factories which have not as yet opened a +dining-room for use of their workers, do so.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">7. That in such departments as the carding and machine rooms, +where dust is prevalent, a few steam jets be allowed so as to +make the atmosphere moist and allay the dust.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">8. That each room in the mill should have connected therewith a +small closet heated by steam-pipes, in which workers can deposit +part of their clothing, shawls, boots, etc., so that if the day +is wet these will be dry for them on going home for meals or +leaving work.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">9. In conclusion, I quote the following from my father’s +pamphlet already mentioned:</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Another subject bearing on the social state of the workers is +the employment of mothers in mills and factories. Now, in order +to lessen as much as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_701">[701]</span> possible the number of deaths that occur +amongst children, each mother ought not to be allowed to resume +work for at least two months after the birth of her child, and +then should be obliged, when going to work each day, to bring +her child to a public <i>crèche</i>.... The <i>crèche</i> +ought to be visited weekly by the certifying surgeon who is to +inspect each child.... The <i>crèche</i> to be under Government +inspection.”</p> +</div> + +<p>I am glad to say that, owing to the efforts of Lady Henderson, two +<i>crèches</i> have been opened in Belfast.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Henry S. Purdon.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_702">[702]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LII<br> +<span class="subhed">MANUFACTURE OF COTTON</span></h2></div> + + +<p>Although the manufacture of cotton goods is or has been carried on +under conditions to some extent injurious to health, yet there is no +definite disease which can be traced to these conditions. There is no +disease produced which corresponds to wool-sorters’ disease in woollen +manufacture, or the various forms of tuberculosis of the lungs in +trades where dust composed of sharp, hard particles is inhaled. If +it were not for the fact that moisture has for trade purposes been +artificially introduced into the atmosphere of weaving-sheds, it is +doubtful whether the health condition of cotton factories would have +received any special attention beyond that devoted to factories and +workshops in general. This addition of moisture was carried on in +a reckless and unscientific manner, and in consequence Government +investigations were made which resulted in special legislation.</p> + +<p>Artificial humidity is the condition which has attracted most +attention, but it is not by any means the only important factor +influencing the health conditions of cotton operatives. It is mainly in +weaving-sheds that artificial humidity is used, and this article will +be principally devoted to the health conditions of weaving. It will, +however, be well, for the sake of the few remarks which will be made +with regard to other branches of the cotton industry, to describe very +briefly the different processes which the raw material undergoes before +it is finally turned out as cotton cloth.</p> + +<p>Raw cotton, as it is received in bales, is naturally somewhat impure. +The processes that it undergoes before it is made into yarn are +somewhat complicated when considered in detail, but they consist +roughly of cleansing, combing, and twisting.</p> + +<p>Most of the dirt in the raw material is separated in the +“blowing-room.” The cotton is drawn by means of a current of air<span class="pagenum" id="Page_703">[703]</span> +through the blowing machine. The heavier impurities fall out during +the process, and the cleaned cotton is formed into a more or less +even layer or lap. It is then taken to the card-room, where it is +“carded”—a process which combs the fibres so that they are laid +parallel, and still further cleans the cotton. Before being delivered +to the actual spinning machinery, the cotton passes through other +preparatory machines, known as slubbing and roving frames, where it +is drawn out and slightly twisted. The cotton “roving,” as it is then +termed, is taken to the spinning-room, to be finally attenuated and +twisted into the required form of yarn. There are different types +of spinning machines, known as mules, throstles, and ring frames. +The attendants on the mules are, as a rule, men, and they have a +considerable amount of physical exertion in following the movements of +the carriage, which is constantly moving backwards and forwards. In +ring spinning, on the other hand, women are almost invariably employed. +After the yarn has been spun it is wound on to bobbins by “winders,” +and from the bobbins on to beams by “warpers.” The warp is then sized +and prepared for the looms by “reachers” and “drawers.” The cotton is +then ready for the process with which we are mainly concerned, viz., +weaving.</p> + +<p>The health conditions of these various departments of the cotton +industry prior to weaving will be dismissed very briefly. The +workpeople in all of them have an ample air-space, rising in mule +spinning up to about 10,000 cubic feet per head. In the blowing-room +there is a moderate amount of dust, consisting almost entirely of +cotton fibre, but at the same time there is a plentiful supply of fresh +air. The principal feature with regard to the air of the card-room is +the amount of dust. This at times is sufficient to cause a distinct +cloudiness of the atmosphere. This dust is certainly serious, and needs +special treatment.</p> + +<p>Spinning, unlike weaving, is carried on in a many-storied building. +The light and fresh air for a spinning-room has consequently to be +obtained entirely from the sides. For several reasons very little fresh +air is provided. By excluding the outside air, the room can generally +be kept at a good spinning temperature simply by the friction of the +machinery, and at the same time particles of soot are prevented from +entering and damaging the yarn. The result is, that notwithstanding +the enormous air-space per head in a spinning-room, the atmosphere +is frequently by no means pure, and it is often excessively hot. The +temperature is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_704">[704]</span> commonly above 90° F., and occasionally above 100° F. +As no moisture is, as a rule, added, the air becomes very dry. The +artificial moistening of the air of spinning-mills is gaining ground, +and there can be little doubt that up to a certain point it will +be beneficial to the workpeople. The conditions could also be much +improved by the provision of suitable means of ventilation. On account +of the large amount of cubic space per head, and the marked difference +in the temperature inside the spinning-room and outside, it is possible +that natural ventilation would be sufficient to accomplish all that is +necessary. In order, however, to obtain a high degree of purity and to +thoroughly control the air currents, artificial ventilation must be +employed.</p> + +<p>The winders and warpers are subjected to no special conditions. They +have somewhat less air-space than most other operatives, and there is +usually no mechanical ventilation. They are not, however, subjected to +great heat or moisture.</p> + +<p>Weaving, the industry which will principally be dealt with, is carried +on almost entirely in one-storied buildings. In choosing the site of a +weaving-shed it is usually borne in mind that dampness conduces to good +weaving. Most weaving-sheds are situated in somewhat damp positions, +and the floor of the sheds being formed simply of flags laid directly +on the earth, dampness is not prevented from rising from the ground. +The walls are without windows, and where openings are provided for +ventilation, they are usually closed. All the light and most of the +fresh air have to gain admittance through the roof, which is formed by +a series of bays, usually running from east to west of the shed. The +south side of the bay is formed of slate, and the north side of glass, +so that little direct sunlight is admitted to the shed. The height of a +shed varies considerably, but an average height is about 11 feet to the +gutters, and about 15 feet to the top of the bays, and the span of the +bays is about 10 feet. There is a small space along the gutters left +open to allow the escape of water which condenses on the glass. The +roof therefore of a weaving-shed, and usually two or more of the walls, +are exposed to outside influences, and fresh air can, if desired, be +admitted through them.</p> + +<p>The prominent factors which enter into the health conditions of a +weaving-shed are:—</p> + +<p>(1) Impurity of the atmosphere from: (<i>a</i>) respiration; (<i>b</i>) +combustion of gas; (<i>c</i>) dust; (<i>d</i>) emanations from the soil +and the sanitary conveniences.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_705">[705]</span></p> + +<p>(2) Excessive humidity.</p> + +<p>(3) High temperature in summer.</p> + +<p>(4) Want of cleanliness.</p> + +<p>Although it seems always to have been recognised that a moist +atmosphere was advantageous to weaving, yet the introduction of +moisture systematically is a growth of comparatively recent years. In +the year 1872 Dr Buchanan made a report on certain sizing processes +used in the cotton manufacture at Todmorden, and their influence upon +health. He described how the practice of sizing had grown and altered +much in character owing to the scarcity of cotton during the American +Civil War. Ten years later, Dr Bridges and Mr Osborn, H.M. Inspector +of Factories, made a report to the Government on “The effects of heavy +sizing in cotton weaving upon the health of the operatives employed.” +This inquiry was instituted in consequence of a representation by the +Parliamentary Committee of the Trades Union Congress in 1882. The +views of the memorialists with regard to the dangers from the infusion +of steam are clearly set forth in the following quotation:—“Your +memorialists desire to draw your attention to a practice that has +of late years become very common, especially in the making of goods +known as T-cloths and Indian shirtings. We allude to over-sizing of +cotton yarns, out of which arises another evil, especially in dry +weather, viz., the infusion of steam into the weaving-sheds in order +to soften the stiff, over-sized threads. Your memorialists desire to +point out that an addition of about 20 per cent. of size, more or less, +in accordance with the class of goods being made, is required for +manufacturing purposes; but of late years a practice of adding from +50 to more than 200 per cent. of an admixture of various ingredients, +which serve no other purpose than to give a fictitious weight and +appearance to the cloth, has become very common. Your memorialists +complain that the extraordinary addition to the yarn of the admixture +already described, gives off in the process of weaving deleterious +effluvia, dust, and flocculent matter, which is inhaled by the weavers, +to the injury of their health.... The manufacturers of this kind of +cloth in infusing steam into their weaving-sheds have two objects in +view, viz., (1) to enable more of the admixture to be woven into the +cloth; (2) to soften the stiff, over-sized threads, and thus render +them soft and pliable, and less subject to breakages. Your memorialists +complain that the clothes of the persons, chiefly women and children, +who are employed in those sheds, are so damped by the warm moisture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_706">[706]</span> +given off by the steam, that, after going out into the open air, +coughs, colds, and the whole train of lung diseases are contracted; and +rheumatism and many other bodily afflictions which tend to enervate +and break up the system at a premature age, follow. Dyspepsia is +unhappily very often brought on, particularly in the cases of women and +children. Your memorialists therefore earnestly pray that Her Majesty’s +Government will adopt some means which in their wisdom may appear best +by which the health of the weavers, 80 per cent. of whom are females +and young persons, may be preserved.”</p> + +<p>Dr Bridges and Mr Osborn found, that although the scarcity of cotton +had been completely removed in the years following the American War, +yet heavily-sized goods were still manufactured, and in fact that the +amount of size used had increased very considerably. The importance of +sizing on the health of the operatives is due to two facts: (1) heavy +sizing requires a very moist atmosphere; (2) the size contributes +considerably to the dust of the shed.</p> + +<p>The practice of infusing steam appears to have continued to grow, and +in the year 1888 the Health Committee of the Blackburn Corporation +instituted a public inquiry on account of a very strong report, made +in the year 1887 by the Medical Officer of Health (Dr Stephenson). The +Committee came to the following conclusion: “That ventilation in the +mills is very ineffectually and inefficiently attended to, particularly +in winter; that heavy steaming had been practised in Blackburn, and +that the adverse conditions under which the weavers had worked (at +any rate during the winter months) had had a material influence upon +the undoubtedly high death-rate of the borough: that the statements +contained in the last annual report made by Dr Stephenson, as the +Medical Officer of Health, are, in the main, true, and have been +supported by the evidence; and that heavy or excessive steaming in +mills is injurious to the health of those who work in them, but that +steaming, if lightly performed, with proper attention to ventilation, +is not injurious.”</p> + +<p>As a result of these reports, and of further agitation on the part of +the operatives, the Cotton Cloth Factories Act, 1889, was passed. By +this Act manufacturers were required to maintain two hygrometers in +each weaving-shed, and were prohibited from exceeding certain limits of +moisture. These limits are shown in the schedule below.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_707">[707]</span></p> + + +<p class="p-left p1"><i>1889 Act.</i></p> + +<p class="center smaller"><i>SCHEDULE A.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Maximum Limits of Humidity of the Atmosphere at given Temperatures.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">I.<br>Grains of<br>Moisture per<br>Cubic Foot<br>of Air.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">II.<br>Dry Bulb<br>Thermometer<br>Readings.<br>Degrees Fahr.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">III.<br>Wet Bulb<br>Thermometer<br>Readings.<br>Degrees Fahr.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">IV.<br>Percentage of<br>Humidity.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">5.1 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">60</td> + <td class="rightr">58  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">5.2 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">61</td> + <td class="rightr">59  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">5.4 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">62</td> + <td class="rightr">60  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">5.6 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">63</td> + <td class="rightr">61  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">5.8 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">64</td> + <td class="rightr">62  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">6.0 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">65</td> + <td class="rightr">63  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">6.2 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">66</td> + <td class="rightr">64  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">6.4 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">67</td> + <td class="rightr">65  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">6.6 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">68</td> + <td class="rightr">66  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">6.9 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">69</td> + <td class="rightr">67  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">7.1 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">70</td> + <td class="rightr">68  </td> + <td class="rightr">88  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">7.1 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">71</td> + <td class="rightr">68.5</td> + <td class="rightr">85.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">7.1 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">72</td> + <td class="rightr">69  </td> + <td class="rightr">84  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">7.4 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">73</td> + <td class="rightr">70  </td> + <td class="rightr">84  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">7.4 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">74</td> + <td class="rightr">70.5</td> + <td class="rightr">81.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">7.65</td> + <td class="ctrrl">75</td> + <td class="rightr">71.5</td> + <td class="rightr">81.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">7.7 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">76</td> + <td class="rightr">72  </td> + <td class="rightr">79  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.0 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">77</td> + <td class="rightr">73  </td> + <td class="rightr">79  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.0 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">78</td> + <td class="rightr">73.5</td> + <td class="rightr">77  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.25</td> + <td class="ctrrl">79</td> + <td class="rightr">74.5</td> + <td class="rightr">77.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.55</td> + <td class="ctrrl">80</td> + <td class="rightr">75.5</td> + <td class="rightr">77.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.6 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">81</td> + <td class="rightr">76  </td> + <td class="rightr">76  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.65</td> + <td class="ctrrl">82</td> + <td class="rightr">76.5</td> + <td class="rightr">74  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.85</td> + <td class="ctrrl">83</td> + <td class="rightr">77.5</td> + <td class="rightr">74  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">8.9 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">84</td> + <td class="rightr">78  </td> + <td class="rightr">72  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">9.2 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">85</td> + <td class="rightr">79  </td> + <td class="rightr">72  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">9.5 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">86</td> + <td class="rightr">80  </td> + <td class="rightr">72  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">9.55</td> + <td class="ctrrl">87</td> + <td class="rightr">80.5</td> + <td class="rightr">71  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">9.9 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">88</td> + <td class="rightr">81.5</td> + <td class="rightr">71  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">10.25</td> + <td class="ctrrl">89</td> + <td class="rightr">82.5</td> + <td class="rightr">71  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">10.3 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">90</td> + <td class="rightr">83  </td> + <td class="rightr">69  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">10.35</td> + <td class="ctrrl">91</td> + <td class="rightr">83.5</td> + <td class="rightr">68  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">10.7 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">92</td> + <td class="rightr">84.5</td> + <td class="rightr">68  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">11.0 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">93</td> + <td class="rightr">85.5</td> + <td class="rightr">68  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="rightrl">11.1 </td> + <td class="ctrrl">94</td> + <td class="rightr">86  </td> + <td class="rightr">66  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="right1rbl">11.5 </td> + <td class="ctrrbl">95</td> + <td class="rightrb">87  </td> + <td class="rightrb">66  </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The only other section of much importance was one which made it +necessary to supply 600 cubic feet of fresh air per person per hour. +This Act, although it produced great improvement, did not satisfy +the Weavers’ Associations, and a further attempt was made to bring +about the total abolition of steaming. The Government in consequence +appointed a Committee consisting of Sir H. Roscoe, Sir Wm. Roberts, and +Dr Ransome, to inquire into the working of the Act. A very extensive +inquiry was made, and the resulting report is one of extreme value. +The report was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_708">[708]</span> made in 1897, and many of its chief recommendations +were embodied in a Statutory Order of the Home Secretary in the year +1898. This Order, although not altering in any way the amount of +moisture allowed, contained very important provisions with regard to +ventilation, purity of steam, and temperature, etc. It is of such +interest and importance, being in many respects a new departure in +factory legislation, as to be well worth quoting in full here.</p> + + +<h3><i>Order of the Secretary of State, dated 2nd February 1898, making +regulations for the protection of health in Cotton Cloth Factories.</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(1) In every cotton cloth factory to which the Cotton Cloth +Factories Act, 1889, applies, the occupier or manager or person +for the time being in charge of the factory shall, in addition +to taking the two readings of the thermometers required by +section 7 of that Act, read each of the thermometers every +day between seven o’clock and eight o’clock in the forenoon, +and record the reading of each thermometer in the form and in +accordance with the regulations in Schedule B. of the said Act +as amended by this Order.</p> + +<p>(2) Schedules B. and C. of the Act of 1889 shall be altered, and +shall be as set out in the schedule to this Order.</p> + +<p>(3) In every such cotton cloth factory, when artificial humidity +is produced, the water used for the purpose shall either be +taken from a public supply of drinking water or other source of +pure water, or shall be effectively purified to the satisfaction +of the Inspector before being introduced in the form of steam +into the factory, and all ducts for the introduction of +humidified air shall be kept clean.</p> + +<p>(4) The pipes used for the introduction of steam into a cotton +cloth factory in which the temperature is 70 degrees Fahrenheit +or over shall, so far as they are within the shed, be as small +both in diameter and length as is reasonably practicable, and +shall be effectively covered with non-conducting material to the +satisfaction of the Inspector, so as to minimise the amount of +heat thrown off by them into the shed.</p> + +<p>(5) The arrangements for ventilation shall be such that during +working hours in no part of the cotton cloth factory shall the +proportion of carbonic acid (carbon dioxide) in the air be +greater than nine volumes of carbonic acid to every ten thousand +volumes of air.</p> + +<p>(6) Unless some other method, certified by the Inspector to +be equally satisfactory, is adopted, the outside of the roof +of every cotton cloth factory shall be whitewashed every +year before the 31st day of May, and such whitewash shall be +effectively maintained until the 31st day of August.</p> + +<p>(7) In every cotton cloth factory erected after the date of this +Order, a sufficient and suitable cloak-room, or cloakrooms, +shall be provided for the use of all persons employed therein, +and shall be ventilated and kept at a suitable temperature.</p> +</div> + +<p>Having briefly described the steps by which the present conditions +have been arrived at, we may now consider these conditions in detail. +The humidity of the air has, rightly or wrongly, been thought to be +the chief factor in the healthiness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_709">[709]</span> of weaving-sheds. Moisture is +usually added to the air of sheds by means of a number of steam jets. +Steam introduced in this manner is known in the trade as “live steam.” +The moisture becomes visible almost immediately after escaping from +the pipe, and again disappears at a distance of two or three feet. +Many other methods of moistening the air of weaving-sheds have been +tried. Some of these depend upon the evaporation of water in the shed; +others upon evaporation of water outside the shed, the air so moistened +being forced in; and others again upon steam being mixed with fresh +air, which are forced into the shed together. It is obvious that any +system which depends upon the evaporation of water, if efficient in +other ways, has a distinct advantage in the summer months, in that +it will tend to lower rather than raise the temperature. There are, +however, very distinct drawbacks to most of the methods of humidifying +by evaporation, and the crude method of watering the floor is probably +the most harmful of all forms. The method of humidifying which depends +on evaporating water outside and forcing air so moistened into the shed +has a very limited application, but it might with benefit be extended +in order to lessen the temperature in summer. The way in which moisture +is added to the air of a shed is of little consequence except so far +as it affects the temperature, and this is affected far more by the +length and size of the steam-pipes than by the amount of steam infused. +Previous to the Cotton Cloth Factories Act, 1889, there was no legal +restriction to the amount of humidity. The writer has no personal +knowledge of the condition of the sheds at this time, and he has found +it difficult to form a correct opinion. It is certain, however, that +sometimes steam was introduced to such an extent that it condensed very +freely on the walls, pillars, and floors. The air of the shed became +over-saturated and consequently hazy. This raising of humidity was done +in a very unworkmanlike manner. No attempt was made to find out what +conditions were favourable to weaving. It was known that a very dry air +was unfavourable, and if a dry east wind was blowing, a large amount of +moisture was introduced. When a favourable condition was reached there +was no means of recording what this condition was, for such a thing +as a hygrometer was practically unknown in a weaving-shed. It seems +strange, considering that the degree of dampness of the atmosphere is +so important with regard to weaving, that the use of hygrometers had to +be forced upon the manufacturers by an Act of Parliament.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_710">[710]</span></p> + +<p>The introduction of moisture artificially does not necessarily mean +that the relative humidity of the atmosphere of the shed is being +raised above that of the outside air. The temperature of a shed is +usually many degrees above the temperature outside, and consequently +the air of the shed without any addition of moisture would be much +dryer than the air outside. It is not easy to appreciate exactly what +the amount of moisture specified by the Act means. It is quite commonly +said, on the one hand, that the amount of moisture allowed by it is +frequently exceeded under natural conditions in Lancashire, and, on the +other hand, that the moisture allowed is greatly in excess of what can +possibly be healthy. It may give a clearer idea to compare the average +moisture of the air at various temperatures with the moisture allowed +by the schedule. For this purpose the readings taken at the Blackburn +Observatory for the years 1898 and 1899 have been averaged at the +various temperatures.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Temperatures.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">Percentage of Moisture<br> +allowed by law in<br>Weaving Sheds at<br>these Temperatures.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Figures obtained from the Daily Records of the<br> +Blackburn Observatory for the years 1898<br>and 1899.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">Average percentage of<br>Moisture at the<br>different Temperatures.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Maximum amount of<br>Moisture at the<br>different Temperatures.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Degrees.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">50–55</td> + <td class="right1r">86  </td> + <td class="ctrr">82.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">100  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">55–60</td> + <td class="right1r">87  </td> + <td class="ctrr">81.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">100  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">60–65</td> + <td class="right1r">88  </td> + <td class="ctrr">77.4</td> + <td class="ctrr">97  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">65–70</td> + <td class="right1r">88  </td> + <td class="ctrr">65.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">83  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">70–75</td> + <td class="right1rb">84.6</td> + <td class="ctrrb">59.9</td> + <td class="ctrrb">66.5</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>For practical purposes temperatures below 60° may be neglected, as +that temperature is generally exceeded in weaving-sheds. At higher +temperatures the moisture allowed in weaving-sheds is considerably in +excess of the average moisture of the atmosphere outside, and above 65° +the legal limit is very considerably in excess of the highest recorded +observation.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat difficult to estimate the effect upon health of raising +the amount of moisture in the air one breathes. In the case before +us the problem is complicated by the fact that the humidified air is +only breathed during ten hours of the day, and that the workpeople +frequently pass from the artificial to the natural atmosphere. +Knowledge gained from the distribution<span class="pagenum" id="Page_711">[711]</span> of disease in dry and moist +climates must be applied with great caution. The dampness of a +locality is frequently due to the damp and waterlogged condition of +the soil, in which case there are causes of unhealthiness not in the +least comparable with the high humidity of a shed produced by the +introduction of steam. Speaking generally, however, there can be no +doubt that a dry air is invigorating and a moist air enervating. +Probably partly for this reason tubercular diseases, which are +dependent so much in their spread upon the loss of vigour of those +attacked, flourish more in damp climates. The other class of diseases, +which presumably would be increased by excessive humidity, are the +different forms of rheumatism and their complications. In the various +inquiries that have been made into the health of cotton operatives +rheumatism has been complained of as the chief ailment produced by +artificial humidity. Frequent changes from a warm, moist atmosphere +to a dry, cold one without proper precautions are quite sufficient +to account for an excessive amount of rheumatism. This danger is +greatly enhanced by the unsuitable and inadequate clothes worn by +the operatives. There is little or no reason to suppose that working +in an atmosphere which, although moist, is considerably removed from +saturation, would of itself conduce to rheumatism.</p> + +<p>One of the chief complaints of the operatives in these sheds is that +their clothes become damp. It is quite impossible that any moisture +can condense on their clothes if the law with regard to steaming is +observed. There is, however, the possibility that clothes which have +been worn for a long time in weaving-sheds may become permeated with +size dust. This dust contains a considerable proportion of deliquescent +salts, and clothes upon which it has been deposited would become +damp on exposure to a moist atmosphere. Whether or not this is a +matter of much practical importance could be settled by a few careful +experiments. If clothes do absorb moisture in this way to any extent, +it is one more argument in favour of cloakrooms. It also suggests the +advisability of the careful brushing of clothes, in order to free them +from shed dust as much as possible. Where no cloak-room is provided, +clothes are usually hung against walls or pillars. If the walls are +outside-walls, and if the pillars act, as they frequently do, as +rain-water pipes, the clothes become wet from the condensation of water +on these walls and pillars. The absorption of moisture by clothes, +due to the hygroscopic nature of wool, is small in amount, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_712">[712]</span> may +probably with safety be left out of account. For all these reasons it +is extremely desirable that all cotton factories in which the air is +artificially moistened should be provided with suitable cloak-room +accommodation. The cloakrooms should of course be of adequate size, and +properly heated and ventilated.</p> + +<p>In considering artificial humidity, it must be borne in mind that the +steam is frequently raised from very impure water. It is possible +that this fact accounts to some extent for the strong feeling against +steaming amongst a considerable section of the operatives. Steam raised +from filthy water undoubtedly gives a very disagreeable odour to a +shed, and there can be no doubt that it is injurious to the health of +the workpeople. This matter has, however, been dealt with, so far as +legislation is concerned, by Clause 3 of the Order of 1898, and it only +remains now to enforce the Order.</p> + +<p>Closely associated with the humidity of the atmosphere of the shed is +its temperature and impurity. Particularly is it difficult to separate +the effects of high temperatures from those of excessive humidity. +The peculiar construction of a shed, with its roof exposed the whole +day through to the direct rays of the sun, is of itself sufficient in +summer to cause a high temperature. To this must be added the heat +developed by the friction of the machinery. It is not then to be +wondered at that the temperature becomes sometimes almost unbearable +when it is still further raised by the infusion of steam, and by the +heat from steam-pipes. It is very probable that most of the complaints +of steaming have arisen from the excessive temperature that has been +at the same time produced. The effect of the heat of a shed cannot +be gauged absolutely by the temperature, but the temperature and +the humidity must be considered together. The principal reason why +working in a hot, moist atmosphere is uncomfortable and oppressive, +is that evaporation of perspiration is checked, and one of the chief +means of cooling is lessened. What under other conditions would be +insensible perspiration becomes sensible, and general discomfort +ensues. An operative in this condition going out into a dry, cool air +feels a chill at once. It cannot, however, be said that this condition +is brought about solely by excessive humidity, as at the lower +temperatures no discomfort is felt. Whatever conclusion is come to with +regard to the desirability of allowing the introduction of moisture, +there can be no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_713">[713]</span> question that every reasonable means should be taken +to prevent the temperature being unduly raised in summer.</p> + +<p>Although the agitation against steaming has not led to its abolition, +it has brought about one of the greatest advances in our factories and +workshops legislation of recent years.</p> + +<p>The Cotton Cloth Factories Act, 1889, insisted that 600 cubic feet of +fresh air should be supplied for each operative per hour. The fact +that it was made compulsory to supply a definite quantity of fresh air +was in itself an advance, but the amount of air specified by the Act +fell far short of what was necessary. Not only was the amount of air +supplied insufficient, but no adequate steps were taken to ensure that +the fresh air was properly diffused. Moreover, there can be no doubt, +that in the form of ventilation most commonly in use, viz., extraction +by fans through the roof, there is a large amount of short circuiting. +The Committee previously mentioned, which was appointed to inquire +into the working of the Cotton Cloth Factories Act, investigated this +matter very thoroughly. They found that the mechanical ventilation +of sheds under this Act had been productive of some good, although +not to the extent expected. Mr Williams, H.M. Inspector of Factories, +who acted as secretary to the Committee, and to whom I am indebted +for much information, examined seventy-two samples of air taken from +weaving-sheds for the amount of carbonic acid contained in them. +Thirty-four were taken from “dry” sheds, that is, sheds where steam is +not infused, and not as a rule mechanically ventilated; thirty-eight +were taken from “moist” sheds, which were ventilated according to +the Act. The carbonic acid in the air of the dry sheds varied from +.55 to 1.94 parts per thousand, the average being 1.168; that of the +moist sheds varied from .68 to 1.59, the average being 1.021. Many +anemometer tests were also made, and it was found that there was little +correspondence between the amount of air supplied and the purity of the +air of the shed at the breathing level. From these experiments, two +facts were readily deduced, viz., that the amount of air supplied was +too small, and that the anemometer test was not to be relied upon as a +test of ventilation. The Committee consequently took a new departure, +and made a recommendation, that as a measure of respiratory impurity +the carbonic acid gas contained in 10,000 volumes of air in humidified +sheds should not exceed 9 volumes. This recommendation was embodied in +its main feature in the Order previously quoted. It is difficult to +over-estimate the importance of this step. It applies a scientific test +to the ventilation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_714">[714]</span> of the factory, and at the same time it allows the +utmost freedom to the manufacturer in selecting means to attain this +standard. Hitherto, openings of certain sizes have been specified for +the purpose of ventilation, or the introduction of a certain amount of +air has been made compulsory, but no legal notice has been taken of +the actual condition of the atmosphere. In this order, then, the most +satisfactory and the only scientific method of estimating ventilation +has been adopted. The difficulties in the way of carrying it out seem +to be gradually being surmounted, and already a standard much higher +than the legal one has been attained in many factories.<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> .9 parts +per thousand may not appear to some a sufficiently high standard. It +certainly is not perfect, but it is probably as high a standard as it +is practicable to adopt at present. It has been found in practice that +it is generally necessary to introduce more than 2000 cubic feet per +head per hour to maintain this standard. On account of considerable +variation in the amount of carbonic acid in the air of towns, the +administration of the Order has been varied to this extent, that .5 +parts of carbonic acid are allowed in the air of a shed in excess of +that contained in the air outside at the same time.</p> + +<p>Although this regulation with regard to ventilation has only been +applied to weaving-sheds into which moisture is artificially +introduced, there seems to be no good reason why it should not be +applied to all weaving-sheds and to other departments of cotton +manufacture. A regulation of this kind can only be carried out in +buildings where power is available, but in the near future electric +power will be available for every workshop, and then the universal +enforcement of some similar regulation will be possible, and would be +productive of much good. It seems likely that an indirect advantage +will also be gained by the greatly increased knowledge of the +efficiency of the various systems of artificial ventilation. The +useless and inefficient methods of ventilation will be rapidly weeded +out, only the good methods will remain, and a truer perception of the +principles of ventilation will be produced.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_715">[715]</span> The stimulus given by +these Acts to ventilating engineers has already brought about great +advances. One extremely ingenious apparatus will deliver enormous +quantities of fresh air (250,000 cubic feet per hour), warmed and +moistened as required, into a room at one single point, and diffuse +it over an area of 8000 square feet without causing a draught. By +this means one of the principal objections to all other methods of +ventilation on the plenum system is overcome, for the air is introduced +directly without the interposition of distributing ducts.</p> + +<p>Compared with the workrooms of most other trades, cotton-weaving-sheds +must be considered to be well ventilated, and when the regulations have +been thoroughly enforced, these sheds will have few equals amongst +workrooms judged by the amount of respiratory impurity. There are, +however, other atmospheric impurities that are not dealt with in so +satisfactory a manner. It is found to be quite impossible, with any of +the apparatus at present in use, to keep the amount of carbonic acid +within the legal limits when the shed is lighted with gas. To do this +it would be necessary to increase the amount of fresh air introduced to +an enormous extent. The only practical solution of this difficulty, and +one that is urgently called for, is the substitution of electricity for +gas for lighting purposes. Such a substitution frequently leads to a +positive saving of money.</p> + +<p>There is one form of atmospheric contamination that mechanical +ventilation has in some instances made worse. The sanitary conveniences +are frequently built so as to be in direct connection with the shed, +and any system of ventilation depending on extraction increases the +amount of air supplied to the shed through these offices. The remedy in +all such cases is complete disconnection of the sanitary conveniences +by means of an open space.</p> + +<p>No ventilation is satisfactory which does not reduce the amount of dust +as well as the gaseous impurities in the atmosphere. The dust floating +in the air of a weaving shed is very variable both in its quantity +and in its composition. In a shed where no size is used (very rare) +the dust consists entirely of cotton fibre. On the other hand, where +size is used, it enters very considerably into the composition of the +dust floating in the atmosphere. Size consists mainly of starch, china +clay, tallow, and various deliquescent salts, the principal one being +magnesium chloride. A certain amount of zinc chloride is put into the +size to delay or prevent the growth of mildew. One would anticipate +that the different constituents of size would vary considerably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_716">[716]</span> in the +readiness with which they diffuse through the atmosphere, and this is +so to some extent. For instance, analyses made by Dr Dupré showed that +zinc chloride, although largely used in sizing, is not found in the +dust of sheds. This is of considerable importance, as chloride of zinc +is the only constituent of size which is chemically irritating. On the +other hand, contrary to expectation, it was found that the insoluble +mineral matter (china clay) was present in as large a proportion on +the shafting at considerable heights as in the dust on the floor. The +composition of the dust examined by Dr Dupré varied somewhat, but +roughly speaking, 50 per cent. of the dried dust was insoluble mineral +matter (china clay), 30 per cent. insoluble organic matter (cotton), +15 per cent. soluble organic matter (starch), and 5 per cent. soluble +mineral matter (principally chloride and sulphate of magnesium).</p> + +<p>The amount of dust in the atmosphere of a shed is determined partly +by the amount of size used and the quality of the cotton, but also to +a great extent on the efficiency of the ventilation and the degree +of moisture in the air. That the infusion of steam would lessen the +amount of dust in the air was first inferred and afterwards proved by +experiment. A large amount of moisture in the air may cause a more +ready precipitation of dust, but its principal action is probably in +preventing the liberation of dust from the yarn during the process of +weaving. Mr Osborn, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee +previously referred to, said that sheds are now freer from dust than +they were, and this he attributed to more careful sizing. Mr Williams +made several comparative tests of the amount of dust in sheds when +moisture was being introduced and when not. He found invariably that +the infusion of steam lessened the amount of dust. The following are +the averages of his experiments:</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 1<br>Position.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 2<br>Position.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 3<br>Position.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 4<br>Position.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. 5<br>Position.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">With infusion of steam</td> + <td class="right3r">26¹¹⁄₁₈</td> + <td class="right3r">25  </td> + <td class="right3r">25  </td> + <td class="right3r">26½</td> + <td class="right3r">38¼</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Without  „  „</td> + <td class="right3rb">43⅙  </td> + <td class="right3rb">40⅓</td> + <td class="right3rb">36½</td> + <td class="right3rb">45½</td> + <td class="right3rb">43½</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures represent the number of particles of dust deposited on +six square millimetres in five minutes.</p> + +<p>The dust in the atmosphere is undoubtedly lessened by ventilation, +unless this is of such a nature as to disturb the dust that has already +settled. The most efficient method of ventilation for reducing the +dust in the air would certainly be extraction from beneath<span class="pagenum" id="Page_717">[717]</span> the looms. +The dust of a weaving-shed is not, however, of a specially irritating +nature, and although injurious, is not of sufficient importance for the +whole system of ventilation to be devoted to its removal. Apart from +the extraction of air downwards, so that the dust is drawn directly +away from the breathing level, there does not seem much to choose +between the various forms of ventilation in this respect.</p> + +<p>The cleanliness of the floors and shed generally must have a +considerable effect upon the amount of floating atmospheric impurity. +As a general rule, the floors are very dirty. They are never washed +(with a few rare but very pleasing exceptions), and are seldom brushed +thoroughly. Such a condition of things lends itself readily to the +spread of infectious diseases. It seems particularly serious with +regard to phthisis. Phthisical sputum must often remain on these floors +undestroyed until much of it has become pulverised, and distributed +in the air of the shed. It would undoubtedly greatly improve the +health conditions of weaving-sheds if proper steps were taken to keep +the floors clean. An improvement of this kind is not limited in its +benefits to the direct results, but it has a very distinct influence +upon the habits of the persons employed.</p> + +<p>There is, as the evidence given before the various inquiries shows, +a great difference of opinion as to the healthiness of cotton +manufacture. It is difficult to come to any absolute conclusion from +examination of these opinions, and by examination of the physical +conditions to which the workpeople are subjected. One therefore turns +naturally to the vital statistics bearing on this question, in the hope +that they will afford some absolute and indisputable indications. It +must, however, be acknowledged that when all the available statistics +have been examined, the inferences that can be drawn are not by any +means definite. There are many reasons for looking on trade statistics +with some suspicion. Most of these reasons are very carefully reviewed, +and allowed for as far as possible by Dr Tatham in the supplement to +the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General. It is only +necessary to see the enormous death-rate of the persons classified as +unemployed to understand how this class is probably greatly swollen +by those who have broken down in their various occupations. It is +very doubtful if under any circumstances trade mortality statistics +can be altogether relied on. There is always the possibility that +the occupation followed at the time of death is not the one that has +really hastened or caused death. A person after some years working +in an unhealthy trade finds it necessary to change his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_718">[718]</span> occupation +because his health is failing. At death he is classed in the trade he +was last engaged in, although this trade has had no effect in causing +his death. Again, arduous and unhealthy occupations act as a selective +agency, none but those of a certain physical fitness engaging in them. +It is difficult, too, to separate the influence of a trade from that +of its surroundings. Whether a trade is carried on in crowded, badly +built towns, or in the country, will modify the trade statistics +considerably. These facts make it desirable in gauging the healthiness +of a trade to look outside trade statistics. It is sometimes possible, +where a large proportion of the inhabitants of a district are engaged +in one particular branch of industry, to gauge the healthiness of +this industry by examining the health statistics of the district as a +whole. If the persons employed in this industry have a peculiar age +distribution it is possible to get a more accurate estimate. These +conditions are fulfilled to a peculiar degree in the town of Blackburn. +Out of a population of 120,064 at the 1891 census, no less than 37,755, +or 31 per cent., were employed in the cotton industry. Any marked +unhealthiness of the trade should show itself, although perhaps not +very distinctly, in the general mortality. This of itself would be of +little help but for the peculiar distribution of the cotton operatives +in age periods. The accompanying table illustrates this point clearly:—</p> + + +<p class="center p1 smaller">DEATH-RATE FOR ENGLAND AND BLACKBURN, 1889–1898.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" rowspan="2">Age<br>Period.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">Differences<br>expressed as<br>percentages.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" rowspan="2">Differences<br>expressed as<br>percentages.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Percentage of<br> +population of<br>Blackburn in the<br>Cotton Industry.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrb">England.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Blackburn.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">England.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Blackburn.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">Per cent.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">15–25</td> + <td class="right3r">4.72</td> + <td class="rightr">5.14</td> + <td class="rightr">+ 8.9</td> + <td class="right3r">4.42</td> + <td class="right3r">4.72</td> + <td class="rightr">+ 6.7</td> + <td class="right3r">48.3</td> + <td class="right3r">70.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">25–35</td> + <td class="right3r">7.05</td> + <td class="rightr">6.71</td> + <td class="rightr">- 4.8</td> + <td class="right3r">6.48</td> + <td class="right3r">6.96</td> + <td class="rightr">+ 7.6</td> + <td class="right3r">39.0</td> + <td class="right3r">52.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">35–45</td> + <td class="right3r">11.89</td> + <td class="rightr">14.60</td> + <td class="rightr">+23.6</td> + <td class="right3r">10.03</td> + <td class="right3r">13.05</td> + <td class="rightr">+29.1</td> + <td class="right3r">31.4</td> + <td class="right3r">34.8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">45–55</td> + <td class="right3r">19.32</td> + <td class="rightr">26.05</td> + <td class="rightr">+34.8</td> + <td class="right3r">14.89</td> + <td class="right3r">18.82</td> + <td class="rightr">+27.0</td> + <td class="right3r">27.4</td> + <td class="right3r">19.7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">55–65</td> + <td class="right3r">35.47</td> + <td class="rightr">51.42</td> + <td class="rightr">+44.9</td> + <td class="right3r">28.83</td> + <td class="right3r">43.46</td> + <td class="rightr">+50.7</td> + <td class="right3r">21.8</td> + <td class="right3r">9.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">65<br>& upwards</td> + <td class="right3rb">98.56</td> + <td class="rightrb">117.22</td> + <td class="rightrb">+18.9</td> + <td class="right3rb">88.88</td> + <td class="right3rb">95.08</td> + <td class="rightrb">+ 6.9</td> + <td class="right3rb">13.2</td> + <td class="right3rb">3  </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">At all<br>Ages</td> + <td class="right3rb">20.58</td> + <td class="rightrb">23.82</td> + <td class="rightrb">+15.7</td> + <td class="right3rb">18.20</td> + <td class="right3rb">19.51</td> + <td class="rightrb">+7.2</td> + <td class="right3rb">26.8</td> + <td class="right3rb">33.1</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Any excessive mortality amongst the cotton operatives should show +itself distinctly at those age periods in which the operatives +preponderate. It may be argued that the bad effects are not felt +until the later age periods, but it is difficult to believe that +injurious conditions to which all alike are exposed would produce +increased<span class="pagenum" id="Page_719">[719]</span> mortality at the later ages, and not affect the mortality +of the earlier ages. It will be seen that 82 per cent. of the cotton +operatives employed in this town are under the age of thirty-five, and +it is at the age periods below 35 that the mortalities compare most +favourably with those of the country as a whole. The only conclusion, +then, that we can draw from the general mortality figures of Blackburn +is, that the cotton industry has no influence in raising the mortality +of the town as a whole, at any rate as far as the lower age periods are +concerned.</p> + +<p>With the reservations previously mentioned the trade statistics may be +profitably considered. The trade mortality statistics in this country +are compiled almost entirely in the office of the Registrar-General +under the supervision of Dr Tatham. Although the statistics published +by the Registrar-General are extremely valuable, there are many local +problems on which little light is thrown. The Medical Officer of Health +and others, to whom these problems are of the greatest importance, +have no chance of investigating them, owing to the meagreness of the +information published in the census returns. The age distribution +of the persons engaged in the various occupations is not given, and +many trades very dissimilar in their working conditions are grouped +together. The necessary information should be forthcoming in one way or +another. If details with regard to the age distribution of the persons +engaged in the various occupations would make the census returns too +bulky, then any local authority should have access to the census +enumeration books, in order to extract whatever information they need. +Fortunately the writer has had access to the enumeration books of the +town of Blackburn, and in consequence he has been able to prepare +special statistics. The following tables have been extracted from the +Supplement to the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General:—</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">Mean Annual Mortality of Males for the years 1890, 1891, and +1892, engaged in the Cotton, Flax, and Linen Manufacture of +Lancashire at successive periods of life.</p> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">15 to 20.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">20 to 25.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">25 to 35.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">35 to 45.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">45 to 55.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">55 to 65.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">65 and up.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Cotton, Flax, and<br>Linen Manufacture,<br>Lancashire</td> + <td class="ctrr">3.73</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.96</td> + <td class="ctrr">7.13</td> + <td class="ctrr">13.38</td> + <td class="ctrr">25.11</td> + <td class="ctrr">55.06</td> + <td class="ctrr">168.55</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">All Males</td> + <td class="ctrr">4.14</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.55</td> + <td class="ctrr">7.67</td> + <td class="ctrr">13.01</td> + <td class="ctrr">21.37</td> + <td class="ctrr">39.01</td> + <td class="ctrr">103.56</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">All Occupied Males</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.55</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5.07</td> + <td class="ctrrb">7.29</td> + <td class="ctrrb">12.43</td> + <td class="ctrrb">20.66</td> + <td class="ctrrb">36.66</td> + <td class="ctrrb">102.32</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_720">[720]</span></p> + +<p>Mortality Figures of Males, 25 to 65 years of age, for Certain Diseases +among the following Groups of People, for the years 1890, 1891, and +1892.</p> + +<p class="center smaller p1">Key to table:</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>A: All Causes.</li> + <li>B: Alcoholism.</li> + <li>C: Rheumatic Fever.</li> + <li>D: Phthisis.</li> + <li>E: Valvular Diseases of Heart.</li> + <li>F: Other Diseases of Circulatory System.</li> + <li>G: Bronchitis.</li> + <li>H: Pneumonia.</li> + <li>I: Diseases of Liver.</li> + <li>J: Other Diseases of Digestive System.</li> + <li>K: Nervous Diseases.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">A</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">B</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">C</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">D</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">E</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">F</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">G</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">H</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">I</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">J</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">K</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">All Males</td> + <td class="right3r">1000</td> + <td class="right3r">13</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">192</td> + <td class="right3r">24</td> + <td class="right3r">102</td> + <td class="right3r">88</td> + <td class="right3r">107</td> + <td class="right3r">29</td> + <td class="right3r">26</td> + <td class="right3r">102</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">All Occupied Males</td> + <td class="right3r">953</td> + <td class="right3r">13</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">185</td> + <td class="right3r">23</td> + <td class="right3r">97</td> + <td class="right3r">88</td> + <td class="right3r">105</td> + <td class="right3r">27</td> + <td class="right3r">25</td> + <td class="right3r">82</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrl">Occupied Males:—</td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + <td class="right3r"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">London</td> + <td class="right3r">1147</td> + <td class="right3r">18</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">277</td> + <td class="right3r">28</td> + <td class="right3r">97</td> + <td class="right3r">127</td> + <td class="right3r">110</td> + <td class="right3r">30</td> + <td class="right3r">25</td> + <td class="right3r">88</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Industrial Districts</td> + <td class="right3r">1248</td> + <td class="right3r">19</td> + <td class="right3r">8</td> + <td class="right3r">223</td> + <td class="right3r">27</td> + <td class="right3r">122</td> + <td class="right3r">154</td> + <td class="right3r">178</td> + <td class="right3r">32</td> + <td class="right3r">32</td> + <td class="right3r">108</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Agricultural „</td> + <td class="right3r">687</td> + <td class="right3r">7</td> + <td class="right3r">6</td> + <td class="right3r">135</td> + <td class="right3r">18</td> + <td class="right3r">73</td> + <td class="right3r">37</td> + <td class="right3r">55</td> + <td class="right3r">24</td> + <td class="right3r">21</td> + <td class="right3r">63</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht5rl">Cotton Manufactures,<br>Lancashire</td> + <td class="right3r">1176</td> + <td class="right3r">9</td> + <td class="right3r">10</td> + <td class="right3r">200</td> + <td class="right3r">32</td> + <td class="right3r">116</td> + <td class="right3r">159</td> + <td class="right3r">172</td> + <td class="right3r">27</td> + <td class="right3r">35</td> + <td class="right3r">123</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="chtrbl">Unoccupied Males</td> + <td class="right3rb">2215</td> + <td class="right3rb">23</td> + <td class="right3rb">2</td> + <td class="right3rb">448</td> + <td class="right3rb">37</td> + <td class="right3rb">191</td> + <td class="right3rb">84</td> + <td class="right3rb">135</td> + <td class="right3rb">53</td> + <td class="right3rb">39</td> + <td class="right3rb">630</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It is at once apparent on examining the tables that the death-rates +of the cotton operatives at the lower age periods is not excessive, +when one considers that the majority of them live in large and crowded +centres. The death-rate from phthisis is little above that of all +males throughout the country, and is much below that of occupied +males in London or in the industrial districts. One striking feature, +however, is the high mortality from bronchitis and pneumonia. The +mortality from rheumatism and heart disease is also considerably +above that of other classes of the population. These are the diseases +which one would expect to be increased in persons subjected to sudden +changes of temperature and humidity. The mortality figures published +by the Registrar-General referring to the two periods, 1880–1882 and +1890–1892, are very instructive when compared. Two of the most striking +features of these figures are the decrease of phthisis and the increase +of bronchitis and pneumonia in the second period as compared with the +first. The phthisis deaths amongst the cotton operatives of Lancashire +were 25 per cent. of the total deaths in the years 1880–1882; the +percentage had decreased to 19.6 in the years 1890–1892. On the other +hand, the percentage of deaths from bronchitis and pneumonia increased +from 25 per cent.] to 29.7 in the same period. The inferences that +one might draw from these figures are rendered less positive by the +fact that a change similar, but not so marked, took place throughout +England. The small amount of phthisis amongst the cotton operatives +in the second period compared with the first is certainly remarkable, +the decrease being much greater than in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_721">[721]</span> whole country. Improved +ventilation following on the 1889 Act may have had some effect, but it +seems likely that there has been some change in death certification, +and that some deaths which formerly were returned as phthisis are now +returned as bronchitis and pneumonia.</p> + + +<p class="center smaller p1">DEATH-RATE AMONGST THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS OF THE COTTON TRADE IN +BLACKBURN,</p> + +<p class="center"><i>For the Years 1889–1899</i>.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" colspan="4">Weavers.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Spinners.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Winders and Warpers, etc.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Card-room Hands.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="3">Whole Borough.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Age<br>Period.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lung<br>Diseases<br>other than<br>Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">All<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lung<br>Diseases<br>other than<br>Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">All<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lung<br>Diseases<br>other than<br>Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">All<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lung<br>Diseases<br>other than<br>Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">All<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lung<br>Diseases<br>other than<br>Phthisis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">All<br>Causes.</td> + </tr> + +<tr> + <td class="ctrrl">15–25</td> + <td class="right3r">1.14</td> + <td class="right3r">.48</td> + <td class="right3r">4.2</td> + <td class="right3r">1.65</td> + <td class="right3r">.94</td> + <td class="right3r">6.1</td> + <td class="right3r">1.48</td> + <td class="right3r">.84</td> + <td class="right3r">5.3</td> + <td class="right3r">1.28</td> + <td class="right3r">.52</td> + <td class="right3r">4.7</td> + <td class="right3r">1.19</td> + <td class="right3r">.80</td> + <td class="right3r">4.8</td> + </tr> + +<tr> + <td class="ctrrl">25–35</td> + <td class="right3r">1.72</td> + <td class="right3r">.86</td> + <td class="right3r">5.2</td> + <td class="right3r">2.48</td> + <td class="right3r">1.90</td> + <td class="right3r">6.6</td> + <td class="right3r">2.90</td> + <td class="right3r">.65</td> + <td class="right3r">7.4</td> + <td class="right3r">2.03</td> + <td class="right3r">.62</td> + <td class="right3r">5.9</td> + <td class="right3r">1.31</td> + <td class="right3r">1.20</td> + <td class="right3r">6.7</td> + </tr> + +<tr> + <td class="ctrrl">35–45</td> + <td class="right3r">2.11</td> + <td class="right3r">2.59</td> + <td class="right3r">11.0</td> + <td class="right3r">3.09</td> + <td class="right3r">2.90</td> + <td class="right3r">11.8</td> + <td class="right3r">2.30</td> + <td class="right3r">3.05</td> + <td class="right3r">11.2</td> + <td class="right3r">2.96</td> + <td class="right3r">2.47</td> + <td class="right3r">12.3</td> + <td class="right3r">2.21</td> + <td class="right3r">3.10</td> + <td class="right3r">13.6</td> + </tr> + +<tr> + <td class="ctrrl">45–55</td> + <td class="right3r">1.88</td> + <td class="right3r">5.29</td> + <td class="right3r">16.1</td> + <td class="right3r">2.94</td> + <td class="right3r">11.78</td> + <td class="right3r">31.5</td> + <td class="right3r">1.64</td> + <td class="right3r">7.28</td> + <td class="right3r">23.4</td> + <td class="right3r">3.95</td> + <td class="right3r">10.37</td> + <td class="right3r">21.7</td> + <td class="right3r">1.76</td> + <td class="right3r">6.32</td> + <td class="right3r">21.6</td> + </tr> + +<tr> + <td class="ctrrl">55–65</td> + <td class="right3r">3.75</td> + <td class="right3r">20.22</td> + <td class="right3r">56.5</td> + <td class="right3r">.61</td> + <td class="right3r">21.94</td> + <td class="right3r">43.8</td> + <td class="right3r">1.28</td> + <td class="right3r">14.18</td> + <td class="right3r">43.8</td> + <td class="right3r">...</td> + <td class="right3r">10.97</td> + <td class="right3r">42.3</td> + <td class="right3r">1.43</td> + <td class="right3r">14.67</td> + <td class="right3r">45.6</td> + </tr> + +<tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">65 and<br>upwards</td> + <td class="right3rb">1.45</td> + <td class="right3rb">61.81</td> + <td class="right3rb">205.8</td> + <td class="right3rb">3.95</td> + <td class="right3rb">73.12</td> + <td class="right3rb">261.2</td> + <td class="right3rb">5.92</td> + <td class="right3rb">53.35</td> + <td class="right3rb">201.6</td> + <td class="right3rb">...</td> + <td class="right3rb">69.93</td> + <td class="right3rb">181.8</td> + <td class="right3rb">.47</td> + <td class="right3rb">27.65</td> + <td class="right3rb">105.1</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_722">[722]</span></p> + +<p>The conclusion to be drawn from the Blackburn figures is that weaving +in that town is somewhat healthier than the other cotton occupations, +and in this connection it must be remembered that “steaming” is +practically confined to weaving-sheds. If one could go more deeply into +this subject, it might probably be shown that some of the disparity +in the death-rates of weavers and spinners in Blackburn is due to the +classes of people from which they are drawn. From all these figures it +may be deduced that the cotton trade has little or no harmful effect +as compared with most other trades at the earlier age periods. After +the age of fifty-five the death-rate becomes enormous. There is, +however, only a very small number of cotton operatives over the age of +fifty-five. Failure of eyesight generally makes it necessary for them +to give up this work and find some other employment before reaching +this age. It seems almost certain that the very large death-rates at +the ages of fifty-five to sixty-five, and sixty-five and upwards, are +due to a great extent to a difference in the manner in which the census +returns and the death returns are made.</p> + +<p>As this article shows, much has been done by legislation to make the +cotton trade healthy. There still, however, remains much to be done, +not only by further legislation, but by the operative himself, in +shaping his conduct on reasonably healthy lines. For instance, there +is nothing more desirable than the provision of good cloakrooms, +sufficiently large, well-warmed and ventilated, and constructed in such +a way as to be a real convenience; but these are of little use unless +the operatives make proper use of them, and provide themselves with +clothes sufficiently warm to protect them against the sudden and severe +change of temperature that they are subjected to. The cotton operative +is extremely neglectful in this matter of clothing, and to this fact is +probably due much of the ill effect put down to steaming.</p> + +<p>The further improvements that suggest themselves as likely to be most +beneficial are:—</p> + +<p>(1) The extension of the regulations with regard to ventilation to all +weaving-sheds and to other departments of the cotton industry.</p> + +<p>(2) The substitution of electricity for gas for lighting purposes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_723">[723]</span></p> + +<p>(3) The enforcement of proper cleanliness, particularly with regard to +the floors of weaving-sheds.</p> + +<p>(4) The provision of cloakrooms and lavatories.</p> + +<p>(5) The complete disconnection of all sanitary conveniences from the +workrooms by means of an open space.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">James Wheatley.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_724">[724]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LIII<br> +<span class="subhed">RABBIT DOWN</span></h2></div> + + +<p>The transformation of rabbit skins into felt hats is one of the most +interesting of the many wonderful metamorphoses brought about by the +manufacturer. Of a long series of acts and processes by which this +transformation is effected, one of the earliest is the removal by the +“fur-puller” of the long, coarse hairs from the rabbit skin. What +is left after these have been removed is the short close fur which, +after it has been separated from the pelt, is alone used by the +felt-hatmaker. The hair plucked off by the fur-puller is the <span class="smcap">Rabbit +Down</span>, a waste product regarded as of little value, sold for 1½d. +to 3d. a pound, to be used principally for stuffing cheap bedding, and +largely bought by mining companies for the miners to lie upon while +working the coal seams.</p> + +<p>The fur-puller plucks off these long hairs by means of a special +knife pressed against the thumb, which is protected by an indiarubber +shield. She sits on a low bench before a wooden trough, the rabbit skin +stretched over her knee, held fast at one end between knee and trough, +and grasped at the other by the left hand. A pile of skins is on the +floor on either side of her, and very rapidly she “pulls” each skin in +succession, passing it over from the “unpulled” to the “pulled” heap. +The wooden trough is for the reception of the “down,” and receives +the greater part of it, but it is so light that it flies everywhere, +covering the worker’s hair and clothing till all is one uniform grey; +it floats in the air and rests thickly on every ledge and beam, the +floor too, being carpeted with it.</p> + +<p>No description can convey any adequate impression of a fur-pulling +room, whether it be occupied by 1 or 50 workers—the universal grey, +the haze of floating hair, the sickly, disgusting odour of uncleaned +skins—it must be seen, felt, and smelt, to be understood.</p> + +<p>Not infrequently the pulling-room in a factory or workshop is used at +the same time as a drying-room and store-room,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_725">[725]</span> and the skins hang in +rows suspended from the ceiling, adding an almost overpowering stench +to the other unpleasant conditions. The rabbit skins, when delivered +to the worker, have usually undergone no preparatory or purifying +process, but are as they were received from the dealer. Before they can +be pulled, they must be “opened,” that is, smoothed out and dragged +into shape, scraps of fat or clotted blood cut and scraped off, and the +skin turned fur side out and laid flat. In some of the larger works, +women are employed as “openers” only, and from them the skins pass to +the “pullers.” In most cases the pullers open the skins themselves. +Fur-pullers and openers belong to the poorest class of women. The +dirty and repulsive nature of the work, and the low scale of wages, +attract none but those who, for one reason or another, can get no other +employment. The trade is dying out, very few young women and girls are +found in it, and none will learn it; they go rather to the jam or fancy +box factories, or any of the numerous unskilled occupations open now to +girls. The fur-pullers are chiefly old women, or middle-aged women in +distress. The wages vary according to the class of skins, and according +to whether the puller works at home or in the workshop, and whether she +opens the skins herself; they range from 1s. to 2s. the “turn” of 60 +skins. The knife costs 8d., and must be constantly ground: the rubber +shield costs 3d. and 4d., and lasts but a few weeks.</p> + +<p>Machines are taking the place of hand-pulling to a certain extent, +but the chief part of the work is done in Belgium, where men do the +pulling for a low wage. The manufacturer here finds it cheaper to pay +the carriage of British rabbit skins to Belgium and back, than to have +them pulled in England. Fur-pullers are, as a class, irregular workers; +and being paid by the piece, the employer has no hold upon them. They +seldom work more than four days in a week; not because there is no +work for them, but because intemperate habits prevail, and home cares +provide other occupations on Monday and Saturday. When the workers in +any industry are drawn only from that class whose standard of life +is the very lowest, when insufficient food and clothing and all the +other sad accompaniments of deep poverty have made their mark upon +them, it is almost impossible to point to any one physical condition +as a result of their occupation. Hoarseness, cough, and a bronchitic +condition are common among fur-pullers; such are also observed in the +old and middle-aged women of the same class who are not fur-pullers. +One would certainly expect to find evidence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_726">[726]</span> among them of suffering +caused by inhaling the down present in the air of the workrooms; but, +except for occasional complaints that “it stuffs up the chest,” most of +the workers consider fur-pulling a healthy occupation. It may be that +the fur being so fine and light is not inhaled; the danger is probably +more to be found in swallowing it, and symptoms of ill-health arising +from this are, from their nature, not easily discoverable, and must be +related by the sufferer; but the poor fur-pullers look with suspicion +on any inquiry touching their health, fearing that they may be deprived +of their work, which, although they say it is not worth the doing, is +all they have.</p> + +<p>If the occupation is dirty and disgusting even in a factory and +workshop where rooms are specially set apart for it, it is, when +carried on at home in a little living room, indescribably offensive +and horrible. In 1897 the terrible condition of the homes of the +fur-pullers in South London was described in the Press. Since then +matters both inside and outside the factories and workshops have been +improved, although much remains still to be done. In consequence of +recommendations made in 1897 by the Departmental Committee appointed to +inquire into the conditions of work in wool-sorting and other kindred +trades, fur-pulling was added by Order of the Secretary of State in +March 1898 to the Schedule of Trades in which occupiers must keep lists +of out-workers’ names and addresses; and by another Order the taking of +meals in fur-pulling workrooms, or remaining during the time allowed +for meals in such places, was prohibited. By these means greater +control has been exercised by sanitary authorities and the Factory +Department over fur-pulling, both as a home industry and in factories +and workshops, and one of the greatest risks to health, the taking of +meals in the workrooms, removed. In the absence, however, of any legal +obligation upon an employer to provide other accommodation for employés +whom he is bound to exclude from their workroom during their dinner +hour, those poor creatures whose homes are at a distance are turned out +into the streets, and in bad weather run a risk scarcely less than that +from which the legislature sought to preserve them—the risk to health +of cold and wet.</p> + +<p>Much more than has yet been attempted might be done to improve, by +specially applied ventilation, the condition of fur-pulling rooms in +factories and workshops. The drawing away of the pulled hair from the +worker in a downward direction by means of a properly constructed +flue under the troughs, and an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_727">[727]</span> extracting fan, would seem to be +practicable, and the down could be collected outside in a receptacle +for the purpose. But pulling is not a process that pays; and although +many occupiers have provided better rooms than formerly, and more +attention is paid to general ventilation, to sweeping and cleaning, to +warming in winter, and other matters affecting the health and comfort +of the workers, a pioneer has yet to be found who will revolutionise +the industry by applying to it a really effective dust-extracting +system of ventilation—and this will require some considerable sum +expended on it.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Rose E. Squire.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_728">[728]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LIV<br> +<span class="subhed">DISEASES DUE TO WORKING IN COMPRESSED AND STAGNANT AIR</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Caisson Disease.</i></h3> + +<p>Caisson disease, or compressed air illness, is a product of modern +civilisation. It seizes labourers who are engaged in sinking mines, +in excavating the beds of rivers to obtain a foundation for the piers +of bridges, and in tunnel making. A caisson is a cylinder composed +usually of iron plates riveted together to form a shaft, which, in the +case of bridge building, is sunk into a river, for example, so that +its open mouth shall rest upon the bed of that river. Down this shaft, +when it is properly closed at the top by a perfect fitting diaphragm, +men descend, air having been previously driven in under considerable +pressure to drive the water out at the bottom of the cylinder and to +keep it out. The workmen enter and leave the caisson by a chamber or +“lock” close to the diaphragm at the top. The length of the caisson +shown in the diagram made for me by Mr Huntley, engineer at the +Redheugh Bridge on the Tyne, is 90 feet, and at the time this drawing +was made the men were working 77 feet below high-water level mark. In +building a caisson it is the lower part that is made first. Thirty feet +of circular iron plates are riveted together, care being taken to make +the bottom bell-shaped. Before this unfinished caisson is lowered on to +the bed of the river, there is placed outside of it a larger cylinder, +and the two are united at the rim of the bell-shaped expansion. The +space between the two cylinders is filled with cement. Successive +lengths of twenty feet of cylinders are added, and subsequently the air +lock, or the chamber by means of which men enter and leave the caisson. +Two men work as a rule in each caisson, but this number varies with +its size. In the lock there is an inner as well as an outer air-tight +door, both of which open towards the interior of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_730">[730]</span> caisson. When +a labourer has to enter the cylinder that is filled with compressed +air, he passes into the workman’s part of the lock by the door A (see +Diagram); the other door, B, which opens into the main shaft, is at +this time perfectly closed, and kept thus by the great pressure within +the caisson. Once he is in the lock and door A closed, also the outlet +cock C, the inlet cock D is gradually opened. By degrees the compressed +air of the cylinder escapes into the lock, and when the pressure +inside the lock comes to equal that inside the cylinder, door B opens +of itself. The labourer now enters and descends the internal cylinder +by means of a ladder to his work on the bed of the river. On leaving +the caisson the process is reversed. The men, while working inside the +caisson, shovel the soil and stones into large iron buckets which, when +filled, are raised by a chain wound by an engine outside the cylinder. +This chain passes through the “material” part of the lock, the sliding +doors and cocks of which are moved by men outside who operate very +quickly. As the excavation proceeds, the cylinders sink by their own +weight and require new lengths to be added, bars of pig-iron being +thrown into the space between the external and internal shafts so as to +favour the sinking of the caisson.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_729">[729]</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p729" style="max-width: 250px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p729.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Section of Caisson used in rebuilding +Redhough Bridge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.</p> + </div> + +<p>It was a French engineer, M. Triger, who first employed caissons in +order to reach a bed of coal that lay underneath the River Loire. +Subsequently he used them for boring wells and fixing piles for +bridges. From the first day on which caissons were used, the workmen +have complained of pains in their ears and joints. In making the +Blackwall Tunnel, several of the men were ill. Dr Snell, the surgeon +to the Blackwall Tunnel, has embodied his experience in an excellent +monograph. It is to MM. Pol and Watelle we are indebted for the +earliest account of the pathological effects of compressed air upon +men working in a mine at Douchy in France. Of 64 workmen exposed to +the influence of compressed air, 47 stood the work well, 25 gave up +their employment, and 2 died. The risks incurred are not so much +when the men are at work in the caisson as on <i>entering</i> or +<i>leaving</i> it, <i>i.e.</i>, when they are passing through the lock +undergoing <i>compression</i> before entering the cylinder, or coming +out through the lock and undergoing <i>decompression</i>. Of these +two, decompression is the more dangerous. If this is not accomplished +slowly, the individual may not only experience very unpleasant +symptoms, he may become the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_731">[731]</span> subject of permanent ill-health. It is +because, in our daily life, the ordinary atmospheric air is pressing +upon us <i>equally all round</i> that we are unconscious of the 15-lb. +pressure to the square inch exerted upon our bodies, also that when we +dive under water we are unaware of any superincumbent weight. Engineers +have utilised knowledge of these facts, and have tried to imitate +nature by subjecting men to pressure equal to two, three, or four +atmospheres, or in other words to weights equal to 30, 45, or 60 lbs. +to the square inch.</p> + +<p>In this country caissons were first made use of by Hughes in 1851 +to make a bridge at Rochester over the Medway. Brunel subsequently +employed them at Chepstow and at Saltash. At Saltash one of the men +died shortly after emerging from the caisson, wherein he had been +working at a depth of 87.5 feet below the surface, and under a maximum +pressure of 40 lbs. During the building of the bridge of Kaffre Azzyat +over the Nile in 1859, five Arabs died from the effects of compressed +air. Blood issued from their mouth, nose, and ears. These men had been +working at a depth of 85 feet below high-water level mark, and under a +pressure of 34 lbs. to the square inch. For several years now, wherever +an important bridge has had to be built, caissons have been used. It +was thus that the foundations were obtained for such structures as the +railway bridge across the Rhine at Strasburg, the Forth Bridge, and the +Suspension Bridge at Brooklyn, New York. Descriptions of the illnesses +that occurred among the workmen engaged at the Forth Bridge, and at +Brooklyn, have been embodied in monographs by Dr James Hunter, in his +M.D. Thesis for Edinburgh University, and by Dr Andrew Smith of New +York. At the Brooklyn Bridge the pressure varied from 18 to 36 lbs. to +the square inch above that of the atmosphere, and the caissons were +lighted by gas. Ventilation of the cylinders was attended to as far +as possible, but, notwithstanding this, the air frequently contained +as much as 0.3 per cent. of carbonic acid as against 0.06, which is +regarded as the maximum for a well-ventilated space. Into the caissons +150,000 cubic feet of air had to be pumped every hour to satisfy the +respiratory requirements of the labourers. The men worked in two +shifts of four hours, separated by a period of rest for two hours, but +as the cylinders sank deeper and deeper the working time had to be +correspondingly diminished. Dr Smith treated 110 cases of compressed +air illness, of which three proved fatal.</p> + +<p>In the following brief account of the signs presented, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_732">[732]</span> +symptoms complained of by one of the patients who was under my care +in the Newcastle Infirmary, will be found a recital of the details of +caisson disease. The man was a sinker, forty-five years of age. He was +working in the caissons at the Redheugh Bridge close to the Infirmary, +77 feet below high-water level mark, at a pressure of 31–35 lbs. to the +square inch. On leaving work one day he felt numb in his legs, became +sick and vomited; shortly afterwards he became giddy and fell to the +ground unconscious. His comrades carried him home, where he lay for +twelve hours in a state of unconsciousness. When he came to himself he +complained of pains all over his body, incomplete loss of power in his +legs, headache, and buzzing in his ears. Next morning on getting out of +bed his nose began to bleed, but as epistaxis is common among sinkers, +he thought lightly of the matter and attempted to go to work. He again +lost consciousness for a brief period, and it was in this condition +that he was brought to the Infirmary. Subsequently he complained of +severe pains all over his body, difficulty of breathing, a feeling +of sickness, and profuse perspiration; the pulse was slow and full, +there were muscular rigidity, loss of power in his legs, and deafness. +The urine was free from albumen and sugar. During the day there was +occasionally delirium of a noisy character. Heart, lungs, liver, and +spleen seemed healthy. When a few days afterwards the symptoms which +have already been detailed had subsided, and the patient attempted to +walk, it was observed that there was considerable staggering, and that +he tended to fall forwards. On examining his blood microscopically, +nothing abnormal was detected beyond the fact that the coloured cells +were slightly paler than usual, and did not form rouleaux properly. +It was several weeks before patient could walk well, also before he +lost the noises complained of in his head, and that his hearing was +perfectly restored. During his stay in the Infirmary he had spitting of +blood on a few occasions.</p> + +<p>At the Forth Bridge, Hunter found that several of the men who worked in +the caissons suffered from bleeding at the nose. It is gratifying to +know that not one of his cases of compressed air illness proved fatal. +The men worked under a pressure of from 15 to 34 lbs. above that of +the atmosphere, and from four to six hours at a stretch, but as the +caissons sank this was found to be too long. It was observed that the +men suffered most in their general health when the soft silt in the bed +of the river containing decomposing organic material was being removed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_733">[733]</span></p> + +<p>One of my clinical clerks<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> volunteered to enter a caisson. He +observed that the candles burnt more quickly in compressed air than +in the ordinary atmosphere, and that as a consequence there was much +more smoke. His breathing was at first quickened (40 respirations +instead of 16 to the minute), while in the case of Mr Huntley, the +engineer who accompanied him, and who was accustomed to the position, +the respirations were only 20 to the minute. The pulse-rate was also +quickened. Mr Fawcus experienced very unpleasant sensations in his +ears, which gradually abated when he swallowed air, and thus inflated +the middle-ear through the Eustachian tube. He could speak easily +enough, but he could not whistle. There was no difficulty of breathing, +although the pressure in the cylinder was 41 lbs. to the square inch; +nor was there any sense of fatigue, but rather a feeling of fitness. +Another of my students on emerging from the caisson had bleeding at +the nose, severe earache and faceache. Pain and unpleasant sensations +in the ears are complained of by nearly all on emerging from a caisson +for the first time. The pain is apparently a mechanical effect, and +is the result of the drum of the ear being forcibly driven in by +the compressed air; for when a workman has acquired the faculty of +swallowing air and passing it from his throat up the Eustachian tube +into the middle-ear, so as to equalise the pressure, the sensation +is no longer felt. Under these circumstances, it is unwise for any +person who is suffering from a cold in the head or naso-pharynx to +enter a caisson. The conditions inside the caisson are unnatural. As +the whole body is subjected to an enormous pressure, men can only work +therein for a short period at a time. It is a well-known fact that in +the ordinary affairs of our daily life, some of our best work is done +when we are working under mental pressure; and while the simile does +not actually hold good of comparing mental with physical work, also of +comparing physical work done under normal and abnormal pressure, yet +experience shows that in the caisson the workmen, instead of feeling +any bad effects from the compressed air, are so buoyed up by it, that +in a given time they do far more and much harder work than when they +are on the surface. Besides, as they are unconscious of putting forth +extra effort, they do not feel fatigued, they perspire freely, and are +apt to rub themselves incautiously, thus causing skin eruptions. Just +as candles burn with greater rapidity inside the caissons, so too, +it would appear, are the vital processes in the workmen quickened, +disintegration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_734">[734]</span> of their tissues hastened, and the functions of the +eliminating organs heightened. This simply means that all round more +work is done by, and more waste formed in, the human body. Unless a +caisson suddenly ruptures, as occurred a few years ago in France, the +men when working inside run very little danger. It is on emerging +from the cylinder, <i>i.e.</i>, when he has undergone decompression, +that the workman runs the risk of becoming giddy, and of being unable +to stand, of having temporary paralysis of the legs, of experiencing +muscular pains, called “bends,” all over his body, but particularly +in legs and back, of suffering from bleeding from the nose, ears, and +lungs, or of becoming unconscious.</p> + +<p>That pressure <i>per se</i> plays a part in the production of +the symptoms is shown by the fact that as the caisson sinks and +the internal pressure is correspondingly raised, the men suffer +correspondingly. On the Tyne the men always suffered more when the +pressure inside the cylinder was increased so as to keep pace with the +rising tide. The condition of the air inside is also of importance. As +more smoke is given off by the candles, and the men work harder inside +than outside the caissons, the air is rendered very impure. At the +Brooklyn Bridge each man was supplied with 1000 to 3000 cubic feet of +air per hour, and yet the air inside the cylinders contained as much +as 0.3 per cent. of carbonic acid as against 0.06, which is considered +a healthy average. It is desirable that the workmen should have not +less than 6000 cubic feet of air per hour. At the bridge on the Tyne, +where my patients worked, 3000 cubic feet of air per hour were at first +supplied to the workmen, but after their breakdown in health, this +amount was raised to 5000.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to say what amount of atmospheric pressure men can +endure with safety. With the object of throwing light upon this +subject, experiments have been conducted by Hersent, a French engineer +at Bordeaux, and also by Dr Lepine. Hersent tried the effects of +compressed air both upon dogs and men. Some of the dogs on leaving the +caisson, others the day after having undergone decompression, became +paralysed in their limbs. Men similarly treated suffered from severe +pains in their limbs and itchiness of their skin. Lepine experimented +with guinea-pigs and rabbits. When these animals had undergone rapid +decompression after exposure to the influence of compressed air, they +became paralysed in their hinder extremities, convulsions supervened, +followed by death in a quarter of an hour. On making a post-mortem +examination of the bodies, the central canal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_735">[735]</span> of the spinal cord was +found to be distended by gas which had torn its way into the canal. +There were also gaseous bullæ around the blood-vessels of the spinal +cord. Several of the small arteries were torn and had bled. In one +case where the animal died on the thirteenth day after exposure to +compressed air, followed by rapid decompression, Lepine found foci +of softening in the anterior horns of grey matter of the spinal cord +due to gaseous emboli and to hæmorrhagic infarction or rupture of +blood-vessels.</p> + +<p>There is a very great tendency for grave accidents to be produced +in man when the pressure in the caissons exceeds four to five +atmospheres. The greatest risk occurs when the workmen are coming +out of the cylinders and are in the lock undergoing decompression. +If decompression is effected suddenly, harmful or even fatal results +are likely to ensue. One minute for every three pounds of pressure is +the time usually given for decompression, or five minutes for each +atmosphere, but it is obvious that the longer the labourers are in the +caissons and are exposed to very high pressure, the greater is the +probability of a larger amount of gas being dissolved in the blood and +the greater the time therefore required for decompression.</p> + +<p>A caisson has been known to burst. This causes the most sudden +decompression possible. It is almost always a fatal accident owing to +the rapid disengagement into the tissues of the nitrogen gas of the +atmosphere which had been dissolved in the blood of the workmen under +very great pressure. Death is often preceded by convulsions. If the +workmen rally, their legs are found to be paralysed; this loss of power +may be temporary or permanent.</p> + +<p>Three theories have been brought forward to explain compressed-air +illness: (1) carbonic acid poisoning; (2) mechanical congestion of +internal organs; (3) increased solution by the blood of the gases in +the cylinder and the sudden liberation of these gases from the blood +into the tissues during decompression.</p> + +<p>If caisson disease were due to carbonic acid poisoning, we would +naturally expect the symptoms to show themselves during the time the +men are working in the cylinder, and not after they leave it. Dr +Andrew Smith of New York believes that the illness is the result of +mechanical congestion, especially of the brain. In several of the men +who died the membranes of the brain were found to be deeply congested, +a pathological condition that doubtless contributed to the fatal +termination.</p> + +<p>My own opinion is that caisson disease is due to an increased solution +of gases in the blood and sudden liberation of them.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_736">[736]</span> The amount of +gas capable of being dissolved by a liquid is, as Dalton showed, +proportional to pressure. This law holds good for the workman in +the caisson. Since under the influence of compression more gas is +dissolved in the blood, the excess has to be liberated during the +act of decompression. If this is done quickly there is an escape +of bubbles of gas from the blood as it circulates through the +capillaries in the spinal cord and elsewhere. When Paul Bert, a French +physiologist, exposed animals to the influence of compressed air and +quickly decompressed them, several of them died suddenly, and at the +autopsy free gas was found in the blood and in the right side of the +heart. Other animals were paralysed, and in them bubbles of gas were +found in the spinal cord, while the subcutaneous tissue was at places +emphysematous or filled with air. As to the nature of the gas found +in the blood and tissues it is impossible to speak with certainty. +It is probably nitrogen, for this gas is the largest constituent of +atmospheric air, and it is perfectly passive, so that any effect +produced by it would be purely mechanical. If we regard caisson disease +as due to the liberation of gases dissolved in the blood during too +rapid decompression, we have an explanation of such a circumstance as +that of workmen taking ill shortly after they emerge from the lock, +also the benefit which they receive by being put back into the cylinder +and of undergoing temporary recompression.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i>—Treatment is preventive and curative. The points +that above all others demand attention are that the acts of compression +and decompression should be very slowly accomplished. Of these two, +decompression is the more important. The workman should not be too +rapidly pushed through the lock or exposed to any sudden increment or +decrement of pressure. One minute for every three pounds of pressure +is regarded as the average period, but this length of time might with +advantage be lengthened especially for decompression, since it is the +more dangerous. At this time too the workman, although he does not feel +fatigued, is perspiring freely, and he is exposed to chill owing to a +falling temperature. The air inside the caisson should be kept as pure +as possible, and the men ought not to work longer than from two to four +hours at a stretch. Even the minimum stated here may require to be +halved as greater depths are reached. Men should be medically selected +for the work, and only healthy men chosen who are free from heart +disease, pulmonary and nasal catarrh, and who are temperate. No man who +is suffering from a discharge from the ear ought to be allowed into a +caisson,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_737">[737]</span> for even in healthy men the drum of the ear has been known +to become ruptured. There ought to be a warm shelter or cabin at hand +in which the men could lie down after coming out of the cylinders, and +where hot non-intoxicating drinks can be got if required. If the men on +coming out of the caisson are cold and collapsed, warm bottles should +be applied to their extremities, medical assistance sought, and if the +breathing is impaired a hypodermic injection of liquor strychniæ should +be administered. Stimulants should only be given if there is failure +of the heart’s action. Subsequently, if there is severe muscular +pain morphia may be required. In the view that the symptoms are due +to congestion of the internal organs ergot has been recommended. +When unpleasant and dangerous symptoms have occurred immediately the +workman has emerged from the caisson, good results have been obtained +by subjecting him to recompression. Part of the cabin or shelter +just recommended might be so constructed that recompression could be +carried out therein under careful supervision, with the workman in the +recumbent position.</p> + + +<h3><i>Dangers Incidental to the Making of, and Working in, Tunnels.</i></h3> + +<p>The making of tunnels has been carried on from remote ages, there +being records of such works as early as six hundred years before +the Christian era. In a paper read by Mr Francis Fox, M.Inst. C.E., +before the Royal Institution, 25th May 1900, the methods adopted for +making tunnels are described at length, and especially the making of +the great Alpine tunnels. The dangers of tunnelling the Alps have +been considerable, and now that the act has been accomplished, there +has been experienced considerable difficulty in ventilating some +of the tunnels. The <i>Mont Cenis</i> tunnel is 8 miles in length, +and as there is a gradient of 1 in 40 on the French side for the +first 7 kilometres,<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> the trains go through with the regulators +of the engine full open, so that if the wind is blowing in the same +direction, great volumes of smoke practically travel with the train. +For the men who are working in the tunnel there are refuges placed +at every kilometre. Here when the men shut themselves in they can +obtain compressed air, fresh water, and medicines, and by means of the +telephone, extending in both directions, they can make their wants +known outside. The caretakers of the tunnel work in pairs, so that if +one man is affected by want of oxygen or through the density of the +smoke, the other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_738">[738]</span> can render assistance, or telephone for relief, or +they can both retire into a refuge and wait for either the air of the +tunnel to clear or for a locomotive to come and remove them.</p> + +<p>The <i>St Gothard</i> tunnel is 9.3 miles in length. It is on the +railway from Lucerne to Chiaso on the Italian frontier. The north +portal of the tunnel has an altitude of 3639 feet above the level of +the sea, and the south portal 3757. Ten years were spent in tunnelling +the mountain. The work was accomplished at a great sacrifice of human +life. In constructing the tunnel there were 580 accidents, of which +177 were fatal. The engineer and contractor lost their lives. There +was a great mortality, too, among the horses. This excessive loss of +life was attributed to insufficient ventilation, high temperatures in +the tunnel, exposure of the men to the rigours of an Alpine climate +after leaving their work, carelessness of the men in not changing +their wet clothes, the poor character of the food supplied to the men, +and defective sanitary arrangements. One of the great difficulties as +regards the St Gothard tunnel has been its ventilation. The height of +the mountain prevented the sinking of a shaft, but a large ventilating +fan placed near the mouth of the tunnel blows air through the annular +space between the arch of the tunnel and the gauge of maximum +construction, whereby 210,000 cubic feet of air are thrown into the +tunnel every minute, or 100 cubic metres per second. Before the fan was +brought into operation the temperature used sometimes to be as high as +107° F., with 97 per cent. of moisture, but by artificial ventilation +the temperature fell to 81° F., subsequently to 74.5° F. The tunnel can +now be kept cool and comparatively free from smoke and vapour. Formerly +the engine drivers and passengers were seriously indisposed in going +through the tunnel; to-day they can travel without any inconvenience. +In the St Gothard tunnel the amount of carbonic acid often exceeded 15 +per 1000. There resulted from this and other causes such a corrosion +of the rails, that it was necessary at the end of every few years +to entirely replace the rails and their connections. The engineers +estimated that during three and a half years each rail lost on an +average 18 kilos in weight, and at a maximum 28 kilos. Similar metallic +corrosion has been observed in the tunnel between Genoa and Turin, and +is attributed to the sulphurous acid in the smoke of the coal becoming +converted into sulphuric acid. The recent artificial ventilation of +the St Gothard tunnel by the Saccardo system has not only made the air +purer but increased the longevity of the permanent way.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p738a" style="max-width: 723px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p738a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—The <span class="smcap">Simplon Tunnel</span> +operations at Iselle, showing hospital and low flat-roofed workmen’s +dwellings in foreground; higher up on right unmarried men’s barracks, +engineers’ hotel, workshops, etc.</p> + </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_739">[739]</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p739a" style="max-width: 574px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p739a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Section of Simplon Tunnel, showing +difference in Levels between North and South ends.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p739b" style="max-width: 514px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p739b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Section of Simplon Tunnel, showing +Cross Gallery by means of which air is transmitted from ventilating +passage to head of tunnel where the men are working.</p> + </div> + +<p>The <i>Simplon</i> tunnel is now in course of formation. In the first +eighteen months three miles were made. When finished it will measure +12.26 miles between the north or Swiss portal on the Brigue side of +the Alps and the south or Italian opening at Iselle. Such are the +existing engineering and hygienic arrangements that they are believed +likely to prevent the heavy death-rate that occurred in tunnelling the +St Gothard. Fifty times the amount of atmospheric air is being sent +into the tunnel than was forced into the St Gothard, and there are +means in use whereby the air is cooled by jets of water. The great +difficulty of the enterprise, as Professor Pagliani showed (<i>Revue +d’Hygiene</i>, 20 Juin 1900), lies in keeping the temperature low and +in renewing the air, so that the work of excavation and construction +can be conveniently carried on without undue fatigue to the men. In +the centre of the tunnel a temperature of from 107.6° F. to 113° F. is +expected to be met with. The best possible means will be adopted to +cool and ventilate the passages. The effect of high temperatures upon +the men working in the tunnel is to increase the tension of carbonic +acid in their blood and to interfere with respiratory exchanges. The +moist atmosphere, too, tends to induce both pulmonary and circulatory +troubles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_740">[740]</span> by preventing elimination of waste material through the +perspiration. It is impossible for hard muscular work to be continued +for any length of time, and to be efficacious in a temperature equal +or superior to that of the human body, and in a close medium saturated +with moisture. At 84° F. we know physiologically that muscular +effort is considerably reduced. An attempt is being made to keep the +temperature of the tunnel at 77° F., and lower when possible.</p> + +<p>Two parallel galleries—in other words, two tunnels—are being run +into the mountain 17 metres<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> apart, and are reunited by a small +transverse gallery every 200 metres. As the entrance into the tunnel, +on each side of the mountain, is on a curve, there is at either end a +“gallery of direction” to correct errors of alignment direct from the +two observatories in the axis of the tunnel. Pagliani found that the +amount of carbonic acid at various distances varied from 0.68 to 7.53 +per 1000, and the temperature from 75.2° F. to 87.8°, but these amounts +vary with the activity of the ventilation, the number of men working, +the activity of the machinery, and the moisture of the air, which is +nearly always at the point of saturation. It is almost impossible +to have a dry atmosphere; besides it is vitiated by the products of +dynamite explosions.</p> + +<p>The chief feature of the Simplon tunnel<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> “is the much lower +altitude of the rails above sea-level than any of the other Alpine +tunnels. This altitude is at its highest point 2314 feet, being 1474 +feet lower level than that of the St Gothard, 1934 feet lower than that +of the Mont Cenis....</p> + +<p>“The tunnel enters the mountain at the present level of the railway at +Brigue ... but on the Iselle side the connecting line with the existing +railway at Domo d’Ossola necessitates heavy work.... The gradient on +the northern portion of the tunnel will only be that sufficient for +drainage, viz., 1 in 500, but on the southern portion the gradient will +be 7 per 1000, or 1 in 142.”</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p740a" style="max-width: 393px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p740a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Interior of Bath-house and Vestiary for the +Miners at the Simplon Tunnel (Iselle), showing the cubicles +provided with hot and cold water douche pipes, also numerous +cords with workmen’s apparel suspended from ceiling.</p> + </div> + +<p>In May 1901, I visited the Simplon tunnel, with the object of +inspecting the methods of ventilation, the hospitals, the system +of baths, and the houses erected for the working men, married and +unmarried. Armed with letters of introduction from Mr Francis Fox, +I was received at Iselle, the Italian side of the tunnel, by Mr +Sulser-Ziegler, Director of Messrs Brandt, Brandau & Cie, Zurich; +also by Dr <span class="pagenum" id="Page_741">[741]</span>Volante, the resident Medical Officer, who conducted me +over the works, the workmen’s dwellings, and the hospital. From the +elaborate precautions taken, it is clear that the Company has made up +its mind not to repeat the errors of the St Gothard, and to show to the +engineering world and the public generally that tunnel-making can be +conducted without greater risk to life and health than occurs in any +ordinary enterprise. The large number of deaths in the St Gothard was +due to the imperfect system of ventilation, the difficulty of dealing +with excessive temperatures in the mountain, and defective sanitary +arrangements. Before operations at the Simplon were commenced, Mr +Sulser and his colleagues appointed two medical men, one at either +end of the proposed tunnel, viz., Dr Volante at Iselle and Dr Pommata +at Brigue. Both are Italians, and are most capable men. Before +undertaking work the men are all medically examined. By this means, +only healthy men have been employed from the commencement. The most +important problem has been that of ventilation. The Simplon tunnel, +when completed, will be the longest in the world, being upwards of 12 +miles in length. So satisfactory have the operations proceeded until +now, that unless some untoward and unexpected event happens, the tunnel +will be completed with the smallest number of deaths on record.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> A +short description of the work, based upon personal inspection, may well +be added here.</p> + +<p>Ventilation, as already stated, is the main difficulty. At the Swiss +end of the mountain a shaft has been sunk into the tunnel, and up +this the foul air is removed by wood fires. Into the tunnel, at each +end, by means of large fans, air is introduced to the extent of 19 +million cubic feet per day, or 13,200 cubic feet per minute. The air +is carried in by one of the two parallel tunnels as far as the most +recently constructed cross gallery, thence it is carried to the face by +pipes. It returns by the larger tunnel, <i>i.e.</i>, the one through +which trains will ultimately travel. By this means fresh air is carried +to the head of the tunnel where the men are working. At Iselle there +are 500 men always at work in the tunnel. There are three shifts of +men, and they work 8 hours each, so that 1500 men, roughly speaking, +are employed at the Italian end, and a much larger number at Brigue. +The average temperature at the head varies from 73° F. upwards. After +firing with dynamite it may be as high as 80° F., or 86° F. The air +is not only ladened with carbonic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_742">[742]</span> acid given off from the lungs of +the men and the 15 to 20 horses in the tunnel, but contains materials +given off from the bodies of the men during excessive perspiration, +and is polluted by the products of dynamite and gelatine explosions. +The foul air as it escapes from the mouth of the tunnel is thick and +greyish-white in colour; it contains a good deal of smoke from the +lamps of the workmen, and is very offensive. Small wonder, therefore, +that the men emerge from the tunnel bathed in perspiration, and +disposed to be chilled owing to their clothes being wet, for, although +they work in tarpaulins, there is a good deal of water in the tunnel. +It was, among other things, want of attention to these particular +details in the St Gothard that caused so many deaths and illnesses from +pulmonary disease.</p> + +<p>Close to the mouth of the Simplon tunnel at Iselle, where the railway +trucks draw up that bring the men from their work in the interior of +the mountain, are large wooden buildings, one of which internally is +divided off into, among other things, 32 cubicles, each of which is +fitted up with hot and cold water pipes. The railway platform where +the men emerge is covered over, so that the workmen can reach this +building without being exposed to wet or cold. The building alluded to +is not only a bath-house but a vestiary as well. Here the men in going +to work in the tunnel put on their working clothes. At first sight, +part of the interior of the bath-house is not unlike an old-clothes’ +shop, for, on looking upwards, the clothes of the workmen can be seen +suspended from the ceiling. There are 2000 strong cords placed 1 foot +6 inches apart. Attached to the free end of each cord are three iron +hooks and a soap dish. Upon the hooks the workman hangs his clothes. +As every cord is provided with a pulley and is numbered, each man, +having had a bath after his day’s work, hangs his wet clothes on the +hooks and draws them up to the ceiling. Next morning he finds his +clothes ready for him, dry, warm, and comfortable. The bath-house is +kept at a warm temperature, and is well ventilated. I was particularly +struck with the excellent system of baths, the vestiary arrangements, +and the cleanliness of the interior, and am of opinion that prevention +of chilling of the workmen after coming out of the hot tunnel has had +much to do with keeping them healthy, and has warded off pulmonary +and bronchial disease. The supply of drinking water is good, and so +far there has been during the three years no case of typhoid fever at +Iselle. The workmen’s dwellings are also good, so, too, is the hospital +and its administration.</p> + +<p>In addition to the ill-health caused by working in the vitiated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_743">[743]</span> +atmosphere and high temperature of the tunnels, the miners employed +in making the St Gothard tunnel suffered from a peculiar form of +anæmia, which for long was unexplained. The discovery of the cause +of this “maladie des tunnels,” for so it came to be called, was made +by Perroncito of Turin, who showed that the anæmia of the miners was +caused by the presence of a parasite which fixes itself in the upper +part of the small intestine, measures from ¼ to ½ an inch in length, +and possesses a mouth and four long hooklets. By its hooklets the +parasite fixes itself to the lining membrane of the human intestine, +and is thus enabled to suck the blood of its host. The worm is called +“Anchylostomum Duodenale,” and is known to be prevalent in Italy. It +would appear, therefore, that the ova of this parasite escaping by +the fæces of miners who are suffering from anchylostomiasis find in +the heat and moisture of the tunnel a medium favourable for their +transformation into the larval stage; while in the dirty habits of the +miners, and the accidental contamination of their food and drink, lies +the explanation of the means of ingress of the ova into the alimentary +canal. Anchylostomiasis is not therefore necessarily a disease of +tunnels.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> It was simply introduced into the St Gothard by infected +miners. The malady is endemic in Piedmont and Lombardy. Dubini of +Milan found in one hundred autopsies made upon the peasantry of these +districts, anchylostomiasis present in twenty bodies, so that the +disease had been apparently introduced into the St Gothard by Italian +workmen. The ravages caused by this parasite show the necessity for +miners working in tunnels disinfecting their stools by such means, for +example, as sulphuric acid. It is to the careful medical examination +of the workmen by Drs Volante and Pommata, before being engaged by +the firm, the elimination of all suspected persons, and the repeated +inspection of the closets in the tunnel, that anchylostomiasis has +not appeared at the Simplon. Since much of the pulmonary disease that +affected the miners was consequent upon breathing an overheated and +an excessively moist atmosphere, one also vitiated by the products +of human respiration and dynamite explosions, improved ventilation +in the case of the Simplon tunnel has diminished these evils; while +the opportunities given to the men of changing their wet clothes, of +bathing themselves, and of receiving shelter when tired, have prevented +the acute bronchial and pulmonary catarrhs that were observed in making +the other great Alpine tunnels.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_744">[744]</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Underground Railways.</i></h3> + +<p>Of the underground railways in this country the only one I need allude +to is the London Metropolitan. In 1897 a Board of Trade Commission +was appointed to inquire into the condition of the air in the “Inner +Circle” of the Metropolitan. The passenger traffic on this line is +enormous. Between Praed Street and Aldgate stations, in one hour, as +many as 38 trains were said to arrive and depart from either side of +the stations. Welsh coal is consumed. Part of the Metropolitan railway +is underground, and part is in the open, so that when the wind is +blowing in certain directions passengers have been inconvenienced +by the smoke and the insufficiency of the ventilation, despite the +numerous escape holes. There has often been an excess of carbonic acid, +sometimes, too, of carbon monoxide, in the air in the tunnels. The +Commission found that the ventilation could not be adequately assured +by the exchange and renewal of the air at the stations and the escape +holes. It recognised the necessity for artificial ventilation, and in +consequence the centrifugal method was adopted.</p> + +<p>Vitiation of the air of a tunnel is caused by the gases that come +from the means adopted for illuminating purposes, the products of +respiration, and those due to combustion of coal in the furnace of the +locomotive. Carbonic acid is only dangerous when it is present in large +quantities. Breathed for a very short time at 60 per 1000 it causes +headache, at 100 per 1000 respiration becomes extremely difficult, +while if present in the proportion of 250 per 1000 it will cause rapid +death.<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> It is seldom, however, that carbonic acid is even present +to the extent of 10 per 1000; if present, it is as a rule accidental +and only for a short period, so that danger from this gas is slight.</p> + +<p>It is otherwise with carbon monoxide, a gas much more dangerous and +subtle in its influence than carbon dioxide, popularly known as +carbonic acid. Carbon monoxide was found to be present in the air of +the Metropolitan Railway to the extent of 0.66 per 1000. When present +to this amount in air it can, if time is given, paralyse the hæmoglobin +or coloured substance of the blood that carries the oxygen to the +tissues. Harmful effects can occur when carbon monoxide reaches 0.3 +per 1000, but as it requires half-an-hour for the blood to absorb +sufficient of this gas to be detrimental to the individual,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_745">[745]</span> accidents +do not happen owing to the short length of the tunnels and the good +speed of the trains through them. The risks to health are incurred +mostly by the men who work on the railways. M. Raymond Godfernaux +(<i>Génie Civil.</i>, Août et Sept. 1899), in reviewing this subject, +remarks that the breathing by an individual in repose for one and a +half hours (less than this if work is being done) of an atmosphere +containing 0.25 of carbon monoxide per 1000 is sufficient to cause +unpleasant symptoms; if the air contains 0.5 per 1000 there will be +debility and vertigo; if 0.9 per 1000 walking becomes impossible, +while death will supervene if there is 1.5 in 1000. To men employed +on underground railways, danger from this source only comes when the +amount of carbon monoxide passes beyond 0.25 per 1000. The passengers +run, practically speaking, no risk.</p> + +<p>A heavy sulphurous odour hangs about the tunnels and stations of the +Metropolitan Railway due to the combustion of coal. When sulphurous +acid is present in air to the extent of 0.6 per 1000 it may cause +death. This proportion is never present in the air of the tunnels of +the Metropolitan of London.</p> + +<p>The sulphurous acid and carbonic acid are believed to be proportional +to each other. The amount of sulphurous acid is 440 times less than +that of carbonic acid, and as the maximum of carbonic acid was 8.9 per +1000, sulphurous acid is seldom more than 0.02 per 1000.</p> + +<p>The Commission established the facts (1) that there was a constant +relation between the deleterious gases in the tunnels, and (2) that the +proportion of carbonic acid present might be taken as the basis for the +aeration of the tunnels. The proportion of carbon monoxide is constant, +and corresponds to one-thirteenth the volume of carbon dioxide, while +that of sulphurous acid is 440 times less than that of carbon dioxide. +The amount of sulphurous acid is regulated by the character of the coal +burnt in the locomotive. Some coals contain more sulphur than others. +A similar remark applies to carbon monoxide. An Italian Commission +charged with a similar function in regard to the composition of the +air in the tunnels of its own country arrived at different chemical +conclusions to the Commission of the Board of Trade, so that it would +be scarcely wise to calculate the purity of the air in all tunnels upon +parallel lines.</p> + +<p>The amounts of carbon monoxide and dioxide should be estimated +separately. The composition of the air of the tunnels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_746">[746]</span> of the +Metropolitan, accepted for a maximum, is 1.5 of carbonic acid per 1000 +(0.3 being regarded as the normal), 0.1 carbon monoxide per 1000, and +0.0027 sulphurous acid per 1000.</p> + +<p>It is especially for the sake of the men who are working in the +tunnels, and for the drivers of the locomotives, rather than for the +passengers who spend proportionally a very short time on the railway, +although of course desirable for all, that such artificial means of +ventilation should exist as will quickly disperse the smoke and all +combustion products.</p> + +<p>It has been decided to introduce electric traction in the underground +railway. By this means the Metropolitan Railway Company will rid the +atmosphere in the tunnels of the impurities alluded to.</p> + + +<h3><i>Divers’ Paralysis.</i></h3> + +<p>Men when clad in proper diving suits and wearing air-tight head-gear +can work at very considerable depths under water. At the depth of 33 +feet the pressure is about twice that of the atmosphere. It is not +exactly known to what depth men may descend with safety, but 201 feet +have been reached, <i>i.e.</i>, equivalent to a pressure of 87 lbs. to +the square inch. It is very desirable that the descent should be made +gradually, say about two feet per second. In this country diving is +resorted to for making excavations connected with piers, inspecting +sunken ships, etc., and abroad for sponge, pearl, and coral fishing. +It is not uncommon for the men after having been in the water some +time to complain of weakness of the legs and of impaired sensation. A +patient of Dr Frederick Taylor (<i>Clin. Jour.</i>, April 27, 1898), +after diving 162 feet felt sick, and when pulled up into the lighter +was found to have lost the power of his legs. Loss of consciousness is +a frequent symptom, and as it often takes a man as much as five minutes +before he can reach the surface of the water, there is considerable +danger attending the occupation. Divers have died without regaining +consciousness. Others when rescued, and on coming to themselves, have +complained of severe cramp-like pains in the muscles of their limbs and +abdomen.</p> + +<p>At such depths as 160 to 180 feet men can only stay at the bottom of +the sea a very short time. It is only when men work at very great +depths that paralysis is likely to supervene. The risk to life and +health is regulated by the depth, and particularly is this the case +when there are sudden alterations of pressure. Hauling up divers +too quickly when the air-tube has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_747">[747]</span> become foul is a very dangerous +proceeding. Since young men bear the work better than old men, age, +therefore, is a circumstance that should be considered, as well as +temperance in the use of alcohol. The character of the water and the +length of the period of submersion must not be overlooked. Once 150 +feet below the surface has been reached, the diver is apt to feel +somewhat inconvenienced, and with every increase of two or three feet +beyond this, the inconvenience becomes rapidly greater. There are +experienced a sense of fulness in the head, buzzing in the ears—often +relieved by filling the mouth with saliva and swallowing the +secretion—also flashes of light before the eyes. Bleeding at the nose, +mouth, and ears occasionally occurs after the men come to the surface; +severe muscular pains, called “bends,” are sometimes complained of, +followed by loss of power in the legs. There is either complete +paraplegia, <i>i.e.</i>, the lower half of the body is paralysed as +regards motion, and sometimes too as regards sensation, or the loss of +power is limited to groups of muscles affecting the wrists and ankles. +The paralysis may be permanent, or it may last only a few hours or +days, but if a diver has once had paralysis the symptoms are apt to +recur on re-exposure.</p> + +<p>The cause of divers’ paralysis, like the disease of caisson workers, +is the sudden liberation of gas that was previously dissolved in +the blood. No hæmorrhages have been found in the central nervous +system, but Van Leyden observed fissures in the spinal cord occupied +by leucocytes, <i>i.e.</i>, cells like the white corpuscles of the +blood. The appearance of the fissures suggested that they had first +been formed, and that the colourless corpuscles had found their way +thither afterwards. When lesions have been present in the spinal cord +they usually occupy the lowest third of its length, a circumstance +attributed by Moxon to the greater length, tortuosity, and attenuated +condition of the small blood-vessels that are present at this +particular part compared with the arteries in the upper region of the +spinal cord.</p> + +<p>Fatal cases of divers’ paralysis fortunately do not occur very +frequently. One of the most recent cases was in November 1900, when +H.M. battleship <i>Howe</i> was cruising in the West of Scotland; the +diver of the ship died after a lengthened immersion in the water. +At the post-mortem examination bubbles of gas were found in the +blood-vessels, the heart, and brain. The morbid conditions found in +this man’s body after death quite confirm the opinion already expressed +as to the pathology of the malady.</p> + +<p>In addition to the risks to health already mentioned, there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_748">[748]</span> are those +incidental to the fouling of the air-tubes of the diver; also large +stones and other materials occasionally fall upon the tubes, and tend +to cause death by asphyxia.</p> + +<p>So far as the operations of diving itself are concerned the three +things to be avoided are: (1) too great depths; (2) sudden alteration +of pressure; and (3) coming up too suddenly. There must necessarily be +increased danger when a man who is working at a depth of 150 feet is +brought to the surface in one minute instead of five.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i>—If the diver on coming to the surface is found to +be unconscious and not breathing well, artificial respiration should +be resorted to and kept up till breathing becomes automatic. If he is +collapsed, warmth should be applied to the extremities, and, if he +can swallow, hot coffee should be administered. The patient should be +removed to a hospital, or his own home, when sufficiently revived. If +muscular pains are severe, or if there is loss of power, rest in bed, +sinapisms to the spine, and later on galvanism should be tried.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_749">[749]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LV<br> +<span class="subhed">DISEASES DUE TO DIMINISHED ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: PURE AND IMPURE GASES</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Mountain Climbers; Military Balloonists.</i></h3> + +<p>Increased atmospheric pressure causes unpleasant and sometimes serious +symptoms in divers and in caisson workers, but to an extremely rarefied +atmosphere can also be traced effects that are nearly equally serious. +It is difficult to say at what height above the ordinary surface level +of the earth man can live with comparative comfort. The Andes and +the Himalayas have been scaled to from 15,000 to 23,000 feet above +the sea level, and men are said to have gone as high as six miles in +balloons. The difficulties of remaining at great altitudes are the +excessive cold and the low barometric and oxygen pressures. In order +to compensate for this low oxygen pressure, nature endows men living +at great heights by increasing the number of the red corpuscles of +their blood. It is these corpuscles that carry oxygen to the tissues. +In ascending a very high mountain the individual experiences not only +great difficulty of breathing and violent palpitation of the heart, +but a sense of great physical fatigue and faintness. A set of symptoms +not unlike those observed in sea-sickness occurs, hence the name given +to the illness, “mal de montagnes,” although vomiting and nausea are +not always present. In climbing mountains people generally put forth a +great amount of muscular effort, and in consequence an increased amount +of chemical change takes place within their body, a circumstance which +reduces the resistance of these individuals to the influences of a +falling barometric pressure. Aeronauts do not experience this sense of +muscular fatigue, because they are not making any muscular effort, but +they ascend to great heights with greater rapidity than climbers, and +to this circumstance must be attributed many of the unpleasant symptoms +they experience.</p> + +<p>Since in the act of climbing it is upon the heart and lungs that the +greatest strain is thrown, it is these organs that principally have +their functional activity increased. The palpitation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_750">[750]</span> of the heart may +be very distressing. There is throbbing in the head, accompanied by +extreme muscular exhaustion, so that after reaching a great height the +individual may be so overcome that he throws himself on the ground, +unable to proceed further. He lies there for a time panting, trying to +get more oxygen into his system and to rid it of the excess of carbonic +acid. He may bleed at the nose or from the gums. He perspires freely, +and there is great thirst. There may be deafness and earache owing to +the bulging outwards of the drum of the ear. Although it cannot be +stated that in man death has been caused by diminished atmospheric +pressures at great heights, yet it has been shown experimentally in +animals that coma is induced which may end in death. The animal passes +into a state of cadaveric rigidity very shortly after death. It is just +a question how far the sudden supervention of cardiac and cerebral +symptoms in mountain climbers may not be responsible for some of the +fatal accidents that we read of from time to time as occurring on the +Alps.</p> + + +<p><i>Military Balloonists.</i>—In the <i>Archiv. de Med. Milit.</i>, +February 1900, Dr Maljean reports that in a company of balloonists +belonging to the 1st Regiment of Engineers he found several of the +soldiers suffering from a toxæmic form of jaundice, the nature of which +was obscure. Ultimately he demonstrated that the jaundice was due +to poisoning by inhalation of arseniuretted hydrogen gas mixed with +hydrogen that had been used for filling the balloons. The hydrogen +employed for military balloons is obtained by acting upon granulated +zinc with sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid is generally obtained from +pyrites, and this is known to contain sometimes as much as from 2 to +5 per cent. of arsenic combined with iron. Commercial zinc also often +contains arsenic. In filling balloons, therefore, it would appear that +not only is there frequently an escape of this impure hydrogen from the +valves of the balloon, but that during the operation of filling the +balloon, the officers and men are in the habit of smelling the tube to +ascertain whether by the garlicky odour of the impure hydrogen this +gas has replaced the ordinary atmospheric air. At a single filling an +officer may smell several times the open tube of the balloon and suffer +in consequence.</p> + +<p>According to Maljean the symptoms of poisoning commence with a sense +of great malaise and nausea, followed later on by jaundice, often +of a very pronounced yellow-green tint, urine scanty, and often as +dark as coffee, but not giving the reaction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_751">[751]</span> of biliary pigment. The +urine stains the linen like the blood-coloured urine of patients +suffering from hæmoglobinuria, and it may contain both albumen and a +few tube-casts. In a few days these symptoms disappear, but they leave +behind them anæmia and loss of flesh, which persist. It has for long +been known that if animals are given arseniuretted hydrogen gas to +inhale, they rapidly become jaundiced and pass a blood-coloured urine. +A similar set of symptoms has been observed in men working in chemical +and mineral industries in which arsenic is present.</p> + +<p>In the balloon service of the French army an endeavour is now being +made to use only pure hydrogen. In most of the military balloons the +valve which allows the gas to escape is placed in the upper part of the +machine. The balloons are filled in the open by hydrogen from metallic +cylinders which have been charged under a pressure equivalent to 120 +atmospheric pressures. It is stated by some authorities that under such +very high pressure the impure gas may be decomposed and rendered less +harmful, but this requires confirmation.</p> + +<p>Poisoning of aeronauts by arseniuretted hydrogen in connection with +military balloons on the Continent is not confined to the French army +alone. In the <i>Deutsche Milit. Zeitschrift</i>, 1900, p. 139, is an +account of two German soldiers, who, after being poisoned by this gas, +died at the end of three days.</p> + +<p>Persons ascending in balloons should dress warmly, and they ought to +take with them cylinders filled with compressed oxygen.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_752">[752]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LVI<br> +<span class="subhed">EFFECTS OF CONCUSSION OF THE AIR</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Boilermakers and Riveters.</i></h3> + +<p>It may be taken as a fact based upon experience, that artisans who are +exposed to such loud noises as are made in hammering rivets suffer from +deafness. Boilermakers and riveters become deaf at an early age, while +their comrades engaged in other kinds of work in the same shipyard do +not suffer. Several young boilermakers whom I have examined have stated +that they lost their hearing at an early age. Their infirmity dated +back to their ’prentice days, when as boys they were sent into the +boilers to catch the rivets, and were subjected to the intense noise +of hammering inside the cylinder. Workers in sheet-iron factories are +sometimes similarly affected with deafness. It is no uncommon thing, +as people know, for artillerymen when firing large guns to be rendered +temporarily deaf by the noise and force of the explosion, and in some +instances for the drum of the ear to be ruptured. In order to prevent +such an accident, cotton wadding is sometimes placed in the ear. It is +difficult to say exactly what is the cause of deafness in boilermakers, +but the extreme vibration of the tympanum, and the intense agitation of +the ossicles, cannot but be followed either by a thickening of the drum +of the ear, or by a paralytic condition of the minute terminations of +the auditory nerve.</p> + +<p>There is nothing I know of that will prevent boilermakers’ deafness, +short of substitution of machine for hand riveting, and once deafness +is established I know of no reliable cure for it.</p> + + +<h3><i>Boilermakers, Shipwrights, etc.</i></h3> + +<p>Some idea may be formed of the trades included under this heading, by +glancing at the reports of the Boilermakers’ Society, and ascertaining +from what trades the members of the society are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_753">[753]</span> drawn. The members +are engaged in the various steel trades, viz., boilermaking, +bridge-building, shipbuilding, also in iron and other structural work +composed of iron and steel. They mostly come from the boilermaking +and shipbuilding industries. As the central office of this Society is +in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, I have, through the kindness of Messrs Robert +Knight and D. C. Cummings, the past and present secretaries, gained +considerable information as to the maladies principally affecting +boilermakers, and their death-rate, etc. The work is hard, and as it +is mostly carried on in the open the workmen are exposed to all kinds +of weather. Under these circumstances, therefore, it would be natural +to expect that boilermakers would show a tendency to suffer from +acute inflammatory affections, especially of the respiratory organs. +Boilermakers as a class are not unhealthy. At the present time there +are 48,000 members in the Society. In 1899 there died 436 members, +a number equal to 9 per 1000, as against 8 per 1000 of the male +population of the country generally. As illustrating the effect of the +occupation upon their working powers, members are eligible to be placed +upon the superannuation fund at the age of fifty-five years. This is +an early age compared with some industries, and yet, at fifty-five +some boilermakers are, comparatively speaking, old, a circumstance +that is attributed to the arduous nature of their calling. The records +of the Society, as of many other trade unions, show that with each +succeeding decade in the working life of a boilermaker he is annually +on the sick-list an increasing number of days. The average age at death +of boilermakers is 46.72 years. Hard and exposed as the work is, it +is interesting to know that the average age at death of boilermakers +is greater than that of the wives of boilermakers, who are leading an +indoor and protected life. The average age at death of members’ wives +is 45.47 years, a circumstance which I attribute to many of the wives +dying during or shortly after their confinement, and also dying at an +earlier age than the members from such other diseases, for example, as +consumption.</p> + +<p>In the accompanying statistical tables in their present form I +am indebted to Dr H. E. Armstrong, Medical Officer of Health, +Newcastle-upon-Tyne (see p. <a href="#Page_754">754</a>).</p> + +<p>One thousand boilermakers, it will be seen, exhibit a slightly higher +death-rate from all causes than 1000 of the male population of England +and Wales, the numbers being respectively 9 and 8. They have a slightly +higher mean death-rate, too, from all forms of lung diseases, including +pneumonia, viz., 3.0 as against 2.9 of 1000<span class="pagenum" id="Page_754">[754]</span> male persons over twenty +and under sixty-five years of age; but taking tubercular diseases only, +the death-rate from this cause is less, being 1.4 as against 1.6; on +the other hand the death-rate for diseases of the heart and circulatory +organs is slightly higher, 1.2 as against 1.1.</p> + + +<p class="center smaller p1">UNITED SOCIETY OF BOILERMAKERS AND IRON SHIPBUILDERS.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Extracted from the Annual Reports of the Society.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb smcap" colspan="9">Deaths from</td> + <td class="ctrtrb smcap" colspan="2">Total Deaths.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl"><span class="smcap">Year.</span></td> + <td class="ctrrb">No. of<br>Members.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">All<br>Causes.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Bronchitis.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Pneumonia.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Phthisis,<br>not<br>included in<br>cols. 7, 8.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Consumption,<br>not<br>included in<br>cols. 6, 8.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Tuberculosis,<br>not<br>included in<br>cols. 6, 7.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Cancer.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Diseases of<br>Heart,<br>Circulatory<br>System.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Typhoid<br>Fever.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Lung Diseases,<br>including<br>Bronchitis,<br>Pneumonia,<br>Phthisis, etc.</td> + <td class="ctrrb">Tuberculosis,<br>including<br>Phthisis, and all<br>other forms.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"><b>1</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>2</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>3</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>4</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>5</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>6</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>7</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>8</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>9</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>10</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>11</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>12</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>13</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1896</td> + <td class="ctrr">40,776</td> + <td class="ctrr">346</td> + <td class="ctrr">27</td> + <td class="ctrr">35</td> + <td class="ctrr">51</td> + <td class="rightr">8</td> + <td class="ctrr"></td> + <td class="ctrr">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">48</td> + <td class="rightr">5</td> + <td class="ctrr">121</td> + <td class="ctrr">51</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1897</td> + <td class="ctrr">42,178</td> + <td class="ctrr">379</td> + <td class="ctrr">32</td> + <td class="ctrr">37</td> + <td class="ctrr">43</td> + <td class="rightr">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">4</td> + <td class="ctrr">23</td> + <td class="ctrr">52</td> + <td class="rightr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">124</td> + <td class="ctrr">47</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1898</td> + <td class="ctrr">43,905</td> + <td class="ctrr">399</td> + <td class="ctrr">25</td> + <td class="ctrr">41</td> + <td class="ctrr">68</td> + <td class="rightr">6</td> + <td class="ctrr">2</td> + <td class="ctrr">20</td> + <td class="ctrr">53</td> + <td class="rightr">12</td> + <td class="ctrr">140</td> + <td class="ctrr">70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbdl">1899</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">47,417</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">436</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">30</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">53</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">62</td> + <td class="rightrbd">3</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">7</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">13</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">56</td> + <td class="rightrbd">25</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">148</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">69</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center p1"><i>Death-Rate per 1000 Members.</i></p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per col. 12.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per col. 13.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per col. 9.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per col. 10.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per col. 11.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Per col. 3.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>14</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>15</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>16</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>17</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>18</b></td> + <td class="ctrr"><b>19</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr">3.0</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.3</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.3</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.2</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">8.9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr">2.9</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.5</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.2</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.1</td> + <td class="ctrr">9.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl"></td> + <td class="ctrr">3.2</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.6</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.4</td> + <td class="ctrr">1.2</td> + <td class="ctrr">0.3</td> + <td class="ctrr">9.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl"></td> + <td class="ctrrb">3.1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.5</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.3</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.2</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.5</td> + <td class="ctrrb">9.2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbdl">Average for four years</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">3.0</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">1.4</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">0.4</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">1.2</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">0.2</td> + <td class="ctrrbd">9.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl" colspan="7"><a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a><span class="smcap">England and Wales.</span>—<i>Per 1000 population, 1881–90.</i></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Mean Annual Death-Rate of<br> +Male Persons 20 and under 65<br>years of age</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2.9</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.6</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.4</td> + <td class="ctrrb">1.1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">0.1</td> + <td class="ctrrb">8.0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_755">[755]</span></p> + +<p>It is noteworthy, as already stated, that the average age at death +of the wives of the members of the Boilermaker’s Society is lower +than that of members, viz., 45.47 years for the wives and 46.72 for +the members. Fewer of the wives die from phthisis and tubercular +disease than the members, the numbers being 1 and 1.4 respectively as +against 1.6 of 1000 of the population generally, estimated upon the +returns of the Registrar-General for 1881–90. The wives of members +die at an earlier age from pulmonary consumption than the members, +viz., thirty-four and a half years for the wives, and thirty-nine for +members, a circumstance possibly explained by two facts—that males +show greater resistance to the disease than females, and that during +the early part of the disease at any rate the members spend more of +their time in the open air than do the wives.</p> + +<p>Although boilermakers are exposed to such risks as burns from red-hot +rivets, it is surprising how few accidents are traceable to this cause. +When Dr Ogle dealt with the statistics of workers in iron, he concluded +that of the three classes—(1) locksmiths, including bellhangers and +gasfitters; (2) engine and machine-makers, fitters and millwrights; (3) +boilermakers—the engine-makers occupied the most favourable position +from a mortality point of view, the mean mortality rate being 863 as +against 967 for locksmiths, and 994 for boilermakers. According to the +same authority, too, the mean annual death-rate of boilermakers is +greater at all the ages between twenty-five and sixty-five years.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_756">[756]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LVII<br> +<span class="subhed">IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Exposure to High Temperatures, and Severe Muscular Strain.</i></h3> + +<p>In iron works the <i>blast furnacemen</i> are exposed to very high +temperatures. Passing rapidly from great heat to cold, they are prone +to suffer from bronchial and pulmonary affections and from rheumatism. +They run the risk of burns, also on a windy day of getting particles +of dust or sand into their eyes.<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> Blast furnacemen’s work is hard. +When young the men are, as a class, physically strong. Their wages are +good; they live well, but at an early age they begin to drink freely. +Under the combined influence of their arduous labour, exposure to all +kinds of weather, and their intemperate habits, they break down readily +and become prematurely old.</p> + +<p>The men who work at the <i>puddling</i> furnaces are exposed to +excessive heat and to severe muscular strain. Owing to the heat and +excessive perspiration, they often work with the upper half of their +body uncovered. They imbibe many kinds of liquids, so as to replace +what is lost by perspiration. Puddling, which is briefly speaking the +rolling about by means of a rabble the huge balls of molten iron in the +furnaces, is such very hard work that many of the men develop heart +affections, particularly disease of the aortic valves, or aneurismal +dilatation of the aorta, owing to the excessive muscular strain and +intemperate habits. Puddling is justly regarded as one of the most +degrading occupations a man can follow. Fortunately for the workmen it +is now very much on the decrease. Steel is rapidly taking the place of +iron, consequently puddling is not so much required.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_757">[757]</span></p> + +<p>Blast furnacemen are occasionally poisoned by the escape of carbonic +oxide from the waste gases used for heating the air of the furnace.</p> + + +<h3><i>Blacksmiths and Forgemen.</i></h3> + +<p>Beyond the extremely arduous nature of this employment, and which +necessitates the work being undertaken by men of good physique, whose +muscular system develops in proportion to the strain that is imposed +upon it, especially in the early years of manhood, and freedom from +alcoholic excess, the work of the blacksmith and forgeman is healthy. +Formerly a good deal of the heavy work was done by men wielding large +hammers. This threw a strain upon the heart and large blood-vessels, +and was a frequent cause of valvular disease of the heart, dilatation +of the aorta, and possibly too of hernia. Since much of the hard work +previously done by hammermen is now done by machinery, we see less of +aortic disease among forgemen than two decades ago. The workmen are +exposed to heats and colds, to injuries to the eyes, and to burns from +flying scales during hammering. Blacksmiths seem to lead a charmed life +so far as these risks are concerned, for considering their exposure the +percentage of injuries is small. As a consequence of handling the rough +iron tools the skin of the hand becomes thick and hard, and the men run +the risk of catching bronchial and pulmonary catarrhs on emerging from +their heated workshops into the open air. Years ago in Sheffield, when +sledge-hammers were more in use than now, there was observed a form +of paralysis of the muscles of the arms due to overstrain, and known +by the name of hammermen’s paralysis. A considerable percentage of +blacksmiths die from phthisis and diseases of the respiratory organs. +Out of 872 deaths of blacksmiths Dr Ogle found 194 due to consumption, +and 183 caused by other forms of lung disease; while following these +came diseases of the heart and circulation, 108; and, lastly, from +diseases of the nervous system, 85.</p> + + +<h3><i>Use of Converters in Steel Works.</i></h3> + +<p>This is the proper place to allude to a matter which formed the subject +of a special inquiry by, and report<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> from, the Dangerous Trades +Committee of the Home Office, on account of a fatal accident to four +men in a large iron works in which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_758">[758]</span> Bessemer process of steel +manufacture is in use. The Bessemer converter is a pear-shaped metal +vessel, about nineteen feet long by seven or eight across at its widest +part, into which pig-iron and other ingredients for the manufacture of +steel are run in a liquid condition. In the bottom of the converter are +openings called “tuyere holes,” through which a powerful blast of air +is driven into the molten pig-iron, the object being to burn out such +impurities as carbon, silicon, phosphorus, etc., the means employed to +do this being sufficient to develop at the same time a degree of heat +capable of keeping the purified metal in a liquid state. Before the +blast is turned on, the converter occupies almost an upright position. +The roar that follows the entrance of the blast of air is succeeded +by volumes of coloured smoke and flame, and by myriads of sparks of +molten metal. When the flame has become finally white, the blast is +withdrawn, spiegel iron is added to the seething mass to restore the +proper amount of manganese and carbon required, the converter is +lowered and gently turned over so as to allow of the pouring of the +liquid steel into a ladle, which distributes it into moulds. It is +in the moving of the converter and the ladle into their respective +positions, an act usually accomplished by the aid of hydraulic or steam +power, that accidents have arisen owing to faulty machinery. The moulds +are standing upright in what is called the pit, where there are usually +two or three men employed. Should by chance either the converter or +the ladle spill its contents a fatal accident is almost sure to occur. +It is desirable, therefore, that only experienced men should work the +machinery connected with the lowering and turning over of the converter +and ladle, and that during the act of distributing the steel into +the moulds no men should be present in the pit at all. The Dangerous +Trades Committee, in addition to the above, recommended that where an +automatic safety apparatus has been introduced into the machinery, the +spindle in the valve should be changed every three months, and the +valves examined regularly by a competent engineer. Owing to the fact +that when molten metal falls into water there is an explosion, it was +also recommended that the pits should not be, as they too often are, +open to the sky and exposed to all kinds of weather.</p> + + +<h3><i>Nail and Chain Making.</i></h3> + +<p>The small iron industries are located in districts where coal is +plentiful, iron close at hand, and labour cheap. It is thus that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_759">[759]</span> +chain-making has come to be associated with such places as Cradley +Heath and Dudley, and has grown up to be a family industry, carried on +in these localities by husband, wife, and children in small tenemented +properties and outbuildings under the worst hygienic conditions +possible. A similar remark applies to nail-making at Bromsgrove. In +these trades, as carried on in the Midlands, female labour, assisted +by that of children, prevails, a circumstance that tends to pull down +wages and to render the conditions of life hard.</p> + +<p>As an illustration of how the minor iron industries come to be located +in small places, I would mention the manufacture of nails, locks, and +angle iron that has been carried on for many years in Winlaton, a few +miles from Newcastle-on-Tyne. Here also the work has partly assumed +the family type already mentioned. For generations the industry has +been handed on from father to sons. It cannot be said that in Winlaton +the conditions of labour have been, from a financial point of view, +unsatisfactory to the workers or deleterious in its effects upon their +health, as is stated to be the case in the “Black Country,” where +labour has been ill-requited, recourse had to female and child labour +on account of cheapness, the hours of toil long, and the hygienic +conditions under which the work is carried on bad. Dr Arlidge, drawing +his experience from Staffordshire, was of opinion that for the worker +in these trades to earn a living wage, a great amount of physical +labour had to be expended in the forging and hammering of the nails on +the anvil. To put the head on to a nail a suspended hammer has to be +intermittently brought down by pressure of the foot upon a chain. For +spike nails the cold iron has to be cut into proper lengths by means of +an “oliver” or sledge hammer, worked by two or three men by means of a +treddle. In forging a nail a girl works with the hammer on the anvil, +and with her foot a small “oliver.” Apart from the small wages received +it cannot be said that the industry is unhealthy, but the work is hard, +and requires a great amount of physical exertion which ought to be met +by good food and adequate physical rest, the former of which is denied +the workers by their small wages, and the latter by the long hours of +toil required to secure the necessaries of life.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the irritation which the palm of the hand is exposed +to in handling the hammer, etc., there occurs a thickening and +contraction of the fascia in the front of the hand whereby the fingers +become crooked and drawn towards the palm. Spinal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_760">[760]</span> curvature, too, +is not unknown. It is extremely apt to develop in those who engage +in the work at an early age. Pulmonary disease is said to carry off +the men while still young, and the occupation is one that exposes the +worker to the risk of burns. Attention is drawn to this industry, not +so much because the trades are unhealthy in themselves, as that the +nail-makers at Bromsgrove and Sidemoor, and the chain-makers of Cradley +Heath, scarcely earn wages sufficient to buy the proper food necessary +for the maintenance of the body, while they are obliged to put forth +considerable muscular effort owing to the laborious nature of their +calling.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_761">[761]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LVIII<br> +<span class="subhed">EYE DISEASES AND EYE ACCIDENTS IN RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS</span></h2></div> + + +<p>The subject to be discussed in this article is a very wide one. To +treat all industrial occupations and the relations they bear to eye +diseases and eye accidents would be impossible in the space at my +command. It will, however, be found that the various trades which are +brought under notice cover a considerable part of the whole area. +They may be regarded as perhaps the most important, and some, at all +events, will represent also the dangers arising from cognate or allied +industries. For the most part I have treated of occupations in which I +have myself been particularly interested.</p> + +<p>The subjects to be considered may be conveniently arranged under the +following divisions:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>1st.</i> Diseases due to occupations involving prolonged use +or excessive strain of the eyes, such as nystagmus in miners, +and others.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>2nd.</i> Diseases due to occupations involving the use of +certain poisonous substances, such as dinitrobenzol, bisulphide +of carbon, tobacco, lead, etc.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>3rd.</i> Diseases due to occupations involving exposure to +excessive light or heat, or both, such as burnishers, steel +melters, electric welders, etc.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>4th.</i> Injuries or accidents amongst grinders, iron and +steel workers, masons, coal miners, weavers, etc.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><i>1. Diseases due to occupations involving prolonged use or excessive +strain of the eyes, such as nystagmus in miners and others.</i></h3> + +<p>Coal miners, as a result of their employment, are specially prone +to a peculiar affection of the eyes called “nystagmus,”<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> which +is characterised by oscillations of the eyeball. The sufferer, too, +complains of objects dancing before his eyes. In this disease<span class="pagenum" id="Page_762">[762]</span> objects +appear to move either in a circle or an ellipse. Headache is often +present, and especially giddiness, which sometimes causes the miner +so to stumble about that he is compelled to leave his work in the +mine. The movements of the eyeball are chiefly rotatory; to-and-fro +oscillations are sometimes superadded; these are rarely vertical, +but the rotatory are seldom, if ever, absent. The rapidity of the +ocular motions varies greatly: from sixty to one hundred and fifty +motions may be counted in a minute; I have observed them as frequent +as three hundred and fifty. Both eyes are affected, but the rapidity +of movements may vary in the two eyes. The more rapid the oscillations +the less extended is the excursion of the globes. The oscillations are +arrested by turning the gaze downwards below the horizontal line, and +miners often learn to rest their eyes in this way. Looking upwards, +and especially obliquely to one side or the other, rapid movements +of the head, lowering of the head and suddenly raising it, are means +of increasing the rate of movements of the eyeballs, or, in other +cases, of rendering them evident. Placing the patient in the position +he would assume at his work is another method. Tremors of the head +(noticeable to the hand placed on the head), of the eyelids, and of +the muscles of the face or neck, are often associated with nystagmus, +and so is torticollis or “wry-neck” in some cases. Night blindness +has been alleged to be present, but there is some reason to dispute +this; the nystagmus alone is a sufficient cause for any difficulty in +seeing in a failing light. Errors of refraction, myopia, hypermetropia, +and astigmatism are often present, but bear no causal relation to +nystagmus; visual acuity is generally unaffected. Colour perception is +good, and, so far as the movements of the eyeballs permit of testing, +the field of vision is normal. The onset of the disorder is often +brought about by some attack of illness. It is generally met with in +men who have worked in the mine for some years. Ninety per cent. of +cases occur in persons from twenty-five to forty-five years of age.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p762a_a" style="max-width: 426px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p762a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—Bottom Holing.</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">(<i>Photo. taken in coal mine with Magnesium Flash Light.</i>)</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p762a_b" style="max-width: 640px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p762a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Bottom Holing. (To show position of +head and eyes.)</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">(<i>Photo. taken in coal mine with Magnesium Flash Light.</i>)</p> + </div> + +<p>Nystagmus is found in miners (coal-getters) engaged at the coal face, +who work in a more or less constrained position of body and of eyes. +It is desirable to get coal in as large pieces as possible, and, to +do this, they undercut, or “hole” the seam. A man sits with his legs +crooked up, lying almost on his side, and strikes the coal with a +horizontal swing of his pick at the bottom of the coal seam. He will +cut away the coal to a height of from 18 inches to 2 feet, and then +as he gets deeper in he <span class="pagenum" id="Page_763">[763]</span>draws his body under the coal, lying on +one side or the other. The process is called “holing,” and sometimes +the undermining may be continued from 2 or 3 feet to as much as 7 or +8 feet; the distance varies considerably. As he proceeds with his +work the miner applies timber supports to keep the coal from falling. +This just described is called “bottom-holing,” but the seam may be +attacked in the middle (middle-holing) or at the top (top-holing). A +miner engaged at this work will direct his gaze to different parts, +as it becomes necessary for him to strike, for the eyes will follow +the pickpoint, but the tendency will be for the gaze to be directed +upwards (using the ocular elevators) more or less obliquely. He will +lie sometimes on one side and sometimes on the other; his legs will +be crooked up, his head thrown back and flexed more or less on the +shoulder beneath. This position is shown in the photographs, which +were taken in the mine with a magnesium flash-light, of a man whilst +actually at work. Ninety-eight per cent. of all cases of nystagmus +coming under my notice have been in men occupied at the coal face and +more or less engaged at this kind of work. The thickness of the coal +seam varies greatly in different parts, but work of a very similar +nature is done in coal mines in all countries.</p> + +<p>There are others working in a mine beside the coal-getters. Among +these are those who attend to the roads, fill the waggons (fillers), +push these (trammers), or drive the ponies. There are also deputies or +overlookers, whose work it is to see to the safety of the places the +men work in, both as to freedom from gas and as to the condition of the +roof of the mine. These latter occasionally suffer from nystagmus, and +a consideration of the work they perform will show that it necessitates +the same upward and oblique direction of the gaze. Frequently also +these men have previously worked as coal-getters. The photograph shows +a deputy examining the roof by striking it with his stick to ascertain +its soundness. It must be remembered that the height of the working +places and passages in the mine is nearly always so low that this alone +compels a constrained attitude. “Onsetters,” whose duty it is to see to +the ascent of the full, and descent of the empty coal tubs, sometimes +get nystagmus, as do also “timbermen.” It may be accepted as a rule +that all cases of nystagmus occur in those who are either working, or +have worked, as coal-getters, or that the work in which they have been +employed has been one in which an upward direction of the eyes has also +been necessitated for more or less prolonged periods.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_764">[764]</span></p> + +<p>The etiology of the affection must be sought in this constrained +position of the eyes by which chronic weariness is induced in the +elevator muscles of the eyes. Like effects are found in other muscles +of the miner, producing wry-neck, tremors of the head, and quivering +of the eyelids. It is thus similar to other occupation neuroses, +and in the same category as those met with in writers, compositors, +telegraphers, ballet-dancers, and many others.</p> + +<p>Nystagmus occurs in miners working with all kinds of lighting. I have +met with it in workers with safety lamps, candles, large open lamps, +and when the artificial light was really good. There is, however, +some reason for believing that the strain is greater the worse the +light, and that nystagmus is met with in greater frequency under such +conditions. Other things, as to the nature of work, being equal, the +disease will probably be most frequent with the worst light.</p> + +<p>Nieden says that 5 per cent. of miners suffer, and my observations +support this generally; in some parts, however, the percentage is +higher. For instance, among men working at a colliery with candles I +found that 6 out of a total of 140 were absent from work for nystagmus, +and this represented only a portion of those whom an examination +would have ascertained to be actually affected with the disorder. +Romiée gives the percentage for Belgium as high as 20, but possibly he +includes less marked cases.</p> + +<p>The prognosis is good, and, even in old-standing cases, if the +directions as to work are followed, the nystagmus will usually +disappear. Treatment consists essentially of a change of the kind +of work. In some cases it will suffice if the patient ceases from +coal-getting, without altogether stopping work in the mine, but +generally it is advisable, especially if the nystagmus be of high +degree and of some standing, to recommend cessation altogether from +work underground. After relief has been effected return to the mine is +practicable, provided the head can be kept straight, and the upward +turn of the eyes avoided. Resumption of the old kind of work is +followed, sooner or later, by a recurrence of the symptoms. Medicinal +treatment is also of service.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p764a" style="max-width: 539px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p764a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—Deputy examining roof.</p> + <p class="p0 sm center">(<i>Photo. taken in coal mine with Magnesium Flash Light.</i>)</p> + </div> + +<p>Though so peculiarly an affection of miners, nystagmus is met with, +but much less frequently, in other occupations. I have observed it in +various employments, and have collected together a series of cases in +which it occurred, viz., in compositors, metal roller, plate layer, +plank cutter, saw maker, sanitary tube maker, fitter, iron founder, +cage worker in the mine, glass manufacturer, youth in confectionery +warehouse, and a man engaged in hanging up <span class="pagenum" id="Page_765">[765]</span>harness, and in another +employed at the screens at the surface of a coal mine. These instances +occurred in circumstances closely comparable to the work in the mine +as to strain of the elevator muscles of the eyeball, and where, of +course, the influence of illumination had no place. They may be held +as definitely corroborating the views set forth as to the causation of +this affection in miners.</p> + + +<h3><i>2. Diseases due to occupations involving the use of certain +poisonous substances, such as, dinitrobenzol, bisulphide of +carbon, tobacco, lead, etc.</i></h3> + +<p><i>Dinitrobenzol</i> is largely employed in the making of explosives, +such as roburite, sicherheit, etc., a class of explosives which find +special employment in coal mines.</p> + +<p>The dinitrobenzol is brought to the factory in slabs, say 15 inches +square, and about 4 inches thick. The first process is to grind these +to powder in an apparatus with steam rollers. During this process a +good deal of dust is given off, and there is a smell of bitter almonds. +The next step is to take the powder thus obtained to the mixing shed, +where it is mixed with oxidising salts and other materials in a large +pan, and heated with steam. It remains there for several hours, and it +is then cooled by cold water being pumped on the outside of the shell. +When cool, the material is turned out of the mixer. It is during the +removal of the material from the mixer that workmen are especially +exposed to the vapour, but the dangers are lessened by the adoption +of a cowl to the mixer, and also by the use of a fan. The explosive +prepared in this way is put away in cylinders and kept until required. +The next step is to take it to the filling room, where it is put into +cartridges, which are then weighed and stamped, and finally these go to +the dipping room, where the cartridges are waterproofed by being dipped +in liquid paraffin wax.</p> + +<p>The most injurious work is that of grinding and mixing, especially the +latter. Men are employed in these processes. For the “filling” of the +cartridges, and for the “dipping,” women and girls are employed. In the +first named, the powder is shovelled into the cartridges and directly +handled; a good deal of dust is given off. Respirators and gloves are +used, as they are also by the men mixing or grinding. The dippers +are apparently the least exposed to the injurious effects, yet they, +nevertheless, suffer. The greasiness about the hands from the paraffin +may also aid absorption. Here also gloves and respirators are worn. +There is not much dust, the powder being confined inside the cases.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_766">[766]</span></p> + +<p>Some years ago several patients were under my care whose impaired +vision was due to working with dinitrobenzol. An opportunity was +afforded me of investigating the manufacture of this material, its +effect on vision and the general health of the employés.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> The eye +symptoms may be summarised as follows: failure of sight, often to a +considerable degree, to a more or less equal extent on the two sides; +concentric contraction of visual field, with, in many cases, a central +colour scotoma; enlargement of retinal vessels, especially the veins, +some blurring of the edges of the optic disc, and a varying degree of +pallor of its surface. The condition of retinal vessels spoken of is +observed in workers with the dinitrobenzol independently of complaints +of defective sight. Cessation of work with dinitrobenzol tends to +recovery. The general effects appeared to be chiefly exerted on the +blood and the nervous system. In some cases there were also gastric +symptoms. With reference to the blood changes, the occurrence of very +marked anæmia in girls, who lived practically in the country, and +who worked in well ventilated rooms, was particularly striking. The +symptoms and physical signs of anæmia in men, working under the same +hygienic conditions, were perhaps still more noteworthy. That some +other change, however, in the blood was also present was evidenced by +the blueness of the lips and finger tips, which was observed in several +cases. The colour of the urine was also remarkable.</p> + +<p>The chief nervous symptoms were numbness of the extremities and +unsteadiness of gait. The latter was noticed especially at the close of +a day’s work in the factory, and was much aggravated by indulgence in +alcohol.</p> + +<p>Dinitrobenzol may, it appears, either be absorbed through the skin, +ingested, or be taken in through the air passages. What the poison +then becomes does not appear to have been satisfactorily ascertained, +but its action on the blood is definite. Specimens of blood drawn +from the fingers of two of my patients were found to be thin and +black-looking. Dr MacMunn, of Wolverhampton, very kindly examined some +specimens which were forwarded to him, and reported on them (as he did +also of the urine, which was dark, almost black like porter), that, +spectroscopically, all the specimens of blood sent showed nothing +abnormal.</p> + +<p>The explosives under consideration are used in coal mines,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_767">[767]</span> and cases +have been recorded of men who became affected by dinitrobenzol employed +underground.</p> + +<p>At the invitation of Commander H. P. Smith and Dr Dupré, the following +suggestions for preventing the deleterious effects of dinitrobenzol on +those engaged in its manufacture were drawn up by me for their report.</p> + +<p>(1) That the different processes should as much as possible be +conducted in the open air, or in large, well-ventilated sheds.</p> + +<p>(2) That in the “mixing,” closed vessels should, as much as possible, +be employed.</p> + +<p>(3) Fans, which have been adopted in other trades with great advantage, +might also in this one be of service.</p> + +<p>(4) Respirators are in use, but their employment is, as far as I am +aware, optional. Those protecting both the nose and mouth are, up to +a certain point, of service. I do not think they are a sufficient +safeguard against the fine vapour entering the respiratory system. It +occurred to me that during the process of “mixing” especially, it might +be possible to shut the workman off from the vapour and fine dust by +means of a kind of diving-bell apparatus, with a communication behind +open to the air. A mask, such as has been used, I believe, in Germany, +might answer the objects desired.</p> + +<p>(5) Handling by the bare hand or direct exposure of the skin should +be avoided. The filling could, perhaps, be performed automatically. +The hand should, moreover, be protected by gloves. These should be +capable of being cleaned, and possibly indiarubber might be used by +preference. The cleaning of the gloves is an important matter, because +those worn with any of the substance clinging to the interior, as would +be the case after they had been in use for some time, would allow of +absorption taking place under the still more favourable circumstances +afforded by the warmth and moisture of the hand. Special clothing +should be provided, the workmen and women being compelled to change +their clothing on entering and retiring from work. Dressing-rooms +should be provided, and washing enforced. Food should only be partaken +of away from the sheds where the mixing, filling, etc., take place, and +particularly is it important to insist on washing before meals, and +removal of the special clothing.</p> + +<p>When used in the coal mine it is desirable that means should be taken +to prevent any of the powder adhering to the outside of the cartridges, +that combustion should be complete, and that the use of cartridges +should be restricted as much as possible to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_768">[768]</span> well-ventilated places, +so that currents of air would speedily dilute and carry away any +deleterious vapours.</p> + +<p>As a result of the report by Dr Dupré and Commander Hamilton P. Smith, +notice to observe the “Special Rules” recommended in their report was +served on the different manufacturers.</p> + +<p>The effect of <i>bisulphide of carbon</i> in causing impaired eyesight +has been shown by many instances. Rubber-making has been the industry +in which those suffering have been mostly observed. The bisulphide is +a very active and penetrating solvent, and it is used to dissolve and +carry into the rubber chloride of sulphur, which is the vulcanising +agent. This process is called “curing,” and it is during it that the +fumes of the bisulphide are given off and act injuriously on the +general system of those exposed to them, as well as in some cases +causing injury to eyesight. Some time since I visited rubber-works +in which about 200 hands were employed, and witnessed the process of +“curing.” The rubber cloth which it was wished to vulcanise was brought +into contact with the wet surface of a wood or slate roller, which +revolved in a trough in which was the bisulphide holding the sulphur in +solution. The shed in which the curing was done was very open, and was +well calculated to allow of the ready escape of the fumes. The vapour +was a heavy one, and tended very much to keep low, especially in wet or +damp weather. Any apparatus to carry off the fumes, therefore, should +be one to draw them downwards. Among the workers I saw one man who had +evidently two years ago suffered from amblyopia, which appeared to +have been characteristic. He changed his work to another part of the +factory, and recovered. A considerable alteration has, I understand, +been brought about in the vulcanising process, and since attention was +first directed to the subject, bisulphide has been much less employed +in rubber-works. The sulphur is now mixed with the rubber, and the +vulcanising is done by subjecting the otherwise finished article to a +high temperature. The bisulphide in the future is even less likely to +be required, and therefore in this class of occupation, at all events, +it may be expected that impaired eyesight will be more infrequent.</p> + +<p><i>Tobacco</i> was the first agent to be recognised as causing toxic +amblyopia. It is doubtful whether it can be classed properly with +occupation disorders. Galezowski,<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> however, asserted that visual +troubles occurred in those engaged in the manufacture of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_769">[769]</span> tobacco in +consequence of the absorption of nicotine powder. He further advised +that the working places should be well-ventilated, and recommended +a change of occupation for those affected. This statement finds +corroboration by De Schweinitz, who states that amblyopia may occur +in those who do not use tobacco in any form, but who work in tobacco +manufactories. He has related a very remarkable case of this character +in a young woman. All of the symptoms disappeared when she was removed +from the tobacco factory. On the other hand, Shears<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> has related +that he visited the large factory of Cope Bros., where 1200 men and +women were employed, and that he made careful inquiries in each of the +departments of the foremen, but from none could he learn of instances +of sight failure. Lee at the same time made observations at a large +factory at Chester, with similar results. Sheffield is celebrated +for its snuff, the two kinds, Top Mill and Bottom Mill, being well +known. There are also several smaller tobacco works about the city, +but my attention has in the last twenty years never once, as far as I +remember, been directed to a case of tobacco amblyopia in a worker at +any of these places. Dowling<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> in America has also gone into this +matter. At a factory where 3000 were employed, half being females, he +examined 150, or 5 per cent. Ninety per cent. of the males used tobacco +in some form or other, and 20 per cent. chewed, in addition to smoking +liberally pipe or cigar. These are his conclusions: “When I commenced +my examination I was under the impression that the constant inhalation +of the dust and the odour of tobacco in the workshops would tend of +itself to bring about symptoms of tobacco amblyopia. I am induced to +think this hardly takes place, for in my examination I found those who +did not smoke were uniformly free from troubles of vision of a toxic +nature, and the females were almost universally free from the trouble, +that is as far as I examined them.”</p> + +<p><i>Iodoform</i> is largely used in surgical practice. A few instances +have been recorded of impairment of vision resulting from its +employment as a dressing for large burns, etc. The characteristics of +the affection were similar to those met with in tobacco amblyopia, in +chronic poisoning by bisulphide of carbon, and other toxic amblyopias. +Inquiry addressed to perhaps the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_770">[770]</span> largest makers of iodoform in this +country elicited the reply, that they had consulted the Medical +Attendant of their men, and he confirmed the opinion expressed by the +foreman, that they had never known of any injury to the sight from the +manufacture of iodoform. If there was carelessness in the manufacture +pungent vapours would be evolved; but that was always a sign of +something being wrong.</p> + +<p>Men employed in dye factories and other manufactories requiring the +handling and preparation of the various <i>coal-tar</i> products are +reported to be subject to visual troubles, cases having been recorded +from time to time.<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> Galezowski gives headache, dizziness, malaise, +deficiency in visual acuity, photophobia, and ciliary injection +as symptoms from which the workers suffer, but, as is pointed +out by Knies, the connection of these ocular complaints with the +<i>aniline</i> used is uncertain.</p> + +<p>M’Kinlay<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> has recorded a case of intense pigmentation of the cornea +and conjunctiva in a man who was a worker in aniline dyes. Reduction of +vision was also caused.</p> + +<p><i>Arsenic</i> is extensively used in the arts, and has been the cause +of many cases of poisoning, for example, from wallpaper and articles +of clothing. Its use for artificial flowers and wallpapers has much +abated. Casey Wood mentions that makers of Paris green, painters, and +paperhangers, as well as those who take the drug for medicinal or +cosmetic purposes, are liable to suffer from visual disturbances, from +conjunctival hyperæmia and eczema of the lids, which are regarded as +evidences of arsenical poisoning. Amblyopia and optic neuritis have +been reported as due to arsenic.</p> + +<p>The occupations in which <i>lead</i> or its compounds, in one way or +another, are used are multitudinous, and those liable to be affected +by lead poisoning belong, therefore, to a numerous class. Among these +are painters, plumbers, etc., and, in Sheffield, file cutters. In this +latter occupation the file, when being cut, rests on a “bed” made of +lead, and each blow of the hammer causes minute particles of lead to +disperse and to charge the atmosphere of the workroom. Chronic lead +poisoning in file cutters results from inhalation of these particles, +and from the uncleanly habit of wetting the hands at the mouth. In +acute lead poisoning there are no eye symptoms, but in chronic lead +poisoning central and peripheral affections of sight are common.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_771">[771]</span> +The brain and nervous system are frequently seriously affected in +chronic plumbism, and kidney disease is also frequently occasioned +thereby. Sight is liable to be affected in association with both these +conditions. Apart from them, however, lesions of the eye are often +occasioned by chronic lead poisoning. Unilateral or bilateral optic +neuritis is met with, and more frequently an affection of the optic +nerve (retro-bulbar neuritis) very similar to that occasioned by +tobacco and other agents producing “toxic amblyopia.” Recovery from +these last-named (peripheral) conditions is frequent. Palsy of one or +more of the eye muscles has been met with.</p> + +<h3>3. <i>Diseases due to occupations involving exposure to +excessive light or heat, or both, such as burnishers, steel +melters, electric welders, etc.</i></h3> + +<p>Silver, either the metal or electro, when finished, has a very highly +reflecting surface. The most important for our purpose of the processes +by which silver goods have to be brought to the proper polish, is the +finishing or burnishing. This is usually done by girls, who brighten +the surface with a blunt tool. These girls are frequently the subjects +of hyperæsthesia of the retina, by which they are often compelled +to relinquish the work entirely. Coloured glasses and correction of +refractive errors help in some cases. Those engaged in the process +called “buffing” suffer in a similar manner.</p> + +<p>Excessive heat associated with intensity of light is met with in +iron and steel works in the different processes connected with the +making of the iron, and the converting of it into steel. There is, I +think, no definite evidence that men exposed to the heat and glare +of the furnaces or from the molten metal suffer materially in their +eyesight, though some assert that disease of the background of the eye +is occasioned in some instances. The men are, in consequence of the +heat, prone to sweat a great deal, and frequently wear little clothing +above the waist. The temperatures before which they work are, to an +outsider, something almost astounding, especially if he remembers +that the temperature of an ordinary well-lighted fire in a grate is +about 500° F. There would seem to be a very marked difference in the +way a temperature is borne, when it is below 2000° F., and when above +it. Up to that figure a man can look at the metal in a furnace with +comparative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_772">[772]</span> ease, but before it gets to 3000° F. he is compelled to +wear coloured glasses when doing so. A friend, at some large iron +and steel works, gave me the following notes: “In dealing with cast +iron, the heat of the metal would be about 1800° to 2000°, and the +men employed take no precautions. The heat of the molten metal would +be about 2700° to 2800°, while the heat of the gases in the furnace +would be about 200° or 300° more. The furnacemen have to wear deep +blue glasses to protect their eyes from the glare of the furnace. +With this precaution we have not observed their eyes to suffer in any +marked degree. The heat of Bessemer metal is about 3000° F. to 3200° +F.; in this case there is not the same necessity as in the Siemens to +watch the hot metal, consequently the men do not wear glasses. We do +not observe any ill effects directly traceable to the heat. In the +case of the Siemens men, I should say that without protection the eyes +would suffer considerably. After looking at a Siemens’ furnace without +glasses, it is several minutes before the eye can see ordinary things +again.”</p> + +<p>There is, moreover, a further difference between the two processes, +viz., Bessemer and Siemens. The former has, as just mentioned, the +higher temperature and the more dazzling glare, but the steel is melted +and the process completed in about twenty minutes, and it is only +necessary for one man to take close observations, and this he does +by means of a spectroscope, and is as far as 30 feet from the molten +metal. The Siemens process takes ten hours, and during this period the +whole of those engaged will, as the door is frequently drawn up, be +taking observations to see whether the melting is proceeding properly. +This is constant and regular work, and they are obliged to use coloured +glasses.</p> + +<p>In addition, in these large works, are the castings, forgings, rolling +of armour plates, and many other things. A huge forging, of perhaps 60 +or 80 tons, is drawn out of a furnace with a temperature of from 2000° +to 2500° F., and placed under a powerful hydraulic press of 10,000 tons +power, where, with the men all around, it is hammered with as much +apparent ease as putty is manipulated by one’s fingers.</p> + +<p>The glare and dazzling in the Bessemer and Siemens processes must +be seen to be realised. Generally speaking, in fact almost always, +it would seem as if the men engaged in these various kinds of work +could submit to exposure to the high temperatures and intense lights +with impunity, if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_773">[773]</span> they will only use coloured glasses when employed +with the higher temperatures and the more dazzlingly bright lights. +Occasionally, however, one meets with men who appear incapable of +continuing to bear these conditions. They feel their eyes painful, and +it is some time after cessation of labour before the discomfort passes +away. Such as these have sometimes to seek another occupation. On the +other hand, the readiness with which, it may be after an accident to +one eye, men will often return to their employment before the furnace +or fire, is surprising.</p> + +<p>Glassblowers are asserted to be frequently the subjects of cataract, +and it has been sought to connect this tendency with the powerful +heats to which their work exposes them, and also to the sweating which +accompanies it. They work around open-mouthed furnaces and close to +pots of molten glass, and are thus exposed to intense heat and light. I +have, however, seen something of glass-blowers from time to time, and +my experience, whilst it does not allow me to support this assertion +of the frequency of cataract among these men, may be regarded as too +limited to contradict the statements which other observers have made. +Should extreme heat and consequent loss of moisture be regarded as +sufficient causes for the production of cataract, then it should be +found especially among iron and steel workers. My experience does not, +however, show that this is the case.</p> + +<p><i>Exposure to Electric Light.</i>—Several instances have been +recorded showing the serious effects on the eyes of those exposed to +the glare of this powerful light. The following may be mentioned.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> +Two men were employed on an electric street railway. One man thrust +a blade of a screwdriver into a motor cylinder and “immediately +he was flashed by the powerful light and stunned by the powerful +current.” When seen five hours after, the eyelids were closed and he +was suffering intense pain, but he was able to resume his work next +day. The second man struck a “live electrical circuit” with a steel +file, and instantly there was a flash of light and he was rendered +unconscious. The eyelashes were singed and the arms burnt, and there +was great pain. It was not until the fifth day that he could return to +work. A more severe case<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> is reported of a man engaged as engineer +in the power-house of an electric car line. He was using a wrench +to some machinery, when accidentally his elbow came into contact<span class="pagenum" id="Page_774">[774]</span> +with another machine forming a short circuit. The whole electrical +force—1000 ampères—used to propel the cars several miles, passed +down the forearm and out at the elbow. The electrical discharge was +succeeded by a loud report following an intense flash of light. The +man was knocked down, but only lost consciousness for a few seconds. +When seen an hour after, the skin of the arms, hands, face, and neck, +in fact, of all exposed parts, was burnt; the effects were like those +caused by boiling water; the eyelashes and eyebrows were burnt off. +The ocular conjunctiva looked as if a strong solution of nitrate of +silver had been applied to it, and the corneæ had the appearance of +ground-glass, especially in the centres, so that the impression was +given that they were both destroyed. It was, however, found that only +the epithelial layers were affected. Ultimately sight was recovered, +but photophobia remained for some time.</p> + +<p>Of the many ways that the electric light is liable to be injurious +may be mentioned that of <i>electric welding</i>. This process is one +that is becoming very largely used in iron works, and it effects its +purpose so rapidly that it is likely to find still further employment. +I have met with many men who have suffered from exposure to the intense +light emitted in electric welding. On several occasions the opportunity +has been given me of witnessing the process. The heat produced is so +intense that metal runs at once like solder. So rapidly, indeed, is +this effected that, without seeing the process, it seems incredible. +To protect the eyes from the intensity of the light, the onlookers use +large shields with glass in the centre arranged in alternate layers of +blue and red, there being four thicknesses. The man engaged in working +the process in one factory with which I am acquainted, uses a helmet to +protect his head and face. In the front of the helmet is a glass window +made up of six layers, alternately red and blue. At another place the +men stand behind a wooden screen about 4 ft. high, with a sliding top, +in which is a glass window for the workman to observe the work upon +which he is engaged. The sliding top can be raised or lowered according +to the height of the man or the nature of the exact work to be done. +The window is made up of four thicknesses of glass, two green and two +blue, and there is a plain glass fixed in front of these, as it can +be more easily replaced, this being required by the liability of the +front glass to be spoilt by deposit on its surface. This arrangement +protects the man much more than the helmet. The men’s trousers may +be burnt by the metal splashing on them, and this screen gives more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_775">[775]</span> +protection than the helmet would do. The top part of the screen is +narrower than the bottom, to enable the men to get their arms freely +round it so as to work on the metal in front, and the broad lower part +forms a rest for their arms. Any parts of the body which are exposed +to the light may get burnt, and many suffer severely in this way. If +the eyes “catch” the light they feel the effects at once, but the worst +generally does not come on until some hours afterwards, and most men +will say that the most acute stage is during the night succeeding the +exposure. The eyes feel swollen and as if filled with burning sand, and +the pain is very severe. There is swelling of lids; so much so that +they cannot be opened, and there is lachrymation. All night the pain +will last, but the next day the worst will be over, and often by a day +more the eyes will be quite right again.</p> + +<p>Terrier and Malakoff have each published very interesting observations +bearing on this subject, as has also Wildmark. The latter especially +appears to have settled the point as to whether in these cases it is +the heat or chemical rays that act so hurtfully. Taking advantage +of the different actions of glass and crystal—the former absorbing +chemical rays, the latter, or crystal, allowing them to pass—he showed +that if a pencil of light before reaching the skin was made to pass +through a disc of glass, in the centre of which was a hole filled with +a small disc of crystal, the redness of the skin was observed only +in the central area, a proof of its dependence on the chemical rays. +Malakoff pointed out that though the light was so intensely dazzling +the thermometer was only raised 2° C. at a metre distant, but it must +be borne in mind, however, as a workman mentioned to me recently, that +the metal acted upon during welding becomes very hot, so that standing +close by is hardly possible.</p> + +<p>Some idea, also, may be given of the heat involved in electric welding +by the following data, supplied to me by an experienced electrical +engineer. He stated that, at one works, the temperature during electric +welding would measure about 3000° C. (7000° F.), and that it was not +an unusual thing to measure 3000° C. in an electric furnace. In the +absence of photometric measurements, he assumed the luminosity of the +arc for electric welding would be about 8000 candle-power.</p> + +<p>The action of the electric light upon the eye is to all appearances +confined chiefly to the conjunctival or corneal surfaces. Very +possibly, however, it occasions also a hyperæmia of the retina, and +one case is on record of a boy who got a central scotoma from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_776">[776]</span> looking +at an electric light placed in the roof, like those resulting from the +action of direct sunlight.</p> + +<p>With the prudent use of the protectors mentioned the light can be +observed with little risk of injury.</p> + + +<h3>4. <i>Injuries or accidents amongst grinders, iron and steel workers, +masons, coal miners, weavers, etc.</i></h3> + +<p>It is difficult to obtain anything like accurate statistics as to the +numbers blinded by accident. Magnus, in his tables, makes 8.5 per cent. +of all cases of blindness as due to accident. In this calculation +no count is made of those blind in one eye only, and the far larger +number who have sustained permanent injury in varying degrees short of +blindness; and even if such a computation were true for the community +generally, the number must be greatly exceeded in large and populous +centres, especially in those in which iron and steel are important +industries.</p> + +<p>A brief reference only to statistics is necessary. Mr Watson, the able +Secretary of the Miners’ Permanent Benefit Fund, has given me the +following figures as to the proportionate frequency of eye accidents +among miners, to other accidents. In all these accidents the miners +have been rendered unfitted from continuing their work, at least +temporarily. The figures are for fifteen years arranged in periods of +five years. The number of non-fatal accidents dealt with is 48,262.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl">Period.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. of<br>Accidents.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">No. to Eye.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb">Percentage.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1884 to 1888</td> + <td class="ctrr">16,870</td> + <td class="ctrr">857</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.08</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">1889 to 1893</td> + <td class="ctrr">12,768</td> + <td class="ctrr">670</td> + <td class="ctrr">5.24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">1894 to 1898</td> + <td class="ctrrb">18,624</td> + <td class="ctrrb">979</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5.25</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl">Total</td> + <td class="ctrrb">48,262</td> + <td class="ctrrb">2506</td> + <td class="ctrrb">5.19</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The average yearly membership for each period was—1884 to 1888, +22,410; 1889 to 1893, 17,876; and 1894 to 1898, 23,005.</p> + +<p>The Equalised Druids Society gives to those of its members who are +permanently incapacitated from following their employment a grant of +£100. The number of cases of all accidents in which this grant was made +during the last five years was 57, and of that number it was given +seven times owing to eye accidents.</p> + +<p>My own infirmary figures also testify to the large number of eye +accidents annually occurring in the district with which I am<span class="pagenum" id="Page_777">[777]</span> more +particularly acquainted. Of the last 2554 patients who have passed +through my wards at the Sheffield Royal Infirmary, 2038 were men, and +516 women. Of the 2038 men, 622 were admitted for accident, or 30.52 +per cent. This percentage has kept fairly uniform, but at periods of +great trade activity the ratio of accidents to other cases admitted +has gone up. Of the 516 women, only 36, or 6.9 per cent., were for +accidents. The important part occupation bears to the number of eye +accidents is well illustrated by these statistics. The men not only +exceeded the women very largely in actual numbers, but still more so by +percentage, this latter being six times as great as for the women.</p> + +<p>In many trades associated with iron and steel in all its varieties, +small foreign bodies are very prone to become lodged in the workmen’s +corneæ. I take, as an example, the grinders. In the course of the day +a grinder may get several “motes,” as he calls them, fixed in his eye, +or days may elapse without such a mishap. If the cornea of a grinder be +examined carefully with a magnifying glass, it will not infrequently +be found to be studded over with minute nebulæ. Although the damage +done by each foreign body may often not be serious, yet frequent +repetition, by dulling the cornea, will, in many cases, diminish the +acuteness of vision. These particles may either be small fragments of +stone, or, much more frequently, small portions of steel or emery, +which latter is used as a wheel for glazing cutlery, and for other +purposes. Of the two varieties of grinding, the dry grinders are more +exposed to injury from foreign bodies than the wet grinders. A grinder +sits across his bench, or “horse,” and presses the knife or razor +blade on the stone. The wet prevents the particles from flying about a +good deal, but still a man’s face becomes, as he works, bespattered; +nevertheless, a <i>wet</i> grinder seldom gets motes in his eyes. In +<i>dry</i> grinding the sparks fly freely, and it is evident that +very minute particles of steel or stone are being projected about, +and it is the merest chance whether they hit the man’s eye or face, +or scatter about the room. The fans, which it is well known have for +many years been required in the grinding trade in consequence of its +deleterious effects upon the health of the operatives, must be regarded +as in some measure a protection. It is interesting to observe the +remarkable manner in which a fan draws into it the sparks and particles +flying from the wheel. There can, moreover, be no question that the +grinder derives considerable immunity from motes by the employment of +protective glasses. Grinders admit the protection they afford. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_778">[778]</span> +further testimony be needed, it can be found in the condition of the +glasses, after having been used for some time by a grinder: they are +studded over with small dots occasioned by the impact of the motes.</p> + +<p>In the great majority of instances the damage occasioned to the grinder +or other operative in which similar mishaps occur is not attended with +serious results. The immediate injury may, however, be serious, either +directly or indirectly, by the ulceration that ensues. There is another +way, also, in which injury results. A man once said to me, pointing +to his damaged finger, “This would not have happened if something had +not got into my eye, because I could not see my finger on the circular +saw.” The operatives, in all the various trades in which iron and steel +are used, are liable, though to a less degree than the grinders, to get +these motes into their eyes.</p> + +<p>In all the large works there are men who have a reputation for their +skill in the removal of these motes. The instruments they use are of +various kinds—for instance, a blunt lancet, blade of pocket knife, +or a pin. Generally speaking, they are unsuitable. In many instances +the motes are skilfully removed; in others, there is a good deal of +bungling, and not infrequently cases come under observation in which +sloughing corneal ulcers have resulted.</p> + +<p>It seemed to me not unlikely that septic conditions were set up in +consequence of the uncleanly instruments which were so often employed. +Dr Shennan of Edinburgh kindly undertook a bacteriological examination +of some of these instruments for me. I collected 22 tools used by +different men, and Dr Shennan examined the majority of these. Taking +all in all, he found nothing pathogenic excepting the staphylococcus +pyogenes albus, whose virulence is comparatively slight. Of course +there are many sources besides these tools by which a corneal wound +may become septic. But good should result if a cleanly and suitable +instrument could be made available to the men who remove motes. In some +of the works a case, made at my suggestion, is provided, containing +iridium-platinum blunt-pointed spuds, together with a small spirit +lamp, with directions printed on the inside of the case, saying that +before use the extremity of the spud should be sterilised by heating it +in the flame of the spirit lamp, or if this be not accessible, in a gas +or other flame which may be at hand.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p778a" style="max-width: 615px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p778a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—Grinders. Edge-Tool Grinding.</p> + </div> + +<p>By far the most serious eye accidents happen to men engaged <span class="pagenum" id="Page_779">[779]</span>in +working iron or steel. The following figures exhibit this in a very +lurid light:—</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="ctr" colspan="2"><i>Steel and Iron.</i></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Steel and iron splinters, rivet<br>chips, pieces of drill, file, wire, etc.</td> + <td class="right">173</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Nail</td> + <td class="right">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr7" colspan="2"><i>Burns.</i></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Metal sparks, flashes, etc.</td> + <td class="right">43</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Lime</td> + <td class="right">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Gas explosion</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Ammonia</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Gunpowder</td> + <td class="right">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Cinder</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Poker</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr7" colspan="2"><i>Miscellaneous.</i></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Dynamite, and dynamite explosion<br>and cartridge</td> + <td class="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Wood, sticks, and peggy</td> + <td class="right">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Hook</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Knife</td> + <td class="right">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Glass, soda-water bottles, etc.</td> + <td class="right">15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Pick</td> + <td class="right">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Stone</td> + <td class="right">24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Fork</td> + <td class="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Pin</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Fist</td> + <td class="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Branch of tree</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Crane handle</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Cork</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Cinder</td> + <td class="right">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Coal</td> + <td class="right">11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Straw</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Cat’s claw</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Sand</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Ball</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Pen</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Firework</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Boiling oil</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Tin</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Band strap</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Band buckle</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Chain</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Kick</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Brick</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Thorn</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht4">Elastic, piece of</td> + <td class="rightb">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Total</td> + <td class="rightbd">359</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Out of this total of 359 eye accidents to males, taken from the records +for this purpose consecutively, which were so serious as to require +admission to my wards at the Sheffield Royal Infirmary, no fewer than +173 were caused by iron or steel, pieces of rivet, of drill, wire, and +many other means associated with the iron and steel trades. There were +also 43 due to burns from molten metal, sparks, flashes, etc. I am not +sure, also, whether to the former number should not be added 5 put down +as caused by nails, as most, if not all of them, would have occurred to +iron or steel workers.</p> + +<p>The opportunities for the infliction of severe injuries to iron and +steel workers are multitudinous. They occur in all branches of the +trade, in the lighter iron and steel industries as well as in the heavy +trades where armour plates and heavy castings of scores of tons are +made. A very large proportion of the accidents are occasioned by what +is called “chipping” and “fettling.” “Dressing” is the name given in +some parts to this process. This work consists in chipping the rough +edges from iron and steel castings, ingots, and all kinds of steel and +iron work, and among other things, even the large armour plates.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_780">[780]</span></p> + +<p>Castings of either iron, steel, or brass are the most dangerous to work +upon, because the chippings fly about on account of the metal being +brittle. It is very dangerous chipping castings in the corners, or +where the “chipping” strikes the metal and rebounds. Chippings from the +castings are about ¼ inch to ¾ inch long, and very sharp. When chipping +thin plates on the edges, the chippings are sometimes 1, 2, or 3 inches +long before they break off. All castings are “fettled” at the foundry, +that is, the runners are cut off, and the places where the metal has +run at the joint of the moulding boxes are trimmed off.</p> + +<p>Whatever be the special kind of metal or steel to be fettled, the +manner in which it is done is practically the same. A hammer and +chisel, or sate, are used, and with these the roughnesses are removed. +Frequently, also, whilst one man places the chisel, another, or even +two others, called “strikers,” will use a hammer. I understand that at +works where say 1000 men are employed, 200 or more will be occupied +more or less in “chipping.” Many men are frequently working close to +each other, so that the danger is not only to the worker himself, but +to those around. Passers-by are by no means infrequently the victims. +The chipper himself is often hit by the rebound of the splinter after +it has struck some other object. It must be recollected, also, that in +the process spoken of, the danger is not merely from the iron or steel +which is being operated upon; there are three other places from which +splinters may be given off and cause injury, namely, the hammer head, +the chisel head, and the chisel point.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that men engaged in work which causes the splinters to +fly about so freely, should be so placed as not to be chipping against +their fellow-workmen, or in a direction from which passers-by may +approach. This is managed in some works by getting the men to chip +against a wall, though not too close to it, or, again, by interposing a +canvas screen between sets of workmen.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p780a_a" style="max-width: 623px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p780a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Men engaged in Chipping.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p780a_b" style="max-width: 579px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p780a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—Chipping against a Screen. Men +wearing Protectors.</p> + </div> + +<p>The sizes of the splinters spoken of vary from the most minute to +others measuring some inches in length, and they may be thick or thin. +The injury inflicted differs, of course, in accordance with the size +of the missile and the force with which it is projected. The small +fragments may be thrown off with such velocity that they penetrate +the eyeball and become embedded in its interior, in some instances +passing through the eyelid before reaching the globe. The destruction +to sight in this way is very large. I have myself removed from the +globe, with my electro-magnet,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_781">[781]</span> more than two hundred fragments of +steel and iron. One was no heavier than 0.0015 gr.; several were as +light as 0.0030 gr. and 0.0046 gr. The largest weighed 36 grs., and +there were two others 12 and 9 grs. respectively. It would be out of +place to refer here to the results of the extraction of this number +of foreign bodies with the electro-magnet. It will suffice to say, +that many eyes have been saved by its employment which otherwise would +have been hopelessly lost. The injury to the eyeball occasioned by the +large chippings may be so extensive that the eye is at once irreparably +damaged, or so injured that removal of the globe will subsequently be +necessitated.</p> + +<p>The dangers of chipping may be minimised by adopting a pneumatic +chipper. In some works, for chipping ingots I have seen one at work +on a large casting. It has the advantage of accomplishing in one hour +what, by hand, would take six or seven hours. It certainly prevented +the flying about of splinters in a remarkable manner. They merely +curled up and rolled over. It more resembled using a cheese-scoop in +a fairly soft cheese than running any tool over hard steel. Up to the +present these pneumatic tools have not been successful for “chipping” +the rough edges from steel castings.</p> + +<p>Another class of severe injuries which are of common occurrence are +burns from molten metal. Sparks and flashes fly about freely in almost +every instance that molten metal is run into the moulds, but on some +occasions, of course, more so than in others, and the portions given +off vary much also in size. Injuries caused in this manner were no +fewer than 43 out of the 359 consecutive accidents in males admitted +into the Sheffield Royal Infirmary. In the forgings, also, great or +small, when the iron or steel is being hammered either by hand, or, in +the case of larger castings, by a steam or hydraulic hammer, portions +are given off from the glowing metal, and those working and the +bystanders are exposed to danger of burns.</p> + +<p>The knowledge which I have acquired from contact with working men +who have been injured, and from periodical visits to the principal +works, has long since satisfied me that much of the destructive injury +to sight is preventable, and that means should be adopted to lessen +the risks to sight which are at present associated with important +industries. There is less difficulty in enlisting the support of the +employers than in gaining the assent of the men to the adoption of +precautionary measures. I know of one firm who make it compulsory on +men engaged in “chipping,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_782">[782]</span> “fettling,” “turning,” and other work in +which iron and steel splinters are liable to fly off and endanger +sight, to wear protectors, which are provided at the expense of the +firm. This decision was taken in consequence of a workman being blinded +by a chipping.</p> + +<p>In considering what kind of protectors men should use, it must be borne +in mind that the cost must be very moderate, and that sight should be +interfered with as little as possible, if at all. Among iron-workers, +glass is practically out of the question. Even thick rock crystal, +which has been suggested for some kinds of work, in consequence of +its thickness and peculiar manner of fracture, would hardly do. Gauze +wire, fitting close to the eye like a cup and attached to the head by a +string, is employed by stonebreakers and in some ironworks. Complaint +is made of such protectors as being hot and interfering with sight, +but there is no question that they afford considerable immunity from +accident. Another practical point about protectors is that they should +not be liable to rust. For this reason galvanised iron wire, or better, +aluminium wire, is of service. The mesh should be sufficiently strong +and fine, and sufficiently close to prevent, as far as possible, even +small chippings passing through it, and yet to interfere with sight as +little as need be. I have had experiments made by allowing men engaged +in fettling to “chip” against wire gauze which has been suspended for +the purpose, to ascertain how far a mesh answered before deciding to +adopt a given size. I have had this netting made<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> into protectors +which cover the eyes and adjacent parts. The portion over each eye is +bulged forward so as to allow very free play to the eye underneath; the +convex surface is a greater protection than one merely flat would be. +I have supplied workmen with these protectors, who have used them when +chipping, steel melting, and in other dangerous iron and steel work. I +learn that they are regarded as satisfactory, that they answer their +purpose well as protectors, and that the interference with sight is +very little.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p782a" style="max-width: 342px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p782a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—Protectors. (<i>Author’s +pattern.</i>)</p> + </div> + +<p>I would sum up my suggestions as to the means for protection as +follows:—</p> + +<p>1. The grinder will find that large glasses made of plain glass, or, +indeed, his own spectacles, should his refraction require their use, +will afford great protection. Or he may use other protectors, made with +glass in front, and gauze surrounding it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_783">[783]</span></p> + +<p>2. The use of protectors should be compulsory for those workers in iron +or steel whose employment renders them liable to be injured by iron or +steel splinters, or who are exposed to danger from molten metal.</p> + +<p>The gauze eye-shield I have described will, I believe, answer the +purpose well. The cost is low, and it is worth the employers’ while to +supply their men with them.</p> + +<p>Other means to be adopted are:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The use of a pneumatic chipper whenever practicable; +(<i>b</i>) the proper arranging of the men at their work; and +(<i>c</i>) the use of screens, so as to avoid injury to their +fellow-workmen and to passers-by.</p> + +<p>It is my belief that a consideration of the facts here advanced will +lead to the conviction I have myself long held—that very many eye +accidents associated with trades are preventable, and to the view that +preventive means should be adopted.</p> + +<p>In addition to the classes of workmen more particularly alluded to +in the foregoing remarks on eye accidents and their prevention, the +following occupations may be briefly touched upon.</p> + +<p><i>Coal miners</i> are prone to be injured by portions of coal striking +the eye, and either becoming embedded in the cornea (like the grinders’ +motes) or causing abrasion of the surface, or wounds of the eyeball. +Eye injuries in the miner appear to be more than usually prone to +become septic. Injury may also be occasioned by splinters flying from +the pick point, and either sticking in the cornea or penetrating and +becoming lodged in the eyeball, in a similar manner to that which +happens in “chippers.”</p> + +<p><i>Agriculturists</i> are liable to eye accidents in many ways. In +“hedging” injury is often caused by the eye being struck by branches +or twigs of bushes, or a thorn may wound the surface or penetrate +and remain lodged in the interior of the globe. In threshing and +chaff-cutting, among other processes, the lodgment of foreign bodies +under the eyelids may occur, or abrasion of the surface of the eye be +effected. A special form of ophthalmia has been described as occurring +among <i>hop pickers</i>. It is characterised by muco-purulent +discharge and swelling of the lids. Dr Percy Adams, who has described +this affection, considers it is caused by the introduction into the +conjunctival sac, or into the cornea, of the small, thorn-like, hairy +processes which are found on the hop leaves, bracts, and bines.</p> + +<p>It may be generally stated that all engaged in dusty occupations are +prone to have their eyes irritated or to suffer from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_784">[784]</span> conjunctivitis. +This is the case, for instance, in a very dusty coal mine, a dust-laden +flour mill, etc.</p> + +<p>All workers with stone are liable to eye injury from portions of stone +flying off and striking the eye, as they are also from splinters +coming from the chisel or hammer. Stonecutters are very liable to have +motes in their eyes, and more rarely the injury is much more serious. +Stone-masons, masons, bricklayers, and stonebreakers come under this +class. Protectors are sometimes used by stonebreakers at their work. +Stone “cutting” or “dressing” in the streets is often a source of +danger to the passers-by as well as to the workers themselves. Such +work should be so arranged that the cutting or dressing is directed +against a hoarding or wall.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of grindstones there is considerable danger to +sight. “Millstone building,” in which buhrstone is used, is only a +small and decaying industry. Buhrstone comes from France in blocks, +which have to be chiselled into wedges to form sections of the circular +millstone, which are joined by cement and bound round with hoops +of iron. Pieces of stone or tool are liable, during the process of +chiselling, to fly about and endanger eyesight.<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p> + +<p>The workers in quarries are exposed to dangers to eyesight like the +cutters and dressers of stone, but the fragments will frequently be +larger. Another danger is added, viz., that of blasting. The gravity of +the injury inflicted varies considerably. In some, powder grains are +studded about the face and eyelids and embedded in the front of the +eyeball, occasioning serious danger to sight. In others, the injury +may be so severe that sight is irrecoverably lost. It is unfortunate, +also, that not infrequently in these serious accidents both eyes are +implicated. The same dangers apply to all kinds of work in which +explosives are used for blasting purposes, whether above or under +ground, as, for instance, in the latter, coal and ironstone mining.</p> + +<p>There are only a few parts of the country where ganister is obtained. +The largest works of the sort are situated at Deepcar, near Sheffield. +The effect of the fine powder produced in the processes required for +making the bricks is recognised as hurtful to the lungs of the employés +engaged. Besides this, however, the extreme hardness of ganister +necessitates blasting, and this is mostly done by dynamite. Two men, +within a short time of each other, came under my observation, who had +been blinded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_785">[785]</span> from this blasting. This occurrence induced me to pay a +visit to the ganister works. I found ganister was obtained by quarrying +and also underground, where it is found lying underneath a seam of +coal. In “scrapping” or breaking the ganister into smaller pieces there +is a danger of pieces striking the face or eye, a greater risk probably +than in ordinary stone-breaking. The ganister is afterwards broken, in +a machine, into small portions. Fragments not infrequently fly off, and +might cause injury. From this machine the ganister goes to another, +where it is ground quite small and churned up into a thick pea-soup +consistence, whence it is taken and placed where the bricks are made, +and afterwards burnt in a kiln heated to 2000° F. The dangers attending +the working of ganister are not so great as to call for special notice, +and, moreover, the industry is a small one.</p> + +<p>Burns caused by lime must be mentioned. All workers with lime and +mortar are exposed to this danger from these substances getting +into their eyes, resulting sometimes in destruction of the cornea +and adhesions of the eyelids to the globe. Masons, plasterers, and +bricklayers belong to this class. Besides the actual burning, the +irritating qualities of lime and cement may occasion conjunctivitis, +with ulceration of cornea, and endanger sight.</p> + +<p>In wire-drawing, not infrequently the breaking of the wire is a cause +of eye accident. The wire is put on a reel, and passed through the +plate, and wound round the wire-drawing block. During this process, the +tension is, of necessity, very great, but of course depends on the size +of the wire. Generally speaking, it is three-fourths of the breaking +strain of the wire. If the wire breaks on this block, the “back-lash” +may strike a man on the face or head, and then also the last end of +the piece might slip and strike a man. The wire is not likely to break +until it has passed through the wire-plate or “wortle.”</p> + +<p>In the weaving shops one peculiar danger to which persons working are +subject is the liability to be struck in the face, or, more especially, +in the eye by flying shuttles. This risk has been known and appreciated +for many years. The matter formed the subject of a report ordered by +the House of Commons in April 1891.</p> + +<p>Since then, greater attention has been paid to the provision of guards +to prevent accidents. There are many patterns of guards on the market. +In principle they are of two classes: 1st, what are known as wing +guards, that is, a wire screen of fine mesh canvas placed between the +looms. In this case should the shuttle fly, it would be caught by the +wing, and thus danger to the weaver at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_786">[786]</span> adjacent loom is obviated. +The other system is to provide a rod on the traversing beam which is +always over the beam of the shuttle. Should there be a tendency for +the shuttle to rise, this would prevent it. With most guards of this +description it is practically impossible for any shuttle to fly, but in +less efficient ones the shuttle may escape. If it does so, however, it +will always be at a low angle, and instead of striking the worker at +the adjoining loom or any passer-by in the face or dangerous part, it +will simply strike the clothing, and little or no serious result need +be anticipated. Since the adoption of these guards the percentage of +accidents has been very appreciably reduced.</p> + +<p>In a recent case of serious eye injury to a young girl, it was +ascertained that the guard for some reason or other had been left off, +and the shuttle had flown up and struck her. The liability to accident +among these operatives is shown by the statement of this girl, that she +had been struck once before on the eyebrow, and at least twenty times +on other parts of the body. All the girls working with her had also +been struck several times. She had, however, in five years only known +of one serious eye injury similar to her own.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of aerated waters there is danger to eyesight from +the bursting of the bottles. The industry is carried on extensively in +most of the larger towns. Usually the bottles or syphons are filled +by machinery, and, in a similar manner, the cork is inserted, or some +other method is adopted for sealing the bottles, whether it be a glass +ball or screw stopper. If “wiring” is needed, it is then done and the +label attached. In addition the bottles are “sighted,” or held up to +the light, to see that they leave the factory clean. Another process +consists in cleaning the returned empties. In all these processes, but +especially so in “bottling,” there is danger of the bottles bursting, +and inflicting serious injury to the eye, or cuts on the face or body +from the fragments of broken glass. To obviate these dangers the use of +faceguards or eye protectors is absolutely necessary, and all machines +used for bottling or corking should be fenced round. The manufacture +of aerated waters was reported on by the Dangerous Trades Committee +(1896),<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> who recommended that all bottlers, wirers, sighters, +and labellers, whilst at work, should be provided with faceguards, +masks, or veils of wire-gauze. They also recommended the providing +of gauntlets for the arms. They further advised the fencing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_787">[787]</span> of all +machines for bottling, to avoid the possibility of fragments of a +bursting bottle striking any worker.</p> + +<p><i>Bursting of Water-Gauges on Boilers.</i>—Many cases of serious eye +injury have come under my notice from the breaking of water-gauges. +The liability to danger exists in every description of steam boiler, +and breakages frequently occur. Injury may be occasioned by fragments +of glass or from scalding, owing to the escape of boiling water and +steam. Protection of some sort is necessary. Encasing the gauge in +wire netting would suffice to prevent injury from fragments of glass, +but it would still allow of the escape of steam and water. Another +method is to surround the gauge with a metal casing, in front of which +is inserted a window of plate glass to permit of the gauge being +visible. A man of considerable experience suggested to me that this +metal casing should be left open at the back, so that, in the event of +the water-gauge glass breaking, the force of the explosion would be +sent backwards. Too frequently no safeguard has been provided, but men +occasionally devise means of protection themselves.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Simeon Snell.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_788">[788]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LIX<br> +<span class="subhed">MISCELLANEOUS TRADES</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Silicate of Cotton.</i></h3> + +<p>The name silicate of cotton is misleading, for the manufacture of this +substance has nothing whatever to do with cotton. It is a fleecy, +white substance, hence the name. The danger in its manufacture is not +from dust but from fluff of a metallic nature. Silicate of cotton is +made from the refuse basic slag of ironworks. It is manufactured in +Middlesborough, Redcar, Skinningrove, Hazlehead, etc. It is a small +industry, and gives employment to very few people. The process of +manufacture is simple. It consists in allowing a small, thin stream of +molten slag to flow in a special direction, so that at a particular +spot the stream is met by a strong blast of steam blown through a +narrow pipe. Very minute particles of slag are thus formed, which are +driven with great velocity into a collecting chamber in which no person +could stand at the time. The small particles of slag are extremely +viscous, and as they are blown through the air with very great velocity +and meet resistance they become drawn out into very fine filaments +like cotton wool, and fall to the ground as a loose, spongy material, +not unlike snow or very fine spun glass. The material is then known as +silicate of cotton, or slag wool. It contains the ordinary constituents +of slag, viz., silica, lime, alumina, with a small percentage of +iron and magnesia, etc. As it is a non-inflammable material and a +non-conductor of heat, it is used for packing the pipes that come away +from steam boilers, and for laying between floors to deaden sound, etc.</p> + +<p>The danger to the health of the workmen lies in the inhalation of the +fine filaments of slag wool, for they are extremely light, and this +occurs mostly during the act of packing the silicate into bags. At this +time the filaments are apt to get on to the skin and to adhere to the +clothing, particularly where it meets the skin. On account of their +sharp needle-like form they cause<span class="pagenum" id="Page_789">[789]</span> considerable irritation and induce +an itchiness of the skin which is extremely trying, for it endures by +night as well as by day, robbing the individual of his sleep, and as +he is likely to scratch himself, the inflammation of the skin leads +to eczema. Beyond this itchiness or pruritus, the Dangerous Trades +Committee, whose description of the process of manufacture I have +largely reproduced, did not find anything in the trade that could be +considered prejudicial to health. The industry had been previously +inspected by Mr Edward Gould, now Deputy Chief Inspector of Factories, +but he did not observe anything in the occupation to cause it to be +regarded as really dangerous. Yet it is scarcely an industry for +growing lads to be sent to, as they seem to suffer more than men, +probably on account of being more impatient under the influence of +pruritus, and being less able to bear the effects of loss of sleep from +it. The working shifts ought to be short, and the men when engaged in +packing the slag wool ought to wear a veil or respirator. As it is +desirable to cover the ears, nose, and eyes, a loose gauze or muslin +veil is preferable. The men ought not to enter the chamber into which +the slag wool has been blown until the atmosphere has become clear, +through the settling down of the fleecy filaments.</p> + + +<h3><i>Upholsterers’ Occupation.</i></h3> + +<p>As the work of the upholsterer is largely concerned with the +manipulation of feather, flock, hair, etc., the subject is indirectly +dealt with under Shoddy and Rags. The dust is provocative of +respiratory troubles. If the rags, feathers, and hair have not been +previously cleaned, the dust not only causes bronchial irritation, but +may be the means, owing to morbific germs adherent to these products, +of causing infectious diseases such as smallpox and erysipelas, and +such intestinal derangements as vomiting and diarrhœa.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of mattresses is an unhealthy occupation, for the +dust that escapes from wool and horsehair during the operation of +carding often causes cough, difficulty of breathing, and retching, +and if these have not been previously sterilised, the dust may cause +blood-poisoning. Ramazini alludes to the ill-health of the Jews in +Italy who undertook this work, and to the fact that they became +emaciated.</p> + +<p>Mattresses that have been lain upon by persons who have died of +infectious diseases occasionally find their way into third-rate +upholsterers’ shops, where their contents are picked and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_790">[790]</span> mattresses +are re-made. It is very dusty work when the picking is done by hand, +and besides, there escapes an unpleasant, sickening odour which causes +headache and a feeling of malaise. When mattresses have become fouled +in places by discharges from patients suffering from infectious +diseases, considerable risk is incurred by those who by hand teaze the +contents of such bespoiled bedding.</p> + +<p>A short while ago a Commission in France dealt with the subject of +the cleansing of bedding. It reported that used mattresses often +harboured the germs of smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, +and typhoid fever. Before any old mattress is picked, it ought to be +exposed to a very high and dry temperature, say 100° C. or 212° F. +Woollen and other flock materials should be previously exposed to +superheated steam and afterwards to sulphurous acid vapour, which can +be got from burning sulphur. In ordinary medical practice, particularly +in large towns, many of the municipal authorities not only provide +the means for sterilising, but require that the bedding that has been +used in infectious cases shall be disinfected. It is desirable in the +interests of the public that the Sanitary Authorities should also offer +facilities to furniture dealers for the disinfection of second-hand +mattresses, and that upholsterers who re-make these mattresses should +not be allowed to have their contents picked by hand until they +have been dry stoved. Cardage by machinery is fortunately replacing +hand-picking, but in places where hand-picking is still carried on +the workers should wear respirators, and the ventilation so arranged +whereby the dust may be carried away from them.</p> + +<p>From <i>feathers</i> dust of a suffocating character is also given +off. Sometimes it induces ophthalmia, also diseases of the bronchial +tubes and lungs, but as feathers can be very readily disinfected by +means of steam, and the industry is a small one and offers work only at +irregular intervals, the number of people who actually suffer in health +from feather dust is not large.</p> + + +<h3><i>Joiners and Carpenters: Workers in Sequoia Wood.</i></h3> + +<p>The occupation of joiners and carpenters is on the whole healthy. +Beyond a greater amount of exertion required in some branches of +the trade than in others, and greater exposure to the weather, the +industry calls for very little consideration here. The removal of +timber in dockyards is heavy work, but it is undertaken by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_791">[791]</span> labourers. +A few years ago, when sawpits were more in use than now, the act of +sawing imposed a considerable strain upon the men, and as the sawpits +were often out of doors or at the best very imperfectly covered, the +sawyers often suffered from rheumatic affections, bronchitis, and +asthma. Thirty years ago, before machinery had so generally supplanted +hand-sawing, sawyers occasionally came to the Newcastle Infirmary +suffering from disease of the aortic valves, and presenting such other +signs of cardio-vascular degeneration as are found in men whose work +is hard, and who have been exposed to all kinds of weather. Beyond +the large but diminishing number of surgical accidents caused by +the circular saw, the use of this implement, especially when acting +upon soft wood, cannot be regarded as the cause of ill-health to men +employed in the joiner’s shop.</p> + +<p>Carpenters are said to suffer from contracted tendons of the hand, +owing to the protracted use of the chisel, and in men who plane much +the hands become enlarged. As these workmen stand on their feet all day +they run the risk of suffering from hernia and varicocele, but I am not +disposed to admit that their liability to these affections is very much +greater than in men in other trades, nor have I noticed to any extent, +in turners, the depression of the left shoulder, the bulging of the +shoulder-blade, and protrusion of the left hip, through the individual +throwing the weight of his body upon the left leg when at work, to +which some authors allude as of common occurrence.</p> + +<p><i>Sequoia Wood.</i>—A short while ago my attention was directed by +Sir James Russell of Edinburgh to a series of symptoms said to be +experienced by joiners when working with sequoia wood. To Councillor +Telfer of the same city I am indebted for a short account of the +supposed effect of the sawdust on those who saw and chip the wood, also +for samples of the sawdust. The symptoms produced resemble those of a +bad cold in the head and chest. There is a running at the nose, with +frequent fits of sneezing, irritation in the throat and chest, followed +by coughing, laboured breathing and quickened pulse, and later on by a +sense of oppression at the pit of the stomach and a smarting sensation +in the eyes. The symptoms usually last for only twenty-four hours, and +are especially pronounced in men working for the first time with the +wood. By next morning the unpleasant symptoms just described have, as a +rule, disappeared. A kind of tolerance comes in time to be established, +although in the case of men who are the subjects of asthma and throat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_792">[792]</span> +affections, their experience is painful and the effects enduring. I +am informed that if a splinter of the wood penetrates the skin to +any depth the wound almost invariably suppurates. The sequoia tree +is a conifer, and is found in California. It requires a good deal of +moisture, grows well in fog, which is said to be essential to its life, +for on passing through the fog belt into clearer air no sequoia trees +are to be found. It is a wood not unlike mahogany in appearance, and +is used for house panelling. Dr R. A. Bolam and myself have examined +sequoia sawdust both chemically and microscopically without finding +in it anything definite to explain the symptoms attributed to working +with the wood. It can be kept mixed with water without giving an acid +reaction. I covered the floor of a rabbit’s hutch with sequoia sawdust +instead of ordinary sawdust, but the rabbit confined in the cage, +although thus exposed to it for several weeks, took no harm. Rats, on +the other hand, seemed susceptible to sequoia sawdust; they suffered in +a few instances from running at the nose. That the dust of some kinds +of wood are more irritating than others has long been known. Rosewood, +for example, has had a bad reputation in this respect. The presence +of a large amount of inorganic matter in wood causes the sawdust to +be much more irritating than that obtained from wood in which such +inorganic matter is, comparatively speaking, absent.</p> + + +<h3><i>Manufacture of Celluloid.</i></h3> + +<p>In the manufacture of <i>celluloid</i> two risks are incurred: (1) +fire, and (2) inhalation of harmful vapours.</p> + +<p>Celluloid is a complex product formed from pyroxiline, camphor, and +alcohol. It was invented by an American named Hyatt in 1869. When +rolled and compressed after having been very gently heated, it forms +a hard, elastic, transparent substance, capable of taking a beautiful +polish, and as various pigments can be added to it, celluloid can be +made to resemble coral, ivory, ebony, malachite, etc. Heat quickly +softens it. If brought into contact with a naked light it is readily +ignited, producing a smoky flame and a disagreeable camphor-like odour. +Several explosions and burns have been known to occur when hairdressers +have been using celluloid combs in close proximity to a naked light. +Celluloid is used for making billiard balls, knife and umbrella +handles, combs, frames for eyeglasses, also washable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_793">[793]</span> imitations of +linen,—for example, American cuffs and collars, etc.<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p> + +<p>One of the principal dangers in regard to using celluloid is fire. No +naked lights, therefore, should be allowed near at hand, nor should +there be any open hearths where celluloid is being manufactured or +stored. Should celluloid by any chance become ignited, sand and water +will extinguish the fire.</p> + +<p>There are also dangers incidental to its manufacture. Pyroxiline is +prepared from vegetable cellulose by treating it with nitric and +sulphuric acids. Apart from the burning accidentally caused by these +acids, the workpeople breathe while in the factory an atmosphere +charged with nitrous vapour, which causes cough, a feeling of +suffocation followed at times by bloody expectoration and signs of +pulmonary congestion. No mixing and pounding of the celluloid should be +done in open tubs, but in hooded receptacles, so that the irritating +fumes are carried away from the workmen. Gloves ought to be worn. No +young person should be employed in the industry.</p> + + +<h3><i>Tobacco and Cigar Manufacture.</i></h3> + +<p>Medical opinion is divided as to whether the manufacture of tobacco +and cigars really exercises any injurious influence upon the workers. +As far back as 1846 this subject was carefully investigated by Dr +Melier at the request of the Academy of Medicine of Paris. In the +manufacture of tobacco for smoking it is generally conceded that during +the chopping up of the leaves and their subsequent exposure to a high +temperature in shallow vessels, certain fumes are given off that are +obnoxious to the workmen engaged in this operation, also that during +the grinding of snuff irritating gases and dust are evolved. Apart +from these, however, the industry is on the whole a healthy one. Some +people have an idiosyncrasy which causes them to be easily affected +by tobacco. New hands on entering a tobacco factory for the first +time often experience a good deal of nausea, headache, and giddiness, +and they sometimes too have a sense of faintness, but by degrees +they become accustomed to the odours. At the Newcastle Dispensary I +am occasionally consulted by female tobacco-spinners on account of +persistent headache, nausea, dislike to food, anæmia, and muscular +feebleness. I have never<span class="pagenum" id="Page_794">[794]</span> observed the transient loss of sight nor +the pharyngeal catarrh alluded to by some writers. Melier held the +opinion that working in tobacco arrested tuberculous disease, but +this is simply an opinion, and is uncorroborated by the experience of +others. Poisson and Eulenburg take the opposite view, and maintain that +tuberculosis is a very frequent disease indeed in tobacco workers, +especially in females. In the lungs of tobacco-workers, both at home +and abroad, there have been found pigmentation and patches of brown +induration. Similar lesions have been observed in the lungs of animals +experimentally exposed to tobacco dust; but at the best these changes +in the human subject must be regarded as of extremely rare occurrence, +and are more than likely due to the inhalation of vegetable and +mineral dusts which dry tobacco often contains. Given a healthy man or +woman, and a well-ventilated factory provided with the proper means +for removing dust and foul air, there is nothing in the manufacture +of tobacco or in the making of cigars to cause the occupation to be +regarded as one very prejudicial to health. Anæmic girls and those +with an idiosyncrasy to tobacco are not good subjects. As to the work +causing excessive menstruation and producing sterility, confirmation +is required; and the same remark applies to the supposed frequency +with which pregnant tobacco-workers and cigar-makers are said to +miscarry. In <i>Poisons Industriels</i>, p. 201, it is stated that the +midwives who attend the female tobacco-workers of the Rue Jean-Nicot +in Paris often remark upon the readiness with which pregnant cigar and +cigarette makers abort, and that the only way by which it is possible +for a pregnant tobacco-worker to carry her child to term is to give up +her employment for the time being. It is also stated that the infants +are either born dead or die soon after birth. Out of 100 pregnancies +in female cigar-makers, Dr Jacquemart observed 45 miscarriages. +Personally I do not attach much importance to these statements, nor to +that regarding infants suckled at the breast, who are said to suffer +from colic after a meal, and to die from inanition. In Madrid infants +are taken at certain hours of the day to the large cigar factories +to be suckled by their mothers. While I am far from countenancing +the practice, I must admit that, having examined as many as 30 and +40 infants being thus fed at a time, the children looked plump and +healthy; so, too, did the mothers. Tobacco is not an emmenagogue. Its +abortifacient properties, it seems to me, have been exaggerated; and in +this I am supported by Poincaré, and also by Ygonin, who found in 750 +female cigar-makers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_795">[795]</span> that miscarriages were by no means more frequent +than in women engaged in other occupations.</p> + +<p>The subject of amblyopia or loss of vision in tobacco-workers is dealt +with in another part of this book by Mr Simeon Snell.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> + +<p>An interesting contribution to the subject of the manufacture of +cigars, from the social and hygienic standpoint, appears in the +<i>Economic Journal</i>, December 1900, from the pen of Miss Grace +Oakeshott. It is the result of an inquiry undertaken by the Women’s +Industrial Council. Smokers need hardly be reminded that two kinds of +cigars are made, the machine or moulded, and the handmade cigar, nor +is it necessary to do more than mention the superiority of the latter +over the former. A woman requires rather a long apprenticeship, nearly +five years, before she becomes an adept in making handmade cigars. +Miss Oakeshott had several opportunities of coming into close contact +with female cigar-makers, from whom she learned that they themselves +believe there is nothing in the work that is unhealthy nor in any way +trying to an ordinarily healthy woman. The occupation is decidedly +sedentary, and it is more than probable that the women sit too long. As +to a supposed protection to the workers from epidemic disease afforded +by tobacco, I am not in a position either to support or contradict the +statement. I doubt it. In 1862 a Parliamentary Report was published on +the tobacco manufactories of Lancashire. It dealt especially with the +female workers in Liverpool. The medical men gave it as their opinion +in the report that tobacco had no permanent effect upon the health +of the workers, and that “though at first the women were attacked by +sickness and faintness due to the smell of tobacco and to insufficient +ventilation, they soon grew accustomed to this, and that, moreover, at +the time of a cholera epidemic the cigar-makers in the town were free +from the disease altogether.”</p> + +<p>Women, taken all in all, are slower cigar-makers than men. Men will +make from 800 to 1270 cigars in a week, and women from 400 to 800, and +yet it occasionally happens that a woman who is an exceptionally quick +worker will beat the best male worker. The cigar trade is one that +requires deftness and skill in manipulation, and as both of these are +possessed by women’s fingers, the occupation is one particularly suited +for women. The work is neither hard nor laborious; it is quiet, and on +the whole it is well paid.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_796">[796]</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Engine-Drivers and Railway Employés.</i></h3> + +<p>What strikes one most in dealing with the subject of workmen employed +on railways is the large number of accidents that befall them. It is +a general opinion that engine-drivers are a healthy class of men. The +records of their Insurance Societies show this, and medical experience +confirms it. The wages that drivers receive enable them to buy good +food. As they have few opportunities of getting much physical exercise, +several of the men become rather obese. My own professional knowledge +of engine-drivers is limited. Most of those whom I have had medically +to deal with have suffered from acute inflammatory affections of the +chest, or from dyspeptic troubles due to their long and irregular +hours, their long journeys, and lengthened absence from home. These +irregularities oblige drivers and firemen to take with them on the +engine food already cooked, and often to eat it when they can. Their +duties are of an anxious nature, and are accompanied by a considerable +amount of nerve tension, which may cause them to break down in health. +Dr Alexander Scott, of Glasgow, at the meeting of the British Medical +Association at Cheltenham, August 1901, expressed the opinion that most +of the accidents on the line are the result of nervous tension on the +part of railway servants. He cited instances of signal-men becoming +paralysed through fear, and of experienced engine-drivers losing their +head and suffering from temporary mental aberration. Nervous tension +causes headache, weariness of brain, and sleeplessness. Whether it +is in consequence of this nerve strain that engine-drivers as a +class suffer more frequently from diabetes than men engaged in other +occupations, I am not prepared to say. Dr Atkinson, of Crewe, states +that engine-men are usually long lived, but that they are subject to +bronchitis in winter, while their common complaints are indigestion, +varicocele, and varicose veins, the latter in consequence of their +prolonged standing. Out of 4000 men employed at Crewe, not more than 6 +die annually from phthisis.</p> + +<p>Through the kindness of Dr Atkinson, of Crewe, I have been furnished +with the Annual Reports of the London and North-Western Railway +Insurance Society for Drivers and Firemen for the last six years. The +average number of men in the society has been 10,817. The average +annual number of deaths during these six years has been 91, and the +average annual number of deaths from accidents 9.6; that is to say, +one-tenth of the deaths is due to accidents received when at work. +On looking over the causes of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_797">[797]</span> death, it is noticed that the largest +number of men die from old age, and that pneumonia, heart and kidney +diseases, also the combined influence of these two latter, carry off +by far the next largest proportion. I am struck, however, by the +number of deaths from diabetes. They vary from one to four per annum; +no age period is spared, but the maximum rate of mortality is above +fifty years of age. More of the men die from pneumonia than phthisis, +probably in consequence of exposure. Dr Atkinson concludes a letter by +remarking that drivers and firemen “are very long lived and healthy, +and fewer of them suffer from hernia than the public generally.”</p> + +<p>Stokers are said to suffer from pulmonary anthracosis, a form of +consumption like coal-miners’ phthisis, but I am doubtful of the +prevalency of this ailment among stokers, just as I am of their +becoming deaf owing to the soundings of the whistle. Men employed in +the sheds cleaning the engines with soda and potash often become thin +and anæmic, but if they are given outside work they rapidly regain the +appearance of health.</p> + +<p><i>Labourers</i> on the railway employed to look after the transport +of living cattle, or who have to handle the carcases of dead beasts, +skins, and hides, run the risk of contracting blood-poisoning. As +the identity of human and bovine tuberculosis has recently been +disputed by Koch, the following fact is of considerable importance. +Two labourers employed on an American railway to clean and repair cars +used for transporting cattle, suffered from local tuberculosis of the +skin, following a slight injury to the hand caused by a splint of +wood. One of the men died a year afterwards from tuberculous disease +of the lungs. There is every reason, therefore, why infected cattle +and carcases should not be allowed to be carried by rail. In our own +country we know how often anthrax has been traced to the importation +of diseased hides and infected hair (see “Anthrax”). While people may +thus become infected, not only on the railways but in the factories, +it is absolutely necessary that diseased cattle should not be allowed +to travel either by road or rail. In the event of infected animals +having been conveyed by rail, complete disinfection of the waggons +is an absolute necessity. This is sometimes done by washing out the +interior of the waggons and brushing them with quicklime. Superheated +steam is by many believed to be better than antiseptic solutions, for +if these are to be of any service they must be used strong. Pasteur +taught that all disease-causing germs were destroyed at a temperature +of 110° C., or 233° F., and that moist heat is superior to dry. A few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_798">[798]</span> +minutes’ exposure to superheated steam kills even the most resistant +microbes, so that where vehicles have been employed in the transport of +infected cattle, patients suffering from enteric fever, and in warfare +of soldiers with discharging wounds, disinfection should be resorted to +immediately after discharge of the cargo.</p> + +<p>(For further remarks on disinfection, see article “Anthrax,” p. 642).</p> + + +<h3><i>Drivers of Public Vehicles.</i></h3> + +<p>Drivers of public vehicles suffer and become prematurely old in +consequence of their exposure to inclement weather, late hours, and +irregularity in getting their meals. Alcoholism and exposure to cold +are responsible for their tendency to develop gout and rheumatism, and +through these disorders to secondary affections of the kidneys, heart, +and respiratory organs. They die at the rate of 1482 to 1000 of the +male population generally.</p> + + +<h3><i>Cooks.</i></h3> + +<p>The average age at death of cooks is fifty-four years. Heat affects +cooks differently; some become extremely stout and unhealthy looking, +while others, in consequence of the heat, working in cellar kitchens by +artificial light, and deprived of the fresh air, become pale, suffer +from headache, lose their appetite, and have occasional bleedings +at the nose. Many of them suffer, too, from varicose veins, owing +to standing so long on their feet. Others suffer from eczema of the +hands. Subterranean kitchens are bad from a hygienic point of view. +Every kitchen should be well ventilated and have good daylight. The +introduction of gas stoves into kitchens has not improved matters. +They are very convenient, but ventilation is interfered with, and +the atmosphere is liable to be contaminated when the gas stoves are +not provided with adequate means for carrying off the products of +combustion. Often, too, the indiarubber tube that carries the gas emits +an unpleasant odour. The tube may become cracked, allowing coal-gas +to escape, and as arsenic has been found in some indiarubber tubes, +this substance may enter into combination with the gases that are of +themselves harmful, and thus further help to undermine the health of +those working in the kitchen.</p> + + +<h3><i>Confection Makers.</i></h3> + +<p>Confection makers suffer from caries of the teeth, and from ophthalmia +and headache, and from the effects of great heat.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_799">[799]</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Domestic Servants and Housemaids, etc.</i></h3> + +<p>Domestic servants in well-to-do and upper middle-class families are +not unhealthy. They are well fed, but either do not get or take as +much open air exercise as they ought. It is in the maid-of-all-work, +and in servants employed in the smaller houses where there are large +families, and in lodging-houses, that we find the worst indications +of the effects of domestic service. The sleeping accommodation for +servants, even in large houses, is not always as good as it should +be. Their rooms, which are at the top of the house, are small, badly +lit, often without a fireplace, and therefore badly ventilated. Their +hours of toil are long, and the demands made upon domestic servants +are numerous, often exacting, and frequently protracted well on into +the evening. Small wonder that, owing to their deprivation of fresh +air, the monotony of their work in many instances, the conflict of +tempers, and the imperfect food obtainable in poorer families and +lodging-houses, many young women break down in health, become anæmic, +suffer from headache and derangement of the digestive and pelvic +organs. There is one illness domestic servants seem to be very prone +to, and that is ulcer of the stomach. It used to be stated in medical +text-books that cooks were more liable than any other class of female +servants to ulcer of the stomach, a circumstance that was attributed +to their frequently tasting very hot foods. My own experience at the +Newcastle Infirmary is that housemaids suffer in at least as large a +proportion as cooks do from ulcer of the stomach, but why I cannot say, +unless it be that as a class they are more anæmic, and anæmia is a +predisposing cause to gastric ulcer. It is an opinion held by several +asylum physicians and others, that domestic servants form a very large +percentage of the inmates of asylums. I have taken pains to ascertain +the facts upon which this opinion rests, by applying to Dr McDowall, +of the Northumberland County Asylum, and to Dr Calcott, of the +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Asylum at Cox Lodge. The total admissions of women +into the Northumberland County Asylum for five years, 1886 to 1890 +inclusive, were 415. Of these, 48, or 11.3 per cent., were domestic +servants, 15 were housekeepers, and 189 housewives, by which is usually +meant married women. The area from which these patients are drawn is +agricultural and mining. Taking outdoor work as a healthy but often +badly paid occupation as a contrast, I find that 11 field-workers were +admitted as against 48 domestic servants. Dr McDowall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_800">[800]</span> does not think +“there is an excessive amount of insanity among domestic servants.” +It is only right to add that in addition to the above there were 101 +females admitted classed under “no occupation,” and that many of these +were young women who were at home and helped in housework.</p> + +<p>The Newcastle-upon-Tyne Asylum, on the other hand, draws its patients +from the city, where the typical domestic servant is more likely to +be found than in the districts that supply the County Asylum. Dr +Calcott has been good enough to send me a table showing the occupation +of female patients received into the Newcastle City Asylum during +the past twenty years, and embracing 1000 cases. The following is +the percentages:—Housewives, <i>i.e.</i> married women, widows, and +daughters acting as housekeepers to fathers, brothers, and relatives, +47.7 per cent.; domestic servants, 14.60, or, including women keeping +house for artisans, 2.03, a total percentage of 16.63. This is a large +percentage for domestic servants compared with 0.46 for shop girls. +The Whittingham Asylum, near Preston, Lancashire, draws patients from +a different class of occupations to those in Newcastle. I find in the +Report of that Asylum of 1899, that there were 196 females admitted +during the year. Of these, 26 were domestic servants; housekeepers and +housewives numbered 102, contrasted with 24 mill hands and factory +operatives. Next to housekeepers, which includes married women, +domestic servants stood highest in the list of admission.</p> + +<p>“Housemaids’ Knee” is an inflammation of the bursa in front of the +knee-cap, and is caused by pressure and friction.</p> + + +<h3><i>Barmen and Dealers in Alcoholic Drinks.</i></h3> + +<p>Publicans and licensed victuallers are notoriously a short-lived class. +The modern tendency of brewers to buy out the smaller publicans and to +form “tied” houses is causing the older type of landlords to disappear, +and is replacing them by men often drawn from an inferior rank of +life. In large industrial centres the men who are placed in charge of +bars or who take over public-houses for themselves have frequently +been previously engaged in the ordinary trades of the district. As +subsequent events too often show, the life adopted, however gilded it +may appear, is attended with considerable danger. The occupation of +the publican is sedentary. Without any exercise in the open air, his +long day is too often spent in an atmosphere reeking with the odour +of spirits, tobacco smoke, and emanations from the men and women who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_801">[801]</span> +lounge at the bar; and this, coupled with the numerous temptations to +drink, and his irregular meals, sooner or later induces structural +alterations in the liver, lungs, and heart, that bring life to a +premature close. According to Ogle, innkeepers and publicans have a +comparative mortality figure of 1521 as against 1000 of the general +population, an unenviable position, which is corroborated by the +statistics of the Scottish Amicable Insurance Society, which show +that dealers in intoxicating drinks have a mortality of 68 per cent. +in excess of the Actuaries’ or healthy Male Tables, and 49 per cent. +in excess of the English Life Tables. The mortality is 51 per cent., +roughly speaking, above that for all males. In no other class of men, +as might be expected from the opportunities offered, is the mortality +from <i>alcoholism</i> so high as in innkeepers and publicans. It is +from five to seven times higher than the average. The only occupation +that approximates to it from a mortality point of view is that of +cabmen. There is a belief that the mortality among publicans from +alcohol is diminishing, but Dr Tatham’s statistics for 1890–92, which +appeared in the <i>British Medical Journal</i> for January 1898, do +not confirm this. Some barmen, it is true, are teetotallers, and many +are extremely temperate, but all are living under conditions of great +temptation. The dangerous nature of the occupation lies not so much +in the fact that barmen may get repeatedly drunk and run the risk +of delirium tremens, but in the opportunities that are offered of +continually nipping. It is the frequent nipping, begun early in the day +and continued through it, often without food and an increasing distaste +for it, that slowly undermines the physical and mental health of the +publicans, is the cause of the large number of suicides among them, and +of the large number of barmen that are carried off by cirrhosis of the +liver and kidney disease before they reach the age of forty.</p> + +<p>Working brewers are also unhealthy. They have, according to Ogle, a +mortality figure of 1361 as against 1521 for publicans, but while they +present a lower mortality figure and greater freedom from alcoholism, +they have a higher mortality from heart and lung diseases, especially +consumption, a circumstance which is attributed to their greater +exposure to varying temperatures and to wet, their figures for phthisis +being 334 as against 295 for publicans. Brewers and their assistants +are more liable to accidents; these, like all alcoholic subjects, they +bear badly. Dr Tatham’s statistics are more recent than Ogle’s, and +they show that all occupations connected with the liquor traffic have +even a higher mortality rate than those furnished by previous decennial +reports. The figures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_802">[802]</span> are for brewers 1427, innkeepers and publicans +1642, and for inn and hotel servants, 1725. Taking 100 as representing +the mean mortality among all occupied males for each of the subjoined +causes of death, the comparative mortality figures for publicans, +innkeepers, and their servants are 723 from alcoholism, 600 from gout, +271 from diabetes, 644 from diseases of the liver, 210 from urinary +diseases, and 207 from suicide.</p> + + +<h3><i>Sewing-Machine Workers.</i></h3> + +<p>If seamstresses and tailors in days gone by suffered, in consequence +of plying the needle for many hours a day, from contracted fingers +and rheumatic swellings of the joints; and tailors, owing to their +cross-legged position when at work, from atrophy of the muscles of +the limbs, bandy-legs, and deformities of the chest, the introduction +of the sewing-machine about 1855, while removing these evils, was at +first believed to have introduced others of its own. To sit working a +sewing-machine, as thousands of anæmic women in this country are doing +six days in every week, is to aggravate the physical conditions upon +which their bloodlessness depends, to court neuralgia, and to encourage +lethargy of some of the eliminating organs, but beyond exaggerating +certain functional disorders, I do not think that to working the +sewing-machine can be traced any real organic disease. It has been +asserted that the vibration to which the spine is subjected is a cause +of spinal-cord disease, and of such a disorder as locomotor ataxia. +There is no truth in this statement. I know of no instances, nor is it +likely that the jolting of the spine could cause locomotor ataxia any +more than the movements of the knees induce disorders of the genital +organs and encourage immoral practices, which some medical men claimed +for the sewing-machine on its introduction. The one statement is just +as unfounded as the other. Working the sewing-machine too long may be +followed by muscular cramps, and even by loss of power in the limbs, +due to irritation of the flexor and extensor muscles of the legs. The +principal effects, however, are vague muscular pains in the limbs and +loins, and a sense of fatigue, but I question whether these pains are +more pronounced in sewing-machine workers than in shop girls and women +who are doing other kinds of work. It is a sedentary occupation, but +given a good constitution to start with, well-ventilated workrooms, and +not too prolonged hours of toil, coupled with such open air exercise +as a reasonable walk twice a day, between the home and the workroom, +provides, along with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_803">[803]</span> good wages to get sufficient food, it cannot be +said to be unhealthy. Women, recognising that the work is sedentary, +ought themselves to take the necessary means to keep the bowels open, +for obstinate constipation is not only a cause of anæmia, it ladens the +blood with impurities that induce headache, the too frequent recurrence +of which obliges the individual to give up her employment.</p> + + +<h3><i>Label-licking.</i></h3> + +<p>In thread mills young girls are often employed to put labels on the +bobbins. This they do by licking the labels, and as a consequence +children are known to have suffered from swollen submaxillary glands, +as reported in 1895 by Miss Anderson,[A] Principal Lady Inspector +of Factories. This unwholesome practice is not confined to thread +mills, it prevails in many industries in which small packets are +being labelled for sale. The work is generally given to young persons +and children. It is undertaken, therefore, at an age when growth is +active, and the system is in need of all its digestive juices. The +practice entails an enormous loss of saliva daily. Quite apart from +this circumstance weakening the digestive functions, there is always +the risk of the coloured labels containing, as Professor Thorpe’s<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> +analysis showed, copper and lead. Besides, there is the risk that the +adhesive part of the label owes its sticking properties not to gum, +but to substances of an animal nature, such as serum, to the presence +of which have been traced some minor forms of blood poisoning, and the +painful affection known as “stamp-lickers’ tongue.” As a consequence +ulcers in the mouth sometimes develop, and from these ulcers poisonous +material is absorbed and carried by the lymphatics to the glands +underneath the jaw, setting up an acute inflammation or adenitis.</p> + +<p>Stamp-lickers’ tongue is an infective process which generally yields to +antiseptic treatment, such as a weak carbolic, boric, or hyposulphite +of soda mouth-wash. It is not so generally known as it ought to be, +that the licking of stamps may be followed by tubercular disease. The +following fact is therefore worthy of being more publicly recorded. Dr +Busquet,<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> a surgeon-major in the French army, and engaged in the +Bacteriological Laboratory attached to the military hospital at Dey, +in Algiers, received into the hospital a young soldier far advanced in +tubercular disease of the lungs. He was a collector of foreign stamps. +Unused stamps<span class="pagenum" id="Page_804">[804]</span> he generally fixed in his album by licking them. In +order to test some stamps, Dr Busquet bought three hundred for his +patient, many of which were for the purpose of exchange. These stamps +were placed in sterilised water. At the end of twenty-four hours, +Busquet inoculated guinea-pigs with the water. Of eight animals thus +treated all became tuberculous, and at the post-mortem examination +they showed various tubercular lesions in their internal organs. +School boys and girls form the larger number of philatelists, and as +they often wet the stamps with their tongue the danger incidental to +this practice is apparent. What has been said of foreign stamps may +not apply equally to label-licking, and yet labels are often lying +about in a factory exposed to the dusty atmosphere of the workroom in +which microbes of disease are known to abound. We cannot always be +sure too that the solution of gum was sterile to commence with, and +that it was spread upon the labels by healthy persons. There is no +wish to exaggerate the importance of microbes in causing disease; all +that is here insisted upon is that label-licking is an unhealthy and +an unpleasant occupation, one that can be better and just as cheaply +done by mechanical contrivances than by wasting children’s saliva. +That large quantities of saliva are used up in the process is shown by +the fact that half-timers will lick as many as forty to fifty gross of +labels in one day, and an adult woman as many as ninety gross. Where +factory owners have introduced the use of dampers, they have found that +by such artificial means the fixing of labels on bobbins can be just as +expeditiously performed.</p> + + +<h3><i>Glass Manufacture: Glass-Blowing.</i></h3> + +<p>The manufacture of glass is a very old industry. The Egyptians made +glass more than 4000 years ago. Probably they learned the art from +the Phœnicians or Jews. When Rome was at its zenith the number of +Jewish glass-makers was so great that a special quarter of the city +was set apart for them. These men turned out beautiful works of art, +as the specimens in the Vatican and the British and French Museums +show. Glass is supposed to have been introduced into England in the +year 676 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, but the first glass works in London were not +established until 1557. Two centuries ago Lancashire led the way in +making plate glass. British sheet glass began to be made in Birmingham +in 1832. So far as plate glass for mirrors and windows is concerned +the British-made article is bad to beat. St Helens in Lancashire +is the home of the manufacture of this particular kind of glass, +which is composed of sand,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_805">[805]</span> soda salt, lime, felspar (quartz), and +occasionally red lead and black oxide of manganese. These when melted +together form a silicate, the sand supplying the silicic acid. Boric +can be substituted for silicic acid. These substances are all fused +together at an extremely high temperature in circular furnaces, with +several small openings through which the workmen, wearing blue-tinted +spectacles, can view the molten mass. Boys dip the end of a long hollow +iron tube into the lake of molten material and, removing a <i>blob</i> +on the end of the tube, take it to the men standing close by, who blow +down the iron tube and cause the glowing mass to become globular. They +fix and regulate the shape of the globe by occasionally rolling it on a +small iron table. As the mass at the end of the iron tube cools further +expansion of the glass by blowing becomes impossible, and so it becomes +necessary to again replace the unfinished product at the end of the +rod in the furnace. This is in time removed and again blown, restored +to the furnace and manipulated until a completely finished article is +evolved. This has still to undergo a process of annealing or toughening +so as to prevent it cracking or breaking readily. The process consists +in again exposing the glass to a high temperature, gradually raised +and just as gradually lowered. Frosted glass is made by forcing a jet +of sand under very great pressure upon particular parts of the glass. +Sheet glass, on the other hand, is formed from a large mass of molten +material adherent to the end of a blow-pipe, which, when it becomes +large enough, is swung round and round in the air until it becomes +oblong. It is then cut and the mass is allowed to fall flat. In order +to flatten it still more the sheet is put into an oven; when rendered +pliable by the heat it is removed and smoothed out by wood. In the +manufacture of plate glass no blowing is required. A pot of molten +glass is carried by a travelling crane to the casting-table, which is +made of smooth iron with an elevated rim. Upon this table the liquid is +poured. By means of rollers the workmen spread the layer out equally +until it is of uniform thickness. After cooling, the glass is annealed +in the manner already described. It is subsequently ground with sand +and water, and afterwards polished with emery or putty powder.</p> + +<p>The risks to health incurred by makers of glass are mainly those due +to exposure to excessively high temperatures, <i>e.g.</i> bronchial +and pulmonary affections; many of the men die from phthisis. They +bear pneumonia badly owing to their intemperate habits. Dr Scheele, +in the <i>Berlin. Klinische Wochenschrift</i>, March 1900, has drawn +attention to what is known as “glass-blowers’ mouth.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_806">[806]</span> Large swellings +like air-cushions can be seen and felt in some glass-blowers, extending +from the angle of the mouth to below the ears. The swellings look like +mumps. They involve the parotid gland only. They crepitate under the +finger, and by pressure can be made to disappear. It is only recently +that these swellings in the cheeks of glass-blowers have attracted +attention, and especially in France. The relaxation of the cheeks, the +<i>joues casées</i> of French glass-blowers, is by some attributed to +a faulty method of blowing. From glass-blowers under my care in the +Newcastle Infirmary I have ascertained that the malady is not unknown +among the men in the works on Tyneside. Dr Scheele found that it was +present in only 2.5 per cent. of blowers, some of whom had worked for +years. In those who had thus suffered the duct that leads from the +interior of the mouth to the parotid gland had become dilated owing +to the repeated entrance of air into it under considerable pressure: +the mucous membrane of the inside of the cheek, too, showed thick pale +patches, <i>plaques opalines</i>, which Guinard regarded as the result +of the great pressure and straining the buccal mucous membrane was +exposed to during the act of blowing. Under ordinary forced expiration +the pressure inside the closed mouth is equivalent to from 6 to 9 +millimetres of mercury, but in glassblowing it may rise to 90 and even +as high as 110 mm. In the course of an ordinary day a good workman will +blow as many as from 600 to 700 bottles.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the strain experienced by glass-blowers other defects +are occasionally observed; one is deafness due to increased internal +pressure in the middle ear, and the other is a painless deformity of +the fingers (<i>main en crochet</i>) due to the manner in which the +blow-pipe is grasped.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p806a_a" style="max-width: 287px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p806a_a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—Glass-blower when in normal +condition. (After Dr Scheele, Berlin. Klin. Wochen., 1900).</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p806a_b" style="max-width: 284px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p806a_b.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—A later photograph of Glass-blower in +Fig. 85, showing relaxed condition of Cheeks. (After Dr Scheele).</p> + </div> + +<p>Glass-workers are exposed to other dangers. Dr Pröbsting,<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> an +oculist in Cologne, has found that in 12 per cent. of the factory +operatives in Ehrenfield who are upwards of forty years of age, the +crystalline lens of the eye becomes opaque. One of the most frequent +causes of this form of cataract is exposure to the intense heat on the +part of glass-makers, especially the workmen who remove the molten +material from the furnace. Owing to the manner in which they handle +their implements these men generally stand with the left side of their +face towards the furnace. It is generally the left eye that becomes the +seat of cataract. Meyhöfer believes that the excessive perspiration of +glass-makers plays an important part in producing this change in the +lens. A third <span class="pagenum" id="Page_807">[807]</span>cause may be the brilliant white light that dazzles +workers in glass, and which, by fatiguing the retina of the eye, +reflexly influences the lens. Mr Simeon Snell’s experience does not +quite corroborate that of Dr Pröbsting.<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p> + +<p>A new method of making hollow glass ware, <i>e.g.</i> tumblers, etc., +has lately been introduced. The blowing is no longer done by men +exhaling air from their lungs, but by driving in compressed air by +means of machinery. One machine managed by four men and seven boys can +turn out 500 tumblers in an hour, or 5000 in a day, whereas the same +number of operatives working under old methods can only throw off 40 +tumblers in an hour. In large glass factories the work often goes on +night and day in double shifts, particularly on the Continent. The +use of compressed air in glassblowing is very desirable, for by its +use many of the ill effects consequent upon the present methods of +blowing would soon disappear. The more frequent wearing of blue-tinted +spectacles by the workmen, too, would tend to lessen the frequency of +cataract.</p> + + +<h3><i>Glazed Ware Poisonous from other Causes than Lead.—Cyanide of +Potassium.</i></h3> + +<p>The United States Consul at Mayence, in December 1900, uttered a +word of warning to purchasers of silvered glass and porcelain, +which is deserving of notice. In order to apply the silver by the +galvano-caustic method in use, the ware has to be dipped in a bath +highly charged with cyanide of potassium. However carefully treated, +the surface is never perfectly smooth, but conceals innumerable fine +cracks. The cyanide lies in the minute fissures and cannot be removed +during manufacture. As a consequence both the use and the handling of +the ware may be followed by poisonous effects. Cyanide of potassium +contains the well-known poison, prussic acid. Owing to the danger to +health incurred by the workmen and the public, some large firms have +abandoned the manufacture of goods by this process, but the ware is +still exported from Frankfort, Stuttgart, and Berlin. Attempts are +being made to devise non-poisonous methods of plating these goods.</p> + + +<h3><i>Coal-heaving, Coal-trimming, and Chimney-sweeping.</i></h3> + +<p>Men employed in the first two of the above occupations are much exposed +to the weather and to dust given off during the tipping of coal, while +in the case of chimney-cleaning the sweep is exposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_808">[808]</span> to the effects +of soot that has been formed during the combustion of coal. The men +who perform the rough, heavy labour on quays and staithes, loading and +unloading ships with coal, or who fill sacks with the fuel, are called +coal-heavers, while the men who are in the holds of vessels, shovelling +and distributing the coal therein, are known as coal-trimmers. Usually +the men are well developed and of good physique, but as a class they +are extremely intemperate. On Tyneside they earn good wages, but a +large part of them goes in drink. Owing to the many delays to which +steamers are exposed the work of these men is rather irregular, a +circumstance which does not conduce to steady habits. Beyond the risk +of accidents, and the hard and exposed nature of the calling of the +coal-heaver, there is nothing that is particularly dangerous in it, +if the men themselves are careful. The trimmers when in the further +recesses of the holds of vessels work in a dusty atmosphere, but the +dust readily escapes. On coming out of the holds they often bring up +a black spit, but this is mostly pigmented mucus from the bronchi. +Phthisis and pulmonary disease carry off a large percentage of +coal-heavers and trimmers. It must be admitted that neglect of common +colds, and the indifference to health created by intemperate habits, +are to a large extent responsible for these maladies.</p> + +<p><i>Chimney sweeps</i> form pretty well a social class by themselves. +Their occupation cannot be regarded as a healthy one. To pulmonary, +cardiac, and kidney diseases sweeps are particularly liable. Soot has +a peculiarly irritating effect on the skin. It induces eczema, and +is apt to cause inflammation of the eyelids, hence the “blear” eye +exhibited by many sweeps. Occasionally the soot enters the skin, and +is transported by the cells along the lymphatic vessels to distant +parts of the body. A short while ago the question was raised in the +pages of the <i>Lancet</i>, Do coal miners suffer from cancer? In a +paper which I read at the Sanitary Congress in Newcastle-on-Tyne five +years ago, I showed, from statistics of admissions into the Newcastle +and Sunderland Infirmaries and the Durham County Hospital, that coal +miners were anything but exempted from cancer. It is interesting to +note, too, that while coal dust when inhaled is followed only by an +inflammatory reaction in the pulmonary tissue surrounding the entangled +particles of dust, coal when burnt undergoes some peculiar chemical +change, whereby soot has conferred upon it properties of a specially +irritating nature, for only thus can we explain the prevalence of +cancer in chimney sweeps, a disease with which hospital surgeons at +home, particularly in London, have been long familiar. Taking Dr<span class="pagenum" id="Page_809">[809]</span> +Ogle’s statistics of the deaths of 242 chimney sweeps, 49 were due to +malignant disease. Expressed in other words, Ogle found that while +among all males in England and Wales between twenty-five and sixty-five +years of age the proportion of deaths from malignant disease was in +the ratio of 36 per 1000 deaths from all causes, it was in sweeps 202. +Reference may here be made to the opinions expressed by Dr Tatham in +this book, <i>vide</i> “Dust-Producing Occupations,” upon the mortality +of sweeps from cancer. His statistics, which are more recent than +Ogle’s, indicate that the mortality from different forms of cancer +amounts to 156, compared with 44, the figure for occupied males in +the aggregate. Chimney sweeps have a liability to cancer eight times +greater than other persons. The disease tends to locate itself in the +scrotum more than in other organs. To this subject Mr Henry T. Butlin, +F.R.C.S., Surgeon to St Bartholomew’s Hospital, has given considerable +attention, and has embodied his experience in a series of lectures +delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons.<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> There is a widespread +opinion that chimney sweeps’ cancer is seldom met with in any other +part of the civilised world than in Great Britain; also, that during +recent years, in this country, it is becoming rarer. Statistics show +that it occurs very infrequently on the Continent. Many French hospital +surgeons say they have never seen a case of cancer of the scrotum in a +chimney sweep. In Vienna during eleven years, 1874 to 1884 inclusive, +only one case of scrotal cancer was reported, and in that instance the +patient was not a chimney sweep. During the years 1878 to 1885 not one +case occurred in the large town hospitals of Berlin, and yet in four +of the large London hospitals in one year, 1884, there were five cases +of chimney sweeps’ cancer admitted; during 1881, into a similar number +of Metropolitan hospitals there were received four patients suffering +from this affection. It is sometimes stated that cancer in chimney +sweeps has practically disappeared in Britain. This is not so. As Dr +Tatham has shown in his article on “Dust-Producing Occupations,” there +has been within the last twenty years a considerable decrease in the +mortality of sweeps from this cause; but that it still claims annually +a large number of victims in this trade is, unfortunately, too true. +During a recent period of twenty years, there were admitted into St +Bartholomew’s Hospital alone 39 cases of cancer of the scrotum, and +of these patients 29 were chimney sweeps. So far, then, as London is +concerned, there are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_810">[810]</span> every year in its hospitals one or two cases of +chimney sweeps’ cancer in the wards. In Newcastle it is only rarely met +with.</p> + +<p>There is a theory that the supposed decline of sweeps’ cancer is due to +the prohibition of “climbing boys,” to the use of machinery, cleaner +habits of sweeps, and the abolition of passing soot through sieves for +agricultural purposes. That the disease we are alluding to is cancer +there is no doubt. It often commences in the form of a wart or warts +on the scrotum, and as these are very frequently followed by cancer, +what is called the “soot wart” becomes the “soot cancer.” These warts +may exist for years. In many instances they never take on malignant +action at all. The warts are liable to be rubbed and irritated by +the dirty clothes of the sweep and by soot, and in consequence they +become larger and ulcerate, the ulceration extending superficially +along the skin or penetrating deeper into the testicle. The glands in +the groin become enlarged at first from irritation, but ultimately +they assume the malignant characters of the original ulcer. Under any +circumstance, even when the disease is far advanced, death comes but +slowly; emaciation does not progress rapidly, strength is gradually +lost, and the general health is undermined by the profuse and sickening +discharges from the open sores. On post-mortem examination of the +body secondary disease, as might be expected, is frequently found in +the peritoneal cavity, liver, and lungs. On microscopical examination +of the scrotal ulcer the appearances presented are those met with in +epithelioma or squamous cell cancer.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p810a" style="max-width: 264px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p810a.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—German Sweep’s Costume. (Reproduced +with permission of Mr H. T. Butlin, F.R.C.S.)</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p810c" style="max-width: 248px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p810c.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—Belgian Sweep’s Costume. (Reproduced +with permission of Mr H. T. Butlin, F.R.C.S.)</p> + </div> + +<p>Although the dirty clothes of chimney sweeps and their want of personal +cleanliness have been regarded as causes of the cancer, there is a +feeling that the real cause resides in the soot itself, for there are +many trades that are as dirty as chimney sweeping, and yet the men +engaged therein do not suffer from scrotal cancer. Gardeners, who have +been in the habit of using soot for the protection of plants from slugs +(see paper by Mr D’Arcy Power, page 237), are known to have developed +cancer in the hand. How soot causes cancer it is difficult to say. +By some pathologists the sulphurous acid present in soot is blamed, +by others, the ammonia compounds. The parasitic causation of cancer +is still only a theory and requires confirmation. At any rate there +is no proof of the existence in soot of a cancerous element. Soot +when repeatedly applied to the skin causes it to become thickened, or +harsh and dry, and just to the extent that it is capable of altering +the structure of the skin, so may it predispose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_811">[811]</span> to cancer. The +disease is most rife in chimney sweeps between the ages of forty-five +and fifty. Whether the soot from one particular kind of coal has a +greater influence compared with another it is not easy to say. The coal +that is used for heating dwellings is of four kinds: (1) anthracite +or smokeless coal; (2) hard coal or stone coal; (3) brown coal; (4) +coke, wood, peat, and charcoal are also used. There is very little soot +formed during the burning of anthracite. In England the fireplaces +are open, but on the Continent stoves for heating purposes are more +in evidence. At home there is a much larger quantity of hard or +stone coal burnt in the dwellings than on the Continent, and to this +fact has been attributed the greater freedom of chimney sweeps from +cancer across the Channel. Butlin made extensive inquiries into the +question of chimney sweeps’ cancer abroad, and elicited a good deal +of information as to the personal habits of the men who follow this +particular calling. In Belgium, for example, sweeps are in the habit of +washing themselves to the waist daily, and of washing the whole body +from head to foot once or twice a week. The chimney sweeps of Hanover +wear special kinds of clothes, and after each day’s work they wash +themselves with soap and warm water. In the North German towns several +of the sweeps have baths fitted up in their own houses, and where this +is not the case the fraternity own a bath-house, fitted up with all +the necessary requirements, and to which the sweeps pay a daily visit. +They also wear special garments, and a handkerchief over their mouth. +Swiss chimney sweeps take a bath every evening. In some of the towns +of France the precautions taken in regard to preventing the contact +of soot with the body are not so good. It was found, however, that in +Amiens, Lille, Rouen, etc., the sweeps wore blouses, and that they +washed themselves thoroughly all over once a week. In Paris, sweeps’ +cancer is practically unknown. Chimney-sweeping in Paris is relegated +to companies known as <i>fumistes</i> (stove makers, menders, etc.). +One establishment employs 100 men; these men dress in a linen blouse +or jacket buttoned in front, trousers made from the same material, +a coarse shirt and boots. After a day’s work the men take off their +clothes in the workshop, wash, and on reaching home wash themselves +again. Their working clothes are washed once a week.</p> + +<p>“Climbing boys” are still employed by sweeps on the Continent for +cleaning chimneys. It is several decades since they were prohibited in +Britain. In the north of Germany, boys from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_812">[812]</span> seven to fourteen years of +age are employed for this purpose, and in Belgium Mr Butlin found that +even still younger boys were engaged to do the work.</p> + +<p>Workers in tar and paraffin are also liable to cancer of the scrotum, +and men employed in the production of anthracene, which is the last +product of the distillation of gas-coal tar, are specially prone +to suffer from warts and skin eruptions. Distillers of benzine +and creosote suffer in a similar but slighter degree from warts. +Tillmanns<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> of Leipzig, who made an inquiry into the health +conditions of the men employed in the tar manufactories, stone coal tar +distilleries, pine soot, or lampblack factories in Saxony, Hanover, and +Holland, etc., states that “in lampblack factories, and in stone coal +tar factories cancer of the skin and severe dermatitis do not appear to +have been hitherto observed, as in the workers in the brown coal tar +and paraffin industries.”</p> + +<p>Having reviewed this subject at considerable length, I reproduce the +conclusions that Butlin arrived at—(1) That it is possible to prepare +the skin for the occurrence of cancer by the constant or repeated +application to it of certain substances during a period of years; (2) +that the nocuous substances in this relation of which we have the most +information are hard or stone coal soot, brown coal tar, and crude +paraffin; (3) that there is evidence to cast grave suspicion on certain +other substances, such as stone coal tar, but that those are far less +to be feared.</p> + +<p>In order to prevent the occurrence of this malady in chimney sweeps, +the individual should have his skin protected as far as possible +against contact with the soot, and he ought to have a warm bath daily +after his work. In the special clothing worn by Dutch, Belgian, and +German sweeps, and in their practice of covering the mouth with a +handkerchief, may possibly lie one explanation of their freedom from +the disease compared with English sweeps, while in the use of the daily +bath there assuredly lies protection.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>Acts of Parliament relating to the Employment of Boys in the Sweeping +of Chimneys in England:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>George III.</i>, 28, <i>chap.</i> 48 (1788).—To compel the +masters to provide proper clothes for the climbing boys and to +cause the boys to be washed and cleaned from the soot and dirt +at least once a week. Also that the boys shall attend public +worship on the Lord’s Day, on which day they are not to wear +their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_813">[813]</span> sweeping clothes. The masters are not permitted to take +more than six apprentices at one time, and no apprentice of less +than eight years of age.</p> + +<p><i>William IV.</i>, 4 and 5, <i>chap.</i> 34–35 (1834).—The age +of the apprentices is not to be less than ten years.</p> + +<p><i>Victoria</i>, 3 and 4, <i>chap.</i> 85 (1840).—To provide +that from and after July 1, 1842, no sweep under the age of +twenty-one years shall climb a chimney, and that no apprentice +of less than sixteen years shall be taken.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><i>Manufacture and Use of Emery Wheels.</i></h3> + +<p>Emery wheels are used for grinding steel goods, knife and fork +smoothing, etc. A large proportion of the wheels run in this country +are imported from the Continent and from America, but many are +made at home. When serving on the Dangerous Trades Committee I had +the opportunity of inspecting their manufacture in Manchester and +elsewhere. The Departmental Committee was invited to report upon emery +wheels,<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> less on account of danger to health in their manufacture +than their breakage when running at great speed, and of their +splinters, which are hurled with great force, dealing sad havoc in a +crowded factory. The wheels are made from crushed emery stone. Emery +rock,<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> which is imported from Smyrna or from the Island of Naxos, +is an anhydrous oxide of aluminium with a large percentage of flint, +silica, and iron. In Canada a similar kind of wheel is made from a +stone called corundum, which, while quite as hard as emery, is also an +oxide of aluminium. The rock in either instance is crushed by means of +heavy rollers into a very fine powder, which is sifted and then blown +by a fan into a dust chamber, where it is collected. A considerable +amount of dust is generated at this particular stage, but as the +processes are conducted in encased machinery there is little or no risk +to the workmen who superintend the crushing of the rock. Nor did it +appear to me that any risk to health was incurred by the men who built +up the emery wheels. These are made of crushed emery rock, with such +binding substances as shellac, indiarubber, oil, sulphur, and silicate +of soda, all pressed together in a mould under great hydraulic power. +Into some of the wheels brass wire webbing is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_814">[814]</span> inserted, so that in the +event of one of them breaking when running there would be less chance +of the whole wheel sundering.</p> + +<p>The danger commences during the running of emery wheels, a circumstance +that can be readily imagined when it is known that a small wheel of 3 +inches in diameter will often make as many as 7400 revolutions in a +minute, and a large one, 3 feet in diameter, 600.</p> + +<p>The Departmental Committee recommended that guards should be used in +connection with the running of emery and corundum wheels. These should +cover as much of the wheel as possible without interfering with the +operations of the workman. During grinding a considerable amount of +dust is given off. A suction pipe and fan should therefore be provided +to draw the dust away from the face of the workman. Mr Archibald +Newlands, H.M. Inspector of Factories, has invented a guard which not +only protects the workmen from portions of broken emery wheel, should +such an accident happen, but is so arranged as to aspirate and remove +by suction the dust that is generated. In addition to the mineral and +metallic dust that is given off during the operation of grinding, +sparks are sometimes thrown off which might injure the eyes of the +workman, hence the necessity for powerful suction.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_815">[815]</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER LX<br> +<span class="subhed">OCCUPATION DISEASES DUE TO EXCESSIVELY REPEATED MUSCULAR ACTIONS.</span></h2></div> + + +<h3><i>Fatigue Neuroses: Scriveners’ Spasm, or Writers’ Palsy.</i></h3> + +<p>Under the head of occupation or fatigue neuroses it is customary to +include affections characterised by spasm or paralysis of the muscles +which prevent the individual performing certain muscular actions, by +means of which he has hitherto earned his livelihood. The affection is +met with in various occupations, usually, but not always, in those in +which delicate movements—as, for example, those of the fingers—are +required; hence as writing is one of the commonest of this class of +occupations, it occurs as writers’ palsy. Accompanying the spasm or +sudden contraction of the muscles that takes place, there is frequently +pain, but there may be pain without spasm. Gowers, in his <i>Diseases +of the Nervous System</i>, speaks of a motor and a sensory, or a +spasmodic and neuralgic, form of scriveners’ palsy. Seventy years ago +the affection was first described by Sir Charles Bell. The infirmity +affects males oftener than females, and the weakness shows itself +mostly between twenty and thirty years of age. While the repeated +muscular movements required in writing become through fatigue the cause +of the loss of power, there are other circumstances in operation, +notably the inheritance of a weak nervous system, family worries, and +financial difficulties. Excessive use of tobacco and intemperance in +alcohol also favour its development. Since over-use of the muscles +is a cause of the palsy, the malady naturally occurs in those people +who earn their living by writing, <i>e.g.</i> clerks, copying-clerks +particularly, and it would seem to be caused less by the amount than +by the manner of writing. Steel pens have been blamed for causing +scriveners’ palsy, because they have to be grasped more firmly and +adjusted more exactly than quills. Doubtless the malady has become +more general since their introduction, but the disease was previously +not unknown in persons who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_816">[816]</span> only used quills. Besides, the number of +people who are employed as clerks is greater now than formerly, and the +conditions of life have materially altered. Quick writers do not suffer +so much as slow and laborious toilers of the pen, owing to the greater +range of their muscular movements. Sharp-pointed pens are more liable +to cause paralysis than stub-pointed, because they have to be held more +tightly, and require more and finer muscular adjustments.</p> + +<p>Once the malady is established, it is when any muscular effort is +made that the defect is observed. An individual, for example, may +feel nothing wrong with his hand until he begins to write, and then +the muscles that control the movements of the fingers are thrown into +a state of involuntary spasm, or there is pain which prevents him +writing. I have at present under my care a schoolmaster whose right +arm is perfectly still, and its muscular movements normal, until he +attempts to write. In the middle of writing a word the fingers will +be unexpectedly thrown into a state of spasm, so that the pen is more +firmly gripped than before, and yet he is unable to lift the pen off, +or move it further on the paper. He has no difficulty in writing on +the blackboard owing to the wider range of muscular movements of the +elbow and shoulder. In scriveners’ cramp there may be, in addition to +spasm and pain, violent tremor, or there may be what is still rarer, +actual paralysis. When the muscles during the act of writing are thrown +suddenly into a state of spasm, the individual is conscious that he +is grasping the pen too tightly, but he cannot help it. Any voluntary +attempt to relax his hold of the pen makes no difference so far as his +ability to finish the writing is concerned. The act is accomplished +slowly: the letters and figures which he makes are irregular, while +the handwriting resembles that which is attempted by a person riding +in a jolting carriage or on the railway. The power of writing may +be lost gradually or quickly. The presence of spasm either prevents +the individual writing at all, or if the spasm is intermittent and +accompanied by tremor, the handwriting is jerky and rather illegible. +It is the attitude assumed by the muscles in the act of writing that +induces tremor, for where no effort is made there are no tremulous +movements. It is an interesting fact too, as showing how the affection +is limited to a distinct group of muscles concerned in a particular +act, that while a person who is the subject of scriveners’ palsy +cannot write, he may be able to paint quite well or even to print +various letters and words. The grasp of the affected hand is usually +unimpaired, or there is just<span class="pagenum" id="Page_817">[817]</span> the slightest loss of power. In grasping +the affected hand in scriveners’ spasm, I have noticed that if there is +prolonged contraction of the muscles concerned in grasping, the act is +sufficient to bring on tremor. The muscles of the fingers seem to be +incapable of sustaining any effort without being thrown into a state of +spasm or tremor. If there is any atrophy or loss of muscle substance +it is generally slight. Usually there is very little alteration in +the response of the nerves and muscles to electrical stimulation. In +some persons it is increased, in others it is diminished. The patients +complain of the arm and hand feeling tired, and of a general sense of +languor and fatigue to which they have hitherto been strangers. They +are easily fatigued and retire to rest early, for they feel the need +of repose, and are conscious of the benefit that comes from it. Their +general health remains on the whole good. They are, however, apt to +suffer in consequence if they are unable to take their accustomed +out-of-door exercise, and there is a degree of mental depression that +comes from the disablement caused by their infirmity. The individual +feels that he cannot earn his living as he used to, and so he worries. +It is not that he is overcome by pain, although in some instances this +is acute and of a severe neuralgic character, especially in the muscles +of the thumb, the finger, and the forearm. It is mental anxiety that +drags him down.</p> + +<p>Various theories have been put forward to explain writers’ palsy. +According to Gowers these are—(1) weakness of groups of muscles with +over-action of antagonists; (2) a reflex spasm due to stimulation +of the sensory nerves in writing; (3) structural changes in those +particular parts of the central nervous system that superintend the +muscular movements concerned in this act. Writing is an acquired act +learned by education, and it never becomes automatic. We require to +concentrate our attention while writing, and so the fatigue is really +as much, if not more, cerebral than muscular. Each of the above +theories has its supporters, but it is difficult to make any one of +them harmonise with all the facts. My own belief is that the malady is +primarily central rather than peripheral. Spasm is one of the initial +facts in the illness, and in writers’ palsy, as in all occupation +neuroses, spasm and paresis overtake those muscles that have been +trained to accomplish particular movements, especially movements of +a complicated and delicate character. Altered nutrition of cerebral +nerve centres is in all probability responsible for the defective +muscular movements, while any pain that is felt is due<span class="pagenum" id="Page_818">[818]</span> to compression +of the sensory nerve endings in the muscles during spasm. If there is +any structural alteration in the nerve fibres it must be slight. This +indicates that we are not dealing with a neuritis but a functional +condition of the nerve fibres, such as occurs in neuralgia. Although +the primary seat of the trouble is probably located in the cortex of +the brain, there is a marked absence of headache and of impairment of +intelligence. A recent author has thrown out a hint that, in cases of +great nervous exhaustion and extreme fatigue, in which during life no +physical signs of disease of any organs can be detected, and in which +after death no gross structural changes are found, the cause in all +probability resides in some obscure pathological condition of the large +nerve cells in the cortex or grey matter of the brain. It is to such a +condition that we are disposed to look for an explanation of the early +symptoms of writers’ palsy.</p> + +<p>Scriveners’ spasm <i>per se</i> is distinguished from the inability to +write that is observed, for example, in hemiplegic patients who have +had an apoplectic stroke, by its history, the limited extent of the +spasm and loss of power.</p> + +<p>So long as the individual, the subject of scriveners’ spasm, insists +upon writing, the more pronounced does his difficulty become. He must +give up writing for a lengthened period if he wishes to get well. +Should he, however, persist in following his occupation, the weakness +may extend to other muscles, and he will then be thrown further +<i>hors-de-combat</i>, a circumstance that will only tend to deepen +still further his mental depression and make him more anxious with +regard to his future. Feeling himself baffled, he may educate himself +to write with his other hand, but in time this too may become affected. +More than that, when he attempts to write with his left hand tremors +may be induced in his right. In one of my patients a sudden involuntary +act, such as sneezing or yawning, will sometimes induce violent tremor +of the affected arm when the muscles are perfectly still. Absolute rest +from the use of the pen and freedom from all worry are necessary to +establish a cure, which unfortunately is readily broken by too early +return to work.</p> + +<p><i>Prevention and Treatment.</i>—All are agreed that the less cramped +the handwriting and the more that shoulder muscular movement can be +brought into operation, the less is the likelihood of scriveners’ +spasm arising. Writing is a matter of education, hence children +should be taught to use the muscles of the arm more freely. Pens +should not be too fine-pointed if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_819">[819]</span> much writing is to be done, while +the encircling of the lower part of the penholder by indiarubber +obviates to some extent the necessity for taking too firm a grip of +the pen. Lewis (<i>Twentieth Century Pract. Medicine</i>, vol. iii., +p. 471) recommends that the pen should be held between the index +and middle fingers, as this requires less muscular effort than the +ordinary method, but at the best it must be admitted that this is an +awkward position, and although initial difficulties can be overcome by +education, it is still doubtful whether the muscular movement required +under those circumstances is, after all, so very much less. Quills +and stylographs may be substituted for steel pens, and, as already +mentioned, the non-affected hand may be taught to write. Type for hand +writing might be substituted, since this brings a new set of muscles +into play, and the movements are not so fatiguing. Once symptoms of the +malady begin to show themselves, absolute cessation of all handwriting +is necessary. The work should cease at once, for it is in the early +stages that rest is beneficial and a cure possible.</p> + +<p>Internally, nervine tonics may be administered. Drugs as a rule do only +a limited amount of good. I have got the best results from arsenic and +bromides. Strychnine is recommended by some. If there is much pain +such sedatives as morphia or belladonna may be required, but their use +should be avoided as far as possible. Electricity, too, is worthy of a +trial, especially in the voltaic rather than the faradic form, combined +with massage or rubbing.</p> + + +<h3><i>Telegraphists’ Spasm, or Cramp.</i></h3> + +<p><i>Mal télégraphique</i>, or telegraphic spasm, was first described by +Onimus, a Frenchman, in 1875; by Robinson in this country in 1882; and +by Fulton in 1884, who described in detail the movements involved in +the use of the Morse instrument. Twenty-five years ago the disease was +a rarity. In the succeeding decade it was pretty prevalent. Probably +it is now less frequent, owing to the telephone having been in many +instances substituted for the telegraph. Dr Vivian Poore (Allbutt’s +<i>System of Medicine</i>, vol. viii., p. 131) examined 400 cases +of professional ailments, but he only found two patients who were +telegraphists, and they had worked the Morse instrument. Telegraphists’ +spasm differs in no material way from what has been described as +writers’ palsy. Since it is to working the Morse machine that the +largest number of cases of telegraphists’ cramp has been traced, it is +necessary to remind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_820">[820]</span> the reader that the Morse alphabet is composed +of a series of dots and dashes, and that the transmitting instrument +consists of a lever surmounted at one end with a knob, which when +depressed by the hand of the operator makes an electrical connection +with, or completes the electrical circuit between, the transmitting +apparatus at one end of the telegraph wire and the receiving apparatus +at the other. On each occasion that the lever is brought down by +the hand of the operator, and an electrical connection is made, a +bar of soft iron in the receiving instrument becomes magnetised and +attracts an armature which is fastened at one end of a lever, while +an inscribing point at the other end reproduces on a slip of ribbon +or paper, kept moving by clockwork, the dots and dashes made by the +transmitter. As the knob is generally held between the thumb, index, +and middle fingers of the right hand, the elbow meanwhile being +supported, it is clear that most of the movement is made by the +extensor and flexor muscles of the fingers and of the wrists, including +the adductor and opposing muscles of the thumb. Since each letter, +with the exception of <i>E</i>, which is a single dot, and <i>T</i> a +single dash, consists of more than one dot or dash, while some require +as many as four, the amount of sustained and co-ordinated movement +is necessarily very great, and as the transmission is generally very +rapidly effected, the operation when repeated for a great length of +time, as in the transmission of speeches delivered in Parliament, must +be followed by a considerable amount of fatigue. Fulton calculated +that an operator might make between thirty and forty thousand muscular +contractions in one hour, and since many telegraphists work eight hours +a day, the strain on their muscles is necessarily very great. While the +excessive use of tobacco and alcohol doubtless favours the development +of telegraphists’ spasm, as of other occupation neuroses, there is +not the least doubt that cerebral fatigue and muscular overstrain +are the causes of it. In America, men have not been found to be more +predisposed to it than women, or <i>vice versâ</i>. Once the symptoms +of the malady have shown themselves, an operator when transmitting a +message may be suddenly seized with muscular cramp, so that his hand +cannot be quickly enough raised, and in consequence of this involuntary +spasm, the pressure on the lever by the fingers is so long maintained +that what ought to have been dots become dashes, or he transmits dots +and dashes in such an abnormal sequence that the message received reads +quite differently to that which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_821">[821]</span> it was intended to send. Mistakes +of this kind have a distressing mental effect upon the operator, and +they tend still further to derange the functional activity of his +nervous system. There may be tremor of the hand as well as cramp of +the muscles, but pain as a rule is absent. The muscles respond to +electrical tests and do not waste to any extent. A telegraphist feeling +that the muscular spasms are unfitting him for his daily duties may +train his other hand to do the work. Conscious that by this means he +will retain his appointment, he becomes more cheerful, and is able to +rise to some extent above his infirmity. Whenever possible, such an +individual should have a lengthy respite from his labours, for muscular +rest is of very great importance. The treatment of telegraphists’ spasm +is the same as that described under writers’ palsy. Prevention is +better than cure. Learners are encouraged to practise with both hands, +and as a consequence of this ambidexterity, not only are the cases +becoming fewer every year, but they are seen and treated earlier by the +Post Office Medical Attendants, whose experience is, that by causing +the patients to desist there and then from keying for a few months +recovery invariably follows. After all, it is but a small percentage of +telegraphists who have “spasm,” probably not more than 1.3 per 1000.</p> + + +<h3><i>Pianoforte Players’ Cramp, etc.</i></h3> + +<p>Pianoforte players’ cramp affects principally professionals, women more +frequently than men. Like the infirmities mentioned in the preceding +pages, there is muscular spasm, which may or may not be associated with +pain. If the cramp is painful the individual cannot go on playing. +Usually the spasm affects one or more of the fingers.</p> + +<p>Spasmodic muscular contraction is also met with in <i>violin +players</i>, in <i>violincellists</i> especially in the fingers of the +left hand that are brought down upon the strings of the instrument, +and in <i>seamstresses</i>, in whom once the affection is developed +any attempt at sewing is followed by cramp of the fingers, so that +sewing becomes impossible. Seamstresses’ cramp bears a resemblance to +shoemakers’ spasm mentioned a little further on.</p> + +<p>Spasms of various trades have been described, <i>e.g.</i>, +<i>type-setters’</i>, <i>milkers’</i> spasm, which is said to occur +in the cowherds of the Tyrol, and <i>hammermen’s</i> spasm. Workers +in almost any trade, but especially those trades in which excessive +muscular effort is combined<span class="pagenum" id="Page_822">[822]</span> with mental concentration, are liable +to spasmodic seizures such as have been described, and to which in a +general way the remarks already made on prevention and treatment may be +said to apply.</p> + + +<h3><i>Shoemakers’ Spasm.</i></h3> + +<p>In Vienna and Heidelberg there have occurred on several occasions +epidemics of “idiopathic tetany.” Tetany is a disease characterised by +muscular spasms involving the hands and feet, and sometimes, too, the +muscles of the trunk, the face, neck, eyes, and larynx. Of 399 cases +of idiopathic tetany collected by Frankl-Hochwart, 174 occurred in +shoemakers and 95 in tailors, mostly between the ages of sixteen and +twenty-five years. The epidemics have generally prevailed during the +months of March and April. Risien Russell, who alludes to this subject +in Allbutt’s <i>System of Medicine</i>, vol. viii., p. 51, says that +probably some general toxic condition is in operation. If so, then +idiopathic tetany would be caused by something on, or in, the thread +that is used, since this material is common to the two occupations, +and the illness should therefore be regarded as accidental, and not as +incidental, to either the trade of the shoemaker or the tailor.</p> + + +<h3><i>Boot and Shoe Making.</i></h3> + +<p>The last few decades have witnessed great changes in many trades that +were formerly conducted as home industries, but perhaps in none more +than in boot and shoe making. A few years ago it was no uncommon thing +to find a cobbler working alone in his home, or in a small shop, +assisted by one or two workmen. All boots and shoes were then handmade, +the leather being cut and the pieces sewn together on the premises, +so that a completely finished article was turned out by one person. +The application of machinery has changed all this. It has flooded +the market with ready-made boots and shoes, which, since they can +be made more quickly, and in larger numbers, are cheaper than those +made by hand, although not so enduring. In boot and shoe making, as +in all factory production, subdivision of labour prevails. To one man +is assigned the guidance of a machine which cuts the “uppers” or the +“soles” of the shoes; another stitches the uppers, or “closes” them; +while to yet another is given the harder task of “making” the shoe, +<i>i.e.</i>, of attaching the soles to the uppers. The extent to which +machinery has already<span class="pagenum" id="Page_823">[823]</span> displaced handmade boots and shoes is depriving +us of a class of workman who was capable of doing all that machinery +now accomplishes, only he required much longer time. In rural districts +cobblers will still be required, but their occupation in the future +will be that of boot-menders rather than of boot-makers.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" id="i_p823" style="max-width: 328px"> + <img + class="p1" + src="images/i_p823.jpg" + alt=""> + <p class="p0 sm hangingindent"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—Shoemakers’ Chest: showing great +recession of lower part of Chest, due to pressure of the last. (Dr +Oliver’s patient, Newcastle Royal Infirmary.)</p> + </div> + +<p>In reproducing the accompanying picture of one of my patients—a +shoemaker—who was in the Newcastle-upon-Tyne<span class="pagenum" id="Page_824">[824]</span> Infirmary, I am wishful +to give some literary permanence to a deformity which was very +prevalent in workers in the trade a few years ago, a deformity known +by the name of shoemakers’ chest, and which, as time goes on, will +probably cease to exist. At his work the old type of shoemaker would +sit on a low bench, with his thighs and knees tightly drawn towards +each other, clasping the last with the boot upon it. His trunk would +be bent down over his work, so that during the act of stitching and +drawing the waxen threads through the holes made by his awl in the +leather, his arms would be forcibly separated from his sides in order +to tighten each stitch, while any beneficial expansion of the chest +that this movement created was unfavourably counterbalanced by the +increased pressure of the last upon his chest bone. As a consequence of +this repeated pressure applied to the front of the chest, especially +on younger men, the chest bone and ribs were driven in so as to form +a deep hollow, such as is depicted in the lower part of the chest in +the illustration (Fig. 89). The work, too, was sedentary, consequently +the men suffered from indigestion, constipation, and piles, the latter +being often aggravated by excessive indulgence in alcohol, to which +shoemakers as a class were much addicted. It has sometimes been stated +that they also suffered from cancer more than men engaged in other +trades, but it is difficult from available statistics to prove or +disprove this.</p> + +<p>In modern boot factories, instead of the “uppers” being stitched to the +“soles,” they are often riveted. When bootmaking is carried on by this +process at home, the workman is often found sitting in the attitude of +the shoemaker described higher up. During the act of burnishing and +filing the rough edges of the boot, there is a considerable degree of +pressure exercised by the heel against the front of the chest. In the +bootmaking trade the men who cut out and shape the leather to be made +up are known by the name of “clickers.”</p> + +<p>Shoemakers formerly suffered from bronchitis and pulmonary phthisis +in fairly large numbers, but much of this was due to the sedentary +character of their occupation, their want of exercise in the open +air, and their intemperate habits. The introduction of machinery, and +the bringing of shoemaking under the Factory Acts, may to some extent +effect an improvement in the health of shoemakers, but in many of the +factories which I have visited, and where large numbers of persons are +employed, the overheated rooms in which the work is carried on and +the vitiated atmosphere rather predispose the workpeople to pulmonary +catarrh,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_825">[825]</span> and tend to make the women anæmic. In addition, mercurial +poisoning has been known to occur in the men employed in shoemaking +factories, whose duty it is to mind the American or Blake machines. The +mercury is placed in a well in the machine, to act as a lubricant, and +as the metal is extremely volatile, poisoning may readily arise.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Thomas Oliver.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_827">[827]</span></p> + +<h2>APPENDIX</h2> +</div> + +<h3>SPECIAL RULES</h3> + + +<p>Nearly a century ago, the necessity for legislation designed to protect +workers in textile factories was realised. In the year 1802 an Act was +passed for the Preservation of Health and Morals of Apprentices and +others employed in cotton mills. The statutes of 1833 and 1845 brought +under inspection the manufacture of several materials other than +cotton and wool. Subsequent Acts regulated employment in print works, +bleaching and dye works, and the manufacture of lace; but the Acts +passed in 1864 and 1867—afterwards embodied in the Act of 1878 (the +principal Act)—practically included almost every occupation in the +country.</p> + +<p>It soon became apparent that no definite clauses in any statute, +however carefully drafted and considered, could afford satisfactory +protection to health, life, and limb, in manifold and varied +industries, found not only in the large centres of manufacture, but +in almost every village or country district where a stream could be +found for driving water-wheels of corn-mills, scutch-mills, cutlery +grinding-hulls, wood-turning shops, etc., etc. Philanthropists, +medical men, scientists, trade-unionists, poor-law guardians, managers +of sick clubs, called for further protection to workers engaged in +dangerous trades, and for the remedy (as far as was possible) of the +evils arising from inhalation of injurious dusts and fumes, contact +with poisonous, chemical, and mineral substances, manufacture of white +lead, and the smelting and handling of blue lead. They pointed to +“brass-casters’ ague”; to the deadly disease known as “phossy jaw,” +prevalent amongst operatives in match-works, where yellow or white +phosphorus is used; to plumbism amongst pottery workers and hand +file-cutters; to potters’ and metal grinders’ lung ailments; and to +many other diseases of occupation too numerous to be here mentioned.</p> + +<p>The Factory Act of 1891 provided in sections 8, 9, 10, and 11, what +was universally accepted as a legal remedy based upon principles +of humanity, moderation, and common sense. Power<span class="pagenum" id="Page_828">[828]</span> was given to the +Secretary of State to frame special rules and requirements as to +dangerous and unhealthy incidents of employment, the Act stating that—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“(1) Where the Secretary of State certifies that in his opinion +any machinery, or process or particular description of manual +labour used in a factory or workshop (other than a domestic +workshop), is dangerous or injurious to health, or dangerous +to life or limb, either generally, or in the case of women, +children, or any other class of persons, or that the provision +for the admission of fresh air is not sufficient, or that the +quantity of dust generated or inhaled in any factory or workshop +is dangerous or injurious to health, the Chief Inspector may +serve on the occupier of the factory or workshop a notice in +writing, either proposing such special rules, or requiring +the adoption of such special measures as appear to the Chief +Inspector to be reasonably practicable, and to meet the +necessities of the case.</p> + +<p>“(2) Unless, within twenty-one days after receipt of the notice, +the occupier serves on the Chief Inspector a notice in writing +that he objects to the rules or the requirement, the rules shall +be established, or, as the case may be, the requirement shall be +observed.</p> + +<p>“(3) If the notice of objection suggests any modification of the +rules or requirement, the Secretary of State shall consider the +suggestion, and may assent thereto, with or without any further +modification, which may be agreed on between the Secretary +of State and the occupier, and thereupon the rules shall be +established, or, as the case may be, the requirement shall be +observed, subject to such modification.</p> + +<p>“(4) If the Secretary of State does not assent to any objection +or modification suggested, as aforesaid, by the occupier, the +matter in difference between the Secretary of State and the +occupier shall be referred to arbitration under this Act, +and the date of the receipt of the notice of this objection +by the Secretary of State shall be deemed to be the date of +the reference, and the rules shall be established, or the +requisition shall have effect, as settled by an award or +arbitration.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Penalties were provided for the contravention of special rules duly +established. Schedule 1 of the Act of 1891 described in minute detail +the methods of procedure when arbitration had to be resorted to.</p> + +<p>The list of trades scheduled as “Dangerous Trades,” together with the +series of special rules legally instituted, is appended. This list +can hardly fail to be of interest, seeing that the rules were framed +after most exhaustive and careful inquiry by experts and scientists, +whose opinions commanded respect. Year by year the practical good done +by this legislation is more fully realised, but the test of time has +shown the necessity for reconsideration of those clauses which relate +to arbitration, and proposals to meet a now recognised difficulty are +found in the Factory Bill read for the first time in the House of +Commons on Thursday, 28th March 1901.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_829">[829]</span></p> + +<p>Sections 79 to 86 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, contain +Amended Regulations as to Dangerous Trades, chiefly as to methods of +procedure in making such regulations.</p> + +<p class="smcap r2 p-min">Hamilton P. Smith.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 247<span class="allsmcap">C</span>.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">WHITE LEAD FACTORIES.</p> + +<p><i>In these Rules “person employed in a lead process” means a person +who is employed in any work or process involving exposure to white +lead, or to lead or lead compounds used in its manufacture, or who +is admitted to any room or part of the factory where such process is +carried on.</i></p> + +<p><i>Any approval given by the Chief Inspector of Factories in pursuance +of Rules 2, 4, 6, 9, or 12 shall be given in writing, and may at any +time be revoked by notice in writing signed by him.</i></p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>New Works.</i>—On and after 1st July 1899, no part of a white +lead factory shall be constructed, structurally altered, or newly used, +for any process in which white lead is manufactured or prepared for +sale, unless the plans have previously been submitted to and approved +in writing by the Chief Inspector of Factories.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Stacks.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Every stack shall be provided with a +standpipe and movable hose, and an adequate supply of water distributed +by a rose.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>White Beds.</i>—Every white bed shall, on the removal of +the covering boards, be effectually damped by the means mentioned above.</p> + +<p>Where it is shown to the satisfaction of the Chief Inspector of +Factories that there is no available public water service in the +district, it shall be a sufficient compliance with this Rule if each +white bed is, on the removal of the covering boards, effectually damped +by means of a watering can.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Chamber Process.</i>—Where white lead is made by the Chamber +Process, the chamber shall be kept moist while the process is in +operation, and the corrosions shall be effectually moistened before the +chamber is emptied.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Corrosions.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Corrosions shall not be carried +except in trays of impervious material.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) No person shall be allowed to carry on his head or shoulder +a tray of corrosions which has been allowed to rest directly upon the +corrosions, or upon any surface where there is white lead.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) All corrosions, before being put into the rollers or +washbecks, shall be effectually damped, either by dipping the tray +containing them in a trough of water, or by some other method approved +by the Chief Inspector of Factories.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Rollers.</i>—The flooring round the rollers shall either be +of smooth cement or be covered with sheet lead, and shall be kept +constantly moist.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Drying Stoves.</i>—On and after 1st January 1901, except as +hereinafter provided—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>a</i>) Every stove shall have a window, or windows, with a +total area of not less than 8 square feet, made to open, and so +placed as to admit of effectual through ventilation.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>b</i>) In no stove shall bowls be placed on a rack which is +more than 10 feet from the floor.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>c</i>) Each bowl shall rest upon the rack and not upon +another bowl.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_830">[830]</span></p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>d</i>) No stove shall be entered for the purpose of drawing +until the temperature at a height of 5 feet from the floor has +fallen either to 70° F., or to a point not more than 10° F. +above the temperature of the air outside.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>e</i>) In drawing any stove or part of a stove there shall +not be more than one stage or standing place above the level of +the floor.</p> +</div> + +<p>Provided that if the Chief Inspector approves of any other means of +ventilating a stove, as allowing of effectual through ventilation, such +means may be adopted, notwithstanding paragraph (<i>a</i>) of this +Rule; and if he approves of any other method of setting and drawing +the stoves, as effectually preventing white lead from falling upon +any worker, such method may be followed, notwithstanding paragraphs +(<i>b</i>) and (<i>e</i>) of this Rule.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Drawing Dutch Stoves.</i>—No person shall be employed in drawing +Dutch stoves on more than two days in any week.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Deposits of dry white lead.</i>—No dry white lead shall be +deposited in any place that is not provided either with a cover or with +a fan effectually removing the dust from the worker.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Packing.</i>—On and after 1st January 1900, the packing of +dry white lead shall be done only under conditions which secure the +effectual removal of dust, either by exhaust fans or by other efficient +means approved in each case by the Chief Inspector of Factories.</p> + +<p>This rule shall not apply where packing is effected by mechanical means +entirely closed in.</p> + +<p>10. The floor of any place where packing of dry white lead is carried +on shall be of cement, or of stone set in cement.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Employment of Women.</i>—No women shall be employed or allowed +in the white beds, rollers, washbecks, or stoves, or any place where +dry white lead is packed, or in other work exposing her to white lead +dust.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Weekly Medical Examination.</i>—(<i>a</i>) A duly qualified +medical practitioner (in these Rules referred to as the “Appointed +Surgeon”) shall be appointed by the occupier for each factory, such +appointment to be subject to the approval of the Chief Inspector.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) No person shall be employed in a lead process for more than +a week without a certificate of fitness granted after examination by +the Appointed Surgeon.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Every person employed in a lead process shall be examined +once a week by the Appointed Surgeon, who shall have power to order +suspension from employment in any place or process.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) No person after such suspension shall be employed in a lead +process without the written sanction of the Appointed Surgeon.</p> + +<p><i>Health Register.</i>—(<i>e</i>) A register in a form approved by +the Chief Inspector of Factories shall be kept, and shall contain a +list of all persons employed in lead processes. The Appointed Surgeon +will enter in the register the dates and results of his examinations +of the persons employed, and particulars of any directions given by +him. The register shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. +Inspectors of Factories, or by the Certifying Surgeon, or by the +Appointed Surgeon.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Medical Attendance.</i>—Upon any person employed in a lead +process complaining of being unwell, the occupier shall, with the +least possible delay, give an order upon a duly qualified medical +practitioner.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Respirators, Overalls, Head Coverings.</i>—The occupier shall +provide and maintain sufficient and suitable respirators, overalls, and +head coverings, and shall cause them to be worn as directed in Rule 29.</p> + +<p>At the end of every day’s work they shall be collected and kept in +proper custody in a suitable place set apart for the purpose.</p> + +<p>They shall be thoroughly washed or renewed every week; and those which +have been used in the stoves, and all respirators, shall be washed or +renewed daily.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_831">[831]</span></p> + +<p>15. <i>Dining-room, Cloak-room.</i>—The occupier shall provide and +maintain a dining-room and cloak-room in which workers can deposit +clothing put off during working hours.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Food.</i>—No person employed in a lead process shall be allowed +to prepare or partake of any food or drink except in the dining-room or +kitchen.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Sanitary Drink.</i>—A supply of a suitable sanitary drink, to +be approved by the Appointed Surgeon, shall be kept for the use of the +workers.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Lavatory.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain a +lavatory for the use of the workers, with soap, nail brushes, and at +least one lavatory basin for every five persons employed. Each such +basin shall be fitted with a waste pipe. There shall be a constant +supply of hot and cold water laid on, except where there is no +available public water service, in which case the provision of hot and +cold water shall be such as shall satisfy the Inspector in charge of +the district.</p> + +<p>The lavatory shall be thoroughly cleaned and supplied with clean towels +after every meal.</p> + +<p>There shall, in addition, be means of washing in close proximity to the +workers of each department, if required by notice in writing from the +Inspector in charge of the district.</p> + +<p>There shall be facilities, to the satisfaction of the Inspector in +charge of the district, for the workers to wash out their mouths.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Allowance of time for Washing.</i>—Before each meal, and before +the end of the day’s work, at least ten minutes in addition to the +regular meal times shall be allowed to each worker for washing.</p> + +<p>A notice to this effect shall be affixed in each department.</p> + +<p>20. <i>Baths.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain sufficient +baths and dressing-rooms for all persons employed in lead processes, +with hot and cold water, soap, and towels, and shall cause each such +person to take a bath once a week at the factory.</p> + +<p><i>Bath Register.</i>—A bath register shall be kept, containing a list +of all persons employed in lead processes, and an entry of the date +when each person takes a bath.</p> + +<p>This register shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. +Inspectors of Factories, or by the Certifying Surgeon, or by the +Appointed Surgeon.</p> + +<p>21. The dressing-rooms, baths, and w.c.’s shall be cleaned daily.</p> + +<p>22. <i>Cleaning Floors.</i>—The floor of each workroom shall be +cleaned daily, after being thoroughly damped.</p> + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Corrosions.</i>—No person shall strip a white bed or empty a +chamber without previously effectually damping as directed in Rules 2 +and 3.</p> + +<p>24. No person shall carry corrosions, or put them into the rollers or +washbecks, otherwise than as permitted by Rule 4.</p> + +<p>25. <i>Stoves.</i>—No person shall set or draw a stove otherwise than +as permitted by Rules 6 and 7.</p> + +<p>26. <i>Packing.</i>—No person shall deposit or pack dry white lead +otherwise than as permitted by Rules 8 and 9.</p> + +<p>27. <i>Weekly Medical Examination.</i>—Every person employed in a lead +process shall present himself at the appointed times for examination by +the Appointed Surgeon, as provided in Rule 12.</p> + +<p>28. No person after suspension by the Appointed Surgeon shall work in a +lead process without his written sanction.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Respirators, Overalls, Head Coverings.</i>—Every person engaged +in—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>White beds,</li> + <li>Emptying chambers,</li> + <li>Rollers, washbecks or grinding,</li> + <li>Setting or drawing stoves,</li> + <li>Packing,</li> + <li>Paint mixing,</li> + <li>Handling dry white lead,</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_832">[832]</span></p> + +<p class="p-left">or in any work involving exposure to white lead dust, +shall, while so occupied, wear an overall suit and head covering.</p> + +<p>Every person engaged in stripping white beds, or in emptying chambers, +or in drawing stoves, or in packing, shall in addition wear a +respirator while so occupied.</p> + +<p>30. <i>Washing.</i>—Every person engaged in any place or process named +in Rule 29 shall, before partaking of meals or leaving the premises, +deposit the overalls, head coverings, and respirators in the place +appointed by the occupier for the purpose, and shall thoroughly wash +face and hands in the lavatory.</p> + +<p>31. <i>Baths.</i>—Every person employed in a lead process shall take +a bath at the factory at least once a week, and wash in the lavatory +before bathing; having done so, he shall at once sign his name in the +bath register, with the date.</p> + +<p>32. <i>Food.</i>—No person employed in a lead process shall smoke or +use tobacco in any form, or partake of food or drink, elsewhere than in +the dining-room or kitchen.</p> + +<p>33. <i>Ventilation.</i>—No person shall in any way interfere, without +the knowledge and concurrence of the occupier or manager, with the +means and appliances provided for the removal of dust.</p> + +<p>34. <i>Reporting neglect of Rules.</i>—The foreman shall report to the +manager, and the manager shall report to the occupier, any instance +coming under his notice of a worker neglecting to observe these Rules.</p> + +<p>35. <i>False pretences.</i>—No person shall obtain employment under an +assumed name or under any false pretence.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="smcap">Arthur Whitelegge</li> + <li class="i3"><i>Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</li> + <li class="smcap">M. W. Ridley</li> + <li class="i3"><i>One of Her Majesty’s Principal<br>Secretaries of State</i>.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="p-left p-min">1st June 1899.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous +places in the factory to which they apply, where they may be +conveniently read by the persons employed. Any person who is +bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or acts in +contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; and in such cases +the occupier also is liable to a penalty unless he proves that +he has taken all reasonable means by publishing, and to the best +of his power enforcing the Rules, to prevent the contravention +or non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, sections 9 +and 11.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 249.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>AMENDED SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">PROCESSES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAINTS, COLOURS, AND IN THE EXTRACTION +OF ARSENIC.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>They shall provide washing conveniences, with a sufficient supply of +hot and cold water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels, and take measures +to secure that every worker wash face and hands before meals, and +before leaving the works; and, in addition to the above, sufficient +bath accommodation for the use of all persons employed in the +manufacture of Milan Red, Vermilionette, or Persian Red.</p> + +<p>They shall provide suitable respirators and overall suits, kept in a +cleanly state, for all workers engaged in any department where dry +white lead or arsenic is used in either the manufacture or paint +mixing, and overall suits for those engaged in grinding in water or +oil, and for all workers in Milan Red, Vermilionette, or Persian Red, +wherever dust is generated.</p> + +<p>They shall provide a sufficient supply of approved sanitary drink, +which shall be accessible to the workers at all times, and shall cause +such approved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_833">[833]</span> sanitary drink to be taken daily by workers in any +department where white lead or arsenic is used in the manufacture, and +shall provide a supply of aperient medicine, which shall be given to +the workers, when required, free of charge.</p> + +<p>No food shall be eaten in any part of the works where white lead or +arsenic is used in the manufacture.</p> + + +<p class="center p1 sm">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>Every person to whom is supplied a respirator or overall suit shall +wear the same when at the special work for which such are provided.</p> + +<p>Every person shall carefully clean and wash hands and face before meals +and before leaving the works.</p> + +<p>No food shall be eaten in any part of the works in which white lead or +arsenic is used in the manufacture.</p> + +<p>No person shall smoke or use tobacco in any part of the works in which +white lead or arsenic is used in the manufacture.</p> + +<p class="smcap p-min r4">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>. +</p> + +<p>Under Section 9, Factory Act, 1891, any person who is bound to observe +any special rules is liable to penalties for non-compliance with such +special rules.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 251.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES for Works, or parts of Works in which</i> LEAD, +ARSENIC, OR ANTIMONY <span class="allsmcap">IS USED IN THE</span> ENAMELLING OF IRON PLATES.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Lavatories.</i>—They shall provide washing conveniences, with +a sufficient supply of hot and cold water, soap, nail-brushes, and +towels, and take measures to secure that every worker wash face and +hands before meals and before leaving the works.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Respirators, Overalls, Head Coverings.</i>—They shall provide +suitable respirators, overall suits, and head coverings for all workers +employed in the processes of grinding, dusting, and brushing.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Dust.</i>—They shall adopt measures on and after the first day +of October, 1894, in the dusting and brushing processes for the removal +of all superfluous dust, by the use of perforated benches or tables +supplied with fans to carry the dust down through the apertures of such +benches or tables, the under part of which must be boxed in.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Sanitary Drink.</i>—They shall provide a sufficient supply of +approved sanitary drink, and shall cause the workpeople to take it.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Medical Examination.</i>—They shall arrange for a medical +inspection of all persons employed, at least once a month.</p> + +<p>They shall see that no female is employed without previous examination +and a certificate of fitness from the medical attendant of the works.</p> + +<p>They shall see that no person who has been absent from work through +illness shall be re-employed without a medical certificate to the +effect that he or she has recovered.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Medical Attendance.</i>—Upon any person employed in the works +complaining of being unwell, the occupier shall, with the least +possible delay, and at his own expense, give an order upon a doctor for +professional attendance and medicine. It is to be understood that this +rule will not apply to persons suffering from complaints which have not +been contracted in the process of manufacture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_834">[834]</span></p> + +<p>7. <i>Cloak-room.</i>—They shall provide a place or places free from +dust and damp in which the operatives can hang up the clothes in which +they do not work.</p> + +<p>(<i>It is recommended that they shall provide for each female before +the day’s work begins some light refreshment, such as a half-pint of +milk and a biscuit.</i>)</p> + + + +<p class="center p1 sm">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Respirators, Overalls, Head Coverings.</i>—Every person to whom +is supplied a respirator or overall and head covering shall wear the +same when at the work for which such are provided.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Washing.</i>—Every person shall carefully clean and wash hands +and face before meals and before leaving the works.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Food.</i>—No food shall be eaten by any person in any part of +the works except in the apartment specially provided for the purpose.</p> + +<p>11. <i>False Pretences.</i>—No person may seek employment under an +assumed name or under any false pretence.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Respirators</td> + <td class="cht" colspan="2">A good respirator is a cambric bag with or without a thin +flexible wire made to fit over the nose.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht7" rowspan="3">Sanitary drink<br>suggested</td> + <td class="cht7">Sulphate of magnesia</td> + <td class="cht7">2 oz.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Water</td> + <td class="cht">1 gallon.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Essence of lemon, sufficient to flavour.</td> + <td class="cht"></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="smcap r4">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous places +in the factory to which they apply, where they may be conveniently read +by the persons employed.</p> + +<p>Any person who is bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or +acts in contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; and in such case +the occupier also is liable to a penalty unless he proves that he has +taken all reasonable means by publishing and to the best of his power +enforcing the Rules, to prevent the contravention or non-compliance. +(Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11.)</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">THE MANUFACTURE OF EARTHENWARE AND CHINA.</p> + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. They shall provide suitable overalls and head coverings for all +female workers employed in the dipping house or dippers’ drying room, +or in any processes of ware cleaning after the dipper, glost placing, +china scouring, ground laying or majolica painting (which overalls +and head coverings shall remain the property of the employers), and +shall make arrangements for the safe custody of all overalls and head +coverings worn by their operatives, and for the safe delivery thereof +at the works every seven days to the representatives of the laundry or +wash-house which shall be selected by the operatives, for the purpose +of washing the same. They shall also provide a place in which the above +workers can deposit clothing put off during working hours.</p> + +<p>2. They shall not allow any persons to cook or partake of any food, +or to remain during meal times in the dipping house, dippers’ drying +room, china scouring room, glost placers’ shop, ground laying shop, or +majolica painting room.</p> + +<p>3. In the process of towing of earthenware, they shall use fans or +other mechanical means for the removal of all dust; in the process of +scouring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_835">[835]</span> china, they shall, as far as practicable, use mechanical or +other efficient means for the removal of flint; and in all processes +and descriptions of manual labour, they shall, as far as practicable, +adopt measures for the removal of dust, and for the prevention of any +injurious effects arising therefrom, either by the use of mechanical +fans, ventilation, or other efficient means.</p> + +<p>4. They shall provide brooms, brushes, and all other necessaries for +the daily sweeping of floors of workshops and of such stoves as are +entered by the workers; and for the cleansing of work-benches and of +stairs leading to workshops; and shall arrange that the floors of such +workshops and stoves are sprinkled and swept every working day, and the +scraps and dirt removed, and that work-benches and stairs are cleansed +at least once a week. The daily sweeping of floors of potters’ shops +shall be done after work has ceased for the day, unless there is some +sufficient reason to the contrary.</p> + +<p>5. They shall provide washing conveniences and a sufficient supply +of water, soap, and nail-brushes for all workers employed in the +dipping-house or dippers’ drying-room, or in any processes of ware +cleaning after the dipper, glost placing, china scouring, ground +laying, or majolica painting, as close as is practicable to the +workshops.</p> + +<p>6. All stoves, as well as all workshops and all parts of the factories, +shall be effectually ventilated. Regard being had to the cubic capacity +of the shops, etc., there shall be, wherever practicable, natural +ventilation by doors and windows; and careful supervision of hot air +and hot-water pipes used for heating, and of the consumption of gas. +The required ventilation shall be accomplished by mechanical or other +efficient means. The temperature of any workshop during working hours +shall not be allowed to exceed 90 degrees (Fahrenheit).</p> + + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>7. Every person employed in the places and processes enumerated in Rule +1 shall wear an overall suit or head covering when at their work, and +no such person shall remove such overall suit or head covering from the +works at which they are employed so long as they shall continue in such +employ.</p> + +<p>8. Every person employed in the places or processes enumerated in Rule +5 shall carefully clean and wash his or her hands and face before meals +and before leaving the works.</p> + +<p>9. Every person employed in dipping, carrying ware from the dipper, +cleaning ware after it has been dipped, glost placing, china scouring, +ground laying, or majolica painting, shall during the meal times leave +the shops in which those processes are carried on, and shall not cook +or eat any food therein at any time.</p> + +<p>10. The measures taken by the employers for the ventilation of the +various workrooms and stoves, and for the removal of dust, shall not be +in any way interfered with by the workpeople without the knowledge and +concurrence of the employer or manager of the works.</p> + +<p>11. Every male or female worker shall be responsible for the cleansing +of that portion of the room in which he or she is employed, and shall +see that the floors of shops and of such stoves as are entered by the +workers, are sprinkled and swept, and the dust, scraps, ashes, and dirt +be removed every day, and that the work-benches and stairs are cleansed +at least once a week. The sweeping of floors and of potters’ shops +shall be done after the working hours, unless there is some sufficient +reason to the contrary, by an adult male, employed and paid by the +workers and approved by the employer.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="smcap">R. E. Sprague Oram</li> + <li class="i3"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</li> + <li class="smcap">H. H. Asquith</li> + <li class="i3"><i>One of Her Majesty’s Principal<br>Secretaries of State</i>.</li> +</ul> +</div> + + +<p class="p-left sm">Home Office, Whitehall</p> + +<p class="p-min sm">7th September 1894.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_836">[836]</span></p> + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 254.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">THE MANUFACTURE OF EARTHENWARE AND CHINA.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Age.</i>—After 1st August 1898, no person under 14 years of age, +and after 1st August 1899, no person under 15 years of age, shall be +employed in the</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="i2">Dipping house, or Dippers’ drying room</li> + <li class="i1">or in any processes of—</li> + <li class="i2">Ware cleaning after the dipper,</li> + <li class="i2">Glost placing,</li> + <li class="i2">Colour dusting,</li> + <li class="i2">Ground laying,</li> + <li class="i2">Majolica painting,</li> + <li class="i2">Glaze blowing,</li> + <li class="i2">Transfer making, or</li> + <li class="i2">China scouring.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Monthly Examination.</i>—All women and young persons employed in +the places and processes named in Rule 1 shall be examined once a month +by the Certifying Surgeon for the District, who shall after 1st August, +1898, have power to order suspension from employment in any place or +process named in Rule 1.</p> + +<p>No person after such suspension shall be allowed to work in any of the +places or processes named in Rule 1 without the written sanction of the +Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Health Register.</i>—A register, in the form which has been +prescribed by the Secretary of State for use in earthenware and china +works, shall be kept, and in it the Certifying Surgeon will enter the +dates and results of his visits, the number of persons examined, and +particulars of any directions given by him. This register shall contain +a list of all persons employed in the places and processes named +in Rule 1, and shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. +Inspector of Factories or by the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Overalls and Head Coverings.</i>—The occupier shall provide and +maintain suitable overalls and head coverings for all women and young +persons employed in the places and processes named in Rule 1.</p> + +<p>All overalls and head coverings shall be kept (see form 254*) in proper +custody, and all overalls shall be washed at least once a week, and +suitable arrangements shall be made for carrying out these requirements.</p> + +<p>A suitable place shall be provided in which the above workers can +deposit clothing put off during working hours.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall be allowed to prepare or partake of +any food or drink, or to remain during meal times, in the dipping house +or dippers’ drying room, or in a place in which is carried on any +process named in Rule 1.</p> + +<p>The occupier shall make suitable provision to the reasonable +satisfaction of the Inspector in charge of the district for the +accommodation during meal times of persons employed in such places or +processes (see form 254*).</p> + +<p>6. <i>Dust.</i>—After 1st January 1899, the process of—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>Towing of earthenware,</li> + <li>China scouring,</li> + <li>Ground laying,</li> + <li>Colour dusting,</li> + <li>Glaze blowing, or</li> + <li>Transfer making,</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="p-left">shall not be carried on without the use of exhaust fans for the +effectual removal of dust (see form 254*).</p> + +<p>In the process of ware cleaning after the dipper, exhaust fans shall be +used, or arrangements made for the dust to fall into water.</p> + +<p>In all processes the occupier shall, as far as practicable, adopt +efficient measures for the removal of dust and for the prevention of +any injurious effects arising therefrom.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Ventilation.</i>—All drying stoves as well as all workshops +and all parts of factories shall be effectually ventilated to the +reasonable satisfaction of the Inspector in charge of the District.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_837">[837]</span></p> + +<p>8. <i>Lavatories.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain +sufficient and suitable washing conveniences for all persons employed +in the places and processes named in Rule 1, as near as is practicable +to the places in which such persons are employed.</p> + +<p>The washing conveniences shall comprise soap, nail-brushes, and towels, +and at least one lavatory (see form 254*) basin for every five persons +employed as above, and each such basin shall be fitted with waste-pipe, +and have a constant supply of water laid on by tap.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Cleansing of Work-places.</i>—The occupier shall see that the +requirements of Rule 16 are duly observed, and shall provide brushes +and all other necessaries for the purpose.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Boards.</i>—The boards used in the dipping house, dippers’ +drying room, or glost placing shop shall be cleansed every week, and +shall not be used in any other department (see form 254*).</p> + + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Monthly Examination.</i>—All women and young persons employed +in the places and processes named in Rule 1 shall present themselves +at the appointed time for examination by the Certifying Surgeon as +provided in Rule 2.</p> + +<p>No person after suspension by the Certifying Surgeon shall work in any +of the places or processes named in Rule 1 without the written sanction +of the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Overalls.</i>—Every person employed in the places and processes +named in Rule 1 shall, when at work, wear an overall suit and head +covering, which shall not be worn outside the factory or workshop, and +which shall not be removed therefrom except for the purpose of being +washed.</p> + +<p>The overalls and head coverings, when not being worn, shall be +deposited in the place provided for the purpose under Rule 4.</p> + +<p>Clothing put off during working hours shall be deposited in the place +provided for the purpose under Rule 4.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall remain during meal times in the +dipping house, dippers’ drying room, or in any place in which is +carried on any process named in Rule 1; or prepare or partake of any +food or drink therein at any time.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Ventilation. Dust.</i>—No person shall in any way interfere, +without the knowledge and concurrence of the occupier or manager, with +the means and appliances provided by the employers for the ventilation +of the workshops and stoves and for the removal of dust.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Washing.</i>—No person employed in any place or process named +in Rule 1 shall leave the works or partake of meals without previously +and carefully cleaning and washing his or her hands.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Cleansing of Work-places.</i>—The persons employed shall be +responsible for the</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>daily sprinkling and sweeping of the floors of workshops and of +such stoves as are entered by the workpeople; and for the</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">daily removal of dust, scraps, ashes, and dirt; and for the</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">weekly cleansing of work-benches and of stairs leading to +workshops.</p> +</div> + +<p>Each person shall be responsible for the cleansing of that portion of +the room in which he or she is employed.</p> + +<p>The sweeping of the floors of potters’ shops, stoves, dipping houses, +and majolica painting rooms shall be done after working hours, by +an adult male, employed and paid by the workers and approved by the +employer.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Boards.</i>—The boards used in the dipping house, dipper’s +drying room, or glost placing shop shall be cleansed every week, and +shall not be used in any other department.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>May 1898.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous places +in the factory to which they apply, where they may be conveniently read +by the persons employed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_838">[838]</span></p> + +<p>Any person who is bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or +acts in contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; and in such case +the occupier also is liable to a penalty unless he proves that he has +taken all reasonable means by publishing, and to the best of his power +enforcing, the Rules, to prevent the contravention or non-compliance. +(Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11).</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 254*.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">THE MANUFACTURE OF EARTHENWARE AND CHINA.</p> + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + + +<p>1. <i>Age.</i>—After 1st August 1890, no person under 14 years of age, +and after 1st August 1899, no person under 15 years of age, shall be +employed in the</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="i2">Dipping house, or</li> + <li class="i2">Dipper’s drying room,</li> + <li class="i1">or in any processes of—</li> + <li class="i2">Ware cleaning after the dipper,</li> + <li class="i2">Glost placing,</li> + <li class="i2">Colour dusting,</li> + <li class="i2">Ground laying,</li> + <li class="i2">Majolica painting,</li> + <li class="i2">Glaze blowing,</li> + <li class="i2">Transfer making, or</li> + <li class="i2">China scouring.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Monthly Examination.</i>—All women and young persons employed in +the places and processes named in Rule 1 shall be examined once a month +by the Certifying Surgeon for the district, who shall, after 1st August +1898, have power to order suspension from employment in any place or +process named in Rule 1.</p> + +<p>No person after such suspension shall be allowed to work in any of the +places or processes named in Rule 1 without the written sanction of the +Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Health Register.</i>—A register, in the form which has been +prescribed by the Secretary of State for use in earthenware and china +works, shall be kept, and in it the Certifying Surgeon will enter the +dates and results of his visits, the number of persons examined, and +particulars of any directions given by him. This register shall contain +a list of all persons employed in the places and processes named +in Rule 1, and shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. +Inspector of Factories or by the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Overalls and Head Coverings.</i>—The occupier shall provide and +maintain suitable overalls and head coverings for all women and young +persons employed in the places and processes named in Rule 1.</p> + +<p>All overalls and head coverings shall be kept by the occupier in +proper custody and shall be washed at least once a week, and suitable +arrangements shall be made for carrying out these requirements.</p> + +<p>A suitable place shall be provided in which the above workers can +deposit clothing put off during working hours.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall be allowed to prepare or partake of +any food or drink, or to remain during meal times, in the dipping house +or dippers’ drying room, or in a place in which is carried on any +process named in Rule 1.</p> + +<p>The occupier shall make suitable provision to the reasonable +satisfaction of the Inspector in charge of the District for the +accommodation during meal times of persons employed in such place or +processes, with a right of appeal to the Chief Inspector of Factories. +Such accommodation to be provided in any room or rooms on the premises +other than those referred to in Rule 13.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Dust.</i>—After 1st January 1899, the process of—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>Towing of earthenware,</li> + <li>China scouring,</li> + <li>Ground laying,</li> + <li>Colour dusting,</li> + <li>Glaze blowing, or</li> + <li>Transfer making,</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="p-left">shall not be carried on without the use of exhaust fans for the +effectual removal of dust, or other efficient means for the effectual +removal of dust, to be approved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_839">[839]</span> in each particular case by the +Secretary of State, and under such conditions as he may from time to +time prescribe.</p> + +<p>In the process of ware cleaning after the dipper, exhaust fans shall be +used, or arrangements made for the dust to fall into water.</p> + +<p>In all processes the occupiers shall, as far as practicable, adopt +efficient measures for the removal of dust and for the prevention of +any injurious effects arising therefrom.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Ventilation.</i>—All drying stoves as well as all workshops +and all parts of factories shall be effectually ventilated to the +reasonable satisfaction of the Inspector in charge of the District.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Lavatories.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain +sufficient and suitable washing conveniences for all persons employed +in the places and processes named in Rule 1, as near as is practicable +to the places in which such persons are employed.</p> + +<p>The washing conveniences shall comprise soap, nail-brushes, and towels, +and at least one wash-hand basin for every five persons employed as +above, with a constant supply of water laid on, with one tap at least +for every two basins, and conveniences for emptying the same and +running off the waste water on the spot down a waste-pipe.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Cleansing of Work-places.</i>—The occupier shall see that the +requirements of Rule 16 are duly observed, and shall provide brushes +and all other necessaries for the purpose.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Boards.</i>—The boards used in the dipping house, dippers’ +drying room, or glost placing shop shall be cleansed every week, and +shall not be used in any other department, except after being cleansed.</p> + + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Monthly Examination.</i>—All women and young persons employed +in the places and processes named in Rule 1 shall present themselves +at the appointed time for examination by the Certifying Surgeon as +provided in Rule 2.</p> + +<p>No person after suspension by the Certifying Surgeon shall work in any +of the places or processes named in Rule 1 without the written sanction +of the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Overalls.</i>—Every person employed in the places and processes +named in Rule 1 shall, when at work, wear an overall suit and head +covering, which shall not be worn outside the factory or workshop, and +which shall not be removed therefrom except for the purpose of being +washed. All overalls and head coverings shall be washed at least once a +week.</p> + +<p>The overalls and head coverings, when not being worn, shall be +deposited in the place provided for the purpose under Rule 4.</p> + +<p>Clothing put off during working hours shall be deposited in the place +provided for the purpose under Rule 4.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall remain during meal times in the +dipping house, dippers’ drying room, or in any place in which is +carried on any process named in Rule 1; or prepare or partake of any +food or drink therein at any time.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Ventilation. Dust.</i>—No person shall in any way interfere, +without the knowledge and concurrence of the occupier or manager, with +the means and appliances provided by the employers for the ventilation +of the workshops and stoves and for the removal of dust.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Washing.</i>—No person employed in any place or process named +in Rule 1 shall leave the works or partake of meals without previously +and carefully cleaning and washing his or her hands.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Cleansing of Work-places.</i>—The persons employed shall be +responsible for the</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="i3">daily sprinkling and sweeping of the floors of workshops and of +such stoves as are entered by the workpeople; and for the</li> + <li class="i3">daily removal of dust, scraps, ashes, and dirt; and for the</li> + <li class="i3">weekly cleansing of work-benches and of stairs leading to +workshops.</li> +</ul> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_840">[840]</span></p> + +<p>Each person shall be responsible for the cleansing of that portion of +the room in which he or she is employed.</p> + +<p>The sweeping of the floors of potters’ shops, stoves, dipping houses, +and majolica painting rooms shall be done after working hours, by +an adult male, employed and paid by the workers and approved by the +employer.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Boards.</i>—The boards used in the dipping house, dippers’ +drying room, or glost placing shop shall be cleansed every week, and +shall not be used in any other department, except after being cleansed.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>October 1898.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous places +in the factory to which they apply, where they may be conveniently read +by the persons employed.</p> + +<p>Any person who is bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or +acts in contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; and in such case +the occupier also is liable to a penalty, unless he proves that he has +taken all reasonable means by publishing and to the best of his power +enforcing the Rules, to prevent the contravention or non-compliance. +(Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11.)</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 254<span class="allsmcap">A</span>.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">MAKING TRANSFERS FOR EARTHENWARE AND CHINA.</p> + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Age.</i>—No person under 15 years of age shall be employed in +making Transfers for Earthenware or China.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Monthly Examination.</i>—All women and young persons employed +shall be examined once a month by the Certifying Surgeon for the +District, who shall, after 1st May 1899, have power to order suspension +from employment.</p> + +<p>No person after such suspension shall be allowed to work without the +written sanction of the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Health Register.</i>—A register, in the form which has been +prescribed by the Secretary of State for use in earthenware and china +works, shall be kept, and in it the Certifying Surgeon will enter the +dates and results of his visits, the number of persons examined, and +particulars of any directions given by him. This register shall contain +a list of all persons employed, and shall be produced at any time when +required by H.M. Inspector of Factories or by the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Overalls and Head Coverings.</i>—The occupier shall provide and +maintain suitable overalls and head coverings for all women and young +persons employed in rooms in which colour processes are carried on.</p> + +<p>All overalls and head coverings shall be kept by the occupier in +proper custody and shall be washed at least once a week, and suitable +arrangements shall be made for carrying out these requirements.</p> + +<p>A suitable place shall be provided in which the above workers can +deposit clothing put off during working hours.</p> + +<p>It shall be a sufficient compliance with the requirements of this rule +as to head coverings if they are made of suitable glazed paper and +renewed once a week. The head coverings shall be made so as completely +to cover the hair, and to the satisfaction of the Inspector.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall be allowed to prepare or partake of +any food or drink, or to remain during meal times, in any place in +which is carried on the making of transfers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_841">[841]</span></p> + +<p>The occupier shall make suitable provision, to the reasonable +satisfaction of the Inspector in charge of the District, for the +accommodation during meal times of persons employed in such places or +processes, with a right of appeal to the Chief Inspector of Factories.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Dust.</i>—Transfer making shall not be carried on without +the use of exhaust fans for the effectual removal of dust, or other +efficient means for the effectual removal of dust, to be approved +in each particular case by the Secretary of State, and under such +conditions as he may from time to time prescribe.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Lavatories.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain +sufficient and suitable washing conveniences for all persons employed, +as near as is practicable to the places in which such persons are +employed.</p> + +<p>The washing conveniences shall comprise soap, nail-brushes, and towels, +and at least one wash-hand basin for every five persons employed as +above, with a constant supply of water laid on, with one tap at least +for every two basins, and conveniences for emptying the same and +running off the waste water on the spot down a waste-pipe.</p> + + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Monthly Examination.</i>—All women and young persons employed +shall present themselves at the appointed time for examination by the +Certifying Surgeon as provided in Rule 2.</p> + +<p>No person after suspension by the Certifying Surgeon shall work without +the written sanction of the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Overalls.</i>—Every person employed in any room in which colour +processes are carried on shall, when at work, wear an overall suit and +head covering, which shall not be worn outside the factory or workshop, +and which shall not be removed therefrom except for the purpose of +being washed. All overalls and head coverings shall be washed or +renewed at least once a week.</p> + +<p>The overalls and head coverings, when not being worn, shall be +deposited in the place provided for the purpose under Rule 4.</p> + +<p>Clothing put off during working hours shall be deposited in the place +provided for the purpose under Rule 4.</p> + +<p>It shall be a sufficient compliance with the requirements of this rule +as to head coverings if they are made of suitable glazed paper and +renewed once a week. The head coverings shall be made so as completely +to cover the hair, and to the satisfaction of the Inspector.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall remain during meal times in any place +in which is carried on the making of transfers; or prepare or partake +of any food or drink therein at any time.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Ventilation. Dust.</i>—No person shall in any way interfere, +without the knowledge and concurrence of the occupier or manager, with +the means and appliances provided by the employers for the ventilation +of the workshops and for the removal of dust.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Washing.</i>—No person employed shall leave the works or +partake of meals without previously and carefully cleaning and washing +his or her hands.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>January 1899.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous places +in the factory to which they apply, where they may be conveniently read +by the persons employed.</p> + +<p>Any person who is bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or +acts in contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; and in such case +the occupier also is liable to a penalty, unless he proves that he has +taken all reasonable means by publishing and to the best of his power +enforcing the Rules, to prevent the contravention or non-compliance. +(Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_842">[842]</span></p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 257.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">THE MANUFACTURE OF EXPLOSIVES IN WHICH DINITROBENZOLE IS USED.</p> + +<p>1. No person to be employed without a medical certificate, stating that +he or she is physically fit for such employment.</p> + +<p>2. An examination of the workers at their work to be made at least once +a fortnight by a Certifying Surgeon, who shall have power to order +temporary suspension or total change of work for any person showing +symptoms of suffering from the poison, or if after a fair trial he is +of opinion that any person is by constitution unfit, he shall direct +that such person shall cease to be employed.</p> + +<p>3. A supply of fresh milk, and of any drug that the medical officer may +consider desirable, shall be kept where the workers in his opinion may +require it.</p> + +<p>4. No meals to be taken in the workrooms.</p> + +<p>5. There shall be provided separate lavatories for men and women, +with a good supply of hot water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels, and +whenever the skin has come in contact with dinitrobenzole, the part +shall be immediately washed.</p> + +<p>6. Overall suits and head coverings shall be supplied to all workers in +shops where dinitrobenzole is used, these suits to be taken off or well +brushed before meals and before leaving the works, and to be washed at +least once a week.</p> + +<p>7. Suitable respirators (capable of being washed), folds of linen, or +woollen material of open texture, or other suitable material, shall be +supplied to those workers liable to inhale dust, and the wearing of +such respirators shall be urged where the workers derive benefit from +their use.</p> + +<p>8. Where dinitrobenzole has to be handled, the hands shall always be +protected from direct contact with it, either by the use of indiarubber +gloves (kept perfectly clean, especially in the inner side), or by +means of rags which shall be destroyed immediately after use.</p> + +<p>9. Where dinitrobenzole is broken by hand, the instrument used shall be +a wooden bar, spade, or tool with a handle long enough to prevent the +worker’s face from coming into near contact with the material.</p> + +<p>10. In all rooms or sheds in which the process, either of purifying, +grinding, mixing materials of which dinitrobenzole forms a part, is +carried on, efficient “cowls,” ventilating shafts, and mechanical +ventilating fans shall be provided to carry off the dust or fumes +generated.</p> + +<p>11. Drying stoves shall be efficiently ventilated, and, when possible, +be charged and drawn at fixed times, and a free current of air shall be +admitted for some time prior to the workers entering to draw either a +part or the whole of the contents.</p> + +<p>12. In the process of filling cartridges, the material shall not be +touched by hand, but suitable scoops shall be used, and where patent +ventilated cartridge filling machines are not used, there shall be +efficient mechanical ventilation arranged in such a manner that the +suction shall draw the fumes or dust away from and not across or over +the faces of the workers.</p> + +<p>13. A register, in a prescribed form, shall be kept, and it shall be +the duty of a responsible person named by the firm to enter, at least +once a week, a statement that he has personally satisfied himself +that each and all of the special rules have been observed, or if not, +the reasons for such non-observance. The Surgeon to enter in this +register the dates of his visits, the results of such visits, and any +requirement made by him.</p> + +<p>14. The “dipping” rooms to be efficiently ventilated.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_843">[843]</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous +places in the factory to which they apply, where they may be +conveniently read by the persons employed.</p> + +<p>Any person who is bound to observe these Rules and fails to do +so, or acts in contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; +and in such case the occupier also is liable to a penalty, +unless he proves that he has taken all reasonable means by +publishing and to the best of his power enforcing the Rules, +to prevent the contravention or non-compliance. (Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 250.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">CHEMICAL WORKS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Uncovered Pots and Pans.</i>—In future every uncovered pot, pan, +or other structure containing liquid of a dangerous character, shall +be so constructed as to be at least 3 feet in height above the ground +or platform. Those already in existence which are less than 3 feet +in height, or in cases where it is proved to the satisfaction of an +inspector that a height of 3 feet is impracticable, shall be securely +fenced.</p> + +<p>2. There shall be a clear space round such pots, pans, or other +structures, or where any junction exists a barrier shall be so placed +as to prevent passage.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Caustic Pots.</i>—Caustic pots shall be of such construction +that there shall be no footing on the top or sides of the brickwork, +and dome-shaped lids shall be used where possible.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Planks and Gangways.</i>—No unfenced planks or gangways shall be +placed across open pots, pans, or other structures containing liquid +of a dangerous character. This rule shall not apply to black ash vats +where the vats themselves are otherwise securely fenced.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Respirators.</i>—Suitable respirators shall be provided for the +use of the workers in places where poisonous gases or injurious dust +may be inhaled.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Lighting.</i>—The lighting of all dangerous places shall be made +thoroughly efficient.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Syringes or Wash-bottles.</i>—Every place where caustic soda +or caustic potash is manufactured shall be supplied with syringes +or wash-bottles, which shall be enclosed in covered boxes fixed in +convenient places, in the proportion of one to every four caustic pots. +They shall be of suitable form and size, and be kept full of clean +water. Similar appliances shall be provided wherever, in the opinion of +an inspector, they may be desirable.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Overalls, Bath.</i>—Overalls, kept in a cleanly state, shall be +provided for all workers in any room where chlorate of potash or other +chlorate is ground. In every such room a bath shall be kept ready for +immediate use.</p> + +<p>In every chlorate mill, tallow or other suitable lubricant shall be +used instead of oil.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Respirators.</i>—Respirators charged with moist oxide of iron or +other suitable substance, shall be kept in accessible places ready for +use in cases of emergency arising from sulphuretted hydrogen or other +poisonous gases.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Salt Cake Departments.</i>—In salt cake departments suitable +measures shall be adopted by maintaining a proper draught, and by other +means, to obviate the escape of low-level gases.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Weldon Bleaching Powder Chambers.</i>—Weldon bleaching powder +chambers, after the free gas has, as far as may be practicable, been +drawn off or absorbed by fresh lime, shall, before being opened, be +tested by the standard recognised under the Alkali Act. Such tests +shall be duly entered in a register kept for the purpose.</p> + +<p>All chambers shall be ventilated, as far as possible, when packing is +being carried on, by means of open doors on opposite sides and openings +in the roof, so as to allow of a free current of air.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_844">[844]</span></p> + +<p>12. <i>Co-operation of Workers: Penalty.</i>—In cases where the +co-operation of the workers is required for carrying out the foregoing +rules, and where such co-operation is not given, the workers shall be +held liable in accordance with the Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, +section 9, which runs as follows:—“If any person who is bound to +observe any special rules, established for any factory or workshop +under this Act, acts in contravention of, or fails to comply with, any +such special rule, he shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine +not exceeding two pounds.”</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 260.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</span></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>AMENDED SPECIAL RULES for Chemical Works in which is carried on +the</i> MANUFACTURE OF BICHROMATE OR CHROMATE OF POTASSIUM OR SODIUM.</p> + +<p><i>In these Rules “persons employed in a chrome process” means a +person who is employed in any work involving contact with chromate or +bichromate of potassium or sodium, or involving exposure to dust or +fumes arising from the manufacture thereof.</i></p> + +<p><i>Any approval given by the Chief Inspector in pursuance of Rule 10 +shall be given in writing, and may at any time be revoked by notice in +writing signed by him.</i></p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Open Pans, &c., containing Dangerous Liquid.</i>—No uncovered +pot, pan, or other structure containing liquid of a dangerous character +shall be so constructed as to be less than 3 feet in height above the +adjoining ground or platform.</p> + +<p>This Rule shall not apply to any pot, pan, or other structure +constructed before 1st January 1899, or in which a height of 3 feet is +impracticable by reason of the nature of the work to be carried on: +provided in either case that the structure is securely fenced.</p> + +<p>2. There shall be a clear space round all pots, pans, or other +structures containing liquid of a dangerous character, except where +any junction exists, in which case a barrier shall be so placed as to +prevent passage.</p> + +<p>3. No unfenced plank or gangway shall be placed across any pot, pan, or +other structure containing liquid of a dangerous character.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Lighting.</i>—The lighting of all dangerous places shall be made +thoroughly efficient.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Grinding, Separating, and Mixing of Raw Materials.</i>—The +grinding, separating, and mixing of the raw materials (including chrome +ironstone, lime, and sodium and potassium carbonate) shall not be +done without such appliances as will prevent, as far as possible, the +entrance of dust into the workrooms.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Batches.</i>—“Batches,” when withdrawn from the furnaces, shall +either be placed in the keaves or vats while still warm, or be allowed +to cool in barrows or other receptacles.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Evaporating Vessels.</i>—Evaporating vessels shall be covered +in, and shall be provided with ventilating shafts to carry the steam +into the outside air.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Packing and Crushing of Bichromate.</i>—Packing or crushing +of bichromate of potassium or sodium shall not be done except under +conditions which secure either the entire absence of dust or its +effectual removal by means of a fan.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Age.</i>—No child or young person shall be employed in a chrome +process.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Monthly Medical Examination. Suspension.</i>—(<i>a</i>) The +occupier shall, subject to the approval of the Chief Inspector, appoint +a duly qualified medical practitioner (in these Rules referred to as +the Appointed Surgeon), who shall examine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_845">[845]</span> all persons employed in +chrome processes at least once in every month, and shall undertake +any necessary medical treatment of disease contracted in consequence +of such employment, and shall, after the 30th day of April 1900, have +power to suspend any such person from work in any place or process.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) No person after such suspension shall be employed in any +chrome process without the written sanction of the Appointed Surgeon.</p> + +<p><i>Health Register.</i>—(<i>c</i>) A register shall be kept in a +form approved by the Chief Inspector, and shall contain a list of all +persons employed in any chrome process. The Appointed Surgeon shall +enter in the register the dates and results of his examinations of +the persons employed and particulars of any treatment prescribed by +him. The register shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. +Inspectors of Factories or by the Appointed Surgeon.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Requisites for treating slight Wounds and +Ulcers.</i>—Requisites (approved by the Appointed Surgeon) for +treating slight wounds and ulcers shall be kept at hand and be placed +in charge of a responsible person.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Overalls and Respirators.</i>—The occupier shall provide +sufficient and suitable overall suits for the use of all persons +engaged in the processes of grinding the raw materials; and sufficient +and suitable overall suits or other adequate means of protection, +approved in writing by the Appointed Surgeon, for the use of all +persons engaged in the crystal department or in packing.</p> + +<p>Respirators approved by the Appointed Surgeon shall be provided for the +use of all persons employed in packing or crushing bichromate of sodium +or potassium.</p> + +<p>At the end of every day’s work they shall be collected and kept in +proper custody in a suitable place set apart for the purpose.</p> + +<p>The overalls and respirators shall be thoroughly washed or renewed +every week.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Cloak-room.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain a +cloak-room in which workers can deposit clothing put off during working +hours.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Lavatory.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain a +lavatory for the use of the persons employed in chrome processes, with +soap, nail-brushes, and towels, and a constant supply of hot and cold +water laid on to each basin. There shall be at least one lavatory +basin for every five persons employed in the crystal department and in +packing. Each such basin shall be fitted with a waste-pipe, or shall be +placed in a trough fitted with a waste-pipe.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Baths.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain sufficient +baths and dressing-rooms for all persons employed in chrome processes, +with hot and cold water laid on, and a sufficient supply of soap and +towels; and shall cause each person employed in the crystal department +and in packing to take a bath once a week at the factory.</p> + +<p><i>Bath Register.</i>—A bath register shall be kept containing a list +of all persons employed in the crystal department and in packing, and +an entry of the date when each person takes a bath.</p> + +<p>The bath register shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. +Inspectors of Factories.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Cleaning of Floors, &c.</i>—The floors, stairs, and landings +shall be cleaned daily.</p> + + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Batches.</i>—No person shall deposit a “batch” when withdrawn +from the furnace upon the floor nor transfer it to the keaves or vats +otherwise than as prescribed in Rule 6.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Packing and Crushing of Bichromate.</i>—No person shall pack or +crush bichromate of potassium or sodium otherwise than as prescribed in +Rule 8.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Medical Examination.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Every person employed in +a chrome process shall present himself at the appointed times for +examination by the Appointed Surgeon as provided in Rule 10.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) After the 30th day of April 1900, no person suspended by the +Appointed Surgeon shall work in a chrome process without his written +sanction.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_846">[846]</span></p> + +<p>20. <i>Overalls.</i>—Every person engaged in the processes of grinding +the raw materials shall wear an overall suit, and every person engaged +in the crystal department or in packing shall wear an overall suit or +other adequate means of protection approved by the Appointed Surgeon.</p> + +<p><i>Respirators.</i>—Every person employed in packing or crushing +bichromate of sodium or potassium shall in addition wear a respirator +while so occupied.</p> + +<p>21. <i>Washing.</i>—Every person employed in the processes named in +Rule 20 shall before leaving the premises deposit the overalls and +respirators in the place appointed by the occupier for the purpose, and +shall thoroughly wash face and hands in the lavatory.</p> + +<p>22. <i>Bathing.</i>—Every person employed in the crystal department +and in packing shall take a bath at the factory at least once a week; +and, having done so, he shall at once sign his name in the bath +register, with the date.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Neglect to be Reported.</i>—The foreman shall report to the +manager any instance coming under his notice of a workman neglecting to +observe these Rules.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="i1 smcap">Arthur Whitelegge</li> + <li class="i2"><i>Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</li> + <li class="i1 smcap">M. W. Ridley</li> + <li class="i2"><i>One of Her Majesty’s Principal<br>Secretaries of State</i>.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="p-left">February 1900.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous places +in the factory to which they apply, where they may be conveniently +read by the persons employed. Any person who is bound to observe +these Rules and fails to do so, or acts in contravention of them, is +liable to a penalty; and in such cases the occupier also is liable to +a penalty, unless he proves that he has taken all reasonable means by +publishing and to the best of his power enforcing the Rules, to prevent +the contravention or non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, +Sections 9 and 11.)</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form No. 261.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">RED AND ORANGE LEAD WORKS.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p><i>Drawing.</i>—In drawing charges of massicot, or of red lead, or +of orange lead, from the furnace they shall not allow the charges of +massicot, or of red lead, or of orange lead, to be discharged on to +the floor of the factory or workshop, but shall arrange that it be +shovelled, not raked, into waggons.</p> + +<p><i>Packing.</i>—They shall arrange that no red or orange lead shall be +packed in the room or rooms where the manufacture is actually carried +on.</p> + +<p>They shall arrange that no red or orange lead shall be packed in casks +or other receptacles except in a place provided with a hood connected +with a fan, or shall provide other suitable means to create an +effective draught.</p> + +<p><i>Washing Conveniences.</i>—They shall provide sufficient bath +accommodation for all persons employed in the manipulation of red and +orange lead, and lavatories, with a good supply of hot water, soap, +nail-brushes, and towels for the use of such persons.</p> + +<p><i>Monthly Examination.</i>—They shall arrange for a monthly visit by +a medical man, who shall examine every worker individually, and who +shall enter the result of each examination in a register book to be +provided by the said occupiers.</p> + +<p><i>Sanitary Drink.</i>—They shall provide a sufficient supply of +approved sanitary drink for the workers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_847">[847]</span></p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>In cases where the co-operation of the workers is required for carrying +out the foregoing rules, and where such co-operation is not given, +the workers shall be held liable in accordance with the Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, Section 9, which runs as follows:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">“If any person who is bound to observe any special rules +established for any factory or workshop under this Act, acts +in contravention of, or fails to comply with, any such special +rule, he shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine not +exceeding two pounds.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 263.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">YELLOW LEAD.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>They shall provide washing conveniences, with a sufficient supply of +hot and cold water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels.</p> + +<p>They shall provide respirators and overall suits for the persons +employed in all dry processes.</p> + +<p>They shall provide fans or other suitable means of ventilation wherever +dust is generated in the process of manufacture.</p> + +<p>They shall provide a sufficient supply of Epsom salts and of an +approved sanitary drink.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>In cases where the co-operation of the workers is required for carrying +out the foregoing rules, and where such co-operation is not given, +the workers shall be held liable, in accordance with the Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, Section 9, which runs as follows:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“If any person who is bound to observe any special rules +established for any factory or workshop under this Act, acts +in contravention of, or fails to comply with, any such special +rule, he shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine not +exceeding two pounds.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Respirators</td> + <td class="cht" colspan="2">A good respirator is a cambric bag with or without a thin +flexible wire made to fit over the nose.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht7" rowspan="3">Sanitary drink<br>suggested</td> + <td class="cht7">Sulphate of magnesia</td> + <td class="cht7">2 oz.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Water</td> + <td class="cht">1 gallon.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Essence of lemon, sufficient to flavour.</td> + <td class="cht"></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">B. A. Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 264.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">LEAD SMELTING WORKS.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>They shall provide respirators and overall suits for the use of all +persons employed in cleaning the flues, and take means to see that the +same are used.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_848">[848]</span></p> + +<p>They shall arrange that no person be allowed to remain at work more +than two hours at a time in a flue. (A rest of half-an-hour before +re-entering will be deemed sufficient.)</p> + +<p>They shall provide sufficient bath accommodation for all persons +employed in cleaning the flues, and every one so employed shall take a +bath before leaving the works.</p> + +<p>They shall provide washing conveniences, with a sufficient supply of +hot and cold water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>In cases where the co-operation of the workers is required for carrying +out the foregoing rules, and where such co-operation is not given, +the workers shall be held liable, in accordance with the Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, Section 9, which runs as follows:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">“If any person who is bound to observe any special rules +established for any factory or workshop under this Act, acts +in contravention of, or fails to comply with, any such special +rule, he shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine not +exceeding two pounds.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">B. A. Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 268.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES, only applicable to works in which</i><br>LEAD OR ARSENIC +IS USED IN THE TINNING AND<br>ENAMELLING OF IRON HOLLOW WARE.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>They shall provide washing conveniences with a sufficient supply of hot +and cold water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels; and take measures to +secure that every worker wash face and hands before meals and before +leaving the works.</p> + +<p>They shall see that no food is eaten in any room where the process of +tinning or enamelling is carried on.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>In cases where the co-operation of the workers is required for carrying +out the foregoing rules, and where such co-operation is not given, +the workers shall be held liable in accordance with the Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, Section 9, which runs as follows:—“If any person +who is bound to observe any special rules established for any factory +or workshop under this Act, acts in contravention of, or fails to +comply with, any such special rule, he shall be liable on summary +conviction to a fine not exceeding two pounds.”</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 266.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>AMENDED SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">SPINNING AND WEAVING OF FLAX.</p> + +<p class="center sm">WEAVING SHEDS</p> + +<p class="center p-min">(in which artificial humidity is produced).</p> + +<p><i>Ventilation.</i>—An efficient 14-inch extracting fan shall be +provided for every 2500 square feet of floor surface, such ventilation +to be arranged to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_849">[849]</span> satisfaction of the Inspector of Factories, and +to be kept in operation during working hours.</p> + +<p><i>Humidity.</i>—In every weaving factory where artificial humidity +is produced, there shall be provided, maintained, and kept in correct +working order two sets of standardised wet and dry bulb thermometers. A +difference of at least two degrees shall be kept during working hours +between the wet and dry bulbs (<i>e.g.</i>, Dry Bulb 75, Wet Bulb 73).</p> + +<p>(1.) One set of thermometers is to be fixed in the centre and one at +the side of the factory, or in such other position as may be directed +or sanctioned by an Inspector of Factories, so as to be plainly visible +to the operatives.</p> + +<p>(2.) The occupier or manager, or person for the time being in charge +of each factory, shall read the thermometers twice in the day, viz., +between ten o’clock and eleven o’clock in the forenoon, and between +three o’clock and four o’clock in the afternoon, on every day that any +operatives are employed in the factory, and shall record the readings +of each thermometer at each of such times on a form provided for the +purpose for each set of thermometers, in the form and in accordance +with the regulations contained in Schedule B. of the Cotton Cloth +Factories Act, 1889, and the readings indicated at any time by the said +thermometers shall be taken to represent the actual humidity of the +room at such time.</p> + +<p>(3.) The form in which the readings of each thermometer provided for +in sub-section (ii.) of this section are to be recorded shall be kept +hung up near the thermometers; and after being duly filled up, shall be +forwarded at the end of each month to the Inspector of the District, +and a copy shall be kept at the factory for reference.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">WET SPINNING ROOMS.</p> + +<p><i>Overalls.</i>—Where splashboards are not provided, waterproof +overalls or aprons shall be provided by the occupier for all the +workers, such overalls or aprons to be sufficient to protect the lower +part of the chest to the satisfaction of the Inspector.</p> + +<p><i>Troughs.</i>—The lids of the troughs shall be kept in perfect +repair to check escape of steam.</p> + +<p><i>Floors.</i>—Floors shall be kept in sound condition so as to +prevent retention or accumulation of water.</p> + +<p>The same rules shall be adopted with respect to humidity as are +required in the weaving sheds.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">WET SPINNING ROOMS AND WEAVING FACTORIES.</p> + +<p><i>Steam-Pipes.</i>—Whenever steam is injected into any room, the +pipes conveying the same shall be jacketed with non-conducting +composition to the satisfaction of the Inspector of Factories.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">ROUGHING AND SORTING AND HAND HACKLING ROOMS.</p> + +<p><i>Fans.</i>—Exhaust fans shall be provided so as to draw the dust +forward and down from the face of the worker, unless some other +arrangement shall be found equally effective, to the satisfaction of +the Factory Inspector.</p> + +<p><i>Respirators.</i>—Respirators shall be provided for the use of the +workers, if children or young persons, and be worn by them at work.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">MACHINE HACKLING ROOMS.</p> + +<p class="center">Preparation and Card Rooms.</p> + +<p><i>Fans.</i>—Exhaust fans shall be provided on the side of the room +where the machines are, and inlets provided from 6 to 7 feet from the +ground on the opposite side, unless some other arrangement of such fens +shall be found equally effective.</p> + +<p><i>Respirators.</i>—Respirators shall be provided for the use of the +workers, if children or young persons, and be worn by them at work.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_850">[850]</span></p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DRESSING ROOMS.</p> + +<p><i>Ventilation.</i>—Dressing rooms must be ventilated so as to render +harmless any gas, vapour, or other impurities.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="i3 smcap">B. A. Whitelegge</li> + <li class="i1"><i>Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</li> + <li class="i3 smcap">M. W. Ridley</li> + <li class="i1"><i>One of Her Majesty’s Principal Secretaries of State</i>.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="smcap p-left">Home Office,</p> + +<p class="p-min">18th April 1896.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 270.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="hangingindent">FACTORIES OR WORKSHOPS IN WHICH YELLOW CHROMATE OF LEAD IS USED, OR IN +WHICH GOODS DYED WITH IT UNDERGO THE PROCESSES OF BUNDLING OR NODDLING, +WINDING, REELING, WEAVING, OR ANY OTHER TREATMENT.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>They shall provide washing conveniences, with a sufficient supply of +hot and cold water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels.</p> + +<p>They shall provide respirators and overall suits for the persons +employed in all dry processes.</p> + +<p>They shall provide fans or other suitable means of ventilation wherever +dust is generated in the process of manufacture.</p> + +<p>They shall provide a sufficient supply of Epsom salts and of the +sanitary drink mentioned below, or some other approved by H.M. +Inspector of Factories.</p> + +<table class="smaller"> + <tr> + <td class="cht">Respirators</td> + <td class="cht" colspan="2">A good respirator is a cambric bag with or without a thin +flexible wire made to fit over the nose.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht7" rowspan="3">Sanitary drink</td> + <td class="cht7">Sulphate of magnesia</td> + <td class="cht7">2 oz.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Water</td> + <td class="cht">1 gallon.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">Essence of lemon, sufficient to flavour.</td> + <td class="cht"></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>Every person to whom is supplied a respirator or overall suit shall +wear the same when at the special work for which such are provided.</p> + +<p>Every person shall carefully clean and wash hands and face before meals +and before leaving the works.</p> + +<p>No food shall be eaten in any part of the works in which yellow +chromate of lead is used in the manufacture.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>Under Section 9, Factory Act, 1891, any person who is bound to observe +any special rules is liable to penalties for non-compliance with such +special rules.</p> + + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 271.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<p>MIXING AND CASTING OF BRASS AND OF CERTAIN OTHER ALLOYS.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<p>Under Section 8 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, and Section 28 +of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1895, for the processes in the mixing +and casting of Brass, Gun Metal, Bell Metal, White Metal, Delta Metal, +Phosphor Bronze, and Manilla Mixture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_851">[851]</span></p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. They shall provide adequate means for facilitating, as far as +possible, the emission or escape from the shop of any noxious fumes or +dust arising from the above-named processes. Such means shall include +the provision of traps or of louvre gratings in the roof or ceiling of +any shop in which such processes, or either of them, is or are carried +on; or in case of a mixing or casting shop which is situated under any +other shop, there shall be provided an adequate flue or shaft (other +than any flue or shaft in connection with a furnace or fireplace) to +carry any fumes from the mixing or casting shop, by or through any such +shop that may be situated above it.</p> + +<p>2. They shall cause all such mixing or casting shops, whether defined +as Factories or as Workshops under the Factory and Workshop Act, 1878, +to be cleaned down and limewashed once at least within every twelve +months, or once within every six months if so required by notice in +writing from H.M. Inspector of Factories and Workshops, dating from +the time when these were last thus cleaned down and limewashed; and +they shall record the dates of such cleaning down and lime-washing in a +prescribed form of register.</p> + +<p>3. They shall provide a sufficient supply of metal basins, water, and +soap, for the use of all persons employed in such mixing or casting +shops.</p> + +<p>4. They shall not employ, or allow within their Factory or Workshop +the employment of, any Woman or Female Young Person, in any process +whatever, in any such mixing or casting shop, or in any portion thereof +which is not entirely separated by a partition extending from the floor +to the ceiling.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>5. They shall not partake of, or cook any food in any such mixing +or casting shop, within a period of at least Ten Minutes after the +completion of the last pouring of metal in that shop.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">B. A. Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p class="p-left">July 10, 1896.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—<span class="smcap">Women</span> and <span class="smcap">Persons</span> under <span class="smcap">18 Years +of Age</span> are by the 39th section of the Factory and Workshop Act, +1878, expressly <span class="smcap">Forbidden</span> either to <span class="smcap">Take a Meal</span> or +to <span class="smcap">Remain</span> in any casting shop during the time stated on the +Notice affixed in the factory or workshop as being allowed for meals; +and the obligation of enforcing this section rests with the occupier.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>These Rules are required to be posted up in conspicuous places in the +Factory or Workshop to which they apply, where they may be conveniently +read by the persons employed. Any person who wilfully injures or +defaces them is liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds (Factory +and Workshop Act, 1891, section 11). Occupiers of factories and +workshops, and persons employed therein, who are bound to observe any +special rules, are liable to penalties for non-compliance with the +same. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11.)</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 272.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">WOOL SORTING.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. Bales of wool or hair shall, whenever opened for the purpose of +being sorted, be so opened by men skilled in judging of the quality and +condition of the material.</p> + +<p>2. All Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, Persian, and Camel Hair shall be +opened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_852">[852]</span> over a fan with a downward draught, in a room specially set +apart for the purpose, separate and distinct from any sorting-room and +from any room in which work (other than opening) is carried on.</p> + +<p>3. Van Mohair shall be washed and sorted while damp, if sorted at all.</p> + +<p>Persian shall be washed or disinfected as far as possible before being +sorted.</p> + +<p>Damaged wool or hair, fallen fleeces and foreign skin-wool or hair of +the descriptions named in Rules 2 and 4 shall be washed before being +sorted.</p> + +<p>4. No Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, Persian, Camel Hair, or Mohair shall +be sorted except in rooms provided with extracting fans, so arranged +that each sorting-board shall be independently connected with the +extracting shaft by means of a funnel-shaped opening not less than ten +inches across at the top, in such manner that the dust may be drawn +downwards. The draught shall be maintained in constant efficiency +while the sorters are at work, and shall be such that not less than 75 +cubic feet of air per minute are drawn by the fan from beneath each +sorting-board.</p> + +<p>The extracting shaft shall be cleaned out at least once in each week.</p> + +<p>5. The dust collected by the fan shall be discharged into properly +constructed receptacles, and not into the open air. This dust, together +with the sweepings from the floors and walls of the sorting-room, and +from under the sorting-boards, shall be removed at least twice a week, +and burnt. All pieces of skin, scab, and clippings or “shearlings” +shall be removed daily from the sorting-rooms, and be disinfected or +destroyed. All bags in which dangerous wool or hair has been imported +shall be picked clean and not brushed.</p> + +<p>6. No person having any open cut or sore upon any part of his body +shall be allowed to sort.</p> + +<p>7. Proper provision shall be made for the keeping of the sorter’s +clothing and food outside of the sorting-room. No meals shall be +allowed to be taken in the sorting-room.</p> + +<p>During meal hours the windows shall be kept open.</p> + +<p>8. No bale wool or hair shall be stored in a sorting-room, nor wool of +any description, unless the same be effectually screened off from the +sorting-room. An air space of at least 1000 cubic feet shall be allowed +for each sorter, exclusive of any portion screened off.</p> + +<p>9. The floor of the sorting-room shall be thoroughly sprinkled daily +with a disinfectant solution, and swept daily (immediately after +sprinkling) after the work is done.</p> + +<p>10. The walls and ceilings of the sorting-room shall be limewashed at +least once a year.</p> + +<p>11. Requisites for treating scratches and slight wounds shall be kept +at hand.</p> + +<p>12. Proper and sufficient appliances for washing, including basins, +water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels, shall be provided in or near the +sorting rooms, for the use of the sorters.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>13. If, on opening a bale of wool or hair, any fallen fleece or damaged +material is discovered, the person opening the bale shall report the +discovery immediately to the foreman.</p> + +<p>14. Every sorter having an open cut or sore on any part of his body +shall immediately report the fact to the foreman.</p> + +<p>15. No sorter shall keep in the sorting-room coats or other articles of +clothing besides those he is wearing. No meals shall be taken in the +sorting-room.</p> + +<p>16. If the draught at any sorting-board, or the fan or any other +appliance necessary to the production of such draught, is found to be +out of order, the sorter, or any other person becoming aware of the +defect, shall report it to the foreman at once.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p class="p-left">October 1897.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_853">[853]</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules are required to be posted up in +conspicuous places in the Factory or Workshop to which they +apply, where they may be conveniently read by the persons +employed. Any person who wilfully injures or defaces them is +liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds. Occupiers of +factories and workshops, and persons employed therein, who are +bound to observe these Rules, are liable to penalties in case of +non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and +11.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 272<span class="allsmcap">A</span>.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">WOOL SORTING.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. Bales of wool or hair shall, whenever opened for the purpose of +being sorted, be so opened by men skilled in judging of the quality and +condition of the material.</p> + +<p>2. All Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, and Camel Hair shall be opened over +a fan with a downward draught, in a room specially set apart for the +purpose, separate and distinct from any sorting-room, and from any room +in which work (other than opening) is carried on. All Persian shall be +opened and sorted in a room specially set apart for this purpose.</p> + +<p>3. Van Mohair shall be washed and sorted while damp, if sorted at all.</p> + +<p>Damaged wool or hair, fallen fleeces and foreign skin-wool or hair of +the descriptions named in Rules 2 and 4 shall be washed before being +sorted.</p> + +<p>4. No Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, Persian, Camel Hair, or Mohair shall +be sorted except in rooms provided with extracting fans, so arranged +that each sorting-board shall be independently connected with the +extracting shaft by means of a funnel-shaped opening not less than ten +inches across at the top, in such manner that the dust may be drawn +downwards. The draught shall be maintained in constant efficiency +while the sorters are at work, and shall be such that not less than 75 +cubic feet of air per minute are drawn by the fan from beneath each +sorting-board.</p> + +<p>The extracting shaft shall be cleaned out at least once in each week.</p> + +<p>5. The dust collected by the fan from the sorting-boards shall be +discharged into properly constructed receptacles, and not into the +open air. This dust, together with the sweepings from the floors and +walls of the sorting-room, and from under the sorting-boards, shall +be removed at least twice a week, and burnt. All pieces of skin, +scab, and clippings or “shearlings” shall be removed daily from the +sorting-rooms, and be disinfected or destroyed. All bags in which +dangerous wool or hair has been imported shall be picked clean and not +brushed.</p> + +<p>6. No person having any open cut or sore upon any part of his body +shall be allowed to sort.</p> + +<p>7. Proper provision shall be made for the keeping of the sorter’s +clothing and food outside of the sorting-room. No meals shall be +allowed to be taken in the sorting-room.</p> + +<p>During meal hours the windows shall be kept open.</p> + +<p>8. No bale wool or hair shall be stored in a sorting-room, nor wool of +any description unless the same be effectually screened off from the +sorting-room. An air space of at least 1000 cubic feet shall be allowed +for each sorter, exclusive of any portion screened off.</p> + +<p>9. The floor of the sorting-room shall be thoroughly sprinkled daily +with a disinfectant solution, and swept daily (immediately after +sprinkling) after the work is done.</p> + +<p>10. The walls and ceilings of the sorting-room shall be limewashed at +least once a year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_854">[854]</span></p> + +<p>11. Requisites for treating scratches and slight wounds shall be kept +at hand.</p> + +<p>12. Proper and sufficient appliances for washing, including basins, +water, soap, nail-brushes, and towels, shall be provided in or near the +sorting-rooms, for the use of the sorters.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>13. If, on opening a bale of wool or hair, any fallen fleece or damaged +material is discovered, the person opening the bale shall report the +discovery immediately to the foreman.</p> + +<p>14. Every sorter having an open cut or sore on any part of his body +shall immediately report the fact to the foreman.</p> + +<p>15. No sorter shall keep in the sorting-room coats or other articles of +clothing besides those he is wearing. No meals shall be taken in the +sorting-room.</p> + +<p>16. If the draught at any sorting-board, or the fan or any other +appliance necessary to the production of such draught, is found to be +out of order, the sorter, or any other person becoming aware of the +defect, shall report it to the foreman at once.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>April 1898.</p> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules are required to be posted up in conspicuous +places in the Factory or Workshop to which they apply, where they may +be conveniently read by the persons employed. Any person who wilfully +injures or defaces them is liable to a penalty not exceeding five +pounds. Occupiers of factories and workshops, and persons employed +therein, who are bound to observe these Rules, are liable to penalties +in case of non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 +and 11.)</p> + + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 273.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">BOTTLING OF AERATED WATER.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Face-guards.</i>—They shall provide all bottlers with +faceguards, masks, or veils of wire gauze.</p> + +<p>They shall provide all wirers, sighters, and labellers with faceguards, +masks, or veils of wire gauze, or goggles.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Gauntlets.</i>—They shall provide all bottlers with full-length +gauntlets for both arms.</p> + +<p>They shall provide all wirers, sighters, and labellers with gauntlets +for both arms, protecting at least half of the palm and the space +between the thumb and forefinger.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Fencing.</i>—They shall cause all machines for bottling to be so +constructed, so placed, or so fenced, as to prevent as far as possible, +during the operation of filling or corking, a fragment of a bursting +bottle from striking any bottler, wirer, sighter, labeller, or washer.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Face-guards.</i>—All bottlers shall, while at work, wear +faceguards, masks, or veils of wire gauze.</p> + +<p>All wirers, sighters, and labellers shall, while at work, wear +faceguards, masks, or veils of wire gauze, or goggles; except labellers +when labelling bottles standing in cases.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_855">[855]</span></p> + +<p>5. <i>Gauntlets.</i>—All bottlers shall, while at work, wear on both +arms full-length gauntlets. All wirers, sighters, and labellers shall, +while at work, wear on both arms gauntlets protecting at least half +of the palm and the space between the thumb and forefinger; except +labellers when labelling bottles standing in cases.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>August 1897.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous +places in the Factory to which they apply, where they may be +conveniently read by the persons employed.</p> + +<p>Any person who is bound to observe these Rules and fails to do +so, or acts in contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; +and in such case the occupier also is liable to a penalty, +unless he proves that he has taken all reasonable means by +publishing, and to the best of his power enforcing the Rules, +to prevent the contravention or non-compliance. (Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 274.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">VULCANISING OF INDIA-RUBBER BY MEANS OF BISULPHIDE OF CARBON.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS.</p> + +<p>1. No child or young person shall be employed in any room in which +bisulphide of carbon is used.</p> + +<p>2. After May 1st, 1898, no person shall be employed for more than five +hours in any day in a room in which bisulphide of carbon is used, nor +for more than two-and-a-half hours at a time without an interval of at +least an hour.</p> + +<p>3. In vulcanising waterproof cloth by means of bisulphide of carbon—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>a</i>) the trough containing the bisulphide of carbon shall +be self-feeding and covered over;</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>b</i>) the cloth shall be conveyed to and from the drying +chamber by means of an automatic machine;</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>c</i>) no person shall be allowed to enter the drying +chamber in the ordinary course of work;</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>d</i>) the machine shall be covered over, and the fumes +drawn away from the workers by means of a downward suction fan +maintained in constant efficiency.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. Dipping shall not be done except in boxes so arranged that a suction +fan shall draw the fumes away from the workers.</p> + +<p>5. No food shall be allowed to be eaten in any room in which bisulphide +of carbon is used.</p> + +<p>6. A suitable place for meals shall be provided.</p> + +<p>7. All persons employed in rooms in which bisulphide of carbon is +used shall be examined once a month by the Certifying Surgeon for the +district, who shall, after May 1st, 1898, have power to order temporary +or total suspension from work.</p> + +<p>8. No person shall be employed in any room in which bisulphide of +carbon is used, contrary to the direction of the Certifying Surgeon +given as above.</p> + +<p>9. A Register in the form which has been prescribed by the Secretary +of State for use in Indiarubber Works shall be kept, and in it the +Certifying Surgeon will enter the dates and result of his visits, with +the number of persons examined, and particulars of any directions given +by him. This Register shall contain a list of all persons employed in +rooms in which bisulphide of carbon is used, and shall be produced +at any time when required by H.M. Inspector of Factories or by the +Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_856">[856]</span></p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>10. No person shall enter the drying room in the ordinary course of +work, or perform dipping except in boxes provided with a suction fan +carrying the fumes away from the workers.</p> + +<p>11. No person shall take any food in any room in which bisulphide of +carbon is used.</p> + +<p>12. After May 1st, 1898, no person shall, contrary to the direction of +the Certifying Surgeon, given in pursuance of Rule 7, work in any room +in which bisulphide of carbon is used.</p> + +<p>13. All persons employed in rooms in which bisulphide of carbon is used +shall present themselves for periodic examination by the Certifying +Surgeon, as provided in Rule 7.</p> + +<p>14. It shall be the duty of all persons employed to report immediately +to the employer or foreman any defect which they may discover in the +working of the fan or in any appliance required by these rules.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>1897.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules are required to be posted up in +conspicuous places in the Factory or Workshop to which they +apply, where they may be conveniently read by the persons +employed. Any person who wilfully injures or defaces them is +liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds. Occupiers of +factories and workshops, and persons employed therein, who are +bound to observe these Rules, are liable to penalties in case of +non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 and +11).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 343.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">DRY AND DRYSALTED FOREIGN HIDES AND SKINS, AND DRY AND DRYSALTED EAST +INDIAN HIDES AND SKINS.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIER.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Protection for Neck, Arms, and Hands.</i>—Efficient means of +protection for the neck, arms, and hands shall be provided for the use +of all persons employed in unpacking, sorting, packing, handling, or +carrying any dry or drysalted foreign or East Indian hides or skins.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Storage of Food and Clothing.</i>—Proper provision, to the +reasonable satisfaction of the Inspector in charge of the District, +shall be made for the keeping of the workmen’s food and clothing +outside any room or shed in which any of the above described hides or +skins are unpacked, sorted, packed, or stored.</p> + +<p><i>Meals.</i>—No meals shall be allowed to be taken in any such room +or shed.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Washing.</i>—Proper and sufficient appliances for washing, +comprising soap, basins with water laid on, nail-brushes and towels, +shall be provided and maintained for the use of the workmen, to the +reasonable satisfaction of the Inspector in charge of the District.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Dressings.</i>—Sticking plaster, and other requisites for +treating scratches and slight wounds, shall be kept at hand, available +for the use of the persons employed.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Wounds.</i>—No person having any open cut, scratch, or sore upon +face, head, neck, arm, or hand shall be allowed to work on the premises +until the wound is healed, or completely covered by a proper dressing +after being thoroughly washed.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Note to be Exhibited.</i>—A copy of the appended notes shall be +kept affixed with the Rules.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Protection for Neck, Arms, and Hands.</i>—Each person whilst +engaged in unpacking, sorting, packing, handling, or carrying any dry +or drysalted foreign or East Indian hides or skins shall use the means +of protection provided by the Occupier in pursuance of Rule 1.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Storage of Food and Clothing.</i>—No workman shall keep any +food, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_857">[857]</span> any articles of clothing other than those he is wearing, in +any room or shed in which any dry or drysalted foreign or East Indian +hides or skins are handled.</p> + +<p>He shall not take any food in any such room or shed.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Wounds.</i>—Every workman having any open cut or scratch or raw +surface however trifling, upon his face, head, neck, arm, or hand, +shall immediately report the fact to the foreman, and shall not work on +the premises until the wound is healed, or is completely covered by a +proper dressing after being thoroughly washed.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>August 1899.</p> + +<p><i>Note 1.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous +places in the factory to which they apply, where they may be +conveniently read by the persons employed. Any person who is bound to +observe these Rules and fails to do so, or acts in contravention of +them, is liable to a penalty; and in such cases the occupier also is +liable to a penalty, unless he proves that he has taken all reasonable +means by publishing, and to the best of his power enforcing the Rules, +to prevent the contravention or non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop +Act, 1891, Sections 9 and 11.)</p> + +<p><i>Note 2.</i>—<i>Nature of the Disease.</i>—The danger against +which these Rules are directed is that of anthrax—a fatal disease +affecting certain animals, which may be conveyed from them to man by +the handling of hides of animals which have died of the disease. The +germs of the disease (anthrax spores) are found in the dust and in the +substance of the hide, and may remain active for years. In this country +anthrax is rare, and precautions are taken to prevent infected hides +from coming into the market, consequently there is little danger in +handling the hides slaughtered in the United Kingdom: but in Russia, +China, and the East Indies, and in many other parts of the world, the +disease is common, and infected hides (which do not differ from others +in appearance) are often shipped to British ports. Hence in handling +foreign dry hides the above Rules should be carefully observed. Wet +salted hides are free from dust, and less risk is incurred in handling +them.</p> + +<p>The disease is communicated to man sometimes by breathing or swallowing +the dust from an infected hide, but much more usually by the poison +lodging in some point where the skin is broken: such as a fresh scratch +or cut, or a scratched pimple, or even chapped hands. This happens most +readily on the uncovered parts of the body, the hand, arm, face, and +most frequently of all on the neck; owing either to an infected hide +rubbing against the bare skin, or to dust from such a hide alighting +on the raw surface. Hence the necessity for the coverings required by +the Rules. But a raw surface covered by clothing is not free from risk, +for dust lodging upon the clothes may sooner or later work its way to +the skin beneath. Infection may also be brought about by rubbing or +scratching a pimple with hand or nail carrying the anthrax poison.</p> + +<p>The first symptom of anthrax is usually a small inflamed swelling like +a pimple or boil, often quite painless, which extends, and in a few +days becomes black at the centre and surrounded by other “pimples.” +The poison is now liable to be absorbed into the system and will cause +risk to life, which can be avoided only by prompt and effective medical +treatment in the early stage while the poison is still confined to the +pimple. Hence it is of the utmost importance that a doctor should <i>at +once</i> be consulted if there is any suspicion of infection.</p> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 383.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">WOOL-COMBING.</p> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>For the purpose of Rules 1, 2, 12, and 13, “opening” of any wool or +hair means the opening of the fleece, or, if it be not in the fleece, +the opening out for looking over, or classing purposes.</i></p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Opening.</i>—No Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, Persian, or Camel +Hair shall be opened except—</p> + +<div class="parent"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li>(<i>a</i>) after steeping in water, or</li> + <li>(<i>b</i>) over an efficient opening board.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>For the purposes of this Rule, no opening board shall be considered +efficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_858">[858]</span> unless, over a central area of four square feet, the linear +velocity of air passing through the screen shall average at least 150 +feet per minute for each square foot, the measurements to be taken on +a uniform system approved by H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories; and no +opening board shall have an area of less than seven square feet.</p> + +<p>2. All badly-damaged wool or hair, fallen fleeces, and skin, wool, or +hair of the kinds named in Rule 1, shall be opened by an experienced +man in the manner prescribed in Rule 1, and damped with a disinfectant +and then washed without being willowed.</p> + +<p>3. Every bale of Van Mohair shall be steeped in water before being +opened.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Willowing.</i>—No Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, Persian, Camel +Hair, or Mohair shall be willowed except in a separate room provided +with an efficient exhaust fan so arranged as to draw the dust away from +the workmen and prevent it from entering the air of the room.</p> + +<p>No wool or hair shall be stored in a willowing room.</p> + +<p>The floor of every such room shall be sprinkled daily with a +disinfectant solution and swept immediately after sprinkling.</p> + +<p>The walls and ceilings of every such room shall be limewashed at least +once a year and swept down at least once a month.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Dust.</i>—The dust collected by the willows or other dust +extracting machines and from the opening boards shall be discharged +into properly constructed receptacles, and not into the open air. This +dust shall be removed at least once a week.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Storage of Clothing and Food.</i>—Suitable provision shall be +made for keeping the clothing and food of all persons who are employed +in the warehouse, or in any room in which is carried on willowing or +opening, or any other process through which the wool or hair passes +before being washed.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Wounds.</i>—No person having any open cut or sore upon any part +of the body shall be employed in a place specified in Rule 6.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Meals.</i>—No person shall be allowed to prepare or partake of +any food in a place specified in Rule 6, or in a carding room.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Lavatories.</i>—Sufficient and suitable washing conveniences +shall be provided and maintained for all persons employed in the places +specified in Rule 6.</p> + +<p>The washing conveniences shall comprise soap, nail-brushes, and towels, +and at least one wash-hand basin for every five persons employed as +above, each basin being fitted with a waste-pipe and having a constant +supply of water laid on.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Dressings.</i>—Requisites for treating scratches and slight +wounds shall be kept at hand.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Opening.</i>—If, on opening a bale, any fallen fleeces or +damaged material is discovered, the person opening the bale shall +report the discovery immediately to the foreman.</p> + +<p>12. No Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, Persian, or Camel Hair shall be +opened otherwise than as permitted by Rule 1.</p> + +<p>13. No badly damaged wool or hair, fallen fleeces, or skin, wool, or +hair of the kinds named in Rule 1 shall be opened otherwise than as +permitted by Rule 2.</p> + +<p>14. No bale of Van Mohair shall be opened otherwise than as permitted +by Rule 3.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Willowing.</i>—No Alpaca, Pelitan, Cashmere, Persian, Camel +Hair, or Mohair shall be willowed except as permitted by Rule 4.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Wounds.</i>—Any person employed in a place specified in Rule +6, and having an open cut or sore upon any part of the body, shall +immediately report the fact to the foreman.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_859">[859]</span></p> + +<p>17. <i>Storage of Clothing and Food.</i>—No clothing or food shall be +kept in any place specified in Rule 6.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Meals.</i>—No person shall prepare or partake of food in a +place specified in Rule 6, or in a carding room, or bring any food into +such room.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Washing.</i>—No person employed in any place specified in Rule +6 shall leave the works or partake of meals without previously washing +his or her hands.</p> + +<p>20. <i>Failure of Fan, etc.</i>—If the fan or any other appliance +necessary for the carrying out of these Rules is out of order, any +workman becoming aware of the defect shall immediately report the fact +to the foreman.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<p>May 1900.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous +places in the factory to which they apply, where they may be +conveniently read by the persons employed. Any person who is +bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or acts in +contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; and in such cases +the occupier also is liable to a penalty, unless he proves that +he has taken all reasonable means by publishing, and to the best +of his power enforcing the Rules, to prevent the contravention +or non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 +and 11.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 384.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">LUCIFER MATCH FACTORIES IN WHICH WHITE OR YELLOW PHOSPHORUS IS USED.</p> + +<p><i>Definitions.</i>—In these Rules “phosphorus process” means mixing, +dipping, drying, boxing, and any other work or process in which White +or Yellow Phosphorus is used; and “persons employed in a phosphorus +process” means any person who is employed in any room or part of the +factory where such a process is carried on.</p> + +<p>“Double-dipped matches” means wood splints, both ends of which have +been dipped in the igniting composition.</p> + +<p>“Certifying Surgeon” means a Surgeon appointed under the Factory and +Workshop Acts.</p> + +<p>Any approval or decision given by the Chief Inspector of Factories in +pursuance of these Rules shall be given in writing, and may at any time +be revoked by notice in writing signed by him.</p> + +<p><i>Date of Commencement of Certain Rules.</i>—Rules 5 (<i>a</i>), 5 +(<i>b</i>), 6, 8, and 19, so far as they affect the employment of adult +workers, shall not come into force until the 1st day of October 1900.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Plans.</i>—No part of a lucifer match factory shall be +constructed, structurally altered, or newly used for the carrying on of +any phosphorus process, unless the plans have previously been submitted +in duplicate to the Chief Inspector of Factories, and unless he shall +have approved the plans in writing, or shall not, within six weeks from +the submission of the plans, have expressed his disapproval in writing +of the same.</p> + +<p>2. Every room in which mixing, dipping, drying, or boxing is carried +on—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>Ventilation.</i>—Shall be efficiently ventilated by means of +sufficient openings to the outer air, and also by means of fans, +unless the use of fans is dispensed with by order in writing of +the Chief Inspector;</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_860">[860]</span></p> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>Air Space.</i>—Shall contain at least 400 cubic feet of air +space for each person employed therein; and in computing this +air space no height above 14 feet shall be taken into account;</p> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>Lighting.</i>—Shall be efficiently lighted;</p> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>Floor.</i>—Shall have a smooth and impervious floor. A floor +laid with flagstones or hard bricks in good repair shall be +deemed to constitute a smooth and impervious floor.</p> +</div> + +<p>3. <i>Separate Rooms.</i>—(<i>a</i>) The processes of mixing, dipping, +and drying shall each be done in a separate and distinct room. The +process of boxing double-dipped matches or matches not thoroughly dry +shall also be done in a separate and distinct room. These rooms shall +not communicate with any other part of the factory unless there shall +be a ventilated space intervening; nor shall they communicate with one +another, except by means of doorways with closely-fitting doors, which +doors shall be kept shut except when some person is passing through.</p> + +<p><i>Mixing.</i>—(<i>b</i>) Mixing shall not be done except in an +apparatus so closed, or so arranged, and ventilated by means of a fan, +as to prevent the entrance of fumes into the air of the mixing room.</p> + +<p><i>Dipping.</i>—(<i>c</i>) Dipping shall not be done except on a slab +provided with an efficient exhaust fan, and with an air inlet between +the dipper and the slab, or with a hood, so arranged as to draw the +fumes away from the dipper, and to prevent them from entering the air +of the dipping room.</p> + +<p><i>Drying.</i>—(<i>d</i>) Matches that have been dipped and cannot at +once be removed to the drying room shall immediately be placed under a +hood provided with an efficient exhaust fan, so arranged as to prevent +the fumes from entering the air of the room.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Matches shall not be taken to a boxing room not arranged +in compliance with sub-section (<i>f</i>) of this Rule until they are +thoroughly dry, and matches shall not be taken to a boxing room that is +so arranged until they are dried so far as they can be before cutting +down and boxing.</p> + +<p><i>Boxing.</i>—(<i>f</i>) Cutting down of double-dipped matches and +boxing of matches not thoroughly dry shall not be done except at +benches or tables provided with an efficient exhaust fan, so arranged +as to draw the fumes away from the worker and prevent them from +entering the air of the boxing room.</p> + +<p><i>Mechanical arrangements obviating Hand Labour.</i>—Provided that +the foregoing Rule shall not prevent the employment of any mechanical +arrangement for carrying on any of the above-mentioned processes if the +same be approved by the Chief Inspector as obviating the use of hand +labour, and if it be used subject to the conditions (if any) specified +in such approval.</p> + +<p>Provided further, that if the Chief Inspector shall, on consideration +of the special circumstances of any particular case, so approve in +writing, all or any of the provisions of the foregoing Rule may be +suspended for the time named in such approval in writing.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Phosphorus Paste.</i>—Vessels containing phosphorus paste shall, +when not actually in use, be kept constantly covered, and closely +fitting covers or damp flannels shall be provided for the purpose.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Appointed Dentist.</i>—(<i>a</i>) For the purposes of these +Rules the occupier shall appoint, subject to the approval of the Chief +Inspector, a duly qualified and registered Dentist, herein termed the +Appointed Dentist.</p> + +<p><i>Suspension.</i>—It shall be the duty of the Appointed Dentist to +suspend from employment in any phosphorus process any person whom he +finds to incur danger of phosphorus necrosis by reason of defective +conditions of teeth or exposure of the jaw.</p> + +<p><i>Preliminary Examination.</i>—(<i>b</i>) No person shall be newly +employed in a dipping room for more than 28 days, whether such days are +consecutive or not, without being examined by the Appointed Dentist.</p> + +<p><i>Periodical Examination.</i>—(<i>c</i>) Every person employed in +a phosphorus process, except persons employed only as boxers of wax +vestas or other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_861">[861]</span> thoroughly dry matches, shall be examined by the +Appointed Dentist at least once in every three months.</p> + +<p><i>Special Examination in case of Toothache, etc.</i>—(<i>d</i>) Any +person employed in the factory complaining of toothache, or a pain or +swelling of the jaw, shall at once be examined by the Appointed Dentist.</p> + +<p><i>Reference of Cases to Certifying Surgeon.</i>—(<i>e</i>) When the +Appointed Dentist has reason to believe that any person employed in the +factory is suffering from inflammation or necrosis of the jaw, or is +in such a state of health as to incur danger of phosphorus necrosis, +he shall at once direct the attention of the Certifying Surgeon and +occupier to the case. Thereupon such person shall at once be examined +by the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Exclusion of Certain Persons from Employment in Phosphorus +Processes.</i>—No person shall be employed in a phosphorus process—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>after suspension by the Appointed Dentist; or</p> + +<p>after the extraction of a tooth; or</p> + +<p>after any operation involving exposure of the jawbone; or</p> + +<p>after inflammation or necrosis of the jaw; or</p> + +<p>after examination by the Appointed Dentist in pursuance of Rule +5 (<i>d</i>);</p> + +<p>or after reference to the Certifying Surgeon in pursuance +of Rule 5 (<i>e</i>), unless a certificate of fitness has +been given, after examination, by signed entry in the health +register, by the Appointed Dentist or by the Certifying Surgeon +in cases referred to him under Rule 5 (<i>e</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>7. <i>Health Register. Entries by Occupier.</i>—A health register, in +a form approved by the Chief Inspector of Factories, shall be kept by +the occupier, and shall contain a complete list of all persons employed +in each phosphorus process, specifying with regard to each such person +the full name, address, age when first employed, and date of first +employment.</p> + +<p><i>Entries by Certifying Surgeon.</i>—The Certifying Surgeon will +enter in the health register the dates and results of his examinations +of persons employed in phosphorus processes, and particulars of any +directions given by him.</p> + +<p><i>Entries by Appointed Dentist.</i>—The Appointed Dentist will enter +in the health register the dates and results of his examinations of the +teeth of persons employed in phosphorus processes, and particulars of +any directions given by him, and a note of any case referred by him to +the Certifying Surgeon.</p> + +<p><i>Health Register to be produced when required.</i>—The health +register shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. Inspectors +of Factories, or by the Certifying Surgeon, or by the Appointed Dentist.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Preliminary Examination by Certifying Surgeon. Certificate of +Fitness.</i>—Except persons whose names are on the health register +mentioned in Rule 7, and in respect of whom certificates of fitness +shall have been granted, no person shall be newly employed in any +phosphorus process for more than 28 days, whether such days are +consecutive or not, without a certificate of fitness, granted after +examination by the Certifying Surgeon, by signed entry in the health +register.</p> + +<p>This Rule shall not apply to persons employed only as boxers of wax +vestas or other thoroughly dry matches.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Overalls.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain sufficient +and suitable overalls for all persons employed in phosphorus processes, +except for persons employed only as boxers of wax vestas or other +thoroughly dry matches, and shall cause them to be worn as directed in +Rule 20.</p> + +<p>At the end of every day’s work they shall be collected and kept in +proper custody in a suitable place set apart for the purpose.</p> + +<p>They shall be thoroughly washed every week, and suitable arrangements +for this purpose shall be made by the occupier.</p> + +<p>10. The occupier shall provide and maintain—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>a</i>) <i>Dining-room.</i>—A dining-room, and</p> + +<p class="hangingindent">(<i>b</i>) <i>Cloak-room.</i>—A cloak-room in which workers can +deposit clothing put off during working hours.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_862">[862]</span></p> + +<p>11. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall be allowed to prepare or partake of +any food or drink in any room in which a phosphorus process is carried +on, nor to bring any food or drink into such room.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Lavatory.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain for the +use of the workers a lavatory, with soap, nail-brushes, towels, and +at least one lavatory basin for every five persons employed in any +phosphorus process.</p> + +<p>Each such basin shall be fitted with a waste-pipe, or the basins shall +be placed on a trough fitted with a waste-pipe. There shall be a +constant supply of hot and cold water laid on to each basin.</p> + +<p>Or, in the place of basins, the occupier shall provide and maintain +enamel or galvanised iron troughs, in good repair, of a total length +of 2 feet for every five persons employed, fitted with waste-pipes +and without plugs, with a sufficient supply of warm water constantly +available.</p> + +<p>The lavatory shall be kept thoroughly cleansed, and shall be supplied +with a sufficient quantity of clean towels twice in each day.</p> + +<p><i>Additional means of Washing where required.</i>—There shall, in +addition, be means of washing in close proximity to the workers in any +department, if so required in writing by the Inspector in charge of the +District.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Mouth-wash.</i>—The occupier shall provide for the use of +every person employed in a phosphorus process an antiseptic mouth-wash +approved by the Appointed Dentist, and a sufficient supply of glasses +or cups.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Cleansing of Floors.</i>—The floor of each room in which a +phosphorus process is carried on shall be cleared of waste at least +once a day, and washed at least once a week.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Copy of Rules to be given to Persons Employed.</i>—A printed +copy of these Rules shall be given to each person on entering upon +employment in a phosphorus process.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Use of Appliances provided by Occupier under Rule 3.</i>—No +person shall work in a mixing, dipping, drying, or boxing room under +other conditions than those prescribed in Rule 3.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Phosphorus Paste.</i>—No person shall allow a vessel containing +phosphorus paste to remain uncovered except when actually in use.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Medical and Dental Examination.</i>—All persons employed in +a phosphorus process shall present themselves at the appointed times +for examination by the Certifying Surgeon and Appointed Dentist, as +provided in Rules 5, 6, and 8.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Toothache, etc., to be reported. Exclusion from Employment +in Phosphorus Processes.</i>—Every person employed in a phosphorus +process and suffering from toothache or swelling of the jaw: or +having had a tooth extracted, or having undergone any other operation +involving exposure of the jaw, shall at once inform the occupier, +and shall not resume employment in a phosphorus process without a +certificate of fitness from the Appointed Dentist, as provided in Rule +6.</p> + +<p>No person, after suspension by the Appointed Dentist, or after +reference to the Certifying Surgeon, shall resume employment in a +phosphorus process without a certificate of fitness, as provided in +Rule 6.</p> + +<p>20. <i>Overalls.-</i>-Every person employed in a phosphorus process for +whom the occupier is required by Rule 9 to provide overalls shall wear +while at work the overalls so provided.</p> + +<p>21. <i>Washing.</i>—Every person employed in a phosphorus process +shall, before partaking of meals or leaving the premises, deposit the +overalls in the place appointed by the occupier for the purpose, and +shall thoroughly wash in the lavatory.</p> + +<p>22. <i>Food.</i>—No person shall prepare or partake of food or drink +in any room in which a phosphorus process is being carried on, or bring +any food or drink into such room.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Means of Removal of Dust and Fumes not to be interfered +with.</i>—No<span class="pagenum" id="Page_863">[863]</span> person shall in any way interfere, without the knowledge +and concurrence of the occupier or manager, with the means and +appliances provided for the removal of dust and fumes.</p> + +<p>24. <i>Foremen to Report Neglect of Rules.</i>—Foremen and forewomen +shall report to the manager any instance coming under their notice of a +worker neglecting to observe these Rules.</p> + +<div class="parent1"> +<ul class="left smaller" style="margin-top: 0em"> + <li class="i3 smcap">Arthur Whitelegge</li> + <li class="i1"><i>Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</li> + <li class="i3 smcap">M. W. Ridley</li> + <li class="i1"><i>One of Her Majesty’s Principal<br> +Secretaries of State</i>.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>April 1900.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous +places in the factory to which they apply, where they may +be conveniently read by persons employed. Any person who is +bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or acts in +contravention to them, is liable to a penalty, and in such cases +the occupier also is liable to a penalty, unless he proves that +he has taken all reasonable means by publishing, and to the best +of his power enforcing the Rules, to prevent the contravention +or non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 +and 11.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="r25"> + + +<p class="p-left">Form 385.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES, for works in which</i><br>LEAD OR ARSENIC IS USED IN THE +TINNING AND ENAMELLING OF METAL HOLLOW WARE AND COOKING UTENSILS.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p><i>Washing.</i>—They shall provide washing conveniences, with a +sufficient supply of hot and cold water, soap, nail-brushes, and +towels; and take measures to secure that every worker wash face and +hands before meals and before leaving the works.</p> + +<p><i>Meals.</i>—They shall see that no food is eaten in any room where +the process of tinning or enamelling is carried on.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p><i>Washing.</i>—Every worker shall wash face and hands before meals +and before leaving the works.</p> + +<p><i>Meals.</i>—No worker shall eat food in any room where the process +of tinning or enamelling is carried on.</p> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—These Rules must be kept posted up in conspicuous +places in the factory to which they apply, where they may be +conveniently read by the person employed. Any person who is +bound to observe these Rules and fails to do so, or acts in +contravention of them, is liable to a penalty; and in such cases +the occupier also is liable to a penalty unless he proves that +he has taken all reasonable means by publishing, and to the best +of his power enforcing the Rules, to prevent the contravention +or non-compliance. (Factory and Workshop Act, 1891, Sections 9 +and 11.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="r25"> + +<p class="p-left">Form 386.</p> + +<p class="smcap center">Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895.</p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center"><i>SPECIAL RULES.</i></p> + +<hr class="r10"> + +<p class="center">ELECTRIC ACCUMULATOR WORKS.</p> + + +<p class="center sm">DUTIES OF OCCUPIERS.</p> + +<p><i>Bath, Lavatory.</i>—They shall provide a bath and lavatory +accommodation, with a plentiful supply of hot and cold water, soap, +nail-brushes, and towels.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_864">[864]</span></p> + +<p><i>Respirators, Overalls.</i>—They shall provide respirators and +overall suits for all persons employed in the operation of mixing.</p> + +<p><i>Gloves and Aprons.</i>—They shall provide gloves and aprons for all +persons employed in the occupation of rubbing.</p> + +<p>They shall see that the gloves are constantly inspected and renewed +when defective.</p> + + +<p class="center sm p1">DUTIES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED.</p> + +<p>In cases where the co-operation of the workers is required for carrying +out the foregoing Rules, and where such co-operation is not given, +the workers shall be held liable in accordance with the Factory and +Workshop Act, 1891, Section 9, which runs as follows:—“If any person +who is bound to observe any special rules established for any factory +or workshop under this Act acts in contravention of, or fails to comply +with, any such special rule, he shall be liable on summary conviction +to a fine not exceeding two pounds.”</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hangingindent"><i>Respirators.</i>—A good respirator is a cambric bag with or +without a thin flexible wire made to fit over the nose.</p> +</div> + +<p class="smcap r4 p-min">Arthur Whitelegge,</p> + +<p class="r2 p-min"><i>H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories</i>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_865">[865]</span></p> + +<h2>INDEX</h2> +</div> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Abel, Sir Frederick, process of treating gun-cotton, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on tonite, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Aberdeen, granite workers, suffer from chronic bronchitis, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Abruzzi, lathyrism in the, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Académie de Médecine (Paris), + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, + <a href="#Page_793">793</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Académie des Sciences (Paris), + <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Accident Insurance Associations (Germany), + <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, + <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, + <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Accidents, in mines, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, + <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, + <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, + <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, + <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, + <a href="#Page_508">508–33</a>, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in textile and non-textile industries, + <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, + <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their prevention in factories, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to occupied and unoccupied males, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on sailing- and steam-ships, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on railways, + <a href="#Page_190">190–202</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in agriculture, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in electric works, + <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">caused by grindstones, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to bargemen, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">well-sinkers, + <a href="#Page_542">542</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarriers, + <a href="#Page_560">560</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in manufacture and use of explosives, + <a href="#Page_601">601–9</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_683">683</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">aerated water works, + <a href="#Page_687">687</a>, + <a href="#Page_786">786</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to eyes, in industrial occupations, + <a href="#Page_776">776–87</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in iron and steel works, + <a href="#Page_777">777</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boiler, + <a href="#Page_787">787</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Acetylene and its dangers, + <a href="#Page_497">497–504</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Acne in rag-grinders, + <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Actinomycosis, disease caused by infected grain, + <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Addison, Dr, + <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Adenitis in label-lickers, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Administrative decrees for sanitary regulation of factories in France and Belgium, + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, + <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Admiralty adopts eight hours’ day, + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Aerated water works, women employed in, + <a href="#Page_687">687–90</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules, + <a href="#Page_687">687</a>, + <a href="#Page_854">854</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents in, + <a href="#Page_786">786</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Africa, pellagra in, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Africa, South, enteric fever in, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, + <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, + <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Africa, West Coast of, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">After-damp, in mines, + <a href="#Page_548">548–53</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Age, mortality of occupations in relation to, + <a href="#Page_127">127–29</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Agriculture, + <a href="#Page_232">232–37</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">machinery accidents in, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Agriculturists, + <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mortality tables, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ague, brassfounders’, + <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, + <a href="#Page_455">455–62</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Air, of mines, + <a href="#Page_540">540–56</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of jute factories, + <a href="#Page_657">657</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">diseases due to compressed and stagnant (in caissons, tunnels, etc.), + <a href="#Page_728">728–48</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to diminished pressure of, + <a href="#Page_749">749</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to concussion of, + <a href="#Page_752">752</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alabaster quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Albuminate of mercury, + <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alcohol and fatigue, + <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alcoholism, mortality among cutlers, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">musicians, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hatters, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hairdressers, + <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tailors, + <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drapers, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">shoemakers, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, + <a href="#Page_824">824</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, + <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, + <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in mercantile marine, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">predisposes to plumbism, + <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, + <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarriers, + <a href="#Page_563">563</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chemical workers, + <a href="#Page_572">572</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">file-cutters, copper workers, carpenters, earthenware makers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brewers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hecklers and roughers, + <a href="#Page_697">697</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">agriculturists, cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drivers of public vehicles, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">publicans and innkeepers, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">coal heavers and trimmers, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alkali Acts, + <a href="#Page_588">588</a>, + <a href="#Page_597">597</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alkali, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_582">582</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hours of workers in, + <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alkali Union, + <a href="#Page_586">586</a>, + <a href="#Page_588">588</a>, + <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Allahabad, lathyrism at, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Allbutt’s <i>System of Medicine</i>, + <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, + <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>, + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Allgm. Medic. Central Zeitung</i>, + <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Almaden (Spain), quicksilver mines, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alpaca, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alpine tunnels, the, + <a href="#Page_737">737–43</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Alström, Mr (Rorstrand Potteries, Stockholm), + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Amalgamated Brass-Workers’ Association, + <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Amberite, sporting powder, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Amblyopia, blindness caused by bisulphide of carbon, + <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">by dinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tobacco factories, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">America, railways in, + <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, + <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">all file-cutting done by machinery, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fireclay mines, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mercurial poisoning from hatters furriers’ processes in, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mining accidents, + <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, + <a href="#Page_522">522</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">alkali works in, + <a href="#Page_598">598</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">telegraphists’ spasm in, + <a href="#Page_820">820</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">American, or Blake machine, in shoe-factories, + <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, + <a href="#Page_825">825</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ammonia soda process, + <a href="#Page_583">583</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ammonite, for blasting, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ammonium-nitrate explosives, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_605">605</a>, + <a href="#Page_606">606</a>, + <a href="#Page_612">612</a>, + <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ammunition, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Amorphous, or red, phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_417">417–19</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Amvis, for blasting, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Anchylosis, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Anchylostomiasis, + <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in miners, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tunnel miners (“maladie des tunnels”), + <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Anderson, Miss A. M., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, + <a href="#Page_671">671</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Andes, the, + <a href="#Page_749">749</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Andrews, Dr F. W., pathologist at St Bartholomew’s Hospital, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on tetanus in jute-workers, + <a href="#Page_659">659</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Aneurism, affects sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">butchers, slaughterers, and tanners, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(popliteal) common in jockeys and grooms, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Aniline, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, + <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Aniline dyes, + <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ankle drop, a symptom of plumbism, + <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Annales d’Hygiène publique</i>, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Annales des Mines de Belgique</i>, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Annealing, in glass manufacture, + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Annuaire de la Législation du Travail</i> (Belgium), + <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Annual Register</i>, + <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Anthracene, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Anthracosis, or miners’ phthisis, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">stokers’, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Anthrax">Anthrax (charbon, splenic fever), + <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, + <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in wool-workers, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, + <a href="#Page_634">634–43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drovers, shepherds, farmers, farriers, veterinary surgeons, + knackers, slaughterers, fell-mongers, hair- and horn-workers, rag-sorters, + plasterers, furriers, felt-workers, mattress-makers, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brush-workers, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tanners, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its history, + <a href="#Page_622">622</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">statistics, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">outbreaks and notification of, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, + <a href="#Page_626">626</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">grouping of cases, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">preventive measures, disinfection and treatment, + <a href="#Page_629">629–33</a>, + <a href="#Page_643">643</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cutaneous, + <a href="#Page_636">636</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pulmonary, + <a href="#Page_637">637</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">intestinal, + <a href="#Page_641">641</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Antimony, smelting of, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">poisoning by, + <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">compounds of, + <a href="#Page_592">592</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Apoplexy, heat, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">the “fireman’s frenzy” of stokers, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Appendicitis, + <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte</i>, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, + <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, + <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, + <a href="#Page_632">632</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Arbitration, and Factory Act of 1901, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">the principle of, + <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">for mines, + <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, + <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and Special Rules, + <a href="#Page_65">65–71</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">match manufacturers, + <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Arbitration Court at Stoke-on-Trent, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Archiv. de Med. Milit.</i>, + <a href="#Page_750">750</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ardeer, Scotland, nitro-glycerine explosion at, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Arlidge, Dr, <i>Hygiene and Diseases of Occupations</i>, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, + <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, + <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, + <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, + <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, + <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, + <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, + <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, + <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, + <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>;</li> + <li class="i2"><i>The Sanitation of Industries and Occupations</i>, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Armstrong, Dr Henry E., Medical Officer of Health, Newcastle, + <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, + <a href="#Page_753">753</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Army, health of the, + <a href="#Page_166">166–81</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Arnaud, Dr, Marseilles, + <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Arsenic, used for colouring purposes, + <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">symptoms and treatment of poisoning by, + <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">compounds of, + <a href="#Page_592">592</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its effects on eyes, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for extraction of, + <a href="#Page_831">831</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Arsenical pyrites, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Arseniuretted hydrogen, + <a href="#Page_750">750</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Artificially- <i>v.</i> breast-fed children, + <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Artisans and labourers, working-classes divided into, + <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Asbestos, + <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ashanti Expeditions (1873 and 1895–96), “doctors’ wars,” + <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, + <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ashley, Lord, + <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Askam separator, for basic slag, + <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Asprières, Aveyron, lead mining at, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Asquith, H. H., + <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, + <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, + <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Asthma, induced by bichromate, + <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in rag-sorters, + <a href="#Page_645">645</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">flax-workers, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sawyers, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ataxia, locomotor, + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Atkinson, Dr, Crewe, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Atkinson, W. N., + <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Atropin, antidote to mushroom poisoning, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Australia, eight hours’ day in, + <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anchylostomiasis among miners, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Austria, factory legislation in, + <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, + <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">powers of health authorities, + <a href="#Page_49">49–51</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employment of women after childbirth, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lucifer match industry in, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Austrian Industrial Code, + <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Automatic couplings, on railways, + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, + <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, + <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Babes, Dr, Bucharest, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bacteriological Laboratory at Dey, Algiers, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bagehot, Walter, + <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Baker, Mr, Chief of Factory Department, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, + <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, + <a href="#Page_696">696</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bakers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ballard, Dr, + <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ballistite, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Balloonists, military, + <a href="#Page_750">750</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Balmskz, Dr, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bamberg, Dr, Stockholm, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bands, scroll- or draw-, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bargemen, accident death rate, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Barium, compounds of, + <a href="#Page_592">592</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Barium nitrate, in explosives, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Barium sulphate, + <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, + <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Barmen, high mortality of, + <a href="#Page_800">800</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Barometer-making, + <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Barracks, military, + <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bartholomew, Gilbert, Managing Director of Bryant & May, + <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Basalt or whinstone quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Basic slag, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, + <a href="#Page_390">390–95</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pulmonary symptoms in grinders of, + <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">silicate of cotton made from refuse, + <a href="#Page_788">788</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Batch, fused mass of chrome, ironstone, etc., + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bateman, Dr, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Batley, rag-trade at, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Battelli, Dr, Geneva University, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bayer, Dr, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Beach, Sir Michael Hicks-, + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Beaconsfield, Lord, + <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bécourt, M., + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bedson, Professor of Chemistry, Newcastle College of Science, + <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, + <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, + <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, + <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bee-stings, among field-workers, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Beetling machines (linen manufacture), + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Belfast, centre of linen trade, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Belgian Mills Co., Pearson <i>v.</i>, + <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Belgian Superior Council of Labour, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Belgium, colliers’ diseases in, + <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">factory legislation and inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, + <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employment of women after childbirth, + <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">use of white phosphorus limited in, + <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fireclay mining in, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lucifer match industry, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, + <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">phosphorus necrosis in, + <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mining accidents, + <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, + <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anchylostomiasis in miners, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">alkali works, + <a href="#Page_598">598</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners’ nystagmus in, + <a href="#Page_764">764</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bell, Sir Charles, + <a href="#Page_815">815</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bellhangers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bellite, for blasting, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Belts and mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, + <a href="#Page_208">208–11</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">shaftings, pulleys, couplings, etc., + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Benefit Societies of the Printers and Type-casters of Vienna, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Benzine, and its dinitro compounds, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Benzine, dry cleaning by, + <a href="#Page_491">491–3</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Berg-, Hütten-, und Salinen-wesen im Preussischen Staate, Zeitschrift für des</i>, + <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Berg- und Hütten-wesen im Königreiche Sachsen, Jahrbuch für das</i>, + <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Beriberi, seamen liable to, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Berichte über die Verwaltung der Knappschafts-Berufsgenossenschaft</i>, + <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Berkfeld, his bacterial filter, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Berlin, printers in, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">manufacture of incandescent electric lamps in, + <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Berlin International Conference on Factories, + <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Berlin. Klin. Wochenschrift</i>, + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bermondsey, case of anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_629">629</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bernard, Claude, + <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bert, Paul, French physiologist, + <a href="#Page_736">736</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bertarelli, M., + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Berthelot, Professor, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Besançon process for treating white lead, + <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, + <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bessemer metal, heat of, + <a href="#Page_772">772</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bessemer process of steel manufacture, + <a href="#Page_758">758</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bevel wheels (mill-gearing), + <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bichât Hospital, Paris, lead colic patients in, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bichromate of potassium and sodium (bichromes), lesions resulting from manufactureand use of, + <a href="#Page_447">447–54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for manufacture, + <a href="#Page_844">844</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bilston, hollow ware tinning and enamelling works at, + <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Birmingham, infant mortality, in, + <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">iron-plate enamelling at, + <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sheet glass manufacture in, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Birmingham Medical Review</i>, + <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Birmingham, Dr C. L., <i>Ganister Disease</i>, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Birtwistle, Hindle <i>v.</i>, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bischof process, in white lead manufacture, + <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Biscuit, earthenware after its first firing, + <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bismarck brown pigment, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Bisulphide_carbon">Bisulphide of carbon, poisoning by, + <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">used in indiarubber works, + <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, + <a href="#Page_855">855</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">causes peripheral neuritis, + <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and toxic hysteria, + <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its effects on eyes, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for use of, + <a href="#Page_855">855</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bituminous coal mines, America, + <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blackbeck, Haverthwaite, gunpowder explosions at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blackburn, cotton spinning at, + <a href="#Page_706">706</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate of cotton operatives in, + <a href="#Page_718">718</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blackburn Observatory, daily records of moisture in weaving sheds, + <a href="#Page_710">710</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Black-damp, in mines, + <a href="#Page_540">540–45</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blackman’s ventilating fan, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blacksmiths, their diseases and death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blackwall Tunnel, + <a href="#Page_730">730</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blake sole-stitching machine, + <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, + <a href="#Page_825">825</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blanket-stoving, + <a href="#Page_648">648</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">causes bronchitis and emphysema, + <a href="#Page_649">649</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blast furnacemen, their diseases, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blasting explosives, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fumes produced in mines by, + <a href="#Page_536">536</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accident from, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blasting gelatine (nitro-cotton dissolved into nitro-glycerine), + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_614">614</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blaudet, M., + <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bleach packers, + <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, + <a href="#Page_578">578</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bleaching linen, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bleaching powder, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_574">574–80</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hours of work, etc., + <a href="#Page_587">587</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blindness, caused by accidents, + <a href="#Page_776">776</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bloomfontein, + <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blowing room (cotton spinning), + <a href="#Page_702">702</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blue and white beds, in a lead factory, + <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Blyth, Wynter, + <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Board of Trade, and railways, + <a href="#Page_191">191–202</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bobbin-turners (jute works), + <a href="#Page_652">652</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Boers, the, + <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bohemia, ergotism in, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lucifer match works in, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Boiler Explosives Act, + <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Boilermakers, their deafness, + <a href="#Page_752">752</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their health, + <a href="#Page_753">753</a>, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Boilermakers’ Society, + <a href="#Page_752">752</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bolam, Dr R. A., + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, + <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, + <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, + <a href="#Page_792">792</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bolt-heads and bolts for mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bones, fragility of, in lucifer match makers, + <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bookbinders, death rate, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bootmaking, + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bottlers, of aerated water, + <a href="#Page_687">687</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_786">786</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bouquet, M., + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bourgeois, <i>La Pustule Maligne et L’Œdème Malin</i>, + <a href="#Page_636">636</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bournemouth, horses killed by electric shock at, + <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Boyce, Professor, + <a href="#Page_629">629</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Boys, Professor C. V., + <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bradford, School Board and Board of Guardians Conference at, + <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool industry at, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brain work, and brain fatigue, + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brakesmen, railway, + <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brandt, of Hamburg, discovers white or yellow phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brandt, Brandau et Cie., Zurich, + <a href="#Page_740">740</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brass, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_455">455–66</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brass-casters, + <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, + <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brass cocks, buffing of, + <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brassfounders’ ague, + <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, + <a href="#Page_455">455–62</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brass-workers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">more unhealthy than copper-, + <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules, + <a href="#Page_850">850</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brass-workers’ Organisation, + <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brazil, pellagra in, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Breaker card (jute), + <a href="#Page_653">653</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(flax), + <a href="#Page_694">694</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Breaker-mills, for ganister crushing, + <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brewers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brickearth quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bricklayers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bridges, Dr, Inspector of Factories, + <a href="#Page_705">705</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bright’s disease, miners subject to, + <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brigue (Simplon Tunnel), + <a href="#Page_740">740</a>, + <a href="#Page_741">741</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brimstone, blanket-stoving with, + <a href="#Page_648">648</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brine works (Germany), accidents in, + <a href="#Page_513">513–15</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>British Association Report</i>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">British Medical Association, + <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, + <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, + <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>British Medical Journal</i>, + <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, + <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, + <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, + <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, + <a href="#Page_766">766</a>, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brocoorens, Dr, Grammont, + <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Broken Hill, Australia, lead mining at, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bromsgrove, nail-making at, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bronchial affections, among porcelain- and cement-makers, masons, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blast furnacemen, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bronchitis, in seamen, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">field-workers, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Aberdeen granite workers, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">typographers, + <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, + <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">coal and metal miners, + <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">rag-sorters, + <a href="#Page_645">645</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blanket-stovers, + <a href="#Page_649">649</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jute-workers, + <a href="#Page_660">660</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jam-makers, + <a href="#Page_680">680</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied males, agriculturists, cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boilermakers, shipwrights, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sawyers, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">engine drivers, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bronzing, dry, + <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brass, + <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>, + <a href="#Page_734">734</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brose, Dr, + <a href="#Page_773">773</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brown, Dr Ed., + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brunel, + <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">his use of caissons, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brünner, Mond, & Co., + <a href="#Page_583">583</a>, + <a href="#Page_587">587</a>, + <a href="#Page_588">588</a>, + <a href="#Page_597">597</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bruntscliffe, Yorks., gunpowder explosion at Victoria Colliery, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Brush-workers, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bryant & May, + <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, + <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, + <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their allowance to necrosis patients, + <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Buchanan, Dr George, Medical Officer Local Government Board, + <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, + <a href="#Page_705">705</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Buckingham, Duke of, + <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Buda Pesth, manufacture of incandescent electric lamps at, + <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">steam roller system of milling, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Budd, Dr William, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Buffing, of brass cocks, and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of silver, eye affections, + <a href="#Page_771">771</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Buhrstone, French, + <a href="#Page_405">405–7</a>, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bulhurst coal seam, North Staff., + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Bulletin de l’Inspection du Travail</i> (France), + <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, + <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Bulletin Médical</i>, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Bunsen burner, + <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Burgess, Dr Duncan, Senior Physician, Sheffield Royal Hospital, + <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Burkitt, Dr, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Burnishers of silver, eye affections, + <a href="#Page_771">771</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Burns, John, M.P., + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Burslem potteries, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Busquet, Surgeon-Major, French Army, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Butchers, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Butlin, Henry T., Surgeon St Bartholomew’s Hospital, <i>Cancer of the Scrotum in Chimney Sweeps</i>, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Byssinosis, lung disease from inhaling cotton particles, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Cabmen, and alcoholism, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cage hoists, + <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Caisson disease (compressed air illness), + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, + <a href="#Page_728">728–35</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its treatment, + <a href="#Page_735">735</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Caissons, for well-boring, bridge-building, etc., + <a href="#Page_728">728–31</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Calcium carbide, + <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, + <a href="#Page_499">499–501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Calcott, Dr, Newcastle Asylum at Cox Lodge, + <a href="#Page_799">799</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Calender machine, adapted to laundry work, + <a href="#Page_666">666</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Calico-printing, + <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, + <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Calliard or ganister stone, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Calomel (the subchloride of mercury), + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Camel’s wool or hair, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Campbell and Greenwood’s guard, + <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Camphor, + <a href="#Page_792">792</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Canada, use of corundum stone in, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cancer, affects glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool-workers, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bookbinders, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">shoemakers, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">field-workers, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gardeners, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boilermakers, and shipwrights, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">workers in tar and paraffin, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cannonite, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbide of calcium, + <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, + <a href="#Page_499">499–501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbon, all explosives contain, + <a href="#Page_610">610</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbon bisulphide, <i>see</i> <a href="#Bisulphide_carbon">bisulphide of carbon</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbon monoxide, + <a href="#Page_610">610</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tunnels, + <a href="#Page_744">744</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbonate of lead (<i>céruse</i>), + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, + <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbonators, + <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), in mines, + <a href="#Page_544">544–46</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in weaving sheds, + <a href="#Page_713">713</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tunnels, + <a href="#Page_744">744</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbonic anhydride, + <a href="#Page_610">610</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbonic oxide, or carbon monoxide, + <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, + <a href="#Page_548">548–55</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbonising, process applied to cotton rags, + <a href="#Page_646">646</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carbonite, blasting explosive, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carding, jute, + <a href="#Page_653">653</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">flax, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cotton, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cardio-vascular disease, in quarriers, + <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carmarthen, tinplate works at, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carotting, brushing rabbit skins, + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carpenters, death rate, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">subject to contracted tendons, hernia, varicocele, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carpet manufacturers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carr, Henry, <i>Our Domestic Poisons</i>, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carragheen moss, Irish, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Carriage wheels, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cartmen, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Casters, printing trade, lead dust, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">transfer making, + <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, + <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Castings of iron or steel, + <a href="#Page_780">780</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Casualties at sea, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Catania, + <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cataract, in glass blowers, + <a href="#Page_773">773</a>, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cats, diphtheria caught from, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">experiments with benzine and toluene on, + <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cattani, discovers tetanus bacilli, + <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cattle, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Caustic soda, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Cavalryman’s leg,” + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Celluloid, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_792">792</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cement dust, diseases caused by, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Centanni, Professor, and hydrophobia, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Céruse</i> (carbonate of lead), + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, + <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ceylon, + <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chabert, Dr, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chadwick, Sir Edwin, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chaff-cutting machines, + <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chain and nail making, + <a href="#Page_758">758</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chalicosis, or silicosis, lung disease due to dust, etc., + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chalk quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chamberland, Pasteur-, his bacterial filter, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Chambers’ Encyclopædia</i>, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chance’s process, in sulphur manufacture, + <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Charbon or anthrax, <i>see</i> <a href="#Anthrax">anthrax</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Charcoal, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Charcot, Dr, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chauveau, M.A., + <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, + <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chemical industry, causes of its decline in England, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its decay on Tyneside, + <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">a survey of, + <a href="#Page_566">566–98</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">table of average hours of labour and wages in, + <a href="#Page_585">585</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">output method of wage-paying, + <a href="#Page_589">589</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">health of workers in, + <a href="#Page_592">592–98</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_843">843</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chepstow, use of caissons at, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chert quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cheshire salt mines, + <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chester, tobacco factory at, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chevallier, Dr, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cheyne-Stokes respiration, + <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chick-pea (lathyrus), + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Child-birth, employment of women in factories after, + <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Child-labour, + <a href="#Page_90">90–97</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Children, high mortality of lead-workers’, + <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Children’s Employment Commission (1862), Report of, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chimney sweeps, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cancer in, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pulmonary, kidney, and heart disease in, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their ablutions, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">China, or porcelain, + <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">China clay, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, + <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">China manufacturers, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">liable to pulmonary disease and phthisis, + <a href="#Page_382">382–89</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_834">834–41</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">China-red powder, + <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chipping in iron and steel works, + <a href="#Page_779">779–82</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chlorate of potass, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, + <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chlorate mixtures, as explosives, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chlorine, + <a href="#Page_574">574–80</a>, + <a href="#Page_583">583</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Choquet, Dr, + <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chromate of lead, + <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chromate of potassium, Special Rules for manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_844">844</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chrome dyes, + <a href="#Page_315">315–17</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chrome holes, ulcers caused by bichromate, + <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chrome ironstone, + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Chromo-lithographic works and transfer making, + <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cigar manufacture, + <a href="#Page_793">793</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">a proper industry for women, + <a href="#Page_795">795</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cincinnati, tobacco works in, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Cincinnati Lancet Clinic</i>, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cinnabar, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">extraction of quicksilver from, + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Circular saw, + <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Circulatory diseases, among gunsmiths, steel-, zinc-, and + brass-workers, chimney sweeps, coopers, wood-turners, rope makers, bricklayers, + masons, carpet makers, tin- and wool-workers, locksmiths, bakers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blacksmiths, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">earthenware- and china-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">copper-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">iron-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">stone quarriers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cutlers, file-makers, cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bookbinders, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">printers, musicians, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brewers, carpenters, chemical workers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied males, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">agriculturists, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boilermakers and shipwrights, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cirrhosis of liver, in barmen, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cirrhosis of lung (potters’ phthisis), + <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Classification of industries, + <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Clay quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Claybury Asylum, Essex, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Clichy (France), white lead works at, + <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, + <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Climbing boys, in chimney sweeping, + <a href="#Page_810">810</a>, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Clinical Journal</i>, + <a href="#Page_746">746</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cloth manufacture, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Clowes, <i>Detection of Inflammable Gas</i>, + <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coachmen, liable to glanders and farcy, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coachpainters, and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal, four kinds of heating, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal-dust, an explosive agent, + <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal heavers and trimmers, subject to alcoholism, phthisis, and pulmonary diseases, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal miners, comparison of night and day shift work, + <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and Workmen’s Compensation Act, + <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate of, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">technical education of, + <a href="#Page_529">529</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their diseases, + <a href="#Page_533">533–39</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">more healthy than metal-, + <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">nystagmus, + <a href="#Page_761">761–64</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal mines, accidents in,—Germany, + <a href="#Page_511">511–19</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">France, + <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, + <a href="#Page_520">520</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Belgium, + <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, + <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Italy, + <a href="#Page_520">520</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">America, + <a href="#Page_521">521</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">England, + <a href="#Page_523">523–28</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate from explosions, + <a href="#Page_525">525</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">falls of coal and roof (“backbye” accidents), + <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, + <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">safety lamps, + <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">transport and shaft accidents, + <a href="#Page_528">528</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">explosions and explosives in, + <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, + <a href="#Page_615">615–18</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal Mines Act (1850 and 1855), + <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1860), + <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, + <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1872), + <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, + <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1881 and 1887), + <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Regulation Act, + <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, + <a href="#Page_517">517</a>, + <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal Mines, Royal Commission (1862–4) on, + <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coalport China Co., + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coal tar, in indiarubber work, + <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its products, + <a href="#Page_590">590</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents from, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cobalt, oxide of, + <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Colefax, M., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Colic, an early symptom of plumbism, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, + <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of electricians, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brass-workers, + <a href="#Page_460">460</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">copper-workers, + <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Collars, for mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Collings, Jesse, + <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Colour grinders, lead insanity, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mixers, and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Colour and paint factories, + <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_831">831</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Combe’s method, for treating white lead, + <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, + <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Comité Consultatif d’Hygiène</i>, + <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Commission Supérieure du Travail dans l’Industrie</i>, + <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Compensation Acts, Workmen’s, + <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Compositors, <i>see</i> <a href="#Typographers">typographers</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Compositors, London Society of, + <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Mortality Table, + <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Compressed and stagnant air, diseases due to working in, + <a href="#Page_728">728–48</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Concussion of the air, effects of, + <a href="#Page_752">752</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Conductors, of electricity, + <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, + <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Confectioners, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">liable to caries of the teeth, ophthalmia, etc., + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Congrès International des Accidents du Travail</i> (Brussels), + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Conjunctivitis, due to dusty occupations, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to lime, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Conseil de Salubrité</i>, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Converters, in steel works, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cooks, in mercantile marine, + <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">health of domestic, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coopers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cope Bros., tobacco manufacturers, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Copper, arsenites of, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Copper-miners, death rate, + <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">a healthy occupation, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Copper-smelting, + <a href="#Page_466">466–69</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Copper-workers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their occupation less dangerous than that of brass-, + <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cops, for jute yarn, + <a href="#Page_654">654</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Corchorus capsularis, C. olitarus</i>, jute fibre obtained from, + <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cordite, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cornbrook, Manchester, lyddite explosion at, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cornish clay, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, + <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cornwall, tin miners, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">liable to phthisis, bronchitis, and pneumonia, + <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">intermarriage among quarriers in, + <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury), + <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Corundum stone, for emery wheels, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_702">702–23</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton Cloth Factories Act, + <a href="#Page_679">679</a>, + <a href="#Page_706">706</a>, + <a href="#Page_713">713</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton dust, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, + <a href="#Page_715">715</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton factories, standard purity of air in, + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">machinery in, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">humidity of the air in, + <a href="#Page_707">707–14</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton famine in Lancashire, + <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton operatives, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(Blackburn), + <a href="#Page_721">721</a>;</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton powder, or tonite, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cotton rags, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Council of Hygiene (Paris), + <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Couplings, automatic, on railways, + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, + <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, + <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">for mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li> + + <li class="i1">Courtois, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Courtois-Suffit, Dr, + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Coventry, prostration of trade (1861) in, + <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sale of Godfrey’s cordial and opiates in, + <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cowmen, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cowpox, or vaccinia, cowmen and dairymaids liable to, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cows, communicate tuberculosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and ringworm, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cradley Heath, chain making at, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Craig, Montrose, nitro-glycerine explosion at, + <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cramp, W. D., Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cranes, winches, etc., + <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Crarae Quarry, Loch Fyne, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Crèche, the, its proper sphere, + <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">for flax-workers, + <a href="#Page_701">701</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cripps, Mr, K.C., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Crocus, a fine powder for polishing steel, + <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Crommelin, Louis, sketch of the Irish linen trade, + <a href="#Page_691">691</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Crouch ware, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cumberland, ironstone mines, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead mines, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cummings, D. C., Secretary Boilermakers’ Society, + <a href="#Page_753">753</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cundill, Colonel, + <a href="#Page_607">607</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cunningham, Dr George, + <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Curgenven, Mr, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Curing, in indiarubber works, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Currents, electrical, + <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Curtis’ and Harvey’s sporting powder, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cutlers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cutler’s glazer, or emery wheel, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, + <a href="#Page_777">777</a>, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cutlery, scale tang, + <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cyanide of potassium, in gold mining, + <a href="#Page_509">509</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in glazed ware, + <a href="#Page_807">807</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cyanides, the, + <a href="#Page_592">592</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Cymmer, Glamorganshire, dynamite explosion at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Dairymaids, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dangerous trades, or industries, historical sketch of legislation for, + <a href="#Page_24">24–43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their regulation in chief countries of Europe, + <a href="#Page_44">44–62</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, + <a href="#Page_827">827–64</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">principles of prospective legislation for, + <a href="#Page_63">63–72</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dangerous Trades Committee, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, + <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, + <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, + <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, + <a href="#Page_338">338–40</a>, + <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, + <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, + <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, + <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, + <a href="#Page_687">687</a>, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>, + <a href="#Page_758">758</a>, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>, + <a href="#Page_786">786</a>, + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">D’Arsonval, Dr, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, + <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Darwin, + <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Davaine, and the anthrax bacillus, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Davidson’s ventilating fan, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Davis, Bremner, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Deacon’s process for treating bleaching powder, + <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, + <a href="#Page_578">578–80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Deafness, in jute-workers, + <a href="#Page_660">660</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boilermakers and riveters, + <a href="#Page_752">752</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dealers in alcoholic drinks, high mortality of, + <a href="#Page_800">800</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Deane, Miss, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dearden, Dr, Manchester, + <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Decennial Supplements to Reports of Registrar-General</i>, + <a href="#Page_118">118–28</a>, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, + <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, + <a href="#Page_525">525</a>, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, + <a href="#Page_717">717</a>, + <a href="#Page_719">719</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Decorators, lead insanity in, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Decrees for sanitary regulation of factories in France and Belgium, + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, + <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Deepcar, near Sheffield, ganister works at, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Deer and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Delpech and Hillairet, <i>Memoire ... des chromates</i>, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Denmark, inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ventilation of factories in, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employment of women after childbirth, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">use of white phosphorus interdicted in, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Derby, Lord, + <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Derbyshire mines, + <a href="#Page_158">158–60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pig-lead in, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dermatoconiosis, skin disease caused by dust, + <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">flax-workers subject to, + <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, + <a href="#Page_699">699</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Desilvering of lead, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Destructors, dust, + <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Detonators, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_605">605</a>, + <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Deutsche Milit. Zeitschrift</i>, + <a href="#Page_751">751</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie</i>, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Devon, tin mines, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">clay, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dhobie itch, a complaint among soldiers in India, + <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Diabetes, in drapers, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">engine drivers, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">publicans, etc., + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Diamond Match Co., Liverpool, + <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Diarrhœa, seamen subject to, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Dictionary of Explosives</i>, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Digestive diseases, in glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">iron and steel workers, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarriers, + <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, + <a href="#Page_563">563</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brass-workers, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool-workers, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">printers, musicians, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tailors, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ironstone miners, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">typographers, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brewers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cutlers, file-cutters, carpenters, chemical workers, earthenware makers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">engine drivers, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dijon Academy, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dilke, Sir C. W., + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dinas rock, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dingle, Dr, Medical Officer of Health, Middlesborough, + <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dinitrobenzine, its effects on makers of high explosives, + <a href="#Page_475">475–90</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dinitrobenzol, + <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_765">765–67</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its effect on the eyes, + <a href="#Page_766">766</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dinitronaphthalene, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dinitrotoluene, + <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dioxide, sulphur, + <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Diphtheria, caused by cows’ milk and cats, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dippers (pottery), + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(brass), + <a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(dinitrobenzol manufacture), + <a href="#Page_765">765</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Disease, dust as a cause of occupation, + <a href="#Page_267">267–77</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Disease, industrial, various definitions of, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">good effects of notification of, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Diseases of Animals Act, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Distoma hepaticum, or liver fluke, in shepherds, + <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Districts, industrial, agricultural, mining, + <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Divers’ paralysis, + <a href="#Page_746">746</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its treatment, + <a href="#Page_748">748</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dock labourers, death rate from accidents, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_628">628</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Doffer knife, for flax, + <a href="#Page_694">694</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Doffers, mill fever and skin eruptions in, + <a href="#Page_699">699</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Domestic servants, subject to ulceration of stomach, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dominion Carbide Works (Ottawa), + <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Don, Valley of the, centre of the ganister-crushing industry, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Donaldson, + <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dorset clay, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Douchy mine (France), + <a href="#Page_730">730</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dowling, <i>Influence of Tobacco on Vision; some Investigations made + in Tobacco Manufactories of Cincinnati</i>, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Downcast shaft (mines), + <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Drapers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Draw- or scroll-bands, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Drawers, in cotton spinning, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dreschfeld, Dr, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dressing in iron and steel works, + <a href="#Page_779">779</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Drivers of public vehicles, subject to alcoholism, gout, rheumatism, etc., + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Driving belts, for mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Drovers, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dry bronzing, + <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dry grinders, mortality of, + <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, + <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, + <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Drysalting hides and skins, Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_856">856</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dubini, of Milan, + <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dublin, shock from electric lamp at, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dudfield, Dr, + <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dudley, hollow ware manufacture at, + <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chain making at, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dundee, chief jute manufacture seat, + <a href="#Page_651">651–62</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dupré, Dr, + <a href="#Page_613">613</a>, + <a href="#Page_716">716</a>, + <a href="#Page_767">767</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dupuytren’s contraction, in field-workers, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gardeners, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarriers, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Durham, coal mines in, + <a href="#Page_158">158–60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead mines, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Durham County Hospital, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dust as a cause of occupation diseases, + <a href="#Page_267">267–77</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dust destructors, + <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dust-producing occupations, + <a href="#Page_134">134–65</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their relative mortality, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dust women, + <a href="#Page_278">278–81</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dye works, poisoning in, + <a href="#Page_315">315–17</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and eye troubles, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_850">850</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dyeing, + <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dynamite, + <a href="#Page_556">556</a>, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_614">614</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gelatine, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dynamos, + <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Dysentery, among soldiers, + <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, + <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">E.C. powder, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ear affections, in quarrymen, + <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Earle, Sir James, edition of Percivall Pott’s <i>Works</i>, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Earthenware manufacture, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate in, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_834">834–41</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">East London, anthrax cases in, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Economic Journal</i>, + <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, + <a href="#Page_795">795</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Eczema, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Edge runner mills, + <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, + <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Edwards, James H., ship-repairer, South Shields, + <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Egypt, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Egyptian flax, + <a href="#Page_699">699</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Egyptians, anthrax the “grievous murrain” of the, + <a href="#Page_622">622</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">as glass makers, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ehrenfield, glass-makers at, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Eissler, Professor, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electric accumulator works and lead poisoning, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_863">863</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electric, baths, + <a href="#Page_375">375–77</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">currents, + <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">generating works, + <a href="#Page_250">250–66</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">generators, + <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">incandescent lamp manufacture, + <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">light, its effect on eyes, + <a href="#Page_773">773–75</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tramways, + <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">welding, its effect on eyes, + <a href="#Page_774">774</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electric shock, deaths from, + <a href="#Page_253">253–60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">suggestions for treating apparent death from, + <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electrical furnaces, + <a href="#Page_497">497</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">meters, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Electrical Review</i>, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, + <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electrical treatment in plumbism, + <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, + <a href="#Page_373">373–77</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electrolysis of salt, + <a href="#Page_583">583</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electronite, for blasting, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Electroplating, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Elterwater, Westmoreland, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Elvatka guard, + <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Emery rock, imported from Smyrna and Naxos, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Emery wheel, or cutler’s glazer, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, + <a href="#Page_773">773</a>, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Emphysema, in seamen, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">porcelain- and cement-makers, masons, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">millers, bakers, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blanket-stovers, + <a href="#Page_649">649</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jute-workers, + <a href="#Page_660">660</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Employers’ Associations (France), + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Employers’ Liability Act (1880), + <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, + <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, + <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Employment of Boys in the Sweeping of Chimneys in England Acts, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Enamelling, of iron plates, + <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of hollow ware, + <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_833">833</a>, + <a href="#Page_848">848</a>, + <a href="#Page_863">863</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Encephalopathy">Encephalopathy, cerebral type of plumbism, + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, + <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, + <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, + <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, + <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Encyclopédie d’Hygiène</i>, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Engine_drivers">Engine drivers, their diseases, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Engine-makers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Engines, steam-, gas-, and oil-, + <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">England, the pioneer of factory legislation, + <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">causes of decline of chemical and metallurgical industries in, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lagging behind in factory legislation, + <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">decay of lead mining in, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">white lead made by <i>old Dutch</i> process in, + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>English Sanitary Science</i>, + <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Enteric fever, + <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among soldiers, + <a href="#Page_177">177–79</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, with table of mortality, + <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, + <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among field-workers, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boilermakers and shipwrights, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Enteroconiosis, gastro-intestinal lesion caused by dust, + <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Epernon, Seine Valley, buhrstone imported from, + <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Equalised Druids Society, + <a href="#Page_776">776</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ergograph, instrument for estimating muscular work, + <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ergotism, disease caused by spurred rye, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Erith, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Erysipelas, in butchers, slaughterers, tanners, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">upholsterers, + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Erysipelatous anthrax, + <a href="#Page_636">636</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ethane, fire-damp in mines, + <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Eulenberg, Dr, + <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Europe, use of phosphorus in, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Expert-Besançon et Cie., Paris, their process for treating white lead, + <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, + <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Explosions in collieries, + <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Explosives, comparative safety of manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">high, + <a href="#Page_475">475–90</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">nitro-glycerine, + <a href="#Page_536">536</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gases from, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in quarries, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and explosions, + <a href="#Page_599">599–620</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_842">842</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Explosives Act, + <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Eye diseases, caused by dinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in quarries, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accidents, in industrial occupations, + <a href="#Page_776">776–87</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Faber, Dr, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Factories, and the Workmen’s Compensation Act (1897), + <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, + <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">survey of legislation for, + <a href="#Page_44">44–62</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ventilation and lighting in, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">prevention of accidents in, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employment of mothers in, + <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li class="i2">machinery in, + <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Factory and Workshop Acts (1802 and 1833), + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1844), + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1864 and 1867), + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1871), + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1878), + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, + <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, + <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1883), + <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1889), + <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1891), + <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, + <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, + <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, + <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, + <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, + <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, + <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, + <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, + <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>, + <a href="#Page_827">827</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1895), + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, + <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, + <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, + <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, + <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, + <a href="#Page_626">626</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1901), + <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, + <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, + <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, + <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, + <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, + <a href="#Page_697">697</a>, + <a href="#Page_829">829</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Factory Acts, + <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">first extended to women, + <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and the British Constitution, + <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules under, + <a href="#Page_829">829–64</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Factory Bill of 1901, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, + <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Factory Commission (1875), + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Factory Inspectorate, organised by Act of 1884, + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in various countries, + <a href="#Page_47">47–49</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Factory labour and infant mortality, + <a href="#Page_73">73–89</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Factory_legislation">Factory legislation, England the pioneer of, + <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">improves trade and conditions of labour, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and effects of particular trades on health, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Acts of 1802 and 1833, the landmarks of, + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its progress, + <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">laundries included in, + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">England lagging behind in, + <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Royal Commission (1876) on, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">home-work not controlled by, + <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fans for removal of dust, in steel-grinding, + <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, + <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, + <a href="#Page_777">777</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in lucifer match works, + <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in hatters furriers’ processes, + <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Faradic current, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Farcy, in man, + <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Farmers, mortality table, + <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Farr, Dr, + <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, + <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Farriers, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fascia, contraction of the palmar, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fatigue, its causes, + <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and alcohol, + <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Faversham, gunpowder explosion at Hall’s Factory, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fawcus, H. B., Royal Army Medical Corps, + <a href="#Page_733">733</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Feathers, induce ophthalmia and lung disease, + <a href="#Page_790">790</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Federal Council, Germany, + <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, + <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, + <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, + <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Federated Trades Council, + <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fell-mongers, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fell-workers, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">dust, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Felspar, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, + <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fencing, of machinery, + <a href="#Page_203">203–31</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of quarries, + <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fenton potteries, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fergusson, Sir James, + <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fettling, in iron and steel works, + <a href="#Page_779">779</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fibrosis of lung, + <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in potters, + <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in ganister crushers, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Field work, and maternity, + <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fieldworkers, their bodily ills, + <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Fiery” coal seams, + <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fierté-sous-Jouarre, buhrstone imported from, + <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">File-cutters, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">dust diseases of, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead insanity, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plumbism, + <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">machinery <i>v.</i> hand, + <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fillers, in dinitrobenzol works, + <a href="#Page_765">765</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Filters, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Finisher card (jute works), + <a href="#Page_653">653</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Finishers of silver, subject to eye affections, + <a href="#Page_771">771</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fireclay, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">principal constituents of, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fire-damp in mines, + <a href="#Page_546">546–48</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Firemen, <i>see</i> <a href="#Engine_drivers">engine drivers</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fire-stink, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fireworks, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_605">605</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Firing ware, risks incurred in, + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fish-curing, + <a href="#Page_673">673–78</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fitters (iron works), + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Flax, + <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, and linen, + <a href="#Page_691">691–701</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">process of manufacture, + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bleaching, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Flax-workers, skin diseases of, + <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">liable to phthisis, ophthalmia, asthma, etc., + <a href="#Page_696">696</a>, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_848">848</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Flint quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Flock fever, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Flour mills, + <a href="#Page_505">505–7</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fluke, liver (distoma hepaticum), in shepherds, + <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fly-wheels, engine, + <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Folliculitis, in doffers, + <a href="#Page_699">699</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fontaine, M., + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Foot-and-mouth disease, transmitted to man, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ford, Colonel, Chief Inspector of Explosives, + <a href="#Page_613">613</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Forecastles, in mercantile marine, + <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Forgemen, their health, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Forks, strap-, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Forth Bridge, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>, + <a href="#Page_732">732</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fosbroke, G. H., Medical Officer of Worcestershire, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Foster, Dr C. Le Neve, <i>Ore and Stone Mining</i>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Foulkes, Mr, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fournier, of Dijon, + <a href="#Page_622">622</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fournière, M., + <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fox, Francis, <i>The Great Alpine Tunnels</i>, + <a href="#Page_737">737</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Foxdale lead mines (Isle of Man), + <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">France, match industry in, + <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">manufacture of white lead, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">factory inspectorate, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, + <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ventilation of factories, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead poisoning in potteries, + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, + <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ergotism in, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pellagra and lathyrism in, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead mining, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">zinc white <i>v.</i> white lead, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> + <li class="i2"><i>colique sèche</i> in navy, + <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pottery glaze used in, + <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fireclay mining, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">phosphorus necrosis in, + <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ceased to use yellow phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">a <i>sans phosphore</i> match, + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mining accidents, + <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, + <a href="#Page_520">520</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">alkali works, + <a href="#Page_598">598</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mine explosions, + <a href="#Page_615">615</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeping in, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Frankl-Hochwart, Professor, + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Freestone quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fredreich’s <i>Blätter für gerichtliche Medicin</i>, + <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fritted lead, + <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, + <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, + <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, + <a href="#Page_363">363–65</a>, + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">standard solubility of, + <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, + <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fromm, Dr, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fruit-preserving, + <a href="#Page_678">678</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fulminate of mercury, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fulton, Dr, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fung Shui, + <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fur-brushing dust, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Furnacemen, blast and puddling, their diseases, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Furriers, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">diseases of nails in, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fur-pullers, maladies of, + <a href="#Page_724">724</a>, + <a href="#Page_725">725</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Furness, Inveraray, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fürth, mirror-silvering at, + <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, + <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Fuses, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Galena (sulphide of lead), + <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, + <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, + <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Galezowski, <i>Des Amblyopias, etc.</i>, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Galicia, match works in, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Galloway, Professor W., + <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Galvano-caustic method of glazing ware, + <a href="#Page_807">807</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ganister (calliard) crushing and mining, risks of, + <a href="#Page_396">396–404</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">condition of miner’s lung, + <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, + <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gardeners, death rate, + <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and Dupuytren’s contraction, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">subject to cancer, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, + <a href="#Page_810">810</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Garman, Dr, Bryant & May’s Medical Officer, + <a href="#Page_425">425–27</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gartsherrie (Scotland), fireclay mines at, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gas engines, + <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">safety starting-gear for, + <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gases from explosives, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gasfitters, lead insanity in, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">“gassing” symptoms, + <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate, + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gasmeter-makers, lead insanity in, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gastro-intestinal lesion (enteroconiosis), caused by dust, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gatebeck, Kendal, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gautier, Dr Armand, + <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on house-painters’ plumbism in Paris, + <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gelatine, blasting, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_614">614</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">dynamite, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gelignite, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Generating stations, electric, + <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Génie Civil.</i>, + <a href="#Page_745">745</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Germany, factory legislation and inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">powers of health authorities, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employment of women after childbirth, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, + <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">prevention of accidents in factories, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for dangerous trades, + <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Trade Accident Associations, + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">letterpress printing works in, + <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ergotism in, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Imperial Health Office, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">inquiry into labour conditions in electric accumulator works, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fireclay mining in, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lucifer match industry, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bichromate factories, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, + <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mining accidents, + <a href="#Page_511">511–18</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">metal- safer than coal-mining in, + <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">manufacture of coal-tar products, + <a href="#Page_590">590</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">alkali works, + <a href="#Page_598">598</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mine explosives in, + <a href="#Page_616">616</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anthrax, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, + <a href="#Page_632">632</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps in, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Geroult, M., + <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gibb, Mr, General Manager N. E. Railway, + <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gillinder, Mr, + <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glamorgan, tinplate works in, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glanders, in man, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in animals, + <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glasgow, chemical industry meeting at, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">file-cutting in, + <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fireclay worked near, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anthrax outbreak in, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glassblowers, and cataract, + <a href="#Page_773">773</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">“glass-blowers’ mouth,” + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glassmakers, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their risks, + <a href="#Page_804">804–807</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and cataract, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glass-polishers, and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glass ware, new method of making hollow, + <a href="#Page_807">807</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glazed ware, poisonous, + <a href="#Page_807">807</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glazes, for pottery, + <a href="#Page_353">353–63</a>, + <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glazing, of cutlery, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glibert, Dr, Medical Inspector, Labour Office, Belgium, + <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">his definition of industrial disease, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Glost placers (pottery), + <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Goatskins, and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_628">628</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Goat’s wool, or hair (mohair), + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gob-stink, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Godfernaux, Raymond, + <a href="#Page_745">745</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Godfrey’s cordial, + <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Goelet, Dr, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, + <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gold and silver extraction, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gouda, Holland, galena used for glazing at, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gould, Edward, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gout, in tailors, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gardeners, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">butchers, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied males, brewers, file-cutters, carpenters, earthenware- and glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drivers of public vehicles, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">publicans, etc., + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gowers, <i>Diseases of the Nervous System</i>, + <a href="#Page_815">815</a>, + <a href="#Page_817">817</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Graham, Sir James, + <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grainers, lead insanity in, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grammont, Belgium, match factory at, + <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grand Committee on Trade (1902), + <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Granger, Dr, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Granite, dust, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarries, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Graphite quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gravel quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Graveri, Dr G., of Villanova-Sollaro, + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gravesend (floating magazine), detonators explosion at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fireworks explosion at, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grease, or horsepox, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Great Britain, mining accidents in, + <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Greek lead ore, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Greenhow, Dr Headlam, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, + <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>, + <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, + <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, + <a href="#Page_457">457–60</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Greenock, gunpowder explosion in the barque “Auchmountain” off, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grinders of cutlery and other steel implements, + <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mortality of, + <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, + <a href="#Page_414">414–16</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">subject to phthisis, asthma, “rot,” + <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, + <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, + <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_777">777</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grinding-stones, + <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, + <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wheels, + <a href="#Page_412">412–15</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grindley, W. H., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, + <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grooms, subject to glanders, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">popliteal aneurism, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Grotto del Cane, carbonic acid in, + <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guard, for engine fly-wheels, + <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">shuttle, + <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Elvatka, + <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Longmore’s, + <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Victor, + <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Woodhouse and Mitchell’s, + <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Campbell and Greenwood’s, <i>ibid.</i>;</li> + <li class="i2">against eye accidents in factories, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guards, goods (railways), + <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gubler, + <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guerrini, Dr Guido, + <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guggenbauer, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guinard, Dr, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Gulstonian Lectures</i>, + <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gun-cotton (cellulose hexa-nitrate), + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_604">604</a>, + <a href="#Page_610">610</a>, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gunpowder, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_605">605</a>, + <a href="#Page_606">606</a>, + <a href="#Page_610">610</a>, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gunsmiths, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guttmann, Professor, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guy, Dr, + <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Guy and Ferrier, <i>Forensic Medicine</i>, + <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Gypsum quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Hacklemakers, jute works, + <a href="#Page_652">652</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hæmoglobin, + <a href="#Page_550">550–552</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hæmoglobinæmia, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hafting of knives, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hairdressers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hair workers, and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Haldane, Dr John, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, + <a href="#Page_544">544</a>;</li> + <li class="i2"><i>Causes of Death in Colliery Explosions and Fires</i>, + <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Half-timers, decadence of the system, + <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, + <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">arrested mental development of, + <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Halifax, carpet making at, + <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Halkyn, Flintshire, gun-cotton explosion at, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hall, Dr Arthur, + <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hall, H., + <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hall, Dr J. C., Sheffield, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, + <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, + <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Halstead’s “Patent Unbreakable Square-hole Solid-ended Grub Screw,” + <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hamilton, Dr, Certifying Surgeon for Cookstown, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hammermen’s paralysis, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">spasm, + <a href="#Page_821">821</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hamstead Colliery, Staff., + <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Handbook of Service Explosives</i>, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hanley potteries, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hanover, chimney sweeps in, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hargreave’s “Mule Carriage Wheel Guard,” + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Harris’s patent, + <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hart, Ernest, + <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Harting, Dr, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hartlepool, horse killed by electric shock at, + <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Harvey’s sporting powder, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hasenclever apparatus, for bleach, + <a href="#Page_579">579</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hatters, death rate, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hatters furriers’ processes, mercurial poisoning in, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">remedial measures, + <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Head, Sir George, <i>Home Tour</i>, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Heart disease, in potters, earthenware and china makers, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cutlers, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gunsmiths, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sweeps, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tailors, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drapers, shoemakers, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">soldiers, + <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, + <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">field workers, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">puddling furnacemen, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blacksmiths and forgemen, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brewers, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Heat apoplexy, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">the “fireman’s frenzy” of stokers, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> + + <li class="i1">Heathcote, Dr, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hecklers, flax, + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">phthisis and bronchial troubles in, + <a href="#Page_696">696–98</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">alcoholism, + <a href="#Page_697">697</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Heckling machines, + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hedgers, eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hedley, Dr, Inspector of Mines, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Heidelberg, epidemic of idiopathic tetany in, + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Heinzerling, Ch., <i>Gefahren und Krankheiten in der chemischen Industrie</i>, + <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Heise, Dr, + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, + <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hemianæsthesia, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Helmholtz, German physiologist, + <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hemp dust, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hernia, + <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">field workers, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">butchers, etc., + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">carpenters, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Herodsfoot, Liskeard, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Herrings, Scotch-cured, + <a href="#Page_674">674</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hersent, French engineer at Bordeaux, + <a href="#Page_734">734</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hesse, Dr, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hides and skins, anthrax and, + <a href="#Page_621">621–33</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">dry-salting, Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_856">856</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hiene, J. W., <i>Effects of Copper on the Human Body</i>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">High explosives, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_475">475–90</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hillairet, Dr, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Himalayas, the, + <a href="#Page_749">749</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hindle <i>v.</i> Birtwistle, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hindoos, the, + <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hirt, Dr, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Historie de l’Académie royale des Sciences</i>, Paris, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hodge, Prof., + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hodges, Prof., Queen’s Coll., Belfast, + <a href="#Page_692">692</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hoe’s stereotyping machine, + <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hoffman, F. L., <i>The Mineral Industry</i>, + <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hogben, Dr, Queen’s Hospital, Birmingham, + <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, + <a href="#Page_458">458–60</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hoists, + <a href="#Page_218">218–22</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Holder, or clamp (flax machine), + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Holland, inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employment of women after childbirth in, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">use of white phosphorus limited in, + <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">manufacture of phosphorus matches prohibited in, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Holland, Andrew, Board of Trade, Ottawa, + <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hollow ware, tinning and enamelling of, + <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">new method of making glass, + <a href="#Page_807">807</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_848">848</a>, + <a href="#Page_863">863</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Home-work, + <a href="#Page_98">98–103</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">not controlled by factory legislation, + <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its effect upon wages, + <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hong Kong, the Happy Valley in, + <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hop-pickers, subject to ophthalmia, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hope, Dr, Liverpool, + <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hopwood, F. J. S., Assist. Sec. Rly. Dept., Board of Trade, + <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Horgen, Switzerland, death from electricity at, + <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Horn-workers, liable to anthrax, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Horsehair, and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_621">621–33</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Horsekeepers, subject to influenza, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to horsepox or “grease,” + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Horsepox or “grease,” + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Horses, + <a href="#Page_238">238–45</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hounslow, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">House painters, and white lead, + <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_333">333–36</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Huber and Röhl, <i>Ueber acute u. chron. Intoxdurch Nitrokorp d. Benzolreihe</i>, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Huddersfield, lyddite explosion at, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>, + <a href="#Page_612">612</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">woollen cloth industry at, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hughes, his use of caissons at Rochester Bridge, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Huguenots, linen industry revived in North of Ireland by, + <a href="#Page_691">691</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hundt, Bergassessor, <i>Die Bekampfung der Wurmkrankheit im Oberbergamtsbezirke Dortmund</i>, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hunter, Dr, + <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hunter, Dr James, Edinburgh, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Huntington and M’Millan, <i>Metals</i>, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Huntley, Mr, Engineer, Redheugh Bridge, Newcastle, + <a href="#Page_728">728</a>, + <a href="#Page_733">733</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Huskisson, + <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hyatt, discoverer of celluloid, + <a href="#Page_792">792</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hydatid cyst, in shepherds, + <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hydrochloric acid, + <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, + <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hydro-extractor, for removing excess of spirit in benzine, + <a href="#Page_491">491</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">adapted to laundry work, + <a href="#Page_665">665</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hydrogen sulphide, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hydrogen, sulphuretted, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hydrophobia, + <a href="#Page_242">242–44</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hygiene, industrial, how to promote, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, + <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hygiene Committee, France, + <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hygiene Congress at Turin, + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hygiene Council of Paris, + <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hygrometer, in cotton spinning works, + <a href="#Page_709">709</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Hyperæsthesia, a feature in chronic poisoning by dinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Idiopathic tetany, or shoemakers’ spasm, + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Idria (Illyria), cinnabar mines at, + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Imperial Health Office, Germany, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Incandescent electric lamps, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">India, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lathyrism in, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its export of jute, + <a href="#Page_651">651</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jute mills in, + <a href="#Page_662">662</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Indiarubber works, + <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">vulcanisation process in, + <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bisulphide of carbon, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial Code, + <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, + <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial Councils existing on Continent—suggested formation in England of, + <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial disease, various definitions of, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">notification of, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial districts, + <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial hygiene, how to promote, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, + <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial injury, scientific protection of works against, + <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial methods, more scientifically studied on Continent, + <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial Occupation, a process of evolution, + <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, + <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industrial Revolution, an epoch in the world’s history, + <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Industries, classification of, + <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Infant mortality and factory labour, + <a href="#Page_73">73–89</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in Dundee, + <a href="#Page_662">662</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Inflammable or spirit paints, use of, + <a href="#Page_494">494–96</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Influenza, in tailors and drapers, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ironstone miners, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">horses, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Injurious industries, historical sketch of legislation for, + <a href="#Page_24">24–43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">scientific protection of workers, + <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their regulation in chief countries of Europe, + <a href="#Page_44">44–62</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">principles of prospective legislation for, + <a href="#Page_63">63–72</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, + <a href="#Page_827">827–64</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Innkeepers, mortality of, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Insanity, in lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, + <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Inspection, rules of factory, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Inspectorate of factories, organised by Act of 1844, + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Inspectors, women appointed (1893) as, + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Insured children, higher death rate of, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Intake roads (mines), + <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">International, competition, + <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">committees suggested for industrial hygiene, + <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, + <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Intestinal anthrax, + <a href="#Page_641">641</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Iodoform manufacture, its effect on eyes, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ireland, lucifer match works in, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">linen trade in, + <a href="#Page_691">691</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Irish Carragheen Moss, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Iron and steel industries, + <a href="#Page_756">756–60</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Iron hollow ware, tinning and enamelling of, Special Rules, + <a href="#Page_848">848</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Iron plates, enamelling of, + <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Iron pyrites, oxidation produces black-damp, + <a href="#Page_541">541–43</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Iron-workers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye diseases of, + <a href="#Page_771">771–75</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents of, + <a href="#Page_776">776–83</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ironers, in laundries, + <a href="#Page_670">670</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ironstone miners, included (Act of 1860) under head of coal miners, + <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, + <a href="#Page_524">524</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate, + <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Iselle, the Italian side of Simplon Tunnel, + <a href="#Page_740">740–42</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Italian miners, diseases of, + <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accidents to, + <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Italy, pellagra (<i>malattia della miseria</i>) in, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">experiments in non-poisonous matches, + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Jacquemart, Dr, Paris, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Jahrbuch für das Berg- Hütten- und Salinen-wesen im Preussischen Staate</i>, + <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jam-making, + <a href="#Page_678">678</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its risks, + <a href="#Page_679">679</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">James of Hereford, Lord, + <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, + <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, + <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, + <a href="#Page_363">363–65</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jaundice, in military balloonists, + <a href="#Page_750">750</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jenner, Sir William, + <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jews, as glass-makers in Rome, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jockeys, popliteal aneurism in, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Joiners, + <a href="#Page_790">790</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Johnson, Henry J., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, + <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jones, Chester, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jones, Dr Lewis, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, + <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, + <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jones, Dr Robert, Claybury Asylum, Essex, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Journal of Morphology</i>, + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Journal of Pathology</i>, + <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Journal of Physiology</i>, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, + <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Journal of the Sanitary Institute</i>, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jungfleish, <i>Dangers du sécretage des poils par le mercure</i>, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jussieu, Antoine de, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Jute, dust caused by, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">preparation of the fibre, + <a href="#Page_651">651</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">process of manufacture, + <a href="#Page_652">652</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">health conditions in factories, + <a href="#Page_654">654</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">analyses of air in factories, + <a href="#Page_657">657</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tetanus produced by, + <a href="#Page_659">659</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mill fever, + <a href="#Page_661">661</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Kaffre, Azzyat Bridge (Nile), + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte, Arbeiten aus dem</i>, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, + <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, + <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, + <a href="#Page_632">632</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kaolin, Chinese for porcelain clay, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, + <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kassowitz, Professor, + <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Keaves, vats for bichromate manufacture, + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kennall Vale, Redruth, gunpowder explosion at, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kerr, Dr, + <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Keygi, Professor, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kidderminster, carpet making at, + <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kidney disease, and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tanners, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kieselguhr dynamite, + <a href="#Page_612">612</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kirving, undercutting coal, + <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, + <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kitasato, Professor, bacilli of tetanus first isolated by, + <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Knackers, glanders in, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anthrax, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Knapp’s Archives of Ophthalmology</i>, + <a href="#Page_773">773</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Knappschafts-Berufsgenossenschaft für das Deutsche Reich, Statistik der</i>, + <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Knappschafts-Berufsgenossenschaft, Berichte über die Verwaltung der</i>, + <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Knecht, E., <i>Manual of Dyeing</i>, + <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Knies, Professor, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Knight, Robert, Secretary Boilermaker’s Society, + <a href="#Page_753">753</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Knowles “Improved Safety Hoist,” + <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, + <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Koch, Dr, and the anthrax bacillus, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on the identity of human and bovine tuberculosis, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kocher, Dr, Berne, + <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, + <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Krupp ball system, in steel works, + <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kubler, Dr, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kuborn, Dr, Serang, + <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kuiper, Dr, Jena, + <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kummerbund, the, + <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kunkel, A. J., <i>Handbuch der Toxikologie</i>, + <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kussmaul, Adolf, <i>Untersuchungen über dem constitutionellen Mercurialismus</i>, + <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, + <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Kyphosis, or stooping gait, in field workers, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Labellers, aerated water, + <a href="#Page_687">687</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_786">786</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Label-lickers in thread mills, death rate, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Labour Gazette</i>, + <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Labour Leader</i>, + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Labour, Ministry of, needed in England, + <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Labour, Royal Commission on, + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Labourers, agricultural, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_232">232–37</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">working classes divided into artisans and, + <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accident death rate of general, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">railway, risk of tuberculosis, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Labouring Population, Report (1838) on Sanitary Condition of the, + <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lady Assistant Commissioners, Report (1893) of, + <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, + <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">La Hague, plumbism in electric accumulator works at, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lailler, <i>Hygiène des Professions et des Industries</i>, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lamb’s wool, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lampblack factories, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lancashire, infant mortality in, + <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wages of male and female workers, + <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">child labour in, + <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mines, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, + <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mortality of cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_719">719</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tobacco workers in, + <a href="#Page_795">795</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plate glass manufacture in, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Lancet</i>, + <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, + <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, + <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, + <a href="#Page_635">635</a>, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lapping, of cutlery, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lathyrism, caused by chick-pea, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Laundresses, pulmonary consumption in, + <a href="#Page_669">669</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Laundries, + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, + <a href="#Page_663">663–72</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">machinery in, + <a href="#Page_665">665</a>, + <a href="#Page_666">666</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">factory <i>v.</i> home industry, + <a href="#Page_667">667</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">health of workers in, + <a href="#Page_669">669–72</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Laurie, A. P., + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lawrence, Dr, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Layet, Professor, on minium, + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lazarus, surgeon-dentist, + <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead and its compounds, + <a href="#Page_282">282–372</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its use in potteries, + <a href="#Page_346">346–65</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Lead in the Manufacture of Pottery, Report on the Use of</i>, + <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead dust, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead factories, blue and white beds in, + <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead foil makers, plumbism in, + <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead insanity, <i>see</i> <a href="#Encephalopathy">encephalopathy</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead mining, + <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and the health and surroundings of the miners, + <a href="#Page_282">282–86</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plumbism almost unknown in, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead oxide, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead poisoning, <i>see</i> <a href="#Plumbism">plumbism</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead smelting works, + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_848">848</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lead workers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">high mortality of their children, + <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">encephalopathy in, + <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their clothes, + <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_829">829</a>, + <a href="#Page_846">846</a>, + <a href="#Page_847">847</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Leadless glaze, for pottery, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, + <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Leathart, Mr, of Newcastle, + <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Leather Trades Circular and Review</i>, + <a href="#Page_633">633</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Le Blanc process, for manufacture of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, + carbonate of soda, caustic soda, and bleaching powder, + <a href="#Page_569">569–84</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lee, Professor, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Leeds, woollen cloth manufacture in, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lefebre, Dr, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lefevre, Dr, Brest, + <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Legge, Dr T. Morison, Medical Inspector of Factories, + <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, + <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, + <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, + <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, + <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, + <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, + <a href="#Page_590">590</a>, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, + <a href="#Page_632">632</a>, + <a href="#Page_659">659</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Legislation for dangerous trades, historical sketch of its development, + <a href="#Page_24">24–43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">for mines, + <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">principles of prospective, + <a href="#Page_63">63–72</a>.</li> + <li class="i2"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Factory_legislation">factory legislation</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Leicester, hosiery manufacture in, + <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Leipzig, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Leloir, Dr, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lémaistre, Dr, + <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lepine, Dr, + <a href="#Page_734">734</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Letterpress Printing Works (Germany), + <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Levy, Dr, + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lewis, Mr, Factory Inspector, Swansea district, + <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lewis, Professor Vivian, + <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Licensed victuallers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_800">800</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Liège, anchylostomiasis at, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lightermen, accident death rate, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lighting of factories, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lignite mines (Germany), accidents in, + <a href="#Page_513">513–15</a>, + <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lime, burns caused by, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lime dressers, + <a href="#Page_578">578</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Limes, use of, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Limestone quarries, + <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a> + <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Limoges, and plumbism from transfer making, + <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, + <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and its porcelain, + <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">phthisis in works at, + <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, + <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Linen and flax, + <a href="#Page_691">691–701</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">process of manufacture, + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bleaching, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Linen and Hempen Manufacture of Ireland (1711), + <a href="#Page_692">692</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Linen rags, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Linotyping and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, + <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Liquor traffic, death rate in, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Litharge, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Litho-transfer works, + <a href="#Page_365">365–67</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Little Bolton, + <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Littlejohn, Dr Harvey, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, + <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Liver diseases, in cutlers, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">stone quarriers, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">musicians, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hairdressers, tailors, + <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drapers, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied males, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">soldiers, + <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">publicans, + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Llewellyn, Mr, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lloyd, Dr J. H., <i>Occupation Diseases</i>, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lockerby & Wilson, + <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lockjaw, or tetanus, + <a href="#Page_240">240–42</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its micro-organism, + <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Locksmiths, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Locomotor ataxia, + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Loewenthal, R., <i>Manual of Dyeing</i>, + <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Logements Insalubres (Paris), Commission des, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Loire River, + <a href="#Page_730">730</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lombardy, anchylostomiasis endemic in, + <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">London, outbreak of anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">London and North Western Railway Insurance Society for Drivers and Firemen, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">London Society of Compositors, + <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Mortality Tables of, + <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Londonderry, Lord, + <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Longmore’s guard, + <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Longton potteries, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Looms, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lorinser, of Vienna, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Louis, Henry, translator of Schmeisser’s <i>Goldfields of Australia</i>, + <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Louis, Professor, <i>Coal Mining</i>, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, + <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lucifer Match Factories, Commission on, + <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lucifer match works, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fragility of bones of employés in, + <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_859">859</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lucifer matches, containing lead, + <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_417">417–33</a>;</li> + <li class="i2"><i>safety</i> and <i>strike-anywhere</i>, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ludlow, Harvey, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lumbago, in field workers, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jam-makers, + <a href="#Page_680">680</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lunacy, in field workers, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, + <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Lung disease due to dust (pneumoconiosis), + <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_721">721</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brewers, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Lyddite">Lyddite (picric acid, trinitrophenol), + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_609">609–11</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Macaulay, Lord, + <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">MacCormac, Bart., Sir William, + <a href="#Page_699">699</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">McDowall, Dr, Northumberland County Asylum, + <a href="#Page_799">799</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">M’Keown, Dr W. A., <i>Treatise on Unripe Cataract</i>, + <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">M’Kinlay, Dr, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">M’Laren, B., <i>Preventible Colliery Accidents</i>, + <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">MacMunn, Dr, Wolverhampton, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, + <a href="#Page_766">766</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Machine-makers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Machine tools, + <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Machinery, its effect on workers, + <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">safe-guarding of, + <a href="#Page_203">203–31</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">prime movers, + <a href="#Page_205">205–208</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">means of stopping, + <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accidents in agricultural, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Machines, planing, + <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Madrid, cigar factories in, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Magitot, Dr, Paris, + <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Magnus, Professor, + <a href="#Page_776">776</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Maize, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Mal chimique</i>, phosphorus necrosis, + <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Mal de montagnes</i>, + <a href="#Page_749">749</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Malakoff, Professor, + <a href="#Page_775">775</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Malaria, an old theory about, + <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and soldiers, + <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">caused by mosquitoes, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Maljean, Dr, + <a href="#Page_750">750</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Malt liquor, the London dock labourers and, + <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Manchester, indiarubber works in, + <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Manchester warehousemen, death rate, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Manganese mud, + <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, + <a href="#Page_575">575</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mann, Dixon, <i>Forensic Medicine</i>, + <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Manson, Professor, on beriberi, + <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Manufacturers, their right of arbitration, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, + <a href="#Page_827">827–64</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Marble quarries, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Marie, Dr, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Marine Service, health in the, + <a href="#Page_182">182–89</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Marl quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Marsh’s apparatus, + <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Masons, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">phthisis, etc., in, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Massachusetts, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Massicot, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Match industry, and phosphorus necrosis, + <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, + <a href="#Page_418">418–28</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Match Manufacturers Arbitration, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Matches, <i>safety</i> and <i>strike-anywhere</i>, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Maternity <i>v.</i> factory labour, + <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, + <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">field work and, + <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mather & Platt (Salford), on work before breakfast, + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Matin, le</i>, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mattress-makers, liable to anthrax, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their diseases, + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>, + <a href="#Page_790">790</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Maxwell, Sir John Stirling, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">May, S. W., Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mayence, glazed ware at, + <a href="#Page_807">807</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Meachem, F. G., + <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Meakin, G. E., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Medical Chronicle</i>, + <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Medical Department of the Privy Council, inquiries between 1859 and 1872 conducted by, + <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Medical Society of London, + <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Melbourne Argus</i>, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Melier, Dr, + <a href="#Page_793">793</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mercantile Marine, + <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cooks in, + <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accident death rate, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Merchant Shipping Act, + <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, + <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mercurial compounds, preparation of, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mercurial poisoning, + <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">industries liable to, + <a href="#Page_435">435–41</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mode of causation, + <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">symptoms of, + <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">preventive measures, + <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in mines, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mercury, and its salts, dangers in use of, + <a href="#Page_434">434–46</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mercury, fulminate of, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Merganthaler linotype machine, + <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metadinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metal hollow ware, Special Rules for tinning and enamelling of, + <a href="#Page_863">863</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metallic dust, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metalliferous mines, regulation of, + <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, + <a href="#Page_528">528</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accidents in German, + <a href="#Page_513">513–15</a>, + <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">more unhealthy than coal, + <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metalliferous Mines (Isle of Man) Act (1891), + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts (1872 and 1875), + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metallochrome powder, + <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metallurgical industry, causes of its decline in England, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Meters, electrical, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Methæmoglobin, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Methane, fire-damp in mines, + <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metropolitan Meat Market, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metropolitan District Railway, air of the, + <a href="#Page_744">744</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Metz, cases of anthrax at, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Meyhöfer, Dr, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Middlesborough, North Eastern Steel Works, + <a href="#Page_390">390–94</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Midland Medical Association, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Migerka, Dr, <i>Staubarten in Wort und Bild</i>, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Military balloonists, + <a href="#Page_750">750</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Military explosives, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Milkers’ spasm, + <a href="#Page_821">821</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mill fever, in jute workers, + <a href="#Page_661">661</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">doffers, + <a href="#Page_699">699</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mill-gearing and belts, + <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, + <a href="#Page_208">208–11</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">shaftings, pulleys, couplings, etc., + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Millers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Millstone building, buhrstone used for, + <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, + <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">health of masons, + <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, + <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Millwrights, death rate, + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Miners, accidents to, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate, + <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">subject to phthisis, bronchitis, pneumonia, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, + <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">nystagmus, + <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_776">776</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Miners, lead, their health and surroundings, + <a href="#Page_282">282–86</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Miners’ Permanent Benefit Relief Fund, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, + <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, + <a href="#Page_776">776</a> (Germany), + <a href="#Page_512">512–18</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Miners’ Central Association, + <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, + <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mines, explosions and explosives in, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, + <a href="#Page_615">615–18</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Acts, + <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, + <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">premature death in, + <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">no protective legislation till 1842, + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">inquests not held on accidental deaths, <i>ibid.</i>;</li> + <li class="i2">legislation since 1860 for, + <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, + <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">the air of, + <a href="#Page_540">540–56</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mines and Manufactures, Report of Commission (1843) on, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Mines Legislation in Germany, France, and Belgium</i>, Mr Tremenheere’s <i>Special Reports on</i>, + <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mining, + <a href="#Page_508">508–39</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mining districts, + <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mining, Royal Commission (1841) on, + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Ministére de l’Industrie et du Travail</i>, Brussels, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ministry of Labour needed in England, + <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Minium, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Miram, M., experiments in matches, + <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mirror-silvering, + <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, + <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mixers, in dinitrobenzol manufacture, + <a href="#Page_765">765</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mixing and casting of brass and other alloys, Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mohair, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Molten metal, and eye accidents, + <a href="#Page_781">781</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Monmouthshire, mines in, + <a href="#Page_158">158–60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tinplate works in, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mononitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mononitrotoluene, + <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mont Cenis Tunnel, + <a href="#Page_737">737</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Montfils, Dr, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Morgan’s “Patent Safety Catch,” + <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, + <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Morse instrument (telegraphy), + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mortality, of occupations, + <a href="#Page_118">118–33</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tables of, in dust-producing occupations, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in unhealthy occupations, + <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in sailing- and steam-ships, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, + <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in railwaymen, + <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">from plumbism, + <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, + <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">from mining accidents, + <a href="#Page_513">513–32</a> <i>passim</i>;</li> + <li class="i2">in different and certain occupations, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">from manufacture and use of explosives, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_605">605</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chief explosions in England, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">explosions in coal mines, + <a href="#Page_617">617</a>, + <a href="#Page_618">618</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_718">718–21</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in boilermakers and iron shipbuilders, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Morveau, Guyton de, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mosquitoes, and malaria, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mosso, Professor, Turin University, + <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Motais, Dr, Paris, + <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Motes in the eye, from steel-grinding, + <a href="#Page_777">777</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mother-of-pearl grinding causes phthisis, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mothers in factories, employment of, + <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + + <li class="i1">Motor cars, manufacture of, and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Moulton, Fletcher, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mountain climbers, and diminished atmospheric pressure, + <a href="#Page_749">749</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Moxon, Professor, + <a href="#Page_747">747</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mules, self-acting, + <a href="#Page_223">223–25</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in cotton spinning, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mungo rags, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Murray, Dr William, Birmingham, <i>Chronic Brass Poisoning</i>, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Muscarin, poisonous constituent in mushroom-poisoning, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Muscular system, effect of dinitrobenzine poison on, + <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Muscular work, means for measuring, + <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Mushroom-poisoning, and field-workers, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Musicians, death rate, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Myrbane (nitro- and dinitrobenzine), + <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Nail and chain making, + <a href="#Page_758">758</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nail diseases in furriers, + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Naphtha, in indiarubber works, + <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in dry cleaning works, + <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Naphthalene, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Napias, M. le Docteur, + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nasal septum ulceration, caused by bichromes, + <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Nature</i>, + <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Navy, health of the, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Naxos, Island of, emery stone quarries in, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Necrosis, <i>see</i> <a href="#Phosphorus_necrosis">phosphorus necrosis</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Needle-grinding, dust from, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nervous diseases, in potters, etc., + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cutlers, file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">iron-workers, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brass-workers, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool-workers, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">printers, musicians, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tailors, drapers, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">due to dinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, + <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">copper-workers, carpenters, earthenware makers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">agriculturists, cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blacksmiths, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Neuritis, peripheral, in indiarubber workers, + <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Neurosis, occupation or fatigue, + <a href="#Page_764">764</a>, + <a href="#Page_815">815</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">New Almaden mines, California, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">New Australian Electric Light Co. (Richmond), + <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">New South Wales, eight hours’ day in, + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Newcastle-on-Tyne, cases of plumbism at, + <a href="#Page_297">297–300</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fireclay, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">copper-smelting at, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Newcastle Asylum at Cox Lodge, + <a href="#Page_799">799</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Newcastle City Asylum, + <a href="#Page_800">800</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Newcastle Royal Infirmary, + <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, + <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, + <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, + <a href="#Page_732">732</a>, + <a href="#Page_793">793</a>, + <a href="#Page_799">799</a>, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>, + <a href="#Page_823">823</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Newett, Dr, Ligoneill, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Newlands, Archibald, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_814">814</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Niagara Falls, + <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nieden, Dr, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, + <a href="#Page_764">764</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitrate, of mercury, + <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of silver, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of soda, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitrate mixtures, + <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">as explosives, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitric acid, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitric peroxide, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitric oxide, + <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitro-benzine, + <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitro-cellulose, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_614">614</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitro-compounds, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, + <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitro-cotton, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitro-glycerine, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_612">612</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">explosives, + <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, + <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, + <a href="#Page_605">605</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">physiological effects of, + <a href="#Page_613">613</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitro-powders, + <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitrogen, and black-damp, + <a href="#Page_542">542</a>, + <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and after-damp, + <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nitrous fumes, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nobel, Alfred, discovers blasting gelatine, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Noble, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Non-textile industries, accidents in, + <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">machinery in, + <a href="#Page_227">227–30</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">North Eastern Steel Works, Middlesborough, + <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Northamptonshire mines, + <a href="#Page_158">158–61</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Northumberland County Asylum, + <a href="#Page_799">799</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Northumberland and Durham Miners’ Permanent Relief Fund, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, + <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Northumberland Miners’ Mutual Confident Association, + <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Northumberland mines, + <a href="#Page_158">158–61</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Norway, phosphorus necrosis in, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Norwich, effect of electric shock on dogs at, + <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nottingham, annual meeting of British Medical Association at (1892), + <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nottinghamshire mines, + <a href="#Page_158">158–60</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Novgorod, Russia, anthrax at, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nuisance Removal Act, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nuremberg, mirror-silvering at, + <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nurserymen, mortality of, + <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Nystagmus, miners’, + <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, + <a href="#Page_761">761–64</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Oakeshott, Miss Grace, + <a href="#Page_795">795</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Occupation disease, its causation, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, + <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">difficulty of recognising, + <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">dust as a cause of, + <a href="#Page_267">267–77</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">due to excessively repeated muscular actions, + <a href="#Page_815">815–25</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Occupations, mortality of, + <a href="#Page_118">118–33</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Occupied and unoccupied men, mortality of, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_719">719</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ocean Accident Insurance Co., + <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Œdematous anthrax, + <a href="#Page_636">636</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Official Miners’ Permanent Relief Fund of the German Empire, + <a href="#Page_512">512–18</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ogle, Dr, + <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, + <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, + <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, + <a href="#Page_535">535</a>, + <a href="#Page_755">755</a>, + <a href="#Page_800">800</a>, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oil engines, + <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">safety starting-gear for, + <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oligocythemia, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oliver, a sledge hammer, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oliver, Prof. Thomas, on death from electric shock, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> + <li class="i2"><i>Lead Poisoning</i> (Gulstonian Lectures), + <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on Allbutt’s <i>System of Medicine</i>, + <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, + <a href="#Page_477">477</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">his Report on Lead Compounds in Pottery, + <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> + <li class="i2"><i>Acetylene, the New Illuminant, etc.</i>, + <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Olten, death from electric shock at, + <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Omdurman, effect of lyddite shells at, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Onimus, Dr (France), on telegraphists’ spasm—mal télégraphique, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Openers, tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ophthalmia, in flax workers, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hop pickers, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">confectioners, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Ophthalmic Society of the United Kingdom, Transactions of</i>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Opiates, administered to infants, + <a href="#Page_78">78–80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Opium, used in fen districts for ague, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oram, R. E. Sprague, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Orange lead works, Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_846">846</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Orthonitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Osborn, Mr, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_705">705</a>, + <a href="#Page_716">716</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Osteo-arthritis, in field-workers, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarriers, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Osteomyelitis, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ostlers, subject to glanders and farcy, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ottawa, fire at Dominion Carbide Works, + <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Overwork, on railways, + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oxidation of iron pyrites causes black-damp, + <a href="#Page_541">541–43</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oxide, lead, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of cobalt, + <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oxygen, and black-damp, + <a href="#Page_541">541–45</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and fire-damp, + <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in explosives, + <a href="#Page_610">610</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Oxyhæmoglobin, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Paardeberg, + <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lyddite fumes at, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pagliani, Professor, + <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, + <a href="#Page_739">739</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paint, manufacture of white, + <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, + <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and colour factories, Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_831">831</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Painters, and lead colic, + <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead insanity in, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_333">333–38</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">washing of their clothes, + <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye troubles due to arsenic, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paints, use of inflammable or spirit, + <a href="#Page_494">494–96</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Palmar fascia, contraction of the (among gardeners), + <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pantin-Aubervilliers, France, match works at, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, + <a href="#Page_429">429–32</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plumbism at, + <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paperhangers, eye troubles due to arsenic, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paper makers, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paraffin, cancer among workers in, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paralysis, in file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">electric treatment of, + <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">treatment of divers’, + <a href="#Page_746">746</a>, + <a href="#Page_748">748</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paranitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paris, lead poisoning in, + <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, + <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, + <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tobacco factories in, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Parkes and Kenwood, <i>Hygiene and Public Health</i>, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Parsons, Dr, + <a href="#Page_647">647</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pasteur, his treatment of hydrophobia, + <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of anthrax, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on disease-carrying germs, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pasteur-Chamberland bacterial filter, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paterson, Miss, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pathology and physiology of work and fatigue, + <a href="#Page_104">104–17</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pattinson process for desilvering lead ore, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Paul, M. Constantin, + <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Peacock, Dr, + <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pearson <i>v.</i> Belgian Mills Company, + <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Peel, Sir Robert, + <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pellagra (<i>malattia della miseria</i>), due to bad maize, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pembrey, Llanelly, dynamite explosion at, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pennsylvania, anthrax caused by tannery refuse in, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pens, and writers’ palsy, + <a href="#Page_815">815</a>, + <a href="#Page_818">818</a>, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Percy, Dr, <i>Fuel</i>, + <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Peripheral neuritis, caused by bisulphide of carbon in indiarubber works, + <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">by dinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Perron, M., of Besançon, + <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Perroncito, Professor, Turin, + <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Persulphocyanic acid, + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Petroleum Acts (1871–1881), + <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Phenylene-diamine, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Philatelists, danger of stamp-licking, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Philip, Dr, Edinburgh, + <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Philosophical Transactions</i> (1665), + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Phosphorus, its use limited in Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium, + <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and lucifer matches, + <a href="#Page_417">417–33</a>, + <a href="#Page_592">592</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Phosphorus_necrosis">Phosphorus necrosis (“phossy jaw,” <i>mal chimique</i>), + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, + <a href="#Page_18">18–20</a>, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, + <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, + <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, + <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its cause and prevention, + <a href="#Page_426">426–428</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its treatment, + <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Phossy-jaw, see <a href="#Phosphorus_necrosis">phosphorus necrosis</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Photography, use of bichromes in, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Phthisis">Phthisis, potters’, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its incidence, + <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, + <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in dusty occupations, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">earthenware makers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>, + <a href="#Page_721">721</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">locksmiths, bakers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blacksmiths, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">coopers, wood-turners, rope-makers, bricklayers, masons, carpet manufacturers, tin-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cutlers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">copper-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gunsmiths, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">zinc, iron, and steel workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">stone quarriers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, + <a href="#Page_562">562</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brass-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool-workers, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">agriculturists, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">textile workers, + <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in certain unhealthy occupations, + <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bookbinders, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">printers, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hatters, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tailors, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drapers, shoemakers, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, + <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, + <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">soldiers, + <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">gardeners, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">can be caused by dust, + <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in porcelain and cement makers, masons, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">typographers, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, + <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, + <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mother-of-pearl grinders, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Durham lead miners, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">at Limoges potteries, + <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">indiarubber makers, + <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">millers, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brewers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">carpenters, chemical and flax workers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">laundresses, + <a href="#Page_669">669</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boilermakers and shipbuilders, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">upholsterers, + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">railwaymen, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">publicans, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">coal heavers and trimmers, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Physiology and pathology of work and fatigue, + <a href="#Page_104">104–17</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Physique of working classes, + <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pianoforte-players’ cramp, + <a href="#Page_821">821</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Picklers, in tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_682">682</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">women as assistant, + <a href="#Page_684">684</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Picric acid, <i>see</i> <a href="#Lyddite">lyddite</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pidoux, Dr, + <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Piecing, of flax, + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Piedmont, anchylostomiasis endemic in, + <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pig-keepers, + <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pigments, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Placers in potteries, + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Plague, seamen subject to, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Planing machines, + <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Plasterers, anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents from lime to, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Plate-glass factories in England, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Platelayers, + <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Plate wheels, + <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Playfair, Lord, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pleurisy, in field-workers, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">steel grinders, + <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pliny, <i>Natural History</i>, + <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">“diseases of slaves,” + <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Plug and feather” method of using explosives in quarries, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Plumbers, and white lead, + <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead insanity, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plumbism, + <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Plumbism">Plumbism, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_16">16–19</a>, + <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">colic and kidney disease due to, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in potteries, + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, + <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, + <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, + <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, + <a href="#Page_360">360–62</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among cutlers, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, + <a href="#Page_341">341–43</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glaziers, + <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">painters, + <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied males, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">operatives in electric works (including motor cars and tramways), + <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, + <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, + <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead smelting works, + <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">white lead works, + <a href="#Page_295">295–300</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mortality tables, + <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, + <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, + <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and pregnancy, + <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its symptoms, + <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and alcoholism, + <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, + <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">encephalopathy (lead insanity), + <a href="#Page_307">307–309</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">preventive and curative treatment of, + <a href="#Page_310">310–15</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in Paris, + <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">due to soldering, + <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among typographers, + <a href="#Page_324">324–32</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plumbers, + <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">house painters, + <a href="#Page_333">333–37</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">coach painters, + <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-workers, + <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">earthenware makers, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in chromo-lithograph and transfer making, + <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tile-making, + <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">produced by washing lead-workers’ and painters’ clothes, + <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead foil makers, shoe-finishers, + <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">electric treatment of, + <a href="#Page_373">373–77</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in mirror-silvering works, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among chemical workers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its effect on the eyes, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pommata, Dr, Brigue, + <a href="#Page_741">741</a>, + <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pneumatic chipper in steel works, + <a href="#Page_781">781</a>, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pneumoconiosis, lung disease caused by dust, + <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, + <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in quarriers, + <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pneumonia, in field-workers, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">masons, porcelain and cement makers, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">typographers, + <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, + <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">steel grinders, + <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">millers, bakers, + <a href="#Page_505">505</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jute workers, + <a href="#Page_660">660</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">agriculturists, cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">boiler makers and shipbuilders, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">engine drivers and firemen, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Poikilocytosis, + <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Poincaré, Dr, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Poisoning by dinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_477">477–86</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">acute, + <a href="#Page_477">477</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">subacute, + <a href="#Page_478">478</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chronic, + <a href="#Page_479">479</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">precautions against, + <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">treatment of, + <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Poisonous substances, control of their use in manufacture, + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Poisons Industriels</i>, Paris, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, + <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Poisson, Dr, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pol and Watelle, MM., on effects of compressed air at Douchy mine, + <a href="#Page_730">730</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Polishing of cutlery, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pollender, Professor, on the anthrax bacillus, + <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ponteau, M., experiments in matches, + <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pontypool, first tinplate works at, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Poole, Dorset, fireclay working at, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Poore, Vivian, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pope, Dr Walter, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Porcelain, diseases of workers, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">three kinds of, + <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">stoves, + <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Porphyry quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Porter, Dr, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Potassium and sodium bichromate, lesions resulting from manufacture and uses of, + <a href="#Page_447">447–54</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Potassium chlorate, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Potassium, cyanide of, in glazed ware, + <a href="#Page_807">807</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pott, Percivall, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Potteries,” the, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Potters, phthisis of, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, + <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pottery manufacture, + <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, + <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, + <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">use of lead in, + <a href="#Page_346">346–65</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pottery Arbitration at Stoke-on-Trent, + <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pouce, flax dust, + <a href="#Page_697">697</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Power presses, + <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, + <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Precipitation process in white lead works, + <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pregnancy, and lead poisoning, + <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and tobacco, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Prendergast, Dr Hanley, + <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, + <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Preservation of Health and Morals of Apprentices Act (1802), + <a href="#Page_827">827</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Prevost, Dr, Geneva University, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Priest and Ashmore, opticians, Sheffield, + <a href="#Page_782">782</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Priestley, Dr, + <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Prime movers, + <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Printers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and lead dust, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">colic, + <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their cats suffer from plumbism, + <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">subject to phthisis, + <a href="#Page_328">328–30</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and to plumbism, + <a href="#Page_324">324–32</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pröbsting, Dr, oculist, Cologne, + <a href="#Page_806">806</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Prospector, mining, + <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, + <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Protection necessary in factories, + <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Protection of Infant Life, Select Committee (1871) on, + <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Protective legislation and Factory Acts, + <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Proust, Dr, + <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pruritus (itchiness), + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Prussian Official Miners’ Relief Fund, + <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Public Health Acts, + <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, + <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Public Health Journal</i>, + <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Public Health Engineer</i>, + <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Publicans, death rate, + <a href="#Page_800">800</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Puddling furnacemen subject to heart disease, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pulleys, for mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, + <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">loose, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pulling room, for transformation of rabbit skins, + <a href="#Page_724">724</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pulmonary anthracosis, in stokers, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pulmonary anthrax, “wool-sorter’s disease,” + <a href="#Page_637">637</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pulmonary diseases, in china and earthenware makers, + <a href="#Page_382">382–89</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blast furnacemen, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blacksmiths, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">dressmakers, + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Purdon, Dr C. P., + <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>, + <a href="#Page_697">697</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Putty powder, frequent cause of plumbism, + <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Pyroxiline, + <a href="#Page_792">792</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Quarriers, diseases of, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, + <a href="#Page_561">561–64</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accidents, + <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, + <a href="#Page_561">561</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Quarries, + <a href="#Page_557">557–67</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Quarries Act (1894), + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, + <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Quarry Fencing Act, + <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Quicksilver, mining of, + <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">extraction from cinnabar, + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Rabbit down and skins, + <a href="#Page_724">724–27</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Racing the stone,” in wet-grinding, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rag-grinding, + <a href="#Page_645">645</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rag-cleaning, dust from, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rag-sorters, liable to anthrax, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">health of, + <a href="#Page_645">645</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rags and their products in relation to health, + <a href="#Page_644">644–47</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Railway Times</i>, + <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Railways, + <a href="#Page_190">190–202</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accidents on, + <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>et seq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Royal Commission (1865) on, + <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">block system and automatic couplings, + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">overwork on, <i>ibid.</i>;</li> + <li class="i2">gases in underground, + <a href="#Page_744">744–45</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employés’ risks, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Railways Regulation Act (1871), + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">(1873), + <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rainhill, file-cutting at, + <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ramazini, Dr, <i>Diseases of Artificers</i> (<i>De morbis artificium diatriba</i>), + <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, + <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, + <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ransome, Dr, + <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, + <a href="#Page_707">707</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rasch, Professor, + <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rats and sequoia sawdust, + <a href="#Page_792">792</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ravenal, Dr, Pennsylvania, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rawson, C., <i>Manual of Dyeing</i>, + <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Raymondaud, Professor, Limoges, + <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Reachers (cotton-spinning), + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Read, Holliday, & Sons, + <a href="#Page_612">612</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Read-Holliday Acetylene Company, + <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, + <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Red lead, + <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_846">846</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Red, or amorphous phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_417">417–19</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Red oxide, + <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Redgrave, Alexander, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Redheugh Bridge, Newcastle, + <a href="#Page_729">729</a>, + <a href="#Page_734">734</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Redwick Well, Gloucestershire, + <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Reeling, measuring flax yarn into hanks, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Regent’s Park, gunpowder explosion in, + <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, + <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Reitz, Dr J., <i>Ueber die giftigen Hutmacherbeizen und deren nachtheiligen Einfluss auf die Gesundheit</i>, + <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Renk, Professor von, + <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Resin, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Respiratory diseases, <i>see</i> <a href="#Phthisis">phthisis</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Retting, or steeping pond, for jute, + <a href="#Page_651">651</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Return road (mines), + <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Revue d’Hygiène et de Police Sanitaire</i>, + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, + <a href="#Page_739">739</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rex, Wilton, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Reynolds, Dr, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rheumatic fever, in cotton operatives, + <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool-sorters, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drapers, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brewers, cutlers, carpenters, chemical workers, earthenware and glass makers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">agriculturists, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rheumatism, in seamen, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">field-workers, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarriers, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jute-workers, + <a href="#Page_660">660</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jam-makers, + <a href="#Page_680">680</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tinplate workers, + <a href="#Page_683">683</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">aerated water workers, + <a href="#Page_689">689</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blast furnacemen, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sawyers, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drivers of public vehicles, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Riders’ bone, bursæ, sprain, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ridley, Sir Matthew White, + <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, + <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ring frame, in cotton-spinning, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ringworm, in cows, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ritchie, C. T., + <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, + <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">his Railway Bills, + <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, + <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rivers, Dr, + <a href="#Page_773">773</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Riveters, deafness in, + <a href="#Page_752">752</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Rivista de Servizio Minerario</i>, + <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roads, “intake” and “return” (mines), + <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roberts, Sir William, + <a href="#Page_707">707</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Robertshaw, Dr, Stockbridge, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Robertson, Dr John, Medical Health Officer, Sheffield, + <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Robinson, Dr William, Sunderland, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roburite, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roburite Company, + <a href="#Page_615">615</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rochester Bridge, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rodgers, Mr, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rome, Jews as glass makers in, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Romiée, Dr, + <a href="#Page_764">764</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Root’s blower, + <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rope-makers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roques, <i>Mouvement Médical</i>, + <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roscoe, Sir H., + <a href="#Page_707">707</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rose, Dr Frederick, Consul at Stuttgart, <i>Rise, Progress, and + Present Condition of the Carbide and Acetylene Industries in Germany</i>, + <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rosewood, + <a href="#Page_792">792</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roslin, Edinburgh, gunpowder explosions at, + <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ross, Dr, + <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roughers, in flax works, + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">addicted to alcoholism, + <a href="#Page_697">697</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roussel, Professor, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rove, twisted jute yarn, + <a href="#Page_653">653</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roving frames, cotton spinning, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Roving machines, flax works, + <a href="#Page_694">694</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Royal College of Surgeons, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Royal Commission on:—Labour, + <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, + <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Mines (1841), + <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Railways (1865 and 1899), + <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, + <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Royal Institution, + <a href="#Page_737">737</a>, + <a href="#Page_740">740</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, + <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Royal Society, + <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Royal Society of England, Transactions of</i>, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, + <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Royaume de Belgique—Statistique de Mines, Minières, Carrières, etc.</i>, + <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Russell, Dr, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Russell, Risien, + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Russell, Sir James, Edinburgh, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Russia, factory inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ergotism in, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Rye, spurred, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">S. S. Powder, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Saccardo system, for ventilating St Gothard Tunnel, + <a href="#Page_738">738</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sack-sewers (jute works), + <a href="#Page_652">652</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Safe-guarding of machinery, + <a href="#Page_203">203–31</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Safety lamps, in coal mines, + <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Saggers, vessels in which earthenware is fired, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sailing vessels, mortality incident in, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sailors, health of, + <a href="#Page_182">182–89</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">food and habits of, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">diseases due to employment, habits, and climate, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">to insanitary conditions and environment, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accident death rate, + <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">St Bartholomew’s Hospital, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">St Gothard Tunnel, + <a href="#Page_738">738</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">St Helens, copper-smelting at, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chemical works at, + <a href="#Page_571">571</a>, + <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, + <a href="#Page_582">582</a>, + <a href="#Page_584">584</a>, + <a href="#Page_596">596</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plate-glass works at, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">St Yriex, near Limoges, kaolin found at, + <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Salt, electrolysis of, + <a href="#Page_583">583</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Salt cake, or sulphate of soda, + <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, + <a href="#Page_573">573</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hours of work, etc., of makers of, + <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Salt mines (Cheshire), + <a href="#Page_508">508</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">accidents in German, + <a href="#Page_513">513–15</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Saltash, use of caissons at, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Saltpetre, + <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sand quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sandstone, dust, + <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sanitary Act, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sanitary Commissions, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sanitary Condition of Labouring Population, Report (1838) on, + <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sanitary Congress, Newcastle, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sanitary measures in Factory Act of 1864, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sanitary State of the People of England (1858), + <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Saturnine poisoning, <i>see</i> <a href="#Encephalopathy">encephalopathy</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Saws, circular, + <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sawyers, subject to rheumatism, bronchitis, and asthma, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Saxony, mines, + <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cancer of lung in smaltite miners, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">secret of tinplate making brought from, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scale tang cutlery, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, + <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scapula’s <i>Lexicon</i>, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scarlet fever caused by cows’ milk, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schaefer, Dr H., <i>Die Spiegelberger</i>, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scheele, Dr, Berlin, + <a href="#Page_805">805</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scheele’s green, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schmeisser, <i>The Goldfields of Australia</i>, + <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schmidt, Dr, + <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schölberg, H. A., his chemical analysis of a ganister miner’s lung, + <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schonbein, Professor, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schröter of Vienna, discovers red or amorphous phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schultze powder, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schutte, Landsberg, & Co., + <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schweinfurt or Vienna green, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Schweinitz, Professor de, <i>Toxic Amblyopias</i>, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sciatica in field-workers, + <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scissors-makers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scotch Fishery Board, + <a href="#Page_674">674</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scotland, match works in, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bichrome factories in, + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">fish-curing a staple industry in, + <a href="#Page_674">674</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scott, Dr Alexander, Glasgow, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scottish Amicable Life Assurance Society, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scottish Council for Women’s Trades, + <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scouring china, + <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Screws, set (mill-gearing), + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scriveners’ palsy, or spasm, + <a href="#Page_815">815–17</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scroll- or draw-bands, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scurvy, in sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Scutch mills, flax, + <a href="#Page_692">692</a>, + <a href="#Page_694">694</a>, + <a href="#Page_698">698</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Seamstresses’ cramp, + <a href="#Page_821">821</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Self-acting mules, + <a href="#Page_223">223–25</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Septum, ulceration of the nasal, + <a href="#Page_450">450–52</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sequoia wood, effect of its sawdust, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Serpentine quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Servants, domestic, liable to stomach ulceration, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sesquisulphide of phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, + <a href="#Page_430">430–32</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Set-screws (mill-gearing), + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, + <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Setters, in ganister works, + <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Severn Tunnel, nitro-glycerine fumes in, + <a href="#Page_613">613</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sewing-machine workers, their ailments, + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Seymour, Lord, his Railway Act, + <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shaft ends, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shaftesbury, Lord, + <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shafting, for mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, + <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shafts, downcast and upcast (mines), + <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shale quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shanghai hides, + <a href="#Page_629">629</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shears, Professor, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sheep, and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Sheep dip,” arsenic in, + <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sheep’s wool, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sheet-glass factories, + <a href="#Page_804">804</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sheffield, mother-of-pearl grinding in, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">high mortality in, + <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, + <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">snuff, + <a href="#Page_769">769</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sheffield Royal Infirmary, + <a href="#Page_777">777</a>, + <a href="#Page_779">779</a>, + <a href="#Page_781">781</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shennan, Dr, Edinburgh, + <a href="#Page_778">778</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shepherds and sheep diseases, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, + <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sherwin, J., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ship painters, + <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shipwrights, death rate, + <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shoddy, + <a href="#Page_646">646</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Shoddy fever,” in rag-grinders, + <a href="#Page_645">645</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shoe-finishing and staining by lead compounds, plumbism and, + <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shoemakers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, + <a href="#Page_824">824</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">spasm (idiopathic tetany), + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">instance of chest deformity in, + <a href="#Page_823">823</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shoreditch, cases of anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Shunters, railway, a perilous trade, + <a href="#Page_195">195–97</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sicily, effects of fatigue in, + <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sick Insurance Fund, Germany, + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, + <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sidemoor, nail-making at, + <a href="#Page_760">760</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Siderosis, lung disease due to metallic dust, + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Siemens-Martin furnace, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Siemens metal, heat of, + <a href="#Page_772">772</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sierra de Gador, lead mines of, + <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sieve mills, ganister works, + <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sighters of aerated water, + <a href="#Page_787">787</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_786">786</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Silicate of cotton, + <a href="#Page_788">788</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Silicosis, or chalicosis, lung disease due to stone-dust, etc., + <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Silk-dust, its effect on workers, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Silver and gold extraction, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Silver finishers or burnishers, eye affection, of, + <a href="#Page_771">771</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Silvering of mirrors, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Simon, Sir John, Medical Officer to the Privy Council, + <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, + <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, + <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, + <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, + <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, + <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Simon, Dr R., + <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Simplon Tunnel, + <a href="#Page_739">739</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Size in cotton, its effects on health, + <a href="#Page_705">705</a>, + <a href="#Page_706">706</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">constituents of, + <a href="#Page_715">715</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Skin and hides, Special Rules for dry-salting, + <a href="#Page_856">856</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Skin disease due to dust (pneumoconiosis), + <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in flax workers, + <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Slag, basic, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, + <a href="#Page_390">390–95</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Slate quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Slaughterers liable to anthrax, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and erysipelas, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sledge hammer, or Oliver, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sledging, in ganister crushing, + <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Slip-makers (pottery), + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Slips, in mill-gearing, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Slubbing frames (cotton spinning), + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smallpox, allied to cowpox and horsepox, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">caused by rags in papermaking, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">upholsterers liable to, + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smaltite, causes lung cancer, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smelting works (Germany), accidents in, + <a href="#Page_513">513–15</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smith, Dr Andrew, New York, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>, + <a href="#Page_735">735</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smith, Angus, <i>Air and Rain</i>, + <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smith, Sir Frederick, Inspector General, Board of Trade, + <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smith, Commander Hamilton, + <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, + <a href="#Page_767">767</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smith, Lorrain, + <a href="#Page_544">544</a>, + <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smith, Sidney, Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smoke in mines, carbonic acid, its poisonous constituent, + <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Smyrna, emery rock imported from, + <a href="#Page_813">813</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Snaefell colliery accident, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Snell, Dr Simeon, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, + <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, + <a href="#Page_730">730</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Snuff, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_767">767</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Social Science Congress (1865), + <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Society of Arts, + <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Society of File-Cutters by Hand in Sheffield, + <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Soda, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, + <a href="#Page_583">583</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sodium, manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_447">447–54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_844">844</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sodium nitrate, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Soft rags, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Soldering, and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Soldiers, diseases of, + <a href="#Page_166">166–81</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">their barracks, + <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tight-fitting uniforms abolished, + <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">“irritable heart” and tobacco, <i>ibid.</i>;</li> + <li class="i2">night-guard, + <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">life in hot dry climates, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in hot moist climates, + <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">specific diseases of campaigns, + <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sommerfeld, <i>Handbuch der Gewerbekrankheiten</i>, + <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Soot merchants, death rate, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Soot, its effects on the skin, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and cancer, + <a href="#Page_810">810</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Soot warts, + <a href="#Page_810">810</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">South London, fur-pullers in, + <a href="#Page_726">726</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">South Wales, mines, + <a href="#Page_158">158–60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Southwark, cases of anthrax in, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spain, employment of women after childbirth in, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pellagra in, + <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spanish lead ore, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spanton, W. D., + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spear, Mr, Local Government Board, + <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, + <a href="#Page_626">626</a>, + <a href="#Page_630">630–32</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Special Rules, in Germany and England, + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, + <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">France, + <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and Arbitration, + <a href="#Page_65">65–71</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in potteries, + <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, + <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">under Factory Acts, + <a href="#Page_829">829–64</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spiegel iron, + <a href="#Page_758">758</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spike nails, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spindle ends, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spinners (flax), phthisis among, + <a href="#Page_696">696–98</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spirit or inflammable paints, use of, + <a href="#Page_494">494–96</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Splenic fever, <i>see</i> <a href="#Anthrax">anthrax</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sporting explosives, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spragging, in coal mines, + <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Spur wheels, + <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Squire, Miss, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_671">671</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stablemen, subject to glanders and farcy, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Staffordshire, infant mortality in artisan towns of, + <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wages of male and female workers, + <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mines in, + <a href="#Page_158">158–61</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">home of the pottery industry, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">earthenware and china makers in, + <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, + <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stagnant and compressed air, diseases due to working in, + <a href="#Page_728">728–48</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Stamp-lickers’ tongue,” + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stannington clay, + <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Starch, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Starting-gear for gas and oil engines, + <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Statistik der Knappschafts-Berufsgenossenschaft für das Deutsche Reich</i>, + <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Statistique de l’Industrie Minérale en France et en Algerie</i>, + <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Statisque de Mines, etc., Royaume de Belgique.</i></li> + + <li class="i1">Steam engines, + <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steam laundries, machinery in, + <a href="#Page_665">665</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steamers, mortality incident in, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steel and iron industries, + <a href="#Page_756">756–60</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steel-melters’ composition, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steel-workers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye diseases, + <a href="#Page_771">771–75</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents, + <a href="#Page_776">776–83</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steel works, use of converters in, + <a href="#Page_757">757</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steel grinding, + <a href="#Page_408">408–16</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steel pens, and writers’ palsy, + <a href="#Page_815">815</a>, + <a href="#Page_818">818</a>, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Steeping or retting pond, for jute, + <a href="#Page_651">651</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">for flax, + <a href="#Page_652">652</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stephenson, George, + <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stephenson, Dr, Medical Health Officer, Blackburn, + <a href="#Page_706">706</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stereotyping, + <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stevenson, Dr, + <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, + <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stive room, in basic slag works, + <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stockman, Professor, Glasgow, + <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stoke-on-Trent, Pottery Arbitration at, + <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">potteries at, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stokers, railway, pulmonary anthracosis in, + <a href="#Page_797">797</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stokes, Mr, Report on Whitwick Colliery fire, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stomach ulceration, domestic servants liable to, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stone, racing the (wet-grinding), + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stone, workers in (cutters, masons, quarriers, etc.), eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_784">784</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stone-quarriers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stooping gait (kyphosis), in field-workers, + <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stourbridge fireclay, + <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, + <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Strap forks, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Strasburg Bridge, Rhine, + <a href="#Page_731">731</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Strassmann and Strecker, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, + <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Strick of flax, + <a href="#Page_693">693</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Strong’s “Standard Guard” for engine fly-wheels, + <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stühler, Dr, Berlin, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, + <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Stumpf, Dr, + <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Subchloride of mercury (calomel), + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Suffit, Dr Courtois-, + <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sugar and alcohol, as muscular food, + <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Suicide, in file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bookbinders, printers, musicians, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hatters, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">drapers, + <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">shoemakers, + <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ironstone miners, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">publicans, + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulphate of soda, or salt cake, + <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, + <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulphide of lead (galena), + <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulphide of mercury (vermilion), + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, + <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulphur, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, + <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulphur dioxide, + <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, + <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulphuretted hydrogen, + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulphuric acid, + <a href="#Page_570">570</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_580">580</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sulser-Ziegler, Mr, Director of Brandt, Brandau et Cie., Zurich, + <a href="#Page_740">740</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sunderland, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sunderland Infirmary, + <a href="#Page_808">808</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sunstroke, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, + <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sutton, H., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Swan, Joseph Wilson, + <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Swansea, copper smelting at, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, + <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sweating System, House of Lords’ Committee on the, + <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sweden, factory inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">ergotism in, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lucifer match industry in, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Swift, or drum for rag-grinding, + <a href="#Page_645">645</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Swine and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Switzerland, factory inspectorate in, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">employment of women after childbirth, + <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, + <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, + <a href="#Page_685">685</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">use of white phosphorus limited, + <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">yellow phosphorus prohibited, + <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">phosphorus necrosis in, + <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeping in, + <a href="#Page_811">811</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Sydney, week’s work of forty-four hours in coal mines and factories, + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death from electric shock in, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Syphilis, sailors and, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Tailors, death rate, + <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Talamon, Dr, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tanners, death rate, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tannery refuse, and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tanquerel, Dr, + <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tar, cancer among workers in, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tardien, M., + <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tasmania, eight hours’ day in, + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tatham, Dr John, <i>Decennial Supplements to Registrar-General’s Reports</i>, + <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, + <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, + <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, + <a href="#Page_593">593</a>, + <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, + <a href="#Page_717">717</a>, + <a href="#Page_719">719</a>, + <a href="#Page_801">801</a>, + <a href="#Page_809">809</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Taylor, Dr Frederick, + <a href="#Page_746">746</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tea lead rollers, lead insanity among, + <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Teagles, + <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Telegraphists’ spasm or cramp, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Telfer, Councillor, Edinburgh, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Templeman, Dr, Medical Health Officer, Dundee, + <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tennant, H. J., M.P., + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Terra-cotta, + <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Terrier, Professor, + <a href="#Page_775">775</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tetanus, or lockjaw, + <a href="#Page_240">240–42</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">its micro-organism, + <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in quarrymen, + <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">jute-workers, + <a href="#Page_659">659</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">idiopathic (shoemakers’ spasm), + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Textile factories, accidents in, + <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">limitation of hours in, + <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">death rate of workers in, + <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">machinery in, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, + <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Thackrah, Dr, <i>Effects of Arts, Trades, and Professions on Health and Longevity</i>, + <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Thermometer-making, + <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Thomas, Dr, Limehouse, + <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Thomas Gilchrist process, in steel manufacture, + <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Thomson, Captain, Inspector of Explosives, + <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Thorpe, Professor T. E., + <a href="#Page_350">350–53</a>, + <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, + <a href="#Page_357">357–61</a>, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, + <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, + <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, + <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Thread mills, + <a href="#Page_803">803</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Threshing, eye accidents in, + <a href="#Page_783">783</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Throstles (cotton spinning), + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Throwing (potteries), + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tile making, and manufacture of porcelain stoves, + <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tillmanns, Professor, Leipzig, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Times</i>, + <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tin-houses, in tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_685">685</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tin-miners, death rate, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, + <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tinplate works, processes of manufacture in, + <a href="#Page_681">681</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">women’s labour in, + <a href="#Page_681">681–86</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">risks to health, + <a href="#Page_683">683</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tinker and Holliday, Huddersfield, + <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tinley, Dr, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tinning and enamelling of hollow ware, + <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_848">848</a>, + <a href="#Page_863">863</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tizzoni, Professor, the tetanus bacilli, + <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, + <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">on hydrophobia, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tobacco, soldiers use of, + <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">manufacture of, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>, + <a href="#Page_793">793</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">toxic amblyopia in workers, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">pregnancy and, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Todmorden, cotton sizing at, + <a href="#Page_705">705</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tolindene, + <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Toluene, + <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tonite (cotton powder), + <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, + <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, + <a href="#Page_611">611</a>, + <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tools, machine, + <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Toothed wheels, + <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Torticollis, or wry-neck, + <a href="#Page_762">762</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tow, flax, + <a href="#Page_673">673</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sliver-yarn, + <a href="#Page_694">694</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Towing (pottery), + <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Toxic hysteria, caused by bisulphide of carbon, + <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trade, Grand Committee (1902) on, + <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trade Accident Associations (Germany), + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trade Unions, + <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trades Union Congress (1882), + <a href="#Page_705">705</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tramways, electric, + <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers</i>, + <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, + <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, + <a href="#Page_517">517</a>, + <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, + <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Transactions of Ophth. Society of the United Kingdom</i>, + <a href="#Page_770">770</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Transactions of the Royal Society of England</i>, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, + <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Transfer making and chromo-lithographic works, + <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_840">840</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Transformer stations, electric, + <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tremenheere, Mr, Inspector of Mines, + <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Triamidobenzine, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trichinosis, + <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Triger, M., French engineer, + <a href="#Page_730">730</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trinitrophenol, or picric acid, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Trinitrotoluene, + <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tropical diseases, in sailors, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tuberculosis, common disease in cows, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in typographers, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, + <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, + <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tunnels, dangers of making and working in, + <a href="#Page_737">737–43</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tunstall potteries, + <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Turbines, + <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Turin, Congress of Hygiene at, + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tuyere holes (steel works), + <a href="#Page_758">758</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine</i>, + <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, + <a href="#Page_819">819</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tyler, Captain, Board of Trade Inspecting Officer, + <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tyneside, decay of chemical industry on, + <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead insanity in, + <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plumbism, + <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Typhoid fever, + <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, + <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, + <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among field-workers, + <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in Dundee, + <a href="#Page_662">662</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among boilermakers and shipbuilders, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Type-setters’ spasm, + <a href="#Page_821">821</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1" id="Typographers">Typographers (type founders and setters) and lead dust, + <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and plumbism, + <a href="#Page_324">324–32</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Typographical Associations, + <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Mortality Tables, + <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, + <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Tyrol, milkers’ spasm in cowherds of the, + <a href="#Page_821">821</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Ulceration of the nasal septum, due to bichromes, + <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of the stomach in domestic servants, + <a href="#Page_798">798</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Underground railways, gases in, + <a href="#Page_744">744–45</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Unhealthy trades, Dr Guy’s classification of, + <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">United Alkali Co., + <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, + <a href="#Page_579">579</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">United Society of Boilermakers and Iron Shipbuilders, + <a href="#Page_754">754</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Unoccupied and occupied men, mortality of, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, + <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, + <a href="#Page_719">719</a>, + <a href="#Page_720">720</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Upcast shaft (mines), + <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Upholsterers, and flocks, + <a href="#Page_466">466</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">subject to respiratory troubles, smallpox, erysipelas, etc., + <a href="#Page_789">789</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Urinary diseases, in potters, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cutlers, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">glass-makers, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">copper-workers, + <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">iron-workers, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">lead-workers, + <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">brass-workers, + <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">chimney sweeps, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool-workers, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">bookbinders, + <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">printers, musicians, + <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">miners, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">occupied and unoccupied men, + <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">caused by dinitrobenzine, + <a href="#Page_482">482–85</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">among brewers, carpenters, chemical workers, earthenware makers, + <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">publicans, etc., + <a href="#Page_802">802</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Urobilin, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Uttley, Stuart, + <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Vaccinia, or cowpox, cowmen and dairymaids subject to, + <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Van der Borght, Dr, his definition of industrial disease, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Van Giesson, + <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Van Leyden, + <a href="#Page_747">747</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Varicocele, in carpenters, + <a href="#Page_791">791</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">engine drivers, + <a href="#Page_796">796</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Varicose veins, + <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Vegetable dyes, + <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Velten in Brandenburg, plumbism among glazed tile makers, + <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Venereal diseases, in soldiers, + <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ventilation of factories, + <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Vermilion (sulphide of mercury), + <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Verhægen, Arthur, + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_16">16–18</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Vernati, Sir Philberto, + <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Veterinary surgeons, + <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, + <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, + <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Victor guard, + <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Victoria, eight hours’ day in, + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Vienna, epidemic of idiopathic tetany in, + <a href="#Page_822">822</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Violinists’ cramp, + <a href="#Page_821">821</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Viper bites, in field-workers, + <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Vitriol makers, hours of work, etc., + <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Vitriol, oil of, + <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Volante, Dr, Medical Officer at Iselle (Simplon Tunnel), + <a href="#Page_741">741</a>, + <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Volts, + <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, + <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Vulcanisation of indiarubber, + <a href="#Page_768">768</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_855">855</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Wadsworth’s “Self-landing and Delivering Hoist,” + <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wages, effect of home work on, + <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wall papers, arsenic in, + <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Walmsley, J. H., Factory Inspector, Stoke-on-Trent, + <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, + <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Walsrode (sporting powder), + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ward, Thomas, <i>The Subsidences in and around the Town of Northwich in Cheshire</i>, + <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Warpers, flax, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cotton spinning, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Washers, in tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_682">682</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">of aerated water bottles, + <a href="#Page_688">688</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Washing of lead-workers’ and painters’ clothes, plumbism caused by, + <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Water, importance of its source and purity, + <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, + <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Water-born diseases, enteric and cholera, + <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, + <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, + <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Water-gauges on boilers, eye accidents due to bursting of, + <a href="#Page_787">787</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Water-gilding, + <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Water-wheels, + <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Watson, Mr, Secretary, Miners’ Permanent Benefit Fund, + <a href="#Page_776">776</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Weavers, flax, phthisis and bronchial troubles in, + <a href="#Page_696">696–98</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Weavers’ Association, + <a href="#Page_707">707</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Weaving sheds (cotton spinning), + <a href="#Page_704">704</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Weber, Professor H. F., his electric experiments, + <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wedgewood, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wegner, Professor, experiments with phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Weldon process, in bleach powder making, + <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, + <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, + <a href="#Page_580">580</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Well-sinkers, eye accidents to, + <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">West coast of Africa, + <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">West Riding, Yorkshire, mines, + <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">wool industry in, + <a href="#Page_634">634</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Westphalia, mining laws in, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">anchylostomiasis in, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Westphalite, for blasting, + <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wet-grinders, + <a href="#Page_411">411–16</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">phthisis in, + <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Weyl’s <i>Handbuch der Hygiene</i>, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wheat-cleaning, dust from, + <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">dirt in imported, + <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wheels (in mill-gearing), bevel, + <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">toothed, + <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, + <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">spur, + <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, + <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plate, + <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">carriages, + <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">balance, + <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Whinstone, or basalt, quarries, + <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White, Dr Sinclair, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White, Walter, <i>Month in Yorkshire</i>, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White lead, + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">is there a substitute for? + <a href="#Page_293">293–295</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White Lead Commission (1893), + <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, + <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, + <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, + <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, + <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, + <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, + <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White lead poisoning, <i>see</i> <a href="#Plumbism">plumbism</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White lead works, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, + <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, + <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">blue and white beds in, + <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">different methods of manufacture in, + <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, + <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">plumbism in, + <a href="#Page_295">295</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li class="i2">displacement of female by male labour, + <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_829">829</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White or yellow phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_417">417–19</a>, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">a substitute for, + <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, + <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">White-damp, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Whitelegge, Dr A., Chief Inspector of Factories, + <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, + <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, + <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, + <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Whittaker, J. L., + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Whittingham Asylum, Preston, Lancashire, + <a href="#Page_800">800</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Whitwick Colliery fire, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Whymper, Mr, on tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_682">682</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wiesbaden, plumbism in electric accumulators works at, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wigan, railway accident at, + <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wildmark, Professor, + <a href="#Page_775">775</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wilkin, Dr, Dresden, + <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wilks, Sir Samuel, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Williams, G. J., Mines Inspector, + <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Williams, W., Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_713">713</a>, + <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, + <a href="#Page_716">716</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wilson, H. J., Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, + <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, + <a href="#Page_659">659</a>, + <a href="#Page_756">756</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Winches, cranes, etc., + <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Winders, flax, + <a href="#Page_695">695</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">cotton, + <a href="#Page_703">703</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Windmills, + <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Windsor Magazine</i>, + <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, + <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Winlaton, manufacture of nails, locks, and angle iron at, + <a href="#Page_759">759</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wire-drawing, eye accidents in, + <a href="#Page_785">785</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wirers, aerated water, + <a href="#Page_687">687</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wollner, Dr, + <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wolverhampton, iron-plate enamelling industry at, + <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">hollow ware, + <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Women, Factory Acts first extended to, + <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">appointed Factory Inspectors (1893), + <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">limitation of employment after childbirth, + <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, + <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">as dust sorters, + <a href="#Page_278">278–81</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">more susceptible to plumbism than men, + <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, + <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">effects of mercurial poisoning on, + <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tinplate works, + <a href="#Page_681">681–86</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in aerated water works, + <a href="#Page_687">687–90</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in tobacco and cigar factories, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>, + <a href="#Page_795">795</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Women’s Industrial Council of London, + <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, + <a href="#Page_795">795</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wood turners, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Woodhouse and Mitchell’s guard, + <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wool and worsted workers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and anthrax, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, + <a href="#Page_634">634–43</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_851">851–54</a>, + <a href="#Page_857">857</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Wool-sorters’ disease,” pulmonary anthrax, + <a href="#Page_637">637</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Woollen rags, + <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Woolwich Arsenal adopts eight hours’ day, + <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Woolwich Testing Station, + <a href="#Page_616">616</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Worcester Porcelain Company, + <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Work and fatigue, physiology and pathology of, + <a href="#Page_104">104–117</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Working classes, and factory legislation, + <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">physique of, + <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">physical, moral, and economical evils of, + <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">indifference to the health of, + <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">divided into artisans and labourers, + <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">and the use of alcohol, + <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Workmen’s Compensation Act (1897), + <a href="#Page_9">9–13</a>, + <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, + <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, + <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Workshop Regulation Act of 1867, amended 1870, + <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Workshops, survey of legislation for, + <a href="#Page_44">44–62</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wrecks, + <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wright, G. F., Factory Inspector, + <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">“Wrist drop,” + <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">in file-cutters, + <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Writers’ palsy, or cramp, + <a href="#Page_815">815–19</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wry-neck, or torticollis, + <a href="#Page_762">762</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Wutzdorff, Dr, <i>Die in Chromatfabriken, etc.</i>, + <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, + <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, + <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, + <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1">Yarn, jute, + <a href="#Page_652">652</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">flax, + <a href="#Page_694">694</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Yellow fever in sailors, + <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, + <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Yellow lead works, Special Rules for, + <a href="#Page_847">847</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Yellow or white phosphorus, + <a href="#Page_417">417–19</a>, + <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">a substitute for, + <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, + <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, + <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ygonin, Professor, + <a href="#Page_794">794</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Yolk, or grease, in wool of animals, + <a href="#Page_636">636</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Yorkshire, efforts of labour employers in, + <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">child-labour in, + <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> + <li class="i2">mines, + <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Youatt, Mr, on influenza in horses, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Young, Ralph, + <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, + <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> + <li class="i1"><i>Zeitschrift Deutsche Milit.</i>, + <a href="#Page_751">751</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, Deutsche</i>, + <a href="#Page_812">812</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1"><i>Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hütten- und Salinen-wesen im Preussischen Staate</i>, + <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Ziegler, Sulser-, Mr, + <a href="#Page_740">740</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Zinc chloride, in sizing, + <a href="#Page_715">715</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Zinc poisoning in brass-works, + <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Zinc white, a substitute for white lead? + <a href="#Page_293">293–295</a>.</li> + + <li class="i1">Zinc-workers, death rate, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="p2 center xs">Printed by<br> +Oliver & Boyd<br> +Edinburgh</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> See also Prof. Louis’ paper, “Coal Mining,” where this +subject is dealt with at greater length.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> As an outcome of suggestions made at the Pottery +Arbitration at Stoke-on-Trent (November 1901), a scheme is being +formulated by a committee of employers, representatives of the +operatives, and the Ocean Accident Insurance Company, under which +all workers in dangerous processes in potteries will be able to +insure against lead poisoning, the premiums to be supplemented by +contributions from the manufacturers.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> For example: “The accidents which happen to the workmen +are: Immediate pain in the stomach, with exceeding contortions in +the guts, and costiveness that yields not to cathartics; ... next +a vertigo or dizziness in the head with continual great pain in +the brows, blindness, stupidity, and paralytic affections; loss of +appetite, sickness and frequent vomiting to the extremest weakness of +the body.”—<i>Transactions of the Royal Society</i>, Abridged Edition, +vol. ii., p. 576; paper by Sir Philberto Vernati).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> The same volume, papers by Dr Walter Pope and Dr Ed. +Brown.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Ramazzini: see passages I have quoted, with comparisons, +in the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for 1898, pp. +171–2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> <i>Transactions of the Royal Society</i>, vol. ii.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> See especially, Report on an Inquiry into the Sanitary +Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain. Printed by W. +Clowes & Sons for Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1842, pp. 256–261, +409–444, etc.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> See more particularly, Special Reports on Mines +Legislation in Germany, France, Belgium, by Her late Majesty’s Mines +Inspector, Mr Tremenheere, in 1848 and 1849.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> “Defects of ventilation are in theory dealt with under +the Nuisance Removal Act.... In practice these powers are hitherto +almost unapplied; partly because the magnitude of the evil is but most +imperfectly appreciated either by local authorities and justices, +or by the slowly suffering artisans themselves; and perhaps still +more ... for another reason. In any proceedings ... an official +complainant should be ready to state in precise terms what remedy he +asks the justices to apply. Now, to describe suitable ventilation +for a workplace there must be a fair amount of intelligence and +discrimination.... An average inspector of nuisances cannot dictate +ventilation off-hand, as he would direct the clearance of a dust-bin. +Justices acting without skilled advice cannot themselves order in +detail particular means of ventilation.... Thus it seems, the evil is +left unabated.... Against the other sources of disease to which the +report has referred, no law yet pretends to make provision.”—<i>Fourth +Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council</i>, 1861, p. 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Except for prohibition of underground employment of women +and girls, and limitation of employment of boys (1842), metalliferous +mines were unregulated until 1872.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Fourth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy +Council, 1862, p. 31.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> When legislation followed the terrible revelations of the +Royal Commission of 1841.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Intervening Acts had extended the general principle of +protection to young workers in cotton mills other than apprentices.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> The principles of organised inspection and reporting of +fatal accidents had been already secured by a short Act of 1850. Both +this and the Act of 1855 were to continue for five years only in force; +later Acts were permanent in form.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> It should be noted that in 1862–3 skilled observations +were being made and valuable reports presented by Dr Bristowe and +others, under the Medical Officer to the Privy Council, on industries +in which lead, phosphorus, arsenic and mercury were used, and the +precautions necessary for health.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> In the Report of the Commissioners of 1875, this industry +was especially named as needing closer regulation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Report by Alexander Redgrave, Esq., C.B., on white lead +poisoning, November 1882, p. 12.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> I set aside entirely consideration of the otherwise +important educational, wages, and employment sections of this code, as +beyond the scope of this article.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Hitherto touched only by the employment limitations of +Lord Shaftesbury’s Act of thirty years before, and the first five +sections of the Act of 1860 relating to age and certificates of boys, +and prohibition of employment of youths under eighteen in charge of +machinery for raising and lowering persons at the pit.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> “Such special rules for the guidance of the persons +employed ... as may appear best calculated to enforce the use by them +of the requirements provided under this Act, and generally to prevent +injury to health in the course of their employment,” 46 and 47 Vict., +ch. 53, sect. 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Mention may be made of manufacture of lucifer matches, +extraction of arsenic, manufacture of earthenware, enamelling of iron +plates, quarries, chemical works, lead smelting, flax mills, and linen +factories.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> For example, by control of structural conditions, +ventilation and cleanliness of workrooms, and of modes of handling +dangerous substances, and condition of appliances and machinery used; +of provision for cleanliness of workers, and maintenance of their +general health by periodical examination and suspension; and, not least +important, by exclusion of young workers.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> For example, such publications as the <i>Bulletin de +l’Inspection du Travail</i> of France, and the <i>Annuaire de la +Législation du Travail</i> of Belgium.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> A matter first dealt with by section 12 of the Government +Factory Bill, which passed its second reading June 1901.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> See Report prefacing the Royal Decree of 27th December +1886, for the beginning of this tendency.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Similar, though much fewer in number, are the special +regulations in Austria and in Hungary.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> The result of another year’s inquiry is given on p. 87 by +Dr Reid.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> See Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, +Deaths, and Marriages for 1899.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> See <i>infra</i>, p. 77.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> See Report of Lady Assistant Commissioners, 1893.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> See Report in the <i>British Medical Journal</i> of 17th +November 1894 of the Deputation organised by the Parliamentary Bills +Committee of the British Medical Council, which waited upon Mr Asquith +to urge greater legislative restriction of the employment of mothers in +factories.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> <i>English Sanitary Institutions</i>, p. 298.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Papers relating to the Sanitary State of the People of +England, 1858.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> This is the period of abstention from work prescribed +since 1891 under the Factory Act.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Fourth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy +Council.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> For the first two influences see quotation on p. 76, from +the Report made to the General Board of Health.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> The prohibition of employment within a month of +childbirth, enacted in 1891.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Royal Commission on Labour. Reports of Lady Assistant +Commissioners, p. 102.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Fourth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy +Council, 1861.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> The deafness of a stupid boy or girl is not usually the +result of a defect in the organ—but rather of brain-organisation. It +requires intelligence and often training to hear well—that is to say, +to receive impressions and interpret them rapidly.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> The question as to whether alcohol is a food is too +large to discuss here. There is nothing to show that alcohol itself +contributes to the building up of the body. Breaking down in the system +into carbonic acid and water, it supplies warmth, thereby aiding the +vital force; and by sparing the fat which should perform this function, +and allowing it to be deposited in the tissues, it adds to the body +weight, and is therefore indirectly a food.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> <i>Decennial Supplement to the 55th Report of the +Registrar-General</i>, Part II. By John Tatham, M.A., M.D. Eyre and +Spottiswoode.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> <i>Hygiene and Diseases of Occupations</i>, by Dr +Arlidge, p. 306. Percival & Co.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> These figures relate exclusively to Lancashire, which is +the seat of the cotton industry.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Dr Ogle’s Decennial Supplement to the 45th Report of the +Registrar-General.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> There is also the opinion that beriberi is nothing else +than arsenical poisoning, but this awaits confirmation. T. O.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Note that in all cases I have given the nearest round +figures in order to avoid encumbering the figures with fractions.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> By the addition of the words “or other appliance” to +the definition of “mill-gearing,” the Act of 1901, Sec. 156, would +now appear to include all belts by which the first moving power is +communicated to any machine in the expression “mill-gearing.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> To show the importance of following this injunction, it +is only necessary to mention an accident recorded in the <i>Electrical +Review</i>. While a man was cleaning an electric street lamp at Boston +he received a shock and was killed, his body being suspended from +the wires. A man who endeavoured to remove the body came in contact +with it, and was dashed to the ground with such violence that he died +shortly afterwards.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> <i>Metals</i>, Huntington and M’Millan, p. 124.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> This process is more fully described on p. 313.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> <i>Bulletin de l’Inspection du Travail</i>, 1901, No. 1., +p. 77.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> According to the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector +of Factories for 1897, there were 370 cases of plumbism reported as +having occurred during 1897 in white lead works. The average number of +persons employed in such works was, in 1896, 2499, and of these some +were engaged in the manufacture of red and yellow lead. One person out +of seven of those employed in white lead works suffered from plumbism +during that year. For 1898 the statistics as indicated below did +not show any abatement, a circumstance which led to a communication +being sent from the Home Secretary to the manufacturers as to the +desirability of replacing the old stoves by others of newer design, and +the introduction of other mechanical and structural arrangements with +effective precautions.</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td class="ctr">Month.</td> + <td class="ctr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctr">Total.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">January</td> + <td class="right">14</td> + <td class="right">31</td> + <td class="right">45</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">February</td> + <td class="right">22</td> + <td class="right">14</td> + <td class="right">36</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">March</td> + <td class="right">13</td> + <td class="right">24</td> + <td class="right">37</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">April</td> + <td class="right">14</td> + <td class="right">19</td> + <td class="right">33</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">May</td> + <td class="right">18</td> + <td class="right">28</td> + <td class="right">46</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">June</td> + <td class="right">21</td> + <td class="right">9</td> + <td class="right">30</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">July</td> + <td class="right">28</td> + <td class="right">9</td> + <td class="right">37</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">August</td> + <td class="right">31</td> + <td class="right">5</td> + <td class="right">36</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">September</td> + <td class="right">67</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + <td class="right">68</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">October</td> + <td class="right">38</td> + <td class="right">2</td> + <td class="right">40</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">November</td> + <td class="right">34</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + <td class="right">35</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="cht">December</td> + <td class="right">46</td> + <td class="right">1</td> + <td class="right">47</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>This table shows the transference of the incidence of plumbism from +female to male operatives. Since the introduction of new stoves +for drying, also other methods of mixing white lead, plumbism has +considerably decreased.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Number of Persons</span>, male and female, employed in white +lead manufacture in the Newcastle-upon-Tyne district during two +years previous to the abolition of female labour, 1898, and two +years since. Supplied by Mr H. J. Wilson, H.M. Inspector of +Factories.</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td class="ctrtrbl" colspan="2">1896.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">1897.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">1898.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">1899.</td> + <td class="ctrtrb" colspan="2">1900.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Males.</td> + <td class="ctrr">Females.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrl">328</td> + <td class="ctrr">565</td> + <td class="ctrr">329</td> + <td class="ctrr">571</td> + <td class="ctrr">648</td> + <td class="ctrr">350</td> + <td class="ctrr">741</td> + <td class="ctrr">227</td> + <td class="ctrr">769</td> + <td class="ctrr">231</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="brckt ctrrl" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + <td class="brckt ctrr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + <td class="brckt ctrr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + <td class="brckt ctrr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + <td class="brckt ctrr" colspan="2"><img src="images/hor_brckt_down.jpg" +alt="hor bracket down" style="height: 1em; padding:0 1em 0 1em;"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="ctrrbl" colspan="2">893</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">900</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">998</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">968</td> + <td class="ctrrb" colspan="2">1000</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Instead, therefore, of the number of hands employed in the white lead +industry in this district having diminished since the abolition of +female labour in the dangerous processes, the total number employed is +greater now than five years ago.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Annual Report of Chief Inspector of Factories, 1897, p. +53.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> <i>Journal of Hygiene</i>, vol. i., p. 104, quoted by Dr +Morison Legge.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> “Lead Poisoning.” Gulstonian Lectures, delivered at Royal +College of Physicians, by Thomas Oliver, M.D. Published by Young J. +Pentland, Edinburgh.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> <i>British Medical Journal</i>, 22nd September 1900.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Oliver, in Allbutt’s <i>System of Medicine</i>, vol. ii., +“Lead Poisoning.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Combe’s method in use in Paris, see p. 290.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Messrs Locke, Blackett & Co.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Annual Report of Chief Inspector of Factories, 1900, p. +313.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> “Die in electrisch. akkumulator fabriken”; Dr +Wutzdorff—<i>Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte</i>, 1898.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> <i>Encycloped. d’Hygiène</i>, p. 546.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Quoted by Arlidge in <i>Diseases of Occupations</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> “Dust from rafters contained 2.64 per cent. metallic +lead; top of stock, 14.82, and 22.28 per cent.; from floor under the +stock, 2.63, and 4.37 per cent.”—Dangerous Trades Committee’s Fourth +Interim Report, p. 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Lead Compounds in Pottery: Report to Secretary of State +for Home Department, by Professor T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., and Professor +T. Oliver, M.D., 1899.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> By the term fritted lead is meant a compound of raw +lead, silica, and boric acid, etc., fused together at a very high +temperature. The product resembles glass in appearance, and is +sparingly soluble in acids. It is this substance which, when pulverised +and mixed with water and fine clay, can be used as a glaze for coating +earthenware. (See p. 349.)</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> This was written before the Arbitration Meeting at +Stoke-on-Trent in November 1901.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> In a Parliamentary paper published in February 1902, the +number of cases of lead poisoning occurring in earthenware and china +works is stated to be 106, <i>i.e.</i>, 94 less than in the previous +year.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Dr MacAldowie, Senior Physician to the North +Staffordshire Infirmary, does not regard lead poisoning in the +Potteries as the serious malady it is generally believed to be. From +1891 to 1900 the in-patients of the Infirmary numbered 19,505: of +these, 213 were lead poisoned patients, of whom 6 died. During the same +period there were 91,748 out-patients, of whom 353 were lead poisoned; +all recovered. Dr MacAldowie is of opinion that lead poisoning is a +curable malady and seldom fatal. Also, that there is greater danger to +health by the operatives being exposed to minute than large quantities +of lead. Dealing with the low standard solubility of the fritt +recommended in our Report, he says: “The proposed extreme reduction in +solubility may be fraught with grave danger in the operatives. Where +there is prolonged and continuous exposure to the action of lead its +toxic effects are aggravated rather than minimized by minute doses.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> “Ueber Bleivergiftungen der Arbeiten in +Kachelofen-Fabriquen,” by Rasch. (<i>Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen +Gesund</i>, 1898, xiv., p. 81.)</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Factories and Workshops: Annual Reports for 1899 and +1900.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Included in other Industries.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> <i>Hygiene and Public Health</i>, London, 1901.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> <i>Our Domestic Poisons</i>, London, 1879.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> <i>Hygiene Diseases and Mortality of Occupations</i>, +London, 1872.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> See also Dr Tatham’s Remarks and Tables, p. 136, etc.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Published by Messrs Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1899.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> <i>Use of Phosphorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer +Matches</i>, 1899, published by Eyre & Spottiswoode.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Holland passed a law, dated 28th May 1901, prohibiting +the manufacture of phosphorus matches. This law, which came into force +on 1st July 1901, not only prohibits the manufacture of phosphorus +matches, but makes it illegal to convey or import them in larger +quantity than 100 grammes, or to hold more than this quantity for sale. +After January 1902 no such matches are to be kept in stock.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> <i>Hygiène des Professions et des Industries</i> (Layet), +p. 111.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> <i>British Medical Journal</i>, 1899, vol. ii., p. 270.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> As showing the extreme sensitiveness of the human mouth +to phosphorus, I recite the following: Into the rather wide canal of +the pipe of a friend who is a smoker there by chance entered a wax +vesta, with its head pointing to the mouthpiece. Shortly after smoking +the pipe my friend experienced a most unpleasant taste and disagreeable +odour. He continued smoking. Next day he had violent toothache. On +the second day so severe was the toothache that, on account of the +suppurating gums, tender teeth, and painful jawbone, the dentist was +obliged to extract five teeth. Although the teeth on their removal were +slightly carious, there had been no toothache until the smoking of +the pipe on the particular day. The acutely developed pain and rapid +destruction of the gums must in this case have been principally caused +by phosphorus fume.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Extract from Dr T. Oliver’s Report to the Home Secretary, +20th January 1899.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> <i>Revue d’Hygiène et de Police Sanitaire.</i> Oct. 1899.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> In May 1901 I visited the match works at Pantin, near +Paris, and found that as lucifer matchmaking was now regarded as a +healthy employment, the regulations previously insisted upon had been +very materially relaxed. Since the substitution of sesquisulphide for +yellow phosphorus, there has been no illness among the workpeople +traceable to their employment.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> <i>Histoire de l’Académie royale des Sciences pour +l’Année</i> 1719, Paris, 1721, p. 359.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> <i>Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ.</i>, vol. viii., 1812, +p. 376.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> <i>Untersuchungen über dem constitutionellen +Mercurialismus</i>, by Adolf Kussmaul, Würzburg, 1861.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> “Ueber die giftigen Hutmacherbeizen und +deren nachtheiligen Einfluss auf die Gesundheit,” by Dr J. +Reitz.—<i>Zeitschrift für die Staatsarzneikunde</i>, 1829, p. 381.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> For description of the machine, see Third Interim Report +of the Dangerous Trades Committee, p. 15: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1898.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> <i>Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte</i>, +vol. v., p. 113.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> A. J. Kunkel, <i>Handbuch der Toxikologie</i>, p. 123.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Sommerfeld, <i>Handbuch der Gewerbekrankheiten</i>, p. +502.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> See Annual Report of Chief Inspector of Factories for +1899, p. 138.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Sommerfeld, <i>Handbuch der Gewerbekrankheiten</i>, p. +312.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> Quoted from <i>Die Spiegelbeleger</i>, by Dr H. Schaefer, +p. 991, of vol. viii. of Weyl’s <i>Handbuch der Hygiene</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> For a full description of the processes, see a report by +Miss Deane and Miss Squire in the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector +of Factories for the year 1898, p. 167.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> “Dangers du sécretage des poils par le mercure,” +<i>Annales d’Hygiène</i>, December 1892.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Reference will be found to this source of mercurial +poisoning in America in the article on “Occupation Diseases,” by J. H. +Lloyd, M.D., in <i>Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine</i>, vol. +iii., p. 350.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> <i>Gefahren und Krankheiten in der chemischen +Industrie</i>, by Ch. Heinzerling, vol. i., p. 212.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> <i>Manual of Dyeing</i>, by E. Knecht, C. Rawson, and R. +Lœwenthal: C. Griffin, 1893.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> <i>Annales d’Hygiène publique</i>, vol. xx., p. 83.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> <i>Lancet</i>, 1854, i., p. 152.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> “Mémoire sur les accidents auxquels sont soumis les +ouvriers employés à la fabrication des chromates,” <i>Annales d’Hygiène +publique</i>, 1869, p. 5; and 1876, pp. 5 and 193.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Report on the Condition of Labour in Chemical Works, the +Dangers to Life and Health of the Workpeople Employed therein, and the +Proposed Remedies: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1893.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> “Die in Chromatfabriken beobachtet an +Gesundheitsschädigungen und die zur Verhütung derselben erforderlichen +Massnahmen,” <i>Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichem Gesundheitsamte</i>, vol. +xiii.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> “The Subsidences in and around the Town of Northwich in +Cheshire,” by Thomas Ward, <i>Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.</i>, vol. xix., p. +241.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Karl Schmeisser, <i>The Goldfields of Australia</i>, +translated by Henry Louis.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> <i>Statistik der Knappschafts-Berufsgenossenschaft für +das Deutsche Reich</i>, Berlin, 1897.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> <i>Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.</i>, vol. xix., p. 21.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> <i>Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.</i>, vol. xix., p. 27.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> <i>Berichte über die Verwaltung der +Knappschafts-Berufsgenossenschaft</i>, Berlin.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> <i>Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hütten- und Salinen-wesen +im Preussischen Staate.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> <i>Jahrbuch für das Berg- und Hütten-wesen im +Königreiche Sachsen.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> <i>Royaume de Belgique—Statistique de Mines, Minières, +Carrières, etc.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> <i>Statistique de l’Industrie Minérale en France et en +Algérie.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> <i>Rivista del Servizio Minerario.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> <i>The Mineral Industry</i>, 1898, p. 719.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> See also the Annual General Reports upon the Mineral +Industry of the United Kingdom and Ireland for the years 1894, 1895, +and 1896.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> Figures calculated from those given in the “Supplement +to the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General,” 1897. These +figures refer to the years 1891–93.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> “Supplement to the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the +Registrar-General.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> From statistics kindly supplied by the Secretary of the +Association.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> Actuarial Report on the Northumberland and Durham +Miners’ Permanent Relief Fund, 1897.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> In the Mines and Quarries Reports it is given as +only 1.63, the difference being mainly due to the fact that in the +Registrar-General’s returns, accidents not caused by the miners’ +occupation are also included.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> <i>Annales des Mines de Belgique</i>, vol. v., p. 318. +Bergassessor Hundt, “Die Bekämpfung der Wurmkrankheit (Ankylostomiasis) +im Oberbergamtsbezirke Dortmund,” <i>Zeitschrift f. Berg. Hütt. u. +Salinen-Wesen im Preussischen Staate</i>, 1898, p. 184.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> J. W. Hiene, “On the Effects of Copper on the Human +Body,” <i>Brit. Ass. Rept.</i>, 1900, p. 697.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> Dr Harting and Dr Hesse (quoted by C. Le Neve Foster, +<i>Ore and Stone Mining</i>, p. 686).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Report of Board of Inquiry at Broken Hill, Sydney, 1893.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> <i>Eleventh Census of the United States</i>, p. 238.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> <i>Trans. Inst. of Mining Engineers</i>, vol. xvi., +1899.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> <i>Air and Rain</i>, p. 167.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> See Haldane and Lorrain Smith, <i>Journal of +Pathology</i>, vol. i., p. 168.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> See Clowes, <i>Detection of Inflammable Gas</i>, 1896.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Report to the Home Secretary on the Causes of Death in +Colliery Explosions and Fires: Parliamentary Paper, 1896.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> On the action of carbonic oxide, see papers by the +writer in the <i>Journal of Physiology</i>, vol. xviii., pp. 200, +430; vol. xx., p. 497; vol. xxii., p. 231; vol. xxv., p. 225; also +the above-mentioned Report to the Home Secretary, and Lorrain Smith, +<i>British Medical Journal</i>, 1889, vol. i., p. 780.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> See the very interesting Report on the Snaefell Fire by +Professor Le Neve Foster: Parliamentary Paper, 1897.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> See Mr Stokes’ Official Report: Parliamentary Paper, +1898.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> According to the last Annual Report of H.M. Twelve +Inspectors of Mines and Quarries, over 61,000 individuals are engaged +as quarry employés inside the quarry, <i>i.e.</i>, inside the actual +pit, hole, or excavation, and over 32,000 outside the quarry, +<i>i.e.</i>, outside the actual pit, hole, or excavation. In some +districts a few females are engaged in quarry work.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> See Act to provide for the better regulation of +quarries: Quarries Act, 1894.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> In giving the output of the various explosives, I +have been most careful so to classify them as to avoid disclosures +which might by any possibility be objected to by those members of the +Explosives Trade to whose courtesy I owe the information. For instance, +I have not even differentiated between gunpowder and high explosives, +owing to the fact that the gunpowder trade is now concentrated in the +hands of three or four firms.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> In the year 1899 alone 146 accidents with gunpowder in +mines killed 15 persons and injured 148 others. Few, if any, of these +were reported, and if multiplied by 10 and added to the casualties due +to this explosive, the figures under heading No. 1 would be enormously +increased.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> This is exclusive of accidents in factories which did +not cause death or personal injury.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> The question as to whether electric firing should be +rendered compulsory in dangerous mines is at present <i>sub judice</i>, +and any expression of opinion on the matter would therefore be out of +place, but it goes without saying that the means of firing should be as +free from risk as practicable.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Prior to the year 1893, horses, asses, and mules were +not included in the definition of the word “animals” in the Orders +relating to Anthrax.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for +1900.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for +1900.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> In giving the figures showing the proportion of cases to +the total number of patients, any fractions have been omitted for the +sake of clearness.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Annual Report of Chief Inspector of Factories for 1896.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> The age is raised to twelve by the Factory Act, 1901.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> <i>Vide</i> Dr Gilbert’s Photographs of Dermatoconioses, +page 269.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Mr Williams, in his annual report to the Chief Inspector +of Factories for the year 1900, gives the results of his examination +of air from thirty-five weaving-sheds before and after the ventilation +had been improved so as to comply with this regulation. The average +of the amounts of carbonic acid found in the air of the sheds before +the improvement of the ventilation was 13 per 10,000, and after the +improvement 7.9 per 10,000. If the usual amount of carbonic acid in the +outside air of towns (4 per 10,000) be deducted, the amount of impurity +due to respiration is seen to be in the one case 9 parts, and in the +other only 3.9 parts per 10,000.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> To the above a note might be added, bearing upon the +dangers to health in the manufacture of felt hats from the prepared +fur. In the process of manufacture known in the trade as “carotting,” +<i>i.e.</i>, where the rabbits’ skins are brushed with a solution +of nitrate of mercury, the workmen are exposed to the inhalation of +mercurial and nitrous vapours (a point alluded to by Dr T. M. Legge, +p. 442), and as a consequence the teeth become blackened and fall out +early. The men who are employed in the post-carotting processes, and +who are designated cutters, blockers, and pelt-shakers, often suffer +from muscular tremors (hatters’ shakers). In the <i>British Medical +Journal</i>, February 15, 1902, Dr Charles Porter, formerly Medical +Officer of Health for Stockport, and at present County Medical Officer +of Health for Shropshire, describes the processes of manufacture and +hygiene of felt hat making, and gives illustrations of the rugged, +loosened, and discoloured finger nails of plaukers and blockers, as +well as of the callosities which form upon the thenar and hypo-thenar +eminences of the hands.</p> + +<p> +T. O. +</p> + + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Now Mr H. B. Fawcus, M.B., Royal Army Medical Corps.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> 1 kilometre = ⅝ English mile.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> A metre = 1 yard 3 inches.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> “The Great Alpine Tunnels,” Francis Fox, <i>Proceedings, +Royal Institution, Great Britain</i> (November 1901), p. 422.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Since this was written there has occurred a large inrush +of water from the superincumbent calcareous strata into the tunnel, at +the Iselle end, which has seriously delayed operations.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> See p. 537, Anchylostomiasis in coal miners.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> See also Dr Haldane’s remarks <i>re</i> carbonic acid +and carbon monoxide gases, “The Air of Mines,” p. 544.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Extracted from the Returns of the Registrar-General.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Mr H. J. Wilson, H.M. Inspector of Factories, +informs me that a short while ago a healthy workman while charging +a Siemens-Martin furnace was struck on the ear by a spark of molten +steel. The particle rebounded off the external meatus and penetrated +the drum of the ear, setting up a purulent otitis, which was followed +by meningitis, fatal on the ninth day. The particle of steel was found +after death in the middle ear.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> Report of Dangerous Trades Committee of Home Office, +published by Messrs Eyre & Spottiswoode.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> <i>Miners’ Nystagmus</i>, Snell, 1892.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> <i>British Medical Journal</i>, vol. i., 1892.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> <i>Des Amblyopias et Amauroses Toxiques</i>, 1897, page +47.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> <i>British Medical Journal</i>, 1884, vol. i., page 202.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> “Influence of Tobacco on Vision; some Investigations +made in Tobacco Manufactories of Cincinnati,” <i>Cinn. Lancet +Clinic</i>, 29th October 1892.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> <i>Toxic Amblyopias</i>, De Schweinitz, 1896.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> <i>Trans. of Ophth. Soc. of the United Kingdom</i>, +1886, vi., p. 144.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Brose, <i>Knapp’s Archives of Ophthalmology</i>, March +1894.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Rivers, <i>Knapp’s Archives of Ophthalmology</i>, March +1894.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> By Priest & Ashmore, opticians, Sheffield.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> The interference with sight is not greater than that +occasioned by many ladies’ veils.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> Report by Dangerous Trades Committee.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> <i>Vide</i> also Report, by myself, for the Home Office, +and published in the <i>Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of +Factories</i>, 1901.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> Prof. Alexander Ogston, of Aberdeen, <i>Lancet</i>, Feb. +22, 1902, gives details of burns caused by the ignition of celluloid +combs and collars. He suggests that celluloid should be rendered +incombustible by the addition of some chemical.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> See “Eye Diseases and Eye Accidents in Relation to +Industrial Occupations,” p. 769.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> See Final Report of the Dangerous Trades Committee, +Appendix.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> <i>Bulletin médical</i>, 16th December 1899, p. 1126.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> <i>Annales d’Hygiène</i>, April 1900, p. 358.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> See Mr Simeon Snell’s paper, “Eye Accidents,” etc., p. +773.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> “On Cancer of the Scrotum in Chimney Sweeps and Others”: +Butlin. Reprinted from <i>Brit. Med. Journal</i>, 1892.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> <i>Deutsche Zeitschr. für Chirurgie</i>, xiii., 519, +1880.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Final Report of the Dangerous Trades Committee, 1899.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> At the quarries in the Island of Naxos 300 men are +employed. Emery stone is too hard to be dug out or even blasted. It +is one of the hardest substances known. Large fires are kept blazing +round the huge blocks until the natural cracks expand with the heat, +when levers are inserted to prise them apart. The process is repeated +until the blocks are reduced in size to masses of a cubic foot or less, +in which form it is exported. It is estimated that there are still +20,000,000 tons of emery available in Naxos.</p> + +</div> +</div> + + +<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Notes:<br> +<br> +1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been +corrected silently.<br> +<br> +2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have +been retained as in the original.</p> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78617 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |